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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8354a72 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #54568 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54568) diff --git a/old/54568-0.txt b/old/54568-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 46138e5..0000000 --- a/old/54568-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12569 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's A Handbook of Invalid Cooking, by Mary A. Boland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Handbook of Invalid Cooking - For the Use of Nurses in Training, Nurses in Private - Practice and Others Who Care for the Sick - -Author: Mary A. Boland - -Release Date: April 18, 2017 [EBook #54568] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF INVALID COOKING *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, MWS, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - A subscript is denoted by _{x}, for example CO_{2} or C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. - - Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fraction are shown - in the form a/b, for example 1/7 or 1/3000. - - Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - A HANDBOOK - - OF - - INVALID COOKING - - FOR THE USE OF - - NURSES IN TRAINING-SCHOOLS - NURSES IN PRIVATE PRACTICE - AND OTHERS WHO CARE FOR THE SICK - - CONTAINING EXPLANATORY LESSONS ON THE PROPERTIES - AND VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD, AND RECIPES - FOR THE MAKING OF VARIOUS DISHES - - - BY - - MARY A. BOLAND - - INSTRUCTOR IN COOKING IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS - HOSPITAL TRAINING-SCHOOL FOR NURSES; MEMBER - OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION - - [Illustration:(Publisher's colophon)] - - - NEW YORK - THE CENTURY CO. - 1893 - - - - - Copyright, 1893, by - MARY A. BOLAND. - - - THE DE VINNE PRESS. - - - - -_PREFACE_ - - -_In preparing the following pages for publication, it has been my -object to present a collection of recipes and lessons on food, for -the use of nurses. The idea was suggested by the need of such a -book in the training-school of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. It is -hoped that it will be found useful in other hospitals and schools -where the teaching of the subject of food is receiving attention, -and also to those who care for their own sick and invalid ones at -home._ - -_Part I--the explanatory lessons--includes general remarks on -chemistry, lessons on the properties of the different classes of -foods, and special articles on Air, Water, Milk, Digestion and -Nutrition. Part II consists of recipes, menus of liquid, light, and -convalescent's diet, and articles on Serving, Feeding of Children, -and District Nursing._ - -_In arranging the explanatory lessons, information has been drawn -from many sources, but particularly from the works of Atwater -and Parkes. It is the intention that these lessons be studied in -connection with the practical work; they contain matter suggestive -of that which it is necessary to understand in order that something -may be known of the complex changes which take place in food in the -various processes of cooking._ - -_The recipes have been carefully chosen and perfected, some having -been changed many times before final adoption. In most of them the -quantities are small,--such amounts as would be required for one -person,--but by multiplying or dividing the formulæ any quantity -may be made, with uniform results._ - -_Detailed descriptions have been given in order that those who know -nothing of cooking may be able, by intelligently following the -instructions, to make acceptable dishes. Repetition and similarity -of arrangement will, it is hoped, serve to impress upon the mind -certain points and principles._ - -_In some instances the recipes are original, but for the most part -the ideas have been gathered from lessons and lectures on cooking, -and from standard books, among them Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook -Book." Generally the order in which each recipe has been written -is the order in which the different ingredients should be put -together. The proportions have been placed first, and separately -from the description of the process, for greater convenience in -using._ - -_Valuable information for the chapter on the feeding of children -was found in Uffelmann's "Hygiene of the Child."_ - -_I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Drs. Simon Flexner -and William D. Booker of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in reviewing, -respectively, the explanatory lessons and the chapter on the -feeding of children._ - - _M. A. B._ - -_Baltimore, Jan. 18, 1893._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION - - PART I - - EXPLANATORY LESSONS - - PAGE - - PREPARATION OF FOOD 9 - - CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES 10 - - ELEMENTS 12 - - AIR 14, 38 - - FIRE 14 - - COMPOSITION OF THE BODY 16 - - PRINCIPAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY 17 - - THE FIVE FOOD PRINCIPLES 18 - - WATER 19 - - PROTEIN 24 - - FATS 28 - - CARBOHYDRATES 31 - - MINERAL MATTERS 65 - - MILK 44 - - DIGESTION 49 - - NUTRITION 53 - - - PART II - - RECIPES - - BEEF-JUICE, BEEF-TEA, AND BROTHS 75 - - GRUELS 83 - - MUSH AND PORRIDGE 90 - - DRINKS 95 - - JELLIES 120 - - TOAST 128 - - SOUPS 134 - - OYSTERS 145 - - EGGS 153 - - POTATOES 161 - - MEATS 168 - - STEWS 185 - - SWEETBREADS 188 - - FISH 191 - - CUSTARDS, CREAMS, PUDDINGS, AND BLANC-MANGE 195 - - SALADS 211 - - ICE-CREAM, SHERBETS, AND ICES 217 - - COOKED FRUITS 225 - - BREAD 232 - - CAKE 246 - - DIET LISTS OR MENUS FOR THE SICK 254 - - LIQUID DIET--FIVE MENUS 254 - - LIGHT DIET--FIVE MENUS FOR BREAKFAST, DINNER, - SUPPER, AND LUNCH 256 - - CONVALESCENT'S DIET--EIGHT MENUS FOR SPRING, - SUMMER, AUTUMN, AND WINTER 260 - - - SERVING - - IMPORTANCE OF SKILL IN COOKING THE THINGS TO BE - SERVED 267 - - GOOD SERVING A NECESSITY FOR THE SICK 268 - - PREPARATION OF THE INVALID'S TRAY 268, 270 - - IMPORTANCE OF HARMONY OF COLORS IN DISHES, LINEN, - AND FLOWERS 269 - - CARE OF DISHES AND TRAY IN CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 271 - - TRAY DECORATION 272 - - VARIETY, INTERVALS OF FEEDING, AND QUANTITY OF - FOOD TO BE GIVEN 273, 274 - - A PLAN FOR THE PREPARATION OF AN INVALID'S BREAKFAST 278 - - - THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN - - WAYS IN WHICH A CHILD MAY BE SUPPLIED WITH FOOD 280 - - ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 280 - - COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF COW'S AND HUMAN MILK 281 - - BUYING, CARE, AND STERILIZATION OF COW'S MILK 281, 284 - - MELLIN'S FOOD AND OTHER ATTENUANTS 283, 290, 291 - - PREDIGESTION 283, 284 - - BACTERIAL POISONS IN MILK 285, 286 - - APPARATUS FOR STERILIZING MILK 287 - - CARE OF FEEDING-BOTTLES 287 - - USE OF CONDENSED MILK 288 - - PRESERVED MILK 289 - - FARINACEOUS FOODS, MELLIN'S FOOD, MALTED MILK, ETC. 289, 290 - - AMOUNT OF FOOD FOR EACH MEAL--DILUTION OF--MANNER - OF GIVING 293 - - TEMPERATURE OF FOOD WHEN GIVEN, AND INTERVALS OF - FEEDING 294 - - GENERAL RULES FOR FEEDING 294 - - FOR THE FIRST WEEK 295 - - AFTER THE FIRST WEEK AND UNTIL THE SIXTH WEEK 295 - - FROM THE SIXTH WEEK TO THE SIXTH MONTH 296 - - FROM THE SIXTH TO THE TENTH MONTH 297 - - FROM THE TENTH TO THE TWELFTH MONTH 298 - - FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH MONTH 299 - - AFTER EIGHTEEN MONTHS 299 - - FOODS TO BE CAREFULLY AVOIDED 300 - - - DISTRICT NURSING - - DISTRICT NURSING 301 - - TO MAKE A FIRE 302 - - TO WASH DISHES 303 - - SWEEPING AND DUSTING 303 - - BILLS OF FARE FOR SATURDAY, SUNDAY, MONDAY, AND TUESDAY: - - IN MAY 304-308 - - IN SEPTEMBER 308-310 - - IN JANUARY 310-313 - - - LITERATURE - - A LIST OF BOOKS ON THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, BACTERIOLOGY, - NUTRITION, HEALTH, PRACTICAL COOKING, AND ALLIED - SUBJECTS, USEFUL FOR REFERENCE 313 - - CHARTS OF THE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FOODS FOR USE IN A - COOKING-SCHOOL 314 - - APPARATUS FOR FURNISHING A COOKING-SCHOOL 315 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The work of the nurse is to care for her patient, to watch, to -tend, and to nurture him in such a way that he shall gain and -maintain sufficient strength to overcome disease, that he may -finally be restored to a state of health. Her greatest allies in -this work consist in the proper hygienic surroundings of good air, -warmth, cleanliness, and proper nourishment. - -The most scrupulous cleanliness in the care and preparation of food -is an important point in her work, and practically to appreciate -this, some knowledge of bacteriology is necessary, for the various -fermentative and putrefactive changes (often unnoticed) which take -place in both cooked and uncooked foods are caused by the growth -of microscopic forms of life. Most of us realize the necessity for -removing all visible impurities, but that is not enough; we should -also combat those unseen agents which are everywhere at work, -in order that we may prevent their action upon food material or -destroy the products of their growth. Often these products are of a -poisonous nature, and cause grave physical disturbances when they -occur in our foods. When such knowledge is more general, we shall -have arrived at a state of progress in the care and preparation of -foods not yet universally reached. - -The indications at present are that nothing of importance will -be done to change for the better the existing methods of -housekeeping, until housekeepers are educated in the science of -household affairs. They should comprehend (1) that the atmosphere -is an actual thing; that it has characteristics and properties -like other actual things; that it is a necessity of life, and -may be made a medium for the transmission of disease; and that -it is as necessary that it should be kept clean as the floor, -the table, or the furniture; (2) that food is a subject which -may be studied and mastered like any other subject; that the -changes it undergoes in its care and preparation are governed by -fixed laws; (3) they should have a knowledge of heat in order to -appreciate the effects of temperature on different food materials, -to regulate the ventilation of their houses, and to control fires -wisely and economically; and (4) they should have some knowledge -of bacteriology, that milk and water, flesh, fruit, and vegetables -may be kept, or rendered, absolutely free from disease-giving -properties, and that perfect cleanliness may be exercised in -preparing all materials that enter the body as nutrients. - -It is not the intention to imply that all micro-organisms produce -injurious effects wherever they are found; on the contrary, they -are as essential to man's existence as are the higher forms of -life; but often they seriously, even fatally, interfere with that -existence, and in order to discriminate and to combat the evil a -knowledge of their ways and modes of life is essential. - -A Harvard professor is credited with saying that no man could be a -gentleman without a knowledge of chemistry; and forthwith all the -students took to chemistry, for all wanted to be gentlemen. Would -that somebody would authoritatively declare that no woman could be -a lady without a knowledge of the chemistry of the household--what -a glorious prospect would there be opened for the future health of -the nation! - -We read in history that after a grand medieval repast the bones and -refuse of the feast were thrown under the table and left to decay. -The scourges which have swept over Europe in past centuries we -know, to-day, were not visitations of Providence, but were simply -the result of natural causes, due to ignorance of all hygienic laws -on the part of the people. Compared with the barbarians of old, -in these matters, we are a civilized people; compared with the -possibilities of the future, we are still little more than savages. - -The ideal life is one in which there shall be no sickness except -from accident or natural causes. When we have mastered the laws -of hygiene, then will such life be possible. Meanwhile, with -sickness always in our midst, we should keep the ideal ever before -us, and endeavor by all means to restore suffering human beings -to a perfect state of health. A sound body is a material thing, -prosaically nourished by material substances, which produce just -as exact results in its chemical physiology as if those substances -entered into combination in the laboratory of the chemist. The -cooking of food should be governed by exact laws which for the most -part as yet remain undemonstrated. It is a foregone conclusion that -many young women fail in their first attempts at cooking; that they -do so is not surprising, for not only are their friends unable -to teach them, but the majority of books on the subject furnish -no intelligible aid.[1] The science of cookery is still in the -empirical stage. - -Even among experienced housekeepers there is not enough knowledge -of the nature of foods and their proper combinations; the result -is a great deal of unwholesome cookery and the consequent injury -and waste which must follow. Dislike for the work is usually due -to want of success, and failure is attributed to ill luck, poor -materials, the fire, or any cause but the true one--which is -ignorance of the subject. Of course good dishes cannot be made out -of poor materials, but too often poor dishes are made out of good -materials. - -The systematic teaching of the subject of household affairs cannot -fail of good results. Especially is this true in the case of the -nurse, who will need at all times to exercise care and wisdom in -the choice of food for the sick, to avoid the use of injurious -substances, and to select that which is perfectly wholesome and -suited to the needs and condition of each individual. - -It may be said that most women can prepare a fairly satisfactory -meal for those who are well, but very few are able to do the same -for the sick. - -Count Rumford says: "I constantly found that the richness or -quality of a soup depended more upon the proper choice of -ingredients than upon the quantity of solid nutrient matter -employed; much more upon the art and skill of the cook than upon -sums laid out in the market." This is equally true of other dishes -than soup. The skill to develop the natural flavors of a food, to -render it perfectly and thoroughly digestible, to convert it into -a delicate viand, cannot be acquired in a haphazard way. Cooking -cannot be done by guesswork. There are right and wrong methods in -the kitchen as well as in the laboratory, and there is no doubt -that the awakening interest in the subject of domestic science -generally is neither an accident nor a whim, but the result of a -necessity for better ways of living. We live different lives from -those of our grandfathers before the days of the steam-engine, -electricity, the telegraph, and the telephone. Now much more energy -is needed to meet each day's demand than was required a hundred -years ago, and so, much more nutriment is needed to sustain that -energy. When the food does not supply the material to meet the -demand, the whole being suffers. - -A course of study in cooking taken by the nurses of a hospital, -while they are still pupils, is valuable for their present and -future work. A nurse with the information that such a course should -give, will be able to care for the feeding of her patients more -wisely,[2] will see the necessity for variety, will learn to avoid -suspicious substances, such as fermented meat or fish, canned -foods, etc., and will put forth every effort to secure that which -is appetizing and wholesome, and suited to the needs of those in -her care. She will more easily exercise patience and forbearance -with the idiosyncrasies of the sick in regard to articles of diet, -knowing that these are usually the symptoms of disease. The proper -modes of caring for milk, eggs, oysters, and other perishable -foods, the practice of economy in the use of wines, cocoa, and -like costly substances, and an appreciation of the value of food -materials in general, are some of the points which she will have -learned. - -She will not forget that cleanliness in the kitchen in the -preparation of all food, and in the washing of dishes, towels, -waste-pails, sinks, and all receptacles in which easily decomposing -substances are kept, means protection against many evils. The -little knowledge of bacteriology that it is possible to give in a -course in cooking, will enable her to understand that many animal -foods, such as oysters, fish, and lobsters, are extremely prone -to decay, and, although _apparently_ good, may have been the -camping-ground of millions of organisms which have produced such -changes in them as to render them suspicious articles of diet. -She will, therefore, always endeavor to have such food alive if -possible, or at least fresh, and to keep it in such conditions of -temperature as shall preserve it in a wholesome state. - -The actual practical knowledge of how a certain number of -dishes should be made has, of course, its value; but it is not -the only consideration which should enter into the teaching of -cookery. Perhaps the most important point in all such work is the -recognition in certain cases of the _necessity_ for particular -dishes, and the reasons for, and the value of, their ingredients. -Why one kind of food is better for one person and a different kind -for another is, without doubt, an essential point in all such study. - -A system depleted by disease, exhausted by long-continued illness, -is an exceedingly delicate instrument to handle. It requires -the greatest wisdom and good judgment on the part of physician -and nurse to restore a patient to health without a lingering -convalescence. There is no doubt that the period of convalescence -may be much shortened by the wise administration of food, and that -the subsequent health of the patient may be either made or marred -by the action of the nurse in this respect. - - - - -PART I - -EXPLANATORY LESSONS - - - - -PART I - -EXPLANATORY LESSONS - - -PREPARATION OF FOOD - -=Digestibility.= There are comparatively few kinds of food that -can be eaten uncooked. Various fruits, milk, oysters, eggs, and -some other things may be eaten raw, but the great mass of food -materials must be prepared by some method of cooking. All the -common vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, beets, -and the different grains, such as rice, wheat, corn, oats, etc., -neither taste good nor are easily digestible until their starch, -cellulose, and other constituents have been changed from their -compact indigestible form by the action of heat. Some one has -spoken of cooking as a sort of artificial digestion, by which -nature is relieved of a certain amount of work which it would be -very difficult, if not impossible, for her to perform. - -=Flavors.= The necessity of cooking to develop, or to create, a -palatable taste is important. The flesh of fowl is soft enough to -masticate, but only a person on the verge of starvation could eat -it until heat has changed its taste and made it one of the most -savory and acceptable of meats. Coffee also well illustrates this -point. When coffee is green--that is, unbrowned--it is acrid in -taste, very tough, even horny in consistency, and a decoction made -from it is altogether unpleasant. But when it is subjected to a -certain degree of heat, for a certain time, it loses its toughness, -becomes brittle, changes color, and there is developed in it a most -agreeable flavor. This flavoring property is an actual product -of the heat, which causes chemical changes in an essential oil -contained in the bean. Heat not only develops but creates flavors, -changing the odor and taste as well as the digestibility of food. - -=Effects of Cold.= Some foods are better for being cold; for -example, butter, honey, salads, and ice-cream. Sweet dishes as a -rule are improved by a low temperature. The flavor of butter is -very different and very much finer when cold than when warm. It -is absolutely necessary to keep it cool in order to preserve the -flavor. - - -CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES - -=Chemical Changes.= Since many of the changes which cooking -produces in the different food materials are of a chemical nature, -it is well to consider what constitutes a chemical process. -This idea may perhaps be best conveyed by a few experiments and -illustrations, the materials for which may be easily obtained. - - =Exp. with Cream of Tartar and Bicarbonate of Soda.= Mix two - teaspoons of cream of tartar with one of bicarbonate of soda, - in a little warm water. A union of the two substances follows - and they neutralize each other; that is, the cream of tartar is - no longer acid, and the soda is no longer alkaline. Owing to - the power of chemical affinities a separation or breaking up of - these compounds takes place, and new substances, _carbonic acid_ - and _rochelle salts_, are formed out of their constituents. - The effervescence which is seen is caused by the escape of the - carbonic acid. - - =Exp. with Hydrochloric Acid and Soda.= Put a few drops of - chemically pure hydrochloric acid into a little water; then add - soda. A violent effervescence will follow. Continue putting in - soda until this ceases, when the reaction should be neutral. - Test it with litmus-paper. If it turns blue litmus-paper red, it - is acid; if red litmus-paper blue, it is alkaline. Add acid or - soda, whichever is required, until there is no change produced in - either kind of litmus-paper. The results of this experiment are - similar to those in the first one, namely, carbonic acid and a - salt. In this case the salt is _sodium chlorid_ or _common salt_, - which is in solution in the liquid. Evaporate the water, when - salt crystals will be found.[3] - - =Oxid of Iron.= A piece of iron when exposed to the weather - becomes covered with a brownish-yellow coating, which does not - look at all like the original metal. If left long enough it will - wholly disappear, being completely changed into the yellowish - substance, which is _oxid of iron_, a compound of oxygen and - iron, commonly called _iron rust_. - - =Burning of Coal.= A piece of coal burns in the grate and is - apparently destroyed, leaving no residue except a little ashes. - The carbon and hydrogen of the coal have united with the oxygen - of the air, the result of which is largely the invisible gas, - _carbonic acid_, which escapes through the chimney. - - =Formation of Water.= Water is formed by the union of two - invisible gases, hydrogen and oxygen. It bears no resemblance - whatever to either of them. Its symbol is H_{2}O. - -All these are examples of chemical changes. - -=Definition of Chemical Change.= Chemical changes or processes -may be defined as those close and intimate actions amongst the -particles of matter by which they are dissociated or decomposed, or -by which new compounds are formed, and involving a complete loss of -identity of the original substance. - - =Physical Changes.= Mix a teaspoon of sugar with an equal amount - of salt; the sugar is still sugar, and the salt remains salt; and - they may each be separated from the mixture as such. - - Water when frozen is changed from a liquid to a solid; its - chemical composition, however, remains unchanged. - - Water converted into steam by heat is changed from a liquid to - a gas, but chemically there is no difference between the one and - the other. _Steam_, _water_, and _ice_ are forms of the same - substance, the difference being physical, not chemical, and - caused by a difference in temperature. - - Lead melted so that it will run, and the solid lead of a bullet, - are the same thing. - -These illustrate physical changes. - -=Definition.= When substances are brought together in such a way -that their characteristic qualities remain the same, the change -is called physical. It is less close and intimate than a chemical -change. The transition from one state into another is also -frequently only a physical change, as is seen in the transformation -of water into steam, water into ice, etc. - - -ELEMENTS - -One feature of the work of the chemist is to separate compound -bodies into their simple constituents. These constituents he -also endeavors to dissociate; and if this cannot be done by any -means known to him, then the thing must be regarded as a simple -substance. Such simple bodies are called _elements_. - -=Definition.= An element then may be defined as a simple substance, -which cannot by any known process be transformed into anything -else; that is, no matter how it is treated, it still remains -chemically what it was before. Gold, silver, copper, iron, -platinum, carbon, phosphorus, calcium, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, -and chlorin are examples of elements. Once it was believed that -there were but four elements in the world--earth, air, fire, and -water. Then it was learned that these were not elements at all, -but compounds, and the number of elements increased, until now -sixty-eight are admitted to be simple primary substances. Some of -these may in the future be proven to be compounds. Sulphur is at -present in the doubtful list. - -=Oxygen.= Oxygen is an element. It is an invisible gas, without -taste or smell. It is the most abundant substance in the world, -and an exceedingly active agent, entering into nearly all chemical -changes and forming compounds with all known elements except -one--fluorin. It is a necessity of life and of combustion.[4] It -constitutes about two thirds of the weight of our bodies and one -fifth of the weight of the air. - -=Hydrogen.= Hydrogen is a gas. It is the lightest substance known. -It unites with oxygen to form water, and, as will be seen later, -enters into the composition of the human body.[5] - -=Nitrogen.= Nitrogen is also a gas, but, unlike oxygen, is an -inactive element. It supports neither fire nor life. It is not -poisonous, however, for we breathe it constantly in the atmosphere, -where its office is to dilute the too active oxygen. A person -breathing it in a pure state dies simply from lack of oxygen. - -=Carbon.= Carbon is a solid and an important and abundant element. -It is known under three forms: diamond, graphite, and charcoal. -The diamond is nearly pure carbon. Graphite (the "black-lead" of -lead-pencils), coal, coke, and charcoal are impure forms of it. -Carbon is combustible; that is, it burns or combines with oxygen. -In this union carbonic acid is formed, and there is an evolution -of heat, and usually, if the union be rapid and intense enough, -of light. It is the valuable element in fuels, and in the body of -man it unites with the oxygen of the air, yielding heat, to keep -the body warm, and energy or muscular strength for work (Prof. -Atwater). The carbonic acid formed in the body is given out by the -lungs and skin. - -=Other Elements.= There are many other elements about which it -would be interesting to note something, such as calcium and -phosphorus (found abundantly in the bones), magnesium, sulphur, -sodium, iron, etc. Samples of these may be obtained to show to -pupils, and descriptions given and experiments made, at the -discretion of the teacher. Of the four most abundant elements of -the body and of food,--oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen,--it -is extremely important that some study be made, and if the -apparatus can be procured, that it be of an experimental nature -rather than simply descriptive.[6] - - -AIR - -Air is made up principally of two elements, nitrogen and oxygen. It -also always contains vapor of water and carbonic acid. Its average -composition is as follows: - - Nitrogen 78.49% - Oxygen 20.63% - Aqueous Vapor .84% - Carbonic Acid .04% - -These are mixed together, not _chemically united_. Oxygen and -nitrogen do unite chemically, but not in the proportions in which -they exist in the air. Nitrous Oxid (N_{2}O), sometimes called -"Laughing Gas," is one of the compounds of nitrogen and oxygen. - - -FIRE - - =Exp. with a Candle.= Take a tallow candle, and by means of a - lighted match raise its temperature sufficiently high to start an - action between the carbon in the candle and the oxygen of the - air; in other words, light the candle. A match is composed of - wood, sulphur, and phosphorus. The latter is a substance which - unites with oxygen very easily; that is, at a _low temperature_. - By friction against any hard object, sufficient heat is aroused - to effect a union between the phosphorus of a match and the - oxygen of the surrounding air; the flame is then conveyed to - the sulphur, or the heat thus generated causes a union between - it (the sulphur) and the oxygen, sulphur burning somewhat less - freely than phosphorus; this gives enough heat to ignite the - wood, and with its combustion we get sufficient heat to light - the candle, or to start a chemical union between the combustible - portion, carbon chiefly, of the candle and the oxygen of the air. - Allow the candle to burn for a time, then put over it a tall - lamp-chimney; notice that the flame grows long and dim. Next - place on the top of the chimney a tin cover, leaving a small - opening, and make an opening into the chimney from below, with - a pin or the blade of a knife placed between it and the table; - note that the candle burns dimly. Then exclude the flow of air by - completely covering the top; in a moment, as soon as the oxygen - inside the chimney is consumed, the candle will go out. - -This shows (1) that air--in other words, oxygen--is necessary to -cause the candle to burn; (2) that by regulating the draft or -flow of air the intensity of the combustion may be increased or -diminished; (3) that by completely excluding air the candle is -extinguished. This experiment with the candle illustrates the way -in which coal is consumed in a stove. By opening the drafts and -allowing the inflow of plenty of oxygen, combustion is increased; -by partially closing them it is diminished, and by the complete -exclusion of air burning is stopped. - -The products of the burning of coal are carbonic acid and a small -amount of ash. Twelve weights of coal, not counting the ash, -will unite with thirty-two weights of oxygen, giving as a result -forty-four weights of carbonic acid. Accompanying the union there -is an evolution of light and heat. The enormous amount of carbonic -acid given out daily from fires is taken up by plants and used by -them for food. In the course of ages these plants may become coal, -be consumed in combustion, and, passing into the air, thus complete -the cycle of change. - -=Fuel and Kindlings.= The common fuels are coal, coke, wood, gas, -coal-oil, and peat. For kindling, newspaper is good because, being -made of straw and wood-pulp, it burns easily, and also because -printers' ink contains turpentine, which is highly inflammable. - - -COMPOSITION OF THE BODY - -Before entering upon the study of foods it is well to consider -the composition of the human body, that some idea of its chemical -nature may be gained. In the United States National Museum at -Washington may be found some interesting information on this -subject. From there much that is contained in the following pages -is taken. - -A complete analysis of the human body has never been made, but -different organs have been examined, and chemists have weighed and -analyzed portions of them, and from such data of this nature as -could be obtained, estimates of the probable composition of the -body have been calculated. Thirteen elements united into their -compounds, of which there are more than one hundred, form it. - -The following table gives the average composition of a man weighing -148 pounds. - - Oxygen 92.4 - Carbon 31.3 - Hydrogen 14.6 - Nitrogen 4.6 - Calcium 2.8 - Phosphorus 1.4 - Potassium .34 - Sulphur .24 - Chlorin .12 - Sodium .12 - Magnesium .04 - Iron .02 - Fluorin .02 - PROF. ATWATER. - -It will be seen from this that oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and -nitrogen constitute nearly the whole, the other elements being in -very small proportions. - - -PRINCIPAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY - -The following interesting table, obtained at the National Museum, -gives the principal compounds of the body. Some of the more rare -organic compounds are omitted. - - WATER:--A compound of oxygen and hydrogen. - - PROTEIN { _ALBUMINOIDS_ { MYOSIN AND SYNTONIN OF MUSCLE - COMPOUNDS, { or { (sometimes called "muscle - { _Proteids_. { fibrin"). - composed { { Albumen of blood and milk. Casein - mainly of { { of milk. - { - { { Collagen of bone and } - _Carbon_, { { tendons. } which - { _Gelatinoids._ { Chondrigen of cartilage, } yield - _Oxygen_, { { gristle, } gelatin. - { - _Hydrogen_, { { - { _Hemoglobin._ { The red coloring matter of blood. - _Nitrogen_. { { - - FATS, { { } These make up the - { { Stearin, } bulk of the fat of - composed { _Neutral { } the body. - mainly of { Fats._ { Palmitin, } They are likewise - { { } the chief - { { Olein, etc. } constituents of - _Carbon_, { { } tallow, lard, etc. - { - _Oxygen_, { _Complex { Protagon, } Found chiefly in - { Fats_, { } the brain, spinal - _Hydrogen_, { containing { Lecithin, } cord, nerves, etc. - { phosphorus { } - { and nitrogen. { Cerebrin. } - - CARBOHYDRATES, { Glycogen, "animal starch." Occurs in the - composed { liver and other organs. - of { Inosite, "muscle sugar." Occurs in various - _Carbon_, { organs. - _Oxygen_, { Lactose, "milk sugar." Occurs in milk. - _Hydrogen_. { Cholesterin. Occurs in brain, nerves, and other - { organs. - - { Phosphate of lime, or calcium } - { phosphate. } Occurs chiefly - { Carbonate of lime, or calcium } in bones and - { carbonate. } teeth, though - { Fluorid of calcium, or calcium } found in - { fluorid. } other organs. - { Phosphate of magnesia, or } - { magnesium phosphate. } - { - - MINERAL { PHOSPHATE OF POTASH, OR POTASSIUM } - SALTS. { phosphate. } - { Sulphate of potash, or potassium } Distributed - { sulphate. } through the - { Chlorid of potassium, or } body in the - { potassium chlorid. } blood, muscle, - { Phosphate of soda, or sodium } brain, - { phosphate. } and other - { Sulphate of soda, or sodium } organs. - { sulphate. } - { Chlorid of sodium, or sodium } - { chlorid. } - - -Now, since the body is composed of these substances, our food, -including air and water, should contain them all in due proportion, -that the growth, energy, and repair of the body may be healthfully -maintained. - - -THE FIVE FOOD PRINCIPLES - -For convenience of comparison foods may be divided into five -classes: Water, Protein, Fats, Carbohydrates, Mineral Matters. - -Some scientists include air in the list, but it has been thought -best in this work to speak of it separately as the greatest -necessity of life, but not in the sense of a direct nutrient. - -An average composition of three of the principles is as follows: - - { Carbon 53 - PROTEIN { Hydrogen 7 - { Oxygen 24 - { Nitrogen 16 - - { Carbon 76.5 - FATS { Hydrogen 12 - { Oxygen 11.5 - { Nitrogen -- - - { Carbon 44 - CARBOHYDRATES { Hydrogen 6 - { Oxygen 50 - { Nitrogen -- - - -It will be seen from the above that the protein compounds contain -nitrogen; the fats and carbohydrates do not. - - -WATER - -We will now consider the first of the food principles--water. Water -is one of the necessities of life. A person could live without air -but a few minutes, without water but a few days. It constitutes by -weight three fifths of the human body, and enters largely into all -organic matter. Water is an aid to the performance of many of the -functions of the body, holding in solution the various nutritious -principles, and also acting as a carrier of waste. It usually -contains foreign matter, but the nearer it is to being pure the -more valuable it becomes as an agent in the body. Ordinary hydrant, -well, or spring water may be made pure by filtering and then -sterilizing it. - - =Exp.= Put a little water into a test-tube, and heat it over - the flame of an alcohol-lamp. In a short time tiny bubbles will - appear on the sides of the glass. These are not steam, as may - be proved by testing the temperature of the water; they are - bubbles of atmospheric gases which have been condensed in the - water from the air; they have been proved to be nitrogen, oxygen, - and carbonic acid, but as they do not exist in the water in the - same proportions as in the air, they are not called _air_, but - _atmospheric gases_. Continue the heating, and the bubbles will - continue to form. After a while, very large bubbles will appear - at the bottom of the tube; they increase rapidly and rise toward - the top; some break before reaching it, but as the heat becomes - more intense others succeed in getting to the surface,--there - they break and disappear. If the water now be tested with a - thermometer, it will be found to have reached 212° Fahrenheit or - 100° Centigrade, provided the experiment be tried at or near the - level of the sea. - -=Steam.= The large bubbles are bubbles of steam, or water expanded -by heat until its particles are so far apart that it ceases to be -a liquid and becomes a gas. True steam is invisible; the moisture -which collects on the sides of the tube and is seen coming out at -the mouth is partially condensed steam, or watery vapor. Watch a -tea-kettle as it boils on a stove; for the space of an inch or two -from the end of the spout there seems to be nothing; that is where -the _true_ steam is; beyond that, clouds of what is commonly called -steam appear; they are watery vapor formed from the true steam by -partial condensation which is produced by its contact with the cool -air.[7] - -=Boiling-point of Water.= Water boils at different temperatures, -according to the elevation above the sea-level. In Baltimore it -boils practically at 212° Fahr.; at Munich in Germany at 209½°; at -the city of Mexico in Mexico at 200°; and in the Himalayas, at an -elevation of 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, at 180°. These -differences are caused by the varying pressure of the atmosphere -at these points. In Baltimore practically the whole weight of the -air is to be overcome. In Mexico, 7000 feet above the sea, there -are 7000 feet less of atmosphere to be resisted; consequently, less -heat is required, and boiling takes place at a lower temperature. -By inclosing a vessel of water in a glass bell, and exhausting -the air by means of an air-pump, water may be made to boil at a -temperature of 70° Fahr., showing that much of the force (heat) -that is consumed in causing water to be converted into steam -is required to overcome the pressure of the air. The foregoing -illustrates the point that _boiling water_ is not of invariable -temperature; consequently, that foods which in some places are -cooked in it may in other places be cooked in water that is not -boiling,--in other words, that it is not ebullition which produces -the change in boiling substances, but heat. - -=Changes Produced in Water by Boiling.= By boiling water for a -moderate time the greater part of the atmospheric gases is driven -off. The flavor is much changed. We call it "flat"; but by shaking -it in a carafe or other vessel so that the air can mingle with it, -it will reacquire oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, and its -usual flavor can thus be restored. - -Water which flows through soil containing lime is further changed -by boiling. - - =Exp. with Lime-water.= Pour a little lime-water into a - test-tube. With a small glass tube blow into it for a few - minutes, when it will become milky; continue the blowing for a - few minutes more, when it will lose its cloudy appearance and - become clear again. The following explains this: in the first - place there was forced into the lime-water, from the lungs, air - containing an excess of carbonic acid; this united with the lime - in solution in the water and formed carbonate of lime. Carbonate - of lime is insoluble in water which contains no carbonic acid, or - very little,[8] but will dissolve in water which is charged with - it, and this is produced by the continued blowing. Now if this - water be freed of its excess of carbonic acid by boiling, the - carbonate of lime will be freed from its soluble state, and will - fall as a precipitate and settle on the sides of the vessel. From - this we learn that water may be freed from carbonate of lime in - solution in it by boiling. - -=Organic Matter in Water.= There is another class of impurities in -water of vastly more importance than either the atmospheric gases -or lime. These are the organic substances which it always contains, -especially that which has flowed over land covered with vegetation, -or that which has received the drainage from sewers. The soluble -matter found in such water is excellent food for many kinds of -micro-organisms which often form, by their multiplication, poisons -very destructive to animal life. Or the organisms themselves may be -the direct producers of disease, as for instance the typhoid fever -bacillus, the bacillus of cholera, and probably others which occur -in drinking-water. These organisms are destroyed by heat, so that -the most valuable effect produced in water by boiling it is their -destruction. Such water is, therefore, a much safer drink to use -than that which has not been boiled. Water should always be boiled -if there is the slightest suspicion of dangerous impurities in the -supply. - -=Use of Tea and Coffee.= This leads us to the thought that the -extensive use of tea and coffee in the world may be an instinctive -safeguard against these until recently unknown forms of life. The -universal use of cooked water in some form in China is a matter of -history. The country is densely populated, the sewage is carried -off principally by the rivers, so that the danger of contracting -disease through water must be very great, and it is probable that -instinct or knowledge has prompted the Chinaman to use but very -little water for food except that which has been cooked. Whatever -the reason, the custom is a national one. The every-day drink is -weak tea made in a large teapot and kept in a wadded basket to -retain the heat; the whole family use it. The very poor drink plain -hot water or water just tinged with tea. - -That tea and coffee furnish us each day with a certain amount of -wholesome liquid in which all organic life has been destroyed, -remains a fact; they may be, in addition, when _properly made_ and -of _proper strength_, of great value on account of their warmth, -good flavor, and invigorating properties. There is no doubt that -it is of the greatest importance that tea and coffee be used of -_proper strength_; for if taken too strong, disorders of the system -may be produced, necessitating their discontinuance, and thus -depriving the individual of a certain amount of warm and wholesome -liquid. - -=To Summarize.= The effects produced in water by boiling which have -been spoken of are: (1) the expulsion of the atmospheric gases; (2) -the precipitation of lime when in solution; and (3) the destruction -of micro-organisms. The most important points to remember in -connection with water are, that a certain amount each day is an -absolute necessity of life, and that unless the supply be above -suspicion it should be filtered and then sterilized. - -=Filtration and Sterilization of Water.= Filtration as a general -thing is done by public authorities, but sterilization is not, -and should be done when necessary by the nurse. For immediate -use, simply boiling is said on good authority to be sufficient to -destroy all _organisms_ then in the water. _Spores_ of organisms -are, however, not killed by boiling, as they are very resistant -to heat. Fortunately they are not common. As they do not develop -into bacteria for some hours after the water has been boiled, they -may be entirely gotten rid of by allowing them to develop and then -destroying by a second boiling; but for all practical purposes, -and under ordinary circumstances, water is rendered safe for use -by boiling it once.[9] Should the water be very bad, boil it in a -jar plugged with cotton for half an hour three days in succession, -keeping it meanwhile in a temperature of 70° or 80° Fahr., so -that any _spores_ of organisms which may be in it will have an -opportunity to get into such a state of existence that they will be -capable of being killed by the next boiling. The third treatment -is for the purpose of making sure of any that may have escaped the -first and second. - - -PROTEIN - -The second of the food principles, protein, is a complex and -very important constituent of our food. The protein compounds -differ from all others as to chemical composition by the presence -of nitrogen; they contain _carbon_, _oxygen_, _hydrogen_, and -_nitrogen_, while the fats and carbohydrates are composed -principally of _carbon_, _oxygen_, and _hydrogen_, but no nitrogen. -The so-called extractives or flavoring properties of meats are -nitrogenous, and are consequently classed with the protein -compounds.[10] - -The body of an average person contains about _eighteen_ per cent. -of protein. The proteins of various kinds furnish nutriment for -blood and muscle, hence the term "muscle-formers," which is -sometimes given them. They also furnish material for tendons and -other nitrogenous tissues. When these are worn out by use, it is -protein which repairs the waste. - -Most of the valuable work upon the analysis of food has been done -in Germany. From estimates made by chemists of that country it has -been decided that the amount of protein in a diet should not fall -below _four ounces daily_. This is to represent an allowance for a -man of average weight doing an average amount of work, below which -he cannot go without loss in health, in work, or in both. Although -protein is the most expensive of all food materials, one should -endeavor to use at least four ounces each day. Meat, milk, eggs, -cheese, fish of all kinds, but especially dried cod, wheat, beans, -and oatmeal are all rich in this substance. The protein compounds -are divided into three classes: - - -ALBUMINOIDS, GELATINOIDS, EXTRACTIVES. - -=Albuminoids.= The most perfect type of an albuminoid is the white -of egg. It is a viscous, glairy, thick fluid which occurs also in -the flesh of meat as one of its juices, in fish, in milk, in wheat -as gluten, and in other foods. It is soluble in cold water. - - =Exp.= Mix some white of egg in a tumbler with half a cup of cold - water. As soon as the viscousness is broken up it will be found - to be completely dissolved. It is insoluble in alcohol. - - =Exp.= Pour upon some white of egg double its bulk of alcohol. It - will coagulate into a somewhat hard opaque mass. - -Heat also has the power of coagulating albumen. - - =Coagulation of Albumen by Heat.= Put into a test-tube some white - of egg, and place the tube in a dish of warm water. Heat the - water gradually over a gas-flame or an alcohol-lamp. When the - temperature reaches 134° Fahr. it will be seen that little white - threads have begun to appear; continue the heating to 160°, when - the whole mass becomes white and firm. Now remove a part from the - tube and test its consistency; it will be found to be tender, - soft, and jelly-like. Replace the tube in the dish of water - and raise the heat to 200° Fahr.; then take out a little more - and test again; it will now be found hard, close-grained, and - somewhat tough. Continue the heating, when it will be seen that - the tenacity increases with rise of temperature until at 212° - Fahr., the boiling-point of water, it is a firm, compact solid. - When heated to about 350°, white of egg becomes so tenacious that - it is used as a valuable cement for marble. - -These experiments illustrate a very important point in the cooking -of albuminous foods. They show that the proper temperature for -albumen is that at which it is thoroughly coagulated, but not -hardened; that is, about 160° Fahr. Most kinds of meat, milk, eggs, -oysters, and fish, when cooked with reference to their albumen -alone, we find are also done in the best possible manner with -reference to their other constituents. For instance, if you cook -an oyster thinking only of its albuminous juice, and endeavor to -raise the temperature throughout all of its substance to, or near, -160° Fahr., and not higher, you will find it most satisfactory -as to flavor, consistency, and digestibility. The same is true -of eggs done in all ways, and of dishes made with eggs, such as -custards, creams, and puddings. With the knowledge that albumen -coagulates at a temperature of 52° below that of boiling water, one -can appreciate the necessity of cooking eggs in water that is not -boiling, and a little experiment like the above will impress it -upon the mind as no amount of mere explanation can possibly do. - -The cooking of eggs, whether poached, cooked in the shell, or in -omelets, is of much importance, for albumen when hard, compact, and -tenacious is very difficult of digestion; the gastric juice cannot -easily penetrate it; sometimes it is not digested at all; while -that which is properly done--cooked in such a way that it is tender -and falls apart easily--is one of the most valuable forms of food -for the sick. - -Albumen should always be prepared in such manner as to require the -least possible expenditure of force in digestion. Those who are ill -cannot afford to waste energy. Whether they are forced to do so in -the digestion of their food depends very much upon the person who -prepares it. - -Advantage is often taken, in cooking, of the fact that albumen -hardens on exposure to certain degrees of heat, to form protecting -layers over pieces of broiling steak, roast meats, etc. If a piece -of meat is placed in cold water to cook, it is evident, since -albumen is soluble in cold water, that some of it will be wasted. -If the same piece is plunged into boiling water the albumen in its -outer layers will be immediately hardened, and form a sheath over -the whole which will keep in the juices and the very important -flavors. When broth or soup is made, we put the meat (cut into -small pieces to expose a large extent of surface) into cold water, -because we wish to draw out as much as possible the soluble matter -and the flavors. If, on the other hand, the meat is to be served -boiled, and broth or soup is not the object, then this order should -be reversed, and every effort made to prevent the escape of any of -the ingredients of the meat into the liquid. - -In broiling steak, we sacrifice a thin layer of the outside to -form a protecting covering over the whole by plunging it into the -hottest part of the fire, so that the albumen will become suddenly -hard and firm, and plug up the pores, thus preventing the savory -juices from oozing out. More will be said on this subject in the -recipes for cooking these kinds of foods. - -=Gelatinoids.= The second class of protein compounds comprises the -gelatinoids, gelatin being their leading constituent. It is found -in flesh, tendons, cartilage and bone; in fact, it exists in all -the tissues of the body, for the walls of most of the microscopic -cells of which the tissues are composed contain gelatin. - - =Exp.= Boil a pound of lean meat freed from tendons, fat, and - bone, in a pint of water for three hours; then set the liquid - away to cool. Jelly resembling calf's-foot jelly will be the - result. The cell-walls of the flesh have been dissolved by the - long-continued action of heat and liquid. This is commonly called - stock or glaze. - - =Exp.= Put a piece of clean bone into a dilute solution of - hydrochloric acid. In two or three days the acid will have acted - upon the earthy matters in the bone to remove them, and gelatin - will remain. The average amount in bone is about thirty per cent. - -Calves' feet were formerly used for jelly because of the excess -of gelatin which they contain. They were cooked in water for a -long time and the liquid reduced by further boiling; it was then -clarified, flavored, and cooled; the result was a transparent, -trembling jelly. The prepared gelatin of commerce, or _gelatine_, -has now largely displaced this, for it is much more convenient to -use, and less expensive. - -=Extractives.= The extractives or flavoring properties of meats and -other substances are usually classed with the protein compounds. -Their chemical nature is not well understood. - - -FATS - -=Fixed and Volatile Oils.= There are two classes of fats, called -_fixed oils_ and _volatile oils_. All kinds of fats good for food -belong to the class of fixed oils. A volatile oil is one which -evaporates away, like alcohol or water, and leaves no residue. -The fixed oils, at least most of them, will not do this; they -do not vaporize even at very high temperatures, but they become -dissociated or decomposed,--that is, their chemical structure is -broken up before their boiling-point is reached. Volatile oils, -on the contrary, are capable of being boiled and transformed into -gases. Some one illustrates this by the changes which take place in -water. When water is heated to 212° Fahr. it is converted into a -gas, which on cooling below 212° returns to the liquid state again -without loss. The essential oil, turpentine, if heated to 320° -Fahr. ceases to be a liquid and becomes a gas, which on cooling -becomes a liquid oil again without loss of weight. Other volatile -oils are oil of cloves, oil of bitter almonds, orange and lemon -oil, oil of cinnamon, bergamot, and patchouli. - -The boiling sometimes noticed in a pot of lard is owing to the -presence in it of a little water which is very soon converted into -steam, when the bubbling ceases, and after that the temperature -of the fat rises rapidly, reaching in a short time four or five -hundred degrees Fahrenheit, when a separation of its constituents -takes place, and carbon is revealed as a black mass. - -=Composition of Fats.= Fats are _hydrocarbons_--that is, they -are composed chiefly of carbon united with hydrogen and oxygen. -They must not be confounded with the _carbohydrates_, which are -always composed of carbon with the elements of water--that is, the -proportion of hydrogen to oxygen is as two to one,--whereas in the -hydrocarbons this is not the case. These elements enter into the -compositions of fats as various fatty acids and glycerin; the acids -are not sour, as one would suppose from the name, but are so called -because they behave chemically toward bases as sour acids do, that -is, they unite with them. The glycerin of commerce is obtained by -decomposing fats. - -=Fat in Milk.= The white color of milk is given to it by minute -globules of fat suspended in it. - - =To prove this=: Put a little milk into a bottle with a - ground-glass stopper; pour upon it three times its bulk of ether - and shake gently; let it stand for two or three days, when it - will be found that the ether has dissolved the fat and left a - semi-transparent yellowish white liquid resembling blood serum. - By pipetting or carefully pouring off the ether, and evaporating - it by placing the vessel containing it in a dish of warm water, - clear oil will be obtained. Care must be taken not to put the - ether near a flame or the fire, as it is highly inflammable, and - an explosion might occur. Ether boils at 94.82° Fahr. - -The proportion of fat in milk is from 2.8 to 8 per cent. It -varies in milk from different species of cows, and from the same -species at different times, according to age, feeding, and other -circumstances. - -=Cream.= When milk is allowed to stand without disturbance for a -time the globules of fat, being lighter than water, rise to the -surface and form cream. Cream is the most wholesome, palatable, and -easily digested form of fat. Butter is obtained by beating milk or -cream in a churn until the little globules of fat break and stick -together in a mass. - -=Olive-Oil.= Olive-oil is one of the most easily digested and -palatable of fats. A genuine oil of the first quality is, in this -country unfortunately, expensive, much of that sold under the name -being adulterated with cotton-seed oil, poppy-oil, and essence of -lard.[11] - -Cotton-seed oil has no especially bad flavor, but it is unpleasant -and indigestible when used raw as in sardines and salads. The after -taste which it leaves reminds one too forcibly of castor-oil. - -Olive-oil of the best quality is almost absolutely without flavor. -It is prepared in several grades: the first pressing from the fruit -is the best, the second is fair, the third inferior, and there -is sometimes a fourth known as refuse oil. For deep fat frying -nothing is so good as olive-oil, but its costliness in this country -excludes it from common use. - -The fat of the sheep and ox, after it has been rendered, and -deprived of all membrane and fibers, is called _tallow_. The term -is also applied to the fat of other animals, and to that of some -plants, as bayberry-tallow, piny tallow, and others. The uncooked -fat of any animal is called _suet_, but the name has come to be -applied to the less easily melted kinds, which surround the kidneys -or are in other parts of the loin. The fat which falls in drops -from meat in roasting is called _dripping_. - - -THE CARBOHYDRATES - -=Starch.= Starch is a substance found in wheat, corn, oats, and -in fact in all grains, in potatoes, in the roots and stems of -many plants, and in some fruits. In a pure state it is a white -powder such as is seen in arrowroot and corn-starch. Examined by -a microscope this powder is found to be made up of tiny grains of -different shapes and sizes, some rounded or oval, others irregular. -Those of potato-starch are ovoid, with an outside covering which -appears to be folded or ridged, and looks somewhat like the outside -of an oyster-shell, although its similarity extends no further -than appearance, as the little ridges are true folds, and not -overlapping edges. - -=Size of Starch Grains.= Starch grains vary in size according to -the source from which the starch is obtained. Those of ground rice -are very small, being about 1/3000 of an inch in diameter; those of -wheat are 1/1000 of an inch, and those of potato 1/300 of an inch. - -Starch is a carbohydrate, being composed of six parts of -carbon, ten of hydrogen, and five of oxygen. Its symbol is -C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. It is insoluble in water, but when the water is -heated, the grains seem to absorb it; they increase in size, the -ridges or folds disappear, and when the temperature reaches 140° -Fahr. or a little over, they burst, and the contents mingle with -the liquid forming the well-known paste. - - =Test for Starch.= Mix a teaspoon of starch with a cup of cold - water and boil them together for a few minutes until a paste is - formed; then set it aside to cool. Meanwhile make a solution of - iodine by putting a few flakes into alcohol, or use that which is - already prepared, and which may be obtained at any pharmacy. Add - a drop of this solution to the paste mixture; it will immediately - color the whole a rich dark blue. This is known as the "iodine - test," and is a very valuable one to the chemist, for by means of - it the slightest trace of starch can be detected. - - =Exp. with Arrowroot.= Make a thin paste by boiling a little - arrowroot and water together. When cool test it with a drop of - the iodine solution. The characteristic blue color will be very - strong, showing that arrowroot is rich in starch. - -Similar tests may be made with grated potato, wheat-flour, -rice-flour, tapioca, and other starch-containing substances. Also -powdered sugar, cream of tartar, and other substances may be -tested, when it is suspected that they have been adulterated with -starch. - -Although starch grains burst and form a paste with water at 140° -Fahr., that is not the temperature at which it should be cooked -for food, and the thickening which then takes place should not be -confounded, as often happens, with the true cooking of starch. -In order to understand the difference between the proper cooking -of starch and the simple bursting of the grains, let us consider -the changes which take place in starch when it is subjected to -different degrees of heat, and also those which are produced in -it during the process of digestion. All starch in food is changed -into dextrine and then into sugar (glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) in -the process of digestion. Glucose is a kind of sugar, resembling -cane-sugar, but it is not so sweet. - -=Dextrine.= Dextrine is a substance having the same chemical -nature as starch, but differing in many of its properties. It may -be described as a condition which starch assumes just before its -change into glucose. - - =Exp. to show Dextrine.= Carefully dry and then heat a little - starch to about 400° Fahr. Keep it at this temperature until it - turns brown, or for ten minutes. Then mix it with water, when it - will dissolve, forming a gummy solution. Starch will not do this. - Test it with iodine; it will not change color. The remarkable - thing about the relation of dextrine to starch is that although - they differ so much in properties they have the same chemical - composition. - -The change of starch into dextrine is an important point in -cooking, because starch cannot be assimilated until the conversion -has taken place, either before or after it is eaten. Now it will -be seen that unless this change is either produced or approached -in the cooking of starch-containing foods, they are not prepared -as well as it is possible to prepare them; also, that it is not -possible to cause this change at a low temperature; therefore -140° (the temperature at which the grains burst) should not be -regarded as the cooking temperature of starch. It should be such a -temperature as shall actually convert it into dextrine, or at least -change it to such an extent that it will be more easily converted -into dextrine, and ultimately into sugar, by the digestive fluids. -This should be as near 401° Fahr. as practicable,--not that a -potato, or a loaf of bread, or a pudding will have all the starch -in it changed when it is put into an oven of that temperature. -It would not be possible, on account of the water contained in -each; but that in the outside may be, and the preparation of the -remainder will be better than at a lower temperature. - -There are other means of changing starch into dextrine than -by heat, one of the most remarkable of which is _diastase_, a -substance found in sprouting grains, which has the power to -transform the starch stored in the grain by nature into soluble -dextrine, in which form it can be taken up by the young plant for -food. The crude starch could not thus be absorbed. The starch which -we use as food is of no more value to us than it is to the young -plant until it has been changed into dextrine or sugar. Now, if art -outside of the body can accomplish what nature is otherwise forced -to do in the alimentary canal, the body will be saved a certain -amount of force,--a point of great importance, especially in the -case of the sick or invalid, who can ill afford to waste energy. - -Starch constitutes half of bread, our "staff of life"; nearly -all of rice, the staff of life in the East; and the greater part -of corn-starch, sago, arrowroot, tapioca, peas, beans, turnips, -carrots, and potatoes. - -_Arrowroot_ is the purest form of starch food known. _Rice_ is -richest in starch of all the grains. _Tapioca_ is prepared from -the root of a tropical plant; it is first crushed and the grains -washed out with water, then the whole is heated and stirred, -thus cooking and breaking the starch grains, which on cooling -assume the irregular rough shapes seen in the ordinary tapioca of -commerce. Probably a part of the starch is converted into dextrine, -which accounts for the peculiarly agreeable flavor which tapioca -possesses. Mixed with the grains, as they are taken from the -plant, is a very dangerous poison which, being soluble in water -and volatile, is partially washed away and partially driven out by -the heat,--in fact the heating is done for this purpose. _Sago_ is -principally starch. It is obtained from the pith of the sago-palm. -Imitations of both tapioca and sago are sometimes made from common -starch. - -Starch may be converted into grape-sugar by treating it with -acids; that of corn is generally used for the purpose. Much of the -glucose of commerce is made in this way. In the United States it -is estimated that $10,000,000 worth is manufactured every year. -It is used for table syrup, in brewing beer, in the adulteration -of cane-sugar, and in confectionery. Honey is also made from it. -The nutritive value of vegetables is due largely to the starch and -sugar which they contain. - -In the economy of the body starch is eminently a heat producer. -Pound for pound it does not give as much heat as fat, but owing -to its great abundance and extensive use it, in the aggregate, -produces more. (Atwater.) - -Starch is an abundant and easily digested form of vegetable food, -but it is incapable of sustaining life. It contains none of the -nitrogenous matter needed for the nutrition of the muscles, nerves, -and tissues. Indeed, it is said on good authority that many an -invalid has been slowly starved to death from being fed upon this -material alone. - -=Sugar.= There are many kinds of sugar, the most familiar of which -is _cane-sugar_, or _sucrose_ (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}). It is obtained -from the juices of various plants, for instance, sugar-cane, -beet-root, the sugar-maple, and certain kinds of palms. By far the -greatest amount comes from the sugar-cane. It is made by crushing -the stalks of the plant (which somewhat resembles Indian corn) and -extracting the sweet juice, which is then clarified and evaporated -until, on cooling, crystals appear in a thick liquid; this liquid -is molasses, and the grains or crystals are brown sugar. White -sugar is obtained by melting this brown sugar in water, removing -the impurities, and again evaporating in vacuum-pans, which are -used for the purpose of boiling the liquid at a lower temperature -than it could be boiled in the open air, thus avoiding the danger -of burning, and otherwise preserving certain qualities of the -sugar. _Loaf-sugar_ is made by separating the crystals from the -liquid by draining in molds; and _granulated_ sugar by forcing out -the syrup in a centrifugal machine. The process of making beet-root -sugar is similar. Sugar from maple sap is obtained by simply -evaporating away the excess of water. In the East a considerable -quantity of sugar is made from the juices of certain varieties of -palm, especially the date-palm. Maple-sugar and palm-sugar are -generally not purified. - -Sucrose dissolves readily in water. By allowing such a solution -to stand undisturbed for a time until the water has disappeared, -transparent crystals are obtained, known as _rock candy_. Again, -sucrose melted at a temperature of 320° Fahr. forms, on cooling, -a clear mass, called _barley-sugar_. Heated to 420° Fahr. -dissociation of the carbon from the water of crystallization takes -place, the carbon appearing in its characteristic black color. This -dark brown, sweetish-bitter syrup is called _caramel_. On cooling -it forms a solid, which may be dissolved in water, and is used to -color gravies, soups, beer, and so forth. - - =Exp. with Sulphuric Acid.= A very pretty experiment to show the - separation of the water from the carbon may be made by treating - a little sugar in sulphuric acid. Put a tablespoon of sugar in - any vessel that will bear heat, a thin glass or stout cup. Pour - over enough concentrated sulphuric acid to thoroughly moisten it, - let it stand for a few minutes, when it will be seen that the - mass has changed color from white to a yellowish brown. The color - increases in intensity until it is perfectly black, when the - whole puffs and swells up, fumes are driven off, and a mass like - a cinder remains. This is charcoal, or nearly pure carbon. - -The explanation is as follows: So strong is the affinity of the -acid for the water that it breaks up the chemical combination -between it and the carbon, unites with the water, and leaves the -carbon free. So intense is the chemical change that an enormous -amount of heat is evolved,--so much, in fact, that a considerable -part of the water is vaporized, leaving the more or less solid -charcoal. The light color noticed during the first part of the -union indicates that the chemical dissociation is just beginning, -and that only a small amount of carbon has been set free. - -=Glucose.= Glucose or grape-sugar (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) is one of -the kinds of sugar found in grapes, peaches, and other fruits. It -is about two and one half times less sweet than cane-sugar. It is -manufactured on a large scale from the starch of corn. - -=Lactose.= Lactose or milk-sugar is the sugar found in the milk of -the _Mammalia_. That of commerce comes chiefly from Switzerland, -where it is made by evaporating the whey of cow's milk. For -sweetening drinks for infants and for the sick, milk-sugar is said -to be less liable to produce acid fermentation than cane-sugar, and -also to be more easily digested. - -Sugar is a valuable nutrient, being very easily digested and -absorbed. Cane-sugar is converted into glucose in the process of -digestion by the pancreatic juice, and after absorption it is -completely utilized in the body, furnishing heat and probably -energy. - -=Effects of Heat on Sugar.= Sugar undergoes various changes, -with different degrees of heat, by loss of some of its water of -crystallization. One of the most remarkable of these is seen in -caramel sauce, which is a rich crimson-brown syrup generally -supposed to contain foreign coloring matter, but which does not. -It is made by melting sugar without water, and heating it until -the desired hue and thickness are reached. Nothing is added, but -something is taken away; that is, some of the water is driven out, -with the result of change in both color and taste. - -In a recent article in "The Century Magazine" (November, 1891) -Prof. Atwater touches upon the subject of the production of -artificial foods from the crude materials of the earth, and states, -among other things, that a sugar resembling fruit-sugar has been -made artificially by synthesis, by Prof. Fischer of Würzburg, -Germany. - - -AIR - -Air is a gaseous elastic body which envelops the earth on every -side, extending possibly two hundred miles from its surface, but -all the while growing more and more rare as the distance increases. -When pure it is tasteless and odorless. We really live at the -bottom of an atmospheric ocean, and are pressed upon by its weight. -At the sea-level the pressure upon every square inch of surface is -equal to fifteen pound. - -=Atmospheric Pressure Variable.= Atmospheric pressure diminishes -and is constantly variable, according to the height above the -sea-level. If we ascend into the air 5000 feet, it is perfectly -evident that there are 5000 feet less of atmosphere pressing upon -us than at the point from which we started. This diminution of -pressure is often measured by the temperature at which water boils -at different heights. - -=Composition.= An average composition of the atmosphere has been -previously stated. Besides nitrogen and oxygen, it always contains -water in the form of vapor, and carbonic acid. The amount of -aqueous vapor in the air changes according to the temperature; the -amount of carbonic acid is also constantly variable. Air usually -contains, in addition to these, traces of ammonia, organic matter -which includes micro-organisms, ozone, salts of sodium, and other -mineral matters in minute and variable quantities. - -=Air in Motion.= The atmosphere is almost always in motion. We feel -it in the gentle breeze and the more forcible wind. If it moves -at a slower rate than two and one half feet a second this motion -is not noticeable. Motion in the air is caused by the unequal -heating of portions of it. If from any cause the atmosphere over -a certain region becomes warm, it will expand (all bodies expand -with heat), become lighter, and its tendency will be to move in the -direction of least resistance,--that is, upward; so we say heated -air rises. Currents of cooler air will immediately flow in to take -its place, and thus we have a breeze, a wind, or a gale, according -to the velocity and force with which the currents move. It is upon -a knowledge of these movements that the theory of ventilation is -based. It is because of the constant motion of air-currents that -out of doors, except in densely populated cities, air remains -constantly pure. When poisonous gases and other impurities -accumulate, winds scatter them far and wide until they are so -diluted as to be harmless; or under some conditions they unite -with other things and form new and simple substances of a harmless -nature, while under others, if they are compounds, they may be -decomposed or washed down to the surface of the earth again. - -=Impurities.= The chief chemical product of fires and of that -slower combustion breathing is carbonic acid. Plants during the -day, and under the influence of sunlight, take it up from the air -for food, use the carbon for their growth, freeing the oxygen -which man and the lower animals need. Thus is the balance most -beautifully maintained. - -Air is purest over the sea and over wind-swept heights of land. -It, however, always contains some foreign substances, and always -micro-organisms except over mid-ocean. Even the upper strata of -atmosphere are not free from microscopic forms of life, as has been -shown in experiments made with hail at the Johns Hopkins Hospital -in 1890 by Dr. Abbott. Large hailstones were washed in distilled -and sterilized water, and then melted, and cultures made from -different layers; in all of these organisms were found, showing -that they extend into the air a long distance from the earth.[12] - -Impurities of various kinds are constantly passing into the air, -but so vast is the expanse of the atmosphere as compared with the -impurities daily thrown into it from the lungs of man and the lower -animals, from fires, manufactories, and decomposing matter, that -they quickly disappear. - -Air is the greatest or, as one writer says, the most immediate -necessity of life. We could live without it only a few seconds. -We constantly use it, whether sleeping or waking, and perhaps this -accounts in part for the utter carelessness and indifference which -most people have for the quality of that which they breathe. Even -those persons who know something of the nature of air, make but -little effort to provide themselves with a constantly pure supply. - -=Effects of Breathing Bad Air.= If the effects of breathing bad air -were immediate, there would then be an immediate remedy for the -present total lack of any systematic means of ventilation in most -houses. But the effects of breathing bad air are, like those of -some slow and insidious poison, not noticeable at once, and often -manifested under the name of some disease which gives no clue to -the true cause. - -Dr. Van Rensselaer, in the Orton Prize Essay on Impure Air and -Ventilation, makes the statement that statistics show that of the -causes of mortality the most important and farthest-reaching is -impure air. - -=Amount of Air Required for one Person.= Sanitarians have agreed -that each individual requires at least 3000 cubic feet of air every -hour. A room 10 × 15 × 20 holds 3000 cubic feet of air, which -should be changed once every hour in order that one individual -shall have the required amount. If three persons are in the room, -it must be changed three times. - -The effect of bad ventilation is well illustrated by the condition -of the horses in the French army some years ago. With small -close stables the mortality was 197 in every 1000 annually. The -simple enlargement of the stables, and consequent increase of -breathing-space, reduced the number in the course of time to 68 in -every 1000, and later, from 1862 to 1866, with some attention paid -to the air-supply, the number fell to 28½ per 1000.[13] - -=Necessity for a Constant Supply of Pure Air.= When we consider -that the food we eat and digest cannot nourish the body until it -has been acted upon by oxygen in the lungs, and that this action -must be constant, never ceasing, it will help us to understand the -necessity for a constant supply of air such as shall furnish us -a due proportion of the life-giving principle, oxygen, and which -shall not contain impurities that interfere with its absorption. - -We take into the lungs a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic -acid. We give out a mixture which has lost some of its oxygen, -and gained in carbonic acid. Now, unless the amount of oxygen is -what it should be, the blood will not gain from an inspiration the -amount it should receive, consequently it will be but imperfectly -purified and able but imperfectly to nourish the body. So the -whole system suffers, and if a person for a long time continues to -breathe such an atmosphere, the condition of the body will become -so reduced as to produce disease. Even though in other ways one -lives wisely, all the factors of health multiplied together cannot -withstand the one of impure air. We eat food three or four times -daily. Some of us are very particular about its quality. We breathe -air every instant of our lives, but generally we give but little -consideration as to whether it is pure or impure. - -=Ventilation.= No attempt will be made here to explain different -devices for ventilation, but only to touch upon the principle -it involves. Its objects are (1) to remove air which has been -breathed once; (2) to remove the products of combustion, whether -from fires, lamps, gas, or other sources; (3) to carry away all -other substances which may be generated from any cause, in a room -or building, as the impurities from manufacturing, those arising -from decaying matter, and micro-organisms. In a climate where -artificial warmth is necessary a part of the year, it is difficult -to warm and ventilate a room at the same time, without causing -unpleasant drafts; but with some knowledge of the necessity of -ventilation, and of the properties of air, one may in some measure -work out a scheme of ventilation adapted to the circumstances in -which he finds himself. - -There are always the doors and windows, which may be thrown wide -open at intervals, and in many houses there are fireplaces. If a -window be opened at the bottom at one side of a room, and another -be opened at the top on an opposite side, a current of air will be -established from the first window, passing through the room and out -at the second. This plan will do very well in warm weather when the -temperature outside is about the same as that of the room, but it -would be impracticable in cold weather. Then we may resort to the -very simple plan of placing a board about eight or ten inches wide -across the window at the bottom and inside of the sash. Then when -the lower half of the window is raised, a space is left between -the upper and lower sashes, through which the air passes freely as -it enters, and, being sent into the room in an upward direction, -causes no draft. The board is for the purpose of closing the window -below, and should fit quite close to the sash. - -Fireplaces are good, though not perfect, ventilators. Then there -are the preventive measures, such as burning the gas or lamp low -at night, avoiding oil- and gas-stoves, etc.; the latter are the -worst possible means of heating rooms, for not only do they draw -oxygen for burning from the air, but they give out the polluting -carbonic acid and other products of combustion, which in a coal- or -wood-stove go up the chimney. - -A well-ventilated room should have an inflow of warm, pure air, -and a means for the removal of the same after it has been used, -the current being so controlled that, although the air is kept in -motion, there is no perceptible draft. - -The plan for the heating and ventilation of the Johns Hopkins -Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland, is a most admirable one. Air from -out of doors is conveyed by a flue into a chamber in the wall, in -which are coils of pipe filled with hot water. The air in passing -over these becomes warm, and, rising, passes into the room to -be heated through a register. On the opposite side of the room -is a chimney-like flue, running to the top of the building and -containing two registers, by the opening and closing of which the -movements of the air in the room can be controlled. The temperature -is maintained by the temperature of the water in the pipes, and the -rapidity of the flow.[14] - -The ventilation by this method of heating is the most perfect -known to the author, who has lived for two years in a building -thus supplied with warmth and fresh air. The rooms were invariably -comfortable as to temperature, and the air as invariably sweet and -pure. - - -MILK - -Milk is one of our most perfect types of food, containing water -and solids in such proportions as are known to be needful for the -nourishment of the body. A proof of this is seen in the fact that -it is the only food of the young of the _Mammalia_ during the time -of their greatest growth. It contains those food principles in -such amounts as to contribute to the rapid formation of bone and -the various tissues of the body, which takes place in infancy and -childhood; but after this growth is attained, and the individual -requires that which will repair the tissues and furnish warmth and -energy, milk ceases to be a complete food. - -=Composition of Cow's Milk.= The composition of cow's milk varies -with the breed and age, care and feeding, of the animals. Cows -which are kept in foul air in stables all the year, and fed upon -bad food such as the refuse from breweries and kitchens, give a -quality of milk which is perhaps more to be dreaded than that -from any other source; for such animals are especially liable to -disease, and are often infected with tuberculosis, pneumonia, -and other fatal maladies. Cows are particularly susceptible to -tuberculosis, and may convey it to human beings either in their -milk or flesh. According to Dr. Miller, cow's milk contains the -following ingredients: - - Water 87.4% - Fat 4.0% - Sugar and soluble salts 5.0% - Nitrogenous matter and insoluble salts 3.6% - -Another analysis is that of Uffelmann: - - Water 87.6% - Albuminoids 4.3% - Fat 3.8% - Sugar 3.7% - Salts .6%[15] - -=Characteristics.= Milk from healthy, well-nourished cows should be -of full white color, opaque, and with a slightly yellowish tinge -sometimes described as "cream white." It should vary but slightly -in composition from the above analyses. The fat should not be -less than 2.5%. The amount of fat may be easily determined with a -Feser's lactoscope (Eimer and Amend, New York), directions for the -use of which come with the instruments. It will generally vary from -3% to 4% in good milk. Should it fall below 2.5% the milk should be -rejected as too poor for use. Such milk has probably been skimmed, -or comes from unhealthy or poorly fed cows. - -The specific gravity of milk should be from 1.027 to 1.033. This -may be found with a Quevenne's lactometer. If it falls below 1.027, -one has a right to claim that the milk has been watered or that the -cows are in poor condition.[16] - -The reaction of good milk varies from slightly alkaline to slightly -acid or neutral. That from the same cow will be different on -different days, even under the same apparent conditions of care, -varying from one to the other, probably because of some difference -in the nature of the food she has eaten. However, if the reaction -is _decidedly_ alkaline, and red litmus-paper becomes a distinct -blue, the milk is not good, and possibly the animal is diseased. -Should the reaction be decidedly acid, it shows that the milk has -been contaminated, either from the air by long exposure, or from -the vessels which held it, with those micro-organisms which by -their growth produce an acid, a certain amount of which causes -what is known as "souring." - -Milk from perfectly healthy and perfectly kept cows is _neutral_, -leaving both red and blue litmus-paper unchanged; but as a general -thing milk is slightly acid, even when transported directly from -the producer to the consumer and handled by fairly clean workmen -in fairly clean vessels. Such milk two or three hours old when -examined microscopically is found to contain millions of organisms. -Milk is one of the best of foods for bacteria, many of the ordinary -forms growing in it with exceeding rapidity under favorable -conditions of temperature. Now it has been found that such milk, -although it may not contain the seeds of any certain disease, -sometimes causes in young children, and the sick, very serious -digestive disturbances, and may thus become indirectly the cause of -fatal maladies.[17] - -All milk, unless it is _positively known_ to be given by healthy, -well-nourished animals, and kept in thoroughly cleaned vessels -free from contamination, should be sterilized before using. Often -the organisms found in milk are of disease-giving nature. In -Europe and America many cases of typhoid fever, scarlatina, and -diphtheria have been traced to the milk-supply. In fact milk and -water are two of the most fruitful food sources of disease. It -therefore immediately becomes apparent that, unless these two -liquids are above suspicion, they should be sterilized before -using. Boiling water for half an hour will render it sterile, but -milk would be injured by evaporation and other changes produced -in its constituents by such long exposure to so high a degree of -heat. A better method, and one which should be adopted by all who -understand something of the nature of bacteria, is to expose the -milk for a longer time to a lower temperature than that of boiling. - -=To Sterilize Milk for Immediate Use.= (1) Pour the milk into a -granite-ware saucepan or a double boiler, raise the temperature to -190° Fahr., and keep it at that point for one hour. (2) As soon as -done put it immediately into a pitcher, or other vessel, which has -been thoroughly washed, and boiled in a bath of water, and cool -quickly by placing in a pan of cold or iced water. A chemist's -thermometer, for testing the temperature, may be bought at any -pharmacy for a small sum, but if there is not one at hand, heat the -milk until a scum forms over the top, and then keep it as nearly as -possible at that temperature for one hour. Do not let it boil. - -=To Sterilize Milk which is not for Immediate Use.= Put the milk -into flasks or bottles with narrow mouths; plug them with a long -stopper of cotton-wool, place the flasks in a wire frame to support -them, in a kettle of cold water, heat gradually to 190° Fahr., and -keep it at that temperature for one hour. Repeat this the second -day, for although all organisms were probably destroyed during the -first process, _spores_ which may have escaped will have developed -into bacteria. These will be killed by the second heating. Repeat -again on the third day to destroy any life that may have escaped -the first two. - -Spores or resting-cells are the germinal cells from which new -bacteria develop, and are capable of surviving a much higher -temperature than the bacteria themselves, as well as desiccation -and severe cold.[18] Some writers give a lower temperature than -190° Fahr. as safe for sterilization with one hour's exposure, but -190 may be relied upon. Milk treated by the last or "fractional" -method of sterilization, as it is called, should keep indefinitely, -provided of course the cotton is not disturbed. Cotton-wool or -cotton batting in thick masses acts as a strainer for bacteria, and -although air will enter, organisms will not. - -All persons who buy milk, or in any way control milk-supplies, -should consider themselves in duty bound to (1) ascertain by -personal investigation the condition in which the cows are kept. -If there is any suspicion that they are diseased, a veterinary -surgeon should be consulted to decide the case. If they are -healthy and well fed, they cannot fail to give good milk, and -nothing more is to be done except to see that it is transported in -perfectly cleansed and scalded vessels. (2) If it is impossible -to obtain milk directly from the producer, and one is obliged to -buy that from unknown sources, it should be sterilized the moment -it enters the house. There is no other means of being sure that -it will not be a bearer of disease. Not all such milk contains -disease-producing organisms, but it all may contain them, and there -is no safety in its use until all bacteria have been deprived of -life. - - -DIGESTION - -=Definition.= Digestion is the breaking up, changing, and -liquefying of the food in the various chambers of the alimentary -canal designed for that purpose. The mechanical breaking up is done -principally by the teeth in the mouth, the chemical changes and -liquefying by the various digestive fluids.[19] - -=Digestive Fluids.= The digestive fluids are true secretions. Each -is formed from the blood by a special gland for the purpose which -never does anything else; they do not exist in the blood as such. -Their flow is intermittent, taking place only when they are needed. -The liver, however, is an exception to all the others. It is both -secretory and excretory, and bile is formed all the time, but is -most abundant during digestion.[20] - -=Saliva.= The fluid which is mixed with the food in the mouth -is secreted by a considerable number and variety of glands, the -principal of which are the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual. -Smaller glands in the roof and sides of the mouth, in the tongue, -and in the mucous membrane of the pharynx contribute to the -production of saliva, the digestive fluid of the mouth. The flow -from the parotid gland is greatest. The flow from all the glands is -greatly increased when food is taken, especially if it be of good -flavor. Sometimes the amount is increased by smell alone, as when a -nice steak is cooking, or a savory soup, and sometimes the saliva -is made copious by thought, as when we remember the taste of dishes -eaten in the past, and we say, "It makes the mouth water just to -think of them." - -=Amount of Saliva.= According to Dalton the amount of saliva -secreted every twenty-four hours is 42½ oz. Its reaction is almost -constantly alkaline. It is composed of water, organic matter, and -various mineral salts. Ptyalin is its active principle, and is -called by some authors _animal diastase_, or starch converter. - -=Gastric Juice.= Gastric juice is the digestive fluid of the -stomach. It is acid. Its flow is intermittent, occurring only at -times of digestion. Its active principle is pepsin. - -It is worthy of notice here that the character of the digestive -fluids when food is taken is different from what it is when the -organs are at rest. For instance, the gastric juice which flows -in abundance under the stimulus of food, is not like the fluid -secreted when the stomach is collapsed and empty. - -=Pancreatic Juice.= Pancreatic juice is the digestive juice of the -pancreas, and is poured into the small intestine a short distance -below the pyloric opening. Its reaction is alkaline. Its flow is -entirely suspended during the intervals of digestion. - -=Bile.= Bile, the fourth in order of the digestive liquids, is the -secretion of the largest gland of the body--the liver. It is poured -into the small intestine by a duct which empties side by side with -the duct from the pancreas. The flow of bile is constant, but is -greatest during digestion. - -=Intestinal Juice.= Intestinal juice has been to physiologists a -difficult subject of study. It is mingled with the salivary and -gastric juices at the times of digestion, when it is most desirable -to notice its action. Nearly all authorities agree that it is -alkaline, and that its function is to complete the digestion of -substances which may reach it in an undigested condition. - -=Mucus of Large Intestine.= The mucus secreted by the large -intestine is for lubricating only. - -=Digestion in Different Parts of the Alimentary Tract.= -Different substances in food are digested in different portions -of the alimentary canal, and by different means. Let us begin -in the mouth. Taking the classes of foods, starch, one of the -carbohydrates, is the one most affected by the ptyalin, or animal -diastase, of the saliva. So energetic is the action of ptyalin on -starch that 1 part is sufficient to change 1000 parts. Starch is -not acted upon by the gastric juice of the stomach at all; however, -the continued action of the saliva is not probably interrupted in -the stomach. The digestion of starch is completed by the action -of the pancreatic and intestinal juices, and consists in its being -changed into soluble glucose, which is absorbed in solution. - -=Sugar.= Cane-sugar, or common sugar (also called _sucrose_), -passes through the mouth, unchanged, to the stomach, where -it is converted into glucose by the slow action of the acid -(hydrochloric) of the gastric juice. Dilute hydrochloric acid has -the same action on sugar outside of the stomach. - -The action of pancreatic juice on sugar is very marked; it -immediately changes cane-sugar into glucose. The effect of -intestinal fluid is not well understood, but there is the -general agreement that it does not change cane-sugar, neither is -cane-sugar, as such, absorbed in the intestine. Bile does not -affect it, therefore cane-sugar is digested or converted into -glucose either by the stomach or pancreas, or both. It will now be -seen that ultimately the same substance, glucose, is obtained from -both starch and sugar. - -=Protein.= We now come to the consideration of the digestion of -the protein compounds, of which albumen may be taken as a type. -Possibly no action except breaking up and moistening takes place -in the mouth.[21] Its digestion begins in the stomach, where its -structure is broken up and a separation and dissolution of the -little sacs which hold it take place. The same thing is partially -accomplished outside of the stomach when white of egg is slightly -beaten and strained through a cloth. Gastric juice further acts on -the albumen itself, forming it into what is called albumen peptone. -The digestion of raw and carefully cooked albumen has been found -to be carried on very rapidly in the stomach, and the change is -essentially the same in both cases, but in favor of the slightly -coagulated. When the albumen is rendered hard, fine, and close in -consistency by over-cooking, then it is less easy of digestion than -when raw. - -=Absorption.= It is probable that the greater portion of the -process of digestion and absorption of albumen takes place in the -stomach. - -=Fibrin.= Fibrin is also digested in the stomach, and made into -fibrin peptone. - -=Casein.= Liquid casein is immediately coagulated by gastric juice, -both by the action of free acid and organic matter. - -=Gelatin.= Gelatin is quickly dissolved by gastric juice, and -afterward no longer has the property of forming jelly on cooling. -Gelatin is more rapidly disposed of than the tissue from which it -is produced. - -=Vegetable Protein.= The digestion of the vegetable protein -compounds, such as the gluten of wheat and the protein of the -various grains, such as corn, oatmeal, etc., is undoubtedly carried -on in the stomach, but they must be well softened and prepared -by the action of heat and water, or they will not be digested -anywhere; and often corn, beans, and grains of oatmeal are rejected -entirely unchanged. Partially or imperfectly digested proteins are -affected by intestinal juice. It is probable that the function of -this fluid is to complete digestive changes in food which have -already begun in the stomach. - -To summarize: The digestion and absorption of nitrogenous compounds -take place in both the stomach and the intestines. - - -NUTRITION - -One of the important points to bring to the notice of pupils in the -study of cookery is the phenomenon of nutrition. It is astonishing -how vague are the ideas that many people have of why they eat food, -and vaguer still are their notions of the necessity of air, pure -and plenty. Once instruct the mind that it is the air we breathe -and the food we eat which nourish the body, giving material for -its various processes, for nervous and muscular energy, and for -maintaining the constant temperature which the body must always -possess in order to be in a state of health, and there is much more -likelihood that the dignity and importance of proper cooking and -proper food will not be overlooked. - -A knowledge that the health and strength of a person depend largely -upon what passes through his mouth, that even the turn of his -thinking is modified by what he eats, should lead all intelligent -women to make food a conscientious subject of study. - -In general, by the term "nutrition" is meant the building up and -maintaining of the physical framework of the body with all its -various functions, and ultimately the mental and moral faculties -which are dependent upon it, by means of nutriment or food. - -The word is derived from the Latin _nutrire_, to nourish. The word -"nurse" is from the same root, and in its original sense means one -who nourishes, a person who supplies food, tends, or brings up. - -Anything which aids in sustaining the body is food; therefore, air -and water, the two most immediate necessities of life, may be, and -often are, so classed. - -Nutriment exclusive of air is received into the body by means of -the alimentary canal. The great receiver of air is the lungs, but -it also penetrates the body through the pores of the skin, and at -these points carbonic acid is given off as in the lungs. The body -is often compared to a steam-engine, which takes in raw material in -the form of fuel and converts it into force or power. Food, drink, -and air are the fuel of the body,--the things consumed; heat, -muscular and intellectual energy, and other forms of power are the -products. - -Food, during the various digestive processes, becomes reduced to a -liquid, and is then absorbed and conveyed, by different channels -constructed for the purpose, into the blood, which contains, after -being acted upon by the oxygen of the air in the lungs, all those -substances which are required to maintain the various tissues, -secretions, and, in fact, the life of the system. - -Some of the ways in which the different kinds of food nourish the -body have been found out by chemists and physiologists from actual -experiments on living animals, such as rabbits, dogs, pigs, sheep, -goats, and horses, and also on man. Often a scientist becomes so -enthusiastic in his search for knowledge about a certain food that -he gives his own body for trial. Much valuable work has been done -in this direction during the last decade by Voit, Pettenkofer, -Moleschott, Ranke, Payen, and in this country by Atwater. - -No one can explain all the different intricate changes which a -particle of food undergoes from the moment it enters the mouth -until its final transformation into tissue or some form of -energy; but by comparing the income with the outgo, ideas may be -gained of what goes on in the economy of the body, and of the -proportion of nutrients used, and some of the intricate and complex -chemical changes which the different food principles undergo in -the various processes of digestion, assimilation, and use.[22] -Probably hundreds of changes take place in the body, in its -various nutritive functions, of which nothing is known, or they are -entirely unsuspected, so that if we do our utmost with the present -lights which we possess for guidance to health, we shall still -fall far short of completeness. The subject of food and nutrition, -viewed in the light of bacteriology and chemistry, is one of the -most inviting subjects of study of the day, and is worthy of the -wisest thought of the nation. - -The body creates nothing of itself, either of material or of -energy; all must come to it from without. Every atom of carbon, -hydrogen, phosphorus, or other elements, every molecule of protein, -carbohydrate, or other compounds of these elements, is brought -to the body with the food and drink it consumes, and the air it -breathes. Like the steam-engine, it uses the material supplied to -it. Its chemical compounds and energy are the compounds and energy -of the food transformed (Atwater). A proof of this is seen in the -fact that when the supply from without is cut off, the body dies. -The raw material which the body uses is the air and food which it -consumes, the greater portion of which is digested and distributed, -through the medium of the blood, to all parts of the body, to renew -and nourish the various tissues and to supply the material for the -different activities of life. - -=Ways in which Food Supplies the Wants of the Body.= Food supplies -the wants of the body in several ways--(1) it is used to form the -tissues of the body--bones, flesh, tendons, skin, and nerves; (2) -it is used to repair the waste of the tissues; (3) it is stored in -the body for future use; (4) it is consumed as fuel to maintain the -constant temperature which the body must always possess to be in a -state of health; (5) it produces muscular and nervous energy.[23] -The amount of energy of the body depends upon two things--the -amount in the food eaten, and the ability of the body to use it, or -free it for use. - -With every motion, and every thought and feeling, material is -consumed, hence the more rapid wearing out of persons who do severe -work, and of the nervous--those who are keenly susceptible to every -change in their surroundings, to change of weather, even to the -thoughts and feelings of those about them. - -We easily realize that muscular force or energy cannot be -maintained without nutriment in proper quality and amount. An -underfed or starving man has not the strength of a well-fed person. -He cannot lift the same weight, cannot walk as far, cannot work -as hard. We do not as easily comprehend the nervous organism, and -generally have less sympathy with worn-out or ill-nourished nerves -than muscles, but the sensibilities and the intellectual faculties, -of which the nerves and brain are but the instruments, depend -upon the right nutrition of the whole system for their proper and -healthful exercise. - -So many factors enter into the make-up of a thought that it cannot -be said that any particular kind of food will ultimately produce a -poem; but of this we may be sure, that the best work, the noblest -thoughts, the most original ideas, will not come from a dyspeptic, -underfed, or in any way ill-nourished individual. - -The classification of foods has been usually based upon the -deductions of Prout that milk contains all the necessary nutrients -in the best form and proportions, viz., the nitrogenous matters, -fat, sugar, water, and salts; the latter being combinations of -magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron, with chlorin, -phosphoric acid, and, in smaller quantities, sulphuric acid. - -These different classes seem to serve different purposes in the -body, and are all necessary for perfect nutrition. Some of them -closely resemble each other in composition, but are quite different -in their physiological properties, and in the ends which they -serve. For instance, starch (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}) has almost the same -chemical formula as sugar (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}), and yet the one -cannot replace the other to its entire exclusion. - -=The Protein Compounds.= In general it may be said that the -carbohydrates are changed into fats, and are used for the -production of force, and that the fats are stored in the body as -fat and used as fuel. The protein compounds do all that can be done -by the fats and carbohydrates, and in addition something more; that -is, they form the basis of blood, muscle, sinew, skin, and bone. -They are, therefore, the most important of all the food compounds. -The terms "power-givers" and "energy-formers" are sometimes applied -to them, because wherever power and energy are developed they are -present, though not by any means the only substances involved in -the evolution of energy. Probably the fats and carbohydrates give -most of the material for heat and the various other forces of the -body. In case of emergency, where these are deficient, the proteins -are used; but protein alone forms the basis of muscle, tendons, -skin, and other tissues. This the fats and carbohydrates cannot -do (Atwater). The different tissues are known from analysis to -contain this complex nitrogenous compound, protein. Now, since the -body cannot construct this substance out of the simpler chemical -compounds which come to it, it becomes perfectly evident that the -diet must have a due proportion of protein in order to maintain the -strength of the body. We get most of our proteins from the flesh of -animals, and they in turn get it from plants, which construct it -from the crude materials of earth and air. - -=The Extractives=, usually classed with the protein compounds, -such as meat extract, beef tea, etc., are not generally regarded -as direct nutrients, but, like tea and coffee, are valuable as -accessory foods, lending savor to other foods and aiding their -digestion by pleasantly exciting the flow of the digestive fluids. -They also act as brain and nerve stimulants, and perhaps also in -some slight degree as nutrients. - -The principal proteins or nitrogenous substances are _albumen_ in -various forms, casein both animal and vegetable, _blood fibrin_, -_muscle fibrin_, and _gelatin_. All except the last are very much -alike, and probably can replace one another in nutrition. - -Modern chemists agree that nitrogen is a necessary element in the -various chemical and physiological actions which take place in the -body to produce heat, muscular energy, and the other powers. Every -structure in the body in which any form of energy is manifested -is nitrogenous. The nerves, muscles, glands, and the floating -cells[24] in the various liquids are nitrogenous. That nitrogen is -necessary to the different processes of the system, is shown by -the fact that if it be cut off, these processes languish. This may -not occur immediately, for the body always has a store of nitrogen -laid by for emergencies which will be consumed first, but it will -occur as soon as these have been consumed. The energy of the body -is measured by its consumption of oxygen. Motion and heat may be -owing to the oxidation of fat, or of starch, or of nitrogenous -substances; but whatever the source, the direction is given by the -nitrogenous structure--in other words, nitrogen is necessary to all -energy generated in the body. - -Protein matter nourishes the organic framework, takes part in the -generation of energy, and may be converted into non-nitrogenous -substances.[25] The necessity of the protein compounds is -emphasized when we realize that about _one half_ of the body is -composed of muscle, _one fifth_ of which is protein, and the -nitrogen in this protein can be furnished only by protein, since -neither fats nor carbohydrates contain it. It is therefore evident -that the protein-containing foods, such as beef, mutton, fish, -eggs, milk, and others, are our most valued nutrients. Our daily -diet must contain a due proportion. - -The proteins are all complex chemical compounds, which in nutrition -become reduced to simple forms, and are then built up again into -flesh. The animal foods are in the main the best of the protein -compounds, for they are rich in nitrogenous matter, are easily -digested, and from their composition and adaptability are most -valuable in maintaining the life of the body. - -A diet of lean meat alone serves to build up tissue. If nothing -else be taken, the stored-up fat of the body will be consumed, and -the person will become thin.[26] Athletes while in training take -advantage of this fact, and are allowed to eat only such food as -shall furnish the greatest amount of strength and muscular energy -with a minimum of fat. The lean of beef and mutton, with a certain -amount of bread, constitute the foundation of the diet. - -=Fats.= Most of the fatty substances of food are liquefied at the -temperature of the body. When eaten in the form of adipose tissue, -as the fat of beef and mutton, the vesicles or cells in which the -fat is held are dissociated or dissolved, the fat is set free, and -mingles with the digesting mass. This is done in the stomach, and -is a preparation for its further change in the intestines. - -Fats are not dissolved--that is, in the sense in which meats -and other foods are dissolved--in the process of digestion; the -only change which they undergo is a minute subdivision caused -principally by the action of the pancreatic juice. In this -condition of fine emulsion they are taken up by the lacteals; they -may also be absorbed by the blood-vessels. - -It has been found that fat emulsions pass more easily through -membranes which have been moistened with bile, and it is probable -that the function of bile is partly to facilitate the absorption of -fat. That the pancreatic juice is the chief agent in forming fats -into emulsion was discovered in 1848. Bile is, however, essential -to their perfect digestion, and we may therefore say that they -are digested by the united action of the pancreatic juice and the -bile.[27] - -Fat forms in the body fatty tissues, and serves for muscular -force and heat; it is also necessary to nourish nerves and other -tissues,--in fact, without it healthy tissues cannot be formed. A -proper amount of fat is also a sort of albumen sparer. - -It is probable that the fat which is used in the body either to -be stored away or for energy, is derived from other sources than -directly from the fat eaten. From experiments made by Lawes and -Gilbert on pigs, it is evident that the excess of fat stored in -their bodies must be derived from some other source than the -fat contained in their food, and must be produced partly from -nitrogenous matter and partly from carbohydrates, or, at least, -that the latter play a part in its formation. It would appear -from this that life might be maintained on starch, water, salts, -and meat free from fat; but although the theory seems a good one, -practically it is found in actual experiment[28] that nutrition -is impaired by a lack of fat in the diet. The ill effects were -soon seen, and immediate relief was given when fat was added to -the food. Besides, in the food of all nations starch is constantly -associated with some form of fat; bread with butter; potatoes -with butter, cream, or gravy; macaroni and polenta with oil, -and so forth. A man may live for a time and be healthy with a -diet of albuminoids, fats, salts, and water, but it has not yet -been proved that a similar result will be produced by a diet of -albuminoids, carbohydrates, salts, and water without fat. Fat is -necessary to perfect nutrition. Health cannot be maintained on -albuminoids, salts, and water alone; but, on the other hand, cannot -be maintained without them. - -Probably the value of fats, as such, is dependent upon the ease -with which they are digested. The fats eaten are not stored in the -body directly, but the body constructs its fats from those eaten, -and from other substances in food,--according to some authorities -from the carbohydrates and proteids, and according to others from -proteids alone. - -Fats are _stored away_ as fat, _furnish heat_, and are _used for -energy_; at least, it is probable that at times they are put to the -latter use. The fats laid by in the body for future use last in -cases of starvation quite a long time, depending, of course, upon -the amount. At such times a fat animal will live longer than a lean -one. - -Doubtless in the fat of food the body finds material for its -fats in the most easily convertible form. Of the various fatty -substances taken, some are more easily assimilated than others. -Dr. Fothergill, in "The Town Dweller," says that the reason that -cod-liver oil is given to delicate children and invalids is, -that it is more easily digested than ordinary fats, but it is an -inferior form of fat; the next most easily digested is the fat of -bacon. When a child can take bread crumbled in a little of this -fat, it will not be necessary to give him cod-liver oil. Bacon fat -is the much better fat for building tissues. Then comes cream, a -natural emulsion, and butter. He further says there is one form of -fat not commonly looked at in its proper dietetic value, and that -is "toffee." It is made of butter, sugar, and sometimes a portion -of molasses. A quantity of this, added to the ordinary meals, -will enable a child in winter to keep up the bodily heat. The way -in which butter in the form of toffee goes into the stomach is -particularly agreeable. - -=Carbohydrates.= The principal carbohydrates are _starch_, -_dextrine_, _cane-sugar_ or common table sugar, _grape-sugar_, the -principal sugar in fruits, and _milk-sugar_, the natural sugar in -milk. They are substances made up, as before stated, of carbon, -hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen. They are important food -substances, but are of themselves incapable of sustaining life. - -The carbohydrates, both starch and sugar, in the process of -digestion are converted into glucose. This is stored in the -liver in the form of _glycogen_, which the liver has the power -of manufacturing; it then passes into the circulation, and is -distributed to the different parts of the body as it is needed. -(The liver also has the power of forming glycogen out of other -substances than sugar, and it is pretty conclusively proved that -it is from proteids, and not from fats. Carnivorous animals, living -upon flesh alone, are found to have glycogen in their bodies.) - -It is impossible to assign any especial office to the different -food principles; that is, it cannot be said that the carbohydrates -perform a certain kind of work in the body and nothing else, or -that the proteids or fats do. The human body is a highly complex -and intricate organism, and its maintenance is carried on by -complex and mysterious processes that cannot be followed, except -imperfectly; consequently, we must regard the uses of foods in -the body as more or less involved in obscurity. It is, however, -generally understood that the proteids, fats, and carbohydrates -each do an individual work of their own better than either of -the others can do it. They are all necessary in due amount to -the nutrition of the body, and doubtless work together as well -as in their separate functions. They are, however, sometimes -interchangeable, as, for instance, in the absence of the -carbohydrates, proteids will do their work. The carbohydrates are -eminently heat and energy formers, and they also act as albumen -sparers. - -The body always has a store of material laid by for future use. -If it were not for this a person deprived of food would die -immediately, as is the case when he is deprived of oxygen. (Air -being ever about us, and obtainable without effort or price, there -is no need for the body to lay by an amount of oxygen; consequently -only a very little is stored, and that in the blood.) - -The great reserve forces of the body are in the form of fatty -tissues, and glycogen, or the stored-away carbohydrates of the -liver; the latter is given out to the body as it is needed during -the intervals of eating to supply material for the heat and energy -of daily consumption, and in case of starvation. That they are -true reserves is shown by the fact that they disappear during -deprivation of food. The glycogen, or liver-supply, disappears -first; then the fat (Martin). The heat of the body can be -maintained on these substances, and a certain amount of work done, -although no food except water be taken. - -The principal function of the liver is to form glycogen to be -stored away. It constantly manufactures it, and as constantly loses -it to the circulation. Glycogen is chemically allied to starch, -having the same formula (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}), but differing in other -ways. Its quantity is greatest about two hours after a full meal; -then it gradually falls, but increases again when food is again -taken. Its amount also varies with the _kind_ of food eaten: fats -and proteids by themselves give little, but starch and sugars give -much, for it is found in greatest quantity when these form a part -of the diet. - -=Inorganic Matter and Vegetable Acids.= Water and other inorganic -matter, as the salts of different kinds, and vegetable acids, as -vinegar and lemon-juice, can scarcely be said to be digested. Water -is absorbed, and salts are generally in solution in liquids and are -absorbed with them. - -_Water_ is found in all parts of the body, even in the very solid -portions, as the bones and the enamel of the teeth; it also -constitutes a large proportion of its semisolids and fluids, some -of which are nearly all water, as the perspiration and the tears. - -Water usually is found combined with some of the salts, which seem -to act as regulators of the amount which shall be incorporated -into a tissue. Water is a necessary constituent of all tissues, -giving them a proper consistency and elasticity. The power of -resistance of the bones could not be maintained without it. It is -also valuable as a food solvent, assisting in the liquefying of -different substances, which are taken up by the various absorbent -tubes, conveyed into the blood, and so circulated through the body. -Most of the water of the body is taken into it from without, but it -is also formed in the body by the union of hydrogen and oxygen.[29] - -_Sodium chlorid_, or common salt, is found in the blood and other -fluids, and in the solids of the body, except the enamel of the -teeth; it occurs in greatest proportion in the fluids. The part -that this salt plays in nutrition is not altogether understood. -"Common salt is intermediate in certain general processes, and -does not participate by its elements in the formation of organs" -(Liebig). Salt is intimately associated with water, which plays an -intermediate part also in nutrition, being a bearer or carrier of -nutritious matters through the body. - -Salt seems to regulate the absorption and use of nutrients. It is -found in the greatest quantity in the blood and chyle. It doubtless -facilitates digestion by rendering foods more savory, and thus -causing the digestive juices to flow more freely. Sodium chlorid is -contained in most if not all kinds of food, but not in sufficient -quantity to supply the wants of the body; it therefore becomes a -necessary part of a diet. - -_Potassium chlorid_ has similar uses to sodium chlorid, although -not so generally distributed through the body. It is found in -muscle, liver, milk, chyle, blood, mucus, saliva, bile, gastric -juice, and one or two other fluids. - -_Calcium phosphate_ is found in all the fluids and solids of the -body, held in solution in them by the presence of CO_{2}; both it -and calcium carbonate enter largely into the structure of the bones. - -_Sodium carbonate_, _magnesium phosphate_, and other salts play -important parts in nutrition. - -The various salts influence chemical change as well as act in -rendering food soluble. For example, serum albumen, the chief -proteid of the blood, is insoluble in pure water, but dissolves -easily in water which has a little neutral salts in it.[30] Salts -also help to give firmness to the teeth and bones. - -To recapitulate, food is eaten, digested, assimilated, and consumed -or transformed in the body by a series of highly intricate and -complex processes. It is for the most part used for the different -powers and activities of the system; there is, however, always -a small portion which is rejected as waste. The first change is -in the mouth, where the food is broken up and moistened and the -digestion of starch begins; these changes continue in the stomach -until the whole is reduced to a more or less liquid mass. As the -contents of the stomach pass little by little into the duodenum, -the mass becomes more fluid by the admixture of bile, pancreatic -juice, and intestinal juice, and, as it passes along, absorption -takes place; the mass grows darker in color and less fluid, until -all good material is taken up and only waste left, which is -rejected from the body. - -That portion of the food which is not affected by the single or -united action of the digestive fluids is chiefly of vegetable -origin. Hard seeds, such as corn, and the outer coverings of -grains, such as the husk of oatmeal and those parts which are -composed largely of cellulose, pass through the intestinal canal -without change. - -It may be remarked here that since the digestive mechanism is -so perfect a structure, and will try to dissolve anything given -it, and select only that which is good, why should there be the -necessity of giving any special attention to preparing food before -it is eaten? The answer is that the absorptive vessels cannot take -up what is not there, neither can the digestive organs _supply_ -what the food lacks; therefore, the food must contain in suitable -proportions all substances needed by the body. Also, food which -contains a large proportion of waste, or is difficult of digestion -from over or under cooking, or is unattractive by insipidity or -unsavoriness, overworks these long-suffering organs (the extra -power or force needed being drawn from the blood), and causes the -whole system to suffer. Mal-nutrition, with the long line of evils -which it entails, is the cause, direct or indirect, of most of the -sickness in the world, for it reduces the powers of the system, and -thus enfeebles its resistance to disease. - -=Ideal Diet.= "The ideal diet is that combination of food which, -while imposing the least burden upon the body, supplies it with -exactly sufficient material to meet its wants" (Schuster). - -In general the digestibility of foods may be summarized as follows: - - 1. The protein of ordinary animal foods is very readily and - completely digestible. - - 2. The protein of vegetable foods is much less easily digested - than that of animal foods. - - 3. The fat of animal foods may at times fail of digestion. - - 4. Sugar and starch are easy of digestion. - - 5. Animal foods have the advantage of vegetable foods in that - they contain more protein, and that their protein is more easily - digested. (Atwater.) - -A diet largely of animal food leaves very little undigested matter. -The albuminoids in all cases are completely transformed into -nutriment. Fat enters the blood as a fine emulsion. - -=Absorption.= The general rule of absorption is that food is taken -into the circulation through the porous walls of the alimentary -tract as rapidly as it is completely digested. A large portion of -liquid is immediately absorbed by the blood-vessels of the stomach. - -=Adaptation of Foods to Particular Needs and Conditions.= The -demands of different individuals for nutrients in the daily food -vary with age, occupation, and other conditions of life, including -especially the peculiar characteristics of people. No two persons -are exactly alike in their expenditure of muscular and nervous -energy, so no two will need the same amount or kind of nutriment to -repair the waste. - -A man who digs in a field day after day expends a certain amount -of muscular energy. A lawyer, statesman, or author who works with -his brain instead of his hands uses nervous force, but very little -muscular. Brain and muscle are not nourished exactly by the same -materials; therefore, the demand in the way of nutriment of these -two classes will not be the same. - -The lawyer might find a feast in a box of sardines and some -biscuit, while the field laborer would look with contempt upon -such food, and turn from it to fat pork and cabbage. This is no -mere difference in refinement of taste, but a real and instinctive -difference in the demands of the two constitutions. Sardines supply -to the brain-worker the material he needs, and the pork and cabbage -to the laborer the heat and energy he expends. - -In health the sense of taste is the best guide to what is demanded -by the system, and may as a general rule be followed; but in -sickness that will not do, as the sense of taste in particular is -disturbed by most forms of disease. - -When a patient is very ill only the simplest foods will be used, -and those will be prescribed by the physician; but when a patient -is out of danger, and the necessity for variety comes, then the -nurse, by preparing or suggesting dishes, may do much toward -restoring the person to health and strength. - -As a very large percentage of diseases arise from imperfect -nutrition (as large as eighty per cent. being given by some -writers), the sense of taste is usually very much disturbed and -dulled in illness; therefore those kinds of food which are savory, -and at the same time easy of digestion and nutritious, should -be selected. The savory quality is very important. A person in -health may endure badly cooked food and monotony in diet; a person -recovering from an illness cannot but suffer by it. - -A nurse will find a pleasant field for the exercise of ingenuity -in selecting and preparing such dishes as shall (1) be suited to -the digestive powers of the patient; (2) shall be savory; (3) -shall be sufficiently varied to supply all those materials which -the depleted and exhausted body needs; and (4) shall be in such -judicious quantity as shall increase nutrition, but never overtax -the digestive powers. - -The decision of No. 1 (food suited to the digestive powers) is -the most difficult, and here again the doctor will advise for -particular or peculiar diseases. - -There are certain things which from their natural composition are -more easy of digestion than others, such, for instance, as milk, -eggs slightly coagulated and raw, beef tea with the _juices in -solution_, cocoa milk, and cocoa, coffee, jellies, gruels, porridge -from prepared grains (except oatmeal) when _thoroughly_ cooked, -oysters alive, rice, venison, and tripe. - -No. 2, the _savory_ quality, depends largely upon preparation, and -is under the control of the nurse. A baked potato done in a _hot_ -oven, just to the point, and served immediately, is a delicious -dish; overdone, or done in an oven of low temperature, and served -lukewarm, it is very far from appetizing. A steak, if cut thin, -salted, and broiled slowly, will be hard, dry, and lacking in -flavor, but if it is cut thick, at least an inch and a half, better -two inches, broiled for the first minute over very hot coals, -and then slowly, that the heat may have time to penetrate to the -center, and raise the whole to a temperature sufficiently high to -cook it (about 160° Fahr.) without charring the outside, it will -make a dish both wholesome and savory. - -No. 3, the next consideration, is that of _variety_, and here the -resources and judgment of the person in charge must come to the -front. Only general hints can be given. Endeavor to supply some -protein, some fat, some of the carbohydrates, and some mineral -matter in each meal. Bread, grains, or potatoes will give the -necessary starch. Sugar is usually supplied with drinks. Milk, -eggs, meat, fish, and oysters will give protein; cream, butter, -bacon, and the fat of other meats will furnish fat, and fruits -and green salads give acids and mineral salts. For the latter, -grapes, apples, carrots, onions, dandelions, and lettuce are very -valuable. Grapes are composed of water with salts in solution, and -glucose; both are absorbed with very little outlay from the system. -The others are every-day foods, but science has taught that their -instinctive use in the past has been a wise one. - -No. 4, the _quantity_ of food to offer to a sick person, will -depend upon the individual. Give enough, but rather give to an -invalid _too little_ than too much, especially in the first days -of using solid food; for after some forms of sickness there is -great hunger, and one may injure himself by overeating at such a -time. Furnish a little of each kind of food, but let that little be -of _good quality_ and _perfectly prepared_, so that every morsel -is eatable. It is discouraging to any one to have set before him -food such that much of it must be rejected uneaten. It is very -encouraging, especially to an invalid, to be able to eat all that -is brought him, and for this end cooking and serving are of great -importance. It is necessary to adjust the _proportions_ of the -different kinds of foods to the needs of the consumer, otherwise -all unnecessary material will be rejected from the body as waste, -or will be accumulated in it to interfere with the workings of the -different organs. - -In general it may be said that the needs of no two individuals -can be satisfied with exactly the same diet. In sickness it is -the province of the physician to adjust the food to the condition -of the patient. In convalescence the taste of the individual and -the judgment of the nurse or attendant combined will usually not -fail of good results. If an individual craves a certain dish, and -there is no good reason why he should not have it, by all means -procure it. Let only your judgment act. It may be something that -you personally do not like. That should not influence a decision, -provided, of course, that the food is not unwholesome. - -We should bear in mind that a sick person is not in the same -condition as ourselves, and that no matter how absurd his cravings -may seem, they may be but perfectly natural longings for those -substances which his depleted and exhausted system needs in order -to be restored to health. - - - - -PART II - -RECIPES - - - - -PART II - -RECIPES - - -BEEF-JUICE, BEEF-TEA, AND BROTHS - -=Beef-Juice.= The clear juice of beef, slightly diluted with -water, is always excellent, being especially useful for its strong -flavors. It is like concentrated beef-tea, and is often valuable -in pleasantly exciting the action of the mouth and stomach after a -long illness in which milk has been the chief article of diet. - -Beef-juice is best made by broiling the beef. Prepared in this way, -the flavor is superior, and it is a quick and easy method; but when -a proper broiling fire cannot be had, then it may be made in a -glass jar like beef-tea, except without the water. - -=Beef-Tea= is valuable for its stimulating properties and for the -warmth that it gives; it is also somewhat nutritious, containing as -it does the albuminous juices of the meat, some salts, and the very -important flavors. Beef-tea should be prepared in such a manner -that the juices are held in solution in the water, not coagulated, -to secure which the cooking temperature should never be allowed to -exceed that of 160° Fahr. - -=Broths.= Beef, mutton, and chicken broths are the most desirable -forms of meat drinks for convalescents and those no longer -dangerously ill. By slow cooking at a low temperature at first (the -temperature should not exceed 150° Fahr. for the first hour), the -extractives and albuminous juices are drawn out; then, by boiling, -the gelatin of the bones, flesh, and tissues is dissolved. The -nutritive qualities of these broths may be much increased by the -addition of bread, rice, tapioca, barley, and sago, cooked during -the whole time so that they may be completely dissolved in the -liquid. - - -BEEF-JUICE - -=Bottled.= Select a half pound of well-flavored beef, cut away -everything except the lean fiber, divide it into small pieces, -put them into a glass jar, cover, and place in a deep saucepan -of cold water; heat gradually for one hour, but do not allow the -temperature at any time to exceed 160° Fahr.; then strain out the -juice and press the meat. The liquid should be clear red, not brown -and flaky. Add a little salt, and it is ready to serve. A half -pound will make three or four tablespoons of juice. If it is to be -used constantly, a larger quantity may be made at once, as it will -keep eighteen hours in a refrigerator. Beef-juice may be made into -tea by diluting it with warm water. - -=Broiled.= Prepare a fire of clear glowing coals from which all -blue flames have disappeared. Cut a piece of lean beef (one half -pound from the round or any good lean portion) one and one half -inches thick, and remove from it all membranous tissues and fat. -Put it into a wire broiler, and broil from six to eight minutes -according to the intensity of the fire (see rules for broiling). -The piece when done should be pink and full of juice, not dry and -hard, nor, on the other hand, bluish-red in the middle. More juice -will be obtained if the heat has penetrated to the center than if -the meat is raw. When done, cut it into small pieces and squeeze -out the juice with a meat-press or a lemon-squeezer. Add a little -salt, and it is ready to serve. It should be given in spoonfuls, -either warm or cold. If it is necessary to warm it, put a little -into a cup and place it in a dish of warm water on the fire. Care -should be taken that the water does not become hotter than 160° -Fahr., for beyond that temperature the albuminous juices become -coagulated and appear as brown flakes. - - -BEEF-TEA - -=Bottled.= Select and prepare the meat in the same manner as for -bottled beef-juice, except that for every half pound a cup of water -should be used, poured over after it has been put into the jar. -The liquid thus obtained will resemble beef-juice in every respect -except in strength. Serve as a drink in a red wine-glass or a china -cup. - -=With Hydrochloric Acid.= Hydrochloric acid acts upon the fibers of -meat in such a way that they become more easy of digestion. From -a given portion of meat much more nutriment is extracted by the -use of hydrochloric acid than without it; beef-tea made with it -is recommended by physicians as the most easily absorbed form of -beef drink, and for feeble children and patients much weakened by -sickness it is especially useful. - -=To Prepare.= Select a half pound of good beef; remove from it -everything that is not clear meat,--that is, bone, gristle, -connective tissue, and fat; chop it fine on a meat-board or in a -chopping-tray. Put into a bowl one cup of water and five drops of -dilute hydrochloric acid; stir into this the chopped meat, and set -it in a refrigerator or any cool place for two hours to digest. -Then strain, flavor with salt, and serve cold in a red wine-glass. - -Should there be any objection to the taste or color, heat the tea -until it steams and changes to a brownish hue; do not strain out -the flakes of coagulated albumen and fibrin which appear, for they -are the most nutritious portion of the tea. - -Chemically pure hydrochloric acid may be obtained of a druggist (it -is usually marked C. P.); from it a diluted solution may be made by -mixing it in the proportion of five and one half fluid ounces to -fourteen ounces of water. - - -BEEF BROTH - -Beef broth is the juice of beef extracted by the long application -of heat in connection with some solvent, usually water. - -To make beef broth, allow one pound of meat, or meat and bone, to -every quart of water. Wash the meat with a cloth in cold water -until it is clean, or wipe it with a wet cloth if it is apparently -fresh cut; divide it into small pieces (half-inch cubes) in -order to expose as great an extent of surface as possible to the -dissolving action of the water. Put it into a granite-ware kettle -with _cold_ water, and cook it at a low temperature for two hours, -then boil it for two hours to dissolve the gelatin. Remove it from -the fire, and strain it, using a strainer so coarse that the flakes -of albumen may go through (an ordinary wire strainer will do). Skim -as much fat as possible from the surface with a spoon, and then -remove the remaining small particles with a sheet of clean paper -(unsized is best) drawn over the surface. Season the broth with -salt and pepper, and serve it very hot. If not needed at once, it -may be set away to cool, when the fat will rise to the top, and -form into a cake which may be lifted off. - -=With Herbs.= Make a broth according to the above rule, and flavor -it with bay-leaves, mint, or with a bouquet of sweet herbs in the -proportion of one teaspoon to a quart of liquid. - -=With Grains.= One tablespoon of any of the following grains--rice, -barley, oatmeal, or wheat--to one quart of liquid, gives a pleasant -consistency and flavor to beef broth. Tapioca, sago, cold dry -toast, or cuttings of bread may also be used. They should be put in -when the broth is first set on the fire to cook, that they may be -completely dissolved in the liquid. - -=With Vegetables.= Celery, onion, carrot, turnip, or shredded -cabbage may be used in broth in the proportion of one tablespoon to -a quart. Cabbage is better in combination with onion than alone. - - -BROTH MADE FROM BEEFSTEAK - -(A QUICK METHOD) - -Scrape the pulp from a pound of round or of sirloin steak, or -mince the meat in a chopping-tray until it is fine; put it into a -saucepan with just enough cold water to cover it, and let it come -to the boiling-point slowly; then simmer it for fifteen minutes -(better half an hour if there is time). Strain it, take off the fat -with a sheet of paper, and season it with salt. This is a somewhat -expensive but savory broth, and may easily be made on a gas or -alcohol stove. - -A beef panada may be made by leaving the pulp in the broth and -adding a little rolled cracker-crumbs or some bread softened and -squeezed through a strainer. - - -SCOTCH BEEF BROTH - -Put into a granite stew-pan a pint of prepared beef broth,--that -is, broth which has been strained, cleared of fat, and seasoned. -Add to it one tablespoon of rolled oats, or of ordinary oatmeal, -and simmer it gently until the oatmeal is soft and jelly-like. The -time required will be about two hours. Then strain it, and serve -very hot. This makes a good dish for an invalid for whom oatmeal -has not been forbidden. If the broth is reduced by the boiling, add -enough water to restore the pint. - - -CHICKEN BROTH - -Chicken broth should be made with fowl, not with young chicken; a -good one weighing three pounds will make three pints of broth. - -=To Prepare.= Singe the chicken with a piece of blazing newspaper -to burn off the long hairs; remove all refuse or that which is not -clear flesh, viz., pin-feathers, oil-bag, crop, lungs, kidneys, -and, of course, the entrails if the fowl is not already drawn. If -the pipes in the neck are not all drawn out with the crop, they -may be easily taken away when the fowl is cut up. Scrub it well in -cold water, and then disjoint and cut it into small pieces; wash -each piece thoroughly, retaining the skin if it is clear and free -from pin-feathers, otherwise removing it. Put the chicken into cold -water and simmer it for two hours, then boil it for two hours. -Finally strain it and remove the fat, season it with salt and a bit -of white pepper, and serve very hot in pretty china cups, with or -without a lunch-cracker or a bit of dry toast. - -=With Herbs.= Parsley, bay-leaves, sage, thyme, or a bouquet -of sweet herbs will give a pleasant flavor to chicken broth. A -teaspoon to a pint is the right proportion. - -=With Grains or Vegetables.= Rice may be used to advantage in -chicken broth, and also pearl-barley, sago, tapioca, and bread. -These are among the best additions of the kind that can be made, -for with them one is able to preserve the light color so desirable -in chicken broth. Onion, celery, and parsley in the proportion -of one teaspoon to a pint are suitable vegetables. Celery is -especially nice. - - -MUTTON BROTH - -One pound of mutton from the neck, or, better, the loin, one quart -of cold water, and one teaspoon of chopped onion will be needed for -this broth. Remove from the mutton the tough skin, the fat, and all -membranes, and cut the meat into small pieces; break the bone, and -if it be a part of the spinal column, take out the spinal cord. Put -the pieces of meat, the onion, and the water into a saucepan, and -simmer them together for three hours; then strain out the meat, dip -off the fat from the broth with a spoon, and remove the remaining -small particles with paper; season it with salt and white pepper. -Serve hot in a pretty cup, with a toasted cracker. - -A little bunch of mint, a bouquet of herbs, a few bay-leaves, or -a sprinkle of Cayenne pepper or curry-powder will vary the broth -agreeably. Pearl-barley is a particularly good addition to make, or -rice may be used in the proportion of one teaspoon to a pint. - - -OYSTER-TEA. No. 1 - -Select eight fresh oysters, chop them fine in a chopping-tray, -and turn them into a saucepan with a cup of cold water; set -the saucepan on the fire, and let the water come slowly to the -boiling-point, then simmer for five minutes; strain the liquid into -a bowl, flavor it with half a saltspoon of salt, and serve hot with -or without a small piece of dry toast, or a toasted cream-cracker. - - -OYSTER-TEA. No. 2 - -Put a dozen large oysters with their liquor into a stew-pan; simmer -for five minutes. Then strain the liquor, leaving out the oysters, -and add to it one half cup of milk; set it back on the stove and -heat it just to the boiling-point. Flavor with a sprinkle of white -pepper and half a saltspoon of salt. Or make it according to rule -No. 1, using milk instead of water. - - -CLAM BROTH - -Six large clams in their shells and a cup of water will be needed -for this broth. Wash the clams thoroughly with a brush, and place -them with the water in a kettle over the fire. The broth is simply -the juice of the clams with the water boiled for a minute. It does -not require seasoning, as clam-juice is usually salt enough. As -soon as the shells open, the broth is done. - -This broth and oyster-tea No. 1 are good in cases of nausea, and -will be retained on the stomach when almost everything else is -rejected. - - - - -GRUELS - - -Gruels are cooked mixtures of grain or flour, with water, or -with water and milk. They are best made with milk as a part of -the liquid, but care must be taken not to put it into the gruel -until the grain has been thoroughly cooked in water, and after -that the mixture should not be allowed to boil, as so high a -temperature changes the flavor and composition of the milk, and -renders it a less desirable food than if it were cooked at a lower -temperature,--for instance, 190° or 200° Fahr. - -The largest ingredient of grains is starch, which is not easily -digested unless well cooked; therefore the time for boiling gruels -should be conscientiously kept by the clock. Should the water -evaporate, restore to the original quantity before putting in the -milk, which should be hot, though not _boiling_. It may, however, -come just to the boiling-point without any special injury. - -Gruels served with a cream- or a banquet-cracker or a square of -toasted bread are excellent for a convalescent's lunch. They -may be varied with flavorings of cinnamon, nutmeg, almond, or a -little grated lemon-peel, and sugar. Sugar is mentioned with great -hesitancy, for a sweet gruel is an abomination, and yet a gruel -with a _very little_ sugar has a pleasanter flavor than one without -any. - -Lacking color, gruels may be made attractive by serving them -in dainty-hued china. Gruels should be drunk slowly, that the -starch, which is partially digested by the action of saliva, may be -thoroughly mixed with it before it is swallowed. - - -BARLEY GRUEL - - 1 Tablespoon of Robinson's barley-flour. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the flour, salt, and sugar together with a little cold water, -pour on the boiling water, and boil ten minutes; then add the milk, -bring just to the boiling-point, strain, and serve very hot. This -gruel may be made without the milk, but with a pint instead of a -cup of water. Barley is a nutritious grain, rich in phosphates and -protein. - - -ARROWROOT GRUEL - - 1 Tablespoon of arrowroot. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of hot water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Wet the arrowroot with the sugar and salt in two tablespoons of -cold water, then pour on the _hot_ water, stirring constantly. Boil -it for twenty minutes, then add the milk and bring just to the -boiling-point. Strain it, and immediately serve. - -Arrowroot is almost pure starch. Its grains burst at 140° Fahr.; -therefore, if _boiling_ water be poured upon it, it will form into -lumps which will have to be strained out, and thus a part of the -material will be lost; hence the necessity of wetting it in cold -water to reduce the temperature so that it may be stirred smooth -before the lumps form. - -Milk is changed by long boiling, and loses some of its agreeable -taste; it is better, therefore, not to put the milk into the gruel -until after the flour has been thoroughly cooked in the water, thus -preserving its natural flavor. - -Arrowroot gruel may be flavored with cinnamon by boiling a half -square inch of cinnamon bark in the water with which the gruel is -made. Nutmeg, lemon juice or peel, and sherry wine may also be -used; but the sherry should be avoided unless the gruel is to be -served cold. - - -OATMEAL GRUEL FROM POUNDED GRAIN - -Pound in a mortar or roll on a bread-board one cup of oatmeal -until it is floury. Put it into a bowl, and fill the bowl with -cold water; stir well and let it settle for a few seconds; then -pour off the milky-looking water into a saucepan, fill again, mix -and pour off the water, and so continue until the water no longer -appears white, being careful at each pouring not to allow the brown -cortex of the grain or any of the coarse portions to get out of the -bowl; then boil the water for half an hour. For every pint put in a -saltspoon of salt and half a cup of sweet cream, or, if that is not -at hand, the same quantity of milk. Beef broth or wine may be used -instead of cream. This is the best way to make oatmeal gruel, for -by this method the coarse and irritating hulls are excluded, while -the good flavor and nutritious properties are preserved. - - -OATMEAL GRUEL (Plain) - - 2 Tablespoons of oatmeal (rolled oats). - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cupful of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the oatmeal, salt, and sugar together, and pour on the boiling -water. Cook it in a saucepan for thirty minutes, or in a double -boiler two hours; then strain it through a fine wire strainer to -remove the hulls, put it again on the stove, add the milk, and -allow it to heat just to the boiling-point. Serve it hot. Good -oatmeal gruel may be made from cold porridge, by adding water, -milk, and a little sugar and straining it, or it may be served -unstrained. Many like it so, and it makes an excellent lunch. - - -FLOUR GRUEL - - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon. - -Mix the flour, salt, and sugar, as for other gruels, into a paste -with a little cold water; add the piece of cinnamon and the hot -water; boil it for twenty minutes, slowly, so that it may not -stick to the bottom of the pan and burn; then put in the milk -and bring to the boiling-point. Strain it, and serve it very -hot. If the gruel is intended for a patient with fever, a little -lemon-juice is good in place of the cinnamon. Other flavors may -also be used, such as nutmeg, almond, and vanilla. - - -CRACKER GRUEL - - 2 Tablespoons of cracker-crumbs. - 1 Scant saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -To make the cracker-crumbs, roll some crackers on a board until -they are fine. Bent's water-crackers are good, cream-crackers -better; mix the salt and sugar with the crumbs, pour on the boiling -water, put in the milk, and simmer it for two minutes. The gruel -does not need long cooking, for the cracker-crumbs are already -thoroughly cooked. Do not strain it. - - -FARINA GRUEL - -Farina is a grain which is carefully prepared from the nitrogenous -part of selected wheat, and is therefore a better nutrient than -rice-flour or arrowroot. - - 1 Tablespoon of Hecker's farina. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the grain, salt, and sugar; pour on the boiling water, and -cook ten minutes; then put in the milk, boil for a minute, and it -is ready to serve. Farina, being partially prepared, does not need -long cooking. - - -IMPERIAL GRANUM - -Imperial Granum is a dainty, highly nutritious preparation of -wheat, very useful for invalids and children. - - 1 Tablespoon of Granum. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the meal, salt, and sugar in a saucepan, pour on the boiling -water, and cook ten minutes; then add the milk, and let it again -reach the boiling-point, when it is ready to serve. - -Mush and porridge may also be made from this grain for the use -of children, for whom it is an excellent food, being similar to -farina, but more delicate and easier of digestion. Imperial Granum -may be obtained at any pharmacy. - - -RACAHOUT DES ARABES - - 1 Tablespoon of Racahout. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Cup of hot water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Put the Racahout and salt into a saucepan, mix it into a paste with -a little cold water, and then pour on the hot water; simmer for -ten minutes. Have the milk scalding hot in another pan, and when -the gruel has cooked the full time pour it in. Strain and serve. - -Racahout is a compound consisting principally of sugar, arrowroot, -rice-flour, and French chocolate. It makes a most appetizing gruel, -and is quite nutritious. _Racahout des Arabes_ is imported largely -from France. It may be obtained at any first-class grocery store. - - -INDIAN-MEAL GRUEL - - 2 Tablespoons of corn-meal. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Quart of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the corn-meal, flour, salt, and sugar into a thin paste with -cold water, and pour into it the boiling water. Cook it in a double -boiler for three hours. No less time than that will cook the -corn-meal thoroughly. Then add the milk, and it is ready to serve. - -Use the fine granulated meal which comes in paste-board packages, -prepared for the table, and may be bought of almost any grocer. - - - - -MUSH AND PORRIDGE - - -_Mush_ is meal or grain cooked in water to the consistency of -rather thin pudding. _Porridge_ is like mush, only thinner. The -most important point connected with the preparation of these is -thoroughness in the cooking. Made as they generally are of coarsely -ground or of rolled grains, they need long boiling to soften the -cellulose and to cook the starch properly. - -=Oatmeal.= Oatmeal should be cooked for at least three hours in -a double boiler. It is at its best prepared the day before it is -needed, and then reheated as it is wanted. If it is done in this -way, the flavor is fine, and there is no danger that the grains -will be hard. When taken from the kettle, the oatmeal should be of -the consistency to pour, and on cooling it ought to form into a -tender, jelly-like pudding. Sometimes oatmeal is cooked so that the -grains are whole and separate, but it is not easily digested so, -and lacks the delicious flavor which long cooking gives. - -Oatmeal for those for whom there is no objection to its use is a -valuable nutrient, furnishing more for the money than almost any -other food.[31] - -=Indian Meal.= Indian meal also requires many hours' cooking. Even -if it be in a single vessel and actually boiled, not less than an -hour and a half of exposure to heat is safe. - -=Farina.= Farina having been already subjected to a high degree of -heat in its preparation, is thereby partially cooked, and does not -require as long a time as the raw grains. - -Mushes and porridges made from oatmeal, cracked wheat, or any grain -on which the tough outside covering remains, are to be avoided -in all cases of irritation or disease of the alimentary canal, -particularly in diseases of the intestines, for the hard hulls are -very irritating to the delicate lining membranes. Young children -have exceedingly delicate digestive powers, and are often made ill -by coarse, starchy food. For them it is always safest to use the -prepared grains, such as farina, granula, and Imperial Granum. - -All of the grains given in these recipes may be made into -_porridges_ by following the rules given for mushes, except that -a larger proportion of water should be used. Porridges are like -mushes, only thinner. - - -OATMEAL MUSH - - ½ Cup of rolled oats, or ½ cup of granulated oatmeal. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of boiling water. - -Pick over the oatmeal, and put it into a double boiler with the -salt. Pour on the boiling water, place the upper vessel of the -boiler on the stove, and boil two minutes. This effectually starts -the cooking. Then put the upper vessel into the lower, and cook for -five hours. The water in the under boiler should _boil_ during -this time, and will occasionally need replenishing. Serve the mush -steaming hot with sugar and cream, and baked apples, apple sauce, -or tart jelly if one is fond of something acid. - -If rolled oats be used, three hours are sufficient to cook it, but -both kinds are best cooked the day before they are needed, as long -cooking improves rather than injures the grain. - - -FARINA - -Farina being a prepared grain and free from hulls and waste, so -large a proportion will not be required to make a mush as of the -raw grains. - - 3 Tablespoons of farina. - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of boiling water. - -Cook the mixture in a saucepan for twenty minutes after it actually -boils, or in a double boiler for one hour. This is a delicious food -for children, served with cream, or milk, and sugar. - - -WHEAT GERM - -Wheat germ is a delicate and nutritious preparation of wheat. It is -made so that by boiling for a short time it is ready for the table, -and makes a delicious breakfast dish. - - ½ Cup of germ. - ½ Teaspoonful of salt. - 1½ Cups of boiling water. - -Boil in a saucepan without a cover for half an hour, or cook in a -double boiler twice as long. The directions on the packages give a -shorter time, but it is extremely doubtful whether this grain can -be wholesome with the few minutes' cooking usually advised. - - -IMPERIAL GRANUM - -Imperial Granum, cooked according to the above rule, is always a -wholesome and safe dish for children; or it may be made into a very -thin gruel, and used as a drink instead of water. - - -GRANULA - -Granula is a breakfast grain which has been partially prepared -by dry heat, and is almost cooked enough to use. It is sometimes -recommended that it be prepared by simply boiling a minute in milk. -It is, however, both softened and improved in flavor by boiling -from ten to fifteen minutes in one and one half times its bulk of -water, with salt in the proportion of a teaspoon to a cup of grain. - - -CRACKED OR ROLLED WHEAT - - 1 Cup of cracked wheat. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 3 Cups of water. - -Pick over the wheat, to remove any foreign substance that may be -in it. Put it with the salt and the water (boiling) into a double -boiler, and cook for two hours. Serve with cream and sugar, either -hot or cold. If it is desirable to have it cold, it may be molded -in cups or small round jelly-molds. - - -INDIAN-MEAL MUSH - - 1 Cup of corn-meal. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Quart of boiling water. - -No. 1. Make the corn-meal and salt into a paste with a little cold -water, then pour in the boiling water and cook it in a double -boiler for five hours. - -No. 2. Put the salt into the water, and when the water reaches -the boiling-point stir in the dry meal by taking a handful and -sprinkling it slowly through the fingers. Use a wooden spoon -for stirring. Boil an hour and a half. Or, wet the meal in a -little cold water, and pour over it the boiling water. The most -important point is thoroughness in the cooking, which should be -done carefully so that the pudding may not burn on the bottom of -the dish. If the temperature be regulated so that it just simmers, -there will be little danger of this. Serve with maple syrup, or -with cream. - - -HOMINY MUSH - - 1 Cup of hominy. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1¼ Quarts of water. - -Put all together in a double boiler, and cook for three hours. Add -more water if the mush seems stiff and thick; all preparations -of corn absorb a great deal in cooking, and hominy usually needs -a little more than four times its bulk. Hominy is exceedingly -indigestible unless well cooked, but sweet and nutritious when -subjected to a high temperature for a long time. - - - - -DRINKS - - -EGG-NOG - -Break into a bowl one egg, add to it a saltspoon of salt and two -teaspoons of sugar; beat it until it is light but not foamy; then -add one cup of _slightly warm_ milk--that is, milk from which the -chill has been taken (for it is not well to use that which is -ice-cold)--and one or two tablespoons of French brandy; mix and -strain it into a tall slender glass, and serve at once. Egg-nog -should not be allowed to stand after it is made, for both the egg -and the milk lose some of their freshness by exposure to the air. - - -MILK-PUNCH - - 1 Cup of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of brandy. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - A little grated nutmeg. - -Sweeten the milk with the sugar, stir into it the brandy, and mix -thoroughly by pouring from one glass to another. Then grate a bit -of nutmeg over the top. - -Milk-punch is conveniently made with two tin cups; the mouth of one -should be smaller than the mouth of the other, so that the one will -fit into the other. In these the milk should be shaken back and -forth until a froth is formed. This does not add materially to the -taste, but rather to the appearance, and thoroughly mixes in the -sugar and brandy. - - -WINE WHEY - -Warm one cup of milk to a little more than blood-heat, or 100° -Fahr., then pour into it one half cup of sherry wine. The acid and -alcohol of the wine will in a few minutes coagulate the albumen, -which may be separated from the whey by straining. Do not squeeze -the curd through the strainer, but let the liquid drip until it is -all out. If it is necessary to make the whey quickly, heat the milk -to the boiling-point before adding the wine. - - -WINE WHEY WITH RENNET - -(SWEET WHEY) - - 1 Pint of milk heated to 100° Fahr. - 1 Teaspoon of prepared rennet. - 2 Tablespoons of wine. - -Stir the rennet and wine into the milk quickly, so that the wine -may not curdle the milk in blotches. Let it stand in a warm -place (on the stove-hearth, for instance) for half an hour, and -then separate the curd from the whey by straining. This whey is -excellent for children with delicate digestion who need a little -stimulant. It is very good also as a drink for invalids at any time. - -Whey is the water of milk with the sugar and various salts of the -milk in solution in it. The sugar furnishes some nutriment, and -the salts supply some of the mineral matter needed in the body. - -Whey may also be made with vinegar or lemon-juice. These acids will -act more quickly when the milk is warmed before they are added. - - -LEMONADE - - 1 Lemon. - 1½ Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - -Wash and wipe a lemon, cut a very thin slice from the middle, and -squeeze the rest into a bowl; then put in the sugar, pour on the -boiling water, and strain it. When it has become cold, serve it in -a tumbler with the slice of lemon floating on the top. - -Lemonade has a better flavor when made with boiling water, though -it may be made with cold water. A few strawberries or raspberries -may be put in, instead of the slice of lemon; or it may be colored -pink with a little grape-jelly or carmine, and served with a straw. - - -MILK LEMONADE - - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice. - ¼ Cup of sherry. - 1¼ Cups of cold milk. - -Pour the boiling water over the sugar, and then put in the -lemon-juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar dissolves, add the -cold milk, and stir again until the milk curdles, then strain -through a jelly-bag or napkin. - -This is a cool and refreshing drink, especially for children. - - -BRANDY-MILK WITH EGG - -Heat some milk in a granite saucepan for half an hour to sterilize -it, but do not let it boil; then pour it into a pitcher, and set -it aside to cool. When the milk is cold, beat one egg with one -tablespoon of sugar until the sugar is well mixed; add to it two -tablespoons of brandy and a cup of the cold milk. Strain it into a -tall slender glass, and serve at once. - -Heating the milk renders it perfectly wholesome and much safer for -an invalid than raw milk, and also improves the flavor of the drink. - - -SHERRY AND EGG - -Break an egg into a bowl, and put in a teaspoon of sugar; beat the -two together until the sugar is thoroughly mixed with the egg, -but not enough to make the egg froth; to this add two tablespoons -of sherry wine, and a fourth of a cup of cold water, mixing them -thoroughly. Strain all into a tumbler, and serve immediately. - - -STERILIZED MILK - -The change which takes place in milk known as "souring" is caused -by the growth of micro-organisms in it, which are killed by -heat; therefore, to prevent souring, milk must be subjected to a -temperature sufficiently high to insure their destruction. Some -micro-organisms are killed at 136° Fahr., but this temperature -cannot be said to destroy, or to inhibit the growth of all bacteria -commonly found in milk. We must endeavor then to use such a degree -of heat as shall accomplish this without seriously injuring the -natural properties and flavors of the liquid. Authorities vary on -this point, some putting the temperature as high as 212° Fahr., and -others as low as 167° Fahr. The author has found, in an experience -of two years in sterilizing milk every day, that 190° Fahr. is, -under ordinary circumstances, a safe and easily practicable -temperature to employ. With this degree of heat the flavor of the -milk is excellent. - -The process is as follows: The milk is put into clean glass flasks -or bottles with small mouths which are stoppered with plugs of -cotton batting, or, as it is sometimes called, "cotton-wool." These -are placed in a wire basket, and the basket immersed in a kettle -of warm water, the temperature of which is not allowed to exceed -190° Fahr. As soon as the heat is at or near that point the time -is marked, and the milk is kept at that temperature for one hour. -Then the bottles are removed, cooled quickly, and placed in the -refrigerator. If it is desirable to keep the milk an indefinite -time, the process should be repeated the second day, and again the -third day, a third sterilization being necessary to insure success, -since _spores_ of organisms may escape the first and even the -second heating. - -For all ordinary household purposes, however, and as a safe -food for the sick, heating once is all that is necessary. Milk -thus treated will keep in the temperature of an ordinary room, -even in warm weather, from twenty to thirty hours. By using the -small-mouthed flasks very little scum is formed, and thus the -valuable albuminous portion is preserved in the milk. Also, a -small quantity at a time may be used without disturbing the rest. - -=To Sterilize for Family Use.= Milk may also be preserved by open -sterilization in a saucepan or kettle by the following simple -process: Heat the milk until a scum forms over it; keep it at, -or near, the temperature it then has for one hour, then pour it -into a thoroughly washed and scalded pitcher, cool it, and put it -into a refrigerator or some cool place. It will remain sweet for -twenty-four hours, and, unless the weather be very warm, it will -be good at the end of thirty-six hours. Should it sour before the -end of twenty-four hours, it indicates that the temperature was too -low, or the time of exposure to the heat too short. A chemist's -thermometer costs but little, and will be found very useful for -testing milk. It should be borne in mind, in this connection, that -milk is not rendered _absolutely_ sterile,--that is, free from all -possible organisms and spores which may occur in it,--except at a -temperature of at least 212° Fahr., or even higher. - -Sterilized milk diluted with water is a nutritious and wholesome -drink for the sick. Of course the water with which it is diluted -should be boiled.[32] - -In hospital practice nurses have told me that patients suffering -from sleeplessness will often fall into quiet slumber after -drinking hot milk, and that not infrequently the ordered hypodermic -of morphine is not needed when hot milk is used. - - -MILK AND SELTZER - -Mix equal quantities of sterilized milk and seltzer-water. Drink -immediately. - - -MILK AND SODA-WATER - -Into a glass half full of fresh milk put an equal quantity of -soda-water. Use at once. This is an agreeable way to take milk, and -is a nutritious and refreshing drink. - - -TOAST-WATER - -Cut three slices of bread each a third of an inch thick, and toast -them slowly until very brown and dry throughout; break them into -small pieces, put them into a bowl with a pint of cold water, and -set aside to soak for an hour; at the end of that time turn it into -a strainer or napkin, and squeeze out the liquid with the back of a -spoon. To the water thus obtained add a little cream and sugar, and -serve it cold in a tumbler. It may also be served without the cream. - - -BARLEY-WATER - - 1 Tablespoon of barley flour. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice. - 1 Quart of water. - -Boil the flour, water, and sugar together fifteen minutes, then add -the lemon-juice, and strain. - -Tamarinds may be used instead of lemon-juice for flavor--two or -three boiled with the water. Barley-water may also be made by -boiling two tablespoons of barley (the grain) in a quart of water -for one hour. - - -RICE-WATER - -Pick over and wash two tablespoons of rice; put it into a granite -saucepan with a quart of boiling water; simmer it for two hours, -when the rice should be softened and partially dissolved; then -strain the liquid through a fine wire strainer into a bowl or -pitcher, add to it a saltspoon of salt, and serve it either warm or -cold. - -If a patient may take or needs stimulants, two tablespoons of -sherry or of port wine is an agreeable addition, especially if the -drink be taken cold. - - -FRUIT-SODA. No. 1 - -=From Strawberries.= Remove the stems from one quart of -strawberries, and pick them over carefully. Wash them under a -stream of water in a colander, gently, so that they may not be -crushed; then put them into a double boiler with half their bulk -of sugar, and heat for an hour or more until the berries are soft. -When this is accomplished, turn them into a jelly-bag and drain -until the juice has completely oozed out, which will require two or -more hours. Do not squeeze them. Then put the juice into a saucepan -and, returning to the fire, heat it to a temperature of 200° Fahr., -and keep it at that temperature for one hour. If a thermometer is -not at hand, heat the juice until it steams a little, but do not -let it boil, for the flavor is not nearly so delicate with the high -temperature. Then it may be canned or bottled for future use. If -the bottle be scalded and carefully sealed as in preserving fruits, -the juice will keep indefinitely. - -The length of time that it remains at 200° is important, as it is -a process of sterilization which takes place, and the temperature -must be maintained for a given time or the desired result will not -be accomplished. The condition of the bottle also must be carefully -considered, as the thorough cleaning and scalding is for the -purpose of rendering it sterile. This is most easily and thoroughly -done by filling the bottle with hot water and placing it in a -kettle of boiling water for half an hour. - -=To Use.= Dilute the juice with _cool_ water (not iced water) or -soda-water in the proportion of one half juice to one half water. - -=From Oranges.= The oranges should be peeled and the seeds removed, -and then treated in the same way as the strawberries in the -preceding rule, except that to every quart of fruit the juice of -two lemons should be added. - -=From Raspberries.= Employ the same method as for strawberries. - -=From Currants.= The same as for strawberries, except that three -fourths of the bulk of the fruit of sugar should be used instead of -one half. - -=With Other Fruits.= Other fruits, such as apricots, peaches, -cranberries, apples, etc., may be used for syrups, varying the -water and sugar according to the kind of fruit used. Apples, -apricots, and peaches will require half their bulk of water. - - -FRUIT-SODA. No. 2 - -Sprinkle two cups of sugar over one box of ripe strawberries, -which, of course, have been hulled and washed, and set them away -for three hours, or until the juice has oozed out of the fruit and -made a thick syrup with the sugar. Strain the juice, bottle it, and -put it in a cool place. It will keep for three days. - -=To Use.= Pour one third of a cup into a tumbler, add two -tablespoons of cream, and fill the tumbler with soda-water from a -siphon. This makes a delicious and cooling drink. - -Oranges, raspberries, currants, or any other juicy fruit may be -used for syrup, which is very palatable when made from fresh -uncooked fruits. These syrups are useful not only for drinks, but -for flavoring ice-creams and pudding sauces. - - -COFFEE SYRUP - -Make some strong coffee with two tablespoons of the ground berry -(Mocha and Java mixed), a little white of egg, and one cup of -boiling water. Simmer together one cup of sugar and one third of a -cup of water for five minutes, then add to it one half of a cup of -the coffee. Strain and bottle it for use. This is delicious with -soda-water and cream. - - -VANILLA SYRUP - -Make a sugar syrup by boiling together one cup of sugar and one -half of a cup of water for five minutes. Add to it two or three -tablespoons of vanilla extract. It is to be used, like coffee -syrup, with soda-water and sweet cream. - - -OTHER SYRUPS - -A variety of syrups may be made, besides those mentioned, by using -a sugar syrup like that in the above recipe, and flavoring it with -cinnamon, lemon, almond, rose-water, chocolate, etc. All of the -cooked syrups will keep indefinitely. - - -GRAPE JUICE - -Grape juice mixed with cold water or with soda-water makes a -pleasant and invigorating drink for a sick person. The best -grapes for the purpose are the blue varieties, such as Isabellas, -Concords, or Black Hamburgs. - -=To Make a Bottle of Juice.= Pick over (and wash if they need it) -one quart of grapes. Remove them from the stems, and put them into -a double boiler with just enough cold water to cover them. Heat -them slowly until the juice oozes out and the fruit becomes soft, -which will take two or three hours. Then turn the fruit into a -jelly-bag made like a long pointed pocket, draw the string at the -top and hang it to drain. Do not squeeze or press the bag, and -use only the juice which drips out, which will practically be all -that the grapes contain. To this add one fourth of the quantity of -sugar--that is, if there is a quart of juice, put in one cup of -sugar--and heat it until it is quite hot, or to a temperature of -200° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature for one hour, but do -not let it boil. Then pour it into thoroughly cleaned and scalded -hot bottles,--in other words, those which are sterile. Seal the -bottles with wax, and set them away in a cool place. - -=To Use.= Mix equal quantities of juice and cold water, and serve -at once. - - -FLAXSEED TEA WITH LEMON - - 1 Tablespoon of flaxseed. - 1 Pint of water. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - Juice of one lemon. - -Boil the flaxseed one hour in the water; strain it, and add the -lemon-juice and sugar. The flaxseed should be examined for little -black grains which often occur in it, and which injure the delicate -flavor of the drink. Serve this tea either cold or warm. It is -excellent for croup, or for any irritated condition of the throat -or lungs. - - -APPLE TEA - -Wash and wipe a good sour apple, cut it into small pieces, and boil -it in a cup of water until it is soft. Then strain the water into a -bowl, add a bit of sugar, and serve when cold. - -If the apple is of good flavor this is a pleasant drink, and may be -given to fever patients, children with measles, or whenever there -is much thirst. - - -KUMISS - - 1 Quart of perfectly fresh milk. - ⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - -Dissolve the yeast in a little water and mix it with the sugar -and milk. Put the mixture into strong bottles,--beer-bottles -are good,--cork them with tightly fitting stoppers, and tie -down securely with stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full -minute to mix thoroughly the ingredients, then place them on -end in a refrigerator, or some equally cool place, to ferment -slowly. At the end of three days lay the bottles on their sides; -turn them occasionally. Five days will be required to perfect -the fermentation, and then kumiss is at its best. It will keep -indefinitely in a refrigerator. - -=To Make Sweet Kumiss.= Ferment the kumiss mixture for twelve hours -in a temperature of 70° Fahr.,--that is, the same degree of heat -that is required for raising bread. - -Do not attempt to open a bottle of kumiss without a champagne-tap, -for the carbonic acid generated in the fermenting liquid has -enormous expansive force, and will throw the contents all over the -room if the bottle be opened in the ordinary way. - -In an emergency, however, the cork may be punctured with a stout -needle to let the gas escape. The mouth of the bottle may then be -held in a large bowl or dish and the cords cut, when the kumiss -will rush out, usually, however, without so much force but that it -may nearly all be caught. It should look like thick, foamy cream. - -Kumiss is highly recommended as an article of sick diet, being -especially valuable for many forms of indigestion and for nausea. -Often it will be retained in the stomach when almost anything else -would be rejected. It is partially predigested milk, containing -carbonic acid and a little alcohol, both of which have a tonic -effect. - -True kumiss is an Eastern product made from mare's milk, but in -this country cow's milk is always employed. Sometimes the term -_kefer_ is given to it, to distinguish it from that made from -mare's milk. It may be obtained in nearly all pharmacies, but a -better quality can be made at home at slight expense. - -Sometimes patients will object to taking kumiss, on account of -the odor, which is not pleasant to every one, but it leaves a -peculiarly agreeable after-taste in the mouth, and one who has once -taken a glass of it will seldom refuse a second offer. The kumiss -of commerce sold under the name of "Cream Koumyss" is an excellent -preparation. - - -THE COCOA-BEAN - -The cocoa-bean is a product of the tropics. It is dried, roasted -like coffee, and cracked, or ground into powder, for use. It is one -of our best foods, containing in good proportions nearly all the -elements necessary to nourish the body. - -There are many preparations of the bean. The most common, and -those usually found in our markets, are _shells_, _cracked cocoa_, -_chocolate_, and _various forms of powder_. - -_Shells_ are the outer husk or covering of the bean, and from them -a delicate drink may be made with long, slow boiling. - -_Cracked cocoa_, or _cocoa-nibs_ as it is sometimes called, is made -by breaking the beans into small pieces. - -_Chocolate_ is prepared by grinding the cocoa-bean into powder, -mixing it with sugar, and molding it into blocks. There is some -temptation on the part of manufacturers to substitute foreign fats, -corn-starch, and other cheap materials for the natural ingredients -of the bean in the making of chocolate. - -The powdered forms of cocoa generally contain a good percentage -of the bean except the fat, which is always extracted. All Dutch -brands are excellent. Weight for weight, they cost more than some -other kinds, but so much less is needed to make a cup of drink that -they are really the least expensive. - - -COCOA - - ½ Teaspoon of any Dutch cocoa. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of boiling milk. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - -Put the cocoa and sugar into a saucepan, and pour in the boiling -water; cook for two minutes, then add the milk, and let it heat -just to the boiling-point. When most other brands are used, as a -general thing a larger proportion of powder will be necessary. It -is therefore important to experiment with each until it is found -what amount will make a drink equal in strength to the above. This -valuable food is often made so strong that ill persons cannot -digest it. - - -COCOA-SHELLS - -Put a tablespoon of shells into a pint of water, and simmer for -two hours; add one tablespoon of sugar and a cup of milk, then -strain out the shells, and it is ready to serve. This is a mild and -delicately flavored drink, and may be used freely in cases of great -thirst. - - -COCOA-NIBS - -Boil one teaspoon of cracked cocoa in a pint of water one hour; -then add a cup of milk and a tablespoon of sugar, let it heat to -the boiling-point again, strain out the nibs, and it is ready to -serve. - -It is necessary to _boil_ cracked cocoa, otherwise you will have a -bitter infusion, lacking the good flavor which is extracted by the -higher degree of heat. This is an instance in which a few degrees -more or less of heat make a great difference in the result. - - -CHOCOLATE - -Put _one third_ of a square (one ounce) of Baker's chocolate, -with one cup of boiling water and a tablespoon of sugar, into -a saucepan. Set the saucepan on the fire, and stir for a while, -moving the piece of chocolate through the water occasionally until -it is melted. _As soon as it boils_ add a cup of milk, and when -it again reaches the boiling-point it will be ready to serve. If -chocolate is allowed to boil for a length of time, separation -of the fat from the other ingredients takes place, rendering it -indigestible. Chocolate, if delicately and carefully made, is as -nice as cocoa, much more nutritious, on account of the fat which it -contains, and less expensive. - - -TEA - -Tea has refreshing and invigorating properties very comforting to -one spent with toil. Its active principle is theine, a crystalline -alkaloid found in both tea and coffee. Theine and caffeine were -once supposed to be different substances, but have recently been -found to be identical. - -Tea is a valuable article of diet, though not a direct nutrient. -It is classed with the so-called "accessory" foods, and, although -not itself nutritious, aids, by its good flavor and stimulating -properties, the digestion of other things. It is a nerve tonic, and -is quite valuable as a curative agent for headache and some forms -of indigestion. The slight stimulation resulting from its use is -unattended by any after ill effects. - -It is good for soldiers, hard-working people, travelers, and others -who are much exposed to the rigors of climate.[33] - - -COMPOSITION OF TEA - - _Black._ _Green._ - Essential oil .60 .79 - Chlorophyl 1.84 2.22 - Wax .28 - Resin 3.64 2.22 - Gum 7.28 8.56 - Tannin 12.88 17.80 - Theine .46 .43 - Extractive matter 21.36 22.80 - Coloring substances 19.19 23.60 - Albumen 2.80 3.00 - Fiber 28.33 17.80 - Ash[34] 5.24 5.56 - - MULDEN. - - From Prof. Mott's Chart on the Composition, Digestibility, and - Nutritive Value of Food. - -Two of the most important points suggested by a study of tea are -the few adulterations and the great difference between different -varieties, comparing weight and bulk. Some kinds of very cheap tea -are adulterated with sage and raspberry leaves, and leaves of other -plants dried to simulate tea, and often flavored with essences to -give an agreeable taste, but a vast amount of the tea which is sold -is pure. Adulterations with chemicals are now rare, on account of -the extensive cultivation of tea and the large quantities sold. - -Teas vary greatly in weight,--that is, a given bulk of one tea -weighs very differently from the same bulk of another. This is -especially marked in the comparison of Oolong and Gunpowder. - -Below are given the weights of a moderate-sized caddy-spoon of each -of these teas. - - _No. of spoons - KINDS OF TEA. _Grains._ to the pound._ - Oolong 39 179 - Hyson 66 106 - Gunpowder 123 57 - -From this it appears that Gunpowder tea, bulk for bulk, is more than -three times as heavy as Oolong; consequently in using it only about -one third as much should be taken for a given amount of water. In -making the infusion teas should be weighed, not measured, but it -is not easily practicable in all households to do so; however, it -can always be borne in mind that the closely rolled teas, such -as Gunpowder, Young Hyson, and Japan, should be used in smaller -proportion than those which are loosely rolled, like Oolong, -English Breakfast, and other black teas. - -There is a popular notion that green teas are dried on copper, -but according to unquestionable authorities it is an erroneous -one. Green teas are dried quickly so that the natural color of the -leaves is preserved. Black teas are dried slowly for many hours -until a sort of fermentation sets in, which causes the difference -in color, as pickings from the same plant may, in the process of -curing, become either green or black tea, according to the method -employed. Also, different varieties of tea may be made from the -same branch by difference of treatment in curing, the aromatic -flavors, which did not exist in the leaves before, being produced -by the drying. Different varieties or kinds of tea are also made -from the same plant by gathering the leaves at different ages. - -Black tea should be black, but not dead black,--rather of a grayish -hue. No red leaves should be mixed with it. It should be regular in -appearance, each leaf with a uniform twist, that is, in all except -the "broken" teas. The leaves of tea are gathered four times a year -by hand, and the finest kind is made from the tender young buds. -Young Hyson is made from the early buds of April, and is noted for -its mild, delicate flavor. - -The principle most to be avoided in tea is the tannin, which in any -considerable quantity is injurious to health. It dissolves easily -when tea is either _steeped for a length of time_, or _boiled_. -The important point, therefore, is not to make tea more than a few -minutes before it is to be drunk, and not to boil it. - -The principal kinds of tea in common use are Oolong, Japan, English -Breakfast, Imperial, Gunpowder, and Young Hyson. Gunpowder, Japan, -Young Hyson, and Imperial are green teas; the others are black. - -=To Prepare Tea.= - - 1 Teaspoon of tea. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - -Fill a cup with boiling water, and let it stand a minute, or until -the cup is heated through. Then empty it, put the teaspoon of tea -into a tea-ball, place it in the hot cup, and pour on the boiling -water slowly until it is full, leaving the tea-ball in for three -minutes. This will give you a delicious and fragrant drink. If -there is not a tea-ball at hand, use a small strainer, holding it -so that the tea is under water for the required time. - -The same principle is to be followed in making a pot of tea, except -that the time of steeping should be somewhat longer. Scald the pot, -which should be either of silver, granite-ware, or earthenware, not -tin. Put into it the tea, in the proportion of one teaspoon to a -cup of water (one half pint), and let it infuse for five minutes, -but by no means allow it to boil, for boiling dissipates the aroma, -and extracts the tannin, which is the injurious principle. Serve it -in hot teacups with loaf-sugar and cold cream or milk. I think it -is Miss Lincoln who says: "Never disgrace yourself by serving that -abomination, boiled lukewarm tea in a cold cup." - -Water for tea should be fresh, and soft water--that is, water which -is free from lime--is to be preferred; by taking _one teaspoon of -tea_ and _a cup of water_ as the unit, any amount may be made; for -instance, for a pot of tea for five or six persons, six teaspoons -of tea and a quart and a half (6 cups) of water will be required. -The time of exposure to the heat is, of course, not multiplied, -the same number of minutes being enough for a greater or a lesser -amount. - -In connection with the study of tea, it is a very interesting fact -that most authorities agree as to the time of steeping. There seems -to be the unanimous opinion that _it should not exceed fifteen_ -minutes. Five minutes is the usual time given for the average kinds -of tea, but for the fine, pure teas from eight to ten is a wise -rule to follow. - - -COFFEE - -Coffee is a product of the East, where it has been used since -very ancient times. It grows on trees, the fruit in clusters -which singly look somewhat like cherries, each containing two -beans. Unroasted coffee-beans are tough, and a drink made from -them is bitter, acrid, and very unpleasant. Coffee was brought -to western Europe in the seventeenth century, where it seems to -have immediately become a popular drink. When coffee-houses were -first opened in England, they were opposed by the liquor-dealers, -who claimed that their trade would be spoiled. Its introduction -was also bitterly opposed by others, and even denounced from the -pulpit. It was regarded somewhat in the light of a dangerous -Eastern drug. From western Europe it was brought to America, and at -the present time is the most extensively used food beverage in the -world. - -The kinds in common use in this country are Java and Mocha from the -East, and the South American coffees Rio, Santos, and Maracaibo. -The soil and method of cultivation influence the quality of coffee, -as does also the age of the beans. The longer the beans are kept -(unbrowned) the finer the flavor. - -Coffee is adulterated with grains of different kinds, chicory, -caramel, carrots and some other roots, and with pastes made to -resemble the coffee-bean. The use of chicory is prohibited by law, -unless the mixture be labeled "Mixture of coffee and chicory." -Nevertheless, its use is common, and in nearly all hotels and -restaurants coffee is flavored with it. - -"The detection of the presence of chicory, caramel, and some sweet -roots, as turnips, carrots, and parsnips, is quite easy. If a few -grains of the suspected sample are placed on the surface of water -in a glass vessel, beaker, or tumbler, each particle of chicory, -etc., will become surrounded by a yellow-brown cloud which rapidly -diffuses through the water until the whole becomes colored. Pure -coffee under the same conditions gives no sensible color until -after the lapse of about fifteen minutes. Caramel (burnt sugar) of -course colors the water very deeply. Dandelion root gives a deeper -color than coffee, but not as deep as chicory. The same is true of -bread raspings. Beans and pease give much less color to the water -than pure coffee. They can be readily detected by the microscope, -as can roasted figs and dates or date-stones." (Mrs. Richards, in -"Food Materials and Their Adulterations.") - -Coffee is said to owe its refreshing properties to (_a_) caffeine, -(_b_) a volatile oil developed by heat, not contained in the -unroasted bean, and to (_c_) astringent acids. - -Coffee diminishes the sensation of hunger, exhilarates and -refreshes, and decreases the amount of wear and tear of the system. - -Its composition, according to Payen, is as follows: - - Cellulose 34.000 - Water 12.000 - Fatty matter 13.000 - Glucose, dextrine, and undetermined vegetable acids 15.500 - Legumin, casein, etc. 10.000 - Chlorogenate of potash and caffeine 3 to 5.000 - Nitrogenized structure 3.000 - Caffeine .800 - Essential oil .001 - Aromatic essence .002 - Mineral substances 6.970 - -It is difficult to determine whether coffee may be classed as a -food, but that it has value as an adjunct to true nutrients there -can be no doubt. There is a general agreement among physiologists -that coffee is invigorating, that it aids digestion both in the -sick and the well, that it is capable of allaying or retarding -waste and thereby acting indirectly as a food. But the mistake -should not be made that coffee will _replace_ food. Coffee may be -compared in its effects on the system to beef-tea--it is valuable -for its flavors rather than for actual nutritious principles. - -It is a curious fact that coffee is most frequently made in such a -way that its valuable flavors are undeveloped or destroyed. Care -must be taken that the roasting be not carried so far as to char -the coffee-beans, yet far enough to convert the sugar into caramel, -and to change the nature of the volatile oil, so that the highest -point of flavor will be reached. This can be best accomplished in -regular roasting-houses, where the temperature and time may be -accurately measured. - -It is best to get a supply of fresh roasted coffee every day, but -when this is not practicable, once in three days, or once a week, -will do. Although theoretically the roasting of coffee should be a -part of its preparation--that is, it should be roasted, immediately -ground, and made into drink--practically it is very seldom done. - - -COFFEE. No. 1 - -A favorite mixed coffee is made with two thirds Java and one third -Mocha. It should be ground just before it is needed. For a pot of -coffee use the proportions of one heaped tablespoon to a cup of -water. It is well to calculate the number of persons there are to -be served, and allow one cup (one half pint) for each; this amount, -with the milk or cream used, will make two ordinary china cups of -coffee. To the ground coffee add a little yolk or white of egg, -with a spoonful of water to dilute it; mix thoroughly until all -the grains are coated over with albumen, then pour on the boiling -water, simmer for five minutes, and steep at a temperature just -short of simmering for ten minutes more. The coffee is then done. -It should be served at once with _loaf-sugar_, and either hot or -cold cream, or hot milk. The coffee should be perfectly clear and -of fine color and flavor. - -There are many methods of making coffee, but the above, everything -considered, seems the most desirable for family use. One egg is -enough to clear three quarts of coffee, and both yolk and white are -of equal value for the purpose. - - -COFFEE. No. 2 - -For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoon of coffee; soak the -coffee overnight or for several hours in cold water, then bring -it to the boiling-point, and let it simmer for a few minutes just -before using. This is said to be the most economical method of -making, as more is obtained from the coffee by this treatment. The -flavor is certainly fine. - -Long boiling dissipates the delicious aromatic oils, and as -probably these are the most valuable properties of the coffee, the -necessity of preserving them is easily seen. Care should be taken -not to boil coffee for more than from three to five minutes, and -simmer rather than boil, so as to preserve as much as possible the -fine flavors which are so quickly dissipated by boiling; yet the -high temperature seems to be necessary to extract the desirable -properties of the bean. One must therefore ever bear in mind the -seeming paradox that coffee should reach the boiling-point, and yet -not boil. - -We do not estimate highly enough the value of flavors. It is -a well-demonstrated fact among a few persons that many dishes -containing actual nutritious principles are but partially or -imperfectly digested, because of their lack of good flavor, either -from want of proper preparation, lack of seasoning, or poor -cooking. There is no doubt that many people suffer from indigestion -after eating such food. - -Use in coffee-making either silver, granite-ware, or earthenware -urns or pots, never tin. They should be made _perfectly clean_ -before using, especial attention being necessary for the spout. - - -MULLED WINE - - 1 Egg. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Clove. - ¼ Square inch of cinnamon. - ½ Cup of wine. - ½ Cup of water. - -Put the water and spice together in a saucepan, and boil for ten -minutes; then add the wine, and let the liquid just reach the -boiling-point; meanwhile beat the egg and sugar in a bowl, and just -at the moment when the wine begins to boil, pour it slowly into -the egg, stirring constantly to distribute the heat throughout the -whole. Unless the weather is very cold, there is usually enough -heat in the boiling liquid to coagulate the albumen of the egg -slightly, but should this not be accomplished, set it on the fire -for a minute to finish. When done it should be of the consistency -of cream. Do not let the wine and water boil for any appreciable -time, for boiling dissipates some of the pleasant flavor of the -wine. - -Beer, ale, and porter are excellent, mulled in the same way. - - -COCOA CORDIAL - - ½ Teaspoon of Dutch cocoa. - Some boiling water. - 2 Blocks of loaf-sugar. - 2 Tablespoons of port wine. - -Put the cocoa and sugar into a china cup, and pour directly upon -them some boiling water, then add the wine, making in all the usual -amount called a cupful. Serve at once. This is an excellent drink -for those who are chilled or exhausted, or to take after a bath. - - - - -JELLIES - -(FROM GELATINE) - - -Gelatin is always of animal origin. The gelatinous substance -obtained from apples, grapes, cranberries, and other fruits is not -gelatin; it is a different material, derived by the action of heat -from pectose, a substance which occurs in plants and is closely -associated with cellulose. Unprepared _gelatin_ is sometimes -distinguished in writing from the _gelatine_ of commerce by the -difference of an _e_ in spelling. - -Gelatin enters into the composition of all, or nearly all, the -tissues of the body. The walls of the microscopic cells of flesh -are composed of it. It is found also in cartilage, tendons, -connective tissue, bone, and in the larynx and joints. Spiders' -webs and the thread of silkworms are gelatin in a liquid state, -which solidifies upon exposure to the air. Another kind of gelatin -forms the framework of insects, such as the locusts on which John -the Baptist fed. It also forms the true skeleton of lobsters, -crabs, and shrimps. The edible birds' nests of the Chinese are a -delicate kind of gelatin more digestible than some other kinds, -for it is made from the saliva of a swallow, and probably contains -pepsin. (M. Williams.) - -The part which gelatin plays as a food is not well understood. -Many experiments have recently been made by scientists on dogs and -other animals, to test the value of gelatin in this respect. From -these experiments the following conclusions have been drawn: 1. -That gelatin alone is not sufficient as a food. 2. That although -insufficient it is not worthless. 3. That gelatin is sufficient -to sustain life when combined with other substances which would -themselves be wholly insufficient if given alone. 4. That gelatin -must always be flavored to render it digestible and nutritious. - -Mattieu Williams says: "It would seem that gelatin alone, although -containing the elements required for nutrition, needs something -more to render it digestible. We shall probably not be far from the -truth if we picture it to the mind as something too smooth, too -neutral, too inert, to set the digestive organs at work, and that -therefore it requires the addition of a decidedly sapid something -that shall make these organs act." - -Gelatin dissolves easily in warm liquid. Albumen coagulates under -similar circumstances. - -The gelatine of commerce is made from the tissues of animals, -particularly from the thick skin of certain portions of the body -and from the head and feet. When well flavored and in a liquid -state as in broths, or of a tender consistency as in well-made -jelly, it is a most desirable food for the sick. Lemon and orange -juice, strawberry, raspberry, grape, and indeed any fruit syrup, -coffee, cocoa, vanilla, wine, brandy, and Jamaica rum, and strong -meat broths which have been cleared, may be used for flavoring. -The jelly should not be made hard and tenacious, but tender and -jelly-like, though firm. - -The phosphated gelatine which may be bought of any grocer is -delicious for wine jelly made according to the usual rule for -jelly, with the exception of omitting the lemon. Chalmer's and -Nelson's are other well-known brands. All jellies made with -gelatine are excellent for invalids. They are especially valuable -in cases of disease of the intestines, such as typhoid fever and -inflammation of the bowels, because, being digested and absorbed, -for the most part or entirely, in the stomach, those organs are -relieved of effort, at the same time that the system is supplied -with a nutritious form of solid food. - - -WINE JELLY. No. 1 - - ¼ Box of Nelson's gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1¼ Cups of boiling water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon. - 1 Clove. - ½ Cup of sherry wine. - -Put the gelatine and cold water together in a dish large enough to -hold the whole mixture; let it soak for half an hour; then pour the -boiling water, in which the clove and cinnamon have been simmering, -over the softened gelatine, add the sugar and wine, and stir until -the sugar and gelatine are perfectly dissolved; then strain through -a fine napkin into a granite-ware or earthenware pan or mold, and -cool it in a refrigerator or in a pan of iced water. Wine jelly -made from phosphated gelatine, omitting the spice, is delicious. - - -WINE JELLY (No. 2) WITH LEMON - -The same proportions and ingredients are to be used as in the above -recipe, except that the juice of half a lemon should be substituted -for the spice. - - -LEMON JELLY - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1¼ Cups of boiling water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - -Put the gelatine and water together in a dish, and let them soak -half an hour; then pour on the boiling water, and stir until the -gelatine is dissolved. Do not put in the sugar and then pour on -the boiling water, as there may not be heat enough in making a -small quantity of jelly to dissolve both, but add the sugar after -the water, then the lemon-juice and brandy. Strain it through a -napkin and cool it in a refrigerator or in a pan of iced water. Use -china or granite-ware molds, never tin, for the acid of lemon acts -chemically upon it, forming compounds that are injurious to health. - - -ORANGE JELLY - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ½ Cup of boiling water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - 1 Cup of orange-juice. - Juice of half a lemon. - -Soften the gelatine in the cold water by soaking it for half an -hour; then pour in the boiling water, stirring as previously -directed until the gelatine is dissolved; add the sugar, -orange-juice, and lemon-juice, in the order in which they are -given, stir for a moment, and then strain the liquid through -a napkin into molds, and set it to cool. Use earthenware or -granite-ware molds, not tin. The point most to be observed in -making this jelly is getting the juice from the oranges. The most -natural way for one to do would be to cut the oranges in halves, -and squeeze them in a lemon-squeezer, but that will not do, for the -orange-oil of the rind is extracted in such large quantities as to -destroy the delicate flavor of the jelly. The proper way to do is -to peel the fruit, cut it in pieces, put them in a jelly-bag, and -squeeze out the juice with the hand. - - -COFFEE JELLY - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - ½ Cup of strong coffee. - ½ Teaspoon of vanilla. - ½ Cup of sugar. - -Soak the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour; then pour -on the boiling water, and put in the sugar, coffee, and vanilla. -Strain it through a napkin into a glass dish in which it may be -served, and cool it as jellies are usually cooled, either in a -refrigerator or in cold water, unless of course it is winter, when -the jelly quickly becomes firm in any cool place, or it may be -molded. Serve it with sweet cream and sugar, or, if it be molded, -with whipped cream arranged around the form. The coffee should be -strong, made with the proportion of two tablespoons of coffee to a -cup of water. - -This delicious jelly is acceptable to most invalids. - - -FRENCH JELLY WITH FRESH FRUITS - -Make a wine jelly according to the recipe on page 122. When it has -lost some of its heat, but before it begins to thicken, pour into -it a pint of carefully picked and cleaned raspberries, distributing -them evenly through the liquid; then set it away in a cool place, -or in a refrigerator, to harden. This makes a nice dessert when -served with sugar and cream. Other fruits and other jellies may be -combined at the discretion of the maker. Orange jelly with oranges -and bananas is very good. - - -RESTORATIVE JELLY - - ½ Box of gelatine. - 1 Cup of port wine. - 1 Tablespoon of powdered gum arabic. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - 3 Tablespoons of sugar. - 2 Cloves. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon. - -Put the gelatine, wine, and spice into a double boiler, or if one -is not at hand, improvise one by placing a bowl in a pan of water. -Set the boiler on the fire, and when the gelatine is dissolved, -put in the gum arabic, lemon, and sugar. Stir thoroughly; strain -it quickly through a fine napkin, and cool it in a shallow dish, -so that the layer of jelly shall be an inch thick. It is to be cut -into cubes, which may be served two or three at a time, to be held -in the mouth until melted. - - -CHICKEN JELLY - -Clean a small chicken, disjoint it, and cut the meat into small -pieces; remove the fat, break or pound the bones, and put all into -cold water, using the following proportion: _A pint for every -pound of chicken_. Heat the water very slowly at first, and then -simmer it until the meat is tender; it will require three or four -hours. Boil down to one half the quantity. Strain it and remove the -fat; then clear it with an egg, and season it with salt, pepper, -and lemon. Strain it through a fine napkin, pour into small cups, -and cool. Parsley, celery, and bay-leaves give a good flavor. A -suspicion of red pepper is also an addition. - - -PUNCHEON JELLY - - ¼ Box of phosphated gelatine. - 1 Cup of cold water. - ½ Cup of hot tea. - ½ Cup of sugar. - ¼ Cup of Jamaica rum. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - 5 Drops of almond extract. - -Put the gelatine to soak in the cold water, and at the end of -thirty minutes pour on the hot tea; then add the sugar, rum, -brandy, and almond; strain it through a fine napkin, and set it in -a cool place to become firm. - -Phosphated gelatine is a delicate acidulated preparation, very -nice for wine, lemon, or puncheon jelly, but it cannot be used -for creams on account of the acid, which curdles them. Some of the -directions indicate that it may be neutralized with soda; that, -however, should not be done, since there is no accurate means of -ascertaining how much acid there is in a given amount, or how -strong it is; consequently there is no guide to the amount of soda -required. - - - - -TOAST - - -The principal constituent of ordinary wheaten bread is starch. - -When starch is subjected to a high temperature, it is changed into -the easily digested substance dextrine. In the ordinary cooking of -a loaf of bread, the starch in the outer layers is changed into -dextrine, which helps to give the crust of bread that peculiar, -agreeable flavor which we call "sweet." Slices of bread undergo a -similar change when toast is made. - -To make toast successfully, one should endeavor to convert as much -as possible of the starch into dextrine. To do this, cut the bread -one third of an inch thick, place the slices in a toaster, or wire -broiler, and dry them slowly, either in a moderate oven, or by -holding the broiler some distance from the fire. The object is to -give the heat time to penetrate to the center of the slice before -the outside has begun to change color. If a sheath be formed over -the outside at once, the moisture will be shut in, and the middle -of the slice will be prevented from becoming sufficiently heated -to change its starch, for the temperature will not rise much above -212° Fahr. until the water is dried out. (Starch is changed into -dextrine at 401° Fahr.) - -Toast that is clammy in the middle and blackened on the outside is -less wholesome than untoasted bread. Great care should therefore -be taken with the drying. When this has been accomplished, lower -the broiler a little nearer the coals, when the toast will quickly -turn a golden brown. An ideal piece of toast is crisp and golden -throughout. But many will say that they prefer toast that is soft -inside, and that they cannot eat hard, dry toast. The ideal piece -of toast is not really so hard as it seems. It breaks and crumbles -very easily, and is quickly moistened by the saliva. If one would -persevere with a slice, he would soon learn to prefer it to any -other kind; at all events, that which is soft inside should not be -given to the sick. It is better to make the toast dry, and then -moisten it, if need be, by dipping the slices into hot water for an -instant, but _do not soak them_. - -Dry toast should be served directly from the fire, if possible. -When this is not practicable, pile it on a platter, cover it with a -napkin, and put it on the hearth or in the oven. - -Toast is given in all slight cases of illness, because it is so -easily digested. The more thorough the conversion of the starch, -the more easily and perfectly the system will manage it, for the -change of starch into dextrine, by the action of heat, is simply -doing outside of the body that which takes place in it in the -ordinary course of digestion, by the action of the digestive -fluids. Therefore, when this is accomplished by artificial means, -nature is spared so much energy. - - -BUTTERED WATER TOAST - -Toast four thin slices of bread. Put into a shallow pan a pint of -water with half a teaspoon of salt. Dip each slice quickly into -the water, place it in a covered dish, and spread it with butter, -piling one slice above another. - -Do not let the bread _soak_ in the water. Endeavor to keep a -suggestion of crispness in it, for sloppy, sodden toast is not -nice. Serve it _very_ hot, with apple sauce, sweet baked apples, -or tart jelly. Water toast is really delicious if care is taken to -have it hot. It will be eaten with relish much longer than that -made with milk. - - -MILK TOAST - -Put a cup of rich milk into a saucepan, and place it on the stove. -While it is heating, toast three slices of bread a delicate brown. -Put them one at a time into a covered dish, and when the milk is -boiling hot season it with a saltspoon of salt and pour it over the -bread. A little butter may be spread upon each slice before the -milk is poured over, but it is a more delicate dish without it. - - -CREAM TOAST - - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 4 Large or 6 small slices of bread. - -Make a white sauce with the milk, flour, and butter according to -the following directions. Pour the milk into a saucepan, and set it -on the fire to heat. Put the butter and flour together in another -saucepan, place it on the fire, and stir gently until the butter -melts; let them bubble together two or three minutes. The high -temperature which the butter quickly attains will thoroughly cook -the flour in a short time. Then pour in a little of the milk, and -stir until the two are mixed; add a little more milk, and stir -again until it bubbles; if at this point the mixture does not seem -smooth, lift it from the fire, and beat it until it is waxy and -perfectly free from lumps. Then add more milk, stir again, and so -continue until all the milk is in. Let it simmer slowly until the -toast is ready, which should be made according to the rule for dry -toast. Then soak the slices in boiling salted milk (four if from a -large, and six if from a small loaf of bread), arrange them in a -covered dish, and pour the cream, salted, between and over them. -Irregular pieces and odds and ends of bread may be used instead of -whole slices, and are very nice toasted in a tin pan in the oven. - -One precaution is necessary in making this dish; that is, to soak -the bread _thoroughly_ in the boiling milk, for the sauce or cream -is too thick to soften it. On account of the high temperature to -which the butter rises, the starch is more perfectly cooked in it -than if the flour were mixed with cold water and poured into the -boiling milk, as is sometimes done. - - -FRENCH OR EGG TOAST - - 1 Egg. - 1 Cup of milk or cream. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 3 Slices of bread. - -Break the egg on a plate, and beat it with a fork for a minute, -or until the viscousness is destroyed. Then mix in the milk and -salt. In this mixture soak the slices of bread until they are soft, -lay them in a buttered omelet-pan, and fry them slowly until a -golden brown. Then place a bit of butter on the upper side of each -slice, turn and brown that side. Spread a little butter, powdered -cinnamon, and sugar on each slice and arrange them one above -another in a covered dish. Serve very hot. - - -CROUTONS - -_Crouton_ is a French word which in English means _crust_. The -term was first applied to the paste of sawdust, flour, and water -in which the peasants of southern France used long ago to inclose -their pieces of meat before roasting. After the meat was done the -crust was broken open and thrown away. The word with us is applied -to little cubes of buttered bread which have been browned in the -oven. They are used in soups and stews, sprinkled in just before -serving. - -=To Make Croutons.= Butter a slice of evenly cut bread. Divide -it into cubes that will be one third of an inch on a side. This -will necessitate cutting the slice of bread exactly a third of an -inch thick. Place these little cubes on a tin plate, or shallow -dish, and put the dish on the grate in a moderate oven for fifteen -minutes. When done they should be light golden brown throughout, -crisp and brittle. Sometimes cubes of bread are fried in fat to -resemble croutons, but unless done by a skilful hand they are -usually soaked with fat. Even at the best they lack the delicate -flavor of those which are buttered, and browned in an oven. - - -SIPPETS - -Sippets are evenly cut oblongs of bread delicately toasted. They -may be served as dry toast, or with broiled birds or broiled -oysters. They are also nice for a lunch with a cup of tea or cocoa. - -=To Make Sippets.= Cut thin slices of bread, and from them make -oblongs one inch wide by four inches long. Toast carefully so that -they will not break, and pile on a small bread-plate if they are to -be served dry. - - -VERMICELLI TOAST - -Prepare a cream toast according to the rule on page 130, except -arrange the slices on a platter and pour the sauce evenly over -them. Press through a coarse wire strainer enough hard-boiled yolk -of egg to lightly cover it. It will fall in irregular, broken, -crinkled threads, somewhat resembling vermicelli, hence the name. - - - - -SOUPS - - -OYSTER SOUP - - 1 Cup of fresh oysters. - 1 Cup of milk. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of rolled cracker-crumbs. - A sprinkle of pepper. - ¼ Teaspoon of butter. - -Put the milk with the cracker-crumbs into a saucepan on the stove; -while it is heating pick over the oysters on a plate, and remove -any bits of shell that may be among them. Have a hot omelet-pan -ready to receive them, and when the milk reaches the boiling-point, -put the oysters into the omelet-pan. Stir and turn them until they -become plump, or while about sixty can be _slowly counted_; then -drop the oysters into the boiling milk, take it immediately from -the fire, add the salt, pepper, and butter, and serve at once. -The point which requires the most attention is the cooking of the -oysters in the omelet-pan. Do not let them cook _quite enough_, as -the milk has sufficient heat to finish them. If too long exposed -to the heat, the albuminous juice becomes over-cooked, and the -oysters consequently tough and leathery. For thickening oyster -soup, two tablespoons of white sauce may be substituted for the -cracker-crumbs. - - -CHICKEN SOUP - -Thoroughly clean a good fowl. Separate it at the joints and cut -it into small pieces. Put the meat into a saucepan with three -pints of water, and stew it for two and one half or three hours, -or until it becomes very tender. Then take out the meat, let the -liquor continue to boil, and to it add one tablespoon of rice, one -tablespoon of finely cut onion which has been fried with a bit of -butter until soft, but not brown, and three peppercorns. Cut the -nicer portions of the meat into small pieces, after removing all -the skin, gristle, and bone. Put these pieces, with one teaspoon -of salt, into the soup, and let all simmer until the rice is very -soft. Then take out the peppercorns. A very little white pepper and -a little celery-salt or curry-powder may be added. Serve hot with -croutons. If the water boils away during the cooking, which it will -do unless the simmering is very gentle, restore the quantity. - - -MOCK-BISQUE SOUP - - 1 Pint of tomatoes, measured after they have been stewed and strained. - 1 Pint of white sauce. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ¼ Saltspoon of pepper. - ½ Saltspoon of soda. - -Although mock-bisque soup is better made with fresh tomatoes, the -canned fruit may be used, with the precaution that it be allowed to -stew only just long enough to soften it through, for long boiling -develops in it a very strong acid. When the tomatoes are soft, -strain them through a soup-strainer, or other coarse wire strainer, -until there is nothing left but the seeds. Measure a pint of the -liquid, add the soda, salt, and pepper, and set it on the stove -to heat slowly. Meanwhile make a white sauce with one tablespoon -of butter, one of flour, and a pint of milk, according to the -rule on page 130. Add this sauce to the tomato, strain all into a -double boiler, return to the fire, and serve as soon as it becomes -steaming hot. - -If fresh tomatoes can be obtained, wash and wipe them, cut out the -green part near the stem, divide them into small pieces without -taking off the skins, and stew without water until the fruit is -just soft enough to mash. If the tomatoes are fully ripe and -carefully cooked, they will not require the soda, but when soda is -necessary, fresh tomatoes need only half the amount used for canned -fruit. - -This is an appetizing and delicate soup, and may be freely used by -most invalids. - - -POTATO SOUP - - 3 Medium-sized potatoes. - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion. - 2 Saltspoons of celery-salt, or 3 stalks of celery. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - A little white pepper. - A speck of cayenne. - 1 Teaspoon of flour. - 2 Teaspoons of butter. - 1 Pint of milk. - -Pare and boil the potatoes. Cook the onion and celery in the milk, -with which make a white sauce with the flour and butter. When the -potatoes are done, drain off the water and dry them over the fire -by moving the pan back and forth on the stove to keep them from -sticking. Then, without removing the pan from the fire, mash them -thoroughly with a potato-masher, and put in the sauce, pepper, -cayenne, and salt; strain all through a soup-strainer, and if the -consistency be not perfectly smooth and even, strain it again. -Put it into a double boiler, set back on the stove, and when hot -it is ready to serve. If the soup seems very thick, add a little -more milk, for some potatoes are drier than others, and will -consequently absorb more moisture. It should be like a _thin purée_. - -This soup may be varied by using a quart instead of a pint of milk, -and the whites of two eggs well beaten, the latter to be added -just two minutes before it is removed from the fire, which will be -sufficient time for the egg to cook. Care should be taken not to -allow the egg to harden, or the soup will have a curdled appearance. - - -CREAM-OF-CELERY SOUP - - 1 Head of celery. - 1 Pint of water. - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of white pepper. - -Wash and scrape the celery, cut it into half-inch pieces, put it -into the pint of boiling water, and cook until it is very soft. -When done mash it in the water in which it was boiled, and add the -salt and pepper. Cook the onion in the milk, and with it make a -white sauce with the butter and flour; add this to the celery, and -strain it through a soup-strainer, pressing and mashing with the -back of a spoon until all but a few tough fibers of the celery are -squeezed through. Return the soup, in a double boiler, to the fire, -and heat it until it is steaming, when it is ready to serve. - -By substituting chicken broth for water, and using celery-salt -instead of fresh celery when it is not in season, a very acceptable -variation of this soup may be made. - - -CREAM-OF-RICE SOUP - - ¼ Cup of rice. - 1 Pint of chicken broth or stock. - 1 Pint of sweet cream. - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion. - 1 Stalk of celery. - 3 Saltspoons of salt. - A little white pepper. - ½ Saltspoon of curry-powder. - -Pick over and wash the rice, and put it into the chicken broth in -a saucepan to cook. Simmer it slowly until the rice is very soft. -It will require two hours' cooking to accomplish this. Half an -hour before the rice is done put the cream into a saucepan with -the onion, celery, pepper, and curry, and let them simmer slowly -for twenty minutes; then pour the mixture into the rice; press all -through a soup-strainer; add the salt, and set it back on the stove -to heat to the boiling-point. It should be a rather thin soup, not -a _purée_. Should the broth boil away while the rice is cooking, or -should the soup be too thick, add more broth, or some water. - - -QUEEN VICTORIA'S FAVORITE SOUP - - 1 Cup of chopped chicken meat. - 1 Pint of strong chicken broth. - 1 Pint of sweet cream. - ½ Cup of cracker- or bread-crumbs. - 3 Yolks of eggs. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of pepper. - -The chicken may be obtained from what remains of a roast, in which -case the bones, skin, tendons, and all the scraps left should be -boiled for the broth. It is better, however, to use a fowl which -has been cooked on purpose, as the broth from such a one is of -finer flavor. Soak the cracker-crumbs in a little of the cream. -Break three eggs, separate the whites from the yolks, and carefully -drop the yolks into hot water; boil them until they are hard. -Chop the chicken in a chopping-tray until it is as fine as meal, -previously having removed everything except the clear meat; mix the -soaked cracker with it; press the hard egg-yolks through a coarse -wire strainer and put them in, and also the salt, pepper, and -broth. Then strain the whole through a colander, adding the cream a -little at a time, and pressing through all of the meat. Boil it for -five minutes in a saucepan, or cook it in a double boiler for half -an hour. This makes a delicious soup. - - -CHICKEN-TAPIOCA SOUP - - 2 Tablespoons of tapioca. - ½ Cup of cold water. - 1 Pint of strong chicken broth or white stock. - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Stalk of celery, or some celery-salt. - 1 Tablespoon of chopped onion. - ½ Square inch of mace. - 1 Scant teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of white pepper. - ½ Teaspoon of butter. - -The broth for this dish may be made by boiling the bones of a roast -with the left-over pieces of meat, and then reducing the liquor -until it is strong enough. Put the tapioca to soak in the cold -water, overnight if it be the common, coarse kind, but if pearl -or granulated tapioca is used, twenty minutes will do. Then add -the chicken stock, and simmer it until the tapioca is completely -softened. It will require two or three hours. About half an hour -before the tapioca will be done, put the milk, celery, onion, and -mace into a saucepan to cook, and as soon as the tapioca becomes -soft pour it in; remove from the fire, and strain the whole through -a wire strainer, forcing through with a spoon all the grains of -tapioca. Then add the salt, pepper, and butter; set it back on the -stove, and heat it just to the boiling-point, when it is ready to -serve. - - -BEEF-TAPIOCA SOUP - - ¼ Cup of granulated tapioca. - 1½ Cups of water. - 1 Pint of strong beef broth. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Teaspoon of mixed sweet herbs. - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion. - A little black pepper. - -Soak the tapioca for twenty minutes in a half cup of cold water, -then set it to cook in a double boiler with the rest of the water -(one cupful). When the grains become soft and begin to look -transparent, put in all the other ingredients and cook until the -tapioca is completely dissolved. This will require two or three -hours. Strain it, and return it to the fire to boil for five -minutes, when it is ready to serve. This soup may be made with the -ordinary stock from a stock-kettle. A little chicken broth is an -improving addition, and really makes a most savory soup. - - -CHICKEN PANADA - -A panada is a dish the foundation of which is bread. For chicken -panada there will be needed: - - 1 Cup of chicken meat. - ½ Cup of bread soaked in milk. - 1 Pint of chicken liquor or broth. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ¼ Saltspoon of pepper. - -The chicken may be obtained from a cold roast, the bones, gristle, -and tendons of which should be boiled for the broth, or a fowl may -be used on purpose for it. - -Put the bread-crumbs to soak in enough milk to cover them. Cut the -chicken into small pieces, leaving out everything which is not -clear meat, and chop it in a chopping-tray until it is very fine. -Press the bread-crumbs through a coarse wire strainer into it, pour -in the broth (from which the fat has been removed by skimming with -a spoon), and add the pepper and salt. Boil for one minute. The -panada should be about the consistency of thick gruel. It may be -varied by seasoning it with either celery-salt or curry-powder. Two -tablespoons of sweet cream is also a desirable addition. - - -CONSOMMÉ - - 3 Quarts of cold water. - ½ of a good fowl. - 2 Pounds of lean beef, or 2½ pounds of beef and bone. - ¼ Pound of lean ham. - 1 Tablespoon of chopped carrot. - 1 Tablespoon of chopped turnip. - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion. - 1 Tablespoon of celery. - 3 Cloves. - 3 Peppercorns. - 1 Tablespoon of mixed sweet herbs. - -Wipe but do not wash the beef, unless, of course, it is very dirty. -Cut it into small slices, and fry it in a hot frying-pan to brown -it and to develop the flavor of the meat. Then divide the slices -into small pieces, so as to expose as large a surface as possible -to the action of the water. Put it, with the chicken (after it has -been cleaned and cut into small pieces), into a porcelain-lined or -granite-ware soup-digester, with the piece of ham and three quarts -of cold water. Let it slowly reach the boiling-point, and simmer -it gently for six hours. Boiling briskly dissipates the flavors by -separating certain subtle substances which are perceptible to the -sense of smell, and if they are in the air they cannot also be in -the broth. - -When it has been cooking for three hours, fry the carrot, turnip, -and onion together in a little butter until they are brown, and put -them with the cloves, sweet herbs, peppercorns, and celery into the -soup. If these are cooked with the meat from the beginning, the -flavor is not so good. - -At the end of the six hours, when the meat is in rags, strain the -liquid into a china bowl, and set it away to cool until all the fat -rises and forms in a cake on the top. It is a good plan to cool it -overnight when there is plenty of time. Every particle of fat must -be removed, and it is not possible to do this unless the soup is -cooled. _To clear consommé_ return it to the fire, and as soon as -it becomes liquid break into it two eggs, and stir slowly until the -soup begins to steam and the albumen of the eggs is coagulated. -The coagulum will entangle all the insoluble matter; then strain -the liquid through a napkin, salt it, and heat it just to the -boiling-point, when it is ready to serve. - -It should be perfectly clear, and of a golden-brown color like -sherry wine. If the color is not dark enough, a little caramel -(burnt sugar) may be added. - -The above quantity of meats and flavoring should give a quart of -consommé. - - -BOUILLON - -Make a plain beef broth according to the rule on page 78. To a -quart of this add a pinch each of thyme, sage, sweet marjoram, and -mint (or enough to make in all what will fill a teaspoon), and a -teaspoon each of chopped onion and carrot. Boil all together until -the broth is reduced to one pint. Strain, season with salt and -pepper, and serve very hot in covered cups. - - -APPLE SOUP - - 2 Cups of apple. - 2 Cups of water. - 2 Teaspoons of corn-starch. - 1½ Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of cinnamon. - A bit of salt. - -Stew the apple in the water until it is very soft. Then mix -together into a smooth paste the corn-starch, sugar, salt, and -cinnamon with a little cold water. Pour this into the apple, and -boil for five minutes. Strain it into a soup-tureen, and keep hot -until ready to serve. This is very good eaten with hot buttered -sippets. - - - - -OYSTERS - - -Oysters are a highly prized food, though why it is difficult -to say, as they are neither very easy of digestion nor very -nutritious. But they possess a delicate insinuating flavor that -is generally acceptable to most palates, and probably are really -valuable for the salts which they contain. - -The composition of oysters (Payen's analysis) is as follows: - - Nitrogenous matter 14.010% - Fat 1.515% - Saline substances 2.695% - Water 80.385% - Non-nitrogenous matter and waste 1.395% - -------- - Total 100.000 - -According to Professor Mott's Chart of the Composition, -Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Foods, from actual experiment -the time required for the digestion of oysters is as follows: - - Hours. Minutes. - Raw oysters 2 55 - Roasted oysters 3 15 - Stewed oysters 3 30 - -This shows that they require a longer time than do most kinds of -fish, venison, beefsteak, tripe, soused pig's feet, eggs, and -roast beef, all of which are digested in varying times less than -those mentioned. - -Oysters are found in greatest perfection in the Eastern States, -and in the cooler waters of the western Atlantic. The choicest -varieties in the world come from the shores of Long Island, -and from the Providence River. Chesapeake Bay is noted for the -abundance of its oysters. - -Oysters are in season from September to May; during the rest of -the year they are insipid and unfit for food, although they are -sometimes used. - -Convalescents often begin with fresh, sound oysters, before they -venture to try other kinds of solid animal food. - -Oysters may be used in a variety of ways, but served raw and -broiled slightly in the shells are perhaps the two most desirable -ways with which to begin. Afterward stews and soups are recommended -on account of their liquid form and warmth, warm foods being always -so much more desirable than cold. - -There are some points to be carefully observed in preparing oysters -for the sick. (1) Make every effort to have the oysters alive -when used. If this is impossible, buy salt-water oysters as fresh -as they can be obtained of a reliable dealer. Many serious cases -of illness, and even death, have been caused by eating oysters -so long dead that poisonous substances had formed in them. (2) -Remember that oysters contain an albuminous juice which increases -in hardness with an increase of temperature, just as the albumen -of an egg does. When oysters are cooked with reference to this -juice alone, they are also cooked in the best possible manner with -reference to their other ingredients; therefore subject them to a -low temperature, and for a short time, bearing in mind that 160° -Fahr. is the cooking temperature of albumen. - - -RAW OYSTERS - -Wash and scrub the shells well under a stream of water, with a -vegetable brush. With a hammer break the thin edges of the shell so -that a knife may be inserted to sever the muscle which holds the -two parts of the shell together; when this is cut remove the upper -half, and wipe the edges free from any grains of sand. Then sever -the muscle which joins the oyster to the other half, so that it may -be easily lifted out, without the necessity of cutting. Arrange -them on an oyster-plate, and serve with salt, black pepper, and -lemon-juice. A half or a quarter of a lemon may be placed in the -center of the plate, which usually has a groove on purpose for it. - - -OYSTERS ROASTED IN THE SHELL - -Wash the shells very carefully with a brush. Put them in a wire -broiler over glowing coals, the round side of the shell down so -as to hold the juice. Cook them quickly, turning once or twice -until the shells open. They may also be done in a hot oven. When -done, remove the upper half of the shell; season them quickly with -salt, pepper, and a tiny bit of butter, and vinegar, if liked, -and serve them while they are very hot. The true oyster flavor is -delightfully developed by preparing in this way. They may also -be served with melted butter, seasoned with salt, pepper, and -lemon-juice. - - -OYSTER SOUP - -See recipe under =Soups=, on page 134. - - -OYSTER STEW - - 1 Cup of oysters. - 1 Cup of rich milk. - 2 Saltspoons of salt. - A little white pepper. - ¼ Teaspoon of butter. - -Set the milk in a saucepan on the fire to heat. Prepare the oysters -by pouring over them a cup of cold water to wash them, from which -lift them out with a fork, and search for bits of shell which -sometimes adhere when they are opened. Then lay them on a napkin -or a piece of clean cloth, to drain off as much as possible of the -water. Unless oysters are just taken from the shells, the liquor is -not of much value. Just as the milk reaches the boiling-point, put -the oysters into an omelet-pan, which has been previously set on -the stove to heat, and cook them for a minute, or until they become -plump, turning them every ten seconds with a fork. The moment the -edges or frills begin to curl, drop them into the milk and remove -it immediately from the fire. Now add the seasoning and butter, -and the stew is ready to serve--which should be done as soon as -possible. - -Oyster stew may also be made by preparing the oysters as above and -then dropping them into boiling-hot milk, which should remain for -one or two minutes on the fire before removal. - - -CREAMED OYSTERS - -Clean a pint of oysters according to the directions in the previous -rule. After drying them on a napkin, spread them on a plate and -season them with salt, pepper, and a suspicion of cayenne. - -Make a rich cream sauce with _one pint_ of cream, _one tablespoon_ -of butter, and _two tablespoons_ of flour. - -When the sauce is cooked, roll into it the seasoned oysters, put -them in individual scallop-dishes, or a dish such as might be used -for scalloped oysters, or any shallow baking-dish that is good -enough to serve; then bake them in a hot oven, on the grate, for -ten minutes if in small dishes, or for fifteen if in a single large -one. This gives time enough for the oysters to become cooked but -not hardened. The mixing of the oysters and sauce should be done -quickly, so that the sauce may not become cold before they are put -into the oven; for if there is much delay, it will take longer to -cook them than the time given. - -This is a good way to cook oysters for the sick, for the sauce -made according to the rule for such sauces (page 130) is easily -digested, nutritious, and of good flavor. - - -BROILED OYSTERS - -Select large oysters. Drain them on a cloth or napkin, turning -them from one side to the other, to make them as dry as possible. -Meanwhile soften some butter, and season some cracker-crumbs with -salt and pepper. Then, holding each oyster on a fork, dip it into -the crumbs, then into the melted butter, and again into the crumbs. -Arrange them in an oyster-broiler (which differs from ordinary -broilers by having the wires closer together), and broil over a hot -fire for about two minutes, turning the broiler every few seconds. -They should not be shriveled, but plump, soft, tender, and juicy. -The salt and pepper in the crumbs will sufficiently season them. - - -FANCY ROAST OR PAN-BROILED OYSTERS - -Eight oysters will be enough for one person. Drain the oysters on -a cloth or napkin, making them as free from moisture as possible. -Heat an omelet-pan, with a small piece of butter in it, very hot; -then drop the oysters one by one into the pan, turning each before -the next is put in. One should work quickly, otherwise the first -will be overdone before the last is put in. When the pan is full, -shake it a moment, lift it from the fire, and turn the oysters -quickly into a square covered dish, with toast-points in the -corners. Season them with salt, pepper, and a bit of butter, and -serve them as quickly as convenient. - -Each oyster should be cooked so quickly that its juices are shut -into itself and do not ooze out into the pan. There is usually a -very little juice with the butter, but if it is considerable, one -may know that the oysters have not been cooked in a sufficiently -high temperature. Oysters are very nice done in this way, but it -takes a skilful worker to do them without letting the juice ooze -out, or, on the other hand, over-cooking them. The toast-points are -made by cutting small squares of bread diagonally across. - - -OYSTER BROTH - -Chop a dozen oysters in a chopping-tray until they are quite fine. -Turn them into a small saucepan with a cup of cold water, and let -them slowly approach the boiling-point, and then simmer them for -five minutes, the object being to get as much as possible of the -flavor of the oysters into the water. Then strain out the oysters, -season the liquor with a bit of salt, and serve. - -A broth with milk may be made by putting in less water, and adding -milk three or four minutes before the broth is taken from the fire. - - -OYSTERS COOKED IN A CHAFING-DISH - -Chafing-dishes are generally made of silver, and are much used -just at present for cooking oysters at the table. A chafing-dish -consists of a covered dish resting in a frame, and heated from -below with an alcohol lamp. It is brought to the table with the -lamp lighted and the raw oysters ready to be cooked. Some member -of the family takes it in charge, and the result is a much more -satisfactory dish than could be otherwise obtained, for it requires -intelligence and a cultivated taste to cook and season these -delicious bivalves. - -=Uses of the Chafing-dish.= It may be used for broth, stew, soup, -and fancy roast, the treatment being exactly the same as with a -saucepan or an omelet-pan on a stove. - - - - -EGGS - - -Eggs, next to milk, are the most valuable form of food for those -who are very ill. They contain in excellent proportion most of the -elements necessary to nourish the body; but being a concentrated -form of food, it is well to associate with them milk or some other -liquid, and such starchy foods as bread, potatoes, etc. - -According to Lawes and Gilbert the composition of egg is as follows: - - SHELL Carbonate of lime 10.00% - - { Nitrogenous matter 16.00% - { Fatty matter 30.70% - YOLK { Saline matter 1.30% - { Water 52.00% - ------- - Total 100.00% - - { Nitrogenous matter 20.40% - WHITE { Saline matter 1.60% - { Water 78.00% - ------- - Total 100.00% - -A large proportion of both yolk and white is _albumen_.[35] It -has been found by experiment (page 25) that when white of egg -is subjected to a temperature of 134°-140° Fahr. little white -threads appear in it; that if the temperature be increased to 160° -Fahr., the whole mass becomes a white, but tender, easily divided -substance; that if the heat be raised to 200° Fahr. it loses its -tender, jelly-like consistency, and becomes firm and tenacious; and -that with continued rise of temperature the toughness increases -until at from 300°-350° Fahr. it becomes so hard that it is used as -a cement for marble. - -From these statements it will at once be inferred that the proper -cooking temperature of eggs is not that of boiling water, but 52° -lower. Eggs cooked the customary three minutes in boiling water -will be overdone in the part nearest the shell, and not cooked -at all in the center of the yolk, as three minutes is not long -enough for the heat to penetrate to that point. The yolk, though -not injurious in this condition, is not as palatable as when -it is cooked. The condition of the white, however, is of grave -importance, as even well persons are sometimes made ill by eating -it. - -It is generally agreed that although albumen will coagulate at a -temperature somewhat lower than 160° Fahr., the degree of firmness -obtained by exposing it to this temperature is the most desirable -for food. Therefore we speak of 160° Fahr. as its _cooking -temperature_. An egg cooked ideally would be subjected to that -temperature for a sufficient time to allow the heat to penetrate -and act upon all portions of it. The time required is half an hour. -Cooked according to this method, the white would be opaque and -firm, but tender and delicate, the yolk not liquid and lukewarm, -but thick and almost firm. The flavor of both is delicious. - -A knowledge of the proper temperature necessary to bring about this -change is absolutely essential to any one who would cook eggs, -and dishes which contain them, such as creams, puddings, etc., as -they should be cooked. A great deal of the philosophy of cooking -depends upon this knowledge, for nearly all kinds of meat, fish, -oysters, milk, and other albuminous foods contain as one of their -most valuable nutrients the substance known as albumen. When they -are cooked with reference to this _alone_, we find that they are -also done in the best-known way with reference to their other -ingredients. - -Practically with our present kitchen appliances it is exceedingly -difficult to maintain for half an hour a steady temperature of -160°, but excellent results may be obtained by the following method. - - -SOFT-COOKED EGGS - -Pour enough boiling water into a saucepan to more than cover -whatever number of eggs are to be cooked; then put in the eggs, and -let them stand for ten minutes on the hearth or any place where the -water will not lose its warmth too quickly. Remember that it is the -heat in the water which is to do the cooking. The saucepan should -remain uncovered. Practically this is an excellent way to do, for -the amount of heat in the water will not fall below 160° Fahr. in -the ten minutes, and that time is sufficient for it to penetrate -to the center of the egg. Moreover, if the egg be forgotten, and -remains in the water for a longer time, it will not become hard -unless the temperature of the water be raised. - -Theoretically an egg should be cooked at 160° Fahr., but -practically this would involve a considerable waste of time and -necessitate the use of a thermometer. Almost the same result is -obtained in an easy and convenient way by the above method, -although it is not an exact one. The proportion of boiling water -for each egg which will insure cooking in the time given is one -pint, but somewhat less will do if many are to be cooked; for -instance, eight eggs will do in six pints, as comparatively less -heat is lost in warming the pan. - - -POACHED OR DROPPED EGGS - -From a thin, even slice of home-made bread cut out a round piece -with a biscuit-cutter; toast it a delicate brown. - -Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan and salt it, using -a saltspoon of salt to a cup of water; place it on the stove to -boil. Break a fresh egg into a cup, and when the water is boiling -slip it gently into the pan. At first the egg will cool the water -below the boiling-point, but should the water again begin to boil, -withdraw the pan to a cooler part of the stove. When the white is -firm, or at the end of about two minutes, lift out the egg by means -of two spoons or a skimmer (being careful not to break the yolk), -and place it on the round of toast. The egg should not be trimmed. -Season it with a speck of salt, a little pepper, and a bit of -butter placed on the middle of the yolk. This is a dainty and easy -way of preparing eggs for the sick, and one is always sure of the -condition of the eggs, which is not the case when they are cooked -in the shell. - -A layer of minced ham or of minced chicken laid on the toast makes -a palatable variation. - -Egg-poachers, or little tin cups with perforated bottoms set in -a frame, may be bought for poaching eggs, but in those that the -author has seen the raw albumen runs into the little holes and -makes it difficult to remove the egg after it is done without -breaking it. Muffin-rings may also be used. - - -SCRAMBLED EGGS. No. 1 - -Break two eggs into a plate, and sprinkle on a little pepper and a -saltspoon of salt; beat them with a fork for one minute, add two -tablespoons of milk or, better, thin sweet cream; beat again and -pour the mixture into a buttered pan; stir it gently, letting it -cook slowly for about two minutes, or until the albumen of the egg -is coagulated. It should be soft and tender, not hardened. Serve it -on toast, or in a small, square covered dish. - - -SCRAMBLED EGGS. No. 2 - -Beat two eggs, a saltspoon of salt, and a sprinkle of white pepper -in a bowl with a Dover egg-beater until quite light; add two -tablespoons of sweet cream or of milk, and turn the mixture into -a double boiler to cook, stirring it constantly until the albumen -is just coagulated. A delicate and easily digested dish is the -result. It is a safer way to use the double boiler rather than an -omelet-pan. If no double boiler is at hand, one may be improvised -with a bowl or dish set into a kettle of hot water. - - -OMELETS - -Omelets may be made in a great variety of ways, the kind depending -not upon a difference in mixing the eggs, but upon the ingredients -which are added. _Spanish_ omelet is ordinary omelet with onion. -_Truffles_, _mushrooms_, _chopped oysters_, _rum_, and _tomato_ -make other varieties. Flour should never be used in them, as it -cannot be properly cooked in the short time that should be given -to the eggs. If it should happen that an omelet is to be made, and -there is no milk at hand, water may be substituted, but an omelet -should never be made without one or the other. - - -CREAMY OMELET - -Beat four eggs slightly with a fork until you can take up a -spoonful; add two saltspoons of salt, half a saltspoon of pepper, -four tablespoons of milk or cream, and mix well. Butter an -omelet-pan, and before the butter browns turn in the mixture. Then -with the point of a fork pick or lift up the cooked egg from the -center, and let the uncooked egg run under. This leaves the butter -on the pan, and is better than stirring. Continue the lifting until -the whole is of a soft creamy consistency, then place it over a -hotter part of the fire and brown slightly, fold and turn out as -usual. (Adapted from Mrs. D. A. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book.") - -For an invalid's use take half the quantities mentioned above--that -is, use two eggs, two tablespoons of milk or cream, a saltspoon of -salt, and a bit of pepper; and instead of having the omelet-pan -hot, have it just warm enough to melt the butter; otherwise the -first layer of egg which is cooked may be overdone and hardened. - - -FOAMY OMELET - -Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs, and put them into -bowls. To the yolks add a saltspoon of salt and one fourth of a -saltspoon of pepper. Beat with a Dover egg-beater until light. -Then add two tablespoons of milk. Beat the whites until stiff, -but not as stiff as possible, and _fold_, not _beat_ them into -the yolks, so that the whole shall be very light and puffy. Pour -the mixture into a buttered omelet-pan, and cook slowly until the -under side begins to change color and become brown, or for about -_two minutes_. Then put the pan on the grate in the oven for -about _one minute_, to cook the upper surface. One must endeavor -to avoid both over and under cooking. If the omelet is not done -enough, the raw egg will ooze out after it is folded; on the other -hand, if it is cooked too much, it will be dry and tough. When -it seems to be coagulated on the upper surface, run a case-knife -under it to separate it from the pan, and fold one half over the -other. Take the platter which is to receive it in the right hand, -lay it against the edge of the pan, and tip the omelet out. Serve -immediately. - -An omelet is a dainty and delicate way of serving eggs, and may -be well made by any one who will bear in mind that the cooking -temperature of albumen is 160° Fahr., and that if exposed to a -very much higher degree of heat for many minutes, it will be -spoiled,--rendered both unpalatable and indigestible. - - -OMELET WITH HAM. No. 1 - -Broil a thin, small slice of ham until thoroughly well done. Lay -it between the folds of an omelet. Either creamy or foamy omelets -may be used. - - -OMELET WITH HAM. No. 2 - -Mince a piece of cooked ham until it is fine. Stir it into an -omelet in the proportion of one teaspoon to an egg, or it may be -sprinkled over the surface just before folding. When seasoned with -a little mustard, it makes a very piquant addition. Either creamy -or foamy omelets may be used. - - -OMELET WITH JELLY - -Spread a tablespoon of grape or currant jelly over the middle of -the upper surface of a two-egg omelet just before folding it. - - -OMELET WITH CHICKEN - -Chop fine the cooked white meat of a piece of chicken. Season it -with salt and pepper, and sprinkle it over an omelet, or stir it -into the egg before cooking, in the proportion of one teaspoon to -an egg, as is done with ham. - - -OMELET WITH TOMATO - -Prepare thin slices of very ripe tomatoes, by removing the skin -and seasoning slightly with salt. Lay them on that part of the -omelet which is to be the lower half, and fold; or the tomato may -be tucked into the omelet after folding. - - -OMELET WITH PARSLEY - -Wash some parsley. Break off the stems and roll the rest into a -little ball; then, holding it firmly in the left hand, cut slices -from it, or chop it on a board. Stir it into the omelet mixture -before it is cooked, in the proportion of one teaspoon for each egg. - - -SPANISH OMELET - -To an omelet mixture add two drops of onion-juice for each egg, or -half a teaspoon of very finely minced onion. - - -ORANGE OMELET - -"The thinly grated rind of one orange and three tablespoons of the -juice, three eggs, and three teaspoons of powdered sugar. Beat the -yolks, add the sugar, rind, and juice, fold in the beaten whites, -and cook. Fold, turn out, sprinkle thickly with powdered sugar, and -score in diagonal lines with a clean red-hot poker. The burnt sugar -gives to the omelet a delicious flavor. - -"This is a convenient dessert for an emergency, and may be prepared -in ten minutes if one has the oranges." (From Mrs. D. A. Lincoln's -"Boston Cook Book.") - - - - -POTATOES - - -Next to wheat flour, potatoes are our most common form of starch -food. The potato is a tuber, a native of America, and may be said -to have been discovered to the civilized world by the Spaniards, -who found it growing in Chili and Peru. Thence it was carried to -Spain, and from there to other parts of Europe, some time in the -sixteenth century. Potatoes were at first used as luxuries, but are -now almost ranked among the necessities of life. - -The composition of potatoes (Letherby) is as follows: - - Water 75.00% - Starch 18.80% - Nitrogenous matter 2.00% - Sugar 3.00% - Fat .20% - Salts 1.00%[36] - -From this we see that starch is the principal nutrient, therefore -potatoes in use for food should be associated with nitrogenous -substances, such as eggs, meat, fish, and milk. The potash salts -which potatoes contain are very valuable. According to Letherby, -an average of thirty-one analyses of the ash of potatoes gave 59.8 -per cent. of potash, 19.1 per cent. of phosphoric acid, the other -ingredients being in exceedingly small proportions. These salts -are necessary to a healthy condition of the blood. Potatoes are a -valuable antiscorbutic. - -According to Mattieu Williams, scurvy prevailed in Norway to a very -serious extent until the introduction of the potato; and Lang, with -other good authorities, testifies that its disappearance is due to -the use of potatoes by a people who formerly were insufficiently -supplied with salts-giving vegetable food. - -The salts of the potato are most abundant in or near the skin, and -the decision of the question as to whether potatoes shall be pared -or not before cooking is somewhat aided by this fact. For persons -who eat but few other fresh vegetables by all means leave the -skins on, but for those who have access to a good kitchen garden -and have plenty of other vegetables and fruits from which to get -their salts, it makes no important difference whether the skins are -removed. - -The potato is eminently a starch food, and this knowledge indicates -the method of treatment in cooking. Since starch is its principal -ingredient (the amount of nitrogenous matter being very small), if -it is cooked with reference to that alone, it will be done in the -best possible manner. - -Starch, in order to be rendered most digestible and acceptable to -the human system, must be subjected to a high temperature in the -presence of some liquid. At 401° Fahr. (see pages 33 and 34) it is -converted into dextrine. This change, if not performed outside the -body, will be done in the ordinary processes of digestion after the -starch is eaten; therefore the nearer we approach to it in cooking, -the more perfectly is the food prepared which contains it. - -Usually the first vegetable prescribed by the physician for a sick -person who is beginning to use solids, is a baked potato. A baked -potato, however, may be no better than a boiled potato unless it is -cooked in so high a temperature that the starch is affected. Boiled -potatoes cannot be subjected to a higher temperature than 212° -Fahr. Baked potatoes may be done in such a way that they are but -little better than boiled--for instance, done in a slow oven. On -the other hand, if they are put into a temperature of 380° or 400° -Fahr., or a hot oven, they will be done in such a manner that the -conversion of starch will in a degree take place, and they will be -consequently both palatable and easily digested. - -Potatoes roasted in hot ashes or embers are delicious, and for the -same reason. But it must not be understood that by cooking potatoes -in a high temperature the starch which they contain is _all_ -changed into dextrine. This does not usually take place except in -slight degree, but by the high temperature it is better prepared -for this change in the processes of digestion. Probably what does -take place is a sort of hydration of the starch, resulting in the -complete swelling and final bursting of the granules, with possibly -an intermediate change between this and dextrine. Just at the -moment when potatoes are done they should be immediately taken from -the fire and served at once. The potato is capable of being made -into a variety of dishes, and when properly prepared has a delicate -flavor which is very acceptable to most people. _It is one of the -most easily digested forms of starch-containing food._ - - -BOILED POTATOES - -For boiled potatoes, if they are to be served whole, select those -of the same shape and size. Wash them under a stream of water with -a vegetable brush. Pare carefully so as not to waste the potato, -and evenly, that they may look smooth and shapely. Cook them in a -granite-ware kettle or covered saucepan, in enough salted boiling -water to just cover them. If cold water is used, there is a greater -loss of potash salts by solution, because of the longer time of -exposure to the action of the liquid. The proportion of salt should -be one teaspoon to a quart of water. - -Potatoes being already hydrated, it makes no great difference -whether they are put into hot or cold water, except in the time -which will be required to boil them and the slight loss of salts. -For medium-sized potatoes from thirty to forty minutes will be -necessary after they begin to boil. The moment they feel soft when -pierced with a fork they are done. Take them at once from the fire, -drain off all the water, and dry them by gently moving the pan back -and forth over the top of the stove for a minute. Serve as quickly -as possible. Unless they are to be eaten at once, it is better to -mash them, and keep them in the oven until needed. - - -MASHED POTATOES - -For mashed potatoes the uneven sizes may be used; the large ones -should be cut into small pieces. Prepare according to the foregoing -rule, and when they are cooked and dried, add salt, butter, pepper, -and cream, in the following proportions: - - 1 Pint of potatoes. - 1 Teaspoon of butter. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of pepper (white). - 2 Tablespoons of sweet cream or of milk. - -Put into the potatoes the butter, salt, and pepper, and mash them -on the stove, in the dish in which they were boiled, to keep them -hot. Use an open wire potato-masher, and mash quickly so that they -may be light and dry, not "gummy." Last put in the cream, mix for -a moment, and serve immediately in a covered vegetable-dish. If -it is necessary to keep them for a time, arrange them like a cake -in the dish in which they are to be served, smooth over the top, -dot it with little bits of butter, or brush it over with milk or -the beaten white of egg, and brown them a delicate golden color by -placing the dish on the grate in the oven. - - -BAKED POTATOES - -For baked potatoes, select those which are of uniform size and -not very large. Scrub them thoroughly in a stream of water from -the faucet, to wash off every particle of sand, for many like to -eat the outside. Bake them in a hot oven for from forty-five to -fifty minutes. If the potatoes are of _medium_ size, and do not -cook in that time, it indicates that the oven is not of the proper -temperature. - -Baked potatoes, not being exposed to the solvent action of a -liquid, lose none of their potash salts in cooking, as boiled -potatoes do. The same is true of those roasted, and of those fried -raw in deep fat. - - -ROASTED POTATOES - -Bury medium-sized potatoes in the embers or ashes of an open fire -for a half hour or more, according to their size. At the end of -that time dust off the ashes with a brush. Burst the shells by -squeezing them in the hand, and serve at once with salt, and -butter or cream. Either baked or roasted potatoes are delicious -eaten with sweet cream, salt, and pepper. - - -CREAMED POTATOES - -Left-over potatoes may be used for this dish, or potatoes may -be boiled on purpose for it. Whichever is used, cut them into -half-inch dice, put them in an omelet-pan, season them with salt -and pepper, and pour in milk until it is even with the surface of -the potato; then simmer gently until all the milk is absorbed, or -for about half an hour. For every pint of potatoes make a pint of -white sauce, season it with a saltspoon of salt and a teaspoon of -chopped parsley, and pour it over. Potatoes are very nice done in -this way, if care is taken in simmering them in the milk. Unless -this is done according to the rule, they will have the cold-potato -taste, which is not at all palatable. - -A little chopped onion may replace the parsley with good effect. - - -DUCHESS POTATOES - - 1 Pint of potatoes. - 1 Teaspoon of butter. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Egg. - ¼ Teaspoon of white pepper. - -Wash, pare, and boil the potatoes. Drain out every drop of water, -and dry them in the usual way. When dry and mealy, put in the -butter, salt, and pepper, and mash them thoroughly and quickly. -If potatoes are mashed for a long time slowly, they become waxy, -so endeavor to do it quickly and as lightly as possible. Then add -the egg, well beaten, and the cream; mix, and form it into a flat -cake (on a board) about half an inch thick. Cut it into oblongs -or squares, or shape it into rounds or balls, brush over with -the beaten white of egg, or milk, and bake in a hot oven until a -delicate brown. Serve the cakes on a platter as soon as they are -done. - - - - -MEATS - -(BROILED) - - -Of the different ways of cooking the flesh of animals, especially -for the sick, broiling is at once the most delicious and the most -difficult. - -The difference between broiled meat and meat cooked in water is -that the broiled meat is cooked in its own juices, while the other -is not. The albumen is coagulated in both cases, and the gelatinous -and fibrinous tissues are softened by being heated in a liquid. -In broiling or roasting meat the juices are retained, while in -stewing they go more or less into the water, and the loosening of -the fibers and solution of the gelatin and fibrin may be carried -further, on account of the longer exposure to heat and the larger -amount of solvent. In broiling, as the meat is to be cooked in its -own juices, it is evident that these must be retained as completely -as possible; and in order to succeed in this, we have to struggle -with a dry heat, which may not only cause rapid evaporation, but -may volatilize or decompose some of the flavoring principles.[37] - -We should, therefore, endeavor to have such a temperature as shall -at first be sufficiently high to quickly coagulate, even harden, -the albumen in the outside surface, and thus form a layer or -protecting coat over the whole, and then to so modify and regulate -the heat afterward that the interior shall be raised to such a -temperature as shall properly cook it without loss of its nutritive -properties. - -The time of exposure will be different for different kinds of -meat--beef and mutton requiring a shorter time than lamb, chicken, -or game. Beef and mutton are best when cooked rare; lamb, chicken, -and some kinds of game are best when well done. Game with _white -flesh_ should be _well done_; _all other kinds_, generally -speaking, may be _rare_. - -Much of the science of cooking depends upon a knowledge of the -effects of heat; and as many changes in food are due to the -dissociation caused by heat, the degree of change depending upon -the temperature, the value of a sound knowledge of the subject -cannot fail to be seen. - -To illustrate: aside from the evaporation of juices and coagulation -of albumen in a piece of steak, the chemical separation of its -constituents, especially of the outside shell or sheath, will vary -with the degree of heat in which it is cooked. - -Not only for meats, but for most animal foods, a cooking -temperature less than 212° but above 160° is most advisable. This -applies particularly to milk, eggs, oysters, meats, and fish. Of -course in broiling we partially sacrifice the outside by cooking in -a high temperature for the sake of preserving the inner portions. - - -BEEF - -Beef is, without doubt, our most valuable kind of meat. It is -nutritious, of excellent flavor, and comparatively easy of -digestion. It contains many of the substances necessary to nourish -the body--water, fat, albumen, gelatin, fibrin, salts, and -flavoring properties. The direct nutrients which it contains are -fat and protein. - -The quality of beef varies with the age of the animal and the -manner in which it has been fattened. It requires a considerable -amount of study to be able to select a good roast or steak. If -the fat be of light, golden color, firm and thick, and the lean -be streaked with fine lines of fat, it is one indication of a -well-nourished animal. A reliable dealer may be of great service in -aiding one to distinguish between good and poor qualities. - -The best portions for steak are from the loin, top of the round, -and rump. The cut called "porterhouse" is from near the middle of -the loin, and is the best portion of the animal. It has a rich, -fine flavor, and contains a section of tenderloin. Sirloin steak -is from the loin, and is also very nice. The first and second -cuts from the top of the round are excellent, containing much -well-flavored juice. The composition of a round steak free from -bones is as follows (in 100 parts): - - { Protein, gelatin, fibrin, etc. 23.00% - NUTRIENTS { Fats 9.00% - { Mineral matters 1.30% - WATER 66.70% - ------- - Total 100.00% - - ATWATER. - -The time given below for the digestion of beef is taken from -calculations by Dr. Beaumont: - - Hours. Minutes. - Beefsteak broiled 3 - Beef, fresh, lean, roasted 3 30 - Beef fried 4 - -VALUE OF BEEF - - As material for muscle 19 - As heat-giver 14 - As food for brain and nervous system 2 - Water 65 - - ATWATER. - -=To Broil Steak.= Select a steak from the loin, top of the round, -or rump. Have it cut an inch and a half (or, better, two inches) -thick. If there is a great deal of fat, trim off part of it, and -wipe the steak with a clean, wet cloth. A fire of glowing red -coals is necessary to do broiling well. Place the steak in a wire -broiler, and put it as near the coals as possible (one writer -says plunge it into the hottest part of the fire), _count ten_ -and turn it, count again and turn again until it has been turned -_five_ or _six times_ so as to quickly cook a thin layer all over -the outside, to shut in the juices of the meat, and to form a -protecting sheath of coagulated albumen over the whole. Then lift -the broiler away from the coals and do the rest of the process -_slowly_,--that is, in a lower temperature, that the heat may have -time to penetrate to the center of the piece and raise the juices -to a sufficiently high temperature to soften the fibers, but not so -high as to hornify the albumen or char the outside. Turn it every -half minute until done. - -If the fat melts and flames, do not lift up the broiler; it will do -no harm, and the black deposit which results is only carbon. This -carbon is not injurious; the color is not especially attractive, -but the taste will be good. The cautious cook who does not -appreciate this will lift up the broiler, thus cooling the meat, -and will perhaps blow out the flame, a proceeding which is open to -question as a point of neatness. - -As coal fires are never twice alike, and the amount of heat sent -out is variable, it is constantly necessary to judge anew as to -where the broiler shall be placed. A certain amount of practice -is required to be able to broil with even fair success. When done -a steak should be brown on the outside, pink and juicy inside, -and plump, not shriveled. Steak should be at least an inch thick, -otherwise the proportion of surface exposed to the heat will be so -great in proportion to the amount of meat as to cause the loss by -evaporation of most of the juice, thus making the steak tough and -dry. - -From _five_ to _seven_ minutes will be required to cook a steak -an inch thick; if an inch and a half thick, from _eight_ to _ten_ -minutes. Serve the steak on a hot platter after having seasoned -_both_ sides of it with salt and pepper, but no butter. If it is -desirable to use butter, serve it with the steak rather than on it. - - -HAMBURG STEAK. No. 1 - -(SCRAPED BEEF) - -Cut a piece of tender steak half an inch thick. Lay it on a -meat-board, and with a sharp knife scrape off the soft part until -there is nothing left but the tough, stringy fibers. Season this -pulp with salt and pepper, make it into little flat, round cakes -half an inch thick, and broil them two minutes. Serve on rounds of -buttered toast. This is a safe and dainty way to prepare steak for -one who is just beginning to eat meat. When it is not convenient to -have glowing coals, these meat-cakes may be broiled in a very hot -omelet-pan. - - -HAMBURG STEAK. No. 2 - -Pound a thin piece of beefsteak until the fibers are broken; season -it with salt and pepper, fold and pound again; then broil it three -or four minutes over a clear hot fire. Serve at once. - - -TENDERLOIN STEAK - -Broil a tenderloin steak, and at the same time a small piece of -round steak, which usually contains a great deal of well-flavored -juice. Cut the round steak into small pieces, and squeeze the -juice from it over the tenderloin. Tenderloin steak is tender, -but usually neither juicy nor particularly well flavored. By this -method one gets a delicious steak. - - -BEEFSTEAK À LA MAÎTRE D'HÔTEL - -Broil a steak, place it on a platter, and season it with salt -and pepper; sprinkle it with finely chopped parsley, drops of -lemon-juice, and some little bits of butter. Set it in the oven -long enough to soften the butter. A steak done in this way may be -made quite attractive by garnishing it with hot mashed and seasoned -potatoes which have been squeezed through a potato-strainer. A -colander may be used in lieu of a strainer. The potato loses some -of its heat in the process, so care must be taken to have the dish -very hot or to place it in the oven until it becomes so. - -A steak may always be garnished with parsley, water-cress, or -slices of lemon. - - -CHICKEN - -(BROILED) - -For broiling, select a young chicken--one from three to eight -months old. Singe it. Split it down the back, and free it from all -refuse, such as pin-feathers, lungs, kidneys, oil-bag, windpipe, -and crop (the latter is sometimes left in when the chicken is -drawn). Wash it quickly in cold water, fold it in a clean cloth -kept for the purpose, and clap gently between the hands until all -the water is absorbed. Separate the joints--the _lower joint of the -leg_ and the _upper joint of the wing_--by cutting the flesh on the -under side and severing the white tough tendons. Soften some butter -until it runs, then dip the chicken into it, season it with salt -and pepper, dredge with flour, and broil it in a wire broiler for -from fifteen to twenty minutes, according to the size. - -The same principle holds in broiling chicken as in steak. The -first part of the process should be done in a high temperature to -coagulate the juices of the outer layers, and the last part very -slowly. Care must be taken that it is thoroughly done at the thick -joints of the wing and leg. Serve hot. - -=To Buy a Chicken.= The best chickens have yellow skin, but one may -be deceived if guided by this alone, for _fowls_ often have yellow -skin also. The flexibility of the end of the breast-bone is always -a sure means of deciding as to the age of the bird. If it be soft, -easily bent, and if it feels like cartilage, the chicken is young. -Sometimes dealers break the bone for the purpose of deceiving -buyers, but it does not take a great deal of intelligence to decide -between a broken bone and one that is easily bent. If the bone -be hard and firm, it is an indication of age. For broiling, of -course, the chicken should be young, the flesh of good color and -well nourished, and, as in the buying of beef, one may rely upon -the judgment of a good dealer. The way in which chickens are fed -has much to do with the flavor of the meat. - - -BIRDS - -Various kinds of birds, such as squab, partridge, plover, snipe, -pheasant, etc., are particularly appropriate food for the sick, -partly because we associate them with the dainty things of life, -but more on account of the valuable nutrient properties which -they contain. They are especially rich in salts (particularly the -phosphates), which are so much needed by a system exhausted by -disease. - -Birds which feed mostly on grains, such as the partridge and the -pheasant, will bear transportation, and will keep, in cold weather, -a long time. Birds with dark flesh, which live mostly on animal -food, decay quickly. - -A general rule for the cooking of game is this: that with white -flesh should be well done, that with dark should be rare, and -usually is only properly cooked when served so, as in the case of -woodcock, duck, and snipe. - -=When in Season.= Some birds, such as reed-birds, partridge, and -plover, have a season which varies slightly in different parts of -the country, according to the game laws of different States. In -Maryland, the following birds may be found in market according to -the time stated: - - Squabs All the year. - Partridge November 1--December 25. - Snipe September--December. - Plover September--November. - Pheasants October--January. - Woodcock August--February. - Rice- or reed-birds September--Middle October. - Field-larks Summer and early autumn. - Grouse (prairie-hen) All the year. - Pigeons All the year. - -The cleansing and preparation of birds is in general carried out in -the same manner as with chickens. When there is any variation from -this, it will be mentioned under the rule for each. - - -SQUABS - -Squabs are young domestic pigeons. The Philadelphia market supplies -nearly all of those used in the eastern part of the United States. - -Remove the feathers, and all pin-feathers; cut off the head and -legs, and split the bird down the back carefully with a sharp -knife. Lift out carefully the contents of the body, which are -contained in a little sac or delicate membrane; they should be -taken out without breaking. Do not forget the windpipe, crop, -lungs, and kidneys. Wash, and prepare the squab in the same manner -that chicken is done, except the dipping in butter and dredging -with flour; this may be omitted, as squabs are generally fat and do -not require it. Broil from twelve to fifteen minutes, according to -the size of the bird and the intensity of the fire. It should be -well done. Serve on hot buttered toast. - - -PARTRIDGE - -The partridge is a white-fleshed bird. It may be broiled or -roasted. - -=To Broil.= Follow the same rule as that given for squab, except -dip in melted butter and dredge with flour. - -=To Roast.= Prepare in the same manner as for broiling, except dip -in butter and dredge twice. Do not forget the salt and pepper. Then -skewer the body so that it will resemble a whole bird, and look as -if it had not been split down the back. Spread a teaspoon of butter -on the breast, and bake it in a hot oven for twenty to thirty -minutes. Partridge done in this way is delicious, for the butter -enriches the meat, which is naturally dry. It should be served well -done, not rare, on hot buttered toast, with currant jelly. - -The season for partridges is in most States during the last part -of the autumn, and generally the laws in regard to them are rigid. -Nevertheless, they can be bought from the middle of October until -May, or the beginning of warm weather. The partridge is a bird that -keeps well, bears transportation, and is sent from one part of the -country to another, many coming from the West when the season is -over in the Eastern States. It is a medium-sized bird, with mottled -brown feathers, which are black at the ends, especially those on -the back, and mottled brown and silver-gray on the breast. - - -SNIPE - -Snipe may be both prepared and cooked as partridges are--that is, -broiled and roasted. The snipe has rich, dark meat, and therefore -will not need to be dipped in butter for either broiling or -roasting. It is about the same size as a squab, but as it is to be -cooked rare (it is more tender and of nicer flavor so), ten minutes -is sufficient time for broiling, and from twelve to fifteen -minutes for roasting in a hot oven. Serve it with currant jelly on -hot buttered toast. - -The snipe has a long bill, from two to two and a half inches in -length. It is about the size of a squab, with dark, almost black, -wing-feathers tipped with white, and the feathers of the back are -intermingled with flecks of golden brown. The under sides of the -wings are pearl-gray, and the breast is white. - - -PHEASANTS - -Pheasants may be broiled or roasted. As the meat is dry, they -should be well rubbed with soft butter and dredged with flour. It -is a good way, after putting on the salt and pepper, to dip the -bird into melted butter, then dredge it with flour, then lay on -soft butter and dredge a second time; or, when it is skewered and -ready for the oven, it may be spread thickly over the breast with -softened butter. Care must be taken that the very thick portion of -the breast be cooked through, as pheasant should be well done, and -from one half to three quarters of an hour will be necessary for -this. - - -WOODCOCK - -The woodcock is about the size of a partridge, with mottled dark -brown and gray feathers, except on the breast, where they are a -sort of light salmon brown. It has a long slender beak, somewhat -like that of a snipe. - -Prepare woodcock like squab, only do not cut off the head, as the -brain is considered a dainty by epicures. Remove the skin from the -head, and tie or skewer it back against the body. Use salt and -pepper for seasoning, but neither flour nor butter, as the woodcock -has dark, rich flesh. Broil from eight to ten minutes. Serve rare -on toast. - - -REED-BIRDS - -Reed-birds are to be prepared after the general rule for dressing -birds. Although they are sometimes cooked whole, it is better to -draw them. Split them down the back, remove the contents of the -body, and after washing and wiping them, string three or four on a -skewer, pulling it through their sides, so that they shall appear -whole. Roast in a shallow pan in a hot oven, from _eight_ to _ten_ -minutes; or, before roasting, wrap each one in a very thin slice of -fat pork and pin it on with a skewer (wire). - -=Broiled.= Prepare as for roasting, except peel off the skin, -taking the feathers with it. Broil from two to four minutes. Serve -on toast. - -It is a good plan to skin all small birds. - -The reed-bird is the bobolink of New England, the reed-bird of -Pennsylvania, and the rice-bird of the Carolinas. - - -GROUSE - -The grouse or prairie-hen is in season all the year, but is at its -best during the fall and winter. - -=To Prepare.= Clean, wash, and wipe it. Lard the breast, or fasten -to it with slender skewers a thin slice of salt pork. Grouse has -dry flesh, consequently it will be improved by rubbing softened -butter over it, as well as by using pork. Sprinkle on a little -salt, dredge it with flour, and cook in a quick oven for thirty -minutes. - -Grouse are also very nice potted. After they are made ready for -cooking, fry a little fat pork and some chopped onion together in a -large deep spider for a few minutes, then lay in the grouse, cover -the spider, and fry until the outside of each bird is somewhat -browned, or for twenty minutes, slowly. Then put them into a -granite-ware kettle and stew until tender, which will take from -one to two hours. When they are done, lift them out, thicken the -liquid slightly with flour, and season it with salt and pepper for -a gravy. Serve the grouse on a deep platter with the gravy poured -around, or simply season the liquid and cook tiny dumplings in it, -which may be served around the birds. Then thicken the liquid and -pour over. The amount of onion to be fried with the pork should not -exceed half a teaspoon for each bird, and of pork the proportion of -a cubic inch to a bird is enough. - -_Pigeons_ potted according to these directions for grouse are -excellent. - - -FIELD-LARKS - -Field-larks and robins may be prepared and cooked in exactly the -same way that reed-birds are done. Robins are good in autumn. - - -VENISON - -Venison is in season during the late autumn and winter. When "hung" -for a proper length of time, it is the most easily digested of all -meats. For this reason it is a favorite with epicures who eat late -suppers. According to Dr. Beaumont it is digested in _one hour and -thirty-five minutes_.[38] - -Steaks may be taken either from the loin or the round. Broil them -according to the rule for beefsteak, and serve very hot with a -slice of lemon or a little claret poured over. - -Venison will not please an epicure unless it is hot and rare when -served. To accomplish this in a perfectly satisfactory manner, it -has become the fashion in families to have the broiling done on the -table, in a chafing-dish, each person attending to his own steak, -and cooking it according to his particular fancy. - - -MUTTON - -A good piece of meat freed from refuse,--that is, indigestible -portions such as bone, etc.,--if neatly prepared and _properly -cooked_, is practically entirely digested. If carelessly handled -and cooked so that its juices are evaporated, and its natural -flavors undeveloped or destroyed, there will be more or less waste -in the process of digestion. - -Mutton requires more care in cooking than beef, or, in other -words, it is more easily spoiled in that process; but when done -with due consideration, it is a most acceptable meat. A thick, -carefully broiled, hot, juicy mutton chop just from the coals -is a very delicious morsel. The same piece with the adjectives -reversed,--that is, done without thought, perhaps raw in the -middle, charred on the outside, and cold,--is far from being -acceptable to even a healthy person. - -Just inside of the outer skin of the sheep there is a thick, tough -membrane enveloping the whole animal; the peculiar flavor called -"woolly," which makes mutton disagreeable to many, is given to the -meat largely by this covering. It is supposed that the oil from -the wool strikes through. An important point in the preparation of -the meat for cooking is the removal of this skin, for otherwise -the unpleasant taste will be very strong, and the chop or roast -consequently far from as delicate as it might be. - -The value of mutton as a nutrient is practically the same as that -of beef, as may be seen by comparing the following table with that -of beef previously given. - - As material for muscle 21 - As heat-giver 14 - As food for brain and nervous system 2 - Water 63 - -DIGESTIBILITY OF MUTTON - - Hours. Minutes. - Broiled 3 - Boiled 3 - Roasted 3 15 - - -MUTTON CHOPS - -For the same reason that is given in the rule for beefsteak, mutton -chops should be thick. When the fat is abundant and little lines of -fat run through the flesh, it is an indication of a good quality of -meat. - -To prepare the chops for broiling, cut away the tough outside skin, -trim off a part of the fat, but not all, and any portion of the -spinal cord which may be attached. Broil in the same manner that -steak is done--that is, close to the glowing coals--for about one -minute, turning often, and at a distance from them for the rest of -the time, which should be from _four_ to _six_ minutes for a chop -an _inch thick_. - -Mutton, like beef, should be served rare. Season chops with salt -and pepper, but no butter, as the meat is rich in fat and does not -require it. Tomato-sauce is an old-fashioned accompaniment of a -chop, and may or may not be served with it. For breakfast it is -better omitted. - - -CHOPS, PAN-BROILED - -Chops are fairly good pan-broiled. The same principle is to be -followed as in cooking over coals--that is, a high degree of heat -at first, to sear over the outside before the juices escape, and -a low temperature afterward; therefore heat the pan or spider -_exceedingly_ hot (use no fat), drop in the chop, count ten and -turn, count again and turn again for about one minute, then draw -the pan to the side or back of the stove and finish slowly. A chop -one inch thick will be perfectly done in from _five_ to _seven_ -minutes. If the pan is hot enough at first, there will be no loss -of juice or flavor. Season and serve in the same manner as broiled -chops. - - -FRENCH CHOPS - -Trim a chop until there is nothing left but the round muscle at the -thick end, with a little fat about it. Cut away all the meat from -the bone, which will then look like a handle with a neat morsel at -one end. Broil. - - -CHOPS IN PAPER - -Spread a piece of paper evenly and thickly with butter. Lay upon -it a nicely trimmed chop, and double the paper with the edges -together. Fold and crease these edges on the three sides; then -fold and crease again, so that the butter cannot run out. These -folds should be _half an inch_ wide. It will be necessary to have -the sheet of paper (note-paper or thick brown paper will do) -considerably more than twice as large as the chop. Broil over -coals, not too near, turning often so that the temperature shall -not get so high as to ignite the paper. A chop broiled in this way -is basted in the butter and its own juices, and is very delicate. -Be careful not to let the paper ignite, and yet do not have it -so far from the coals that the meat will not cook. This is best -accomplished by holding the broiler near the coals and turning -often: that is, about once in twenty seconds. There is no danger -that the paper will catch fire if the broiler is turned often -enough. A chop three quarters of an inch thick will cook in _five_ -minutes, one an inch thick in _eight_. Should the paper catch fire, -it need not destroy the chop. Take it out, put it into a fresh -paper, and try again. The chop should be served very hot, seasoned -with salt and pepper. - - -LAMB CHOPS - -Lamb chops are very delicate and tender. They may be known by the -lighter color of the flesh as compared with mutton chops, and by -the whiteness of the fat. Prepare and broil them in the same way -that mutton chops are broiled, except that they are to be _well -done_ instead of rare, and to accomplish this longer cooking by -about three minutes will be required: for a chop an inch thick, -from _eight_ to _ten_ minutes, instead of from four to six as for -mutton. - - - - -STEWS - - -CHICKEN STEW - - 1 Cup of chicken meat. - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion. - 2 Tablespoons of white turnip. - 1 Saltspoon of curry-powder. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - A little white pepper. - 1 Tablespoon of rice. - -Left-over broiled chicken or the cuttings from a cold roast will -do for this dish. Divide the meat into small pieces, excluding all -skin, gristle, tendons, and bone. Boil the bones and scraps, in -water enough to cover them, for an hour. Then strain the liquor, -skim off the fat, and put into it the chicken, onion, turnip (which -should be cut in small cubes), curry-powder, salt, pepper, and -rice. Simmer all together for an hour. Serve. The vegetables and -curry flavor the meat, and a most easily digested and palatable -dish is the result. - -Potatoes may be substituted for the rice, and celery-salt, -bay-leaves, or sweet marjoram for the curry. If herbs be used, tie -them in a bag and drop it into the stew, of course removing it -before carrying the dish to the table. - -The above rule will make enough stew for two persons. By -multiplying each item in it, any amount may be made. - - -BEEF STEW - -Use for beef stew either cold beefsteak, the portions left from a -roast, or uncooked meat. - - 1 Cup of beef cut into small pieces. - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion. - 2 Tablespoons of turnip. - 2 Tablespoons of carrot. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Cup of cut potatoes. - A little black pepper. - -If beefsteak is selected, free it from fat, gristle, and bone, and -cut it into small pieces. Fry the onion, carrot, and turnip (which -should be cut into small cubes) in a little butter, slowly, until -they are brown. Add them to the meat, cover it with water, and -simmer for one hour. Then skim off the fat, put in the potatoes -(cut in half-inch cubes) and the salt and pepper. Boil for half an -hour more. Serve in a covered dish with croutons. - -The vegetables are fried partly to give the desirable brown color -to the stew, and partly because their flavor is finer done that -way. A beefsteak stew is a very savory and satisfactory dish. If -fresh, uncooked meat is used, cut it into small pieces and fry it -in a hot buttered pan for a few minutes, to brown the outside and -thus obtain the agreeable flavor that is developed in all meats by -a high temperature. Simmer two and a half hours before putting in -the potatoes. - -When the left-over portions of a roast are used, the meat should -be freed from all gristle, bone, and fat; these may be boiled -separately for additional broth. - - -MUTTON STEW - -Exactly the same rule may be followed for mutton stew as for beef. -Do not forget to trim the meat carefully. Use only clear pieces -of the lean. If a roast is used and there are bones, boil them in -water with the scraps for additional broth. Mutton stew is good -made with pearl-barley instead of potatoes, in the proportion of -one teaspoon of grain to a cup of meat; it should be put in at the -beginning of the cooking. A half teaspoon of chopped parsley is a -nice addition, or a few tablespoons of stewed and strained tomato. - - - - -SWEETBREADS - - -Sweetbreads are the pancreatic glands of the calf. They are good -while the animal lives on milk, but change their nature when it -begins to eat grass and hay, and are then no longer useful for -food. The gland consists of two parts, the long, slender portion -called the "neck" sweetbread, and the round, thick part known as -the "heart" sweetbread. These are sometimes sold separately, but -they should be together. Among epicures sweetbreads are considered -a dainty, and are certainly a most acceptable form of food for the -sick. - -=To Prepare.= As soon as sweetbreads come from market, they should -be cleaned and parboiled. Cut off any refuse,--such as pipes, fat, -and all bruised portions,--and wash them quickly in cold water. -Pour into a saucepan some boiling water, salt it, and add a little -lemon-juice or vinegar (not more than a teaspoon to a pint of -water); boil the sweetbreads in this for fifteen minutes if they -are to be creamed, broiled, or baked, or again cooked in any way; -but if they are to be served plain with peas, they should remain -on twenty-five or thirty minutes. When done, drain off the water -and set them aside to cool. Sweetbreads must always be parboiled as -soon as possible after being taken from the animal, as they decay -quickly. Sweetbreads may be made white by soaking them in cold -water for half an hour; the flavor, however, is said to be injured -by so doing. - - -CREAMED SWEETBREADS - -Make a _cream sauce_ with a cup of sweet cream, a tablespoon of -flour, and half a tablespoon of butter. Then cut a sweetbread -into half-inch cubes, salt it slightly, and sprinkle on a little -white pepper. Mix equal quantities of it and the cream sauce -together, put the mixture into individual porcelain patty-dishes or -scallop-dishes, sprinkle the top with buttered crumbs, and bake on -the grate in a hot oven for ten minutes. This will give sufficient -time to finish the cooking of the parboiled sweetbread without -hardening it. - -The sauce may be made quite acceptably with milk, by using a -tablespoon of butter instead of half that quantity. This is a good -way to prepare sweetbreads, and one particularly desirable for the -sick. They will be tender and delicate if care is taken not to -overcook them in either the boiling or the baking. - - -FRICASSEED SWEETBREADS - -Cut a parboiled sweetbread into half-inch cubes. Then make a sauce -with half a teaspoon of flour, a teaspoon of butter, three fourths -of a cup of strong chicken broth, and one fourth of a cup of sweet -cream. Heat the broth. Cook the flour in the butter, letting -the two simmer together until brown, then add the hot broth, a -little at a time, stirring constantly, and last put in the cream. -Season the sauce with a bit of salt, a little black pepper, half a -teaspoon of lemon-juice, and a speck of curry-powder. Roll the cut -sweetbread into it, simmer for five minutes, and serve on sippets, -or on squares of dry toast in a covered dish. The chicken broth -may be made by boiling the bones and cuttings of a roast, and milk -may be substituted for the cream. - - -SWEETBREADS WITH PEAS - -A favorite way of serving sweetbreads is with fresh peas. They -should be boiled in salted water and arranged in the middle of a -platter with the peas (cooked and seasoned) around them. Serve them -with a cream sauce. Or the peas may be piled in the middle of a -platter, the sweetbreads arranged as a border, and the sauce poured -around the whole. Sweetbreads larded and baked may also be served -in this way. - - - - -FISH - - -Fish fresh from the lakes or sea is excellent food. The point of -freshness is a very important one, for all kinds spoil quickly, -and, unless you can be quite sure how long they have been out of -the water, it is better to find some other food for your invalid. -Some shell-fish, such as crabs and lobsters, are especially -dangerous, and should not be eaten by either sick or well, unless -they are _known_ to be in perfect condition. For the sick they had -better not be used at all. - -"The flesh of good fresh fish is _firm_ and _hard_, and will rise -at once when pressed with the finger. If the eyes be dull or -sunken, the gills pale, and the flesh soft and flabby, the fish is -not fresh." (Mrs. Lincoln.) - -Fish with red blood, such for instance as _salmon_, are highly -nutritious but not easily digested, partly because of the amount of -fat distributed through the flesh. _Herring_ and _mackerel_ belong -to this class. White fish, such as _cod_, _haddock_, _turbot_, -_halibut_, and _flounder_, contain comparatively little fat, and -that mostly in the liver. They are easy of digestion, and possess a -delicate flavor. When in season and just from their native element, -these fish are delicious, and make excellent food for the sick, on -account of the ease with which they are digested. - -=To Prepare.= If fish be brought from market with the scales on, -as is usually the case, it is a very easy matter to remove them. -A large sheet of brown paper, or a newspaper, and a knife not very -sharp, are all that are necessary. Spread the paper on the table, -lay the fish upon it, and then with the blade of the knife held -_parallel_ with the body of the fish, or nearly so, not at right -angles to it, push off the scales. They will come off easily, and -will not fly unless you turn the edge of the knife too much. Should -this happen, the paper will catch the scales, and when the fish is -finished all the refuse can be rolled up in the paper and burned. -After removing the scales, cut off the head, fins, and tail. Make -a slit on the under side, and take out the contents of the cavity, -clearing out everything that is not flesh. Then wash the fish -quickly in a stream of cold water, wipe it, and set it in a cool -place (a refrigerator if you have it) until it is required for -cooking. Do not lay it directly on ice, for the juices of the fish -are dissolved by the water which is formed as the ice melts, and -its delicate flavor is thus impaired. - - -WHEN IN SEASON - - Cod All the year. - Haddock All the year. - Cusk Winter. - Halibut All the year. - Flounders All the year. - Salmon May to September. - Shad Spring. - Bluefish June to October. - Whitefish Winter. - Swordfish July to September. - Smelts September to March. - Perch Spring and summer. - Mackerel April to October. - Oysters September to May. - Clams All the year. - - -BROILED FISH - -Small fish, such as perch, scrod (young cod), etc., are excellent -broiled. After the fish is cleaned, washed out, and wiped, split -it lengthwise if it be thick, sprinkle on salt and pepper, squeeze -over it some drops of lemon-juice, dip it in melted butter, and -broil over clear coals, quickly at first and then very slowly, -allowing ten minutes for each inch of thickness. Serve with butter -cream. - -=To Make Butter Cream.= Cream some butter in a cup or bowl, season -it with salt, Cayenne pepper, lemon-juice, and vinegar. A teaspoon -of butter is enough for an ordinary small fish such as a perch, and -to season it a speck of cayenne, a speck of salt, and a teaspoon of -vinegar and lemon-juice (half of each), will be good proportions. -Spread it on the fish, and let it melt and run over it, or serve -it separately in a little ball on a glass butter-plate. A nice -addition to the butter is a little finely minced parsley, or -chopped pickle, such as cucumbers or olives, or the three mixed, if -they are at hand. - - -CREAMED FISH - -To make creamed fish, any white fish which flakes easily may be -used. Cusk, cod, and haddock are especially recommended. Cook the -fish fifteen or twenty minutes by gentle boiling. Then remove the -flesh carefully from the bones, letting it separate into flakes; -season it with pepper and salt, and a few drops of lemon-juice -sprinkled over. For every pint of prepared fish make a rich cream -sauce with four tablespoons of butter, two of flour, and a pint -of milk in which a small slice of onion has been boiled. Pour -the sauce over the seasoned fish, rolling them together gently so -that the flakes may not be broken, arrange on a platter, sprinkle -the top with buttered crumbs, and bake in a hot oven from twenty -minutes to half an hour. A speck of cayenne is a good addition to -make to the sauce. This is a delicious and wholesome dish. The -butter is so thoroughly incorporated with the flour of the sauce -that it becomes one of the few very easily digested forms of cooked -fat. - - -BOILED FISH - -Select any white fish--fresh cod for instance. Prepare it according -to the directions given for cleaning fish, put it into a wire -vegetable-basket, drop the basket into a dish of boiling salted -water, and let it simmer for from fifteen minutes to three quarters -of an hour according to the size of the fish (a cod weighing three -pounds will require cooking a half hour). Do not allow it to boil -rapidly at any time, or it will break. When it is done lift it out -of the basket and serve it at once with drawn butter made in the -following manner: - -Put two tablespoons of butter and one of flour into a saucepan; let -them simmer together for two minutes (count the time); then add, -a little at a time, a pint of boiling water or of chicken broth, -stirring constantly. This will give a smooth cream-like sauce which -will be enough for two pounds of fish. Season it with parsley, -grated yolks of hard-boiled eggs, a few drops of lemon-juice, a bit -each of cayenne and mustard, and a few drops of onion-juice. - - - - -CUSTARDS, CREAMS, PUDDINGS, AND BLANC-MANGE - - -SOFT CUSTARD - -(BOILED) - -Soft custard is a nutritious dish made of yolk of egg and milk. It -is frequently used as a sauce for puddings, but is very good, eaten -by itself, for one who is confined to light or liquid diet. - - 1 Pint of milk. - Yolks of two eggs. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - -Put the milk into a saucepan, and set it on the stove to boil. -Beat together the yolks of the eggs, the salt, and the sugar, in -a bowl, and when the milk just reaches the boiling-point, pour it -in slowly, stirring until all is mixed. Return it to the saucepan -without delay, and cook for _three minutes_, meanwhile stirring -it slowly. Carefully endeavor not to either overcook or undercook -the custard, for if it is not cooked enough, it will have a raw, -unpleasant, "eggy" taste, and if it is cooked too much, it will -have the appearance of being curdled. If there is no unnecessary -delay in pouring the milk into the egg so that not much of its -heat is lost, and if it is returned immediately to the fire, three -minutes' exposure to the heat will usually be long enough, but of -course the time will vary according to the condition of the fire -and the kind of pan used. When done, strain it at once into a cool -dish, and flavor it with a teaspoon of vanilla. Soft custard may -also be flavored with sherry wine, almond extract, cinnamon-bark, -caramel, and nutmeg. It should be of a smooth and even consistency, -and as thick as rich cream. - - -BAKED CUSTARD - -(IN CUPS) - - 1 Pint of milk. - 2 Eggs. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon-bark. - -Put the cinnamon and milk together in a saucepan, and set on the -stove to heat. Break the eggs into a bowl, add the salt and sugar, -and beat them until well mixed, but not light. When the milk boils, -pour it on the beaten egg, stir slowly for a minute to dissolve -the sugar, and then strain it into custard-cups. Place the cups in -a deep iron baking-pan, and pour _boiling_ water around, until it -reaches almost to their tops. Bake in a hot oven twenty minutes. - -The blue baking-cups which are small at the bottom and widen toward -the top are good ones to use. They bear the fire well, and are -pretty enough to serve. - -By baking the custards in a dish of boiling water, the temperature -cannot rise higher than 212° Fahr., and there is less danger of -hardening the albumen in the more exposed portions before the -middle is cooked enough, than if water is not used. The top is -sacrificed--somewhat overcooked--for the sake of the pretty brown -color which they should always have. Custards, when done, should be -of a perfectly smooth, even, velvety consistence throughout, not -curdled or wheyey. - -To test them after they have been cooking twenty minutes, dip a -pointed knife into water, and plunge it into the middle of the -custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is done; if milky, -it is not cooked enough, and should be put into the oven for -five minutes longer. Do not try every one unless the cups are of -different sizes, and make a small, narrow slit, so that their -appearance will not be too much injured. This mixture may also be -baked in a pudding-dish. Baked custards may be flavored with a -variety of substances, among the best of which are grated nutmeg, -almond extract, vanilla, and caramel. - -=To Make Caramel.= Boil together one cup of sugar and one third of -a cup of water until the color is a rich reddish brown, then add -one cup of water, and bottle for use. Two tablespoons of this syrup -will be required to flavor a pint of custard. - - -FRENCH CUSTARD - -Make a custard mixture according to the above rule, omitting the -cinnamon. Put into the bottom of the custard-cups in which it is to -be baked, a teaspoon of raspberry jam. Then with a tunnel pour the -custard in slowly. Bake twenty minutes. The jam, if firm, will not -mix with the custard. It imparts a nice flavor to the whole, and -is an interesting dish to many, who wonder how the jam can be kept -from dissolving. - - -RENNET CUSTARD OR SLIP - -Put into a glass pudding-dish a pint of milk, a tablespoon of -sugar, and a teaspoon of rennet. Stir to dissolve the sugar, -cover it and place it on the stove-hearth, or any warm place, -to heat sufficiently for the rennet to act upon the casein of -the milk--that is, to about 98° Fahr. As soon as it is "set," or -becomes solid, remove to a cool place, so that the separation of -the casein shall not go too far and whey appear. When it is cool, -serve it in glass dishes. Rennet custard may be flavored with -nutmeg grated over the surface, or by stirring in with the rennet -a teaspoon of vanilla, or of rose-water, or a tablespoon of wine. -When brandy is added, it is called _junket_. - -Liquid rennet is an extract of the inner lining of the stomach -of the calf. It has the power of freeing the albuminous part -of milk from its solution,--in other words, of coagulating -it. Rennet custard is not of course strictly a custard; it is -also called slip, and in Cape Cod it bears the graphic name of -"Gap-and-swallow." - - -EGG CREAM - - 2 Eggs. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - Juice and grated rind of half a lemon. - -Separate the yolks of the eggs from the whites, and beat them with -the sugar in a bowl until both are well mixed. Then put in the -lemon-juice and rind, and place the bowl in a dish of boiling water -on the fire. Stir slowly until the mixture begins to thicken; then -add the beaten whites of the eggs and stir for two minutes, or -until the whole resembles _very thick_ cream; then remove it from -the fire, pour into a small pudding-dish, and set it away to cool. -Serve in small pretty china cups, or small glass dishes, for a -mid-afternoon lunch or for tea. - - -VELVET CREAM - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ¼ Cup of sherry wine. - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice. - ½ Cup of sugar. - 1¼ Cups of creamy milk, or - 1½ Cups of sweet cream. - -Soak the gelatine in the cold water in a bowl for half an hour; -then pour in the wine, and set the bowl in a dish of boiling water -on the fire. When the gelatine is dissolved, put in the lemon-juice -and sugar, stir for a minute to dissolve the sugar, and then strain -it through a fine wire strainer into a granite or other metal -pan. Set the pan in a dish of ice and water to cool. As soon as -it begins to thicken, or is about the consistency of molasses on -a warm day, turn in the cream and stir regularly and constantly -until it begins to thicken. Before it is quite as hard as it will -become, turn it into a glass or pretty china dish, in which it may -be served, and set it away in the refrigerator or back in the dish -of ice and water until perfectly firm. Serve it in small glass or -china dishes, with sweet cream poured over. This cream should be of -a perfectly smooth, even consistency, hence the name "velvet cream." - - -COFFEE CREAM - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ½ Cup of strong coffee. - ½ Cup of sugar. - 1½ Cups of sweet cream, or - 1¼ Cups of creamy milk. - -Soak the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour. Then pour on -the coffee, boiling hot, to dissolve it; add the sugar, stir until -it is dissolved, and strain the liquid into a granite pan. Set it -in iced water to cool; when it has become so, and is beginning to -thicken, or is about the consistency of syrup or a little thinner, -pour in the cream; stir regularly and evenly for about ten minutes, -or until it is thick, but not hard; then turn it into a glass dish -while it is still slightly soft, and it will settle into a smooth, -even mass. It may be returned to the iced water, or put into a -refrigerator, to stiffen. - -Coffee cream is similar to velvet cream and the process is exactly -the same for both. They are delicious creams, very nutritious, and -to be recommended for their excellent nourishing properties and -flavors. - -=To Make the Coffee.= Mix two tablespoons of ground fresh Java, or -Java and Mocha coffee mixed, with a little cold water and raw egg -(either white or yolk) in a coffee-pot. Stir it to thoroughly mix -the egg and coffee. Pour in a cup of boiling water, and set it to -boil for five minutes. Then move the pot to a less hot part of the -stove, where the coffee will barely simmer, for ten minutes, when -it will be ready for use. - - -CHOCOLATE CREAM - - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - ½ Ounce (½ square) of Baker's chocolate. - 1 Pint of cream. - Whites of four eggs. - -Cook the sugar, chocolate, and cream (sweet cream or, if that -cannot be had, rich milk) together in a double boiler until the -chocolate is perfectly dissolved. It will require occasional -stirring, and should be, when done, entirely free from specks or -flakes of chocolate. Then stir in, pouring slowly, the well-beaten -whites of the eggs while the cream is still on the stove. Cook -for three minutes, or until the albumen is coagulated, but not -hardened. It should look creamy and smooth, not curdled. Turn into -a pudding-dish and cool. - - -TAPIOCA CREAM - - ¼ Cup of granulated tapioca. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1 Pint of milk. - 3 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Eggs. - -After the tapioca is picked over and washed, put it into a double -boiler with the cold water, and let it stand until the water is -absorbed. Then pour in the pint of milk, and cook until each grain -is transparent and soft. It will take an hour. At this point, beat -the eggs, sugar, and salt together until very light, and pour them -slowly into the hot pudding, at the same time stirring rapidly, so -that the two will be perfectly mixed. After the egg is in, continue -to stir for about three minutes, or long enough to cook the egg as -it is done in soft custard. The pudding should have the appearance -of cream, as the name indicates, with flecks of tapioca all through -it. Turn it into a china dish. Serve either hot or cold. - - -RICE CREAM - - 2 Tablespoons of rice. - 2 Cups of milk. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 2 Eggs. - -Cleanse the rice by washing it several times in cold water; cook -it in a double boiler with the milk until the grains will mash. -Three hours will generally be required to do this. Should the milk -evaporate, restore the amount lost. When the rice is perfectly -soft, press it through a coarse soup-strainer or colander into a -saucepan, return it to the fire, and while it is heating beat the -eggs, sugar, and salt together until very light. When the rice -boils, pour the egg in rather slowly, stirring lightly with a spoon -for three or four minutes, or until it coagulates and the whole is -like a thick, soft pudding; then remove from the fire, and pour it -into a pretty dish. By omitting the yolks and using the whites of -the eggs only, a delicate white cream is obtained. - - -PEACH FOAM - -(DELICIOUS) - -Peel and cut into small pieces three or four choice and very ripe -peaches (White Heaths are good), so that when done there will be a -cupful. Put them into a bowl, with half a cup of powdered sugar, -and the white of one egg. Beat with a fork for _half an hour_, -when it will be a thick, perfectly smooth, velvety cream, with -a delightful peach flavor, and may be eaten _ad libitum_ by an -invalid. - - -SNOW PUDDING - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice. - Whites of three eggs.[39] - -_For the sauce_: - - Yolks of two eggs. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of milk. - ½ Teaspoon of vanilla. - -Divide a box of gelatine into fourths by notching one of the -upright edges. Cut off one fourth of the box for a measure, which -can afterward be used as a cover. When taking out a fourth, be sure -to pack the measure as closely as it was packed in the box. Soak -the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour. Then pour on the -boiling water, add the sugar and lemon-juice, stir for a minute, -and strain through a fine wire strainer into a granite pan; place -the pan in iced water to cool. Meanwhile beat the eggs as light as -possible, and as soon as the gelatine mixture begins to thicken, -or is about as thick as honey, turn in the eggs, and stir slowly -and regularly, with the back of the bowl of the spoon against the -bottom of the pan, until the egg is mixed completely with the -gelatine and the whole nearly stiff. Just before it becomes firm -turn it into a melon-mold, and return it to the iced water to -harden. It should be perfectly white, _literally_, like snow. - -With the materials for the sauce make a soft custard, cool it, and -serve with the pudding either in a pitcher, or poured around it in -an ice-cream dish, or other shallow pudding-dish. - - -PRINCESS PUDDING - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ¾ Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ½ Cup of white wine (sherry). - Juice of one lemon. - Whites of three eggs. - -_For the sauce_: - - 1 Pint of milk. - Yolks of two eggs. - 3 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water. - -The process is exactly the same as for _snow pudding_, and it is -served in the same manner, with the soft custard for a sauce. -Ordinary sherry wine may be used, although white sherry is better. - - -CORN-STARCH PUDDING - - 1½ Tablespoons of corn-starch. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of cold water. - 1 Pint of milk. - -Put the milk on the stove to heat. Mix in a saucepan the -corn-starch, sugar, and salt with the cold water, and when the milk -has just begun to boil pour it in, slowly at first, stirring all -the while. The corn-starch should become thick at once, when it may -be poured into a clean double boiler and cooked thirty minutes. The -time should be faithfully kept, as corn-starch is an unpalatable -and indigestible substance unless thoroughly cooked. See to it that -the water in the under boiler _actually boils_ during the thirty -minutes. At the end of that time beat one egg very light, and stir -it in, pouring slowly, so that it may be mixed all through the hot -pudding and puff it up. Then cook for one minute, turn it into a -china pudding-dish, or into individual molds, and cool. Serve with -cream. - -Corn-starch pudding should have a tender consistency and a sweet -and wholesome taste. The difficulty with many is that they are not -thoroughly cooked, and are too stiff and hard when cool. When you -find this to be the case, lessen the amount of corn-starch used. -The proportion in this recipe may always be relied upon. - -Other similar puddings may be made by substituting in the above -recipe arrowroot, flour, or farina for the corn-starch. - - -BARLEY PUDDING - - 2 Tablespoons of Robinson's barley flour. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Cup of water (boiling). - ½ Cup of rich milk. - Whites of three eggs. - -Mix the flour, sugar, and salt in a saucepan with a little cold -water. When smooth and free from lumps pour in the boiling water, -slowly stirring meanwhile to keep it smooth; then set it on the -fire to simmer for ten minutes, continuing the stirring until it is -thick. To prevent burning, draw the pan to the side of the stove, -unless the fire is very slow, for barley is a grain which sticks -and burns easily. At the end of the ten minutes put in the milk, -and strain all into a clean saucepan, through a coarse strainer, to -make the consistency even. Beat the whites of the eggs until light -but not stiff, and stir, not beat, them into the pudding, making it -thoroughly smooth before returning it to the fire. Cook for five -minutes, stirring and folding the pudding lightly until the egg -is coagulated. Then pour it into a china pudding-dish. Serve cold -with sweet cream. This is good for one who is just beginning to eat -solid food. - - -CREAM-OF-RICE PUDDING - - 1 Quart of milk. - ½ Cup of rice. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - -Put the milk, rice, sugar, and salt together in a pudding-dish, -stir until the sugar is dissolved, then place the dish in a pan -of water, and bake in a slow oven for three hours, cutting in the -crust which forms on the top once during the time. Should the -pudding become dry, pour over it a little more milk, but this will -not happen unless the fire is too hot. When done it ought to be -creamy inside, with the grains of rice almost dissolved in the -milk. The long exposure to heat changes both the sugar and the -starch, and gives them an agreeable flavor. - - -FRUIT TAPIOCA - -Wash half a cup of tapioca, put it into a double boiler with a pint -of water, and cook until the grains are soft and transparent. If -granulated tapioca is used, one hour is sufficient time. Then add -to it half a cup of grape or currant jelly, and mix until the jelly -is dissolved; turn it into a pudding-dish. Serve cold, with sugar -and cream. Any well-flavored fruit jelly may be used instead of the -grape or currant. - - -TAPIOCA JELLY - - ½ Cup of tapioca. - 2 Cups of water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - Juice and grated rind of half a lemon. - ¼ Cup of sherry wine, or - ¼ Cup of brandy (French). - -Pick over and wash the tapioca. Put it into a double boiler -with the water, and cook it for one hour, or until the grains -are transparent and soft. Then add to it the sugar, juice and -grated rind of the lemon, the sherry and the brandy, mixing -them thoroughly. Press all through a wire strainer into a glass -pudding-dish, and set it in a cool place to become a jelly. It -should be served cold, and with cream. - - -ORANGE LAYERS - - 4 Oranges. - 3 Bananas. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ⅓ Cup of water. - 1 Cup of claret wine. - -Peel the oranges, slice them in thin slices, and remove the seeds. -Peel and slice the bananas. Arrange both in alternate layers in a -glass dish. Make a syrup of the sugar and water by boiling them -together, without stirring, for ten minutes; then add the wine, and -remove at once from the fire; cool it, and pour it over the fruit. -In half an hour it will be ready to serve. - -It will not do to keep this dish long, as the fruit shrinks and -loses its freshness. One fourth of an inch is the proper thickness -for the slices of orange, and one sixth or one eighth for the -bananas. - - -ORANGE BASKETS - -From the end opposite the stem end of an orange cut out sections in -such a way as to form a basket with a handle. - -The body of the basket should be _more_ than _half_ the orange. -With a knife and spoon cut and scrape out all the pulp from the -inside. Fill the baskets with blocks of orange jelly, or with -raspberries, strawberries, or other fruits. They are pleasing to -children, and are pretty for luncheon or tea. The edges may be -scalloped, and diamonds or rounds cut out of the sides, if one has -time. - - -IRISH MOSS BLANC-MANGE - -Irish moss, or carrageen, is a sea moss which grows abundantly -along the shores of Europe and America. After gathering, it is -dried and bleached in the sun, and then packed for market. It is -exceedingly rich in an easily digested vegetable jelly, and is also -valuable for food because of its mineral constituents. - -=To Prepare.= - - ⅓ Cup of dry moss. - 1 Quart of milk. - ¼ Cup of sugar. - -Soak the moss for half an hour in warm water, to soften it and -to loosen the sand which is dried and entangled in it. Wash each -piece separately under a stream of cold water. Its weight (that -of the water) will carry down the sand. Then put the moss in a -pudding-bag, and cook it in a double boiler in the quart of milk -for one hour. At the end of that time lift out the bag, squeeze -it a little, throw away the moss, and put the bag to soak in cold -water. Add the sugar to the mixture, strain it into molds, and -set in a cool place to harden. It will form a tender jelly-like -pudding, which has an agreeable taste, resembling the odor of the -sea, which many like. Serve it with cream, and with or without pink -sugar.[40] - -This blanc-mange may also be made without sugar if it is desirable -to have an unsweetened dessert. - - -PINK BLANC-MANGE - -Make a pudding according to the above rule. Color it, just before -straining, with three or four drops of carmine, barely enough -to give a delicate shell pink, for if it is very dark it is not -attractive. - -Carmine for use in cooking is made by mixing one ounce of No. 40 -carmine (which may be obtained of a druggist) with three ounces of -boiling water and one ounce of ammonia. It should be bottled, and -will keep indefinitely. It is useful for coloring ice-cream, cake, -and puddings. - - - - -SALADS - - -Salads are of two classes: the plain salads, consisting of green -herbs or vegetables, such as lettuce, endive, water-cress, -cucumber, etc., dressed or seasoned with salt, pepper, oil and -vinegar, or oil and lemon-juice; and the so-called meat salads, -which consist of one or more green vegetables, with an admixture -of fish, lobster, crab, fowl, or game. A salad of whichever kind -should be cool, delicate, and prepared by a gentle hand. Ordinary -servants do not enough appreciate the "niceties" to make acceptable -salads. The lettuce, cress, or whatever green is used, should be -thoroughly washed, but not crushed, broken, or roughly handled, -drained in a wire basket, dried in a napkin, and then torn with the -fingers, _not cut_. Of course, cucumbers, beet-root, olives, etc., -are exceptions. - -The dressing for salads, whether simply oil and vinegar, or a -mayonnaise, should be mixed with a wooden spoon, and an intelligent -mind. As for the seasonings, the Spanish maxim which reads as -follows is a good guide: "Be a miser with vinegar, a counselor -with salt, and a spendthrift with oil." Let the oil be of the -first quality of genuine olive-oil. In nearly all the large cities -one may get fine oil by searching for it. Once found, there is no -longer any difficulty, so long as the brand does not deteriorate. - -To vary and flavor the salads of vegetables _only_, use the fine -herbs when in season, for instance balm, mint, parsley, cress, -and sorrel, chopped or minced, and scattered through the salad. -Unless the vinegar is known to be pure cider or wine vinegar, -use lemon-juice. Theodore Child says: "Lemon-juice is the most -delicate and deliciously perfumed acid that nature has given the -cook." - - -FRENCH DRESSING - -French dressing is a mixture of fine olive-oil, vinegar or -lemon-juice, or both, salt, Cayenne pepper, and onion-juice. The -following proportions will make enough for one head of lettuce: - - 1 Tablespoon of oil. - A bit of cayenne. - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 4 Drops of onion-juice. - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice. - 1 Teaspoon of vinegar. - -Mix all together well. This dressing may be used with lettuce, -tomatoes, cold meat, potato salad, and to marinate chicken, -lobster, and crab when they are to be used for salads. - - -MAYONNAISE DRESSING - - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Saltspoons of mustard. - 2 Saltspoons of sugar. - ¼ Saltspoon of cayenne. - Yolk of one egg. - ½ Cup of olive-oil. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - 1 Tablespoon of vinegar. - 1 Tablespoon of thick sweet cream. - -These proportions may be multiplied or divided to make larger or -smaller quantities. Put the first five ingredients together in -a bowl, and mix them well; then add the oil one drop at a time, -stirring constantly with a wooden paddle or spoon "round and -round," not back and forth. After dropping and stirring for ten -minutes, the mixture will become stiff and difficult to turn. At -this point stir in a little of the vinegar or lemon-juice. Then -drop in more oil, and stir until it again becomes stiff. Continue -putting in oil and the acids until all are used, when you should -have a thick, smooth cream which, when taken up on the end of the -spoon, will keep its shape and not "run." It will take from twenty -minutes to half an hour to make it. Last stir in the cream. - -Should the dressing "break," or appear as if curdled, it may -sometimes be restored to smoothness by beating with a Dover -egg-beater, or by adding more egg and stirring for a while without -adding oil. If these expedients fail, begin all over again, adding -the spoiled dressing to a new one. However, a mayonnaise dressing -will not go wrong except in the hands of a careless worker. The -only points to be observed are to put the oil in _slowly_, and to -stir _constantly_ and _rapidly_. The sweet cream is a valuable -addition, giving the mayonnaise a delicate, satisfying flavor. - - -LETTUCE SALAD - -Prepare a head of lettuce by washing each leaf separately in a -stream of water, tearing off any portion that is bruised or brown, -and looking carefully for little green creatures that may be lodged -in the creases; they are not easily seen. Then drain the lettuce -on a fresh towel or napkin, for if the leaves are very wet the -dressing will not cling to them. Next tear it to pieces with the -fingers, rejecting the large part of the midrib, put it into a -deep bowl, pour on a French dressing, and toss it with a wooden -salad-spoon and fork until all the lettuce seems oiled. Serve -immediately. - -Mayonnaise dressing may be used instead of the French dressing in -this salad. - - -TOMATO SALAD - -Wash in cold water and wipe some fair, ripe tomatoes. Cut them in -slices one third of an inch thick. Do not peel them. Arrange some -clean white lettuce leaves on a silver or china platter, with two -large leaves at either end, their stems toward the middle, and two -small ones at the sides. Lay on them the slices of tomato, with -their edges overlapping each other. Serve with this salad French -dressing. - - -CHICKEN SALAD - -Prepare a nice chicken (one not too young) by boiling it until -tender. Then set it away in its own broth to cool. (It is a good -plan to boil the chicken the day before it is intended for use.) -Meanwhile make a mayonnaise dressing. When the chicken has become -cold, take it from the broth, and cut it as nearly as possible -into half-inch cubes, rejecting all skin, tendons, cords, and -bones. Season it with salt and pepper. Tear into small pieces with -the fingers some tender, well-cleaned lettuce, and then mix equal -quantities of chicken and lettuce with a part of the dressing; -arrange it in a shallow salad-bowl, and spread the remainder of the -mayonnaise over the top. The yolk of egg hard-boiled and pressed -through a wire strainer with the back of a spoon, so that it falls -in little crinkled pieces all over the top, makes a pretty garnish. -Celery tops, the tiny inside leaves of lettuce, and parsley may be -used singly or together for a border. - -Chicken salad is usually made with celery instead of lettuce, but -the latter is better for an invalid, although tender, delicate -celery may be used. Serve a very small quantity, for chicken salad -is a concentrated food, and should not be eaten in large amounts -by either the convalescent or the well. The chicken, lettuce, and -dressing may all be prepared beforehand, but on no account should -they be mixed together until just before serving. - - -POTATO SALAD - -For this salad fresh boiled potatoes, red sugar-beets, and French -dressing are needed. The potatoes and beets should be cooked in -salted water purposely for the salad, and allowed to become just -cool. Cold potatoes left over from the last meal may be used, -but they are not nice. When the potatoes are cool, cut them into -thin slices, season with a little more salt and a bit of white -pepper; cut the beets also in thin slices, and mix the two in the -proportions of one third beets to two thirds potatoes, with the -dressing, or arrange them in alternate layers in a salad-bowl, with -the dressing poured over each layer as it is made. - -A more dainty way, and one which a person of cultivated taste will -appreciate (as it really makes a perceptible difference in the -flavor of the salad), is to mix the lemon-juice, vinegar, salt, and -pepper together without the oil, and pour it over the different -layers as they are laid, and then add the oil by itself. The acids -penetrate and season the vegetables, and the oil is left on the -outside of each piece. - - -POTATO SALAD WITH OLIVES - -Make a potato salad according to the foregoing rule, except -substitute chopped olives for the beets, in the proportion of one -eighth olives by measure to seven eighths potato. - - -CELERY SALAD - -"One of the finest salads to be eaten, either alone or with game, -especially partridges or wild duck, is a mixture of celery, -beet-root, and corn-salad. Water-cresses will make a poor -substitute when broken into small tufts. - -"The beets are cut into slices one sixteenth of an inch thick; the -celery, which must be young and tender and thoroughly white, should -be cut into pieces an inch long, and then sliced lengthwise into -two or three pieces. (N. B.--Select only the tender inside branches -of celery.) This salad will require plenty of oil, and more acid -than a lettuce salad, because of the sweetness and absorbent nature -of the beet-root. The general seasoning, too, must be rather high, -because the flavors of the celery and the beet are pronounced." -("Delicate Feasting," by Theodore Child.) - -There are many kinds of salads, but they are all based upon the -principles stated in these rules. Green herbs or vegetables treated -with French or mayonnaise dressing, either by themselves or with -meats, form the foundations of all salads. - - - - -ICE-CREAM, SHERBETS, AND ICES - - -For patients suffering with fevers, and for use in very warm -weather, good ice-cream and sherbet are most acceptable. They -should, however, be used with great care, particularly if the -illness be due to disturbance of digestion, for they lower the -temperature of the stomach and often cause such disorders as lead -to severe illness. Even if this does not happen, they, in order -to be raised to a temperature at which digestion will take place, -absorb heat from the body, and a person reduced by illness cannot -afford to needlessly part with any form of energy. - -Sherbet in its literal sense means a _cool drink_. It is of -oriental origin, but in this country it has come to mean a frozen -mixture of fruit, or fruit-juice, water and sugar. There is a -distinction made, however, between water-ice and sherbet. Sherbet -has, in addition to the fruit-juice and water, either sugar-syrup, -white of egg, or gelatine, to give it sufficient viscousness to -entangle and hold air when beaten in a freezer, so that sherbets -(unless colored by the fruit used) will be white and opaque like -snow. Water-ices, on the contrary, are made without the white of -egg, syrup, or gelatine, do not entangle air, and are translucent -and what might be called "watery." Both are delicious when made -with fresh, ripe fruit, and both may be enriched by the addition of -sweet cream if desired. - -=Freezers.= Of the various kinds of freezers perhaps the "Improved -White Mountain Freezer" is, everything considered, as good as any. -It is strong and freezes quickly when the salt and ice are properly -proportioned. - -It is well to study the gearing before attempting to use a freezer. -The different parts should be taken apart and put together until -it is understood how the machine works. See that the paddles in -the can do not interfere with each other, and that the crank turns -easily. Then put all together again, fasten down the crank-bar -across the top of the can, and have everything in readiness before -packing the freezer with salt and ice. The object in using the salt -is to get a greater degree of cold than could be obtained with the -ice alone. The affinity of salt for water is very great--so great, -that it will break down the structure of ice in its eagerness for -it. Heat is involved in this process of melting, and will be drawn -from surrounding objects, from the can, the bucket, the cream, and -even the ice itself. The more rapid the union of salt and ice, the -more heat is absorbed, consequently the greater is the degree of -cold and the quicker the mixture to be frozen will become solid. - -_Water_ is converted into steam by a certain amount of heat. _Ice_ -is transformed into _water_ by the same agency, and in the case of -the ice-cream freezer heat is drawn from whatever comes in contact -with the ice that is warmer than itself. If the melting of the -ice can be hastened in any way, the abstraction of heat will be -correspondingly greater; hence the use of salt, which is so eager -for water that it takes it even in the form of ice. Now it will be -easily seen that if the ice is in small pieces, and there is the -proper amount of salt for each piece, union between the two will be -immediate, the amount of heat used will be very great, consequently -the degree of cold will be great. Cold is only a less degree of -heat. - -Ordinary liquid mixtures that contain a large percentage of water -become solid when reduced to a temperature of 32° Fahr. - -=To Pack an Ice-Cream Freezer.= Break a quantity of ice into small -pieces by pounding it in an ice-bag (a bag made of canvas or very -strong cloth) with a wooden mallet. The ice should be about as -fine as small rock-salt. Put into the bucket, around the tin can -which is to hold the cream, alternate layers of the pounded ice -and salt in the proportions of two thirds ice to one third salt (a -quart cup may be used for measuring). Should it happen that you -have "coarse-fine" salt, put all the ice into the freezer first, -and then the salt on top of it, as it will quickly work down to -the bottom. When the packing is complete unfasten the cross-bar -and lift off the cover of the can carefully, so that no salt -shall get inside; then put in the mixture to be frozen, replace -the cover, and fasten the bar. Let it stand till the mixture is -thoroughly chilled, then turn _steadily_ but not _very_ fast for -about ten minutes, or until the turning becomes difficult; that is -an indication that the contents of the can are freezing. Continue -turning for a few minutes longer, to give the cream a fine and even -consistency; then take out the paddle, drain off the water through -the hole in the side of the bucket, fill in all about the can with -coarse ice, and cover it with a thick wet cloth or towel. Let it -stand for half an hour to become firm, when it is ready to serve. -If it is desirable to keep the ice-cream for a length of time, it -may be done by packing the freezer closely with ice and salt, and -covering it with wet cloths. Or, the ice-cream may be taken from -the can, packed in molds of fanciful shapes, sealed at the edges -with melted tallow, and repacked in ice and salt. - - -PHILADELPHIA ICE-CREAM - -The so-called Philadelphia ice-cream is pure, sweet cream, -sweetened with sugar, and flavored. For a small quantity use the -following: - - ¾ Cup of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - 1 pint of scalded sweet cream. - -Mix and freeze. The whites of two eggs beaten stiff is a valuable -addition to this cream. - - -ROYAL ICE-CREAM - - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1½ Cups of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of milk. - 2 Eggs. - 1 Pint of sweet cream. - 1 Tablespoon of vanilla. - ½ Teaspoon of almond. - ½ Cup of sherry wine, or - ¼ Cup of brandy. - -Heat the milk until it boils; meanwhile mix the flour, sugar, -and salt in a little cold water, and when the milk reaches the -boiling-point pour it in; stir it for a minute over the fire in -a saucepan, and then turn it into a double boiler and cook it -for twenty minutes. At the end of this time beat the eggs very -light, and pour them into the boiling mixture slowly, stirring -it rapidly; continue stirring, after all the egg is in, for from -one to two minutes; then strain the mixture into a dish and set it -aside to cool. Last, add the cream and flavorings, and freeze. This -makes a rich and delicious cream. It may be colored with carmine a -pretty pink, or with spinach a delicate green. - - -ICE-CREAM WITH AN IMPROVISED FREEZER - -Make the Philadelphia ice-cream mixture, or half of it, dividing -each ingredient exactly. Put it into a small tin can (the Dutch -cocoa-cans are convenient) with a closely fitting cover. Place it -in the middle of a deep dish, and surround it with alternate layers -of ice and salt, in the same manner as for ordinary freezing, -and cover it closely; then lay wet cloths on the top and set it -in a cool place. It will become solid in from one to two hours, -according to the amount of mixture to be frozen. It is well to cut -in the thick layer on the sides of the can once or twice during the -freezing. If the cream which you have to use is thick enough to -whip, do so; the result, when frozen, will be a very dainty dish. - -This is a convenient way of making a little ice-cream for one -person. - - -FROZEN CUSTARD - - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1¼ Cups of sugar. - Yolks of three eggs. - 1 Pint of milk or cream. - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water. - 2 Tablespoons of wine or brandy. - -Make a soft custard with the first four ingredients, according to -the rule on page 195. When done, strain it into a granite-ware pan -and let it cool. Then add the flavoring and the remaining pint of -milk or cream, and freeze. - - -LEMON SHERBET WITH GELATINE - - 1 Tablespoon of gelatine. - 1 Pint of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar - ⅓ Cup of lemon-juice. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - -Soak the gelatine (Plymouth Rock or Nelson's) in a little -cold water for _half an hour_. Then pour over it the boiling -water, stirring until the gelatine is dissolved; add the sugar, -lemon-juice, and brandy, and strain all through a fine wire -strainer. Freeze. - -Nelson's gelatine and the Plymouth Rock or phosphated gelatine -are the best to use for sherbets and water-ices, because they -have a delicate flavor, and lack the strong, fishy taste which -characterizes some kinds. The phosphated gelatine should, however, -never be used except when a slight acidity will do no harm. Avoid -it for all dishes made with cream or milk, as it will curdle them. -The directions on the packages advise neutralizing the acid with -soda; but, as there is no means of determining the amount of acid -in a given quantity, it is not a process that recommends itself to -an intelligent person. - -Phosphated gelatine may, however, be used in sherbets even when -milk or cream forms a part of them, for when it is added to a -slightly acid mixture which has a low temperature, or is partially -frozen, curdling does not take place. - - -LEMON SHERBET WITH SUGAR SYRUP - - 1 Pint of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ⅓ Cup of lemon-juice. - -Boil the water and sugar together without stirring for twenty -minutes. You will thus obtain a thin sugar syrup, which, however, -has enough viscousness to entangle and hold air when beaten. As -soon as it is cool, add the lemon-juice, strain, and freeze it. -This makes a snow-white sherbet of very delicate flavor. Lemon -sherbet may also be made with water, sugar, lemon-juice, and the -whites of eggs well beaten, instead of with gelatine or syrup. - - -ORANGE SHERBET - - 1 Tablespoon of gelatine. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - 1 Cup of orange-juice. - Juice of one lemon. - 2 Tablespoons of brandy. - -Soak the gelatine in just enough cold water to moisten it, for half -an hour. Then pour over it the cup of boiling water, and put in the -other ingredients in the order in which they are written; when the -sugar is dissolved, strain all through a fine wire strainer, and -freeze it. - -=To get Orange-juice.= Peel the oranges, cut them in small pieces, -quarters or eighths, put them into a jelly-bag or napkin, and press -out the juice with the hand. By this means the oil of the rind, -which has a disagreeable flavor, is excluded. - - -APRICOT ICE - - 1 Quart of apricots. - 1 Quart of water. - ½ Quart of sugar. - 3 Tablespoons of brandy. - -Either fresh or canned apricots may be used for this ice. If fresh -ones are chosen, wash and wipe them carefully, cut them into small -pieces, mash them with a potato-masher until broken and soft, and -add the water, sugar, and brandy; then freeze. The treatment is -the same if canned fruit be used. This ice may be made without the -brandy, but it is a valuable addition, especially for the sick. - -Peaches, strawberries, raspberries, pineapple, and in fact any -soft, well-flavored fruit may be made into water-ice by following -exactly the above rule, except, of course, substituting the -different kinds of fruits for the apricots, and possibly varying -the sugar. If pineapple is selected, it should be chopped quite -fine, and quickly, so that the knife will not discolor it. Peaches -should be pared, and strawberries and raspberries carefully washed. -All of these ices are delicious, and most wholesome and grateful -in very warm weather, or for feverish conditions when fruit is -allowed. If there is a question about seeds, as might be the case -in using strawberries, strain the fruit through a coarse wire -strainer after it is mashed; it is advisable to do this always in -making strawberry, raspberry, or pineapple ice. - - - - -COOKED FRUITS - - -BAKED TART APPLES - -Select fair, sound, tart apples. Wash and wipe them, and cut out -the cores with an apple-corer, being careful to remove everything -that is not clear pulp. Sometimes the tough husk which surrounds -the seeds extends farther than the instrument will reach with -once cutting; this can be detected by looking into the apple, and -removing with the point of the corer anything that remains. If -there are dark blotches or battered places on the outside of the -apple, cut them off. Everything of that kind is valueless as food, -and injures the flavor of that which is good. - -When they are prepared place the apples in an earthen baking dish -(granite-ware will do), put a teaspoon of sugar and half an inch of -dried lemon-peel, or fresh peel cut very thin, into each hole, pour -boiling water into the dish until it is an inch deep, and bake in a -moderately hot oven; when the skins begin to shrink and the apples -are perfectly soft all the way through, they are done; then take -them from the oven, arrange them in a glass dish, and pour around -them the syrupy juice that is left. - -The time for baking varies, according to the species of apple, from -half an hour to two hours. They should be basted once or twice -during the time with the water which is around them. It will nearly -all evaporate while they are baking. If the apples are Baldwins, -or Greenings, or any others of fine flavor, the lemon-peel may -be omitted. Stick cinnamon may be used instead of lemon-peel for -apples which are not quite sour. - - -BAKED SWEET APPLES - -Prepare sweet apples according to the foregoing rule, except use -a fourth of a square inch of cinnamon instead of the lemon-peel, -and half a teaspoon of sugar for each apple. Sweet apples require -two or three hours' baking. They should be cooked until perfectly -soft, and until the juice which oozes out becomes gelatinous. Serve -cold with sweet cream. Cooked apples are an excellent addition to a -diet. They contain acids and salts of great value. - - -STEWED APPLES - -Pare and quarter three slightly sour apples. Put them into a -saucepan with a cup of water and two tablespoons of sugar, and stew -gently until they are soft, but not broken. Each piece should be -whole, but soft and tender. A tablespoon of lemon-juice put in just -before they are taken from the fire is a good addition to make if -the apples are poor in flavor; or, lemon-peel may be used, and also -cinnamon and cloves. - - -APPLE COMPOTE - -Wash and wipe some fair, well-flavored apples (not sweet). Core -them with an apple-corer (not a knife), being careful not to leave -in any of the hulls, which sometimes penetrate far into the fruit; -pare them evenly, so that they will be smooth and of good shape. -Then boil them gently, in water enough to just reach their tops, -with a square inch or two of thin lemon-peel, and a teaspoon of -sugar for each apple, until they are soft, but not broken, watching -them carefully toward the last part of the cooking, lest they go to -pieces. When done lift them out into a glass dish, reduce the water -by further boiling until it is somewhat syrupy, and set it aside -to cool. Fill the holes with apple, grape, or any bright-colored -jelly, and when the syrup is cold pour it over and around the -apples. - - -STEWED PRUNES - - 1 Pint of prunes. - 1½ Pints of water. - ¼ Cup of sugar. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - -Soak the prunes in warm water for fifteen minutes, to soften the -dust and dirt on the outside. Then wash them carefully with the -fingers, rejecting those that feel granular (they are worm-eaten); -stew them gently in the sugar and water in a covered saucepan -for two hours. Just before taking them from the fire put in -the lemon-juice. They should be plump, soft, and tender to the -stone. As the water evaporates the amount should be restored, so -that there will be as much at the end as at the beginning of the -cooking. French prunes may not require quite so long time for -cooking as most ordinary kinds. - - -CRANBERRY SAUCE AND JELLY - -Pick out the soft and decayed ones from a quantity of Cape -cranberries; measure a pint, and put with it _half_ the bulk of -sugar, and _one fourth_ the bulk of water. Stew the berries ten -minutes without stirring, counting the time from the moment when -they are actually bubbling. Done in this way, the skins will be -tender, and the juice on cooling will form a delicate jelly. Or, -the fruit may be pressed through a soup-strainer and the whole made -into jelly. - - -GRAPE SAUCE - -Take any small quantity of grapes. Wash them by dipping each -bunch several times in water, unless you know that they have been -gathered and handled by clean hands. Separate the skins from the -pulps by squeezing each grape between the fingers and thumb. Cook -the pulps about five minutes, or until soft and broken. Cook the -skins for the same length of time in a separate saucepan, then -press the pulps through a strainer into them, until there is -nothing left but the seeds. Measure the mixture, and for each -measure, pint or cup, as the case may be, add half a measure of -sugar, and simmer for five minutes. Many invalids who cannot eat -grapes uncooked, on account of the seeds, may take them stewed in -this way. More or less than the above amount of sugar may be used, -according to the requirements of the individual. - - -GRAPE JELLY - -Separate the pulps from the skins of a quantity of washed grapes. -Cook each separately for a few minutes, and slowly, so as not to -evaporate the juice. Press the pulps through a soup-strainer, -mashing them if they are not broken, until there is nothing left -but the seeds; strain into this the juice from the skins, mashing -and squeezing out all that is possible. Measure the mixture, and -for every cup add a cup of sugar. Put all into a granite-ware -saucepan and boil slowly for ten or twelve minutes. - -The time required for cooking depends upon the condition of the -grapes. If they are very ripe, and it is late in the season, ten -minutes is sufficient time to obtain a fine, delicate jelly; but if -it is early in the autumn, and the fruit has not been as thoroughly -changed by nature as late in the season, twelve or fifteen minutes -will be required to obtain the same result. Even less than ten -minutes' cooking will sometimes cause the pectin of the fruit to -dissolve, which, on cooling, forms the jelly. The time required -will always be variable, according to the condition of the fruit, -so it is well to ascertain by experiment what number of minutes -gives the desired result. - -Another and important point to notice in making fruit jellies is, -that if the fruit be cooked longer than is necessary to dissolve -the jelly-forming substance, that is the pectin, the natural flavor -of the fruit is more or less injured; consequently, if grapes which -require only ten minutes' boiling are boiled for fifteen, the -flavor is inferior to what it would be if they were exposed for the -lesser time. - -It is impossible to give a rule which shall at all times apply to -the making of fruit jellies, on account of the always variable -condition of the fruit. But in general, grapes, cranberries, -currants, and similar fruits require a short time, while apples, -crab-apples, lemons, and oranges will take from one and a half -to three hours. One is therefore obliged to test the jelly at -intervals by taking out a little on a saucer to cool. If it becomes -firm quickly, the mixture is cooked enough; if not, one may get an -idea, from the consistency which it has, what further cooking will -be necessary. - - -APPLE JELLY - -Wash and wipe good tart apples. Cut them in quarters or, better, -eighths, but do not pare them. Stew them in half their bulk of -water,--that is, if you have four quarts of cut apples, put in two -quarts of water,--until the skins as well as the pulp are perfectly -soft. No definite time can be given, because that depends upon -the kind and ripeness of the fruit. When done, turn them into a -jelly-bag and drain until the juice is all out. Measure it, and -for each cup add a cup of sugar, one clove, and one square inch -of thin lemon-peel. Simmer gently for half an hour, then test it, -to see how near the jellying-point it is, by taking out a little -into a cool saucer. With some kinds of apples it will be done in -that time, with others it will take an hour or more longer. When a -little becomes firm on cooling, remove the whole immediately from -the fire, skim it, and strain it into jars or tumblers which have -been thoroughly washed in soap and water, and have been standing in -boiling water for some minutes. - -When the jelly is cool, pour over the surface a thin coating of -melted paraffin, let it harden, then pour in another; for, as the -first hardens, it may crack or shrink from the sides and leave -spaces where ferments may enter; in other words, the jars need to -be made air-tight--not that the air does mischief, but because it -contains the organisms which, on entering the jelly, cause by their -growth the various fermentative changes known to occur in fruits. -The object then will be to exclude all micro-organisms. - -There are other ways of sealing jelly than by the use of paraffin, -as, for instance, with paper soaked in alcohol, or coated with oil; -but paraffin, if properly used, is a sure, easy, and economical -means. - -A wad of sterilized cotton batting, packed into the mouth of the -jar or tumbler, like a stopper, is sometimes employed, but it is -not as effectual as the paraffin; for that, being poured in hot, -sterilizes the surface of the jelly, thus killing any organisms -that may have lodged upon it during the cooling. Organisms cannot -go through batting; but, though it may be properly sterilized, -it cannot be packed over the jelly until it has become firm, -and during the time ferments may have settled upon it. Paraffin -is a most satisfactory means of preserving jelly, and the only -precaution necessary in using it is to put on two layers, the -second one two or three hours after the first, or when all -contraction has ceased. - - - - -BREAD - - -The two most practicable methods of making bread are with yeast, -and with cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda. - -Yeast is a micro-organism--an exceedingly minute form of plant -life--which by its growth produces carbonic acid and alcohol. When -this growth takes place in a mass of flour dough, the carbonic acid -generated, in its effort to escape, puffs it up, but, owing to the -viscous nature of the gluten, it is entangled and held within. Each -little bubble of gas occupies a certain space. When the bread is -baked, the walls around these spaces harden in the heat, and thus -we get the porous loaf. - -Barley, rye, and some other grains would be very useful for bread -if it were not that they lack sufficient gluten to entangle enough -carbonic acid to render bread made from them light. - -Good bread cannot be made without good flour. There are two kinds -usually to be found in market, namely _bread_ flour, and _pastry_ -flour. The former is prepared in such a way that it contains more -gluten than the latter. In making Pastry, or St. Louis flour, as it -is sometimes called, the grain is crushed in such a manner that the -starch, being most easily broken, becomes finer than the gluten, -and in the process of bolting some of the latter is lost. For -pastry and cake this kind is best. Lacking gluten, bread made from -it is more tender, whiter, but less nutritious than that made from -so-called _bread_ flour. - -New Process, or bread flour may be distinguished by the "feel," -which is slightly granular rather than powdery, by its yellow -color, and by the fact that it does not "cake" when squeezed in the -hand; while St. Louis is white, powdery, and will "cake." - -The best method to pursue in buying flour is, first, to find a good -dealer, upon whose advice you may rely. Next, take a sample of the -flour recommended and, with a recipe which you have _proved_ to be -correct, try some; if the first loaf of bread is not satisfactory, -try another, and then another, until you are confident that the -fault lies in the flour, and not in the method of making. Finally, -having found a brand of flour from which you can make yellow-white -instead of snow-white bread, which has a nutty, sweet flavor, which -in mixing absorbs much liquid, and does not "run" after you think -you have got it stiff enough, and which feels puffy and elastic to -the hand after molding, keep it; it is probably good. - -Often the same flour is sold in different sections of the country -under different names, so that it is impossible to recommend any -special brand. Each buyer must ascertain for herself which brands -in her locality are best. It is just as easy to have good bread as -poor. It only requires a _little_ care and a _little_ intelligence -on the part of the housekeeper. - -Having found a brand of good flour, next give your attention to -yeast. In these days, when excellent compressed yeasts may be found -in all markets, it is well to use them, bearing in mind that they -_are_ compressed, and that a very small quantity contains a great -many yeast cells, and will raise bread as well, if not better, than -a large amount. - -Home-made liquid yeast is exceedingly easy to prepare. It simply -requires a mixture of water and some material in which the plant -cells will rapidly grow. Grated raw potato, cooked by pouring on -boiling water, flour, and sugar form an excellent food for their -propagation. A recipe for yeast will be given later. - -Now we have come to the consideration of what will take place when -the two, flour and yeast, are made into dough. According to some -accounts of the subject, the yeast begins to act first upon the -starch, converting it into sugar (glucose C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}). While -this is taking place there is no _apparent_ change, for nothing -else is formed except the glucose, or sugar. Then this sugar is -changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the latter, owing to its -diffusive nature, endeavors to escape, but becomes entangled in the -viscous mass and swells it to several times its original bulk. - -This has been the accepted explanation; it is now, however, -believed not to be correct. It is thought, and I believe -demonstrated, that the yeast plant lives upon sugar; that it has -not the power to act directly upon starch, but that it is capable -of _producing_ a substance which acts upon starch to convert it -into sugar. - -The production of the carbonic acid is the end of desirable -chemical change, and when it has been carried to a sufficient -degree to fill the dough with bubbles, it should be stopped. - -Kneading bread is for the purpose of distributing the gas and -breaking up the large bubbles into small ones, to give the loaf a -fine grain. One will immediately see that kneading before the bread -is raised is a more or less useless task. Kneading is a process -which should be done gently, by handling the dough with great -tenderness; for if it is pressed hard against the molding-board, -the bubbles will be worked out through the surface, and the loaf -consequently less porous than if all the gas is kept in it. - -The best temperature for the raising of bread (in other words, -for the growing of yeast) during the first part of the process is -from 70° to 75° Fahr. It may touch 80° without harm, but 90° is -the limit. Above that acetic fermentation is liable to occur, and -the bread becomes sour. When the bread is made into loaves, it -may be placed in a very warm temperature, to rise quickly if it -is intended for immediate baking. Besides killing the yeast, the -object sought in baking is to form a sheath of cooked dough all -over the outside, for a skeleton or support for the inside mass -while it is cooking. Baking also expands the carbonic acid, and -volatilizes the alcohol. The latter is lost. - -A good temperature in which to begin the baking of bread is 400° -Fahr. This may gradually decrease to not lower than 250°, and the -time, for a good-sized brick loaf, is one hour. If it is a large -loaf, increase the time by a quarter or a half hour. - -"The expansion of water or ice into 1700 times its volume of steam, -is sometimes taken advantage of in making snow bread, water gems, -etc. It plays a part in the lightening of pastry and crackers. Air -at 70° Fahr. expands to about twice its volume at the temperature -of a hot oven, so that if air is entangled in a mass of dough -it gives a certain lightness when the whole is baked. This is -the cause of the sponginess of cakes made with eggs. The viscous -albumen catches the air and holds it."[41] - -There are other means of obtaining carbonic acid to lighten -bread, besides by the growing of yeast. The most convenient, -perhaps the most valuable, method is by causing cream of tartar -and bicarbonate of soda to unite chemically. (The products of -the union are carbonic acid and Rochelle salts.) The advantage of -using these over everything else yet tried is, that they do not -unite when brought in contact except in the presence of water and -a certain degree of heat. Rochelle salts, taken in such minute -quantities as it occurs in bread made in this way, is not harmful. - -Cream of tartar bread, if _perfectly_ made, is more nutritious than -fermented bread, for none of the constituents of the flour are -lost, as when yeast is used.[42] - -The difficulty of obtaining good cream of tartar is very great. It -is said to be more extensively adulterated than any other substance -used for food. Moreover, in the practice of bread-making the cream -of tartar and soda are generally mixed in the proportion of two to -one--that is, two teaspoons of cream of tartar to every teaspoon -of soda; but this is not the _exact_ proportion in which they -neutralize each other, so that under ordinary circumstances there -is an excess of soda in the bread. - -To be exact they should always be combined by weight, as is done -in making baking-powders, the proportion being 84 parts of soda -to 188 of cream of tartar, or, reducing to lower terms, as 21 to -47--a little less than half as much soda as cream of tartar. For -practical use in cooking there are no scales known to the author -for the purpose of weighing these materials, so the proportion -will have to be approximated with teaspoons, and a fairly accurate -result for bread-making may be obtained most easily by measuring a -teaspoon of each in exactly the same manner, and then taking off a -little from the soda. - -With good materials, care in measuring them, and a hot oven to set -the bread before the gas escapes, cream of tartar biscuits are both -wholesome and palatable. - - -LIQUID YEAST - -(HOME-MADE WITH GRATED POTATO) - - 1 Medium-sized potato. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1½ Pints of boiling water. - ⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - -First see that there is a supply of boiling water. Then put the -salt, sugar, and flour together in a mixing-bowl. Wash and peel the -potato, and grate it quickly into the bowl, covering it now and -then with the flour to prevent discoloring. As soon as the potato -is all grated, pour in the boiling water and stir. It will form -into a somewhat thick paste at once. Set it aside to cool. Then -dissolve the yeast in a little cold water, add it, and set the -mixture to rise in a temperature of 70° to 80° Fahr. - -In a short time bubbles will begin to appear; these are carbonic -acid, showing that the alcoholic stage of the fermentation has -begun. In six or eight hours the whole will be a mass of yeast -cells, which have grown in the nutrient liquid. It is then ready -for use. It should be bottled in wide-mouthed glass or earthen -jars, and kept in a cool place. It will remain good for two weeks. -At the end of that time make a fresh supply. - -Yeast is an organism--a microscopic form of plant life--which grows -by a species of budding with great rapidity when it finds lodgment -in material suitable for its food. The dissolved compressed yeast -is like seed, which, when put into a fruitful soil, grows so long -as sustenance lasts. - - -WATER BREAD - - 1 Pint of boiling water. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - ⅓ Cup of liquid yeast, or - ⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - Enough sifted flour to make a stiff dough. - -Put the sugar, salt, and butter with the boiling water into a -mixing-bowl or bread-pan. Stir until the sugar is dissolved and the -water lukewarm, then add the yeast (if compressed, it should be -dissolved in a little water). Last, stir in the flour until a dough -stiff enough to mold easily is made. Mold it for a minute or two -to give it shape and to more thoroughly mix the ingredients, and -then set it to rise in a room warm enough to be comfortable to live -in--that is, having a temperature of 70° Fahr. It should remain in -this temperature for eight hours. Cover it closely, that the top -may not dry. - -It is often convenient to let bread rise over night. There is no -objection to this, provided the bread is mixed late in the evening, -and baked early the next morning. Care must be taken, however, that -the room in which it is left is warm enough to insure rising in the -time given. On the other hand, if allowed to rise too long, or at -too high a temperature, the fermentation is carried so far that an -acid is produced, and the dough becomes sour. - -Eight hours at 70° Fahr. is a good rule to keep in mind. During the -time of raising the dough should double itself in bulk. If this -does not happen, or it does not appear to have risen at all, either -the yeast was not good, or the temperature was too low. - -When the bread has risen sufficiently, cut it down, and knead it -for five minutes on a bread-board, to distribute the gas and break -the large bubbles, so that the bread may have an even grain; then -shape it into a loaf, put it into an oiled baking-pan, and let it -rise quickly in a warm place, until it again doubles itself. The -amount of dough indicated in the rule will make one large loaf, -or a medium-sized loaf and some biscuit. Multiply the rule by two -if you want two loaves. Bake the bread in an oven which is hot at -first, but gradually decreases in temperature, for an hour and a -quarter. If you have an oven thermometer use it.[43] - - -MILK BREAD - - 1 Pint of _scalded_ milk. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ⅓ Cup of liquid yeast, or - ⅕ Cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - -Measure the milk after scalding, but otherwise proceed exactly as -in the making of water bread. - - -STICKS - - 1 Cup of _scalded_ milk. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 2 Tablespoons of butter. - ⅕ Cake of yeast, or - ¼ Cup of liquid yeast. - White of one egg. - Flour enough to make a slightly soft dough. - -Dissolve the salt and sugar, and soften the butter in the hot -milk, which must be measured _after_ heating. When it is cooled to -lukewarmness, put in the yeast (which, if compressed, should be -dissolved in a little cold water), the beaten white of the egg, -and flour enough to make a dough _slightly_ softer than that for -ordinary bread. Let it rise overnight, or until light. Then cut -it into small pieces, shape the pieces into balls, and roll and -stretch them into tiny slender sticks, from ten to twelve inches -long, about half an inch thick in the middle, and tapering toward -each end. Place them, two inches apart, in shallow, buttered pans, -and put them in a warm place for an hour to rise; then bake them -in a moderate oven fifteen or twenty minutes, or until they are a -golden brown. Sticks are good at any time; they are especially nice -served with soup, or for lunch, with cocoa or tea. - -This dough may also be made into tiny loaves for tea-rolls. - - -RUSK - - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Cup of _scalded_ milk. - ¼ Cup of liquid yeast, or - ⅙ Cake of compressed yeast. - Flour enough to make a soft dough. - -Mix the above ingredients together, and let the dough rise -overnight in the usual time given to bread. Then beat one-fourth -of a cup of butter, one-fourth of a cup of sugar, and one egg -together, and work the mixture into the dough, adding a little more -flour to make it stiff enough to mold. Set it to rise a second -time; then shape it into rolls or tiny loaves, allow them to rise -again until quite light, or for an hour in a warm place, and bake -like bread. - - -DRIED RUSK - -Cut the rusk when cold into thin slices, dry them slowly in the -oven, and then brown them a delicate golden color. - -Dried rusk is exceedingly easy of digestion, and makes a delicious -lunch with a glass of warm milk or a cup of tea. - - -GRAHAM BREAD - - 1 Pint of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ⅕ Cake of compressed yeast. - 2 Cups of white flour. - Enough Graham flour to make a dough. - -Scald some milk, and from it measure a pint; to this add the sugar -and salt. While it is cooling sift some Graham flour, being careful -to exclude the chaff or outside silicious covering of the grain, -but _nothing else_. When the milk has become lukewarm, put in the -yeast, which has previously been dissolved in a little cold water, -and the white flour (sifted), with enough of the Graham to make a -dough which shall be stiff, but yet not stiff enough to mold. Mix -thoroughly, and shape it with a spoon into a round mass in the -dish. After this follow the same directions as for water bread, -letting it rise the same time, and baking it in the same manner. - -After the dough has risen, although it is soft, it can be _shaped -into a loaf_ on the bread-board, but not molded. - - -CREAM-OF-TARTAR BISCUIT - -First, attend to the fire; see that you have a clear, steady one, -such as will give a hot oven by the time the biscuits are ready for -baking. Then sift some flour, and measure a quart. Into it put two -teaspoons of cream of tartar, and one of soda, the latter to be -measured exactly like the teaspoons of cream of tartar, and then -a very little taken off. This is a more accurate way of getting a -scanted teaspoon than by taking some on the spoon and guessing at -it. Add one teaspoon of salt, and sift all together four times, -then with the fingers rub into the flour one spoon of butter. - -At this point, if it has not been already done, get the -baking-pans, rolling-pin, board, dredging-box, and cutter ready for -use. Then with a knife stir into the flour enough milk to make a -soft dough. Do this as quickly as convenient, and without any delay -mold the dough just enough to shape it; roll it out, cut it into -biscuits, and put them immediately into the oven, where they should -bake for thirty minutes. - -=Pocket-Books.= Work or knead together the pieces that are left -after making cream-of-tartar biscuit (or make a dough on purpose), -roll it out very thin, cut it into rounds, brush them over with -milk or melted butter, fold once so as to make a half-moon shape, -and you will have "pocket-books." - -=Twin Biscuit.= Roll out some dough very thin, cut it into very -small rounds, and place one on top of another, with butter between. - -Iced water may be substituted for milk in the above rule. In -baking, however, the oven should be unusually hot, so as to take -advantage of the expansion of the water. Also, baking-powder may be -substituted for the cream of tartar and soda, using a fourth more -of the baking-powder than of the two together. - - -SNOW-CAKES - - ½ Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - Whites of two eggs. - 1½ Cups of flour. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1½ Teaspoons of baking-powder. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Measure each of the ingredients carefully, then sift the flour, -salt, and baking-powder together four times. Cream the butter and -sugar with a little of the milk, then add the whites of the eggs -well beaten, the rest of the milk, and last the flour. Bake this -batter in hot buttered gem-pans from twenty minutes to half an -hour. These cakes are delicious eaten hot for lunch or tea. This -mixture may also be baked in small, round earthen cups. - - -GRAHAM GEMS - - 1 Cup of milk. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Cup of white flour. - 1 Cup of Graham flour. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - ½ Teaspoon of soda (_slightly_ scanted). - 1 Tablespoon of melted butter. - -Sift and measure the Graham flour, add the cream of tartar, soda, -and white flour, and sift again. Mix the milk, salt, and sugar -together, and stir it into the flour; last, put in the melted -butter, beat for a minute, and then drop a spoonful in each -division of a roll gem-pan, which should be well buttered, and -made very hot on the top of the stove. Bake in a hot oven from -twenty-five minutes to half an hour. Serve hot. - - -OATMEAL MUFFINS - - 2¼ Cups of flour. - 2 Teaspoons of baking-powder. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Egg. - 1 Cup of milk. - 1 Cup of cooked oatmeal. - 1 Tablespoon of butter melted. - -Sift the flour and baking-powder together twice. Beat the egg very -light, stir into it the salt, sugar, and milk, then add the flour, -and last the oatmeal and butter; beat for half a minute, and bake -immediately in gem-pans or muffin-rings in a hot oven for half an -hour. - -N. B.--The oatmeal should not be cooked to a soft, thin mush, but -should be rather dry; so, in preparing it, use less water than for -porridge. These cakes are to be eaten hot. - - -GLUTEN BREAD - -Gluten flour is prepared in such a way that much of the starch -of the grain is excluded. It is frequently required for persons -suffering with diabetes, who cannot digest either sugar or starch. -It should be made with flour, water, yeast, and salt only. Do not -use milk for mixing, as it contains sugar. - -One pint of water, one half teaspoon of salt, one fifth of a cake -of yeast, one tablespoon of butter, and enough flour to make the -usual bread dough will be required. Otherwise the process is -exactly the same as for ordinary bread. - - -BAKING-POWDER - -Baking-powder is a mixture of cream of tartar, bicarbonate of soda, -and arrowroot. The latter is used to keep the two chemicals dry, -and thus prevent the slow union which would otherwise take place. -Sometimes tartaric acid is used instead of cream of tartar. The -following rule may be relied upon: - - Tartaric acid 2 oz. by weight. - Bicarbonate of soda 3 " " " - Arrowroot 3 " " " - -Mix and sift together thoroughly. Keep in a dry place, in a -wide-mouthed bottle. - - - - -CAKE - - -Cake of the simpler kinds, especially sponge cake, is frequently -given to the sick. Good sponge cake, served with sweet cream or a -glass of milk, is an excellent lunch for an invalid. Some of the -plain kinds of butter cakes--those made with a little butter--such -as white, feather, and similar varieties, are excellent food. - -Consider for a moment what they contain: eggs, milk, butter, sugar, -and flour--five of the most valuable of all our food products. Yet -there are those who pride themselves upon not eating cake, which -idiosyncrasy can only be explained in one of two ways: either the -cake which they have had has not been properly made, or else it has -been so good that, during a lapse of judgment, they have eaten too -much. - -The dark fruit cakes should be avoided by both sick and well, on -account of the indigestible nature of the dried fruits used in -them, and also because they are often compact and close-grained, -not light. - -There is a custom prevalent in many kitchens of using what is -called "cooking" butter--that is, butter which is off taste or -rancid--for cake. It is but poor economy, even if it can merit -that name at all. If you have no other butter for cake, don't make -any. Sweet butter and fresh--not "store"--eggs are _absolutely -necessary_. Also, a dainty worker to mix the ingredients with -accuracy and care, and to oil the pan in which the cake is to -be baked, so that the outside shall not taste of fat. Many an -otherwise nice cake has been spoiled by oiling the pan in which -it was baked with dirty or rancid grease. Use a very little sweet -butter or olive-oil. - - -THE PROCESS OF CAKE MAKING - -All ordinary cakes are made in much the same way as to the order in -which their ingredients are mixed. First the butter and sugar are -creamed together, then the yolks of the eggs are beaten and added, -with the milk, to the butter and sugar; then the flour, into which -the cream of tartar and soda have been well mixed by sifting them -together several times, is put in; and last, the beaten whites of -the eggs. - -=Care in Baking.= For sponge cake made with baking-powder, or -soda and cream of tartar, an oven moderately heated will be -required--that is, one of 300° Fahr., or one which will _slightly_ -brown a loaf in twenty minutes. - -For sponge cake made without raising material, such as the -old-fashioned kind, in which only eggs, sugar, and flour are used, -a slow oven is necessary. - -For butter cakes a temperature somewhere between 350° and 380° will -not fail. - -The baking of cake is the most difficult part of the process, on -account of the constantly variable condition of ovens in common -iron stoves, and because it is more easily spoiled than bread and -other foods usually cooked in an oven. One is obliged to exercise a -new judgment every time cake is made. Even thermometers are only a -partial help, for if an oven has a temperature of 300° Fahr. at a -certain time, there is no means of being sure what the temperature -will be half an hour from then. However, by giving attention and -some practice to it, one may gain considerable skill in managing -fires. Should the cake be cooking too fast, and arranging the stove -dampers does not lessen the heat, a piece of buttered paper laid -over the top will protect it, and will not stick. Layer, or thin -cakes, require a hotter oven than loaves. - -Pans for baking cake should be lined with buttered paper (the -buttered side up), letting it overlap the sides for about an inch -to assist in lifting out the cake. An earthenware bowl and a wooden -spoon should be used for mixing. - -Get everything ready before beginning to mix cake, the oven first -of all. Bake as soon as possible after the flour is in, for -carbonic acid begins to be formed as soon as the soda and cream of -tartar come in contact with the liquid, and some of it will escape -unless the mixture is baked at once. Do not stop to scrape every -bit from the bowl; that can be attended to afterward, and a little -patty-cake made of what is left. - - -INVALID'S SPONGE CAKE - - 2 Cups of pastry flour measured after sifting. - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - ½ Teaspoon of soda (slightly scanted). - 4 Eggs. - 1½ Cups of powdered sugar. - ½ Cup of water. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - -Get everything ready before beginning to make the cake; oil the -pan, or oil paper and line the pan with it; measure the flour, -cream of tartar, and soda, and sift them together four times; -measure the sugar, water, and lemon-juice, and separate the yolks -from the whites of the eggs. Beat the whites of the eggs with half -the sugar until they are very light. Then beat the yolks very -light, or until they become lemon-colored, add the remaining half -of the sugar and beat again, and then a little of the water if it -is difficult to turn the egg-beater. When the sugar is well mixed, -add the remainder of the water, the lemon-juice, and the flour. -Beat for a few seconds, but not long, as all mixtures that have -cream of tartar and soda should be baked as quickly as possible. -Last of all _fold_ in (not beat) the whites of the eggs lightly, -so as not to break out the air which has been entangled by the -beating, as it helps to make the cake light. - -Bake in a moderate oven from forty-five to fifty minutes, or until -the cake shrinks a little from the pan. - - -FEATHER CAKE - - ¼ Cup of butter. - 1 Cup of sugar. - 2 Eggs. - 1½ Cups of pastry flour. - ½ Teaspoon of soda (slightly scanted). - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - A little grated nutmeg. - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla. - -See first of all that you have a proper fire. Measure -the ingredients, and get everything ready before -beginning--mixing-bowl, pans, etc. Use a wooden cake spoon, with -slits in the bowl, for mixing. Line the pans with buttered paper. -Then cream the butter, adding to it half the sugar and half the -milk, the latter very slowly; separate the yolks of the eggs from -the whites, and beat them with the remaining sugar; when they are -very light add the rest of the milk. Beat the whites until stiff. -Now mix the creamed butter and yolks together with the flavoring, -then stir in the flour, and last the whites, which are to be cut -and folded in, _not beaten_. Bake it in shallow pans in a moderate -oven forty minutes, or about that time. When the cake begins to -shrink a little from the sides of the pan, there is no doubt that -it is cooked enough. This recipe may be used for a variety of plain -cakes. - -=For Chocolate Cake.= Melt and stir into the above mixture two -ounces of Baker's chocolate, or two teaspoons of cocoa wet in a -little warm water. - -=For Rose Cake.= Color the feather cake mixture with six drops of -carmine. - - -LAYER CAKE - -Oil three layer cake pans, or pie-plates. Make the feather cake -mixture, and divide it into three portions. Bake one white, color -another pink with three or four drops of carmine, and the third -brown with an ounce of melted chocolate. Bake in a hot oven for -fifteen minutes. When cool, join the layers with White Mountain -frosting, and frost the top of the last layer. Any of the fillings -given under the head of "Cake Filling" may also be used. - -When chocolate is used in cake, it is not necessary to grate it or -even to break it into small pieces. It contains a large proportion -of fat which liquefies at a low temperature, consequently it is -necessary only to heat it slowly to reduce it to the liquid state. - - -CARMINE FOR COLORING - -The following rule for making liquid carmine for coloring cake, -ice-cream, blanc-mange, etc., will be found useful: - - 1 Ounce of No. 40 carmine. - 3 Ounces of boiling water. - 1 Ounce of ammonia. - -Bottle for use. It will keep indefinitely. - - -WHITE CAKE - - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Cup of sugar (powdered). - 1¼ Cups of pastry flour. - ½ Teaspoon of soda. - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - Whites of four eggs. - ¼ Teaspoon of almond extract, or - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water. - -Proceed, as with all cake mixtures, by getting everything ready -before beginning to mix any of the ingredients, not forgetting the -fire. Then cream the butter with the sugar, and add the milk to it -slowly, so that the cream shall not break. Beat the whites of the -eggs very stiff. Then to the butter, sugar, etc., add the flour, -with which the cream of tartar and soda have been sifted at least -four times, and the flavoring; last, fold in the whites of the -eggs, and bake in a round loaf for an hour and a quarter or an hour -and a half in a _slow_ oven. - - -DREAM CAKE - -Make a white cake mixture. Bake it in shallow layer-cake pans, in -a moderate, not slow, oven. Join them with a caramel filling, and -frost the top with the same, or use White Mountain frosting instead -of the caramel, flavored with rose-water, and left either white, or -colored a delicate shell pink with carmine. - - -CAKE FILLING AND FROSTING - -WHITE MOUNTAIN FROSTING - -Boil together, _without stirring_, one cup of granulated sugar with -one third of a cup of boiling water, for eight or ten minutes. When -the sugar has been boiling five minutes, beat the white of one egg -until it is very light. Then test the sugar mixture by letting -a little run off the side of a spoon. If in falling it forms a -delicate thread, it is just at the point to stop the boiling. When -it has reached this point, pour it at once into the beaten egg in -a small stream, stirring the egg constantly to keep it smooth. -Continue stirring for two or three minutes until it begins to -thicken, then spread it either between layer cakes for filling, or -use it for frosting. - - -CARAMEL FILLING - - 1 Cup of brown sugar. - ¼ Cup of sweet cream. - 1 Teaspoon of butter. - -Boil all together until it threads, stirring it slowly as it boils. -It will take about eight minutes. Use either for frosting or -filling. - - -CHOCOLATE ICING - - ½ Cup of sugar. - 4 Tablespoons of water. - 2 Eggs. - 1 Ounce of chocolate, or - 1 Tablespoon of Dutch cocoa. - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla. - -Boil the sugar, water, and chocolate together, two minutes, to -render the chocolate smooth. Then add the beaten eggs. Cook two -minutes more, stirring slowly and gently. Add the vanilla just as -it is taken from the fire, and use at once, as it becomes firm -quickly. It is good either for icing cakes or for filling. - - -CREAM FILLING - -Make a cream sauce with one cup of milk, a tablespoon of butter, -and a tablespoon of flour. Beat one egg with half a cup of sugar, -and stir it into the sauce slowly. Cook for two minutes, or until -the egg is done. It should look like a thick smooth cream. Flavor -it with a piece of cinnamon bark boiled in the milk, or with -vanilla or almond. Use this cream for filling, for layer cakes, or -split a thin sponge cake in two, and spread it between the halves. - - - - -DIET LISTS OR MENUS FOR THE SICK - - -Diet for the sick may be divided into three kinds: Liquid, Light, -and Convalescent's or Invalid's Diet. - -Liquid diet consists entirely of liquids, of which milk is the -most valuable. The meat broths (those made with beef, chicken, and -mutton), oyster and clam broth, albumen water, eggs in the form -of egg-nog, egg cream, and mulled wine, and tea and coffee are -excellent. To this list may be added, as the patient shows signs of -recovery, soft custards, and jellies made with wine, lemon, coffee, -or orange-juice, which quickly become liquid when eaten. - -A patient is given liquid diet during times of severe and dangerous -illness. Usually the amount of food and intervals at which it is to -be given are prescribed by the physician. - -The following table may be of assistance to those who are without -such aid: - - -LIQUID DIET - -No. 1 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Hot coffee with cream and - a little sugar ½ of a cup - 12 M. Beef-juice 2 tablespoons - 2 P. M. Warm milk ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Wine whey ½ of a cup - 6 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - - -No. 2 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Chicken broth ¾ of a cup - 12 M. Egg-nog ½ tumbler - 2 P. M. Milk ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Hot tea with cream and sugar ¾ of a cup - 6 P. M. Chicken broth ¼ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - - -No. 3 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Beef broth ¾ of a cup - 12 M. Beef-juice 2 tablespoons - 2 P. M. Milk, either warm or cold ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Oyster broth with milk ¾ of a cup - 6 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - - -No. 4 - - 8 A. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 12 M. Beef-juice, warm or cold ¾ of a cup - 2 P. M. Beef broth, hot ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Wine jelly 2 tablespoons - 6 P. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - - -No. 5 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Coffee with cream and sugar ½ of a cup - 12 M. Hot beef broth ¾ of a cup - 2 P. M. Orange jelly 3 tablespoons - 4 P. M. Mulled wine ¾ of a cup - 6 P. M. Warm or cold soft custard ½ of a cup - 8 P. M. Warm cocoa ¾ of a cup - -If nourishment is to be given throughout the night, either hot or -warm milk or cocoa is good. They are soothing and sometimes induce -sleep. Tea and wine whey should be avoided at night, unless, of -course, the patient needs stimulating, in which case use the wine -only, for tea often causes wakefulness. - -The whites of eggs beaten and strained, and mixed with finely -crushed ice, is a valuable form of food for a typhoid fever -patient. Toast-water and cracker tea are good in all feverish -conditions. Milk may be varied by making it into milk-punch, with -a very little sugar (a scanty teaspoon) and a tablespoon of brandy -or sherry to each tumbler, or it may be made with a few drops of -vanilla, instead of the brandy or sherry. - - -LIGHT DIET - -Light diet consists of everything included in liquid diet, and in -addition fruits, such as grapes and oranges; porridge of granum or -farina; soft-cooked or poached eggs; dry, water, milk, and cream -toast; the _maigre_ soups, such as celery and mock-bisque, and -chicken; delicate puddings, coffee and velvet cream, and baked -custards, with perhaps for dinner a meat ball, a small bit of -beefsteak or roast beef, and a baked potato. - -Jellies made with gelatine, especially when flavored with wine, are -a very valuable form of food with which to make the transition from -liquid to light diet. They are palatable, nutritious, and, being in -solid form, are satisfying to the minds of those who think they are -not getting much to eat when fed on liquids alone. - -The change from liquid to light diet should be made gradually, -adding one kind of solid food at a time. Perhaps after the jellies -a bit of water or milk toast, then an egg, then a little soup or -pudding, until, as strength is gained, the person is able to take -anything in the list, and finally is able to eat almost any kind of -nutritious and well-prepared food. - - -FIRST DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - Poached Egg on Toast. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - Milk-punch. - -_Dinner._ - - Raw Oysters. Cream-crackers. Port Wine. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. - -_Supper._ - - Milk Toast. Wine Jelly. Tea. - - -SECOND DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - Soft-cooked Egg. Milk Toast. - Coffee with Sugar and Cream. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Soft Custard. - -_Dinner._ - - Cream-of-celery Soup. Sippets. - A little Barley Pudding, with Cream. Sherry Wine. - -_Lunch._ - - Milk-punch. - -_Supper._ - - Water Toast, Buttered. Wine Jelly. Tea. - - -THIRD DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - Scrambled Egg. Cream Toast. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth. - -_Dinner._ - - Chicken Panada. Bread. Port Wine. - A little Tapioca Cream. - -_Lunch._ - - An Egg-nog. - -_Supper._ - - Buttered Dry Toast. Baked Sweet Apples and Cream. - Tea. - - -FOURTH DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Farina Mush, with Cream and Sugar. - Poached Egg on Toast. Baked Potato. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Soft Custard. - -_Dinner._ - - Potato Soup. Croutons. - A small Piece of Beefsteak. Creamed Potatoes. - Baked Custard. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Chicken Broth, with Rice. - -_Supper._ - - Raw Oysters. Banquet Crackers. - Graham Bread, Toasted. Wine Jelly. Tea. - - -FIFTH DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Coffee. Mush of Wheat Germ, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Mutton Chop. Toast. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Mulled Wine. - -_Dinner._ - - Chicken Soup. Bread. - Creamed Sweetbreads. Duchess Potato. - Snow Pudding. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - Siphon Soda, with Coffee Syrup and Cream. - -_Supper._ - - Buttered Dry Toast. Orange Jelly. - Sponge Cake and Cream. Tea. - - -CONVALESCENT'S DIET - -Convalescent's diet includes the liquid and light diets, and, in -addition, all easily digested and nutritious food. For meats, -game, especially venison and birds, beef, mutton, and chicken may -be given, but never either pork or veal. They are difficult of -digestion. Eggs in all ways, soft-cooked, scrambled, poached, and -as omelets, well-baked potatoes, creamed potatoes, celery, snow -pudding, cream of rice pudding, and tapioca cream, jellies, both -those made from gelatine and fruits, Graham bread, Graham gems, -rusk, and, in fact, any well-made bread, and good cake. - -A convalescent may use for drinks plenty of good milk, cocoa, -_carefully made_ tea and coffee, occasionally good wine, and the -different mineral and drinking waters. Some foods to be avoided are -pastry, dark or badly made cakes, pork, veal, any highly seasoned -meat dish made with gravy, all kinds of fried food, sausages, heavy -puddings, badly made bread, lobsters and crabs. - - -SPRING - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Porridge of Wheat Flakes, with Cream and Sugar. - Omelet, with Broiled Ham. - Coffee. Hot Graham Gems and Butter. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. A Cream-cracker. - -_Dinner._ - - Chicken Soup. Creamed Fish. - Mashed Potato. Snow Pudding. - White Cake. Tea. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Milk. - -_Supper._ - - Broiled Squab on Toast. Creamed Potatoes. - Bread and Butter. Jelly. - Cocoa. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. - French Chops (Mutton). Baked Potato. - Cream Toast of Graham Bread. - Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Cracker Gruel. - -_Dinner._ - - Mock-bisque Soup. Sticks. - Roast Beef. French Peas. Mashed Potato. - Bread and Butter. - Baked Cup Custard. Coffee or Claret. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Bouillon. - -_Supper._ - - Scrambled Eggs. Creamed Potatoes. - Water Toast, with Apple Compote. - Feather Cake. Tea. - - -SUMMER - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - Blackberries. - Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Steak. Baked Potatoes. - Dry Toast. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Tumbler of Kumiss. - -_Dinner._ - - Potato Soup made with New Potatoes. - Baked Fish. Mashed Potatoes. Peas. - Chicken Salad. Lemon Jelly. - Tea. - -_Lunch._ - - Soda-water, with Vanilla Syrup and Cream. - -_Supper._ - - Cold Broiled Chicken. Bread and Butter. - Blueberries. White Cake. - Cocoa. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - Blueberries. - Broiled Perch. Baked Potatoes. - Hot Snow Cakes, with Butter. - Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - Milk-punch. - -_Dinner._ - - Broiled French Chop. Duchess Potato. - Peas. Tomato Salad. - Tapioca Cream. Wine Jelly. - Lemonade. - -_Lunch._ - - Egg-nog. - -_Supper._ - - Hot Water Toast, Buttered. Berries. - Omelet, with Parsley. - Tea. Soft Custard in Cups. - - -AUTUMN - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - Oatmeal Mush, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Steak. Baked Potatoes. - Oatmeal Muffins, Hot, with Butter. - Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. A Banquet Cracker. - -_Dinner._ - - Celery Soup. Sippets. Roast Pheasant, with Jelly. - Potatoes. Stewed Mushrooms. - Velvet Cream. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - A thin Sandwich of Bread and Butter. Tea. - -_Supper._ - - Raw Oysters. Cream Toast. Baked Apples. - Rusk. Tea. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - Cantaloup. - Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Mutton Chop. Baked Potatoes. - Dry Toast. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth. - -_Dinner._ - - Oyster Soup. Sticks. - Roast Beef. Creamed Potatoes. - Celery Salad. - Coffee Cream. Tea. - -_Lunch._ - - A Cup of Hot Oatmeal Gruel. - -_Supper._ - - Poached Egg on Toast. Cocoa. - Graham Bread and Butter. Sponge Cake. - - -WINTER - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Oatmeal Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. Coffee. - Broiled Steak. Baked Potato. Cream Toast. - -_Lunch._ - - Egg-nog. - -_Dinner._ - - Celery Soup. Croutons. - Roast Chicken. Creamed Onions. Duchess Potato. - Lettuce Salad (plain). Velvet Cream. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - Cocoa Cordial. Sponge Cake. - -_Supper._ - - Fancy Roast of Oysters. Dry Toast. - Chocolate, with Whipped Cream. Orange Jelly. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Wheat Germ, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Partridge. Dry Toast. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth. - -_Dinner._ - - Consommé. Bread. - Roast Beef. Mashed Potatoes. - Tomato Salad. - Cream of Rice Pudding. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Mulled Wine. - -_Supper._ - - Venison Steak, with Port Wine Sauce. - Toast. Sponge Cake, with Sweet Cream. - Cocoa. - - - - -SERVING - - -If cooking be a science, then serving is an art. It perhaps more -closely resembles painting than any other, for a well-spread -table should be a picture, and each separate dish a choice bit -in the landscape. The invalid's tray should be a dainty Dresden -water-color of delicate hues and harmonious tints. - -It is not easy to give definite directions in regard to serving, -for it involves so much of good taste in so many directions, and -depends so largely upon the individual and the circumstances. It -requires intelligent study, a cultivated habit of thought, and the -appreciation of symmetry, and the harmony of colors; to do it well -one must ever judge anew and arrange again, for no two meals are -exactly alike in all their details. - -Of course, the most important thing in serving is the thing to -be served. A badly prepared or unwholesome dish, no matter how -beautifully it may be presented, is worthless--perhaps even worse, -for it may prove a positive source of evil. An indifferently -done steak, served on a silver platter, is less acceptable than -one perfectly cooked on plain china, or a bit of burned toast on -Dresden ware than a daintily browned piece on a common white plate. -Put the force, therefore, of your efforts on securing that which -is wholesome in itself, adapted to the needs of the patient, and -perfectly cooked; then serve it in the most attractive manner at -your command. - -Good serving is a necessity for the sick. It should never be -regarded as simply ornamental. When a person has the hunger of -health, colors and dishes are not of great account; but when one is -ill, or exhausted with fatigue, sometimes a pretty color, a dainty -cup, or beauty of arrangement makes all the difference, and one is -tempted to eat when otherwise the food would remain untouched. - -Simplicity should rule at all times the arrangement of an invalid's -tray. Anything like display is entirely out of place. Japanned -trays of oval shape are the ones in general use. When one is -fortunate enough to possess a silver tray, the dishes may be placed -directly upon it, or on a doily, which covers the center of it. -All other trays should be completely covered with a dainty snowy -napkin, or tray-cloth. - -After the napkin has been neatly spread upon the tray, place a -plate in the middle of the side nearest to you, and then arrange -the other dishes about it, with the tiny earthen teapot on the -right, and the sugar-bowl and cream-pitcher of silver next to it; -the knife, fork, and spoons should be on the right and left of the -plate, never in front of it. The various dishes to be served should -then be arranged symmetrically in other parts of the tray, not -scattered about without the appearance of order. - -Never crowd a tray. Calculate beforehand how many dishes you will -probably have, and select a size accordingly. Serve a single glass -or a single cup on a small round or oval tray with a doily, never -on a large tray, such as might be selected for a meal. - -When practicable use silver dishes for meats, soups, coffee, hot -milk, or any hot food; when these cannot be had, use hot china. - -Avoid discords in color. Most women have an instinctive -appreciation of color, and by giving some thought to the subject -of harmonies, and observing the methods of others who are known to -have good taste in such matters, bad blunders in the arrangement of -a tray or a table may be avoided. - -_Red_ with _yellow_, _blue_ with _green_, and _yellow_ with _pink_ -are inharmonious combinations of color; but _yellow_ with _white_, -_blue_ with _white_, _dull orange_ with _brown_, _violet_, and -_pale gold_ are exquisite together. - -A cup of chocolate in pale pink or dull red, coffee in buttercup -yellow, especially when served without cream, and green tea in Nile -green, appeal to the eye as well as to the taste, giving double -pleasure--gratifying two senses instead of one. - -Color plays a very important part in serving food. It produces -strong effects in some persons who are deeply moved by harmonies or -discords in it, as others are by harmonies or discords in music. -Color appeals to the esthetic side of some natures much more -forcibly than many of us are aware. - -The story is told of a lady, possessed of unusually keen -color-perception, who had been living for many months in a house -furnished in monotonous hues, and in which the table was always set -in plain white cloth and white china. Being invited to lunch with -a friend in the neighborhood, she was moved to tears at the sight -of a beautiful table, decorated with a scarlet cloth, flowers, and -harmoniously contrasting colored china. - -The effect of the colors upon the emotions was similar to that -which is sometimes produced by an exquisite strain of music. Who -can say how much of subtle refining influence may be exerted by -such things? Regarded as a general thing only in the light of -the ornamental, they are too often looked upon as luxuries, and -therefore dispensable; but whatever ministers to the esthetic side -of the mind must be elevating, and the influence of neatness, -of beautiful surroundings, of harmonious colors, of art in any -form, inevitably produces an effect upon character. In time -such surroundings become necessities, and when the individual -is deprived of them they are missed, and he feels a sense of -dissatisfaction with those of meaner kind--perhaps dissatisfaction -with a poorer or lower life in any way--and imperceptibly these -seeming ornaments of existence may be the means which shall lift -many an one into a higher plane of life, so that, aside from their -practical value, all the niceties of household affairs may have a -lasting effect for good upon character. - -To be progressive, one must be constantly in a frame of mind to -learn, and ever on the alert for information. Fashions change -in serving foods as in other things. However, there are certain -fixed principles which always remain unchanged. Perfect neatness, -orderly and pleasing arrangement, and harmonious coloring are ever -essential. - -For the invalid's tray use the prettiest china obtainable. -In a private house there are always some choice and precious -pieces--teacups, quaint silver pitchers and spoons, pretty plates, -and delicate thin tumblers. These will be gladly placed at the -disposal of the sick one, especially if the nurse will volunteer to -be responsible for them. - -To prepare a meal for an invalid after planning the food, the first -necessary articles are a tray clean on both sides, a neat napkin -to spread over it, and exquisitely clean dishes done by a servant -known to be neat, or by one's self. It not infrequently happens, -especially in houses in which the mistress leaves everything to the -servants, and never goes into the kitchen, that dishes are washed -in such surroundings of dirt, and wiped with such unclean towels, -as to be dangerous for any one to use. It is therefore necessary -for a nurse to understand about such matters, and to see to it that -her patient's dishes are above suspicion. In fact, it is a dainty -attention on her part to care entirely for the tray-dishes of her -charge. - -In some forms of disease it is absolutely necessary, in order to -prevent contagion, that a nurse should attend altogether to the -tray and dishes, for it would almost never occur that any member of -a household would understand an effectual method of sterilization. - -In a contagious disease everything that goes to the -bedside--dishes, knives, forks, spoons, napkin, the tray -itself--should be rendered sterile by boiling in water for half an -hour, or by treatment with steam for a similar time, before any -one, except the nurse, even touches them. - -Nothing should be used in the way of linen or dishes that cannot -be washed without spoiling; therefore fancy silk doilies and other -similar furnishings are to be avoided. - -When it is necessary to taste of food before giving it to a -patient, take some into a separate dish, and use a separate spoon -or fork; or, if it is a liquid, take out a little with a spoon into -another spoon, being careful that the one used for tasting does not -at any time touch the liquid. - -Never touch the bowls of spoons, nor the inside of plates and -cups, with the fingers, unless the hands are prepared by thorough -cleansing for it. A nurse who understands antiseptic surgery, -and knows how easily contagion is carried, will appreciate the -necessity of these precautions. The hands should be washed after -arranging a bed, using a handkerchief, arranging the hair--in fact, -always before handling either food or dishes. - -Food and drink should not be allowed to remain exposed to the air -for any length of time. Most kinds of food are excellent media for -micro-organisms to flourish in, and consequently the food, if it be -such as might be eaten afterward, deteriorates. - -Then, from an esthetic point of view, it is the height of -untidiness to allow a tray to remain in the sick-room any length -of time after the meal has been eaten. It should be immediately -removed with all traces of the meal, as should also fruit, glasses -for water, lemonade, milk, etc., which may be used at different -times during the day. - -If the patient objects and wishes to have what is left for future -use, assure him that it is near at hand, and being kept cool and -clean for him. By punctually fulfilling promises made about such -matters, he will very quickly learn to trust a nurse, not only in -these, but in other things. - -For decoration for a tray nothing should be used besides pretty -china and flowers. A slender glass or silver vase with a blossom -or two, or a delicate fern with a white or pink flower, are always -suitable. It is well to use ferns and other fresh green decorations -liberally, especially in winter. Green is always grateful to the -sight, and sometimes a single spray will give pleasure to an -invalid for hours. - -Violets, roses, orchids, and all flowers that are dainty in -themselves, are always in good taste, but a very few or a single -blossom is all that is allowable. A big bouquet on a tray or an -invalid's table is as out of place as a whole roast or a whole -pudding. Flowers with strong odors or primary colors should be -avoided, such, for instance, as marigolds, fleur de lis, and -dahlias. They are handsome in a garden or a hall, but not at the -bedside. - -Little attentions in the way of ornamentation, and thoughtfulness -as to an invalid's meal, are deeply appreciated. They show that -an effort has been made to please, and to many sick ones the -feeling that they are a constant care to those about them is a very -oppressive one. It should be the pleasure of a good nurse to dispel -such thoughts. It is the duty of every nurse to do so. - -Variety for those who are sick (after they are out of danger, and -waiting for strength to return) is just as necessary as for those -who are well, and for the same reason--that is, to furnish the -body with all those substances required for perfect nutrition. -Many think that because a person is ill, or an invalid, he must be -denied all things that are good, and fed upon such dishes as well -persons generally abhor, like water gruel, thin oyster stews, and -half-cooked corn-starch pudding. - -It is curious how such an idea should have been lodged in the mind, -but it is probably a relic of the old treatment in the days before -antiseptic surgery and the modern practice of medicine. Now, as -soon as a patient is out of danger, careful feeding with a variety -of wholesome, perfectly cooked, nutritious food--of course, wisely -administered as to quantity--is an essential part of the treatment, -and constitutes nearly the whole cure in some forms of disease of -the nervous system. - -The body, depleted and exhausted by long-continued sickness, is -without resources, and must draw from food (and, of course, air) -all those substances needed for repair and the restoration of -bodily vigor. To insure this, different kinds of food are required, -for no single one, not even milk, contains everything needed.[44] -Fruits of various kinds, green salads and vegetables, fish, beef, -and mutton should be used, as well as milk, eggs, chicken, and -toast. - -Ease in serving the sick is an accomplishment in a nurse, and a -certain amount of _seeming_ indifference is an advisable quality -to cultivate. It is a good plan to take every _possible care_ in -preparing a meal for a sick person, and then to appear not to -notice whether he eats; for sometimes sensitive people, in their -desire not to disappoint, or in their endeavors to please, will eat -when they do not care for food. - -Endeavor to remember individual tastes, and try to gratify them; -always do so when it is in your power, for these individual -preferences are often true instincts of the individual nature -striving to secure that which is best for it. If a man asks for the -second joint of a fowl, don't take to him a cut from the breast, -even though _you_ may think it the choicest portion. - -Food should be given at _regular intervals_. If a patient is very -ill, the rule is to administer nourishment in small quantities and -often. Sometimes a patient is too feeble to help himself to food, -and then he must be fed by the nurse. When such is the case, she -should be extremely careful, no matter what the pressure of other -work may be, not to hurry him. Give him plenty of time,--first, -that the food may remain in the mouth long enough to be mixed with -the saliva, for saliva is one of the digestive juices; and second, -so that it may be thoroughly masticated and broken; otherwise it -will be thrown into the stomach in large masses, and may not digest -at all. - -The _quantity_ of food given will always depend upon the condition -of the person, and will consequently vary for each individual. -Give rather _too little_ than too much, with, of course, the -understanding that there is always an abundance to be had. A -little is often a challenge, especially to one of delicate -appetite; a large quantity is always vulgar. It is much better to -carry a second portion to one who needs it than to offer too much -at first. - -No exact and definite directions can be given for the serving of -special dishes, for a nurse's resources in the way of china, etc., -are so uncertain; but a few hints in regard to some principles -that, no matter what the circumstances are, never change may be -found of service. - -For instance, water, lemonade, milk, milk-punch, and all other -cold drinks are most healthful when _cool_, not ice-cold. Ice-cold -water, ice-cold milk, and all chilled drinks are _always forbidden_ -for both sick and well, except in fevers, in extremely hot weather, -and in unusual cases, when only a few spoons of liquid are taken. -Even in these cases it is a question whether _cool_ liquids would -not do as well. We all know the danger of taking a large quantity -of ice-cold drink when overheated. Even death has frequently -resulted from it. - -Serve tea, coffee, cocoa, bouillon, broth, gruel, and all hot -drinks in cups which are _hot_, not lukewarm. Soup as a part of a -meal should be served in a covered silver dish when practicable, -for silver may be made very hot, and no other is so pretty. In lieu -of silver use a covered china dish, or a bouillon-cup made hot in -an oven beforehand. Remember that the _warmth_ of all these foods -is one of their valuable qualities. - -Beef-juice and beef-tea may be offered in a red wine-glass, to -conceal the color, which is sometimes at first unpleasant to those -unaccustomed to the use of rare beef; but the taste of these is -so acceptable and savory that, after taking a few spoons, the -objection vanishes. - -Cups and tumblers ought not to be filled to more than within a half -inch of the top. The best argument for this custom is, that it is -considered good form; but there is a good reason back of it, as is -the case in most other established customs. If a cup be filled to -the brim it cannot be moved without spilling the liquid over the -outside; this occasions wiping, which it is especially difficult to -do, and waste of a certain portion of the contents; then it is not -easy to drink from a cup so filled. - -Fruits, such as oranges, grapes, peaches, and tomatoes, should be -served cool, but not cold or chilled. The ideal way to eat fruits -is without artificial cooling. A peach is never so delicious as at -the moment it is gathered from the tree, just ripe, and tomatoes -have the finest flavor eaten directly off the vines; but it is -seldom that these fruits or others can be so obtained, and we, -knowing that fruits do not keep well except in cool places, are apt -to associate a certain degree of coolness with them. The objection -to serving fruits very cold is that, besides the fact that they are -not as readily digested so, their delicate flavor is lost, for the -cold contracts the sensitive papillæ of the tongue, and thus the -power of tasting is temporarily deadened. - -Oranges, peaches, and plums may be used uncooked, as they are -extremely easy of digestion so, and also grapes, unless there is -objection to the seeds, in which case they should be cooked, and -the seeds strained out. Apples and pears are safer cooked; tomatoes -may be eaten either way. - -Transparent jellies are pretty served in glass dishes, and -ice-cream, sherbets, and ices in china saucers, or ice-cream dishes -of pink, or other delicately warm colors. Ice-cream, uncolored, in -shell pink, is much more attractive than it is in cold mauve or -green. Water-ices, which usually have color of their own, may be -served in dishes to match it. Raspberry or strawberry ice is lovely -in dull rich red; apricot ice in yellow--that is, a certain shade -of écru which harmonizes with the color of the fruit--and pineapple -and lemon ice in Dresden ware are very pretty. - -Eggs should be opened into a hot, though not very hot, egg-glass. -It is the proper thing to do so even when a patient is well enough -to open them for himself, for, although the supply may have been -obtained from the very best sources, there is always the risk that -some of the eggs may be old, too old to be good.[45] - -Oysters in the half-shell are served simply with salt, pepper, and -lemon-juice, or horse-radish. A quarter or a half of a lemon is -placed on the oyster-plate with the oysters, and after the salt and -pepper are sprinkled on a few drops of lemon-juice are squeezed -over each oyster, or a bit of horse-radish is placed on each. - -Broiled oysters may be served with a sauce of melted butter, -seasoned with salt, pepper, and lemon-juice or vinegar. - -Toast is particularly acceptable with nearly all kinds of cooked -oysters, and fancy shapes, such as tiny rounds, squares, and -points, are excellent with stews, soups, and roasts, instead of -crackers. - -Dry toast ought to be eaten directly off the toaster, and, -except in serious illness, butter may be given with it. Orange, -gooseberry, raspberry, and other marmalades, currant, apple, and -grape jellies, and baked sweet apples or apple-sauce, are excellent -with either dry or water toast. Cooked apples in any form are -delicious with milk and cream toasts. - -It is the fashion just now to serve junket, slip, soft custard, -lemon cream, tapioca cream, and similar delicate desserts in cups -and saucers, not glasses. The quainter the pattern of the china, -the prettier the effect. - - * * * * * - -A plan for a breakfast, to consist of a peach, rolled wheat -porridge, beefsteak, baked potato, coffee, and toast: - -(1) Put the porridge, which should have been cooked the day before, -on the fire to heat, and the potato into the oven to bake. - -(2) Set some water to boil for the coffee, and the milk to heat to -serve with it. - -(3) Trim the steak, which should be a small piece an inch thick, -an inch and a half wide, and three or four inches long; cut the -bread, and make a butter-ball by rolling a bit of butter between -two spatters made for the purpose.[46] - -(4) Set a plate, cup and saucer, and dishes for serving the food, -in the warming-oven to heat. - -(5) Arrange the tray with a fresh napkin, knife, fork, spoons, salt -and pepper, fine granulated sugar and cold cream for the porridge, -and some lumps of loaf sugar for the coffee. - -(6) Fifteen minutes before the potato is done make the coffee, and -ten minutes later broil the steak; in the interim pare the peach, -laying it open from the stone, and toast the bread. - -Now, if calculation as to the time has been well made, everything -will be ready--the potato baked, the porridge steaming, the coffee -cooked, and the steak and toast waiting in the oven. - -(7) Serve the fruit on a tiny fruit-plate, the porridge in a hot -saucer, and the coffee, together. When the fruit and porridge are -finished, offer the potato, wrapped in a doily to keep it warm, the -steak in a hot covered silver dish, and the toast on an individual -bread-plate. Or all may be served together when for any reason it -seems best to do so: for instance, if the tray has to be carried a -long distance, or up many flights of stairs. - -The above arrangement is simply beginning with the things which -require the longest time, and then taking each in such order that -all shall be finished at the same moment. - -By understanding the length of time required for each dish, there -need be no hurrying, nor will anything be cooked too soon. - -Dinner should be planned in the same way, and also supper. -Even when there is not much cooking to be done the same idea -prevails--that is, to begin with whatever requires the longest -time, and to do last those dishes which spoil by standing; in -other words, to be systematic, (1) because your meal is in better -condition when so done, and (2) because it is easier for yourself. -There then will be neither hurry nor worry, and work which ends -with a satisfactory result is always a pleasure. - - - - -THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN - - -There are three ways in which a child may be supplied with food -during its infancy: by its mother; by a substitute for its -mother--a wet nurse; and by artificial feeding. This chapter will -treat only of the latter method. - -The child is fortunate whose mother can supply it with a sufficient -quantity of wholesome milk. There is nothing more to be desired for -it during the first ten or twelve months of its life. But often a -mother, for one reason or another, is not able to nurse her child, -and other means of feeding must be sought. In such cases, among -the wealthier classes, a wet nurse is sometimes employed; but with -the majority of people there is no alternative except artificial -feeding. When this has been decided upon, the question naturally -arises as to what shall be the best substitute for the natural -nourishment of the child--mother's milk, which must always be taken -as the perfect type of infants' food.[47] To this subject doctors -and hygienists have given much attention for a long time. Many -kinds of food preparations have been made and tested. The result -has been that, almost without exception, authorities agree that -milk from healthy, well-fed cows, properly prepared, is the most -valuable substitute for human milk that is at present known.[48] - -The following analyses give the comparison between cow's milk and -human milk: - - _Human Milk._ _Cow's Milk._ - Nitrogenous substances 2.35% 4.30% - Fat 3.40% 3.80% - Sugar 4.85% 3.70% - Salts .20% .60% - Water 89.20% 87.60%[49] - -Cow's milk varies considerably in nutritive properties, and for -the growing infant who receives no other food it is extremely -important that it be of the first quality. It should be tested in -every possible way to enable one to form a correct estimate of -its value, and unless unquestionably good should be rejected.[50] -When fresh from the cow, not more than two hours old, and of -superior quality, it need not be sterilized, but should be put into -perfectly cleansed and sterile vessels,[51] and kept in an ice-box, -or refrigerator, at a temperature of 50° to 60° Fahr.[52] - -When obliged to buy the ordinary milk of commerce, select if -possible that which is put up in glass jars. There are farmers -who do this. Each jar is sealed, marked with the owner's name -and address, and the date of sending. Such milk does not become -contaminated with bad air in transit, cannot be tampered with by -middlemen, and must be free from dirt, as it would show through -the glass; each customer gets exactly a quart, with all the cream -that belongs to it; moreover, the owner, having attached his name, -has thus put his reputation at stake, and is not likely to sell -inferior milk. When this is not practicable, search for the best -and cleanest dairy, and see that the milk is delivered as soon as -possible after being received at the dairy. Milk should not be -bought from small stores. - -The best milk comes from cows that have good pasturage, with clean -running water, and that are fed in winter on dry fodder and grain, -and not on ensilage and brewery waste. - -According to the reports of the American Public Health Association, -_one fifth_ of all the deaths among infants may be traced to the -milk supply, and there is no doubt that most of the sickness of -bottle-fed children, during the summer months, is directly due to -the unhealthy condition of their food. - -It then becomes the imperative duty of every mother, nurse, or -other person who has the care of children, to learn, if she does -not already know, the simpler tests for milk, and something of the -philosophy of the feeding of her charge.[53] When such knowledge -is more general, and women are able to determine intelligently the -quality of the milk which is offered them, then will milk-dealers -be forced to cease mixing, adulterating, and otherwise tampering -with the milk, which, as a general thing, is sold at the farms in -excellent condition. - -The first object is to secure a good quality of milk; then comes -the consideration of how it shall be prepared: this must be in such -manner as shall render it as nearly like human milk, in composition -and digestibility, as possible. - -Comparison of the tables just given shows that cow's milk contains -more nitrogenous matter and salts, and less sugar, than human -milk.[54] By diluting with water to reduce the protein and salts, -and adding sugar and a little cream, the proportions of these -different substances may be made to approximate those in mother's -milk. In both the sugar is the same--lactose, or milk-sugar; the -fats are also much alike in each; but the albuminous matter of -cow's milk differs somewhat from that of human milk, particularly -in the way in which it coagulates in the presence of acids. Human -milk forms into small, light, feathery curds; cow's milk into -large, compact, not so easily digested masses. It is necessary, -therefore, to seek the means for preventing the coagulation of milk -in large curds in the stomach of the child--in other words, to so -treat cow's milk that it shall coagulate more like human milk. This -may be done in two ways: - -(1) By mixing into the milk some substance which shall separate the -particles of albumen from each other, and so cause it to form into -smaller masses. - -(2) By partial predigestion. - -To accomplish the first, it is necessary to use some diluting -substance of a harmless nature; if it be nutritious, so much -the better. For this, Mellin's food, barley-water, veal broth, -lime-water, and gelatin are recommended. - -Mellin's food is a partially predigested grain, in such a -condition that it can be assimilated by the infant; barley-water is -valuable for its potash salts, in which cow's milk is deficient, -and which the growing babe needs; veal broth is rich in lime; and -lime-water neutralizes the acid of the gastric juice, so that -milk is not acted upon so strongly, and consequently forms into a -lighter curd. - -The second method is that of partial predigestion, and is -accomplished by the use of peptonizing agents, among which -Fairchild's peptogenic milk-powder is good (directions for its -use will be given later). On account of the expense of these -preparations it is not probable that they will come into general -use, except in cases of sickness. - -It is therefore evident that dependence must be placed almost -entirely upon attenuants to render the casein of cow's milk more -easily digestible. Probably for this Mellin's food is as good, -if not better, than any other of the recommended preparations. -It is not injurious, is nutritious in itself, and is a good -diluting agent, causing milk to form into looser curds than it -would otherwise do, and it contains sufficient sugar to require no -further addition of this substance. - -Now arises the question whether milk shall be sterilized for -infants' feeding. The weight of evidence seems to be as follows: -if it is possible to see the conditions under which the cows live, -and to _know_ that they are unquestionably good, that the animals -are in perfect health, that the milk is drawn from cleansed udders -into cleansed vessels by clean hands, kept in a cool place, and -used fresh, then it is probably wise not to sterilize it. All -milk otherwise obtained should be made sterile before using, and -as soon as possible after milking. Looking to the standard--human -milk--there are no organisms in it. That alone is sufficient -reason why cow's milk should be freed from them.[55] - -Again, most bottle-fed children do well during the cold weather -of autumn and winter; in summer the mortality is very great among -them, especially in the poorer districts of large cities. It is -well known that the chances for life with children nourished by -mother's milk are greater than with those artificially fed. Why -should this be? There is no doubt that it is owing to the presence -in cow's milk of extraneous substances, the products of bacterial -growth--products which are often absolute poisons; and it is highly -probable that cholera infantum, in a vast majority of cases, may be -traced to the action of such poisons. - -Under favorable conditions of temperature, such as prevail in -the warm months of summer and early autumn, micro-organisms grow -with almost incomprehensible rapidity in any substance which is -suitable food for them. Milk is such a substance; and, as bacteria -multiply with wonderful rapidity, millions forming in a few hours -in every thimbleful,[56] it is perfectly evident that they must -produce something. This something may or may not be of a harmful -nature, depending upon what species of organism produces it. I -have no evidence at hand to show what is the nature of the product -of any one organism which finds a home in milk; but there are -instances on record where the nature of the product of certain -bacteria is known: for example, the diphtheria bacillus. This -little rod, growing upon the outside of the tonsils in the human -throat, produces a most virulent poison, which, taken up by the -circulation, pervades the whole body, and often so enfeebles its -functions as to destroy it.[57] - -Reasoning from analogy, it is not impossible to suppose that other -organisms may produce substances of a similar character, poisonous -in their effects, and which, when taken into the alimentary canal, -may produce very grave digestive disorders.[58] - -Further, bacteria, by their multiplication, use some of the -constituents of milk for their food, thus changing its composition. -It is very important to prevent this growth, or, in case it has -begun, to check it before it has rendered the milk unwholesome -food. Hence the necessity of sterilizing _immediately_ all milk -which is not received directly from the cow. Besides, cows are -often infected with tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, splenic -fever, pneumonia, and other dangerous disorders. Their milk may be -a direct cause of infection. When it is sterilized there is less -danger from it; but even then it is not, of course, a wholesome -food, because of the poisons which may be produced in the animal -during the progress of the disease, and because a sick and weakened -cow cannot give wholesome milk.[59] - -In many cities, through the influence of children's hospitals and -sanitariums, the knowledge and methods of sterilizing milk for -infants' food are gradually spreading. - -Circular wire frames, made something like casters, and fitted with -eight bottles, each holding enough milk for one feeding, may be -bought for the purpose of sterilizing at almost any pharmacy. The -frame is to be set in a kettle with water in the bottom, which on -boiling produces steam, the heat of which does the sterilizing.[60] -This is an easy method. Another good way is to sterilize at a lower -temperature for a longer time, as less change is produced in the -constituents of the milk by the lower degree of heat. This may be -easily done by immersing the bottles in water at 190° Fahr., and -maintaining that temperature for an hour.[61] - -=Care of Feeding-bottles.= Great care must be taken in cleansing -feeding-bottles. When they can be washed immediately after -using, it is easy to make them perfectly clean; but when this is -impracticable they should be put to soak in _cold_ water, then -washed with hot soap-suds, and last boiled for ten minutes in clear -water. If flecks dry on the inside, put a teaspoon of rice, or -coarse salt, into the bottle with a little water, and shake well -until all is removed. Never use shot: it might cause lead poisoning. - -Plain rubber nipples alone should be used, never the tube -attachment. The nipples should be washed clean and dried after -each nursing. Before again using the nipple it should be put into -boiling water for ten minutes, and only the rim of it should be -touched in handling. The nipple should never be put into the mouth -of another person to test the milk. - -=Condensed Milk.= When a large percentage of the water of milk is -evaporated, and sugar added, a thick syrup is formed, known as -condensed milk. - -It is made extensively in Switzerland and America. When sealed -air-tight in cans it will keep indefinitely. - -Its average composition--a mean of 41 analyses by Prof. Leeds--is -as follows: - - Water 30.34% - Fat 12.10% - Milk-sugar 16.62% - Cane-sugar 22.26% - Albuminoids 16.07% - Ash 2.61% - ------- - Total, 100.00 - -Owing to the additional sugar it is impossible to dilute it so that -the protein and sugar shall approach the standard of human milk. - -Children fed with it are plump, but have soft flesh; they are -large, but not strong, and lack the power of endurance and -resistance to disease. Their teeth come late, and they are very -likely to have rickets.[62] This is enough to indicate that it is -not a proper food upon which to feed a child exclusively. - -Condensed milk is valuable in emergencies or in traveling, and -may also be used occasionally when for any reason the milk supply -fails. It has the advantage of being free from ferments and easily -kept. - -There are physicians who recommend the use of condensed milk, and -no doubt, compared with the germ-laden, watery fluid called milk, -obtainable in the poorer sections of large cities, it is infinitely -better. It should always be diluted with at least ten times its -bulk of water. - -=Preserved Milk.= Preserved milk is milk which has been condensed -and canned without the addition of sugar. It would be a valuable -food for children were it not that it is expensive, and will keep -but a few hours after the can is opened. By sterilizing it in -flasks with narrow necks, plugged with cotton, it may be kept as -other milk is for an indefinite time. As soon as the can is opened, -the contents should be poured into a glass or earthen vessel, for, -on exposure of the milk to the air, chemical action takes place -with the tin.[63] - -=Farinaceous Foods.= There are many farinaceous forms of food -prepared for the use of infants and children. Probably the most -valuable of them are those made according to the Liebig process. -The starch of the grain from which such foods are prepared is, in -the process of manufacture, changed into soluble dextrine, or sugar -(glucose), by the action of the diastase of malt: the very thing -which an infant cannot do. - -When we consider that the digestion of starch in the alimentary -canal consists of this change into glucose, and that it is -effected principally by the saliva and the pancreatic juice, the -significance of the value of such foods will be seen. - -It is also well to bear in mind that neither of these functions -(the secretion of saliva and pancreatic juice) is developed in an -infant until it enters the third month of its life, and then but -very imperfectly. That alone shows the necessity of _excluding all -starch_ from its food up to that age. - -Mellin's food and malted milk are prepared according to the Liebig -process. In them the starch has been converted into soluble matter -by the action of the ferment of malt. It is really a partial -predigestion. Mellin's food does not contain milk. - -The following analysis of Mellin's food is one made by Professor -Fresenius, of Wiesbaden, Germany: - - Non-nitrogenous substances soluble in water 69.38% - Non-nitrogenous substances insoluble in water 3.18% - ------ - _Total carbohydrates_ 72.56% - - Nitrogenous substances soluble in water 4.69% - Nitrogenous substances insoluble in water 5.06% - ----- - _Total albuminoids_ 9.75% - - _Total salts_, mostly phosphoric acid, carbonic - acid, and potassa 4.37% - ------ - _Total moisture_ 13.32% - - Cane sugar, none. Reaction, alkaline. - -Comparative analysis of Mellin's food, prepared for use, with that -of woman's milk and cow's milk. - - _Mellin's _Woman's _Cow's - _Constituents._ Food._ Milk._ Milk._ - Fat 2.36% 4.00% 3.30% - Albuminoids 2.83% 2.50% 3.50% - Carbohydrates 6.81% 6.50% 5.00% - Salts and inorganic matter .74% .50% .70% - Water 87.26% 86.50% 87.50% - Cellulose A trace. -- -- - Cane-sugar None. -- -- - Starch None. -- -- - - DR. A. STUTZER, Bonn, Germany. - -This analysis shows that Mellin's food bears comparison with milk. -It is easily digested, and as an _attenuant_ for milk may be used -without harm during the early months of life, but it should not be -used to the exclusion of milk for more than a few days at a time, -and then only when milk is not retained by the stomach. - -Later it is doubtless a valuable addition to the regular daily food -of the child. - -Malted milk is made from selected grain and desiccated or dried -milk. To prepare it for the infant it needs only the addition of -water. It is probably one of the best substitutes for milk, but -should not be used for any length of time when it is possible to -get good milk. - -The starch of grains may be converted into dextrine and glucose by -the action of heat as well as by the action of diastase, so that -when flour is subjected to a certain temperature, and for a certain -time, this change is produced. - -Nestlé's food, Imperial Granum, Ridge's food, and some others are -made very carefully from selected wheat by this process. Nestlé's -food contains dried milk. - -These foods are all valuable when made into gruel or porridge, but -should be used very sparingly under the age of twelve months, and -then only as attenuants for milk, _not as substitutes_ for it. - -Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, editor of "Domestic Hygiene of the -Child," by Uffelmann (a translation), in speaking of the value of -the various preparations of infants' food on the market, says: -"There is not the slightest reason to prefer them to milk or its -preparations, except that the latter requires more care; and for -any intelligent and affectionate mother this reason is quite -insufficient.... During the first year the baby is building up -tissues and organs that are to last him throughout life; and these -will work well or ill according to the degree of perfection and -precision of structure which they attain at the beginning. And this -depends to an immense extent upon the suitability of the food, not -only to be digested, but to be absorbed, and then to be assimilated -and organized. - -"So mysterious are the properties of the molecules of albumen and -fat, when once they have been thrown into the whirl of the living -organism, that we must strive to deviate as little as possible -from the exact forms given to us in nature, if only because we do -not know what remote effects might result from the deviations. If -nature provides the albumen of milk and a living fluid, we cannot -expect the same results from any other albumen, or from long dead -organic matter, as condensed milk." - -The farinaceous foods have value, but they cannot replace good -milk, which should be almost the sole food of the child to at least -the age of ten months, and the principal nutrient to the age of two -years. - -When a baby is nursed, and its mother has an abundance of milk, it -takes nothing else during the first ten or twelve months of life. -When a baby is artificially fed, this fact should be borne in mind. -The important thing is to attain as nearly as possible to the -standard that nature has set. - -Biedert's cream mixture and the whey mixture are valuable for young -infants and those which for any reason do not thrive on milk. - -=Amount for Each Meal.= A child is nourished, not by what -it swallows, but by what it digests. Giving too much or too -concentrated milk is very unwise, for the delicate system cannot -manage it, and too frequently the meal becomes a source of pain -rather than of strength. Each individual babe will require a little -different treatment in this respect from every other. - -In general, for the first six weeks from two to four tablespoons -at a feeding may be given; from that age to six months, from four -to eight tablespoons, gradually increasing the amount to twelve -tablespoons at one year. - -=Dilution.= Cow's milk is more easily digested when diluted with -water, and we are more likely to dilute too little than too much. -The amount of water used should vary with the age and strength of -digestion of the child. As a rule the new-born infant should have -two parts water to one of milk; at four months equal parts of milk -and water; at ten months one part water and two parts milk. When -digestion is particularly feeble, it may be necessary to dilute -milk with six or eight times its bulk of water. - -=Manner of Giving.= It is best to give milk from a bottle so -constructed that suction is necessary, for it induces the flow of -the digestive juices. Use the plain rubber nipple; those with tube -attachments which extend into the bottle are to be avoided, on -account of the difficulty of making them perfectly clean inside. -Cultures from these tubes always give large numbers of bacteria, as -do also those made from the nipples, unless they are boiled. - -The _intervals_ of feeding will vary somewhat with the age of the -child. Once in two or two and a half hours during the day for the -first six months, and every three hours from the sixth to the -twelfth month, is the general rule. - -The _temperature_ of the meal should be 100° Fahr. - -A babe needs less variety in its food than older children, and -they in turn require less than grown persons; but both must have a -certain proportion of the five essential food principles. - -There is an impression in the minds of many that children should -not have fat. This has perhaps sprung from the fact that mother's -milk has a watery, thin appearance. It seems not rich; nevertheless -it has a due proportion of fat, and it is extremely important that -this be maintained when cow's milk is diluted, for this cream is -the best addition. - -Fat is needed not only for the growth of brain and nerves, which is -very rapid in children, but also for the perfect formation of other -tissues. - -The following table is that given by Dr. Louis Starr as a guide for -feeding: - - -GENERAL RULES FOR FEEDING. - - _Age._ _Intervals of _Average Am't _Average Am't - Feeding._ each Meal._ in 24 hours._ - First week 2 hours 2 tablespoons 1¼ pints - Second to sixth week 2½ hours 3-4 tablespoons 1½-2 pints - Sixth week to sixth month 3 hours 6-8 tablespoons 2½-3 pints - At six months 3 hours 12 tablespoons 4½ pints - At ten months 3 hours 16 tablespoons 5 pints - - -For the First Week; One Feeding - - 1 Tablespoon of whey.[64] - 1 Tablespoon of water. - ⅔ Tablespoon of cream. - ⅙ Teaspoon of sugar. - -Or Biedert's cream mixture: - - 1 Tablespoon of cream. - ¼ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - -Or, - - 1 Tablespoon of milk. - ¼ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - -If it is desirable to make at once a sufficient quantity of -Biedert's cream mixture for several feedings, the above rule -multiplied by eight will furnish enough for eight bottles, and is -as follows: one cup of cream, three cups of boiling water, and -one tablespoon of milk-sugar. Mix all together; put the mixture -in equal portions into eight feeding-bottles, and plug each with -cotton. Either sterilize it or put it immediately on ice to keep. - - -After the First Week, and Until the Sixth Week - -Use either the cream mixture, the whey mixture, or the following: - - 2 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 4 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Teaspoon of Mellin's food. - ⅓ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - - -From the Sixth Week to the Sixth Month - -Water and milk in equal quantities, with a little cream and -milk-sugar, and some attenuant, such as Mellin's food or barley -jelly.[65] - - 2 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 2 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Tablespoon of cream.[66] - 1 Teaspoon of Mellin's food. - ⅜ Teaspoon of sugar. - -The above proportion to be maintained, but the amount to be varied -according to the age of the babe. - -If at any time this disagrees, use instead Biedert's cream mixture -or the whey mixture. When both of these fail it may be necessary to -peptonize the food. - -_To peptonize milk_: - -No. 1 - - 2 Tablespoons of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Tablespoon of cream. - 1 Small measure of peptogenic milk powder. - -Put all into a clean porcelain-lined saucepan and heat it, stirring -slowly until the mixture boils: this should not require more than -ten minutes. - - -No. 2 - -A special preparation for sick or feeble infants, or those -suffering from indigestion. - - 2 Tablespoons of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Tablespoon of cream. - 1 Small measure of peptogenic milk powder. - -Put all into a bottle, shake it well, place it in a bath or kettle -of hot water of a temperature of 115° Fahr. (so hot that the hand -cannot be borne in it long without discomfort), and keep it at -that temperature for exactly thirty minutes; then pour it into a -saucepan, and heat quickly to the boiling point. By this method -a very thorough predigestion takes place. The process should be -stopped before the bitter taste is developed. - - -From the Sixth to the Tenth Month - -Increase the proportion of milk and of Mellin's food, or other -attenuant used.[67] - - 4 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - 1½ Teaspoons of cream. - 1 Tablespoon of Mellin's food. - ½ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - -Boil the water, then add the milk, Mellin's food, cream, and sugar, -or put all together in a feeding-bottle, place in a kettle of water -heated to 190° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature for one -hour.[68] This amount is only a general rule, and may, of course, -be varied according to the age and individual need of the child. -The _proportion_ of the ingredients should, however, not be changed. - - -From the Tenth to the Twelfth Month - - 6 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - 1½ Tablespoons of cream. - 1 or 2 Tablespoons of Mellin's food. - 1 Teaspoon of milk-sugar.[69] - -_Mellin's Food with Condensed Milk._ Although, as has been -previously stated, condensed milk is not a proper food for -children, there are times when it may be necessary to use it: for -instance, in traveling, or when the daily supply of milk for any -reason fails. - -The usual mixture of condensed milk given to babies is one part of -milk to twelve parts of water, the analysis[70] of which shows the -fat and casein to be in too small proportions. If more condensed -milk be added, the sugar will be increased too much; but by -increasing the water, and using Mellin's food and cream, a very -good mixture may be obtained. The following is recommended: - - 1 Teaspoon condensed milk. - 1 Tablespoon of Mellin's food. - 8 Tablespoons of water (1 cup). - 1 Teaspoon of cream. - -Boil the water, then add the condensed milk, Mellin's food, and -cream in the order in which they are mentioned, stirring until all -is dissolved. - -Nothing should be used during the first twelve months except -liquid food, and that must not be of too great density. - -Avoid any food which contains cellulose, or starch as such.[71] -Cellulose is but imperfectly if at all digested by grown persons; -and starch, not being a natural kind of nourishment for an infant, -is extremely liable to ferment and cause serious digestive -disturbances. - -It should be remembered that, although the chief function of a babe -is to eat, sleep, and grow, its stomach cannot work all the time, -and, consequently, the wise plan is to feed it only at regular -intervals. - -The best proof that a child is doing well is increase of weight, -a healthy appearance, and lack of fretfulness. Sometimes, when -restless, it is only a drink of water that it needs, as children -suffer much from thirst in warm weather. - - -From the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Month - -Continue with milk, _undiluted_ with water, as the principal -food. Use with it Mellin's food as before, Nestlé's food, Ridge's -food, Imperial Granum, oatmeal porridge _strained_, soft custard, -soft-cooked eggs, cocoa[72] cooked in water, with milk added or -cooked in milk, and cracker-crumbs boiled in water, with milk added. - - -After Eighteen Months - -The same diet as for the previous six months, with the addition of -scraped or pounded chicken, mutton, or beef; mashed baked potatoes -with beef-juice poured over; toasted bread or toasted crackers -rolled into crumbs, and soaked in milk or broth; junket, and plain, -simple puddings, such as cream-of-rice, tapioca, and arrowroot. - -A diet similar to this should be the chief food to the seventh -year. It may be varied by farina, wheat-germ, and other grain -mushes, dried rusk and milk, or Zwieback[73] and milk, sponge cake -with cream or milk, snow-pudding, and other wholesome and delicate -desserts, and cooked fruits. - -=Foods to be Carefully Avoided.= Veal, pork in any form except -bacon,[74] highly seasoned stews, curries, canned meats or dried -meats in any form, baked beans, fruit cake, also all cakes or -gingerbread made with so-called "cooking-butter" or with common -lard, raw fruits, lobsters and crabs, new potatoes, berries, and -cabbage. - - - - -DISTRICT NURSING - - -In England and in some parts of America district nursing, or -nursing among the very poor of certain sections of a city, is an -established part of a nurse's work. Her duties are to go from house -to house among the sick, to administer medicine and food, and to -make the surroundings of her patient comfortable. - -There is no way in which one may reach the hearts and sympathies of -the poor so quickly as by helping them to, or showing them how to -do for themselves, those things which they think they need. - -Their first consideration is for the immediate necessities of -life--food, clothing, and shelter. Their days are spent in a -struggle with the world for these--too often an unequal struggle, -in which the world conquers. A nurse, or any other person who can -gain admission to their homes and sympathies, may help them in -many ways as no other can. Great good may be done by teaching them -economical and simple methods of preparing their food, which as a -general thing is cooked both badly and wastefully. - -A nurse doing district nursing, besides administering medicine -and making her patient generally comfortable, will inevitably and -naturally turn to the preparation of some form of nourishment for -him. If she can make it acceptably with the materials and cooking -utensils at hand, or is able to ask for that which is within the -means of the family, or to direct the buying of it, she will add -greatly to the comfort of the household. - -The object of this chapter is not, however, to deal with cooking -for the sick. That will be left entirely to the judgment of the -nurse, who is supposed to have studied the subject as a part of -her training. But it has occurred to the author that a nurse doing -district nursing would often find the opportunity to help the -_families_ of her patients, and that often such help would need to -be given in order to prevent actual suffering. Especially would -this be true if it were the mother of a family who was ill, and -there was no one to prepare food for the father and children, who -must be fed. Usually there is a child, either boy or girl, who is -old enough to learn if there is some one to teach. - -The following pages have been written for the purpose of -suggesting, to such nurses as are disposed to do good in this -way, some easily made and economical dishes which are really both -palatable and nutritious. A few directions about building a fire, -washing dishes, sweeping, etc., will be given, and then some bills -of fare with recipes adapted for the use of people of small means, -and taken for the most part from the Lomb Prize Essay by Mary H. -Abel, entitled "Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking," and -published by the American Public Health Association, 1890. - -Permission to use these recipes has been graciously granted by Mrs. -Abel, and the American Public Health Association, through Mr. Lomb. - -=To Make a Fire.= First, clear the stove of ashes and cinders, then -put in wood-shavings, or twisted newspaper; over this foundation -lay small pieces of wood, crossed, so as to leave air-spaces -for draft, then larger pieces of wood, and lastly two or three -fire-shovels of coal. Light the kindling from the bottom of the -grate, and let it burn for a while before putting on more coal; -remember that it is the heat from the burning wood which ignites -the coal, and if it does not burn it is because there is not wood -enough to produce sufficient heat to start the union between the -combustible part of the coal--carbon chiefly--and the oxygen of the -air. Add coal a little at a time, thus keeping a fresh fire. - -After the fire is well started regulate the dampers often, to -economize as much as possible the consumption of coal. Keep them -partially or wholly closed, unless a hot fire is needed for some -purpose. The cinders left from an old fire should be sifted and -re-burned. Many dollars' worth of coal may be saved in a year by -giving attention to the drafts of a stove. - -=To Wash Dishes.= Mixing-bowls, double boilers, and all dishes -which for any reason have food clinging to them, should be put to -soak in cold water as soon as used. If this has not been done, -attend to it before making other arrangements for washing the -dishes. See then that the dish-pan or tub, dish-cloths, and sink -are perfectly clean; if not, make them so with hot water and -soap. Wash the dishes in hot soapy water, not hot water alone, -even if they are not greasy, and rinse them in a pan of clear hot -water. Take glassware, silver, and china first, then steel knives -and forks, granite-ware, kettles, tins, etc. When the dishes -are finished, wash thoroughly and dry, or put to dry, both the -wiping-towels and the dish-cloths; unless they are white, clean, -and sweet when done, boil them in clear soapy water until they -become so, changing it frequently if it looks dark. - -=Sweeping and Dusting.= Sweep slowly and carefully, holding the -broom close to the floor, so that the dust shall not be thrown into -the air. _Burn the dirt_; never allow it to be thrown into a box or -into the coal-hod. - -Dusting should be done with a damp cloth, wiping up the dust, not -brushing it into the air, from which it will settle upon some other -object. When you have finished, wash the duster and hang it to dry. -Never use a feather duster. With it one simply brushes the dust -from one place only to have it settle in another. - - -BILLS OF FARE - -Mrs. Abel says, in her chapter headed "Bills of Fare": "The -following bills of fare are made out for a family of six persons, -consisting of a workingman, two women, and three children between -the ages of six and fifteen. - -"The amount of food, and the proportion in which the great food -principles are represented, approximate to that which is demanded -by standard dietaries for such a family.... - -"To keep us in health and in working order, we ought to have a -certain amount of what is best furnished by meat, eggs, milk, and -other animal products, and we must also have fats, as well as what -is given us in grains and vegetables." The following bills of fare -are made up with this object in view: - -For a family of six; average price, seventy-eight cents per day, or -thirteen cents per person. - - -SATURDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Soda-biscuit. Bread Soup. Browned Flour Soup - Sugar-syrup. Beef-neck Stew. with Fried Bread. - Coffee. Noodles. Toast and Cheese. - Cream-of-rice Pudding. - -The recipe for =Soda-biscuit= will be found on page 242. - -=Bread Soup.= _Ingredients_, dry bread broken in small bits, water, -salt, pepper, onion, and a little fat. Soak the bread in the water -for a few minutes. Fry the onion, sliced, in the fat, and add it to -the soup, with the salt and pepper. - -Or, use milk instead of water, and toasted or fried bread. Boil -slowly for five minutes to perfectly soften the bread. - -=Beef-neck stew=, page 186. - -=Noodles.= _Ingredients_, three eggs, three tablespoons of milk or -water, one teaspoon of salt, and flour. - -Make a hole in the middle of the flour, put in the other -ingredients, and work to a stiff dough, then cut it into four -strips. Knead each till fine grained, roll out as thin as possible, -and lay the sheet aside to dry. When all are rolled, begin with the -first, cut it into four equal pieces, lay the pieces together, one -on top of another, and shave off very fine, as you would cabbage; -pick the shavings apart with floured hands and let them dry a -little. - -_To use._ Boil the strips a few at a time in salted water, taking -them out with a skimmer, and keeping them warm. Strew over them -bread crumbs fried in butter, or use like macaroni. - -These noodles will keep indefinitely when dried hard. Therefore, -when eggs are cheap, they may be made and laid up for the winter. -The water in which they are boiled is the basis of noodle soup. It -needs only the addition of a little butter, a teaspoon of chopped -parsley, and a few of the cooked noodles. - -=Cream-of-rice Pudding=, page 206. - -=Browned Flour Soup.= - - 2 Tablespoons of butter or fat. - ½ Cup of flour. - 2 Pints of water. - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - -Cook the flour brown, in the fat over a slow fire, or in an oven. -Add slowly the water and other ingredients. Serve with fried bread. - -=Toast and Cheese.= Toast some slices of white or Graham bread, -arrange them in a platter, and pour over sufficient salted water -to soften them. Grate over enough old cheese to cover the toast. -Set it in the oven to melt, and place the slices together as -sandwiches. This is the simplest form of "Welsh Rarebit." - - -SUNDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Milk Toast. Beef Stew. Noodle Soup. - Coffee. Creamed Potatoes. Broiled Herring. - Dried Apple Pie. Bread. - Bread and Cheese. Tea. - Corn Coffee. - -=Milk Toast=, page 130. =Beef Stew=, page 186. =Creamed Potatoes=, -page 166. - -=Dried Apple Pie.= Make a crust in the following manner: One quart -of flour, one teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of butter or lard, -or butter and suet, one scant pint of sweet milk, or water, with -one teaspoon of soda and two of cream of tartar, or three teaspoons -of baking powder. - -Sift the flour, salt, cream of tartar, and soda together twice, put -it into a chopping-tray, and chop in the shortening, which should -be cold and hard, till all is fine and well mixed. Now add the milk -a little at a time, still mixing with the chopping-knife. Turn the -dough on to a molding-board, and roll it out quickly. When half -an inch thick, bake in a sheet or cut it into rounds, and bake in -layer cake tins. - -When done, split it in two, and spread each half with dried apples, -stewed with a little lemon-peel and sugar. Lay the two pieces -together, and eat while warm. - -Any other fruit may be used in the same way, and if a richer crust -is wanted, two tablespoons of fat instead of one may be used. - -=Corn Coffee.= Roast common field corn as brown as possible without -burning. Grind coarsely, and steep like coffee. Add milk and sugar, -and you will find it a delicious drink. - -=Noodle Soup=, page 305. - - -MONDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Oatmeal Mush, with Pea Soup. Bread Pancakes. - Milk and Sugar. Mutton Stew. Fried Bacon. - Bread. Broiled Potatoes. Tea. - Coffee. Bread. - -=Oatmeal Mush=, page 91. - -=Pea Soup.= _Ingredients_, one pound of peas, one onion, two -tablespoons of beef fat, salt and pepper. Additions to be made -according to taste. One fourth of a pound of pork, or a ham-bone, -a pinch of red pepper, or, an hour before serving, different -vegetables, as carrots and turnips, chopped and fried. - -Soak the peas over night in two quarts of water. In the morning -pour it off, put on fresh water, and cook with the onion and fat -until very soft. Then mash or press the peas through a colander or -soup-strainer to remove the skins, and add enough water to make two -quarts of somewhat thick soup. Season. - -=Mutton Stew=, page 187. - -=Bread Pancakes.= Make in the following manner: One quart of milk, -three eggs, one tablespoon of butter, one teaspoon of salt. Add to -this one cup of flour, and two cups of bread crumbs that have been -soaked soft in milk or water and mashed smooth. The batter should -be rather thick. Bake in small cakes, adding more flour if they -stick. - - -TUESDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Oatmeal Mush and Fried Fish, with Fried Farina Pudding. - Milk. Mint Sauce. Broiled Salt Pork. - Buttered Toast. Fried Potatoes. Bread. Tea. - Coffee. Bread. - -=Mint Sauce.= Two tablespoons of chopped green mint, one tablespoon -of sugar, one half cup of vinegar. Mix and let stand an hour or two. - -=Fried Farina Pudding.= One pint of water, one pint of milk, one -teaspoon of salt, one half pint of farina, two eggs. Mix the flour -and eggs smooth with a part of the milk. Heat the remainder to -boiling, and stir in the egg and flour. Continue stirring until it -thickens, then cook for fifteen minutes in a double boiler. When -cold, cut it in slices and fry them brown on a griddle. - - -SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Soda-biscuit. Pea Soup. Corn Mush and - Baked Potatoes, with Irish Stew. Molasses. - Drawn Butter Sauce. Bread. Bread and Grated - Cocoa. Cheese. Tea. - -=Drawn Butter Sauce.= Make according to the rule for White Sauce -(page 130), except use water instead of milk, and part beef fat -instead of all butter. - -=Irish Stew= (page 186). - - -SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Oatmeal and Milk. Broiled Beef Liver. Lentil Soup, with - Bread and Butter. Boiled Potatoes Fried Bread. - Cocoa. and Carrots, with Smoked Herring. - Fried Onions. Bread. - Bread and Cheese. Barley Porridge. - -=Boiled Potatoes, and Carrots with Fried Onions.= Slice hot boiled -potatoes and boiled carrots together. Season them with salt and -pepper, and pour over them hot fried onions. - -=Lentil Soup.= Made like Pea Soup, page 307. - -=Fried Bread.= Cut bread into small cubes and fry it in hot fat -until light brown. - -=Barley Porridge.= Made with pearl barley soaked over night in -water, and then cooked for two hours, or until it is soft. During -the last hour add milk instead of water. Flavor with salt and -butter. - - -MONDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Buckwheat Cakes. Giblet Soup. Codfish Balls. - Fried Bacon. Baked Potatoes, with Cheese. - Coffee. Drawn Butter Sauce. Bread. - Bread. Tea. - -=Giblet Soup.= Giblet soup is made from the heart, liver, and -neck of chicken and other fowls, which in city markets are sold -separately and very cheap. Clean them very carefully, wash in cold -water, cut into small pieces, and boil for two hours with onions -and herbs. Then add a little butter, thickening, salt, and pepper. - -=Codfish Balls= (_Salt Cod_). Codfish is one of the cheap foods -that seems to be thoroughly appreciated among us, and good ways -of cooking it are generally understood. It must be freshened by -laying it in water over night. When soaked, put it into cold water, -and bring gradually to the boiling point; then set the kettle back -where it will keep hot for half an hour; at the end of that time -separate it into fine shreds, add an equal amount of fresh mashed -potato, make into balls, and fry on a griddle. - - -TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Bacon. Boiled Corned Beef, Pea Soup. - Boiled Potatoes. with Yeast Biscuit and - Bread. Horse-radish Sauce. Butter. - Coffee. Stewed Cabbage. Stewed Fruit. - Bread. - Barley Porridge. - -=Boiled Corned Beef.= Boil the beef for three hours, very slowly at -first, changing the water once if it is very salt. - -=Horse-radish Sauce.= Add grated horse-radish to drawn batter -sauce. Simmer a few minutes. - -Barley Porridge, page 309. - - -SATURDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Bacon. Browned Flour Soup. Baked Beans. - Corn Bread. Stewed Mutton. Bread. - Coffee. Mashed Potatoes. Apple Dumplings, with - Bread. Pudding Sauce. Tea. - -=Corn Bread.= (1) Plain. One cup of sweet milk, one cup of sour -or buttermilk, or both of sour milk, one teaspoon of salt, one -teaspoon of soda, one tablespoon of butter or suet or lard, three -cups of Indian meal, and one cup of wheat flour, or all of Indian -meal. Mix, pour into a tin, and bake forty minutes. - -(2) Richer. The same, with an egg and one half cup of sugar added. - -(3) Very nice. No. 1, with the addition of three eggs, one half cup -of sugar, and one third of a cup of butter, one cup of meal being -omitted. - -=Browned Flour Soup=, page 305. - -=Apple Dumplings, with Pudding Sauce.= _The Dumplings._ Make a -crust like that used in dried apple pie. Cut it in squares; place -sliced apples in the middle, and gather up or pinch the corners. -Bake or steam. - -_Sauce._ One pint of water made into a smooth paste with a heaping -tablespoon of flour. Cook ten minutes. Strain if necessary, sweeten -to taste, and pour it over one tablespoon of butter, and the juice -of a lemon, or other flavoring. If lemon is not used, add one -tablespoon of vinegar. This can be made richer by using more butter -and sugar. Stir them to a cream with the flavoring, and then add -the paste. - - -SUNDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Codfish. Sheep's-head Stew, Potato and Onion - Bread and Butter. with Soda-biscuit Salad. - Coffee. Dumplings. Broiled Salt Pork. - Baked Potatoes. Bread. - Bread and Grated Corn Mush, with - Cheese. Cocoa. Pudding Sauce. - -=Sheep's-head Stew= (see Mutton Stew, page 187). - -=Potato and Onion Salad.= Slice some potatoes (fresh boiled and -slightly warm are best). Sprinkle them with minced onion, salt, and -pepper. Dress with a little melted butter and vinegar. - -=Pudding Sauce=, the same as that for Apple Dumplings. - - -MONDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Mush and Soup from Boiled Boiled Potatoes, with - Molasses. Beef, with Macaroni. Butter Gravy. - Bread. Broiled Beef Flank, Dried Apple Roly- - Coffee. with Mustard Sauce. poly Pudding. - Bean Purée. Bread. Bread. Tea. - -=Mustard Sauce.= Make some drawn butter in the following manner: - -A heaping tablespoon of butter, or beef fat, is put into a -saucepan. When it boils, one heaping tablespoon of flour is added, -and stirred as it cooks. To this add gradually one pint of water, -one teaspoon of salt, and one fourth of a teaspoon of pepper. If -you wish to unite economy and good flavor, use one half teaspoon of -beef fat in making the sauce, and add one half teaspoon of butter -cut in small pieces just before serving. Add a little mustard, and -you have mustard sauce. - -=Bean Purée.= Make like Pea Soup, page 307. - -=Dried Apple Roly-poly Pudding.= Make the soda-biscuit dough which -is used in dried apple pie. Roll it out into a thin sheet, and -spread with stewed and flavored dried apples. Roll it into a round -or loaf, and bake in a pan containing a little water. - - -TUESDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Potatoes. Browned Farina Bean Soup. - Bread. Soup, with Toast. Milk Toast. - Coffee. Stewed Mutton, with Tea. - Yeast Dumplings. - -=Browned Farina Soup.= Make like Browned Flour Soup, except use -farina. - -For other similar bills of fare and recipes, see the Lomb Prize -Essay, entitled "Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking," which -is published and sold at a low price by the American Public Health -Association, and may be bought at any book-store. It is most -heartily recommended to nurses who do district nursing as a book -which will be found useful among the poor and those possessed of -moderate means. - - - - -LITERATURE - -In preparing the preceding pages the following authorities have -been consulted. Their works will be found useful for reference -on subjects connected with the chemistry of food, bacteriology, -nutrition, health, practical cooking, and allied topics. - - "The Chemistry of Cookery." W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS. 1885. - - "Food Materials and their Adulterations." ELLEN H. RICHARDS. 1886. - - "The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning." ELLEN H. RICHARDS. 1882. - - Various Articles on Food in "The Century Magazine." W. O. - ATWATER. 1887-88. - - "Elementary Manual of Chemistry." ELIOT AND STORER. Compiled by - W. RIPLEY NICHOLS. 1880. - - "A Manual of Practical Hygiene." EDMUND A. PARKES. Edited by - FRANÇOIS DE CHAUMONT. 1887. - - "A Simple Treatise on Heat." W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS. 1880. - - "Food for the Invalid." J. MILNER FOTHERGILL. 1880. - - "Food and Feeding." SIR HENRY THOMSON. 1880. - - "The Boston Cook Book." D. A. LINCOLN. 1884. - - "New England Breakfast Breads." LUCIA GRAY SWETT. 1890. - - "Miss Parloa's New Cook Book." MARIA PARLOA. 1880. - - "Diet for the Sick." MARY E. HENDERSON. 1885. - - "Food in Health and Disease." I. BURNEY YEO. - - "Delicate Feasting." THEODORE CHILD. 1890. - - "The Story of the Bacteria." T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN. 1890. - - "Dust and its Dangers." T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN. 1890. - - "Bacteria and their Products." GERMAN SIMS WOODHEAD. 1892. - - "The Methods of Bacteriological Investigation." FERDINAND HEUPPE, - M. D. 1886. - - "Microbes, Ferments, and Molds." E. L. TROUESSART. 1886. - - "Principles of Bacteriology." ALEXANDER C. ABBOTT, M. D. 1892. - - "The Human Body." H. NEWELL MARTIN. 1890. - - "A Text-book of Human Physiology." AUSTIN FLINT, M. D., LL. D. - 1888. - - "Domestic Hygiene of the Child." JULIUS UFFELMANN, M. D. (A - Translation.) Edited by MARY PUTNAM JACOBI, M. D. 1891. - - "A Treatise on the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood." J. LEWIS - SMITH, M. D. 1886. - - Article in the "Medical News" on "Diseases of Children Incident - to Summer." VICTOR C. VAUGHAN. June 9, 1888. - - "Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking." MARY H. ABEL. 1890. - (The Lomb Prize Essay.) - - "The Town Dweller." DR. FOTHERGILL. - - "A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection." W. PAUL GERHARD. 1890. - - "Papers of the American Public Health Association." 1892. - - "Foods." EDWARD SMITH. 1883. - - -CHARTS - -Charts of the composition of various foods may be made like the -following, for use in a cooking school. They are valuable and -convenient for reference. - - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF AN EGG - - _Shell._ - Carbonate of lime. - - _Yolk._ - Nitrogenous matter 16.00% - Fat 30.70% - Salts 1.30% - Water 52.00% - - _White._ - Nitrogenous matter 20.40% - Salts 1.60% - Water 78.00% - - -COMPOSITION OF COW'S MILK - - Water 87.4% - Fat 4.0% - Sugar and soluble salts 5.0% - Nitrogenous matter and insoluble salts 3.6% - - DR. MILLER. - - -COMPOSITION OF COCOA - - Cocoa butter 48.00% - Nitrogenous matter, albumen, etc. 21.00% - Theobromine 4.00% - Starch and traces of sugar 11.00% - Cellulose 3.00% - Coloring matter and aromatic essences Traces - Mineral matter 3.00% - Water 10.00% - - PAYEN. - - -COMPOSITION OF BREAD - - Nitrogenous matter 8.10% - Carbohydrates, starch, sugar, etc. 51.00% - Fatty matter 1.60% - Mineral matter 2.30% - Water 37.00% - Cellulose 0.00% - - -COMPOSITION OF POTATO - - Water 75.00% - Starch 18.80% - Nitrogenous matter 2.00% - Sugar 3.00% - Fat 0.20% - Salts, principally potash 1.00% - - -APPARATUS - -The following is a list of the necessary furniture, utensils, -china, and miscellaneous articles for furnishing a cooking school: - - -CHINA FOR SERVING - - 3 Glass cream pitchers. - 6 Small china cream pitchers. - 6 Coffee-cups and saucers. - 6 Tea-cups and saucers. - 3 Cocoa-cups and saucers. - 2 Bouillon-cups and saucers. - 3 Egg-cups. - 3 Egg-glasses. - 6 Tall, slender glasses for milk-punch, egg-nog, etc. - 1 Small red goblet for serving beef-juice. - 6 Tumblers. - 1 Spoon-holder. - 3 Glass sugar bowls. - 2 Soup bowls. - 2 Salad bowls. - 2 Finger bowls. - 3 Small teapots. - 1 Cocoa-pot. - 1 Tête-à-tête set. - 1 Oatmeal set. - 1 Cracker jar. - 6 Dinner plates. - 6 Tea plates. - 6 Individual bread plates. - 6 Individual Butter plates. - 6 Glass sauce dishes. - 6 Bone dishes. - 1 Vinegar cruet. - 2 Individual salt-cellars. - 2 Individual pepper-bottles. - 3 Small oval platters. - 3 Medium-size oval platters. - 3 Silver or planished tin covers, for platters or vegetable, dishes. - 6 Silver knives. - 6 Silver forks. - 6 Silver spoons. - 1 Pair of silver sugar-tongs. - 1 Champagne tap. - - -COMMON KITCHEN CHINA - - 3 Large pitchers. - 3 Small pitchers. - 6 Half-pint cups. - 6 Saucers. - 12 Custard cups. - 6 Individual scallop dishes. - 3 Mixing bowls. - 6 Quart bowls. - 6 Pint bowls. - 3 Large vegetable dishes. - 3 Small vegetable dishes. - 3 Pudding dishes. - 1 Large jelly-mold. - 6 Small jelly-molds. - - -GRANITE-WARE - - 2 Six-quart covered kettles. - 1 Six-pint double boiler. - 2 Three-pint double boilers. - 1 Quart double boiler. - 1 Coffee-pot. - 3 Stew-pans. - 6 Saucepans. - 2 Omelet-pans. - 2 Hand-basins. - - -IRON AND TIN WARE - - 1 Tin tea-kettle. - 6 Half-pint measure cups in thirds. - 6 Half-pint measure cups in fourths. - 2 Tin jelly-molds. - 1 Large-mouthed tunnel. - 3 Small tunnels. - 1 Colander. - 1 Taper soup-strainer. - 3 Coarse wire strainers. - 3 Fine wire strainers. - 2 Tea-strainers. - 1 Flour sieve. - 1 Dredging box. - 1 Egg-poacher. - 1 Grater. - 1 Whip-churn. - 2 Dover egg-beaters. - 1 Lemon-squeezer. - 1 Meat-press. - 1 Potato-masher. - 2 Large wire broilers. - 2 Small wire broilers. - 1 Oyster-broiler. - 1 Wire cake-rest. - 2 Large tin pans. - 3 Frying-pans. - 2 Iron baking-pans for bread. - 2 Sponge-cake pans. - 1 Iron gem pan. - 2 Muffin tins. - 1 Chafing-dish. - 3 Lacquered trays. - 3 Small trays. - 12 Japanned boxes of different sizes, - for flour, etc. - 6 Tea-caddies. - 1 Biscuit-cutter. - 4 Cutting-knives. - 3 Vegetable knives. - 1 Chopping-knife. - 1 Meat-cleaver. - 6 Forks. - 1 Set of steel skewers. - 1 Corkscrew. - 1 Can-opener. - 1 Ice-pick. - 1 Sugar-scoop. - 1 Basting-spoon. - 6 Mixing-spoons. - 12 Tablespoons. - 12 Teaspoons. - - -WOODEN WARE - - 1 Coffee-mill. - 1 Ice-cream freezer. - 1 Salt-box. - 1 Spice-box. - 1 Dish-tub. - 1 Large oval chopping-tray. - 2 Meat-boards. - 1 Bread-board. - 1 Molding-board. - 1 Rolling-pin. - 2 Butter-spatters for butter-balls. - 2 Cake-spoons. - 2 Salt-spoons. - 2 Vegetable brushes. - 2 Scrubbing brushes. - -LINEN - - Table-cloths. - Napkins. - Hand-towels. - Tea-towels. - Dish-cloths. - Mops. - Ice-bag. - Jelly-bags. - Cleaning-cloths. - - -MISCELLANEOUS - - 1 Chemists' thermometer. - 1 Oven thermometer. - 1 Arnold sterilizer. - 1 Feser's lactoscope. - 1 Quevenne's lactometer. - 1 Hamper for soiled linen. - 6 Quart Mason jars. - 6 Pint Mason jars. - - -FURNITURE - - 1 Cooking stove, with appurtenances. - 1 Coal-hod. - 1 Coal-shovel. - 1 Galvanized iron covered waste-pail. - 1 Galvanized iron sink. - 2 Towel-racks. - 2 Tables. - 1 Refrigerator. - 1 China-closet. - 1 Open dresser. - 6 Chairs. - 1 Broom. - 1 Dust-pan. - 1 Dust-brush. - - - - -INDEX - - - Absorption, 68. - - Adaptation of food to particular needs, 69. - - Air, 14, 15, 18, 20, 38-44, 54, 56, 64. - - Albumen, 17, 25, 27, 52, 59, 61, 76, 146, 152, 168, 169, 283, 292. - - Albuminoids, 17, 25, 62. - - Ale, 119. - - Apparatus for furnishing a cooking-school, 315. - - Apple dumplings, 311. - - Apple (dried) pie, 306. - - Apple soup, 144. - - Apples, 130. - Baked, 225, 226. - Stewed, 226. - - Apple-tea, 106. - - Arrowroot, 32, 34, 85. - - Atmospheric pressure, 38. - - - Bacon, 300. - - Bacteria, 23, 49, 99, 285. - - Bacterial poisons in milk, 285, 286. - - Bacteriology, 5, 313. - - Baking-powder, 236, 245. - - Barley jelly, 296. - - Barley porridge, 309. - - Barley pudding, 205. - - Barley-water, 101, 284. - - Beef, 169, 170, 310. - - Beef-juice, 75. - Bottled, 76. - Broiled, 76. - - Beefsteak, 27, 170, 171. - - Beef-tapioca soup, 140. - - Beef-tea, 75, 116. - Bottled, 77. - With hydrochloric acid, 77. - - Beer, 119. - - Biedert's Cream Mixture, 293, 295. - - Bile, 51, 61. - - Bills of fare, 304. - - Birds, 175. - Field-larks, 180. - Grouse, 179. - Partridge, 176. - Pheasants, 178. - Reed-birds, 179. - Squabs, 176. - Snipe, 177. - Woodcock, 178. - - Biscuits, cream-of-tartar, 242. - - Biscuits, twin, 243. - - Blanc-mange, 209, 210. - - Boiled corned beef, 310. - - Boiled potatoes and carrots, with fried onions, 309. - - Bouillon, 143. - - Brandy-milk, 98. - - Bread, 34, 76, 232. - Composition of, 315. - Cream-of-tartar biscuit, 242. - Gluten, 245. - Graham, 241. - Graham gems, 244. - Milk, 239. - Oatmeal muffins, 244. - Rusk, 240, 241. - Snow-cakes, 243. - Sticks, 240. - Water, 238. - - Bread pancakes, 307. - - Bread soup, 304. - - Broths, 27, 75. - Beef, 78. - Beefsteak, 79. - Chicken, 80. - Clam, 82. - Mutton, 81. - Oyster, 82. - Scotch, 80. - Serving of, 275. - - Browned farina soup, 312. - - Browned flour soup, 305. - - Butter-cream, 193. - - Buttered water toast, 129. - - - Cake, 246. - Care in baking, 247. - Chocolate, 250. - Dream, 252. - Feather, 249. - Invalid's sponge, 248. - Layer, 250. - Process of making, 247. - Rose, 250. - White, 251. - - Cake filling and frosting, 252. - - Caramel, 252. - - Chocolate, 253. - - Cream, 253. - - White mountain, 252. - - Calf's-foot jelly, 28. - - Caramel, 37, 38, 115. - To make, 197. - - Carbohydrates, 18, 19, 31, 62, 63, 64, 65, 58, 71. - - Carbon, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 29, 36, 37, 171. - - Carbonic acid, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 40, 42, 54, 107, 234, 235. - - Carmine for coloring, 210. - - Carrageen, 209. - - Cellulose, 299. - - Charts, 314. - - Chemical changes, 10, 11, 15. - - Chemistry of foods, 313. - - Chicken, broiled, 174. - - Chicken jelly, 126. - - Chicken panada, 141. - - Chicken soup, 135. - - Chicken-tapioca soup, 139. - - China for serving, 316. - - Chocolate, 108, 110, 200. - Serving of, 269. - To make, 109. - - Clam broth, 82. - - Cocoa, 108, 299, 315. - - Cocoa cordial, 119. - - Cocoa-nibs, 109. - - Cocoa-shells, 109. - - Codfish balls, 309. - - Coffee, 9, 22, 23, 114, 307. - Composition of, 116. - Serving of, 269, 275. - To make, 117, 118. - - Coffee jelly, 124. - - Coffee-syrup, 104. - - Composition of the body, 16, 17, 18, 24. - - Condensed milk, 288, 298. - - Consommé, 142. - - Contagious diseases, care of dishes in, 271. - - Convalescent's diet, 260. - - Corn bread, 310. - - Corn coffee, 307. - - Cream, 30, 63, 104. - - Cream, condensed, 296. - - Cream-of-celery soup, 137. - - Cream-of-rice soup, 138. - - Cream of tartar, 10, 236. - - Cream-of-tartar biscuit, 242. - - Creams, 127, 195. - Chocolate, 200. - Coffee, 199. - Egg, 198. - Peach foam, 202. - Rice, 202. - Tapioca, 201. - Velvet, 199. - - Cream sauce, 149. - - Cream toast, 130. - - Croutons, 132, 135. - - Custards, 195. - Soft, 195, 278. - Baked, 196. - French, 197. - Rennet, 197. - - - Dextrine, 33, 63, 128, 163, 290. - - Diastase, 34, 50. - - Diet, 72. - - Diet lists or menus for the sick, 254. - - Digestibility of foods, 9. - - Digestion, 9, 49, 66, 110, 116. - - Digestive fluids, 50, 51. - - District nursing, 301. - - Drawn butter, 194. - - Drawn butter sauce, 308. - - Dried apple pie, 306. - - Drinks, 95. - - - Egg-nog, 95. - - Eggs, 25, 26, 52, 152, 314. - Composition, 152. - Omelets, 156. - Creamy, 157. - Foamy, 158. - Orange, 160. - Spanish, 160. - To serve, 277. - With chicken, 159. - With ham, No. 1, 158. - With ham, No. 2, 159. - With jelly, 159. - With parsley, 160. - With tomatoes, 159. - Poached, 155. - Scrambled, No. 1, 156. - Scrambled, No. 2, 156. - Soft-cooked, 154. - - Egg toast, 131. - - Elements, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 56, 57, 59. - - Ether, boiling-point of, 30. - - Extractives, 24, 25, 26, 28, 59. - - - Farina, 87, 91, 92. - - Farinaceous foods, 289, 291, 292. - - Fats, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 31, 58, 60-65, 68, 71, 169, 292, 294. - - Feeding of children, 280. - Analysis of Mellin's food prepared for use, 291. - Care of feeding-bottles, 287. - Condensed milk, 288. - Farinaceous foods, 289. - Food. - Amount at each meal, 293. - Dilution, 293. - First week, 295. - From the first to the sixth week, 295. - From the sixth week to the sixth month, 296. - From the sixth month to the tenth, 297. - From the tenth to the twelfth month, 298. - From the twelfth to the eighteenth month, 299. - Food after eighteen months, 299. - Foods to be carefully avoided, 300. - - Field-larks, 180. - - Fire, 14, 302. - - Fish, 5, 191. - Boiled, 194. - Broiled, 193. - Creamed, 193. - To prepare, 191. - When in season, 192. - - Flavors, 9, 59, 79. - - Flaxseed tea, 105. - - Food, 9, 14, 18, 25, 49, 53. - - French toast, 131. - - Fried bread, 309. - - Fried farina pudding, 308. - - Fruits, 224, 71, 208, 225, 229. - Apple compote, 220. - Apple jelly, 230. - Apples, baked, 225, 226. - Apples, stewed, 226. - Cranberry jelly and sauce, 227. - Grape jelly and sauce, 228. - Prunes, stewed, 227. - Serving of, 276. - - Fuel and kindlings, 16. - - - Gastric juice, 50. - - Gelatin, 28, 53, 59, 76, 120, 122, 168, 169. - - Gelatine, 120, 121, 222. - - Gelatinoids, 17, 25, 28. - - General rules for the feeding of children, 294. - - Giblet soup, 309. - - Glucose, 35, 37, 52, 63. - - Graham bread, 241. - - Graham gems, 244. - - Granite-ware, 316. - - Grape jelly, 228. - - Grape juice, 105. - - Grouse, 179, 180. - - Gruels, 83. - Arrowroot, 84. - Barley, 84. - Cracker, 87. - Farina, 87. - Flour, 86. - Imperial Granum, 88. - Indian meal, 89. - Oatmeal, 85, 86. - Racahout des Arabes, 88. - Serving of, 83, 275. - - Glycerin, 30. - - Glycogen, 63, 64, 65. - - - Hamburg steak, No. 1 (scraped beef), 172. - - Hamburg steak, No. 2, 173. - - Heat, 2, 10, 13, 14, 15, 20, 56, 54, 61, 169, 218. - - Hemoglobin, 17, 59. - - Horse-radish sauce, 310. - - Human milk, 281. - - Hydrochloric acid, 10, 11, 28, 52, 77, 78. - - Hydrogen, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 24, 29. - - - Ice-cream, 217. - Frozen custard, 221. - Philadelphia, 220. - Royal, 220. - With an improvised freezer, 221. - - Ice-cream freezers, 217. - - Ices, 217. - Apricot, 224. - - Ideal diet, 68. - - Imperial Granum, 291, 297. - - Inorganic matter of the body and of food, 18, 65, 66. - - - Jellies, 120. - From fruits: - Apple, 230. - Cranberry, 227. - Grape, 228. - Serving of, 276. - To preserve, 230. - From gelatine, 120. - Chicken, 126. - Coffee, 124. - French, 125. - Lemon, 123. - Orange, 123. - Puncheon, 126. - Wine, No. 1, 122. - Wine, No. 2, 122. - Restorative, 125. - - Junket, 198, 278. - - - Kitchen china, 316. - - Kumiss, 106, 107. - - - Lactometer, 46. - - Lactoscope, 46. - - Lactose, 18, 37. - - Lamb chops, 184. - - Lead, 12. - - Lemonade, 97, 275. - - Lemon jelly, 123. - - Lentil soup, 309. - - Lettuce salad, 213. - - Light diet, 256. - - Lime-water (experiment with), 21. - - Linen, 318. - - Liquid diet, 254. - - Literature, 313. - - Liver, 63. - - Lobsters, 300. - - Lomb prize essay, 302. - - - Malted milk, 290, 291. - - Meats, 5, 168. - - Mellin's food, 283, 284, 290, 297, 298, 299. - - Menus for the sick, 254. - - Micro-organisms, 1, 2, 22, 23, 40, 46, 47, 49, 98, 230, 281, 284, 285. - - Milk, 30, 44-49, 57, 273. - Composition of cow's, 45, 281, 315. - Condensed, 298. - Malted, 290. - Pasteurized, 288. - Preserved, 289. - Serving of, 275. - Sterilization of, 47, 48, 49, 99, 100, 281, 284, 287. - Supplies, 49, 281, 282. - - Milk and seltzer, 100. - - Milk and soda-water, 101. - - Milk lemonade, 97. - - Milk-punch, 95, 275. - - Milk toast, 130. - - Milk-sugar, 298. - - Mineral matter in milk, 283. - - Mineral salts, 18, 57, 65, 66, 71, 111, 162, 175, 226. - - Mint sauce, 308. - - Mock-bisque soup, 135. - - Mulled wine, 118. - - Mush and porridge, 90. - Cracked wheat, 93. - Farina, 92. - Granula, 93. - Hominy, 94. - Imperial Granum, 93. - Indian meal, 94. - Oatmeal, 91. - Wheat germ, 92. - - Mustard sauce, 312. - - Mutton, 181, 182. - - - Nestlé's food, 291, 297. - - Nitrogen, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 24, 42, 59. - - Nitrogenous compounds, 53, 58, 62. - - Noodles, 305. - - Noodle soup, 305. - - Nutrition, 53, 57, 313. - Absorption, 68. - Adaptation of foods to particular needs, 69. - Definition, 54. - Ideal diet, 68. - Imperfect, 70. - Inorganic matters and vegetable acids, 65. - Summary of the digestibility of foods, 68. - Value of protein, fats, carbohydrates, and extractives, 58-65. - Ways in which food supplies the wants of the body, 56. - - - Oatmeal, 80, 85, 86, 90, 91. - - Oatmeal muffins, 244. - - Oil, 10, 30. - Cod-liver, 63. - Fixed and volatile, 28. - Olive, 30, 31, 211. - - Omelets, 156. - - Orange jelly, 123. - - Oxygen, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 29, 40, 42, 59, 64. - - Oysters, 145. - Broiled, 149. - Broth, 150. - Chafing-dish, 151. - Composition, 145. - Creamed, 148. - Fancy roast, 150. - Pan-broiled, 150. - Raw, 147. - Roasted in the shell, 147. - Serving, 277. - Soup, 134. - Stew, 148. - Tea No. 1, 82. - Tea No. 2, 82. - - - Panada, 79, 141. - - Pancreatic juice, 51, 61, 290. - - Paraffin, 230. - - Partridges, 176. - - Pasteurized milk, 288. - - Peach foam, 202. - - Peas, 190. - - Pea soup, 307. - - Peptogenic milk powder, 284. - - Peptonized milk, 296. - - Pheasants, 178. - - Phosphated gelatine, 121. - - Physical changes, 10, 11, 12. - - Pigeons, 180. - - Pink blanc-mange, 210. - - Pink sugar, 209. - - Poisons in milk (bacterial), 22, 285, 286. - - Porridge, 90, 91. - - Porter, 119. - - Potato and onion salad, 311. - - Potatoes, 32, 34, 70, 161. - Baked, 165. - Boiled, 163. - Composition, 161. - Creamed, 166. - Duchess, 166. - Mashed, 164. - Roasted, 165. - - Potato soup, 136. - - Preserved milk, 289. - - Protein, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 52, 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 68, 71. - - Puddings, 195. - Baked custards, 196. - Barley, 205. - Chocolate cream, 200. - Coffee cream, 199. - Corn-starch, 204. - Cream-of-rice, 206. - Egg cream, 198. - French custard, 197. - Fruit tapioca, 207. - Irish moss blanc-mange, 209. - Orange baskets, 208. - Orange layers, 208. - Orange omelet, 160. - Peach foam, 202. - Pink blanc-mange, 210. - Princess, 204. - Rennet custard, 197. - Rice cream, 202. - Slip, 197. - Soft custard, 195. - Snow pudding, 203. - Tapioca cream, 201. - Tapioca jelly, 207. - Velvet cream, 199. - - Puncheon jelly, 126. - - - Racahout des Arabes, 88, 89. - - Reed-birds, 179. - - Rennet, 198. - - Restorative jelly, 125. - - Rice, 76, 79, 81. - - Rice-water, 102. - - Ridge's food, 291, 297. - - Roly-poly pudding, 312. - - Rules for the feeding of children, 294. - - Salads, 10, 71, 211. - Celery, 216. - Chicken, 214. - Lettuce, 213. - Potato, 215. - " with olives, 216. - - Salad Dressing, 211. - French, 212. - Mayonnaise, 212. - - Saliva, 50, 290, 51. - - Salt (sodium chlorid), 11, 18, 66. - - Scotch broth, 80. - - Scraped beef, 172. - - Serving, 267. - - Sherbets, 217, 277. - Lemon, 222. - Orange, 223. - - Sherry and egg, 98. - - Sippets, 132. - - Snipe, 177. - - Soda-water, 101. - - Sodium chlorid, 11, 18. - - Soups, 4, 27, 134. - Apple, 144. - Beef-tapioca, 140. - Bouillon, 143. - Bread, 304. - Browned farina, 312. - " flour, 305. - Chicken, 135. - Chicken panada, 141. - Chicken-tapioca, 139. - Consommé, 142. - Cream-of-celery, 137. - Cream-of-rice, 138. - Giblet, 309. - Lentil, 309. - Mock-bisque, 135. - Noodle, 305. - Oyster, 134. - Pea, 307. - Potato, 136. - Queen Victoria's favorite, 139. - - Spores, 23, 24, 48, 99. - - Squabs, 176. - - Starch, 31, 33, 34, 35, 62, 63, 65, 68, 51, 18, 58, 83, 85, 128, 161. - Digestion of, 51, 52, 84, 290. - Composition, 32, 58. - Tests for, 32. - - Steak (beef), 27, 70, 171. - A la Maître d'Hôtel, 173. - Hamburg. No. 1 (scraped beef), 172. - " " 2, 173. - Tenderloin, 173. - - Steam, 12, 20, 29. - - Sterilization, - of Milk, 47, 48, 98, 99, 100, 287, 284. - of Vessels for holding milk, 281. - of Water, 19, 23, 24. - - Stews, 185. - Chicken, 185. - Beef, 186. - Mutton, 187. - - Strawberries, 102, 103, 105, 121, 224. - - Sucrose, 36, 52. - - Sugar, 18, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 62, 58, 63, 65, 68, 283. - - Sweeping and dusting, 303. - - Sweetbreads, 188. - Creamed, 189. - Fricasseed, 189. - With peas, 190. - - Syrups, Apple, 103. - Apricot, 103. - Chocolate, 104. - Coffee, 104. - Currant, 103. - Orange, 103. - Peach, 103. - Raspberry, 103. - Strawberry, 102. - Vanilla, 104. - - - Tapioca, 34, 76, 79, 81, 201, 207. - - Tea, 22, 110, 269. - Composition, 111. - Kinds, 112, 113. - Serving of, 275. - To prepare, 113, 114. - Value as food, 110, 23. - - Tenderloin (steak), 173. - - Thermometers (oven), 239. - - Toast, 128. - Cream, 130. - Croutons, 132. - French, 131. - Milk, 130. - Sippets, 132. - Vermicelli, 133. - Water (buttered), 129. - - Toast and cheese, 306. - - Tomatoes, 135. - - - Vanilla syrup, 104. - - Veal broth, 284. - - Venison, 70, 180. - - Ventilation, 42. - - Volatile oils, 28. - - - Washing of dishes, 303. - - Waste, 19, 67. - - Waste-pails, 5. - - Water, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 54, 65, 218. - - Water-ice, 217, 224. - - Wheat-flour, 232. - - Whey, 295. - Wine, 96. - With rennet, 96. - - White-sauce, 130. - - Wine jelly. No. 1, 122. - - Wine jelly. No. 2, 122. - - Wine, mulled, 118. - - Wine whey, 96. - - Woodcock, 178. - - Wooden ware, 317. - - - Yeast, 232, 233. - Liquid, 237. - - - Zwieback, 300. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] A notable exception is the "Boston Cook Book." - -[2] Although in some hospitals it is not practicable for a nurse -to do much cooking for her patients, she has the control and -distribution of the food which is prepared. - -[3] Carbonic acid is composed of one part of carbon and two parts -of oxygen. Its symbol is CO_{2}. One volume of hydrogen united with -one volume of chlorin forms hydrochloric acid, HCl. Common salt, -or sodium chlorid, is composed of one part sodium and one part -chlorin. Symbol, NaCl. - -[4] Oxygen is often called the _supporter_ of combustion, but it is -no more so than the carbon and hydrogen of fuels, since they are -necessary for a fire. - -[5] Hydrogen is 14.44 times lighter than air. - -[6] See Eliot and Storer's "Chemistry," the revised edition, edited -by Nichols, and the "Elementary Text-book of Chemistry," by Mixter. - -[7] Mattieu Williams, in "Chemistry of Cookery." - -[8] The carbonic acid breathed in has united with the lime, thus -leaving the water without excess of it. - -[9] As a general thing water does not contain organisms that form -spores. - -[10] Atwater. - -[11] The decline in the sardine trade during the last few years -is accounted for by the fact that cotton-seed oil has so largely -replaced olive-oil in the packing of these fish. People who once -regarded them as a great delicacy no longer find them satisfying. - -[12] This is not the first instance of the discovery of organisms -in hail; but Dr. Abbott, if not the first, is one of the first -bacteriologists to demonstrate the fact in this country. - -[13] Parkes's "Practical Hygiene." - -[14] For a detailed description of this method of heating and -ventilation, see the report of the Johns Hopkins Hospital for the -year 1891. - -[15] Variations in the composition of cow's milk (300 analyses): - - _Minimum._ _Maximum._ - Albuminoids or Protein 2.04% 6.18% - Fat 1.82% 7.09% - Sugar 3.20% 5.67% - Salts .50% .87% - - --KÖNIG. - - -[16] The following is the police order for milk, published in -Darmstadt, 1879: (1) All milk must have a specific gravity of -1.029-1.033. (2) When skimmed it must have a specific gravity of -1.033. (3) All milk with a specific gravity under 1.027 is to be -considered as watered and immediately confiscated. (4) All milk -with specific gravity over 1.027, if after twenty-four hours -standing and skimming the specific gravity is under 1.033, must -also be confiscated, also all skimmed milk with a specific gravity -under 1.033. (5) All milk must be considered skimmed which has less -than 2.8 per cent. of fat. - -[17] See article on the Feeding of Children. - -[18] Spores may be further described as resistant forms which some -organisms assume in times of danger, or lack of nourishment for the -purpose of preserving their lives. Not all organisms form spores. - -[19] It is supposed, but I think not yet demonstrated, that -bacteria are among the transforming agents of our food, in the -alimentary canal. Organisms in the saliva have been isolated and -found to produce substances which will partially digest starch. - -[20] Flint's "Physiology." - -[21] It is possible that albumen and fibrin are acted upon by some -of the juices secreted in the mouth. - -[22] The body loses each day, in the performance of its ordinary -and usual functions, about nine pounds of matter (Martin); -therefore, that amount of income of food, water, and air will be -needed in every twenty-four hours. - -[23] Prof. Atwater, in "The Century Magazine," 1887-88. - -[24] Hemoglobin, the red coloring matter of the blood, contains -albumen. - -[25] Protein may be converted into fat; but although this will -happen, it will not do to depend upon it for the supply in the -nutrition of the body; for either it cannot be formed in sufficient -quantity, or the excess of nitrogen acts as a poison. The body -suffers unless a due amount of fat _as such_ be taken. (Martin.) - -[26] By regulating the amount of fat taken each day with food, so -that a little less than is needed is consumed, one may reduce the -amount of fat of the body and become thin, or reduce an excess of -fat without injury to health. The process must be gradual, and -continued for a number of months. Bismarck, by the advice of his -physician, reduced himself in this way without loss of energy or -any ill feeling. - -[27] Flint's "Physiology." - -[28] Parkes. - -[29] Martin. - -[30] Martin. - -[31] Composition of oatmeal: - - Nitrogenous matter 12.6% - Carbohydrates, starch, etc. 63.8% - Fatty matter 5.6% - Mineral matter 3.0% - Water 15.0% - ------- - Total 100.00% - - LETHERBY. - -From Prof. Mott's Chart of the Composition, Digestibility, and -Nutritive Value of Food. - -[32] For a further account of micro-organisms in milk, see the -chapter on Milk. - -[33] George Kennan, in his accounts of his perilous journeyings -through Siberia, bears ample testimony to the comforting effects of -hot tea. Often when he and his companion were chilled through, and -almost dead with cold and fatigue, after many hours' travel over -the frozen snows, they were revived by draughts of hot tea provided -at the stations. - -[34] The ash of tea contains potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric -acid, chlorin, carbonic acid, iron, silica, and traces of manganese. - -[35] - - { Water 74.00% - Egg Whole { Nitrogenous matter 14.00% - { Fat 10.50% - { Inorganic matter 1.50% - - PAVY. - - -[36] Another analysis is that of Payen, the distinguished French -chemist. - - Water 74.4% - Starch, sugar, pectose 21.2% - Nitrogenous matter 1.7% - Fat .1% - Cellulose and epidermis 1.5% - Inorganic matter 1.1% - ------- - Total 100.00% - -Pohl found the proportion of starch, judging by specific gravity -in different varieties, to be as follows: 16.38%, 17.11%, 18.43%, -18.95%, 20.45%, 21.32%, 24.14%. - - DR. SMITH'S "Food." - - -[37] Mattieu Williams. - -[38] From actual experiment. - -[39] From Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book." - -[40] Pink sugar may be made by putting a few drops of carmine into -a cup of powdered sugar, and sifting it several times until the -carmine is entirely distributed through it. - -[41] Mrs. Richards. - -[42] A portion of the starch and sugar is consumed to feed the -growing yeast. It has been estimated that about 1/7 of a barrel of -flour is lost in raising bread--that is, that amount is consumed by -the yeast used. - -[43] Oven thermometers may be obtained of Joseph Davis & Co., -Fitzroy Works, London, S. E., England. 400° Fahr. is a good -temperature for the first fifteen minutes. Some writers give 380°, -but the higher temperature is better, provided it can be gradually -decreased; it should not fall below 250° until the loaf is done. - -[44] There is, of course, an exception in the case of the use of -milk for young children, it being a perfect food for them during -the first year or year and a half of life. - -[45] In England it is the custom to serve eggs in the shell, and it -is considered bad form to open them, but in America the latter way -is general; for an invalid there is no question but that it is the -most convenient way to do. - -[46] The spatters should be soaked in boiling water for a few -minutes, and then in cold water, to prevent the sticking of the -butter. - -[47] It should not be inferred from this that mother's milk is -the best under _all_ circumstances. It not infrequently happens -that a mother, disregarding all indications to the contrary, will -continue to nurse her baby after it has become disastrous both to -herself and the infant to do so. If a baby remains puny, and the -mother is exhausted and languid without any known cause, it is the -part of wisdom to call in the aid of a physician, and have the -milk analyzed. Good and careful feeding is infinitely better than -nursing a baby upon impoverished milk, even if the quantity seems -sufficient. A mother, in nursing her child, should do so at stated -regular intervals. If it is injurious for a grown person to eat at -odd times all day long, it is far more injurious for an infant. It -will not hurt a child to be occasionally hungry, or even to cry, -whereas it _will_ hurt it seriously and perhaps induce life-long -dyspepsia if food is introduced into the stomach while there yet -remains in it that previously taken in an undigested, or partly -digested, condition. The cry which a young mother thinks indicates -hunger, and hopes to allay by feeding, is often only a dyspeptic -pain, which is increased by the very means she takes to lessen it. - -[48] The milk of goats and asses is said to be more easily digested -than cow's milk, but is procurable only in exceptional cases. - -[49] From Uffelmann's "Hygiene of the Child." - -[50] See chapter on Milk. - -[51] Vessels for holding milk may be made sterile by boiling them -in water for fifteen minutes. Glass is best. - -[52] A low temperature retards the growth of micro-organisms. - -[53] Test for reaction, fat, and specific gravity. See article on -Milk. - -[54] The following mineral substances occur in both cow's and -woman's milk: potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, iron, phosphoric acid, -sulphuric acid, and chlorin. - -[55] It is worthy of notice, in this connection, that children have -been known to be made ill by drinking water which has stood for a -length of time--such water containing great numbers of bacteria, -but none of the so-called _disease-producing_ organisms. The same -water, when boiled, produced no ill effects. - -[56] Stated by Sedgwick. - -[57] Welsh. - -[58] Since writing the above I have learned that Prof. Vaughan has -isolated a poisonous matter--the product of the growth of certain -organisms which multiply readily in milk--which caused active -vomiting, purging, collapse, and death when injected into the lower -animals. - -[59] In England and America many cases of scarlatina, typhoid -fever, and diphtheria have been traced to the milk supply. But -there is no satisfactory evidence that those diseases were -transmitted from the cow; more probably the milk, which is an -especially good nutritive medium for bacteria, became infected -after leaving the cow. In October, 1891, an epidemic of diphtheria -prevailed in Melrose, Mass. Thirty-three cases were reported. On -investigation it was found that every case could be traced to -the milk supply. The farm from which it came was situated in an -adjoining town, and the family of the dealer had been afflicted -with diphtheria, two of the children having died. The use of the -milk was, of course, promptly stopped. - -[60] A simple and inexpensive apparatus for sterilizing milk -consists of a covered tin kettle ten inches in height by eight -inches in diameter, a wire basket, which fits easily into the -kettle, supplied with supports or legs projecting one and a half -inches from the bottom, one dozen eight-ounce nursing-bottles, and -a bundle of fresh cotton wadding. The whole apparatus, costing -about $1.25, is kept in most drug stores. - -Milk for twenty-four hours' use is properly sweetened and diluted -with water in a clean pitcher, and as much of this as the child -will take at one feeding is poured into each bottle, and the bottle -stopped with cotton wadding, which should fit only moderately tight -in the neck of the bottle. The kettle is filled to the depth of -one half to one inch with water, the basket containing the bottles -placed in it, the kettle covered and placed over a fire until the -steam comes out from the sides of the top for half an hour, when -the basket containing the bottles should be removed and put in a -cool place. When the milk is to be used, it should be heated by -placing a bottle in warm water for a few minutes. The cotton is -then removed, and a sterilized nipple attached. After the feeding -the bottle is cleansed and kept in an inverted position until used -again. The above directions are those of Dr. Booker, specialist of -children's diseases, Johns Hopkins Hospital. - -[61] In the Walker-Gordon Milk Laboratory, in Boston, milk is -sterilized at 175° to 180° Fahr. for fifteen minutes, and it is -claimed that this temperature gives the best results for milk to be -used within twenty-four hours. If the milk has to be kept a longer -time, a higher temperature is necessary, as only the bacteria and -not the spores are destroyed by 175° Fahr. - -Machines are in use in France which will heat great quantities -of milk to about 155° Fahr. and then rapidly cool it. Not all, -but nearly all, forms of bacteria likely to be found in milk are -destroyed at the temperature of 155°, and the good flavor of the -milk is not injured. Such milk is known as _Pasteurized milk_. - -[62] See the works of Drs. Louis Starr, Uffelmann, and Jacobi. - -[63] The amount of condensation in preserved milk may be easily -ascertained by noting the amount of water which it is necessary to -add in order to make its specific gravity equal to that of ordinary -milk. - -[64] To prepare whey: 1 pint of milk mixed with 1 teaspoon of -liquid rennet. Set in a warm place until the curd is formed; then -break the curd and put it into a cloth or a wire strainer to drain. - -[65] To make barley jelly: Boil two tablespoons of pearl barley in -a pint of water for two hours. Strain. It will form a tender jelly. - -[66] The condensed cream of the Highland Co. may be used when other -cream cannot be obtained. - -[67] Malted milk, Nestlé's food, Ridge's food, Imperial Granum, or -barley-flour, may be used as attenuants. - -[68] Enough for the whole day may be made by multiplying the rule -by eight, dividing the quantity into eight bottles, and sterilizing -all at once. Keep in a cool place until needed. - -[69] Milk-sugar may be obtained without difficulty, and always, at -a pharmacy. It is better for infants than cane-sugar, because it is -a little easier of digestion. - -[70] - - Water 92.60% - Fat 1.00% - Casein .84% - Sugar 5.40% - Ash .16% - - DR. MEIGS. - - -[71] Although Mellin's food is made from grain, the starch in -it has been changed in the process of manufacture into easily -assimilated dextrine and sugar. - -[72] The ordinary powdered cocoa, which has been deprived of oil. -Dutch brands are good. - -[73] Zwieback is a slightly sweetened and dried bread, which may be -bought at any grocer's. It is like dried rusk. - -[74] Bacon is very easy of digestion, and is a valuable form of fat -for children four or five years old. Given with bread or potatoes, -it will often be eaten when butter is refused. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, - milk-supply, milk supply; beef-tea, beef tea; over night, overnight; - to-day; oxid; inclosing; peptonizing. - - Table of Contents: - Pg vi, insert missing entry: 'EGGS 153'. - - Main text: - Pg 152, 'Laws and Gilbert' replaced by 'Lawes and Gilbert'. - Pg 264, 'Potato. Stewed Mushrooms.' replaced by - 'Potatoes. Stewed Mushrooms.'. - - Index: - Format of the entry for 'Apples' changed to make its subheadings - consistent with all other subheadings. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Handbook of Invalid Cooking, by Mary A. 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margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 3em; - padding-bottom: 1em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} -.footnote p {text-indent: 0em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:90%; - padding:0.5em; - margin-top:5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's A Handbook of Invalid Cooking, by Mary A. Boland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Handbook of Invalid Cooking - For the Use of Nurses in Training, Nurses in Private - Practice and Others Who Care for the Sick - -Author: Mary A. Boland - -Release Date: April 18, 2017 [EBook #54568] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF INVALID COOKING *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, MWS, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Some minor changes are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter pg-brk"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" alt="Original cover" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<h1>A HANDBOOK<br /> -<span class="fs60">OF</span><br /> -INVALID COOKING</h1> - -<p class="pfs80">FOR THE USE OF</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs90">NURSES IN TRAINING-SCHOOLS<br /> -NURSES IN PRIVATE PRACTICE<br /> -AND OTHERS WHO CARE FOR THE SICK</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70">CONTAINING EXPLANATORY LESSONS ON THE PROPERTIES<br /> -AND VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD, AND RECIPES<br /> -FOR THE MAKING OF VARIOUS DISHES</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs90">BY</p> - -<p class="pfs135">MARY A. BOLAND</p> - -<p class="pfs60">INSTRUCTOR IN COOKING IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS<br /> -HOSPITAL TRAINING-SCHOOL FOR NURSES; MEMBER<br /> -OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION</p> - -<p class="p4" /> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/colophon.jpg" width="75" alt="Publisher's colophon" /> -</div> - -<p class="p4 pfs120">NEW YORK<br /> -THE CENTURY CO.<br /> -1893</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<p class="pfs120">Copyright, 1893, by<br /> -<span class="smcap">Mary A. Boland</span>.</p> - -<p class="p6" /> -<p class="pfs60">THE DE VINNE PRESS.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> - -<h2><em>PREFACE</em></h2> - - -<p><em>In preparing the following pages for publication, it -has been my object to present a collection of recipes and -lessons on food, for the use of nurses. The idea was -suggested by the need of such a book in the training-school -of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. It is hoped -that it will be found useful in other hospitals and -schools where the teaching of the subject of food is -receiving attention, and also to those who care for their -own sick and invalid ones at home.</em></p> - -<p><em>Part I—the explanatory lessons—includes general -remarks on chemistry, lessons on the properties of the -different classes of foods, and special articles on Air, -Water, Milk, Digestion and Nutrition. Part II consists -of recipes, menus of liquid, light, and convalescent's -diet, and articles on Serving, Feeding of Children, and -District Nursing.</em></p> - -<p><em>In arranging the explanatory lessons, information has -been drawn from many sources, but particularly from -the works of Atwater and Parkes. It is the intention -that these lessons be studied in connection with the -practical work; they contain matter suggestive of that -which it is necessary to understand in order that something -may be known of the complex changes which take -place in food in the various processes of cooking.</em></p> - -<p><em>The recipes have been carefully chosen and perfected, -some having been changed many times before final adoption. -In most of them the quantities are small,—such -amounts as would be required for one person,—but by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> -multiplying or dividing the formulæ any quantity may -be made, with uniform results.</em></p> - -<p><em>Detailed descriptions have been given in order that -those who know nothing of cooking may be able, by intelligently -following the instructions, to make acceptable -dishes. Repetition and similarity of arrangement will, -it is hoped, serve to impress upon the mind certain -points and principles.</em></p> - -<p><em>In some instances the recipes are original, but for the -most part the ideas have been gathered from lessons and -lectures on cooking, and from standard books, among -them Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book." Generally the -order in which each recipe has been written is the order -in which the different ingredients should be put together. -The proportions have been placed first, and separately -from the description of the process, for greater convenience -in using.</em></p> - -<p><em>Valuable information for the chapter on the feeding -of children was found in Uffelmann's "Hygiene of the -Child."</em></p> - -<p><em>I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Drs. Simon -Flexner and William D. Booker of the Johns Hopkins -Hospital in reviewing, respectively, the explanatory lessons -and the chapter on the feeding of children.</em></p> - -<p class="right"><em>M. A. B.</em></p> - -<p class="leftx"><em>Baltimore, Jan. 18, 1893.</em></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="center smcap"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdlx"></td><td class="tdlx wd5"></td><td class="tdlx wd5"></td><td class="tdlx wd5"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">Introduction</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135 tdpp" colspan="3">Part I</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">Explanatory Lessons</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2"></td><td class="tdr fs80 wd5" colspan="2">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Preparation of Food</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Chemical and Physical Changes</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Elements</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2">Air</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_14">14,</a> <a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Fire</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Composition of the Body</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Principal Chemical Compounds in the Body</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">The Five Food Principles</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Water</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Protein</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Fats</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Carbohydrates</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Mineral Matters</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Milk</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Digestion</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Nutrition</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135 tdpp" colspan="3">Part II</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135" colspan="3">Recipes</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Beef-juice, Beef-tea, and Broths</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Gruels</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Mush and Porridge</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Drinks</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Jellies</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Toast</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Soups</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3"><span class="pagenum fvnormal"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> - Oysters</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—this entry missing in original text">Eggs</ins></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Potatoes</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Meats</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Stews</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Sweetbreads</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Fish</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Custards, Creams, Puddings, and Blanc-Mange</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Salads</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Ice-cream, Sherbets, and Ices</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Cooked Fruits</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Bread</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Cake</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Diet Lists or Menus for the Sick</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Liquid Diet—Five Menus</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Light Diet—Five Menus for Breakfast, Dinner, Supper, and Lunch</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Convalescent's Diet—Eight Menus for Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135 tdpp" colspan="3">Serving</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Importance of Skill in Cooking the Things to be Served</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Good Serving a Necessity for the Sick</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2">Preparation of the Invalid's Tray</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_268">268,</a> <a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Importance of Harmony of Colors in Dishes, Linen, and Flowers</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Care of Dishes and Tray in Contagious Diseases</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Tray Decoration</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2">Variety, Intervals of Feeding, and Quantity of Food to be Given</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_273">273,</a> <a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">A Plan for the Preparation of an Invalid's Breakfast</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135 tdpp" colspan="3">The Feeding of Children</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Ways in which a Child may be Supplied with Food</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Artificial Feeding</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Comparison of the Composition of Cow's and Human Milk</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2">Buying, Care, and Sterilization of Cow's Milk</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_281">281,</a> <a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="1">Mellin's Food and other Attenuants</td><td class="tdr" colspan="3"><a href="#Page_283">283,</a> <a href="#Page_290">290,</a> <a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum fvnormal"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> - Predigestion</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_283">283,</a> <a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2">Bacterial Poisons in Milk</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_285">285,</a> <a href="#Page_286">286</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Apparatus for Sterilizing Milk</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Care of Feeding-bottles</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Use of Condensed Milk</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Preserved Milk</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="2">Farinaceous Foods, Mellin's Food, Malted Milk, etc.</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_289">289,</a> <a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Amount of Food for each Meal—Dilution of—Manner of Giving</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Temperature of Food when Given, and Intervals of Feeding</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">General Rules for Feeding</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">For the First Week</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">After the First Week and until the Sixth Week</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">From the Sixth Week to the Sixth Month</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">From the Sixth to the Tenth Month</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">From the Tenth to the Twelfth Month</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">From the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Month</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">After Eighteen Months</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Foods to be Carefully Avoided</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135 tdpp" colspan="3">District Nursing</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">District Nursing</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">To Make a Fire</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">To Wash Dishes</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Sweeping and Dusting</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly" colspan="3">Bills of Fare for Saturday, Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday:</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly pad5" colspan="2">In May</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_304">304-308</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly pad5" colspan="2">In September</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_308">308-310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdly pad5" colspan="2">In January</td><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_310">310-313</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc fs135 tdpp" colspan="3">Literature</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">A List of Books on the Chemistry of Foods, Bacteriology, Nutrition, Health, Practical Cooking, and Allied Subjects, useful for Reference</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Charts of the Composition of Various Foods for Use in a Cooking-school</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlx" colspan="3">Apparatus for Furnishing a Cooking-school</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">INTRODUCTION</a></h2> - - -<p class="drop-capx">The work of the nurse is to care for her patient, -to watch, to tend, and to nurture him in such -a way that he shall gain and maintain sufficient -strength to overcome disease, that he may finally be -restored to a state of health. Her greatest allies in -this work consist in the proper hygienic surroundings -of good air, warmth, cleanliness, and proper -nourishment.</p> - -<p>The most scrupulous cleanliness in the care and -preparation of food is an important point in her -work, and practically to appreciate this, some knowledge -of bacteriology is necessary, for the various fermentative -and putrefactive changes (often unnoticed) -which take place in both cooked and uncooked foods -are caused by the growth of microscopic forms of life. -Most of us realize the necessity for removing all visible -impurities, but that is not enough; we should also -combat those unseen agents which are everywhere at -work, in order that we may prevent their action upon -food material or destroy the products of their growth. -Often these products are of a poisonous nature, and -cause grave physical disturbances when they occur in -our foods. When such knowledge is more general, we -shall have arrived at a state of progress in the care -and preparation of foods not yet universally reached.</p> - -<p>The indications at present are that nothing of importance -will be done to change for the better the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -existing methods of housekeeping, until housekeepers -are educated in the science of household affairs. -They should comprehend (1) that the atmosphere is -an actual thing; that it has characteristics and properties -like other actual things; that it is a necessity -of life, and may be made a medium for the transmission -of disease; and that it is as necessary that it -should be kept clean as the floor, the table, or the -furniture; (2) that food is a subject which may be -studied and mastered like any other subject; that the -changes it undergoes in its care and preparation are -governed by fixed laws; (3) they should have a -knowledge of heat in order to appreciate the effects of -temperature on different food materials, to regulate -the ventilation of their houses, and to control fires -wisely and economically; and (4) they should have -some knowledge of bacteriology, that milk and water, -flesh, fruit, and vegetables may be kept, or rendered, -absolutely free from disease-giving properties, and -that perfect cleanliness may be exercised in preparing -all materials that enter the body as nutrients.</p> - -<p>It is not the intention to imply that all micro-organisms -produce injurious effects wherever they -are found; on the contrary, they are as essential to -man's existence as are the higher forms of life; but -often they seriously, even fatally, interfere with that -existence, and in order to discriminate and to combat -the evil a knowledge of their ways and modes of life -is essential.</p> - -<p>A Harvard professor is credited with saying that -no man could be a gentleman without a knowledge of -chemistry; and forthwith all the students took to -chemistry, for all wanted to be gentlemen. Would -that somebody would authoritatively declare that no -woman could be a lady without a knowledge of the -chemistry of the household—what a glorious prospect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -would there be opened for the future health of the -nation!</p> - -<p>We read in history that after a grand medieval -repast the bones and refuse of the feast were thrown -under the table and left to decay. The scourges -which have swept over Europe in past centuries we -know, to-day, were not visitations of Providence, but -were simply the result of natural causes, due to ignorance -of all hygienic laws on the part of the people. -Compared with the barbarians of old, in these matters, -we are a civilized people; compared with the possibilities -of the future, we are still little more than savages.</p> - -<p>The ideal life is one in which there shall be no sickness -except from accident or natural causes. When -we have mastered the laws of hygiene, then will such -life be possible. Meanwhile, with sickness always in -our midst, we should keep the ideal ever before us, -and endeavor by all means to restore suffering human -beings to a perfect state of health. A sound -body is a material thing, prosaically nourished by -material substances, which produce just as exact results -in its chemical physiology as if those substances -entered into combination in the laboratory of the -chemist. The cooking of food should be governed -by exact laws which for the most part as yet remain -undemonstrated. It is a foregone conclusion -that many young women fail in their first attempts -at cooking; that they do so is not surprising, for -not only are their friends unable to teach them, but -the majority of books on the subject furnish no -intelligible aid.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The science of cookery is still in -the empirical stage.</p> - -<p>Even among experienced housekeepers there is -not enough knowledge of the nature of foods and -their proper combinations; the result is a great deal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -of unwholesome cookery and the consequent injury -and waste which must follow. Dislike for the work -is usually due to want of success, and failure is attributed -to ill luck, poor materials, the fire, or any cause -but the true one—which is ignorance of the subject. -Of course good dishes cannot be made out of poor -materials, but too often poor dishes are made out of -good materials.</p> - -<p>The systematic teaching of the subject of household -affairs cannot fail of good results. Especially -is this true in the case of the nurse, who will need at -all times to exercise care and wisdom in the choice of -food for the sick, to avoid the use of injurious substances, -and to select that which is perfectly wholesome -and suited to the needs and condition of each -individual.</p> - -<p>It may be said that most women can prepare a -fairly satisfactory meal for those who are well, but -very few are able to do the same for the sick.</p> - -<p>Count Rumford says: "I constantly found that the -richness or quality of a soup depended more upon -the proper choice of ingredients than upon the quantity -of solid nutrient matter employed; much more -upon the art and skill of the cook than upon sums -laid out in the market." This is equally true of other -dishes than soup. The skill to develop the natural -flavors of a food, to render it perfectly and thoroughly -digestible, to convert it into a delicate viand, cannot -be acquired in a haphazard way. Cooking cannot -be done by guesswork. There are right and wrong -methods in the kitchen as well as in the laboratory, -and there is no doubt that the awakening interest in -the subject of domestic science generally is neither -an accident nor a whim, but the result of a necessity -for better ways of living. We live different lives -from those of our grandfathers before the days of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -steam-engine, electricity, the telegraph, and the telephone. -Now much more energy is needed to meet -each day's demand than was required a hundred years -ago, and so, much more nutriment is needed to sustain -that energy. When the food does not supply -the material to meet the demand, the whole being -suffers.</p> - -<p>A course of study in cooking taken by the nurses -of a hospital, while they are still pupils, is valuable -for their present and future work. A nurse with the -information that such a course should give, will be able -to care for the feeding of her patients more wisely,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> will -see the necessity for variety, will learn to avoid suspicious -substances, such as fermented meat or fish, canned -foods, etc., and will put forth every effort to secure -that which is appetizing and wholesome, and suited to -the needs of those in her care. She will more easily -exercise patience and forbearance with the idiosyncrasies -of the sick in regard to articles of diet, knowing -that these are usually the symptoms of disease. The -proper modes of caring for milk, eggs, oysters, and -other perishable foods, the practice of economy in the -use of wines, cocoa, and like costly substances, and an -appreciation of the value of food materials in general, -are some of the points which she will have learned.</p> - -<p>She will not forget that cleanliness in the kitchen -in the preparation of all food, and in the washing of -dishes, towels, waste-pails, sinks, and all receptacles -in which easily decomposing substances are kept, -means protection against many evils. The little -knowledge of bacteriology that it is possible to give -in a course in cooking, will enable her to understand -that many animal foods, such as oysters, fish, and lobsters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -are extremely prone to decay, and, although -<em>apparently</em> good, may have been the camping-ground -of millions of organisms which have produced such -changes in them as to render them suspicious articles -of diet. She will, therefore, always endeavor to -have such food alive if possible, or at least fresh, and -to keep it in such conditions of temperature as shall -preserve it in a wholesome state.</p> - -<p>The actual practical knowledge of how a certain -number of dishes should be made has, of course, its -value; but it is not the only consideration which -should enter into the teaching of cookery. Perhaps -the most important point in all such work is the recognition -in certain cases of the <em>necessity</em> for particular -dishes, and the reasons for, and the value of, their -ingredients. Why one kind of food is better for one -person and a different kind for another is, without -doubt, an essential point in all such study.</p> - -<p>A system depleted by disease, exhausted by long-continued -illness, is an exceedingly delicate instrument -to handle. It requires the greatest wisdom and good -judgment on the part of physician and nurse to -restore a patient to health without a lingering convalescence. -There is no doubt that the period of -convalescence may be much shortened by the wise administration -of food, and that the subsequent health -of the patient may be either made or marred by the -action of the nurse in this respect.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> -<p class="pfs180">PART I<br /><br /> -EXPLANATORY LESSONS</p> -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">PART I<br /><br /> -EXPLANATORY LESSONS</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep1-25.jpg" width="25" alt="decorative separator" /> -</div> - - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>PREPARATION OF FOOD</h3> - -<p><b>Digestibility.</b> There are comparatively few kinds -of food that can be eaten uncooked. Various fruits, -milk, oysters, eggs, and some other things may be -eaten raw, but the great mass of food materials must -be prepared by some method of cooking. All the common -vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, -beets, and the different grains, such as rice, wheat, -corn, oats, etc., neither taste good nor are easily digestible -until their starch, cellulose, and other constituents -have been changed from their compact indigestible -form by the action of heat. Some one has -spoken of cooking as a sort of artificial digestion, -by which nature is relieved of a certain amount of -work which it would be very difficult, if not impossible, -for her to perform.</p> - -<p><b>Flavors.</b> The necessity of cooking to develop, or to -create, a palatable taste is important. The flesh of -fowl is soft enough to masticate, but only a person on -the verge of starvation could eat it until heat has -changed its taste and made it one of the most savory -and acceptable of meats. Coffee also well illustrates -this point. When coffee is green—that is, unbrowned—it -is acrid in taste, very tough, even horny in consistency, -and a decoction made from it is altogether unpleasant.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -But when it is subjected to a certain degree -of heat, for a certain time, it loses its toughness, -becomes brittle, changes color, and there is developed -in it a most agreeable flavor. This flavoring property -is an actual product of the heat, which causes chemical -changes in an essential oil contained in the bean. -Heat not only develops but creates flavors, changing -the odor and taste as well as the digestibility of food.</p> - -<p><b>Effects of Cold.</b> Some foods are better for being -cold; for example, butter, honey, salads, and ice-cream. -Sweet dishes as a rule are improved by a low temperature. -The flavor of butter is very different and very -much finer when cold than when warm. It is absolutely -necessary to keep it cool in order to preserve -the flavor.</p> - - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES</h3> - -<p><b>Chemical Changes.</b> Since many of the changes which -cooking produces in the different food materials are -of a chemical nature, it is well to consider what constitutes -a chemical process. This idea may perhaps -be best conveyed by a few experiments and illustrations, -the materials for which may be easily obtained.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp. with Cream of Tartar and Bicarbonate of Soda.</b> -Mix two teaspoons of cream of tartar with one of bicarbonate -of soda, in a little warm water. A union of the two substances -follows and they neutralize each other; that is, the -cream of tartar is no longer acid, and the soda is no longer alkaline. -Owing to the power of chemical affinities a separation or -breaking up of these compounds takes place, and new substances, -<em>carbonic acid</em> and <em>rochelle salts</em>, are formed out of their -constituents. The effervescence which is seen is caused by the -escape of the carbonic acid.</p> - -<p><b>Exp. with Hydrochloric Acid and Soda.</b> Put a few drops -of chemically pure hydrochloric acid into a little water; then -add soda. A violent effervescence will follow. Continue putting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -in soda until this ceases, when the reaction should be neutral. -Test it with litmus-paper. If it turns blue litmus-paper red, it -is acid; if red litmus-paper blue, it is alkaline. Add acid or -soda, whichever is required, until there is no change produced -in either kind of litmus-paper. The results of this experiment -are similar to those in the first one, namely, carbonic acid and a -salt. In this case the salt is <em>sodium chlorid</em> or <em>common salt</em>, -which is in solution in the liquid. Evaporate the water, when -salt crystals will be found.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<p><b>Oxid of Iron.</b> A piece of iron when exposed to the weather -becomes covered with a brownish-yellow coating, which does -not look at all like the original metal. If left long enough it -will wholly disappear, being completely changed into the yellowish -substance, which is <em>oxid of iron</em>, a compound of oxygen -and iron, commonly called <em>iron rust</em>.</p> - -<p><b>Burning of Coal.</b> A piece of coal burns in the grate and is -apparently destroyed, leaving no residue except a little ashes. -The carbon and hydrogen of the coal have united with the oxygen -of the air, the result of which is largely the invisible gas, -<em>carbonic acid</em>, which escapes through the chimney.</p> - -<p><b>Formation of Water.</b> Water is formed by the union of two -invisible gases, hydrogen and oxygen. It bears no resemblance -whatever to either of them. Its symbol is H<sub>2</sub>O.</p></div> - -<p>All these are examples of chemical changes.</p> - -<p><b>Definition of Chemical Change.</b> Chemical changes -or processes may be defined as those close and intimate -actions amongst the particles of matter by -which they are dissociated or decomposed, or by -which new compounds are formed, and involving -a complete loss of identity of the original substance.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Physical Changes.</b> Mix a teaspoon of sugar with an equal -amount of salt; the sugar is still sugar, and the salt remains -salt; and they may each be separated from the mixture as such.</p> - -<p>Water when frozen is changed from a liquid to a solid; its -chemical composition, however, remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>Water converted into steam by heat is changed from a liquid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -to a gas, but chemically there is no difference between the one -and the other. <em>Steam</em>, <em>water</em>, and <em>ice</em> are forms of the same substance, -the difference being physical, not chemical, and caused -by a difference in temperature.</p> - -<p>Lead melted so that it will run, and the solid lead of a bullet, -are the same thing.</p></div> - -<p>These illustrate physical changes.</p> - -<p><b>Definition.</b> When substances are brought together -in such a way that their characteristic qualities remain -the same, the change is called physical. It is less -close and intimate than a chemical change. The transition -from one state into another is also frequently -only a physical change, as is seen in the transformation -of water into steam, water into ice, etc.</p> - - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>ELEMENTS</h3> - -<p>One feature of the work of the chemist is to separate -compound bodies into their simple constituents. -These constituents he also endeavors to dissociate; -and if this cannot be done by any means known to -him, then the thing must be regarded as a simple -substance. Such simple bodies are called <em>elements</em>.</p> - -<p><b>Definition.</b> An element then may be defined as a -simple substance, which cannot by any known process -be transformed into anything else; that is, no -matter how it is treated, it still remains chemically -what it was before. Gold, silver, copper, iron, platinum, -carbon, phosphorus, calcium, oxygen, hydrogen, -nitrogen, and chlorin are examples of elements. Once -it was believed that there were but four elements in -the world—earth, air, fire, and water. Then it was -learned that these were not elements at all, but compounds, -and the number of elements increased, until -now sixty-eight are admitted to be simple primary -substances. Some of these may in the future be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -proven to be compounds. Sulphur is at present in -the doubtful list.</p> - -<p><b>Oxygen.</b> Oxygen is an element. It is an invisible -gas, without taste or smell. It is the most abundant -substance in the world, and an exceedingly active -agent, entering into nearly all chemical changes and -forming compounds with all known elements except -one—fluorin. It is a necessity of life and of combustion.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -It constitutes about two thirds of the weight -of our bodies and one fifth of the weight of the air.</p> - -<p><b>Hydrogen.</b> Hydrogen is a gas. It is the lightest -substance known. It unites with oxygen to form -water, and, as will be seen later, enters into the composition -of the human body.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<p><b>Nitrogen.</b> Nitrogen is also a gas, but, unlike oxygen, -is an inactive element. It supports neither fire nor -life. It is not poisonous, however, for we breathe it -constantly in the atmosphere, where its office is to -dilute the too active oxygen. A person breathing it -in a pure state dies simply from lack of oxygen.</p> - -<p><b>Carbon.</b> Carbon is a solid and an important and -abundant element. It is known under three forms: -diamond, graphite, and charcoal. The diamond is -nearly pure carbon. Graphite (the "black-lead" of -lead-pencils), coal, coke, and charcoal are impure forms -of it. Carbon is combustible; that is, it burns or -combines with oxygen. In this union carbonic acid -is formed, and there is an evolution of heat, and -usually, if the union be rapid and intense enough, of -light. It is the valuable element in fuels, and in the -body of man it unites with the oxygen of the air, -yielding heat, to keep the body warm, and energy or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -muscular strength for work (Prof. Atwater). The -carbonic acid formed in the body is given out by -the lungs and skin.</p> - -<p><b>Other Elements.</b> There are many other elements -about which it would be interesting to note something, -such as calcium and phosphorus (found abundantly -in the bones), magnesium, sulphur, sodium, -iron, etc. Samples of these may be obtained to show to -pupils, and descriptions given and experiments made, -at the discretion of the teacher. Of the four most -abundant elements of the body and of food,—oxygen, -carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen,—it is extremely important -that some study be made, and if the apparatus -can be procured, that it be of an experimental nature -rather than simply descriptive.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>AIR</h3> - -<p>Air is made up principally of two elements, nitrogen -and oxygen. It also always contains vapor of -water and carbonic acid. Its average composition is -as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td><td class="tdrx">78.49%</td><td class="tdl pad2 bl">Aqueous Vapor</td><td class="tdrx">.84%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Oxygen</td><td class="tdrx">20.63%</td><td class="tdl pad2 bl">Carbonic Acid</td><td class="tdrx">.04%</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>These are mixed together, not <em>chemically united</em>. -Oxygen and nitrogen do unite chemically, but not in -the proportions in which they exist in the air. Nitrous -Oxid (N<sub>2</sub>O), sometimes called "Laughing Gas," is -one of the compounds of nitrogen and oxygen.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>FIRE</h3> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp. with a Candle.</b> Take a tallow candle, and by means -of a lighted match raise its temperature sufficiently high to -start an action between the carbon in the candle and the oxygen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -of the air; in other words, light the candle. A match is composed -of wood, sulphur, and phosphorus. The latter is a substance -which unites with oxygen very easily; that is, at a <em>low -temperature</em>. By friction against any hard object, sufficient heat -is aroused to effect a union between the phosphorus of a match -and the oxygen of the surrounding air; the flame is then conveyed -to the sulphur, or the heat thus generated causes a union -between it (the sulphur) and the oxygen, sulphur burning somewhat -less freely than phosphorus; this gives enough heat to ignite -the wood, and with its combustion we get sufficient heat to light -the candle, or to start a chemical union between the combustible -portion, carbon chiefly, of the candle and the oxygen of -the air. Allow the candle to burn for a time, then put over it -a tall lamp-chimney; notice that the flame grows long and dim. -Next place on the top of the chimney a tin cover, leaving a -small opening, and make an opening into the chimney from below, -with a pin or the blade of a knife placed between it and -the table; note that the candle burns dimly. Then exclude the -flow of air by completely covering the top; in a moment, as -soon as the oxygen inside the chimney is consumed, the candle -will go out.</p></div> - -<p>This shows (1) that air—in other words, oxygen—is -necessary to cause the candle to burn; (2) that by -regulating the draft or flow of air the intensity of -the combustion may be increased or diminished; (3) -that by completely excluding air the candle is extinguished. -This experiment with the candle illustrates -the way in which coal is consumed in a stove. -By opening the drafts and allowing the inflow of -plenty of oxygen, combustion is increased; by partially -closing them it is diminished, and by the complete -exclusion of air burning is stopped.</p> - -<p>The products of the burning of coal are carbonic -acid and a small amount of ash. Twelve weights of -coal, not counting the ash, will unite with thirty-two -weights of oxygen, giving as a result forty-four weights -of carbonic acid. Accompanying the union there is an -evolution of light and heat. The enormous amount -of carbonic acid given out daily from fires is taken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -up by plants and used by them for food. In the -course of ages these plants may become coal, be consumed -in combustion, and, passing into the air, thus -complete the cycle of change.</p> - -<p><b>Fuel and Kindlings.</b> The common fuels are coal, -coke, wood, gas, coal-oil, and peat. For kindling, -newspaper is good because, being made of straw -and wood-pulp, it burns easily, and also because -printers' ink contains turpentine, which is highly -inflammable.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>COMPOSITION OF THE BODY</h3> - -<p>Before entering upon the study of foods it is well -to consider the composition of the human body, that -some idea of its chemical nature may be gained. In -the United States National Museum at Washington -may be found some interesting information on this -subject. From there much that is contained in the -following pages is taken.</p> - -<p>A complete analysis of the human body has never -been made, but different organs have been examined, -and chemists have weighed and analyzed portions of -them, and from such data of this nature as could be -obtained, estimates of the probable composition of the -body have been calculated. Thirteen elements united -into their compounds, of which there are more than -one hundred, form it.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the average composition -of a man weighing 148 pounds.</p> - - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Oxygen</td><td class="tdrx">92.4</td><td class="tdl">Sulphur</td><td class="tdrx">.24</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Carbon</td><td class="tdrx">31.3</td><td class="tdl">Chlorin</td><td class="tdrx">.12</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Hydrogen</td><td class="tdrx">14.6</td><td class="tdl">Sodium</td><td class="tdrx">.12</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td><td class="tdrx">4.6</td><td class="tdl">Magnesium</td><td class="tdrx">.04</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Calcium</td><td class="tdrx">2.8</td><td class="tdl">Iron</td><td class="tdrx">.02</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Phosphorus</td><td class="tdrx">1.4</td><td class="tdl">Fluorin</td><td class="tdrx">.02</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Potassium</td><td class="tdr">.34 </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="rt smcap">Prof. Atwater.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> - -<p>It will be seen from this that oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, -and nitrogen constitute nearly the whole, the -other elements being in very small proportions.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>PRINCIPAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN<br /> -THE BODY</h3> - -<p>The following interesting table, obtained at the -National Museum, gives the principal compounds of -the body. Some of the more rare organic compounds -are omitted.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Water</span>:—A compound of oxygen and hydrogen.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc smcap">Protein</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc"><em>Albuminoids</em></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl" colspan="3" rowspan="3">Myosin and syntonin of muscle (sometimes called "muscle fibrin").</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc smcap">Compounds,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc">or</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc"><em>Proteids</em>.</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">composed</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl" colspan="3">Albumen of blood and milk. Casein of milk.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">mainly of</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Carbon</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Collagen of bone and tendons.</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl">which</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl"><em>Gelatinoids.</em></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl">yield</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Oxygen</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Chondrigen of cartilage, gristle,</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl">gelatin.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Hydrogen</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl"><em>Hemoglobin.</em></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">The red coloring matter of blood.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Nitrogen</em>.</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc smcap">Fats,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Stearin,</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="2">These make up the bulk of the fat of the body.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc"><em>Neutral</em></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">composed</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc"><em>Fats.</em></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Palmitin,</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="3">They are likewise the chief constituents of tallow, lard, etc.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">mainly of</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Olein, etc.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Carbon</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc"><em>Complex</em></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Protagon,</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="4">Found chiefly in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, etc.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Oxygen</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdc"><em>Fats</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">containing</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Lecithin,</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Hydrogen</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">phosphorus</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td></td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">and nitrogen.</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Cerebrin.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc smcap">Carbohydrates,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Glycogen, "animal starch." Occurs in the liver and other organs.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">composed of</td><td class="tdl">{</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Carbon</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Inosite, "muscle sugar." Occurs in various organs.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Oxygen</em>,</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Lactose, "milk sugar." Occurs in milk.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Hydrogen</em>.</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Cholesterin. Occurs in brain, nerves, and other organs.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl wd60">Phosphate of lime, or calcium phosphate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="4">Occurs chiefly in bones and teeth, though found in other organs.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Carbonate of lime, or calcium carbonate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Fluorid of calcium, or calcium fluorid.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Phosphate of magnesia, or magnesium phosphate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc smcap">Mineral</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Phosphate of potash, or potassium phosphate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc smcap">Salts.</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Sulphate of potash, or potassium sulphate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td><td class="tdl" rowspan="4">Distributed through the body in the blood, muscle, brain, and other organs.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Chlorid of potassium, or potassium chlorid.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Phosphate of soda, or sodium phosphate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Sulphate of soda, or sodium sulphate.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Chlorid of sodium, or sodium chlorid.</td><td class="tdl">}</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Now, since the body is composed of these substances, -our food, including air and water, should -contain them all in due proportion, that the growth, -energy, and repair of the body may be healthfully -maintained.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>THE FIVE FOOD PRINCIPLES</h3> - -<p>For convenience of comparison foods may be divided -into five classes: Water, Protein, Fats, Carbohydrates, -Mineral Matters.</p> - -<p>Some scientists include air in the list, but it has -been thought best in this work to speak of it separately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -as the greatest necessity of life, but not in the -sense of a direct nutrient.</p> - -<p>An average composition of three of the principles -is as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl wd5">{</td><td class="tdl">Carbon</td><td class="tdl">53</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Protein</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Hydrogen</td><td class="tdl"> 7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Oxygen</td><td class="tdl">24</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td><td class="tdl">16</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Carbon</td><td class="tdl">76.5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Fats</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Hydrogen</td><td class="tdl">12</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Oxygen</td><td class="tdl">11.5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td><td class="tdl">—</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Carbon</td><td class="tdl">44</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Carbohydrates</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Hydrogen</td><td class="tdl"> 6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Oxygen</td><td class="tdl">50</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td><td class="tdl">—</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>It will be seen from the above that the protein -compounds contain nitrogen; the fats and carbohydrates -do not.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h4>WATER</h4> - -<p>We will now consider the first of the food principles—water. -Water is one of the necessities of -life. A person could live without air but a few minutes, -without water but a few days. It constitutes -by weight three fifths of the human body, and enters -largely into all organic matter. Water is an aid to -the performance of many of the functions of the body, -holding in solution the various nutritious principles, -and also acting as a carrier of waste. It usually contains -foreign matter, but the nearer it is to being -pure the more valuable it becomes as an agent in the -body. Ordinary hydrant, well, or spring water may -be made pure by filtering and then sterilizing it.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp.</b> Put a little water into a test-tube, and heat it over the -flame of an alcohol-lamp. In a short time tiny bubbles will appear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -on the sides of the glass. These are not steam, as may be proved -by testing the temperature of the water; they are bubbles of -atmospheric gases which have been condensed in the water -from the air; they have been proved to be nitrogen, oxygen, -and carbonic acid, but as they do not exist in the water in the -same proportions as in the air, they are not called <em>air</em>, but <em>atmospheric -gases</em>. Continue the heating, and the bubbles will continue -to form. After a while, very large bubbles will appear at -the bottom of the tube; they increase rapidly and rise toward -the top; some break before reaching it, but as the heat becomes -more intense others succeed in getting to the surface,—there they -break and disappear. If the water now be tested with a thermometer, -it will be found to have reached 212° Fahrenheit or -100° Centigrade, provided the experiment be tried at or near -the level of the sea.</p></div> - -<p><b>Steam.</b> The large bubbles are bubbles of steam, or -water expanded by heat until its particles are so far -apart that it ceases to be a liquid and becomes a gas. -True steam is invisible; the moisture which collects -on the sides of the tube and is seen coming out at the -mouth is partially condensed steam, or watery vapor. -Watch a tea-kettle as it boils on a stove; for the space -of an inch or two from the end of the spout there -seems to be nothing; that is where the <em>true</em> steam is; -beyond that, clouds of what is commonly called steam -appear; they are watery vapor formed from the true -steam by partial condensation which is produced by -its contact with the cool air.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p><b>Boiling-point of Water.</b> Water boils at different temperatures, -according to the elevation above the sea-level. -In Baltimore it boils practically at 212° Fahr.; -at Munich in Germany at 209½°; at the city of Mexico -in Mexico at 200°; and in the Himalayas, at an -elevation of 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, at -180°. These differences are caused by the varying -pressure of the atmosphere at these points. In Baltimore -practically the whole weight of the air is to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -overcome. In Mexico, 7000 feet above the sea, there -are 7000 feet less of atmosphere to be resisted; consequently, -less heat is required, and boiling takes place -at a lower temperature. By inclosing a vessel of water -in a glass bell, and exhausting the air by means of an -air-pump, water may be made to boil at a temperature -of 70° Fahr., showing that much of the force (heat) -that is consumed in causing water to be converted into -steam is required to overcome the pressure of the air. -The foregoing illustrates the point that <em>boiling water</em> -is not of invariable temperature; consequently, that -foods which in some places are cooked in it may in -other places be cooked in water that is not boiling,—in -other words, that it is not ebullition which produces -the change in boiling substances, but heat.</p> - -<p><b>Changes Produced in Water by Boiling.</b> By boiling -water for a moderate time the greater part of the atmospheric -gases is driven off. The flavor is much -changed. We call it "flat"; but by shaking it in a -carafe or other vessel so that the air can mingle with -it, it will reacquire oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic -acid, and its usual flavor can thus be restored.</p> - -<p>Water which flows through soil containing lime is -further changed by boiling.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp. with Lime-water.</b> Pour a little lime-water into a -test-tube. With a small glass tube blow into it for a few minutes, -when it will become milky; continue the blowing for a few -minutes more, when it will lose its cloudy appearance and become -clear again. The following explains this: in the first -place there was forced into the lime-water, from the lungs, air -containing an excess of carbonic acid; this united with the -lime in solution in the water and formed carbonate of lime. -Carbonate of lime is insoluble in water which contains no carbonic -acid, or very little,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but will dissolve in water which is -charged with it, and this is produced by the continued blowing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -Now if this water be freed of its excess of carbonic acid by boiling, -the carbonate of lime will be freed from its soluble state, -and will fall as a precipitate and settle on the sides of the vessel. -From this we learn that water may be freed from carbonate of -lime in solution in it by boiling.</p></div> - -<p><b>Organic Matter in Water.</b> There is another class of -impurities in water of vastly more importance than -either the atmospheric gases or lime. These are the organic -substances which it always contains, especially -that which has flowed over land covered with vegetation, -or that which has received the drainage from -sewers. The soluble matter found in such water is -excellent food for many kinds of micro-organisms -which often form, by their multiplication, poisons -very destructive to animal life. Or the organisms -themselves may be the direct producers of disease, as -for instance the typhoid fever bacillus, the bacillus of -cholera, and probably others which occur in drinking-water. -These organisms are destroyed by heat, so -that the most valuable effect produced in water by -boiling it is their destruction. Such water is, therefore, -a much safer drink to use than that which has -not been boiled. Water should always be boiled if -there is the slightest suspicion of dangerous impurities -in the supply.</p> - -<p><b>Use of Tea and Coffee.</b> This leads us to the thought -that the extensive use of tea and coffee in the world -may be an instinctive safeguard against these until -recently unknown forms of life. The universal use -of cooked water in some form in China is a matter -of history. The country is densely populated, the -sewage is carried off principally by the rivers, so that -the danger of contracting disease through water must -be very great, and it is probable that instinct or -knowledge has prompted the Chinaman to use but -very little water for food except that which has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -cooked. Whatever the reason, the custom is a national -one. The every-day drink is weak tea made in -a large teapot and kept in a wadded basket to retain -the heat; the whole family use it. The very poor -drink plain hot water or water just tinged with tea.</p> - -<p>That tea and coffee furnish us each day with a certain -amount of wholesome liquid in which all organic -life has been destroyed, remains a fact; they may -be, in addition, when <em>properly made</em> and of <em>proper -strength</em>, of great value on account of their warmth, -good flavor, and invigorating properties. There is -no doubt that it is of the greatest importance that tea -and coffee be used of <em>proper strength</em>; for if taken too -strong, disorders of the system may be produced, -necessitating their discontinuance, and thus depriving -the individual of a certain amount of warm and -wholesome liquid.</p> - -<p><b>To Summarize.</b> The effects produced in water by -boiling which have been spoken of are: (1) the expulsion -of the atmospheric gases; (2) the precipitation of -lime when in solution; and (3) the destruction of -micro-organisms. The most important points to remember -in connection with water are, that a certain -amount each day is an absolute necessity of life, and -that unless the supply be above suspicion it should -be filtered and then sterilized.</p> - -<p><b>Filtration and Sterilization of Water.</b> Filtration as -a general thing is done by public authorities, but -sterilization is not, and should be done when necessary -by the nurse. For immediate use, simply boiling -is said on good authority to be sufficient to -destroy all <em>organisms</em> then in the water. <em>Spores</em> of -organisms are, however, not killed by boiling, as they -are very resistant to heat. Fortunately they are not -common. As they do not develop into bacteria for -some hours after the water has been boiled, they may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -be entirely gotten rid of by allowing them to develop -and then destroying by a second boiling; but for -all practical purposes, and under ordinary circumstances, -water is rendered safe for use by boiling it -once.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Should the water be very bad, boil it in a -jar plugged with cotton for half an hour three days -in succession, keeping it meanwhile in a temperature -of 70° or 80° Fahr., so that any <em>spores</em> of organisms -which may be in it will have an opportunity to get -into such a state of existence that they will be capable -of being killed by the next boiling. The third -treatment is for the purpose of making sure of any -that may have escaped the first and second.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h4>PROTEIN</h4> - -<p>The second of the food principles, protein, is a -complex and very important constituent of our food. -The protein compounds differ from all others as to -chemical composition by the presence of nitrogen; -they contain <em>carbon</em>, <em>oxygen</em>, <em>hydrogen</em>, and <em>nitrogen</em>, -while the fats and carbohydrates are composed principally -of <em>carbon</em>, <em>oxygen</em>, and <em>hydrogen</em>, but no nitrogen. -The so-called extractives or flavoring properties -of meats are nitrogenous, and are consequently -classed with the protein compounds.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> - -<p>The body of an average person contains about -<em>eighteen</em> per cent. of protein. The proteins of various -kinds furnish nutriment for blood and muscle, -hence the term "muscle-formers," which is sometimes -given them. They also furnish material for tendons -and other nitrogenous tissues. When these are worn -out by use, it is protein which repairs the waste.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> - -<p>Most of the valuable work upon the analysis of food -has been done in Germany. From estimates made by -chemists of that country it has been decided that the -amount of protein in a diet should not fall below <em>four -ounces daily</em>. This is to represent an allowance for a -man of average weight doing an average amount of -work, below which he cannot go without loss in health, -in work, or in both. Although protein is the most expensive -of all food materials, one should endeavor to -use at least four ounces each day. Meat, milk, eggs, -cheese, fish of all kinds, but especially dried cod, -wheat, beans, and oatmeal are all rich in this substance. -The protein compounds are divided into three -classes:</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs90">ALBUMINOIDS, GELATINOIDS, EXTRACTIVES.</p> - -<p><b>Albuminoids.</b> The most perfect type of an albuminoid -is the white of egg. It is a viscous, glairy, thick -fluid which occurs also in the flesh of meat as one of -its juices, in fish, in milk, in wheat as gluten, and in -other foods. It is soluble in cold water.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp.</b> Mix some white of egg in a tumbler with half a cup -of cold water. As soon as the viscousness is broken up it -will be found to be completely dissolved. It is insoluble in -alcohol.</p> - -<p><b>Exp.</b> Pour upon some white of egg double its bulk of alcohol. -It will coagulate into a somewhat hard opaque mass.</p></div> - -<p>Heat also has the power of coagulating albumen.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Coagulation of Albumen by Heat.</b> Put into a test-tube -some white of egg, and place the tube in a dish of warm water. -Heat the water gradually over a gas-flame or an alcohol-lamp. -When the temperature reaches 134° Fahr. it will be seen that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -little white threads have begun to appear; continue the heating -to 160°, when the whole mass becomes white and firm. Now remove -a part from the tube and test its consistency; it will be -found to be tender, soft, and jelly-like. Replace the tube in -the dish of water and raise the heat to 200° Fahr.; then take -out a little more and test again; it will now be found hard, -close-grained, and somewhat tough. Continue the heating, when -it will be seen that the tenacity increases with rise of temperature -until at 212° Fahr., the boiling-point of water, it is a firm, -compact solid. When heated to about 350°, white of egg becomes -so tenacious that it is used as a valuable cement for -marble.</p></div> - -<p>These experiments illustrate a very important point -in the cooking of albuminous foods. They show that -the proper temperature for albumen is that at which -it is thoroughly coagulated, but not hardened; that -is, about 160° Fahr. Most kinds of meat, milk, eggs, -oysters, and fish, when cooked with reference to their -albumen alone, we find are also done in the best possible -manner with reference to their other constituents. -For instance, if you cook an oyster thinking only of -its albuminous juice, and endeavor to raise the temperature -throughout all of its substance to, or near, -160° Fahr., and not higher, you will find it most satisfactory -as to flavor, consistency, and digestibility. -The same is true of eggs done in all ways, and of -dishes made with eggs, such as custards, creams, and -puddings. With the knowledge that albumen coagulates -at a temperature of 52° below that of boiling -water, one can appreciate the necessity of cooking -eggs in water that is not boiling, and a little experiment -like the above will impress it upon the mind as -no amount of mere explanation can possibly do.</p> - -<p>The cooking of eggs, whether poached, cooked in -the shell, or in omelets, is of much importance, for -albumen when hard, compact, and tenacious is very -difficult of digestion; the gastric juice cannot easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -penetrate it; sometimes it is not digested at all; while -that which is properly done—cooked in such a way -that it is tender and falls apart easily—is one of the -most valuable forms of food for the sick.</p> - -<p>Albumen should always be prepared in such manner -as to require the least possible expenditure of -force in digestion. Those who are ill cannot afford -to waste energy. Whether they are forced to do so -in the digestion of their food depends very much -upon the person who prepares it.</p> - -<p>Advantage is often taken, in cooking, of the fact -that albumen hardens on exposure to certain degrees -of heat, to form protecting layers over pieces of broiling -steak, roast meats, etc. If a piece of meat is -placed in cold water to cook, it is evident, since albumen -is soluble in cold water, that some of it will be -wasted. If the same piece is plunged into boiling -water the albumen in its outer layers will be immediately -hardened, and form a sheath over the whole -which will keep in the juices and the very important -flavors. When broth or soup is made, we put the -meat (cut into small pieces to expose a large extent -of surface) into cold water, because we wish to draw -out as much as possible the soluble matter and the -flavors. If, on the other hand, the meat is to be served -boiled, and broth or soup is not the object, then this -order should be reversed, and every effort made to prevent -the escape of any of the ingredients of the meat -into the liquid.</p> - -<p>In broiling steak, we sacrifice a thin layer of the -outside to form a protecting covering over the whole -by plunging it into the hottest part of the fire, so that -the albumen will become suddenly hard and firm, and -plug up the pores, thus preventing the savory juices -from oozing out. More will be said on this subject -in the recipes for cooking these kinds of foods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Gelatinoids.</b> The second class of protein compounds -comprises the gelatinoids, gelatin being their leading -constituent. It is found in flesh, tendons, cartilage -and bone; in fact, it exists in all the tissues of -the body, for the walls of most of the microscopic cells -of which the tissues are composed contain gelatin.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp.</b> Boil a pound of lean meat freed from tendons, fat, -and bone, in a pint of water for three hours; then set the -liquid away to cool. Jelly resembling calf's-foot jelly will be -the result. The cell-walls of the flesh have been dissolved by -the long-continued action of heat and liquid. This is commonly -called stock or glaze.</p> - -<p><b>Exp.</b> Put a piece of clean bone into a dilute solution of hydrochloric -acid. In two or three days the acid will have acted -upon the earthy matters in the bone to remove them, and gelatin -will remain. The average amount in bone is about thirty -per cent.</p></div> - -<p>Calves' feet were formerly used for jelly because of -the excess of gelatin which they contain. They were -cooked in water for a long time and the liquid -reduced by further boiling; it was then clarified, -flavored, and cooled; the result was a transparent, -trembling jelly. The prepared gelatin of commerce, -or <em>gelatine</em>, has now largely displaced this, for it is -much more convenient to use, and less expensive.</p> - -<p><b>Extractives.</b> The extractives or flavoring properties -of meats and other substances are usually classed -with the protein compounds. Their chemical nature -is not well understood.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h4>FATS</h4> - -<p><b>Fixed and Volatile Oils.</b> There are two classes of -fats, called <em>fixed oils</em> and <em>volatile oils</em>. All kinds of -fats good for food belong to the class of fixed oils. -A volatile oil is one which evaporates away, like alcohol<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -or water, and leaves no residue. The fixed oils, -at least most of them, will not do this; they do not -vaporize even at very high temperatures, but they become -dissociated or decomposed,—that is, their chemical -structure is broken up before their boiling-point -is reached. Volatile oils, on the contrary, are capable -of being boiled and transformed into gases. Some -one illustrates this by the changes which take place -in water. When water is heated to 212° Fahr. it is -converted into a gas, which on cooling below 212° -returns to the liquid state again without loss. The -essential oil, turpentine, if heated to 320° Fahr. ceases -to be a liquid and becomes a gas, which on cooling -becomes a liquid oil again without loss of weight. -Other volatile oils are oil of cloves, oil of bitter -almonds, orange and lemon oil, oil of cinnamon, -bergamot, and patchouli.</p> - -<p>The boiling sometimes noticed in a pot of lard is -owing to the presence in it of a little water which is -very soon converted into steam, when the bubbling -ceases, and after that the temperature of the fat -rises rapidly, reaching in a short time four or five -hundred degrees Fahrenheit, when a separation of -its constituents takes place, and carbon is revealed as -a black mass.</p> - -<p><b>Composition of Fats.</b> Fats are <em>hydrocarbons</em>—that -is, they are composed chiefly of carbon united with -hydrogen and oxygen. They must not be confounded -with the <em>carbohydrates</em>, which are always composed -of carbon with the elements of water—that is, -the proportion of hydrogen to oxygen is as two to -one,—whereas in the hydrocarbons this is not the case. -These elements enter into the compositions of fats as -various fatty acids and glycerin; the acids are not -sour, as one would suppose from the name, but are so -called because they behave chemically toward bases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -as sour acids do, that is, they unite with them. The -glycerin of commerce is obtained by decomposing -fats.</p> - -<p><b>Fat in Milk.</b> The white color of milk is given to -it by minute globules of fat suspended in it.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>To prove this</b>: Put a little milk into a bottle with a -ground-glass stopper; pour upon it three times its bulk of -ether and shake gently; let it stand for two or three days, -when it will be found that the ether has dissolved the fat -and left a semi-transparent yellowish white liquid resembling -blood serum. By pipetting or carefully pouring off the -ether, and evaporating it by placing the vessel containing it -in a dish of warm water, clear oil will be obtained. Care -must be taken not to put the ether near a flame or the fire, -as it is highly inflammable, and an explosion might occur. -Ether boils at 94.82° Fahr.</p></div> - -<p>The proportion of fat in milk is from 2.8 to 8 per -cent. It varies in milk from different species of -cows, and from the same species at different times, -according to age, feeding, and other circumstances.</p> - -<p><b>Cream.</b> When milk is allowed to stand without -disturbance for a time the globules of fat, being lighter -than water, rise to the surface and form cream. Cream -is the most wholesome, palatable, and easily digested -form of fat. Butter is obtained by beating milk or -cream in a churn until the little globules of fat break -and stick together in a mass.</p> - -<p><b>Olive-Oil.</b> Olive-oil is one of the most easily digested -and palatable of fats. A genuine oil of the -first quality is, in this country unfortunately, expensive, -much of that sold under the name being adulterated -with cotton-seed oil, poppy-oil, and essence -of lard.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> -<p>Cotton-seed oil has no especially bad flavor, but it -is unpleasant and indigestible when used raw as in -sardines and salads. The after taste which it leaves -reminds one too forcibly of castor-oil.</p> - -<p>Olive-oil of the best quality is almost absolutely -without flavor. It is prepared in several grades: the -first pressing from the fruit is the best, the second is -fair, the third inferior, and there is sometimes a fourth -known as refuse oil. For deep fat frying nothing is -so good as olive-oil, but its costliness in this country -excludes it from common use.</p> - -<p>The fat of the sheep and ox, after it has been rendered, -and deprived of all membrane and fibers, is -called <em>tallow</em>. The term is also applied to the fat of -other animals, and to that of some plants, as bayberry-tallow, -piny tallow, and others. The uncooked fat of -any animal is called <em>suet</em>, but the name has come to -be applied to the less easily melted kinds, which surround -the kidneys or are in other parts of the loin. -The fat which falls in drops from meat in roasting is -called <em>dripping</em>.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h4>THE CARBOHYDRATES</h4> - -<p><b>Starch.</b> Starch is a substance found in wheat, corn, -oats, and in fact in all grains, in potatoes, in the -roots and stems of many plants, and in some fruits. -In a pure state it is a white powder such as is seen in -arrowroot and corn-starch. Examined by a microscope -this powder is found to be made up of tiny grains -of different shapes and sizes, some rounded or oval, -others irregular. Those of potato-starch are ovoid, -with an outside covering which appears to be folded -or ridged, and looks somewhat like the outside of an -oyster-shell, although its similarity extends no further<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -than appearance, as the little ridges are true folds, and -not overlapping edges.</p> - -<p><b>Size of Starch Grains.</b> Starch grains vary in size according -to the source from which the starch is obtained. -Those of ground rice are very small, being -about -<span class="blkb"> - <span class="blka">1</span> - <span class="blka over">3000</span> -</span> -of an inch in diameter; those of wheat are -<span class="blkb"> - <span class="blka">1</span> - <span class="blka over">1000</span> -</span> -of an inch, and those of potato -<span class="blkb"> - <span class="blka">1</span> - <span class="blka over">300</span> -</span> -of an inch.</p> - -<p>Starch is a carbohydrate, being composed of six -parts of carbon, ten of hydrogen, and five of oxygen. -Its symbol is C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>. It is insoluble in water, but -when the water is heated, the grains seem to absorb it; -they increase in size, the ridges or folds disappear, -and when the temperature reaches 140° Fahr. or a -little over, they burst, and the contents mingle with -the liquid forming the well-known paste.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Test for Starch.</b> Mix a teaspoon of starch with a cup of -cold water and boil them together for a few minutes until a -paste is formed; then set it aside to cool. Meanwhile make a -solution of iodine by putting a few flakes into alcohol, or use -that which is already prepared, and which may be obtained at -any pharmacy. Add a drop of this solution to the paste mixture; -it will immediately color the whole a rich dark blue. -This is known as the "iodine test," and is a very valuable one -to the chemist, for by means of it the slightest trace of starch -can be detected.</p> - -<p><b>Exp. with Arrowroot.</b> Make a thin paste by boiling a little -arrowroot and water together. When cool test it with a drop -of the iodine solution. The characteristic blue color will be -very strong, showing that arrowroot is rich in starch.</p></div> - -<p>Similar tests may be made with grated potato, -wheat-flour, rice-flour, tapioca, and other starch-containing -substances. Also powdered sugar, cream of -tartar, and other substances may be tested, when it -is suspected that they have been adulterated with -starch.</p> - -<p>Although starch grains burst and form a paste -with water at 140° Fahr., that is not the temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -at which it should be cooked for food, and the thickening -which then takes place should not be confounded, -as often happens, with the true cooking of -starch. In order to understand the difference between -the proper cooking of starch and the simple -bursting of the grains, let us consider the changes -which take place in starch when it is subjected to -different degrees of heat, and also those which are -produced in it during the process of digestion. All -starch in food is changed into dextrine and then into -sugar (glucose, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) in the process of digestion. -Glucose is a kind of sugar, resembling cane-sugar, -but it is not so sweet.</p> - -<p><b>Dextrine.</b> Dextrine is a substance having the same -chemical nature as starch, but differing in many of -its properties. It may be described as a condition -which starch assumes just before its change into -glucose.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp. to show Dextrine.</b> Carefully dry and then heat a little -starch to about 400° Fahr. Keep it at this temperature until it -turns brown, or for ten minutes. Then mix it with water, when -it will dissolve, forming a gummy solution. Starch will not do -this. Test it with iodine; it will not change color. The remarkable -thing about the relation of dextrine to starch is that -although they differ so much in properties they have the same -chemical composition.</p></div> - -<p>The change of starch into dextrine is an important -point in cooking, because starch cannot be assimilated -until the conversion has taken place, either before or -after it is eaten. Now it will be seen that unless this -change is either produced or approached in the cooking -of starch-containing foods, they are not prepared -as well as it is possible to prepare them; also, that it -is not possible to cause this change at a low temperature; -therefore 140° (the temperature at which the -grains burst) should not be regarded as the cooking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -temperature of starch. It should be such a temperature -as shall actually convert it into dextrine, or at -least change it to such an extent that it will be more -easily converted into dextrine, and ultimately into -sugar, by the digestive fluids. This should be as -near 401° Fahr. as practicable,—not that a potato, -or a loaf of bread, or a pudding will have all the -starch in it changed when it is put into an oven of -that temperature. It would not be possible, on account -of the water contained in each; but that in the -outside may be, and the preparation of the remainder -will be better than at a lower temperature.</p> - -<p>There are other means of changing starch into dextrine -than by heat, one of the most remarkable of -which is <em>diastase</em>, a substance found in sprouting -grains, which has the power to transform the starch -stored in the grain by nature into soluble dextrine, in -which form it can be taken up by the young plant for -food. The crude starch could not thus be absorbed. -The starch which we use as food is of no more value -to us than it is to the young plant until it has been -changed into dextrine or sugar. Now, if art outside -of the body can accomplish what nature is otherwise -forced to do in the alimentary canal, the body will be -saved a certain amount of force,—a point of great importance, -especially in the case of the sick or invalid, -who can ill afford to waste energy.</p> - -<p>Starch constitutes half of bread, our "staff of life"; -nearly all of rice, the staff of life in the East; and the -greater part of corn-starch, sago, arrowroot, tapioca, -peas, beans, turnips, carrots, and potatoes.</p> - -<p><em>Arrowroot</em> is the purest form of starch food known. -<em>Rice</em> is richest in starch of all the grains. <em>Tapioca</em> is -prepared from the root of a tropical plant; it is first -crushed and the grains washed out with water, then -the whole is heated and stirred, thus cooking and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -breaking the starch grains, which on cooling assume -the irregular rough shapes seen in the ordinary tapioca -of commerce. Probably a part of the starch is converted -into dextrine, which accounts for the peculiarly -agreeable flavor which tapioca possesses. Mixed with -the grains, as they are taken from the plant, is a very -dangerous poison which, being soluble in water and -volatile, is partially washed away and partially driven -out by the heat,—in fact the heating is done for this -purpose. <em>Sago</em> is principally starch. It is obtained -from the pith of the sago-palm. Imitations of both -tapioca and sago are sometimes made from common -starch.</p> - -<p>Starch may be converted into grape-sugar by treating -it with acids; that of corn is generally used for the -purpose. Much of the glucose of commerce is made -in this way. In the United States it is estimated that -$10,000,000 worth is manufactured every year. It is -used for table syrup, in brewing beer, in the adulteration -of cane-sugar, and in confectionery. Honey is -also made from it. The nutritive value of vegetables -is due largely to the starch and sugar which they -contain.</p> - -<p>In the economy of the body starch is eminently a -heat producer. Pound for pound it does not give as -much heat as fat, but owing to its great abundance -and extensive use it, in the aggregate, produces -more. (Atwater.)</p> - -<p>Starch is an abundant and easily digested form of -vegetable food, but it is incapable of sustaining life. -It contains none of the nitrogenous matter needed for -the nutrition of the muscles, nerves, and tissues. Indeed, -it is said on good authority that many an invalid -has been slowly starved to death from being fed -upon this material alone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Sugar.</b> There are many kinds of sugar, the most -familiar of which is <em>cane-sugar</em>, or <em>sucrose</em> (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>). -It is obtained from the juices of various plants, for -instance, sugar-cane, beet-root, the sugar-maple, and -certain kinds of palms. By far the greatest amount -comes from the sugar-cane. It is made by crushing -the stalks of the plant (which somewhat resembles -Indian corn) and extracting the sweet juice, which is -then clarified and evaporated until, on cooling, crystals -appear in a thick liquid; this liquid is molasses, -and the grains or crystals are brown sugar. White -sugar is obtained by melting this brown sugar in -water, removing the impurities, and again evaporating -in vacuum-pans, which are used for the purpose -of boiling the liquid at a lower temperature than -it could be boiled in the open air, thus avoiding the -danger of burning, and otherwise preserving certain -qualities of the sugar. <em>Loaf-sugar</em> is made by separating -the crystals from the liquid by draining in -molds; and <em>granulated</em> sugar by forcing out the -syrup in a centrifugal machine. The process of making -beet-root sugar is similar. Sugar from maple sap -is obtained by simply evaporating away the excess of -water. In the East a considerable quantity of sugar -is made from the juices of certain varieties of palm, -especially the date-palm. Maple-sugar and palm-sugar -are generally not purified.</p> - -<p>Sucrose dissolves readily in water. By allowing -such a solution to stand undisturbed for a time until -the water has disappeared, transparent crystals are -obtained, known as <em>rock candy</em>. Again, sucrose melted -at a temperature of 320° Fahr. forms, on cooling, a -clear mass, called <em>barley-sugar</em>. Heated to 420° Fahr. -dissociation of the carbon from the water of crystallization -takes place, the carbon appearing in its characteristic -black color. This dark brown, sweetish-bitter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -syrup is called <em>caramel</em>. On cooling it forms a solid, -which may be dissolved in water, and is used to color -gravies, soups, beer, and so forth.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><b>Exp. with Sulphuric Acid.</b> A very pretty experiment to -show the separation of the water from the carbon may be made -by treating a little sugar in sulphuric acid. Put a tablespoon -of sugar in any vessel that will bear heat, a thin glass or stout -cup. Pour over enough concentrated sulphuric acid to thoroughly -moisten it, let it stand for a few minutes, when it will be -seen that the mass has changed color from white to a yellowish -brown. The color increases in intensity until it is perfectly -black, when the whole puffs and swells up, fumes are driven -off, and a mass like a cinder remains. This is charcoal, or -nearly pure carbon.</p></div> - -<p>The explanation is as follows: So strong is the -affinity of the acid for the water that it breaks up the -chemical combination between it and the carbon, -unites with the water, and leaves the carbon free. So -intense is the chemical change that an enormous -amount of heat is evolved,—so much, in fact, that a -considerable part of the water is vaporized, leaving -the more or less solid charcoal. The light color noticed -during the first part of the union indicates that -the chemical dissociation is just beginning, and that -only a small amount of carbon has been set free.</p> - -<p><b>Glucose.</b> Glucose or grape-sugar (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) is one -of the kinds of sugar found in grapes, peaches, and -other fruits. It is about two and one half times less -sweet than cane-sugar. It is manufactured on a large -scale from the starch of corn.</p> - -<p><b>Lactose.</b> Lactose or milk-sugar is the sugar found -in the milk of the <em>Mammalia</em>. That of commerce -comes chiefly from Switzerland, where it is made by -evaporating the whey of cow's milk. For sweetening -drinks for infants and for the sick, milk-sugar is said -to be less liable to produce acid fermentation than -cane-sugar, and also to be more easily digested.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sugar is a valuable nutrient, being very easily digested -and absorbed. Cane-sugar is converted into -glucose in the process of digestion by the pancreatic -juice, and after absorption it is completely utilized in -the body, furnishing heat and probably energy.</p> - -<p><b>Effects of Heat on Sugar.</b> Sugar undergoes various -changes, with different degrees of heat, by loss of -some of its water of crystallization. One of the most -remarkable of these is seen in caramel sauce, which is -a rich crimson-brown syrup generally supposed to -contain foreign coloring matter, but which does not. -It is made by melting sugar without water, and heating -it until the desired hue and thickness are reached. -Nothing is added, but something is taken away; that -is, some of the water is driven out, with the result of -change in both color and taste.</p> - -<p>In a recent article in "The Century Magazine" (November, -1891) Prof. Atwater touches upon the subject -of the production of artificial foods from the -crude materials of the earth, and states, among other -things, that a sugar resembling fruit-sugar has been -made artificially by synthesis, by Prof. Fischer of -Würzburg, Germany.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h4>AIR</h4> - -<p>Air is a gaseous elastic body which envelops the -earth on every side, extending possibly two hundred -miles from its surface, but all the while growing more -and more rare as the distance increases. When pure it -is tasteless and odorless. We really live at the bottom -of an atmospheric ocean, and are pressed upon by its -weight. At the sea-level the pressure upon every -square inch of surface is equal to fifteen pound.</p> - -<p><b>Atmospheric Pressure Variable.</b> Atmospheric pressure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -diminishes and is constantly variable, according -to the height above the sea-level. If we ascend into -the air 5000 feet, it is perfectly evident that there are -5000 feet less of atmosphere pressing upon us than at -the point from which we started. This diminution -of pressure is often measured by the temperature at -which water boils at different heights.</p> - -<p><b>Composition.</b> An average composition of the atmosphere -has been previously stated. Besides nitrogen -and oxygen, it always contains water in the form -of vapor, and carbonic acid. The amount of aqueous -vapor in the air changes according to the temperature; -the amount of carbonic acid is also constantly -variable. Air usually contains, in addition to these, -traces of ammonia, organic matter which includes -micro-organisms, ozone, salts of sodium, and other -mineral matters in minute and variable quantities.</p> - -<p><b>Air in Motion.</b> The atmosphere is almost always in -motion. We feel it in the gentle breeze and the more -forcible wind. If it moves at a slower rate than two -and one half feet a second this motion is not noticeable. -Motion in the air is caused by the unequal heating -of portions of it. If from any cause the atmosphere -over a certain region becomes warm, it will expand -(all bodies expand with heat), become lighter, and its -tendency will be to move in the direction of least resistance,—that -is, upward; so we say heated air rises. -Currents of cooler air will immediately flow in to -take its place, and thus we have a breeze, a wind, or -a gale, according to the velocity and force with which -the currents move. It is upon a knowledge of these -movements that the theory of ventilation is based. -It is because of the constant motion of air-currents -that out of doors, except in densely populated cities, -air remains constantly pure. When poisonous gases -and other impurities accumulate, winds scatter them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -far and wide until they are so diluted as to be harmless; -or under some conditions they unite with other -things and form new and simple substances of a -harmless nature, while under others, if they are compounds, -they may be decomposed or washed down to -the surface of the earth again.</p> - -<p><b>Impurities.</b> The chief chemical product of fires and -of that slower combustion breathing is carbonic acid. -Plants during the day, and under the influence of -sunlight, take it up from the air for food, use the carbon -for their growth, freeing the oxygen which man -and the lower animals need. Thus is the balance -most beautifully maintained.</p> - -<p>Air is purest over the sea and over wind-swept -heights of land. It, however, always contains some -foreign substances, and always micro-organisms except -over mid-ocean. Even the upper strata of -atmosphere are not free from microscopic forms of -life, as has been shown in experiments made with hail -at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1890 by Dr. Abbott. -Large hailstones were washed in distilled and sterilized -water, and then melted, and cultures made from -different layers; in all of these organisms were found, -showing that they extend into the air a long distance -from the earth.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>Impurities of various kinds are constantly passing -into the air, but so vast is the expanse of the atmosphere -as compared with the impurities daily thrown -into it from the lungs of man and the lower animals, -from fires, manufactories, and decomposing matter, -that they quickly disappear.</p> - -<p>Air is the greatest or, as one writer says, the most -immediate necessity of life. We could live without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -it only a few seconds. We constantly use it, whether -sleeping or waking, and perhaps this accounts in part -for the utter carelessness and indifference which most -people have for the quality of that which they breathe. -Even those persons who know something of the -nature of air, make but little effort to provide -themselves with a constantly pure supply.</p> - -<p><b>Effects of Breathing Bad Air.</b> If the effects of -breathing bad air were immediate, there would then -be an immediate remedy for the present total lack of -any systematic means of ventilation in most houses. -But the effects of breathing bad air are, like those of -some slow and insidious poison, not noticeable at -once, and often manifested under the name of some -disease which gives no clue to the true cause.</p> - -<p>Dr. Van Rensselaer, in the Orton Prize Essay on -Impure Air and Ventilation, makes the statement -that statistics show that of the causes of mortality the -most important and farthest-reaching is impure air.</p> - -<p><b>Amount of Air Required for one Person.</b> Sanitarians -have agreed that each individual requires at least -3000 cubic feet of air every hour. A room 10 × 15 × 20 -holds 3000 cubic feet of air, which should be changed -once every hour in order that one individual shall -have the required amount. If three persons are in -the room, it must be changed three times.</p> - -<p>The effect of bad ventilation is well illustrated by -the condition of the horses in the French army some -years ago. With small close stables the mortality -was 197 in every 1000 annually. The simple enlargement -of the stables, and consequent increase of -breathing-space, reduced the number in the course of -time to 68 in every 1000, and later, from 1862 to 1866, -with some attention paid to the air-supply, the number -fell to 28½ per 1000.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> -<p><b>Necessity for a Constant Supply of Pure Air.</b> When -we consider that the food we eat and digest cannot -nourish the body until it has been acted upon by -oxygen in the lungs, and that this action must be -constant, never ceasing, it will help us to understand -the necessity for a constant supply of air such as -shall furnish us a due proportion of the life-giving -principle, oxygen, and which shall not contain -impurities that interfere with its absorption.</p> - -<p>We take into the lungs a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, -and carbonic acid. We give out a mixture -which has lost some of its oxygen, and gained in -carbonic acid. Now, unless the amount of oxygen -is what it should be, the blood will not gain from -an inspiration the amount it should receive, consequently -it will be but imperfectly purified and able -but imperfectly to nourish the body. So the whole -system suffers, and if a person for a long time continues -to breathe such an atmosphere, the condition -of the body will become so reduced as to produce disease. -Even though in other ways one lives wisely, all -the factors of health multiplied together cannot withstand -the one of impure air. We eat food three or -four times daily. Some of us are very particular -about its quality. We breathe air every instant of -our lives, but generally we give but little consideration -as to whether it is pure or impure.</p> - -<p><b>Ventilation.</b> No attempt will be made here to explain -different devices for ventilation, but only to -touch upon the principle it involves. Its objects are -(1) to remove air which has been breathed once; (2) to -remove the products of combustion, whether from fires, -lamps, gas, or other sources; (3) to carry away all other -substances which may be generated from any cause, -in a room or building, as the impurities from manufacturing, -those arising from decaying matter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -and micro-organisms. In a climate where artificial -warmth is necessary a part of the year, it is difficult -to warm and ventilate a room at the same time, without -causing unpleasant drafts; but with some knowledge -of the necessity of ventilation, and of the properties -of air, one may in some measure work out -a scheme of ventilation adapted to the circumstances -in which he finds himself.</p> - -<p>There are always the doors and windows, which -may be thrown wide open at intervals, and in many -houses there are fireplaces. If a window be opened -at the bottom at one side of a room, and another be -opened at the top on an opposite side, a current of -air will be established from the first window, passing -through the room and out at the second. This plan -will do very well in warm weather when the temperature -outside is about the same as that of the room, -but it would be impracticable in cold weather. Then -we may resort to the very simple plan of placing a -board about eight or ten inches wide across the window -at the bottom and inside of the sash. Then -when the lower half of the window is raised, a space -is left between the upper and lower sashes, through -which the air passes freely as it enters, and, being -sent into the room in an upward direction, causes no -draft. The board is for the purpose of closing the -window below, and should fit quite close to the sash.</p> - -<p>Fireplaces are good, though not perfect, ventilators. -Then there are the preventive measures, such as -burning the gas or lamp low at night, avoiding oil- and -gas-stoves, etc.; the latter are the worst possible means -of heating rooms, for not only do they draw oxygen -for burning from the air, but they give out the polluting -carbonic acid and other products of combustion, -which in a coal- or wood-stove go up the chimney.</p> - -<p>A well-ventilated room should have an inflow of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -warm, pure air, and a means for the removal of the -same after it has been used, the current being so controlled -that, although the air is kept in motion, there -is no perceptible draft.</p> - -<p>The plan for the heating and ventilation of the -Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland, is a -most admirable one. Air from out of doors is conveyed -by a flue into a chamber in the wall, in which are -coils of pipe filled with hot water. The air in passing -over these becomes warm, and, rising, passes into the -room to be heated through a register. On the opposite -side of the room is a chimney-like flue, running -to the top of the building and containing -two registers, by the opening and closing of which -the movements of the air in the room can be controlled. -The temperature is maintained by the temperature -of the water in the pipes, and the rapidity -of the flow.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>The ventilation by this method of heating is the -most perfect known to the author, who has lived for -two years in a building thus supplied with warmth -and fresh air. The rooms were invariably comfortable -as to temperature, and the air as invariably sweet and -pure.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3><a name="MILK" id="MILK"></a>MILK</h3> - -<p>Milk is one of our most perfect types of food, containing -water and solids in such proportions as are -known to be needful for the nourishment of the body. -A proof of this is seen in the fact that it is the only -food of the young of the <em>Mammalia</em> during the time -of their greatest growth. It contains those food principles -in such amounts as to contribute to the rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -formation of bone and the various tissues of the body, -which takes place in infancy and childhood; but after -this growth is attained, and the individual requires -that which will repair the tissues and furnish warmth -and energy, milk ceases to be a complete food.</p> - -<p><b>Composition of Cow's Milk.</b> The composition of -cow's milk varies with the breed and age, care and -feeding, of the animals. Cows which are kept in foul -air in stables all the year, and fed upon bad food -such as the refuse from breweries and kitchens, give -a quality of milk which is perhaps more to be dreaded -than that from any other source; for such animals are -especially liable to disease, and are often infected with -tuberculosis, pneumonia, and other fatal maladies. -Cows are particularly susceptible to tuberculosis, and -may convey it to human beings either in their milk -or flesh. According to Dr. Miller, cow's milk contains -the following ingredients:</p> - - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">87.4%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">4.0%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar and soluble salts</td><td class="tdrx">5.0%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter and insoluble salts</td><td class="tdrx">3.6%</td></tr> -</table></div> -<p>Another analysis is that of Uffelmann:</p> - - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">87.6%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Albuminoids</td><td class="tdrx">4.3%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">3.8%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar</td><td class="tdrx">3.7%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts</td><td class="tdr">.6%<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Characteristics.</b> Milk from healthy, well-nourished -cows should be of full white color, opaque, and with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -a slightly yellowish tinge sometimes described as -"cream white." It should vary but slightly in composition -from the above analyses. The fat should -not be less than 2.5%. The amount of fat may be -easily determined with a Feser's lactoscope (Eimer -and Amend, New York), directions for the use of -which come with the instruments. It will generally -vary from 3% to 4% in good milk. Should it fall -below 2.5% the milk should be rejected as too poor for -use. Such milk has probably been skimmed, or comes -from unhealthy or poorly fed cows.</p> - -<p>The specific gravity of milk should be from 1.027 to -1.033. This may be found with a Quevenne's lactometer. -If it falls below 1.027, one has a right to claim -that the milk has been watered or that the cows are -in poor condition.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<p>The reaction of good milk varies from slightly alkaline -to slightly acid or neutral. That from the same -cow will be different on different days, even under the -same apparent conditions of care, varying from one to -the other, probably because of some difference in the -nature of the food she has eaten. However, if the -reaction is <em>decidedly</em> alkaline, and red litmus-paper -becomes a distinct blue, the milk is not good, and -possibly the animal is diseased. Should the reaction -be decidedly acid, it shows that the milk has been -contaminated, either from the air by long exposure, -or from the vessels which held it, with those micro-organisms -which by their growth produce an acid, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -certain amount of which causes what is known as -"souring."</p> - -<p>Milk from perfectly healthy and perfectly kept -cows is <em>neutral</em>, leaving both red and blue litmus-paper -unchanged; but as a general thing milk is -slightly acid, even when transported directly from -the producer to the consumer and handled by fairly -clean workmen in fairly clean vessels. Such milk -two or three hours old when examined microscopically -is found to contain millions of organisms. Milk -is one of the best of foods for bacteria, many of the -ordinary forms growing in it with exceeding rapidity -under favorable conditions of temperature. Now it -has been found that such milk, although it may not -contain the seeds of any certain disease, sometimes -causes in young children, and the sick, very serious -digestive disturbances, and may thus become indirectly -the cause of fatal maladies.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> - -<p>All milk, unless it is <em>positively known</em> to be given -by healthy, well-nourished animals, and kept in thoroughly -cleaned vessels free from contamination, should -be sterilized before using. Often the organisms found -in milk are of disease-giving nature. In Europe and -America many cases of typhoid fever, scarlatina, and -diphtheria have been traced to the milk-supply. In -fact milk and water are two of the most fruitful food -sources of disease. It therefore immediately becomes -apparent that, unless these two liquids are above suspicion, -they should be sterilized before using. Boiling -water for half an hour will render it sterile, but milk -would be injured by evaporation and other changes -produced in its constituents by such long exposure to -so high a degree of heat. A better method, and one -which should be adopted by all who understand something -of the nature of bacteria, is to expose the milk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -for a longer time to a lower temperature than that of -boiling.</p> - -<p><b>To Sterilize Milk for Immediate Use.</b> (1) Pour the -milk into a granite-ware saucepan or a double boiler, -raise the temperature to 190° Fahr., and keep it at -that point for one hour. (2) As soon as done put it -immediately into a pitcher, or other vessel, which has -been thoroughly washed, and boiled in a bath of water, -and cool quickly by placing in a pan of cold or iced -water. A chemist's thermometer, for testing the temperature, -may be bought at any pharmacy for a small -sum, but if there is not one at hand, heat the milk -until a scum forms over the top, and then keep it as -nearly as possible at that temperature for one hour. -Do not let it boil.</p> - -<p><b>To Sterilize Milk which is not for Immediate Use.</b> Put -the milk into flasks or bottles with narrow mouths; -plug them with a long stopper of cotton-wool, place -the flasks in a wire frame to support them, in a kettle -of cold water, heat gradually to 190° Fahr., and keep -it at that temperature for one hour. Repeat this the -second day, for although all organisms were probably -destroyed during the first process, <em>spores</em> which -may have escaped will have developed into bacteria. -These will be killed by the second heating. Repeat -again on the third day to destroy any life that may -have escaped the first two.</p> - -<p>Spores or resting-cells are the germinal cells from -which new bacteria develop, and are capable of surviving -a much higher temperature than the bacteria -themselves, as well as desiccation and severe cold.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> -Some writers give a lower temperature than 190° Fahr. -as safe for sterilization with one hour's exposure, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -190 may be relied upon. Milk treated by the last or -"fractional" method of sterilization, as it is called, -should keep indefinitely, provided of course the cotton -is not disturbed. Cotton-wool or cotton batting -in thick masses acts as a strainer for bacteria, and -although air will enter, organisms will not.</p> - -<p>All persons who buy milk, or in any way control -milk-supplies, should consider themselves in duty -bound to (1) ascertain by personal investigation the -condition in which the cows are kept. If there is any -suspicion that they are diseased, a veterinary surgeon -should be consulted to decide the case. If they are -healthy and well fed, they cannot fail to give good -milk, and nothing more is to be done except to see -that it is transported in perfectly cleansed and scalded -vessels. (2) If it is impossible to obtain milk directly -from the producer, and one is obliged to buy that -from unknown sources, it should be sterilized the moment -it enters the house. There is no other means of -being sure that it will not be a bearer of disease. Not -all such milk contains disease-producing organisms, -but it all may contain them, and there is no safety in -its use until all bacteria have been deprived of life.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>DIGESTION</h3> - -<p><b>Definition.</b> Digestion is the breaking up, changing, -and liquefying of the food in the various chambers of -the alimentary canal designed for that purpose. The -mechanical breaking up is done principally by the -teeth in the mouth, the chemical changes and liquefying -by the various digestive fluids.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> -<p><b>Digestive Fluids.</b> The digestive fluids are true secretions. -Each is formed from the blood by a special -gland for the purpose which never does anything else; -they do not exist in the blood as such. Their flow is -intermittent, taking place only when they are needed. -The liver, however, is an exception to all the others. It -is both secretory and excretory, and bile is formed all -the time, but is most abundant during digestion.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> - -<p><b>Saliva.</b> The fluid which is mixed with the food in -the mouth is secreted by a considerable number and -variety of glands, the principal of which are the parotid, -submaxillary, and sublingual. Smaller glands -in the roof and sides of the mouth, in the tongue, and -in the mucous membrane of the pharynx contribute -to the production of saliva, the digestive fluid of the -mouth. The flow from the parotid gland is greatest. -The flow from all the glands is greatly increased -when food is taken, especially if it be of good flavor. -Sometimes the amount is increased by smell alone, as -when a nice steak is cooking, or a savory soup, and -sometimes the saliva is made copious by thought, as -when we remember the taste of dishes eaten in the -past, and we say, "It makes the mouth water just to -think of them."</p> - -<p><b>Amount of Saliva.</b> According to Dalton the amount -of saliva secreted every twenty-four hours is 42½ oz. -Its reaction is almost constantly alkaline. It is composed -of water, organic matter, and various mineral -salts. Ptyalin is its active principle, and is called by -some authors <em>animal diastase</em>, or starch converter.</p> - -<p><b>Gastric Juice.</b> Gastric juice is the digestive fluid of -the stomach. It is acid. Its flow is intermittent, occurring -only at times of digestion. Its active principle -is pepsin.</p> - -<p>It is worthy of notice here that the character of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -digestive fluids when food is taken is different from -what it is when the organs are at rest. For instance, -the gastric juice which flows in abundance under the -stimulus of food, is not like the fluid secreted when -the stomach is collapsed and empty.</p> - -<p><b>Pancreatic Juice.</b> Pancreatic juice is the digestive -juice of the pancreas, and is poured into the small intestine -a short distance below the pyloric opening. Its -reaction is alkaline. Its flow is entirely suspended -during the intervals of digestion.</p> - -<p><b>Bile.</b> Bile, the fourth in order of the digestive -liquids, is the secretion of the largest gland of the -body—the liver. It is poured into the small intestine -by a duct which empties side by side with the duct -from the pancreas. The flow of bile is constant, but -is greatest during digestion.</p> - -<p><b>Intestinal Juice.</b> Intestinal juice has been to physiologists -a difficult subject of study. It is mingled -with the salivary and gastric juices at the times of digestion, -when it is most desirable to notice its action. -Nearly all authorities agree that it is alkaline, and -that its function is to complete the digestion of substances -which may reach it in an undigested condition.</p> - -<p><b>Mucus of Large Intestine.</b> The mucus secreted by -the large intestine is for lubricating only.</p> - -<p><b>Digestion in Different Parts of the Alimentary Tract.</b> -Different substances in food are digested in different -portions of the alimentary canal, and by different -means. Let us begin in the mouth. Taking the -classes of foods, starch, one of the carbohydrates, is -the one most affected by the ptyalin, or animal diastase, -of the saliva. So energetic is the action of -ptyalin on starch that 1 part is sufficient to change -1000 parts. Starch is not acted upon by the gastric -juice of the stomach at all; however, the continued -action of the saliva is not probably interrupted in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -stomach. The digestion of starch is completed by -the action of the pancreatic and intestinal juices, and -consists in its being changed into soluble glucose, -which is absorbed in solution.</p> - -<p><b>Sugar.</b> Cane-sugar, or common sugar (also called -<em>sucrose</em>), passes through the mouth, unchanged, to the -stomach, where it is converted into glucose by the -slow action of the acid (hydrochloric) of the gastric -juice. Dilute hydrochloric acid has the same action -on sugar outside of the stomach.</p> - -<p>The action of pancreatic juice on sugar is very -marked; it immediately changes cane-sugar into glucose. -The effect of intestinal fluid is not well understood, -but there is the general agreement that it does -not change cane-sugar, neither is cane-sugar, as such, -absorbed in the intestine. Bile does not affect it, -therefore cane-sugar is digested or converted into -glucose either by the stomach or pancreas, or both. -It will now be seen that ultimately the same substance, -glucose, is obtained from both starch and -sugar.</p> - -<p><b>Protein.</b> We now come to the consideration of the -digestion of the protein compounds, of which albumen -may be taken as a type. Possibly no action except -breaking up and moistening takes place in the -mouth.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Its digestion begins in the stomach, where -its structure is broken up and a separation and dissolution -of the little sacs which hold it take place. -The same thing is partially accomplished outside of -the stomach when white of egg is slightly beaten and -strained through a cloth. Gastric juice further acts -on the albumen itself, forming it into what is called -albumen peptone. The digestion of raw and carefully -cooked albumen has been found to be carried -on very rapidly in the stomach, and the change is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -essentially the same in both cases, but in favor of the -slightly coagulated. When the albumen is rendered -hard, fine, and close in consistency by over-cooking, -then it is less easy of digestion than when raw.</p> - -<p><b>Absorption.</b> It is probable that the greater portion -of the process of digestion and absorption of albumen -takes place in the stomach.</p> - -<p><b>Fibrin.</b> Fibrin is also digested in the stomach, and -made into fibrin peptone.</p> - -<p><b>Casein.</b> Liquid casein is immediately coagulated by -gastric juice, both by the action of free acid and organic -matter.</p> - -<p><b>Gelatin.</b> Gelatin is quickly dissolved by gastric -juice, and afterward no longer has the property of -forming jelly on cooling. Gelatin is more rapidly -disposed of than the tissue from which it is produced.</p> - -<p><b>Vegetable Protein.</b> The digestion of the vegetable -protein compounds, such as the gluten of wheat and -the protein of the various grains, such as corn, oatmeal, -etc., is undoubtedly carried on in the stomach, -but they must be well softened and prepared by the -action of heat and water, or they will not be digested -anywhere; and often corn, beans, and grains of oatmeal -are rejected entirely unchanged. Partially or -imperfectly digested proteins are affected by intestinal -juice. It is probable that the function of this fluid is -to complete digestive changes in food which have already -begun in the stomach.</p> - -<p>To summarize: The digestion and absorption of -nitrogenous compounds take place in both the stomach -and the intestines.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>NUTRITION</h3> - -<p>One of the important points to bring to the notice -of pupils in the study of cookery is the phenomenon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -of nutrition. It is astonishing how vague are the -ideas that many people have of why they eat food, -and vaguer still are their notions of the necessity of -air, pure and plenty. Once instruct the mind that -it is the air we breathe and the food we eat which -nourish the body, giving material for its various processes, -for nervous and muscular energy, and for -maintaining the constant temperature which the body -must always possess in order to be in a state of health, -and there is much more likelihood that the dignity -and importance of proper cooking and proper food -will not be overlooked.</p> - -<p>A knowledge that the health and strength of a person -depend largely upon what passes through his -mouth, that even the turn of his thinking is modified -by what he eats, should lead all intelligent women to -make food a conscientious subject of study.</p> - -<p>In general, by the term "nutrition" is meant the -building up and maintaining of the physical framework -of the body with all its various functions, and -ultimately the mental and moral faculties which are -dependent upon it, by means of nutriment or food.</p> - -<p>The word is derived from the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nutrire</i>, to -nourish. The word "nurse" is from the same root, -and in its original sense means one who nourishes, a -person who supplies food, tends, or brings up.</p> - -<p>Anything which aids in sustaining the body is food; -therefore, air and water, the two most immediate necessities -of life, may be, and often are, so classed.</p> - -<p>Nutriment exclusive of air is received into the body -by means of the alimentary canal. The great receiver -of air is the lungs, but it also penetrates the body -through the pores of the skin, and at these points -carbonic acid is given off as in the lungs. The body -is often compared to a steam-engine, which takes in -raw material in the form of fuel and converts it into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -force or power. Food, drink, and air are the fuel of -the body,—the things consumed; heat, muscular and -intellectual energy, and other forms of power are the -products.</p> - -<p>Food, during the various digestive processes, becomes -reduced to a liquid, and is then absorbed and -conveyed, by different channels constructed for the -purpose, into the blood, which contains, after being -acted upon by the oxygen of the air in the lungs, all -those substances which are required to maintain the -various tissues, secretions, and, in fact, the life of the -system.</p> - -<p>Some of the ways in which the different kinds of -food nourish the body have been found out by chemists -and physiologists from actual experiments on -living animals, such as rabbits, dogs, pigs, sheep, -goats, and horses, and also on man. Often a scientist -becomes so enthusiastic in his search for knowledge -about a certain food that he gives his own -body for trial. Much valuable work has been done -in this direction during the last decade by Voit, -Pettenkofer, Moleschott, Ranke, Payen, and in this -country by Atwater.</p> - -<p>No one can explain all the different intricate -changes which a particle of food undergoes from the -moment it enters the mouth until its final transformation -into tissue or some form of energy; but by -comparing the income with the outgo, ideas may be -gained of what goes on in the economy of the body, -and of the proportion of nutrients used, and some of -the intricate and complex chemical changes which the -different food principles undergo in the various processes -of digestion, assimilation, and use.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -hundreds of changes take place in the body, in its various -nutritive functions, of which nothing is known, -or they are entirely unsuspected, so that if we do our -utmost with the present lights which we possess for -guidance to health, we shall still fall far short of -completeness. The subject of food and nutrition, -viewed in the light of bacteriology and chemistry, is -one of the most inviting subjects of study of the day, -and is worthy of the wisest thought of the nation.</p> - -<p>The body creates nothing of itself, either of material -or of energy; all must come to it from without. -Every atom of carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, or -other elements, every molecule of protein, carbohydrate, -or other compounds of these elements, is -brought to the body with the food and drink it consumes, -and the air it breathes. Like the steam-engine, -it uses the material supplied to it. Its -chemical compounds and energy are the compounds -and energy of the food transformed (Atwater). A -proof of this is seen in the fact that when the supply -from without is cut off, the body dies. The raw -material which the body uses is the air and food -which it consumes, the greater portion of which is -digested and distributed, through the medium of the -blood, to all parts of the body, to renew and nourish -the various tissues and to supply the material for the -different activities of life.</p> - -<p><b>Ways in which Food Supplies the Wants of the Body.</b> -Food supplies the wants of the body in several ways—(1) -it is used to form the tissues of the body—bones, -flesh, tendons, skin, and nerves; (2) it is used to repair -the waste of the tissues; (3) it is stored in the -body for future use; (4) it is consumed as fuel to -maintain the constant temperature which the body -must always possess to be in a state of health; (5) -it produces muscular and nervous energy.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -amount of energy of the body depends upon two -things—the amount in the food eaten, and the ability -of the body to use it, or free it for use.</p> - -<p>With every motion, and every thought and feeling, -material is consumed, hence the more rapid wearing -out of persons who do severe work, and of the nervous—those -who are keenly susceptible to every change -in their surroundings, to change of weather, even to -the thoughts and feelings of those about them.</p> - -<p>We easily realize that muscular force or energy -cannot be maintained without nutriment in proper -quality and amount. An underfed or starving man -has not the strength of a well-fed person. He cannot -lift the same weight, cannot walk as far, cannot work -as hard. We do not as easily comprehend the nervous -organism, and generally have less sympathy with -worn-out or ill-nourished nerves than muscles, but -the sensibilities and the intellectual faculties, of -which the nerves and brain are but the instruments, -depend upon the right nutrition of the whole system -for their proper and healthful exercise.</p> - -<p>So many factors enter into the make-up of a -thought that it cannot be said that any particular -kind of food will ultimately produce a poem; but of -this we may be sure, that the best work, the noblest -thoughts, the most original ideas, will not come from -a dyspeptic, underfed, or in any way ill-nourished -individual.</p> - -<p>The classification of foods has been usually based -upon the deductions of Prout that milk contains all -the necessary nutrients in the best form and proportions, -viz., the nitrogenous matters, fat, sugar, water, -and salts; the latter being combinations of magnesium, -calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron, with -chlorin, phosphoric acid, and, in smaller quantities, -sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p>These different classes seem to serve different purposes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -in the body, and are all necessary for perfect -nutrition. Some of them closely resemble each other -in composition, but are quite different in their physiological -properties, and in the ends which they serve. -For instance, starch (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) has almost the same -chemical formula as sugar (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>), and yet the -one cannot replace the other to its entire exclusion.</p> - -<p><b>The Protein Compounds.</b> In general it may be said -that the carbohydrates are changed into fats, and are -used for the production of force, and that the fats -are stored in the body as fat and used as fuel. The -protein compounds do all that can be done by the -fats and carbohydrates, and in addition something -more; that is, they form the basis of blood, muscle, -sinew, skin, and bone. They are, therefore, the most -important of all the food compounds. The terms -"power-givers" and "energy-formers" are sometimes -applied to them, because wherever power and energy -are developed they are present, though not by any -means the only substances involved in the evolution -of energy. Probably the fats and carbohydrates -give most of the material for heat and the various other -forces of the body. In case of emergency, where -these are deficient, the proteins are used; but protein -alone forms the basis of muscle, tendons, skin, and -other tissues. This the fats and carbohydrates cannot -do (Atwater). The different tissues are known -from analysis to contain this complex nitrogenous -compound, protein. Now, since the body cannot -construct this substance out of the simpler chemical -compounds which come to it, it becomes perfectly -evident that the diet must have a due proportion of -protein in order to maintain the strength of the body. -We get most of our proteins from the flesh of animals, -and they in turn get it from plants, which construct -it from the crude materials of earth and air.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>The Extractives</b>, usually classed with the protein -compounds, such as meat extract, beef tea, etc., are -not generally regarded as direct nutrients, but, like -tea and coffee, are valuable as accessory foods, lending -savor to other foods and aiding their digestion -by pleasantly exciting the flow of the digestive fluids. -They also act as brain and nerve stimulants, and perhaps -also in some slight degree as nutrients.</p> - -<p>The principal proteins or nitrogenous substances -are <em>albumen</em> in various forms, casein both animal -and vegetable, <em>blood fibrin</em>, <em>muscle fibrin</em>, and <em>gelatin</em>. -All except the last are very much alike, and probably -can replace one another in nutrition.</p> - -<p>Modern chemists agree that nitrogen is a necessary -element in the various chemical and physiological -actions which take place in the body to produce heat, -muscular energy, and the other powers. Every -structure in the body in which any form of energy is -manifested is nitrogenous. The nerves, muscles, -glands, and the floating cells<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> in the various liquids -are nitrogenous. That nitrogen is necessary to the -different processes of the system, is shown by the fact -that if it be cut off, these processes languish. This -may not occur immediately, for the body always has -a store of nitrogen laid by for emergencies which will -be consumed first, but it will occur as soon as these -have been consumed. The energy of the body is -measured by its consumption of oxygen. Motion and -heat may be owing to the oxidation of fat, or of -starch, or of nitrogenous substances; but whatever -the source, the direction is given by the nitrogenous -structure—in other words, nitrogen is necessary to -all energy generated in the body.</p> - -<p>Protein matter nourishes the organic framework, -takes part in the generation of energy, and may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -converted into non-nitrogenous substances.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The -necessity of the protein compounds is emphasized -when we realize that about <em>one half</em> of the body is -composed of muscle, <em>one fifth</em> of which is protein, -and the nitrogen in this protein can be furnished only -by protein, since neither fats nor carbohydrates contain -it. It is therefore evident that the protein-containing -foods, such as beef, mutton, fish, eggs, -milk, and others, are our most valued nutrients. Our -daily diet must contain a due proportion.</p> - -<p>The proteins are all complex chemical compounds, -which in nutrition become reduced to simple forms, -and are then built up again into flesh. The animal -foods are in the main the best of the protein compounds, -for they are rich in nitrogenous matter, are -easily digested, and from their composition and adaptability -are most valuable in maintaining the life of -the body.</p> - -<p>A diet of lean meat alone serves to build up tissue. -If nothing else be taken, the stored-up fat of the -body will be consumed, and the person will become -thin.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Athletes while in training take advantage of -this fact, and are allowed to eat only such food as -shall furnish the greatest amount of strength and -muscular energy with a minimum of fat. The lean -of beef and mutton, with a certain amount of bread, -constitute the foundation of the diet.</p> - -<p><b>Fats.</b> Most of the fatty substances of food are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -liquefied at the temperature of the body. When eaten -in the form of adipose tissue, as the fat of beef and -mutton, the vesicles or cells in which the fat is held -are dissociated or dissolved, the fat is set free, and -mingles with the digesting mass. This is done in the -stomach, and is a preparation for its further change -in the intestines.</p> - -<p>Fats are not dissolved—that is, in the sense in which -meats and other foods are dissolved—in the process -of digestion; the only change which they undergo is -a minute subdivision caused principally by the action -of the pancreatic juice. In this condition of fine -emulsion they are taken up by the lacteals; they -may also be absorbed by the blood-vessels.</p> - -<p>It has been found that fat emulsions pass more -easily through membranes which have been moistened -with bile, and it is probable that the function of bile -is partly to facilitate the absorption of fat. That the -pancreatic juice is the chief agent in forming fats into -emulsion was discovered in 1848. Bile is, however, -essential to their perfect digestion, and we may therefore -say that they are digested by the united action -of the pancreatic juice and the bile.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p>Fat forms in the body fatty tissues, and serves for -muscular force and heat; it is also necessary to nourish -nerves and other tissues,—in fact, without it -healthy tissues cannot be formed. A proper amount -of fat is also a sort of albumen sparer.</p> - -<p>It is probable that the fat which is used in the -body either to be stored away or for energy, is derived -from other sources than directly from the fat -eaten. From experiments made by Lawes and Gilbert -on pigs, it is evident that the excess of fat stored -in their bodies must be derived from some other -source than the fat contained in their food, and must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -be produced partly from nitrogenous matter and -partly from carbohydrates, or, at least, that the latter -play a part in its formation. It would appear -from this that life might be maintained on starch, -water, salts, and meat free from fat; but although -the theory seems a good one, practically it is found -in actual experiment<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> that nutrition is impaired by a -lack of fat in the diet. The ill effects were soon seen, -and immediate relief was given when fat was added -to the food. Besides, in the food of all nations starch -is constantly associated with some form of fat; bread -with butter; potatoes with butter, cream, or gravy; -macaroni and polenta with oil, and so forth. A man -may live for a time and be healthy with a diet of albuminoids, -fats, salts, and water, but it has not yet -been proved that a similar result will be produced by -a diet of albuminoids, carbohydrates, salts, and water -without fat. Fat is necessary to perfect nutrition. -Health cannot be maintained on albuminoids, salts, -and water alone; but, on the other hand, cannot be -maintained without them.</p> - -<p>Probably the value of fats, as such, is dependent -upon the ease with which they are digested. The -fats eaten are not stored in the body directly, but the -body constructs its fats from those eaten, and from -other substances in food,—according to some authorities -from the carbohydrates and proteids, and according -to others from proteids alone.</p> - -<p>Fats are <em>stored away</em> as fat, <em>furnish heat</em>, and are -<em>used for energy</em>; at least, it is probable that at times -they are put to the latter use. The fats laid by in -the body for future use last in cases of starvation -quite a long time, depending, of course, upon the -amount. At such times a fat animal will live longer -than a lean one.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> -<p>Doubtless in the fat of food the body finds material -for its fats in the most easily convertible form. Of -the various fatty substances taken, some are more -easily assimilated than others. Dr. Fothergill, in "The -Town Dweller," says that the reason that cod-liver oil -is given to delicate children and invalids is, that it is -more easily digested than ordinary fats, but it is an -inferior form of fat; the next most easily digested is -the fat of bacon. When a child can take bread -crumbled in a little of this fat, it will not be necessary -to give him cod-liver oil. Bacon fat is the much better -fat for building tissues. Then comes cream, a -natural emulsion, and butter. He further says there -is one form of fat not commonly looked at in its -proper dietetic value, and that is "toffee." It is made -of butter, sugar, and sometimes a portion of molasses. -A quantity of this, added to the ordinary meals, will -enable a child in winter to keep up the bodily heat. -The way in which butter in the form of toffee goes -into the stomach is particularly agreeable.</p> - -<p><b>Carbohydrates.</b> The principal carbohydrates are -<em>starch</em>, <em>dextrine</em>, <em>cane-sugar</em> or common table sugar, -<em>grape-sugar</em>, the principal sugar in fruits, and <em>milk-sugar</em>, -the natural sugar in milk. They are substances -made up, as before stated, of carbon, hydrogen, and -oxygen, but no nitrogen. They are important food -substances, but are of themselves incapable of sustaining -life.</p> - -<p>The carbohydrates, both starch and sugar, in the -process of digestion are converted into glucose. This -is stored in the liver in the form of <em>glycogen</em>, which the -liver has the power of manufacturing; it then passes -into the circulation, and is distributed to the different -parts of the body as it is needed. (The liver also has -the power of forming glycogen out of other substances -than sugar, and it is pretty conclusively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -proved that it is from proteids, and not from fats. -Carnivorous animals, living upon flesh alone, are -found to have glycogen in their bodies.)</p> - -<p>It is impossible to assign any especial office to the -different food principles; that is, it cannot be said -that the carbohydrates perform a certain kind of -work in the body and nothing else, or that the proteids -or fats do. The human body is a highly complex -and intricate organism, and its maintenance is -carried on by complex and mysterious processes that -cannot be followed, except imperfectly; consequently, -we must regard the uses of foods in the body as -more or less involved in obscurity. It is, however, -generally understood that the proteids, fats, and carbohydrates -each do an individual work of their own -better than either of the others can do it. They are -all necessary in due amount to the nutrition of the -body, and doubtless work together as well as in their -separate functions. They are, however, sometimes interchangeable, -as, for instance, in the absence of the -carbohydrates, proteids will do their work. The carbohydrates -are eminently heat and energy formers, -and they also act as albumen sparers.</p> - -<p>The body always has a store of material laid by for -future use. If it were not for this a person deprived -of food would die immediately, as is the case when he -is deprived of oxygen. (Air being ever about us, and -obtainable without effort or price, there is no need for -the body to lay by an amount of oxygen; consequently -only a very little is stored, and that in the blood.)</p> - -<p>The great reserve forces of the body are in the form -of fatty tissues, and glycogen, or the stored-away carbohydrates -of the liver; the latter is given out to the -body as it is needed during the intervals of eating to -supply material for the heat and energy of daily consumption, -and in case of starvation. That they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -true reserves is shown by the fact that they disappear -during deprivation of food. The glycogen, or liver-supply, -disappears first; then the fat (Martin). The -heat of the body can be maintained on these substances, -and a certain amount of work done, although -no food except water be taken.</p> - -<p>The principal function of the liver is to form glycogen -to be stored away. It constantly manufactures -it, and as constantly loses it to the circulation. Glycogen -is chemically allied to starch, having the same -formula (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>), but differing in other ways. Its -quantity is greatest about two hours after a full -meal; then it gradually falls, but increases again -when food is again taken. Its amount also varies -with the <em>kind</em> of food eaten: fats and proteids by -themselves give little, but starch and sugars give -much, for it is found in greatest quantity when these -form a part of the diet.</p> - -<p><b>Inorganic Matter and Vegetable Acids.</b> Water and -other inorganic matter, as the salts of different kinds, -and vegetable acids, as vinegar and lemon-juice, can -scarcely be said to be digested. Water is absorbed, -and salts are generally in solution in liquids and are -absorbed with them.</p> - -<p><em>Water</em> is found in all parts of the body, even in the -very solid portions, as the bones and the enamel of -the teeth; it also constitutes a large proportion of its -semisolids and fluids, some of which are nearly all -water, as the perspiration and the tears.</p> - -<p>Water usually is found combined with some of the -salts, which seem to act as regulators of the amount -which shall be incorporated into a tissue. Water is -a necessary constituent of all tissues, giving them a -proper consistency and elasticity. The power of resistance -of the bones could not be maintained without -it. It is also valuable as a food solvent, assisting in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -the liquefying of different substances, which are taken -up by the various absorbent tubes, conveyed into the -blood, and so circulated through the body. Most of -the water of the body is taken into it from without, -but it is also formed in the body by the union of -hydrogen and oxygen.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -<p><em>Sodium chlorid</em>, or common salt, is found in the -blood and other fluids, and in the solids of the -body, except the enamel of the teeth; it occurs in -greatest proportion in the fluids. The part that this -salt plays in nutrition is not altogether understood. -"Common salt is intermediate in certain general processes, -and does not participate by its elements in the -formation of organs" (Liebig). Salt is intimately -associated with water, which plays an intermediate -part also in nutrition, being a bearer or carrier of -nutritious matters through the body.</p> - -<p>Salt seems to regulate the absorption and use of -nutrients. It is found in the greatest quantity in -the blood and chyle. It doubtless facilitates digestion -by rendering foods more savory, and thus causing the -digestive juices to flow more freely. Sodium chlorid -is contained in most if not all kinds of food, but not -in sufficient quantity to supply the wants of the body; -it therefore becomes a necessary part of a diet.</p> - -<p><em>Potassium chlorid</em> has similar uses to sodium chlorid, -although not so generally distributed through -the body. It is found in muscle, liver, milk, chyle, -blood, mucus, saliva, bile, gastric juice, and one or -two other fluids.</p> - -<p><em>Calcium phosphate</em> is found in all the fluids and -solids of the body, held in solution in them by the -presence of CO<sub>2</sub>; both it and calcium carbonate enter -largely into the structure of the bones.</p> - -<p><em>Sodium carbonate</em>, <em>magnesium phosphate</em>, and other -salts play important parts in nutrition.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> -<p>The various salts influence chemical change as well -as act in rendering food soluble. For example, serum -albumen, the chief proteid of the blood, is insoluble -in pure water, but dissolves easily in water which has -a little neutral salts in it.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Salts also help to give -firmness to the teeth and bones.</p> - -<p>To recapitulate, food is eaten, digested, assimilated, -and consumed or transformed in the body by a series -of highly intricate and complex processes. It is for -the most part used for the different powers and activities -of the system; there is, however, always a -small portion which is rejected as waste. The first -change is in the mouth, where the food is broken up -and moistened and the digestion of starch begins; -these changes continue in the stomach until the whole -is reduced to a more or less liquid mass. As the contents -of the stomach pass little by little into the duodenum, -the mass becomes more fluid by the admixture -of bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice, and, as -it passes along, absorption takes place; the mass -grows darker in color and less fluid, until all good -material is taken up and only waste left, which is -rejected from the body.</p> - -<p>That portion of the food which is not affected by -the single or united action of the digestive fluids is -chiefly of vegetable origin. Hard seeds, such as corn, -and the outer coverings of grains, such as the husk of -oatmeal and those parts which are composed largely -of cellulose, pass through the intestinal canal without -change.</p> - -<p>It may be remarked here that since the digestive -mechanism is so perfect a structure, and will try to -dissolve anything given it, and select only that which -is good, why should there be the necessity of giving -any special attention to preparing food before it is -eaten? The answer is that the absorptive vessels<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -cannot take up what is not there, neither can the -digestive organs <em>supply</em> what the food lacks; therefore, -the food must contain in suitable proportions all substances -needed by the body. Also, food which contains -a large proportion of waste, or is difficult of digestion -from over or under cooking, or is unattractive by insipidity -or unsavoriness, overworks these long-suffering -organs (the extra power or force needed being -drawn from the blood), and causes the whole system -to suffer. Mal-nutrition, with the long line of evils -which it entails, is the cause, direct or indirect, of -most of the sickness in the world, for it reduces the -powers of the system, and thus enfeebles its resistance -to disease.</p> - -<p><b>Ideal Diet.</b> "The ideal diet is that combination of -food which, while imposing the least burden upon the -body, supplies it with exactly sufficient material to -meet its wants" (Schuster).</p> - -<p>In general the digestibility of foods may be summarized -as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>1. The protein of ordinary animal foods is very readily and -completely digestible.</p> - -<p>2. The protein of vegetable foods is much less easily digested -than that of animal foods.</p> - -<p>3. The fat of animal foods may at times fail of digestion.</p> - -<p>4. Sugar and starch are easy of digestion.</p> - -<p>5. Animal foods have the advantage of vegetable foods in that -they contain more protein, and that their protein is more easily -digested. (Atwater.)</p></div> - -<p>A diet largely of animal food leaves very little undigested -matter. The albuminoids in all cases are -completely transformed into nutriment. Fat enters -the blood as a fine emulsion.</p> - -<p><b>Absorption.</b> The general rule of absorption is that -food is taken into the circulation through the porous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -walls of the alimentary tract as rapidly as it is completely -digested. A large portion of liquid is immediately -absorbed by the blood-vessels of the stomach.</p> - -<p><b>Adaptation of Foods to Particular Needs and Conditions.</b> -The demands of different individuals for nutrients in -the daily food vary with age, occupation, and other -conditions of life, including especially the peculiar -characteristics of people. No two persons are exactly -alike in their expenditure of muscular and nervous -energy, so no two will need the same amount -or kind of nutriment to repair the waste.</p> - -<p>A man who digs in a field day after day expends a -certain amount of muscular energy. A lawyer, statesman, -or author who works with his brain instead of -his hands uses nervous force, but very little muscular. -Brain and muscle are not nourished exactly by the -same materials; therefore, the demand in the way of -nutriment of these two classes will not be the same.</p> - -<p>The lawyer might find a feast in a box of sardines -and some biscuit, while the field laborer would look -with contempt upon such food, and turn from it to -fat pork and cabbage. This is no mere difference in -refinement of taste, but a real and instinctive difference -in the demands of the two constitutions. Sardines -supply to the brain-worker the material he -needs, and the pork and cabbage to the laborer the -heat and energy he expends.</p> - -<p>In health the sense of taste is the best guide to -what is demanded by the system, and may as a general -rule be followed; but in sickness that will not do, -as the sense of taste in particular is disturbed by -most forms of disease.</p> - -<p>When a patient is very ill only the simplest foods will -be used, and those will be prescribed by the physician; -but when a patient is out of danger, and the necessity -for variety comes, then the nurse, by preparing or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -suggesting dishes, may do much toward restoring the -person to health and strength.</p> - -<p>As a very large percentage of diseases arise from -imperfect nutrition (as large as eighty per cent. being -given by some writers), the sense of taste is usually -very much disturbed and dulled in illness; therefore -those kinds of food which are savory, and at the same -time easy of digestion and nutritious, should be selected. -The savory quality is very important. A -person in health may endure badly cooked food and -monotony in diet; a person recovering from an illness -cannot but suffer by it.</p> - -<p>A nurse will find a pleasant field for the exercise of -ingenuity in selecting and preparing such dishes as -shall (1) be suited to the digestive powers of the -patient; (2) shall be savory; (3) shall be sufficiently -varied to supply all those materials which the depleted -and exhausted body needs; and (4) shall be in -such judicious quantity as shall increase nutrition, -but never overtax the digestive powers.</p> - -<p>The decision of No. 1 (food suited to the digestive -powers) is the most difficult, and here again the doctor -will advise for particular or peculiar diseases.</p> - -<p>There are certain things which from their natural -composition are more easy of digestion than others, -such, for instance, as milk, eggs slightly coagulated -and raw, beef tea with the <em>juices in solution</em>, cocoa -milk, and cocoa, coffee, jellies, gruels, porridge from -prepared grains (except oatmeal) when <em>thoroughly</em> -cooked, oysters alive, rice, venison, and tripe.</p> - -<p>No. 2, the <em>savory</em> quality, depends largely upon -preparation, and is under the control of the nurse. A -baked potato done in a <em>hot</em> oven, just to the point, -and served immediately, is a delicious dish; overdone, -or done in an oven of low temperature, and served -lukewarm, it is very far from appetizing. A steak, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -cut thin, salted, and broiled slowly, will be hard, dry, -and lacking in flavor, but if it is cut thick, at least an -inch and a half, better two inches, broiled for the first -minute over very hot coals, and then slowly, that the -heat may have time to penetrate to the center, and -raise the whole to a temperature sufficiently high to -cook it (about 160° Fahr.) without charring the outside, -it will make a dish both wholesome and savory.</p> - -<p>No. 3, the next consideration, is that of <em>variety</em>, and -here the resources and judgment of the person in -charge must come to the front. Only general hints -can be given. Endeavor to supply some protein, -some fat, some of the carbohydrates, and some mineral -matter in each meal. Bread, grains, or potatoes -will give the necessary starch. Sugar is usually supplied -with drinks. Milk, eggs, meat, fish, and oysters -will give protein; cream, butter, bacon, and the fat -of other meats will furnish fat, and fruits and green -salads give acids and mineral salts. For the latter, -grapes, apples, carrots, onions, dandelions, and lettuce -are very valuable. Grapes are composed of water -with salts in solution, and glucose; both are absorbed -with very little outlay from the system. The others -are every-day foods, but science has taught that their -instinctive use in the past has been a wise one.</p> - -<p>No. 4, the <em>quantity</em> of food to offer to a sick person, -will depend upon the individual. Give enough, -but rather give to an invalid <em>too little</em> than too much, -especially in the first days of using solid food; for -after some forms of sickness there is great hunger, -and one may injure himself by overeating at such a -time. Furnish a little of each kind of food, but let -that little be of <em>good quality</em> and <em>perfectly prepared</em>, -so that every morsel is eatable. It is discouraging to -any one to have set before him food such that much of -it must be rejected uneaten. It is very encouraging,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -especially to an invalid, to be able to eat all that is -brought him, and for this end cooking and serving -are of great importance. It is necessary to adjust -the <em>proportions</em> of the different kinds of foods to -the needs of the consumer, otherwise all unnecessary -material will be rejected from the body as waste, or -will be accumulated in it to interfere with the workings -of the different organs.</p> - -<p>In general it may be said that the needs of no two -individuals can be satisfied with exactly the same diet. -In sickness it is the province of the physician to adjust -the food to the condition of the patient. In convalescence -the taste of the individual and the judgment -of the nurse or attendant combined will usually not -fail of good results. If an individual craves a certain -dish, and there is no good reason why he should not -have it, by all means procure it. Let only your judgment -act. It may be something that you personally -do not like. That should not influence a decision, -provided, of course, that the food is not unwholesome.</p> - -<p>We should bear in mind that a sick person is not -in the same condition as ourselves, and that no matter -how absurd his cravings may seem, they may be but -perfectly natural longings for those substances which -his depleted and exhausted system needs in order to -be restored to health.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> -<p class="pfs180">PART II<br /><br /> -RECIPES</p> -<p class="p6" /> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">PART II<br /><br /> -RECIPES</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep1-25.jpg" width="25" alt="decorative separator" /> -</div> - - -<h3 class="h3large">BEEF-JUICE, BEEF-TEA, AND BROTHS</h3> - -<p><b>Beef-Juice.</b> The clear juice of beef, slightly diluted -with water, is always excellent, being especially useful -for its strong flavors. It is like concentrated -beef-tea, and is often valuable in pleasantly exciting -the action of the mouth and stomach after a long illness -in which milk has been the chief article of diet.</p> - -<p>Beef-juice is best made by broiling the beef. Prepared -in this way, the flavor is superior, and it is a -quick and easy method; but when a proper broiling -fire cannot be had, then it may be made in a glass -jar like beef-tea, except without the water.</p> - -<p><b>Beef-Tea</b> is valuable for its stimulating properties -and for the warmth that it gives; it is also somewhat -nutritious, containing as it does the albuminous -juices of the meat, some salts, and the very important -flavors. Beef-tea should be prepared in such a manner -that the juices are held in solution in the water, -not coagulated, to secure which the cooking temperature -should never be allowed to exceed that of 160° -Fahr.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Broths.</b> Beef, mutton, and chicken broths are the -most desirable forms of meat drinks for convalescents -and those no longer dangerously ill. By slow cooking -at a low temperature at first (the temperature -should not exceed 150° Fahr. for the first hour), the -extractives and albuminous juices are drawn out; -then, by boiling, the gelatin of the bones, flesh, and -tissues is dissolved. The nutritive qualities of these -broths may be much increased by the addition of -bread, rice, tapioca, barley, and sago, cooked during -the whole time so that they may be completely dissolved -in the liquid.</p> - -<h4>BEEF-JUICE</h4> - -<p><b>Bottled.</b> Select a half pound of well-flavored beef, -cut away everything except the lean fiber, divide it -into small pieces, put them into a glass jar, cover, -and place in a deep saucepan of cold water; heat -gradually for one hour, but do not allow the temperature -at any time to exceed 160° Fahr.; then -strain out the juice and press the meat. The liquid -should be clear red, not brown and flaky. Add a -little salt, and it is ready to serve. A half pound -will make three or four tablespoons of juice. If it -is to be used constantly, a larger quantity may be -made at once, as it will keep eighteen hours in a refrigerator. -Beef-juice may be made into tea by diluting -it with warm water.</p> - -<p><b>Broiled.</b> Prepare a fire of clear glowing coals from -which all blue flames have disappeared. Cut a piece -of lean beef (one half pound from the round or any -good lean portion) one and one half inches thick, and -remove from it all membranous tissues and fat. Put -it into a wire broiler, and broil from six to eight -minutes according to the intensity of the fire (see<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -rules for broiling). The piece when done should be -pink and full of juice, not dry and hard, nor, on the -other hand, bluish-red in the middle. More juice will -be obtained if the heat has penetrated to the center -than if the meat is raw. When done, cut it into small -pieces and squeeze out the juice with a meat-press or a -lemon-squeezer. Add a little salt, and it is ready to -serve. It should be given in spoonfuls, either warm -or cold. If it is necessary to warm it, put a little into -a cup and place it in a dish of warm water on the fire. -Care should be taken that the water does not become -hotter than 160° Fahr., for beyond that temperature -the albuminous juices become coagulated and appear -as brown flakes.</p> - -<h4>BEEF-TEA</h4> - -<p><b>Bottled.</b> Select and prepare the meat in the same -manner as for bottled beef-juice, except that for -every half pound a cup of water should be used, -poured over after it has been put into the jar. The -liquid thus obtained will resemble beef-juice in every -respect except in strength. Serve as a drink in a red -wine-glass or a china cup.</p> - -<p><b>With Hydrochloric Acid.</b> Hydrochloric acid acts upon -the fibers of meat in such a way that they become more -easy of digestion. From a given portion of meat much -more nutriment is extracted by the use of hydrochloric -acid than without it; beef-tea made with it is recommended -by physicians as the most easily absorbed form -of beef drink, and for feeble children and patients -much weakened by sickness it is especially useful.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare.</b> Select a half pound of good beef; remove -from it everything that is not clear meat,—that -is, bone, gristle, connective tissue, and fat; chop it -fine on a meat-board or in a chopping-tray. Put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -into a bowl one cup of water and five drops of dilute -hydrochloric acid; stir into this the chopped meat, -and set it in a refrigerator or any cool place for two -hours to digest. Then strain, flavor with salt, and -serve cold in a red wine-glass.</p> - -<p>Should there be any objection to the taste or color, -heat the tea until it steams and changes to a brownish -hue; do not strain out the flakes of coagulated -albumen and fibrin which appear, for they are the -most nutritious portion of the tea.</p> - -<p>Chemically pure hydrochloric acid may be obtained -of a druggist (it is usually marked C. P.); from it a -diluted solution may be made by mixing it in the proportion -of five and one half fluid ounces to fourteen -ounces of water.</p> - -<h4>BEEF BROTH</h4> - -<p>Beef broth is the juice of beef extracted by the -long application of heat in connection with some solvent, -usually water.</p> - -<p>To make beef broth, allow one pound of meat, or -meat and bone, to every quart of water. Wash the -meat with a cloth in cold water until it is clean, or -wipe it with a wet cloth if it is apparently fresh cut; -divide it into small pieces (half-inch cubes) in order to -expose as great an extent of surface as possible to the -dissolving action of the water. Put it into a granite-ware -kettle with <em>cold</em> water, and cook it at a low temperature -for two hours, then boil it for two hours to -dissolve the gelatin. Remove it from the fire, and -strain it, using a strainer so coarse that the flakes of -albumen may go through (an ordinary wire strainer -will do). Skim as much fat as possible from the surface -with a spoon, and then remove the remaining -small particles with a sheet of clean paper (unsized is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -best) drawn over the surface. Season the broth with -salt and pepper, and serve it very hot. If not needed -at once, it may be set away to cool, when the fat will rise -to the top, and form into a cake which may be lifted off.</p> - -<p><b>With Herbs.</b> Make a broth according to the above -rule, and flavor it with bay-leaves, mint, or with a -bouquet of sweet herbs in the proportion of one teaspoon -to a quart of liquid.</p> - -<p><b>With Grains.</b> One tablespoon of any of the following -grains—rice, barley, oatmeal, or wheat—to one -quart of liquid, gives a pleasant consistency and flavor -to beef broth. Tapioca, sago, cold dry toast, or -cuttings of bread may also be used. They should be -put in when the broth is first set on the fire to cook, -that they may be completely dissolved in the liquid.</p> - -<p><b>With Vegetables.</b> Celery, onion, carrot, turnip, or -shredded cabbage may be used in broth in the proportion -of one tablespoon to a quart. Cabbage is -better in combination with onion than alone.</p> - -<h4>BROTH MADE FROM BEEFSTEAK</h4> - -<p class="pfs70">(A QUICK METHOD)</p> - -<p>Scrape the pulp from a pound of round or of sirloin -steak, or mince the meat in a chopping-tray until it is -fine; put it into a saucepan with just enough cold -water to cover it, and let it come to the boiling-point -slowly; then simmer it for fifteen minutes (better -half an hour if there is time). Strain it, take off the -fat with a sheet of paper, and season it with salt. This -is a somewhat expensive but savory broth, and may -easily be made on a gas or alcohol stove.</p> - -<p>A beef panada may be made by leaving the pulp in -the broth and adding a little rolled cracker-crumbs or -some bread softened and squeezed through a strainer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> - -<h4>SCOTCH BEEF BROTH</h4> - -<p>Put into a granite stew-pan a pint of prepared -beef broth,—that is, broth which has been strained, -cleared of fat, and seasoned. Add to it one tablespoon -of rolled oats, or of ordinary oatmeal, and simmer -it gently until the oatmeal is soft and jelly-like. -The time required will be about two hours. Then -strain it, and serve very hot. This makes a good dish -for an invalid for whom oatmeal has not been forbidden. -If the broth is reduced by the boiling, add -enough water to restore the pint.</p> - -<h4>CHICKEN BROTH</h4> - -<p>Chicken broth should be made with fowl, not with -young chicken; a good one weighing three pounds -will make three pints of broth.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare.</b> Singe the chicken with a piece of blazing -newspaper to burn off the long hairs; remove all -refuse or that which is not clear flesh, viz., pin-feathers, -oil-bag, crop, lungs, kidneys, and, of course, the -entrails if the fowl is not already drawn. If the pipes -in the neck are not all drawn out with the crop, they -may be easily taken away when the fowl is cut up. -Scrub it well in cold water, and then disjoint and cut -it into small pieces; wash each piece thoroughly, retaining -the skin if it is clear and free from pin-feathers, -otherwise removing it. Put the chicken into -cold water and simmer it for two hours, then boil it -for two hours. Finally strain it and remove the fat, -season it with salt and a bit of white pepper, and -serve very hot in pretty china cups, with or without -a lunch-cracker or a bit of dry toast.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>With Herbs.</b> Parsley, bay-leaves, sage, thyme, or -a bouquet of sweet herbs will give a pleasant flavor -to chicken broth. A teaspoon to a pint is the right -proportion.</p> - -<p><b>With Grains or Vegetables.</b> Rice may be used to advantage -in chicken broth, and also pearl-barley, sago, -tapioca, and bread. These are among the best additions -of the kind that can be made, for with them one -is able to preserve the light color so desirable in -chicken broth. Onion, celery, and parsley in the proportion -of one teaspoon to a pint are suitable vegetables. -Celery is especially nice.</p> - -<h4>MUTTON BROTH</h4> - -<p>One pound of mutton from the neck, or, better, the -loin, one quart of cold water, and one teaspoon of -chopped onion will be needed for this broth. Remove -from the mutton the tough skin, the fat, and all -membranes, and cut the meat into small pieces; break -the bone, and if it be a part of the spinal column, take -out the spinal cord. Put the pieces of meat, the onion, -and the water into a saucepan, and simmer them together -for three hours; then strain out the meat, dip -off the fat from the broth with a spoon, and remove -the remaining small particles with paper; season it -with salt and white pepper. Serve hot in a pretty -cup, with a toasted cracker.</p> - -<p>A little bunch of mint, a bouquet of herbs, a few -bay-leaves, or a sprinkle of Cayenne pepper or curry-powder -will vary the broth agreeably. Pearl-barley -is a particularly good addition to make, or rice may -be used in the proportion of one teaspoon to a pint.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - -<h4>OYSTER-TEA. No. 1</h4> - -<p>Select eight fresh oysters, chop them fine in a chopping-tray, -and turn them into a saucepan with a cup -of cold water; set the saucepan on the fire, and let -the water come slowly to the boiling-point, then simmer -for five minutes; strain the liquid into a bowl, -flavor it with half a saltspoon of salt, and serve hot -with or without a small piece of dry toast, or a -toasted cream-cracker.</p> - -<h4>OYSTER-TEA. No. 2</h4> - -<p>Put a dozen large oysters with their liquor into a -stew-pan; simmer for five minutes. Then strain the -liquor, leaving out the oysters, and add to it one half -cup of milk; set it back on the stove and heat it just -to the boiling-point. Flavor with a sprinkle of white -pepper and half a saltspoon of salt. Or make it according -to rule No. 1, using milk instead of water.</p> - -<h4>CLAM BROTH</h4> - -<p>Six large clams in their shells and a cup of water -will be needed for this broth. Wash the clams thoroughly -with a brush, and place them with the water -in a kettle over the fire. The broth is simply the -juice of the clams with the water boiled for a minute. -It does not require seasoning, as clam-juice is usually -salt enough. As soon as the shells open, the broth is -done.</p> - -<p>This broth and oyster-tea No. 1 are good in cases -of nausea, and will be retained on the stomach when -almost everything else is rejected.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">GRUELS</h3> - -<p>Gruels are cooked mixtures of grain or flour, with -water, or with water and milk. They are best made -with milk as a part of the liquid, but care must be -taken not to put it into the gruel until the grain has -been thoroughly cooked in water, and after that the -mixture should not be allowed to boil, as so high a -temperature changes the flavor and composition of -the milk, and renders it a less desirable food than -if it were cooked at a lower temperature,—for instance, -190° or 200° Fahr.</p> - -<p>The largest ingredient of grains is starch, which -is not easily digested unless well cooked; therefore -the time for boiling gruels should be conscientiously -kept by the clock. Should the water evaporate, restore -to the original quantity before putting in the -milk, which should be hot, though not <em>boiling</em>. It may, -however, come just to the boiling-point without any -special injury.</p> - -<p>Gruels served with a cream- or a banquet-cracker -or a square of toasted bread are excellent for a convalescent's -lunch. They may be varied with flavorings -of cinnamon, nutmeg, almond, or a little grated -lemon-peel, and sugar. Sugar is mentioned with -great hesitancy, for a sweet gruel is an abomination, -and yet a gruel with a <em>very little</em> sugar has a pleasanter -flavor than one without any.</p> - -<p>Lacking color, gruels may be made attractive by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -serving them in dainty-hued china. Gruels should -be drunk slowly, that the starch, which is partially -digested by the action of saliva, may be thoroughly -mixed with it before it is swallowed.</p> - -<h4>BARLEY GRUEL</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of Robinson's barley-flour.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Scant teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the flour, salt, and sugar together with a little -cold water, pour on the boiling water, and boil ten -minutes; then add the milk, bring just to the boiling-point, -strain, and serve very hot. This gruel may be -made without the milk, but with a pint instead of a -cup of water. Barley is a nutritious grain, rich in -phosphates and protein.</p> - -<h4>ARROWROOT GRUEL</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of arrowroot.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Scant teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of hot water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Wet the arrowroot with the sugar and salt in two -tablespoons of cold water, then pour on the <em>hot</em> water, -stirring constantly. Boil it for twenty minutes, then -add the milk and bring just to the boiling-point. -Strain it, and immediately serve.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> - -<p>Arrowroot is almost pure starch. Its grains burst -at 140° Fahr.; therefore, if <em>boiling</em> water be poured -upon it, it will form into lumps which will have to be -strained out, and thus a part of the material will be -lost; hence the necessity of wetting it in cold water to -reduce the temperature so that it may be stirred -smooth before the lumps form.</p> - -<p>Milk is changed by long boiling, and loses some of -its agreeable taste; it is better, therefore, not to put -the milk into the gruel until after the flour has been -thoroughly cooked in the water, thus preserving its -natural flavor.</p> - -<p>Arrowroot gruel may be flavored with cinnamon -by boiling a half square inch of cinnamon bark in the -water with which the gruel is made. Nutmeg, lemon -juice or peel, and sherry wine may also be used; but -the sherry should be avoided unless the gruel is to be -served cold.</p> - -<h4>OATMEAL GRUEL FROM POUNDED GRAIN</h4> - -<p>Pound in a mortar or roll on a bread-board one cup -of oatmeal until it is floury. Put it into a bowl, and -fill the bowl with cold water; stir well and let it settle -for a few seconds; then pour off the milky-looking -water into a saucepan, fill again, mix and pour off the -water, and so continue until the water no longer appears -white, being careful at each pouring not to allow -the brown cortex of the grain or any of the coarse -portions to get out of the bowl; then boil the water -for half an hour. For every pint put in a saltspoon -of salt and half a cup of sweet cream, or, if that is not -at hand, the same quantity of milk. Beef broth or wine -may be used instead of cream. This is the best way -to make oatmeal gruel, for by this method the coarse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -and irritating hulls are excluded, while the good flavor -and nutritious properties are preserved.</p> - -<h4>OATMEAL GRUEL (Plain)</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2 Tablespoons of oatmeal (rolled oats).<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Scant teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cupful of boiling water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the oatmeal, salt, and sugar together, and pour -on the boiling water. Cook it in a saucepan for thirty -minutes, or in a double boiler two hours; then strain -it through a fine wire strainer to remove the hulls, put -it again on the stove, add the milk, and allow it to -heat just to the boiling-point. Serve it hot. Good -oatmeal gruel may be made from cold porridge, by -adding water, milk, and a little sugar and straining -it, or it may be served unstrained. Many like it so, -and it makes an excellent lunch.</p> - -<h4>FLOUR GRUEL</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Tablespoon of flour.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> - 1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Cup of milk.<br /> -½ Square inch of cinnamon.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the flour, salt, and sugar, as for other gruels, -into a paste with a little cold water; add the piece of -cinnamon and the hot water; boil it for twenty minutes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -slowly, so that it may not stick to the bottom of -the pan and burn; then put in the milk and bring to -the boiling-point. Strain it, and serve it very hot. If -the gruel is intended for a patient with fever, a little -lemon-juice is good in place of the cinnamon. Other -flavors may also be used, such as nutmeg, almond, and -vanilla.</p> - -<h4>CRACKER GRUEL</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2 Tablespoons of cracker-crumbs.<br /> -1 Scant saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Scant teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>To make the cracker-crumbs, roll some crackers on -a board until they are fine. Bent's water-crackers -are good, cream-crackers better; mix the salt and -sugar with the crumbs, pour on the boiling water, -put in the milk, and simmer it for two minutes. The -gruel does not need long cooking, for the cracker-crumbs -are already thoroughly cooked. Do not -strain it.</p> - -<h4>FARINA GRUEL</h4> - -<p>Farina is a grain which is carefully prepared from -the nitrogenous part of selected wheat, and is therefore -a better nutrient than rice-flour or arrowroot.</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of Hecker's farina.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mix the grain, salt, and sugar; pour on the boiling -water, and cook ten minutes; then put in the milk, -boil for a minute, and it is ready to serve. Farina, -being partially prepared, does not need long cooking.</p> - -<h4>IMPERIAL GRANUM</h4> - -<p>Imperial Granum is a dainty, highly nutritious preparation -of wheat, very useful for invalids and children.</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of Granum.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the meal, salt, and sugar in a saucepan, pour -on the boiling water, and cook ten minutes; then add -the milk, and let it again reach the boiling-point, when -it is ready to serve.</p> - -<p>Mush and porridge may also be made from this -grain for the use of children, for whom it is an excellent -food, being similar to farina, but more delicate -and easier of digestion. Imperial Granum may be -obtained at any pharmacy.</p> - -<h4><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">RACAHOUT DES ARABES</span></h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of Racahout.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Cup of hot water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the Racahout and salt into a saucepan, mix it -into a paste with a little cold water, and then pour on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -the hot water; simmer for ten minutes. Have the -milk scalding hot in another pan, and when the gruel -has cooked the full time pour it in. Strain and serve.</p> - -<p>Racahout is a compound consisting principally of -sugar, arrowroot, rice-flour, and French chocolate. -It makes a most appetizing gruel, and is quite nutritious. -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Racahout des Arabes</i> is imported largely -from France. It may be obtained at any first-class -grocery store.</p> - -<h4>INDIAN-MEAL GRUEL</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2 Tablespoons of corn-meal.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of flour.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Quart of boiling water.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the corn-meal, flour, salt, and sugar into a thin -paste with cold water, and pour into it the boiling -water. Cook it in a double boiler for three hours. -No less time than that will cook the corn-meal thoroughly. -Then add the milk, and it is ready to serve.</p> - -<p>Use the fine granulated meal which comes in paste-board -packages, prepared for the table, and may be -bought of almost any grocer.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">MUSH AND PORRIDGE</h3> - -<p><em>Mush</em> is meal or grain cooked in water to the consistency -of rather thin pudding. <em>Porridge</em> is like -mush, only thinner. The most important point connected -with the preparation of these is thoroughness -in the cooking. Made as they generally are of coarsely -ground or of rolled grains, they need long boiling to -soften the cellulose and to cook the starch properly.</p> - -<p><b>Oatmeal.</b> Oatmeal should be cooked for at least -three hours in a double boiler. It is at its best prepared -the day before it is needed, and then reheated -as it is wanted. If it is done in this way, the flavor -is fine, and there is no danger that the grains will be -hard. When taken from the kettle, the oatmeal should -be of the consistency to pour, and on cooling it ought -to form into a tender, jelly-like pudding. Sometimes -oatmeal is cooked so that the grains are whole and -separate, but it is not easily digested so, and lacks the -delicious flavor which long cooking gives.</p> - -<p>Oatmeal for those for whom there is no objection -to its use is a valuable nutrient, furnishing more for -the money than almost any other food.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> -<p><b>Indian Meal.</b> Indian meal also requires many hours' -cooking. Even if it be in a single vessel and actually -boiled, not less than an hour and a half of exposure -to heat is safe.</p> - -<p><b>Farina.</b> Farina having been already subjected to a -high degree of heat in its preparation, is thereby partially -cooked, and does not require as long a time as -the raw grains.</p> - -<p>Mushes and porridges made from oatmeal, cracked -wheat, or any grain on which the tough outside covering -remains, are to be avoided in all cases of irritation -or disease of the alimentary canal, particularly -in diseases of the intestines, for the hard hulls are -very irritating to the delicate lining membranes. -Young children have exceedingly delicate digestive -powers, and are often made ill by coarse, starchy food. -For them it is always safest to use the prepared -grains, such as farina, granula, and Imperial Granum.</p> - -<p>All of the grains given in these recipes may be -made into <em>porridges</em> by following the rules given for -mushes, except that a larger proportion of water -should be used. Porridges are like mushes, only -thinner.</p> - -<h4>OATMEAL MUSH</h4> - -<div class="recipe10"> -½ Cup of rolled oats, or ½ cup of granulated oatmeal.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Pint of boiling water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Pick over the oatmeal, and put it into a double -boiler with the salt. Pour on the boiling water, -place the upper vessel of the boiler on the stove, and -boil two minutes. This effectually starts the cooking. -Then put the upper vessel into the lower, and cook -for five hours. The water in the under boiler should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -<em>boil</em> during this time, and will occasionally need replenishing. -Serve the mush steaming hot with sugar -and cream, and baked apples, apple sauce, or tart jelly -if one is fond of something acid.</p> - -<p>If rolled oats be used, three hours are sufficient to -cook it, but both kinds are best cooked the day before -they are needed, as long cooking improves rather than -injures the grain.</p> - -<h4>FARINA</h4> - -<p>Farina being a prepared grain and free from hulls -and waste, so large a proportion will not be required -to make a mush as of the raw grains.</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 3 Tablespoons of farina.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Pint of boiling water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Cook the mixture in a saucepan for twenty minutes -after it actually boils, or in a double boiler for one -hour. This is a delicious food for children, served -with cream, or milk, and sugar.</p> - -<h4>WHEAT GERM</h4> - -<p>Wheat germ is a delicate and nutritious preparation -of wheat. It is made so that by boiling for a -short time it is ready for the table, and makes a delicious -breakfast dish.</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Cup of germ.<br /> -½ Teaspoonful of salt.<br /> -1½ Cups of boiling water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Boil in a saucepan without a cover for half an hour, -or cook in a double boiler twice as long. The directions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -on the packages give a shorter time, but it is -extremely doubtful whether this grain can be wholesome -with the few minutes' cooking usually advised.</p> - -<h4>IMPERIAL GRANUM</h4> - -<p>Imperial Granum, cooked according to the above -rule, is always a wholesome and safe dish for children; -or it may be made into a very thin gruel, and used as -a drink instead of water.</p> - -<h4>GRANULA</h4> - -<p>Granula is a breakfast grain which has been partially -prepared by dry heat, and is almost cooked -enough to use. It is sometimes recommended that it -be prepared by simply boiling a minute in milk. It -is, however, both softened and improved in flavor by -boiling from ten to fifteen minutes in one and one -half times its bulk of water, with salt in the proportion -of a teaspoon to a cup of grain.</p> - -<h4>CRACKED OR ROLLED WHEAT</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Cup of cracked wheat.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -3 Cups of water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Pick over the wheat, to remove any foreign substance -that may be in it. Put it with the salt and -the water (boiling) into a double boiler, and cook for -two hours. Serve with cream and sugar, either hot -or cold. If it is desirable to have it cold, it may be -molded in cups or small round jelly-molds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> - -<h4>INDIAN-MEAL MUSH</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Cup of corn-meal.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Quart of boiling water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>No. 1. Make the corn-meal and salt into a paste -with a little cold water, then pour in the boiling -water and cook it in a double boiler for five hours.</p> - -<p>No. 2. Put the salt into the water, and when the -water reaches the boiling-point stir in the dry meal -by taking a handful and sprinkling it slowly through -the fingers. Use a wooden spoon for stirring. Boil -an hour and a half. Or, wet the meal in a little cold -water, and pour over it the boiling water. The most -important point is thoroughness in the cooking, which -should be done carefully so that the pudding may not -burn on the bottom of the dish. If the temperature -be regulated so that it just simmers, there will be little -danger of this. Serve with maple syrup, or with -cream.</p> - -<h4>HOMINY MUSH</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Cup of hominy.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -1¼ Quarts of water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put all together in a double boiler, and cook for -three hours. Add more water if the mush seems stiff -and thick; all preparations of corn absorb a great -deal in cooking, and hominy usually needs a little -more than four times its bulk. Hominy is exceedingly -indigestible unless well cooked, but sweet and -nutritious when subjected to a high temperature for -a long time.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">DRINKS</h3> - -<h4>EGG-NOG</h4> - -<p>Break into a bowl one egg, add to it a saltspoon of -salt and two teaspoons of sugar; beat it until it is -light but not foamy; then add one cup of <em>slightly -warm</em> milk—that is, milk from which the chill has been -taken (for it is not well to use that which is ice-cold)—and -one or two tablespoons of French brandy; mix -and strain it into a tall slender glass, and serve at -once. Egg-nog should not be allowed to stand after -it is made, for both the egg and the milk lose some of -their freshness by exposure to the air.</p> - -<h4>MILK-PUNCH</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of brandy.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -A little grated nutmeg.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Sweeten the milk with the sugar, stir into it the -brandy, and mix thoroughly by pouring from one -glass to another. Then grate a bit of nutmeg over -the top.</p> - -<p>Milk-punch is conveniently made with two tin cups; -the mouth of one should be smaller than the mouth -of the other, so that the one will fit into the other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -In these the milk should be shaken back and forth -until a froth is formed. This does not add materially -to the taste, but rather to the appearance, and -thoroughly mixes in the sugar and brandy.</p> - -<h4>WINE WHEY</h4> - -<p>Warm one cup of milk to a little more than blood-heat, -or 100° Fahr., then pour into it one half cup of -sherry wine. The acid and alcohol of the wine will in a -few minutes coagulate the albumen, which may be separated -from the whey by straining. Do not squeeze -the curd through the strainer, but let the liquid drip -until it is all out. If it is necessary to make the whey -quickly, heat the milk to the boiling-point before adding -the wine.</p> - -<h4>WINE WHEY WITH RENNET</h4> - -<p class="pfs80">(SWEET WHEY)</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Pint of milk heated to 100° Fahr.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of prepared rennet.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of wine.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Stir the rennet and wine into the milk quickly, so -that the wine may not curdle the milk in blotches. -Let it stand in a warm place (on the stove-hearth, for -instance) for half an hour, and then separate the curd -from the whey by straining. This whey is excellent -for children with delicate digestion who need a little -stimulant. It is very good also as a drink for invalids -at any time.</p> - -<p>Whey is the water of milk with the sugar and -various salts of the milk in solution in it. The sugar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -furnishes some nutriment, and the salts supply some -of the mineral matter needed in the body.</p> - -<p>Whey may also be made with vinegar or lemon-juice. -These acids will act more quickly when the -milk is warmed before they are added.</p> - -<h4>LEMONADE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Lemon.<br /> -1½ Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Wash and wipe a lemon, cut a very thin slice from -the middle, and squeeze the rest into a bowl; then put -in the sugar, pour on the boiling water, and strain it. -When it has become cold, serve it in a tumbler with -the slice of lemon floating on the top.</p> - -<p>Lemonade has a better flavor when made with -boiling water, though it may be made with cold water. -A few strawberries or raspberries may be put in, instead -of the slice of lemon; or it may be colored pink -with a little grape-jelly or carmine, and served with -a straw.</p> - -<h4>MILK LEMONADE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -¼ Cup of lemon-juice.<br /> -¼ Cup of sherry.<br /> -1¼ Cups of cold milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Pour the boiling water over the sugar, and then put -in the lemon-juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar -dissolves, add the cold milk, and stir again until the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -milk curdles, then strain through a jelly-bag or -napkin.</p> - -<p>This is a cool and refreshing drink, especially for -children.</p> - -<h4>BRANDY-MILK WITH EGG</h4> - -<p>Heat some milk in a granite saucepan for half an -hour to sterilize it, but do not let it boil; then pour -it into a pitcher, and set it aside to cool. When the -milk is cold, beat one egg with one tablespoon of -sugar until the sugar is well mixed; add to it two -tablespoons of brandy and a cup of the cold milk. -Strain it into a tall slender glass, and serve at once.</p> - -<p>Heating the milk renders it perfectly wholesome -and much safer for an invalid than raw milk, and also -improves the flavor of the drink.</p> - -<h4>SHERRY AND EGG</h4> - -<p>Break an egg into a bowl, and put in a teaspoon of -sugar; beat the two together until the sugar is -thoroughly mixed with the egg, but not enough to -make the egg froth; to this add two tablespoons of -sherry wine, and a fourth of a cup of cold water, -mixing them thoroughly. Strain all into a tumbler, -and serve immediately.</p> - -<h4>STERILIZED MILK</h4> - -<p>The change which takes place in milk known as -"souring" is caused by the growth of micro-organisms -in it, which are killed by heat; therefore, to prevent -souring, milk must be subjected to a temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -sufficiently high to insure their destruction. Some -micro-organisms are killed at 136° Fahr., but this -temperature cannot be said to destroy, or to inhibit -the growth of all bacteria commonly found in milk. -We must endeavor then to use such a degree of heat -as shall accomplish this without seriously injuring the -natural properties and flavors of the liquid. Authorities -vary on this point, some putting the temperature -as high as 212° Fahr., and others as low as 167° -Fahr. The author has found, in an experience of -two years in sterilizing milk every day, that 190° -Fahr. is, under ordinary circumstances, a safe and -easily practicable temperature to employ. With this -degree of heat the flavor of the milk is excellent.</p> - -<p>The process is as follows: The milk is put into clean -glass flasks or bottles with small mouths which are -stoppered with plugs of cotton batting, or, as it is -sometimes called, "cotton-wool." These are placed in -a wire basket, and the basket immersed in a kettle of -warm water, the temperature of which is not allowed -to exceed 190° Fahr. As soon as the heat is at or near -that point the time is marked, and the milk is kept -at that temperature for one hour. Then the bottles -are removed, cooled quickly, and placed in the refrigerator. -If it is desirable to keep the milk an indefinite -time, the process should be repeated the second -day, and again the third day, a third sterilization being -necessary to insure success, since <em>spores</em> of organisms -may escape the first and even the second heating.</p> - -<p>For all ordinary household purposes, however, and -as a safe food for the sick, heating once is all that is -necessary. Milk thus treated will keep in the temperature -of an ordinary room, even in warm weather, from -twenty to thirty hours. By using the small-mouthed -flasks very little scum is formed, and thus the valuable -albuminous portion is preserved in the milk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -Also, a small quantity at a time may be used without -disturbing the rest.</p> - -<p><b>To Sterilize for Family Use.</b> Milk may also be preserved -by open sterilization in a saucepan or kettle -by the following simple process: Heat the milk until -a scum forms over it; keep it at, or near, the temperature -it then has for one hour, then pour it into a -thoroughly washed and scalded pitcher, cool it, and -put it into a refrigerator or some cool place. It will -remain sweet for twenty-four hours, and, unless the -weather be very warm, it will be good at the end of -thirty-six hours. Should it sour before the end of -twenty-four hours, it indicates that the temperature -was too low, or the time of exposure to the heat too -short. A chemist's thermometer costs but little, and -will be found very useful for testing milk. It should -be borne in mind, in this connection, that milk is not -rendered <em>absolutely</em> sterile,—that is, free from all possible -organisms and spores which may occur in it,—except -at a temperature of at least 212° Fahr., or even -higher.</p> - -<p>Sterilized milk diluted with water is a nutritious -and wholesome drink for the sick. Of course the -water with which it is diluted should be boiled.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>In hospital practice nurses have told me that patients -suffering from sleeplessness will often fall into -quiet slumber after drinking hot milk, and that not -infrequently the ordered hypodermic of morphine is -not needed when hot milk is used.</p> - -<h4>MILK AND SELTZER</h4> - -<p>Mix equal quantities of sterilized milk and seltzer-water. -Drink immediately.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> - -<h4>MILK AND SODA-WATER</h4> - -<p>Into a glass half full of fresh milk put an equal -quantity of soda-water. Use at once. This is an -agreeable way to take milk, and is a nutritious and -refreshing drink.</p> - -<h4>TOAST-WATER</h4> - -<p>Cut three slices of bread each a third of an inch -thick, and toast them slowly until very brown and -dry throughout; break them into small pieces, put -them into a bowl with a pint of cold water, and set -aside to soak for an hour; at the end of that time -turn it into a strainer or napkin, and squeeze out the -liquid with the back of a spoon. To the water thus -obtained add a little cream and sugar, and serve it cold -in a tumbler. It may also be served without the -cream.</p> - -<h4>BARLEY-WATER</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of barley flour.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice.<br /> -1 Quart of water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Boil the flour, water, and sugar together fifteen -minutes, then add the lemon-juice, and strain.</p> - -<p>Tamarinds may be used instead of lemon-juice for -flavor—two or three boiled with the water. Barley-water -may also be made by boiling two tablespoons -of barley (the grain) in a quart of water for one hour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> - -<h4>RICE-WATER</h4> - -<p>Pick over and wash two tablespoons of rice; put it -into a granite saucepan with a quart of boiling water; -simmer it for two hours, when the rice should be -softened and partially dissolved; then strain the liquid -through a fine wire strainer into a bowl or -pitcher, add to it a saltspoon of salt, and serve it -either warm or cold.</p> - -<p>If a patient may take or needs stimulants, two tablespoons -of sherry or of port wine is an agreeable -addition, especially if the drink be taken cold.</p> - -<h4>FRUIT-SODA. No. 1</h4> - -<p><b>From Strawberries.</b> Remove the stems from one -quart of strawberries, and pick them over carefully. -Wash them under a stream of water in a colander, -gently, so that they may not be crushed; then put -them into a double boiler with half their bulk of sugar, -and heat for an hour or more until the berries are -soft. When this is accomplished, turn them into a -jelly-bag and drain until the juice has completely -oozed out, which will require two or more hours. Do -not squeeze them. Then put the juice into a saucepan -and, returning to the fire, heat it to a temperature -of 200° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature for one -hour. If a thermometer is not at hand, heat the juice -until it steams a little, but do not let it boil, for the -flavor is not nearly so delicate with the high temperature. -Then it may be canned or bottled for future -use. If the bottle be scalded and carefully sealed as -in preserving fruits, the juice will keep indefinitely.</p> - -<p>The length of time that it remains at 200° is important,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -as it is a process of sterilization which takes -place, and the temperature must be maintained for a -given time or the desired result will not be accomplished. -The condition of the bottle also must be -carefully considered, as the thorough cleaning and -scalding is for the purpose of rendering it sterile. -This is most easily and thoroughly done by filling -the bottle with hot water and placing it in a kettle of -boiling water for half an hour.</p> - -<p><b>To Use.</b> Dilute the juice with <em>cool</em> water (not iced -water) or soda-water in the proportion of one half -juice to one half water.</p> - -<p><b>From Oranges.</b> The oranges should be peeled and the -seeds removed, and then treated in the same way as the -strawberries in the preceding rule, except that to every -quart of fruit the juice of two lemons should be added.</p> - -<p><b>From Raspberries.</b> Employ the same method as for -strawberries.</p> - -<p><b>From Currants.</b> The same as for strawberries, except -that three fourths of the bulk of the fruit of -sugar should be used instead of one half.</p> - -<p><b>With Other Fruits.</b> Other fruits, such as apricots, -peaches, cranberries, apples, etc., may be used for -syrups, varying the water and sugar according to the -kind of fruit used. Apples, apricots, and peaches -will require half their bulk of water.</p> - -<h4>FRUIT-SODA. No. 2</h4> - -<p>Sprinkle two cups of sugar over one box of ripe -strawberries, which, of course, have been hulled and -washed, and set them away for three hours, or until -the juice has oozed out of the fruit and made a thick -syrup with the sugar. Strain the juice, bottle it, and -put it in a cool place. It will keep for three days.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>To Use.</b> Pour one third of a cup into a tumbler, -add two tablespoons of cream, and fill the tumbler -with soda-water from a siphon. This makes a delicious -and cooling drink.</p> - -<p>Oranges, raspberries, currants, or any other juicy -fruit may be used for syrup, which is very palatable -when made from fresh uncooked fruits. These syrups -are useful not only for drinks, but for flavoring ice-creams -and pudding sauces.</p> - -<h4>COFFEE SYRUP</h4> - -<p>Make some strong coffee with two tablespoons of -the ground berry (Mocha and Java mixed), a little -white of egg, and one cup of boiling water. Simmer -together one cup of sugar and one third of a cup of -water for five minutes, then add to it one half of a cup -of the coffee. Strain and bottle it for use. This is -delicious with soda-water and cream.</p> - -<h4>VANILLA SYRUP</h4> - -<p>Make a sugar syrup by boiling together one cup of -sugar and one half of a cup of water for five minutes. -Add to it two or three tablespoons of vanilla extract. -It is to be used, like coffee syrup, with soda-water and -sweet cream.</p> - -<h4>OTHER SYRUPS</h4> - -<p>A variety of syrups may be made, besides those mentioned, -by using a sugar syrup like that in the above -recipe, and flavoring it with cinnamon, lemon, almond, -rose-water, chocolate, etc. All of the cooked -syrups will keep indefinitely.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> - -<h4>GRAPE JUICE</h4> - -<p>Grape juice mixed with cold water or with soda-water -makes a pleasant and invigorating drink for a sick person. -The best grapes for the purpose are the blue varieties, -such as Isabellas, Concords, or Black Hamburgs.</p> - -<p><b>To Make a Bottle of Juice.</b> Pick over (and wash if -they need it) one quart of grapes. Remove them from -the stems, and put them into a double boiler with -just enough cold water to cover them. Heat them -slowly until the juice oozes out and the fruit becomes -soft, which will take two or three hours. Then turn -the fruit into a jelly-bag made like a long pointed -pocket, draw the string at the top and hang it to -drain. Do not squeeze or press the bag, and use only -the juice which drips out, which will practically be all -that the grapes contain. To this add one fourth of -the quantity of sugar—that is, if there is a quart of -juice, put in one cup of sugar—and heat it until it is -quite hot, or to a temperature of 200° Fahr., and keep -it at that temperature for one hour, but do not let -it boil. Then pour it into thoroughly cleaned and -scalded hot bottles,—in other words, those which are -sterile. Seal the bottles with wax, and set them away -in a cool place.</p> - -<p><b>To Use.</b> Mix equal quantities of juice and cold -water, and serve at once.</p> - -<h4>FLAXSEED TEA WITH LEMON</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of flaxseed.<br /> -1 Pint of water.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -Juice of one lemon.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> - -<p>Boil the flaxseed one hour in the water; strain it, -and add the lemon-juice and sugar. The flaxseed -should be examined for little black grains which often -occur in it, and which injure the delicate flavor of the -drink. Serve this tea either cold or warm. It is excellent -for croup, or for any irritated condition of the -throat or lungs.</p> - -<h4>APPLE TEA</h4> - -<p>Wash and wipe a good sour apple, cut it into small -pieces, and boil it in a cup of water until it is soft. -Then strain the water into a bowl, add a bit of sugar, -and serve when cold.</p> - -<p>If the apple is of good flavor this is a pleasant drink, -and may be given to fever patients, children with -measles, or whenever there is much thirst.</p> - -<h4>KUMISS</h4> - -<div class="recipe15"> - 1 Quart of perfectly fresh milk.<br /> -⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Dissolve the yeast in a little water and mix it with -the sugar and milk. Put the mixture into strong -bottles,—beer-bottles are good,—cork them with -tightly fitting stoppers, and tie down securely with -stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full minute to -mix thoroughly the ingredients, then place them -on end in a refrigerator, or some equally cool place, -to ferment slowly. At the end of three days lay -the bottles on their sides; turn them occasionally. -Five days will be required to perfect the fermentation, -and then kumiss is at its best. It will keep indefinitely -in a refrigerator.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>To Make Sweet Kumiss.</b> Ferment the kumiss mixture -for twelve hours in a temperature of 70° Fahr.,—that -is, the same degree of heat that is required for -raising bread.</p> - -<p>Do not attempt to open a bottle of kumiss without -a champagne-tap, for the carbonic acid generated in -the fermenting liquid has enormous expansive force, -and will throw the contents all over the room if the -bottle be opened in the ordinary way.</p> - -<p>In an emergency, however, the cork may be punctured -with a stout needle to let the gas escape. The -mouth of the bottle may then be held in a large bowl -or dish and the cords cut, when the kumiss will rush -out, usually, however, without so much force but that -it may nearly all be caught. It should look like thick, -foamy cream.</p> - -<p>Kumiss is highly recommended as an article of sick -diet, being especially valuable for many forms of indigestion -and for nausea. Often it will be retained -in the stomach when almost anything else would be -rejected. It is partially predigested milk, containing -carbonic acid and a little alcohol, both of which have -a tonic effect.</p> - -<p>True kumiss is an Eastern product made from mare's -milk, but in this country cow's milk is always employed. -Sometimes the term <em>kefer</em> is given to it, to -distinguish it from that made from mare's milk. It -may be obtained in nearly all pharmacies, but a better -quality can be made at home at slight expense.</p> - -<p>Sometimes patients will object to taking kumiss, on -account of the odor, which is not pleasant to every one, -but it leaves a peculiarly agreeable after-taste in the -mouth, and one who has once taken a glass of it will -seldom refuse a second offer. The kumiss of commerce -sold under the name of "Cream Koumyss" is -an excellent preparation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> - -<h4>THE COCOA-BEAN</h4> - -<p>The cocoa-bean is a product of the tropics. It is -dried, roasted like coffee, and cracked, or ground into -powder, for use. It is one of our best foods, containing -in good proportions nearly all the elements necessary -to nourish the body.</p> - -<p>There are many preparations of the bean. The -most common, and those usually found in our markets, -are <em>shells</em>, <em>cracked cocoa</em>, <em>chocolate</em>, and <em>various forms -of powder</em>.</p> - -<p><em>Shells</em> are the outer husk or covering of the bean, -and from them a delicate drink may be made with -long, slow boiling.</p> - -<p><em>Cracked cocoa</em>, or <em>cocoa-nibs</em> as it is sometimes called, -is made by breaking the beans into small pieces.</p> - -<p><em>Chocolate</em> is prepared by grinding the cocoa-bean -into powder, mixing it with sugar, and molding it -into blocks. There is some temptation on the part of -manufacturers to substitute foreign fats, corn-starch, -and other cheap materials for the natural ingredients -of the bean in the making of chocolate.</p> - -<p>The powdered forms of cocoa generally contain a -good percentage of the bean except the fat, which is -always extracted. All Dutch brands are excellent. -Weight for weight, they cost more than some other -kinds, but so much less is needed to make a cup of -drink that they are really the least expensive.</p> - -<h4>COCOA</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Teaspoon of any Dutch cocoa.<br /> - 1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Cup of boiling milk.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>Put the cocoa and sugar into a saucepan, and pour -in the boiling water; cook for two minutes, then add -the milk, and let it heat just to the boiling-point. -When most other brands are used, as a general thing -a larger proportion of powder will be necessary. It -is therefore important to experiment with each until -it is found what amount will make a drink equal in -strength to the above. This valuable food is often -made so strong that ill persons cannot digest it.</p> - -<h4>COCOA-SHELLS</h4> - -<p>Put a tablespoon of shells into a pint of water, and -simmer for two hours; add one tablespoon of sugar -and a cup of milk, then strain out the shells, and it is -ready to serve. This is a mild and delicately flavored -drink, and may be used freely in cases of great thirst.</p> - -<h4>COCOA-NIBS</h4> - -<p>Boil one teaspoon of cracked cocoa in a pint of -water one hour; then add a cup of milk and a tablespoon -of sugar, let it heat to the boiling-point again, -strain out the nibs, and it is ready to serve.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to <em>boil</em> cracked cocoa, otherwise you -will have a bitter infusion, lacking the good flavor -which is extracted by the higher degree of heat. This -is an instance in which a few degrees more or less -of heat make a great difference in the result.</p> - -<h4>CHOCOLATE</h4> - -<p>Put <em>one third</em> of a square (one ounce) of Baker's -chocolate, with one cup of boiling water and a tablespoon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -of sugar, into a saucepan. Set the saucepan -on the fire, and stir for a while, moving the piece of -chocolate through the water occasionally until it is -melted. <em>As soon as it boils</em> add a cup of milk, and -when it again reaches the boiling-point it will be -ready to serve. If chocolate is allowed to boil for a -length of time, separation of the fat from the other -ingredients takes place, rendering it indigestible. -Chocolate, if delicately and carefully made, is as nice -as cocoa, much more nutritious, on account of the fat -which it contains, and less expensive.</p> - -<h4>TEA</h4> - -<p>Tea has refreshing and invigorating properties very -comforting to one spent with toil. Its active principle -is theine, a crystalline alkaloid found in both -tea and coffee. Theine and caffeine were once supposed -to be different substances, but have recently -been found to be identical.</p> - -<p>Tea is a valuable article of diet, though not a -direct nutrient. It is classed with the so-called "accessory" -foods, and, although not itself nutritious, -aids, by its good flavor and stimulating properties, -the digestion of other things. It is a nerve tonic, and -is quite valuable as a curative agent for headache and -some forms of indigestion. The slight stimulation -resulting from its use is unattended by any after ill -effects.</p> - -<p>It is good for soldiers, hard-working people, travelers, -and others who are much exposed to the rigors -of climate.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> - -<h4>COMPOSITION OF TEA</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"><em>Black.</em></td><td class="tdr"><em>Green.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Essential oil</td><td class="tdr">.60</td><td class="tdr">.79</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Chlorophyl</td><td class="tdr">1.84</td><td class="tdr">2.22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Wax</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">.28</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Resin</td><td class="tdr">3.64</td><td class="tdr">2.22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Gum</td><td class="tdr">7.28</td><td class="tdr">8.56</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Tannin</td><td class="tdr">12.88</td><td class="tdr">17.80</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Theine</td><td class="tdr">.46</td><td class="tdr">.43</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Extractive matter</td><td class="tdr">21.36</td><td class="tdr">22.80</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Coloring substances</td><td class="tdr">19.19</td><td class="tdr">23.60</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Albumen</td><td class="tdr">2.80</td><td class="tdr">3.00</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fiber</td><td class="tdr">28.33</td><td class="tdr">17.80</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Ash<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></td><td class="tdr">5.24</td><td class="tdr">5.56</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr smcap padr2" colspan="2">Mulden.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="fs80">From Prof. Mott's Chart on the Composition, Digestibility, -and Nutritive Value of Food.</p> - -<p>Two of the most important points suggested by a -study of tea are the few adulterations and the great difference -between different varieties, comparing weight -and bulk. Some kinds of very cheap tea are adulterated -with sage and raspberry leaves, and leaves of -other plants dried to simulate tea, and often flavored -with essences to give an agreeable taste, but a vast -amount of the tea which is sold is pure. Adulterations -with chemicals are now rare, on account of the extensive -cultivation of tea and the large quantities sold.</p> - -<p>Teas vary greatly in weight,—that is, a given bulk -of one tea weighs very differently from the same bulk -of another. This is especially marked in the comparison -of Oolong and Gunpowder.</p> - -<p>Below are given the weights of a moderate-sized -caddy-spoon of each of these teas.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl fs80">KINDS OF TEA.</td><td class="tdc"><em>Grains</em>.</td><td class="tdc"><em>No. of spoons<br />to the pound.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Oolong</td><td class="tdc"> 39</td><td class="tdc">179</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Hyson</td><td class="tdc"> 66</td><td class="tdc">106</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Gunpowder</td><td class="tdc">123</td><td class="tdc"> 57</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> - -<p>From this it appears that Gunpowder tea, bulk for -bulk, is more than three times as heavy as Oolong; -consequently in using it only about one third as much -should be taken for a given amount of water. In making -the infusion teas should be weighed, not measured, -but it is not easily practicable in all households to do -so; however, it can always be borne in mind that the -closely rolled teas, such as Gunpowder, Young Hyson, -and Japan, should be used in smaller proportion than -those which are loosely rolled, like Oolong, English -Breakfast, and other black teas.</p> - -<p>There is a popular notion that green teas are dried -on copper, but according to unquestionable authorities -it is an erroneous one. Green teas are dried quickly -so that the natural color of the leaves is preserved. -Black teas are dried slowly for many hours until a -sort of fermentation sets in, which causes the difference -in color, as pickings from the same plant may, -in the process of curing, become either green or black -tea, according to the method employed. Also, different -varieties of tea may be made from the same -branch by difference of treatment in curing, the aromatic -flavors, which did not exist in the leaves before, -being produced by the drying. Different varieties or -kinds of tea are also made from the same plant by -gathering the leaves at different ages.</p> - -<p>Black tea should be black, but not dead black,—rather -of a grayish hue. No red leaves should be mixed -with it. It should be regular in appearance, each leaf -with a uniform twist, that is, in all except the "broken" -teas. The leaves of tea are gathered four times a year -by hand, and the finest kind is made from the tender -young buds. Young Hyson is made from the early -buds of April, and is noted for its mild, delicate flavor.</p> - -<p>The principle most to be avoided in tea is the tannin, -which in any considerable quantity is injurious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -to health. It dissolves easily when tea is either -<em>steeped for a length of time</em>, or <em>boiled</em>. The important -point, therefore, is not to make tea more than a few -minutes before it is to be drunk, and not to boil it.</p> - -<p>The principal kinds of tea in common use are -Oolong, Japan, English Breakfast, Imperial, Gunpowder, -and Young Hyson. Gunpowder, Japan, -Young Hyson, and Imperial are green teas; the others -are black.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare Tea.</b></p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Teaspoon of tea.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Fill a cup with boiling water, and let it stand a -minute, or until the cup is heated through. Then -empty it, put the teaspoon of tea into a tea-ball, -place it in the hot cup, and pour on the boiling water -slowly until it is full, leaving the tea-ball in for three -minutes. This will give you a delicious and fragrant -drink. If there is not a tea-ball at hand, use a small -strainer, holding it so that the tea is under water for -the required time.</p> - -<p>The same principle is to be followed in making a -pot of tea, except that the time of steeping should be -somewhat longer. Scald the pot, which should be -either of silver, granite-ware, or earthenware, not tin. -Put into it the tea, in the proportion of one teaspoon -to a cup of water (one half pint), and let it infuse for -five minutes, but by no means allow it to boil, for boiling -dissipates the aroma, and extracts the tannin, -which is the injurious principle. Serve it in hot teacups -with loaf-sugar and cold cream or milk. I think -it is Miss Lincoln who says: "Never disgrace yourself -by serving that abomination, boiled lukewarm tea -in a cold cup."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> - -<p>Water for tea should be fresh, and soft water—that -is, water which is free from lime—is to be preferred; -by taking <em>one teaspoon of tea</em> and <em>a cup of water</em> as the -unit, any amount may be made; for instance, for a pot -of tea for five or six persons, six teaspoons of tea and -a quart and a half (6 cups) of water will be required. -The time of exposure to the heat is, of course, not -multiplied, the same number of minutes being enough -for a greater or a lesser amount.</p> - -<p>In connection with the study of tea, it is a very -interesting fact that most authorities agree as to the -time of steeping. There seems to be the unanimous -opinion that <em>it should not exceed fifteen</em> minutes. Five -minutes is the usual time given for the average kinds -of tea, but for the fine, pure teas from eight to ten is -a wise rule to follow.</p> - -<h4>COFFEE</h4> - -<p>Coffee is a product of the East, where it has been -used since very ancient times. It grows on trees, the -fruit in clusters which singly look somewhat like -cherries, each containing two beans. Unroasted coffee-beans -are tough, and a drink made from them is bitter, -acrid, and very unpleasant. Coffee was brought -to western Europe in the seventeenth century, where it -seems to have immediately become a popular drink. -When coffee-houses were first opened in England, -they were opposed by the liquor-dealers, who claimed -that their trade would be spoiled. Its introduction was -also bitterly opposed by others, and even denounced -from the pulpit. It was regarded somewhat in the -light of a dangerous Eastern drug. From western -Europe it was brought to America, and at the present -time is the most extensively used food beverage in -the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> - -<p>The kinds in common use in this country are Java -and Mocha from the East, and the South American -coffees Rio, Santos, and Maracaibo. The soil and -method of cultivation influence the quality of coffee, -as does also the age of the beans. The longer the -beans are kept (unbrowned) the finer the flavor.</p> - -<p>Coffee is adulterated with grains of different kinds, -chicory, caramel, carrots and some other roots, and -with pastes made to resemble the coffee-bean. The -use of chicory is prohibited by law, unless the mixture -be labeled "Mixture of coffee and chicory." Nevertheless, -its use is common, and in nearly all hotels -and restaurants coffee is flavored with it.</p> - -<p>"The detection of the presence of chicory, caramel, -and some sweet roots, as turnips, carrots, and parsnips, -is quite easy. If a few grains of the suspected sample -are placed on the surface of water in a glass vessel, -beaker, or tumbler, each particle of chicory, etc., -will become surrounded by a yellow-brown cloud -which rapidly diffuses through the water until the -whole becomes colored. Pure coffee under the same -conditions gives no sensible color until after the -lapse of about fifteen minutes. Caramel (burnt sugar) -of course colors the water very deeply. Dandelion -root gives a deeper color than coffee, but not as deep -as chicory. The same is true of bread raspings. -Beans and pease give much less color to the water -than pure coffee. They can be readily detected by -the microscope, as can roasted figs and dates or date-stones." -(Mrs. Richards, in "Food Materials and -Their Adulterations.")</p> - -<p>Coffee is said to owe its refreshing properties to (<em>a</em>) -caffeine, (<em>b</em>) a volatile oil developed by heat, not contained -in the unroasted bean, and to (<em>c</em>) astringent -acids.</p> - -<p>Coffee diminishes the sensation of hunger, exhilarates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -and refreshes, and decreases the amount of wear -and tear of the system.</p> - -<p>Its composition, according to Payen, is as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cellulose</td><td class="tdr">34.000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">12.000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fatty matter</td><td class="tdr">13.000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Glucose, dextrine, and undetermined vegetable acids</td><td class="tdr">15.500</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Legumin, casein, etc.</td><td class="tdr">10.000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Chlorogenate of potash and caffeine</td><td class="tdr">3 to 5.000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenized structure</td><td class="tdr">3.000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Caffeine</td><td class="tdr">.800</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Essential oil</td><td class="tdr">.001</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Aromatic essence</td><td class="tdr">.002</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mineral substances</td><td class="tdr">6.970</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>It is difficult to determine whether coffee may be -classed as a food, but that it has value as an adjunct -to true nutrients there can be no doubt. There is -a general agreement among physiologists that coffee -is invigorating, that it aids digestion both in the -sick and the well, that it is capable of allaying or -retarding waste and thereby acting indirectly as a -food. But the mistake should not be made that coffee -will <em>replace</em> food. Coffee may be compared in its -effects on the system to beef-tea—it is valuable for its -flavors rather than for actual nutritious principles.</p> - -<p>It is a curious fact that coffee is most frequently -made in such a way that its valuable flavors are undeveloped -or destroyed. Care must be taken that -the roasting be not carried so far as to char the coffee-beans, -yet far enough to convert the sugar into -caramel, and to change the nature of the volatile oil, -so that the highest point of flavor will be reached. -This can be best accomplished in regular roasting-houses, -where the temperature and time may be -accurately measured.</p> - -<p>It is best to get a supply of fresh roasted coffee -every day, but when this is not practicable, once in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -three days, or once a week, will do. Although theoretically -the roasting of coffee should be a part of its -preparation—that is, it should be roasted, immediately -ground, and made into drink—practically it is -very seldom done.</p> - -<h4>COFFEE. No. 1</h4> - -<p>A favorite mixed coffee is made with two thirds -Java and one third Mocha. It should be ground just -before it is needed. For a pot of coffee use the proportions -of one heaped tablespoon to a cup of water. -It is well to calculate the number of persons there are -to be served, and allow one cup (one half pint) for each; -this amount, with the milk or cream used, will make -two ordinary china cups of coffee. To the ground -coffee add a little yolk or white of egg, with a spoonful -of water to dilute it; mix thoroughly until all the -grains are coated over with albumen, then pour on the -boiling water, simmer for five minutes, and steep at -a temperature just short of simmering for ten minutes -more. The coffee is then done. It should be -served at once with <em>loaf-sugar</em>, and either hot or cold -cream, or hot milk. The coffee should be perfectly -clear and of fine color and flavor.</p> - -<p>There are many methods of making coffee, but the -above, everything considered, seems the most desirable -for family use. One egg is enough to clear three quarts -of coffee, and both yolk and white are of equal value -for the purpose.</p> - -<h4>COFFEE. No. 2</h4> - -<p>For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoon of -coffee; soak the coffee overnight or for several hours -in cold water, then bring it to the boiling-point, and -let it simmer for a few minutes just before using.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -This is said to be the most economical method of making, -as more is obtained from the coffee by this treatment. -The flavor is certainly fine.</p> - -<p>Long boiling dissipates the delicious aromatic oils, -and as probably these are the most valuable properties -of the coffee, the necessity of preserving them is easily -seen. Care should be taken not to boil coffee for more -than from three to five minutes, and simmer rather -than boil, so as to preserve as much as possible the fine -flavors which are so quickly dissipated by boiling; yet -the high temperature seems to be necessary to extract -the desirable properties of the bean. One must therefore -ever bear in mind the seeming paradox that coffee -should reach the boiling-point, and yet not boil.</p> - -<p>We do not estimate highly enough the value of -flavors. It is a well-demonstrated fact among a few -persons that many dishes containing actual nutritious -principles are but partially or imperfectly digested, -because of their lack of good flavor, either -from want of proper preparation, lack of seasoning, -or poor cooking. There is no doubt that many people -suffer from indigestion after eating such food.</p> - -<p>Use in coffee-making either silver, granite-ware, or -earthenware urns or pots, never tin. They should -be made <em>perfectly clean</em> before using, especial attention -being necessary for the spout.</p> - -<h4>MULLED WINE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Egg.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> - 1 Clove.<br /> -¼ Square inch of cinnamon.<br /> -½ Cup of wine.<br /> -½ Cup of water.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p> - -<p>Put the water and spice together in a saucepan, and -boil for ten minutes; then add the wine, and let the -liquid just reach the boiling-point; meanwhile beat -the egg and sugar in a bowl, and just at the moment -when the wine begins to boil, pour it slowly into the -egg, stirring constantly to distribute the heat throughout -the whole. Unless the weather is very cold, there -is usually enough heat in the boiling liquid to coagulate -the albumen of the egg slightly, but should this -not be accomplished, set it on the fire for a minute to -finish. When done it should be of the consistency of -cream. Do not let the wine and water boil for any -appreciable time, for boiling dissipates some of the -pleasant flavor of the wine.</p> - -<p>Beer, ale, and porter are excellent, mulled in the -same way.</p> - -<h4>COCOA CORDIAL</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Teaspoon of Dutch cocoa.<br /> -Some boiling water.<br /> - 2 Blocks of loaf-sugar.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of port wine.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the cocoa and sugar into a china cup, and pour -directly upon them some boiling water, then add the -wine, making in all the usual amount called a cupful. -Serve at once. This is an excellent drink for those -who are chilled or exhausted, or to take after a bath.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">JELLIES</h3> - -<p class="p1 pfs80">(FROM GELATINE)</p> - -<p>Gelatin is always of animal origin. The gelatinous -substance obtained from apples, grapes, cranberries, -and other fruits is not gelatin; it is a different material, -derived by the action of heat from pectose, a -substance which occurs in plants and is closely associated -with cellulose. Unprepared <em>gelatin</em> is sometimes -distinguished in writing from the <em>gelatine</em> of -commerce by the difference of an <em>e</em> in spelling.</p> - -<p>Gelatin enters into the composition of all, or nearly -all, the tissues of the body. The walls of the microscopic -cells of flesh are composed of it. It is found -also in cartilage, tendons, connective tissue, bone, and -in the larynx and joints. Spiders' webs and the thread -of silkworms are gelatin in a liquid state, which solidifies -upon exposure to the air. Another kind of -gelatin forms the framework of insects, such as the -locusts on which John the Baptist fed. It also forms -the true skeleton of lobsters, crabs, and shrimps. -The edible birds' nests of the Chinese are a delicate -kind of gelatin more digestible than some other kinds, -for it is made from the saliva of a swallow, and probably -contains pepsin. (M. Williams.)</p> - -<p>The part which gelatin plays as a food is not well -understood. Many experiments have recently been -made by scientists on dogs and other animals, to test -the value of gelatin in this respect. From these experiments -the following conclusions have been drawn:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -1. That gelatin alone is not sufficient as a food. 2. -That although insufficient it is not worthless. 3. That -gelatin is sufficient to sustain life when combined -with other substances which would themselves be -wholly insufficient if given alone. 4. That gelatin -must always be flavored to render it digestible and -nutritious.</p> - -<p>Mattieu Williams says: "It would seem that gelatin -alone, although containing the elements required -for nutrition, needs something more to render it digestible. -We shall probably not be far from the truth -if we picture it to the mind as something too smooth, -too neutral, too inert, to set the digestive organs at -work, and that therefore it requires the addition of a -decidedly sapid something that shall make these organs -act."</p> - -<p>Gelatin dissolves easily in warm liquid. Albumen -coagulates under similar circumstances.</p> - -<p>The gelatine of commerce is made from the tissues -of animals, particularly from the thick skin of certain -portions of the body and from the head and feet. -When well flavored and in a liquid state as in broths, -or of a tender consistency as in well-made jelly, it is -a most desirable food for the sick. Lemon and orange -juice, strawberry, raspberry, grape, and indeed any -fruit syrup, coffee, cocoa, vanilla, wine, brandy, and -Jamaica rum, and strong meat broths which have -been cleared, may be used for flavoring. The jelly -should not be made hard and tenacious, but tender -and jelly-like, though firm.</p> - -<p>The phosphated gelatine which may be bought of -any grocer is delicious for wine jelly made according -to the usual rule for jelly, with the exception of -omitting the lemon. Chalmer's and Nelson's are other -well-known brands. All jellies made with gelatine -are excellent for invalids. They are especially valuable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -in cases of disease of the intestines, such as -typhoid fever and inflammation of the bowels, because, -being digested and absorbed, for the most -part or entirely, in the stomach, those organs are relieved -of effort, at the same time that the system is -supplied with a nutritious form of solid food.</p> - -<h4>WINE JELLY. No. 1</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - ¼ Box of Nelson's gelatine.<br /> - ¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> -1¼ Cups of boiling water.<br /> - ½ Cup of sugar.<br /> - ½ Square inch of cinnamon.<br /> - 1 Clove.<br /> - ½ Cup of sherry wine.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the gelatine and cold water together in a dish -large enough to hold the whole mixture; let it -soak for half an hour; then pour the boiling water, -in which the clove and cinnamon have been simmering, -over the softened gelatine, add the sugar -and wine, and stir until the sugar and gelatine are -perfectly dissolved; then strain through a fine napkin -into a granite-ware or earthenware pan or mold, -and cool it in a refrigerator or in a pan of iced -water. Wine jelly made from phosphated gelatine, -omitting the spice, is delicious.</p> - -<h4>WINE JELLY (No. 2) WITH LEMON</h4> - -<p>The same proportions and ingredients are to be -used as in the above recipe, except that the juice of -half a lemon should be substituted for the spice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - -<h4>LEMON JELLY</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - ¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> - ¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> -1¼ Cups of boiling water.<br /> - ½ Cup of sugar.<br /> - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of brandy.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the gelatine and water together in a dish, and -let them soak half an hour; then pour on the boiling -water, and stir until the gelatine is dissolved. Do -not put in the sugar and then pour on the boiling -water, as there may not be heat enough in making a -small quantity of jelly to dissolve both, but add the -sugar after the water, then the lemon-juice and -brandy. Strain it through a napkin and cool it in a -refrigerator or in a pan of iced water. Use china or -granite-ware molds, never tin, for the acid of lemon -acts chemically upon it, forming compounds that are -injurious to health.</p> - -<h4>ORANGE JELLY</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> -½ Cup of boiling water.<br /> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> - 1 Cup of orange-juice.<br /> - Juice of half a lemon.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soften the gelatine in the cold water by soaking it -for half an hour; then pour in the boiling water, stirring -as previously directed until the gelatine is dissolved; -add the sugar, orange-juice, and lemon-juice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -in the order in which they are given, stir for a moment, -and then strain the liquid through a napkin into -molds, and set it to cool. Use earthenware or granite-ware -molds, not tin. The point most to be observed -in making this jelly is getting the juice from the -oranges. The most natural way for one to do would -be to cut the oranges in halves, and squeeze them in -a lemon-squeezer, but that will not do, for the orange-oil -of the rind is extracted in such large quantities -as to destroy the delicate flavor of the jelly. The -proper way to do is to peel the fruit, cut it in pieces, -put them in a jelly-bag, and squeeze out the juice -with the hand.</p> - -<h4>COFFEE JELLY</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> - 1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -½ Cup of strong coffee.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of vanilla.<br /> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour; -then pour on the boiling water, and put in the sugar, -coffee, and vanilla. Strain it through a napkin into a -glass dish in which it may be served, and cool it as jellies -are usually cooled, either in a refrigerator or in cold -water, unless of course it is winter, when the jelly quickly -becomes firm in any cool place, or it may be molded. -Serve it with sweet cream and sugar, or, if it be -molded, with whipped cream arranged around the form. -The coffee should be strong, made with the proportion -of two tablespoons of coffee to a cup of water.</p> - -<p>This delicious jelly is acceptable to most invalids.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> - -<h4>FRENCH JELLY WITH FRESH FRUITS</h4> - -<p>Make a wine jelly according to the recipe on page -122. When it has lost some of its heat, but before it -begins to thicken, pour into it a pint of carefully -picked and cleaned raspberries, distributing them -evenly through the liquid; then set it away in a cool -place, or in a refrigerator, to harden. This makes a -nice dessert when served with sugar and cream. Other -fruits and other jellies may be combined at the discretion -of the maker. Orange jelly with oranges and -bananas is very good.</p> - -<h4>RESTORATIVE JELLY</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Box of gelatine.<br /> - 1 Cup of port wine.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of powdered gum arabic.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice.<br /> - 3 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> - 2 Cloves.<br /> -½ Square inch of cinnamon.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the gelatine, wine, and spice into a double -boiler, or if one is not at hand, improvise one by -placing a bowl in a pan of water. Set the boiler on -the fire, and when the gelatine is dissolved, put in -the gum arabic, lemon, and sugar. Stir thoroughly; -strain it quickly through a fine napkin, and cool it in -a shallow dish, so that the layer of jelly shall be an -inch thick. It is to be cut into cubes, which may be -served two or three at a time, to be held in the mouth -until melted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> - -<h4>CHICKEN JELLY</h4> - -<p>Clean a small chicken, disjoint it, and cut the -meat into small pieces; remove the fat, break or -pound the bones, and put all into cold water, using -the following proportion: <em>A pint for every pound of -chicken</em>. Heat the water very slowly at first, and -then simmer it until the meat is tender; it will require -three or four hours. Boil down to one half the -quantity. Strain it and remove the fat; then clear -it with an egg, and season it with salt, pepper, and -lemon. Strain it through a fine napkin, pour into -small cups, and cool. Parsley, celery, and bay-leaves -give a good flavor. A suspicion of red pepper is also -an addition.</p> - -<h4>PUNCHEON JELLY</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of phosphated gelatine.<br /> - 1 Cup of cold water.<br /> -½ Cup of hot tea.<br /> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> -¼ Cup of Jamaica rum.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of brandy.<br /> - 5 Drops of almond extract.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the gelatine to soak in the cold water, and at -the end of thirty minutes pour on the hot tea; then -add the sugar, rum, brandy, and almond; strain it -through a fine napkin, and set it in a cool place to -become firm.</p> - -<p>Phosphated gelatine is a delicate acidulated preparation, -very nice for wine, lemon, or puncheon jelly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -but it cannot be used for creams on account of the -acid, which curdles them. Some of the directions indicate -that it may be neutralized with soda; that, -however, should not be done, since there is no accurate -means of ascertaining how much acid there is in -a given amount, or how strong it is; consequently -there is no guide to the amount of soda required.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">TOAST</h3> - -<p>The principal constituent of ordinary wheaten -bread is starch.</p> - -<p>When starch is subjected to a high temperature, it is -changed into the easily digested substance dextrine. -In the ordinary cooking of a loaf of bread, the starch -in the outer layers is changed into dextrine, which -helps to give the crust of bread that peculiar, agreeable -flavor which we call "sweet." Slices of bread -undergo a similar change when toast is made.</p> - -<p>To make toast successfully, one should endeavor to -convert as much as possible of the starch into dextrine. -To do this, cut the bread one third of an inch -thick, place the slices in a toaster, or wire broiler, and -dry them slowly, either in a moderate oven, or by -holding the broiler some distance from the fire. The -object is to give the heat time to penetrate to the center -of the slice before the outside has begun to change -color. If a sheath be formed over the outside at once, -the moisture will be shut in, and the middle of the -slice will be prevented from becoming sufficiently -heated to change its starch, for the temperature will -not rise much above 212° Fahr. until the water is -dried out. (Starch is changed into dextrine at 401° -Fahr.)</p> - -<p>Toast that is clammy in the middle and blackened -on the outside is less wholesome than untoasted -bread. Great care should therefore be taken with -the drying. When this has been accomplished, lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -the broiler a little nearer the coals, when the toast -will quickly turn a golden brown. An ideal piece -of toast is crisp and golden throughout. But many -will say that they prefer toast that is soft inside, -and that they cannot eat hard, dry toast. The ideal -piece of toast is not really so hard as it seems. -It breaks and crumbles very easily, and is quickly -moistened by the saliva. If one would persevere with -a slice, he would soon learn to prefer it to any other -kind; at all events, that which is soft inside should -not be given to the sick. It is better to make the toast -dry, and then moisten it, if need be, by dipping the -slices into hot water for an instant, but <em>do not soak -them</em>.</p> - -<p>Dry toast should be served directly from the fire, if -possible. When this is not practicable, pile it on a -platter, cover it with a napkin, and put it on the hearth -or in the oven.</p> - -<p>Toast is given in all slight cases of illness, because -it is so easily digested. The more thorough the conversion -of the starch, the more easily and perfectly -the system will manage it, for the change of starch -into dextrine, by the action of heat, is simply doing -outside of the body that which takes place in it in the -ordinary course of digestion, by the action of the digestive -fluids. Therefore, when this is accomplished -by artificial means, nature is spared so much energy.</p> - -<h4>BUTTERED WATER TOAST</h4> - -<p>Toast four thin slices of bread. Put into a shallow -pan a pint of water with half a teaspoon of salt. Dip -each slice quickly into the water, place it in a covered -dish, and spread it with butter, piling one slice above -another.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> - -<p>Do not let the bread <em>soak</em> in the water. Endeavor -to keep a suggestion of crispness in it, for sloppy, -sodden toast is not nice. Serve it <em>very</em> hot, with apple -sauce, sweet baked apples, or tart jelly. Water toast -is really delicious if care is taken to have it hot. It -will be eaten with relish much longer than that made -with milk.</p> - -<h4>MILK TOAST</h4> - -<p>Put a cup of rich milk into a saucepan, and place it -on the stove. While it is heating, toast three slices of -bread a delicate brown. Put them one at a time into -a covered dish, and when the milk is boiling hot season -it with a saltspoon of salt and pour it over the bread. -A little butter may be spread upon each slice before -the milk is poured over, but it is a more delicate dish -without it.</p> - -<h4>CREAM TOAST</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Pint of milk.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of flour.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of butter.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -4 Large or 6 small slices of bread.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Make a white sauce with the milk, flour, and butter -according to the following directions. Pour the milk -into a saucepan, and set it on the fire to heat. Put -the butter and flour together in another saucepan, -place it on the fire, and stir gently until the butter -melts; let them bubble together two or three minutes. -The high temperature which the butter quickly -attains will thoroughly cook the flour in a short time. -Then pour in a little of the milk, and stir until the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -two are mixed; add a little more milk, and stir again -until it bubbles; if at this point the mixture does not -seem smooth, lift it from the fire, and beat it until it is -waxy and perfectly free from lumps. Then add more -milk, stir again, and so continue until all the milk is -in. Let it simmer slowly until the toast is ready, -which should be made according to the rule for dry -toast. Then soak the slices in boiling salted milk -(four if from a large, and six if from a small loaf of -bread), arrange them in a covered dish, and pour the -cream, salted, between and over them. Irregular -pieces and odds and ends of bread may be used instead -of whole slices, and are very nice toasted in a tin -pan in the oven.</p> - -<p>One precaution is necessary in making this dish; -that is, to soak the bread <em>thoroughly</em> in the boiling -milk, for the sauce or cream is too thick to soften it. -On account of the high temperature to which the -butter rises, the starch is more perfectly cooked in it -than if the flour were mixed with cold water and -poured into the boiling milk, as is sometimes done.</p> - -<h4>FRENCH OR EGG TOAST</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Egg.<br /> -1 Cup of milk or cream.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -3 Slices of bread.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Break the egg on a plate, and beat it with a fork for -a minute, or until the viscousness is destroyed. Then -mix in the milk and salt. In this mixture soak the -slices of bread until they are soft, lay them in a buttered -omelet-pan, and fry them slowly until a golden -brown. Then place a bit of butter on the upper side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -of each slice, turn and brown that side. Spread a -little butter, powdered cinnamon, and sugar on each -slice and arrange them one above another in a covered -dish. Serve very hot.</p> - -<h4>CROUTONS</h4> - -<p><em>Crouton</em> is a French word which in English means -<em>crust</em>. The term was first applied to the paste of sawdust, -flour, and water in which the peasants of southern -France used long ago to inclose their pieces of -meat before roasting. After the meat was done the -crust was broken open and thrown away. The word -with us is applied to little cubes of buttered bread -which have been browned in the oven. They are used -in soups and stews, sprinkled in just before serving.</p> - -<p><b>To Make Croutons.</b> Butter a slice of evenly cut -bread. Divide it into cubes that will be one third of -an inch on a side. This will necessitate cutting the -slice of bread exactly a third of an inch thick. Place -these little cubes on a tin plate, or shallow dish, and -put the dish on the grate in a moderate oven for -fifteen minutes. When done they should be light -golden brown throughout, crisp and brittle. Sometimes -cubes of bread are fried in fat to resemble -croutons, but unless done by a skilful hand they are -usually soaked with fat. Even at the best they lack -the delicate flavor of those which are buttered, and -browned in an oven.</p> - -<h4>SIPPETS</h4> - -<p>Sippets are evenly cut oblongs of bread delicately -toasted. They may be served as dry toast, or with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -broiled birds or broiled oysters. They are also nice -for a lunch with a cup of tea or cocoa.</p> - -<p><b>To Make Sippets.</b> Cut thin slices of bread, and from -them make oblongs one inch wide by four inches -long. Toast carefully so that they will not break, -and pile on a small bread-plate if they are to be -served dry.</p> - -<h4>VERMICELLI TOAST</h4> - -<p>Prepare a cream toast according to the rule on page -130, except arrange the slices on a platter and pour the -sauce evenly over them. Press through a coarse wire -strainer enough hard-boiled yolk of egg to lightly -cover it. It will fall in irregular, broken, crinkled -threads, somewhat resembling vermicelli, hence the -name.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">SOUPS</h3> - -<h4>OYSTER SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of fresh oysters.<br /> - 1 Cup of milk.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of rolled cracker-crumbs.<br /> -A sprinkle of pepper.<br /> -¼ Teaspoon of butter.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the milk with the cracker-crumbs into a saucepan -on the stove; while it is heating pick over the -oysters on a plate, and remove any bits of shell that -may be among them. Have a hot omelet-pan ready -to receive them, and when the milk reaches the boiling-point, -put the oysters into the omelet-pan. Stir -and turn them until they become plump, or while -about sixty can be <em>slowly counted</em>; then drop the -oysters into the boiling milk, take it immediately -from the fire, add the salt, pepper, and butter, and -serve at once. The point which requires the most attention -is the cooking of the oysters in the omelet-pan. -Do not let them cook <em>quite enough</em>, as the milk -has sufficient heat to finish them. If too long exposed -to the heat, the albuminous juice becomes over-cooked, -and the oysters consequently tough and -leathery. For thickening oyster soup, two tablespoons -of white sauce may be substituted for the cracker-crumbs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> - -<h4>CHICKEN SOUP</h4> - -<p>Thoroughly clean a good fowl. Separate it at the -joints and cut it into small pieces. Put the meat into -a saucepan with three pints of water, and stew it for -two and one half or three hours, or until it becomes -very tender. Then take out the meat, let the liquor -continue to boil, and to it add one tablespoon of rice, -one tablespoon of finely cut onion which has been -fried with a bit of butter until soft, but not brown, -and three peppercorns. Cut the nicer portions of the -meat into small pieces, after removing all the skin, -gristle, and bone. Put these pieces, with one teaspoon -of salt, into the soup, and let all simmer until -the rice is very soft. Then take out the peppercorns. -A very little white pepper and a little celery-salt or -curry-powder may be added. Serve hot with croutons. -If the water boils away during the cooking, -which it will do unless the simmering is very gentle, -restore the quantity.</p> - -<h4>MOCK-BISQUE SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of tomatoes, measured after they<br /> -<span class="pad2">have been stewed and strained.</span><br /> - 1 Pint of white sauce.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -¼ Saltspoon of pepper.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of soda.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Although mock-bisque soup is better made with -fresh tomatoes, the canned fruit may be used, with -the precaution that it be allowed to stew only just -long enough to soften it through, for long boiling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -develops in it a very strong acid. When the tomatoes -are soft, strain them through a soup-strainer, or -other coarse wire strainer, until there is nothing left -but the seeds. Measure a pint of the liquid, add the -soda, salt, and pepper, and set it on the stove to heat -slowly. Meanwhile make a white sauce with one tablespoon -of butter, one of flour, and a pint of milk, -according to the rule on <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>. Add this sauce to -the tomato, strain all into a double boiler, return to -the fire, and serve as soon as it becomes steaming hot.</p> - -<p>If fresh tomatoes can be obtained, wash and wipe -them, cut out the green part near the stem, divide -them into small pieces without taking off the skins, -and stew without water until the fruit is just soft -enough to mash. If the tomatoes are fully ripe and -carefully cooked, they will not require the soda, but -when soda is necessary, fresh tomatoes need only half -the amount used for canned fruit.</p> - -<p>This is an appetizing and delicate soup, and may -be freely used by most invalids.</p> - -<h4>POTATO SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -3 Medium-sized potatoes.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of chopped onion.<br /> -2 Saltspoons of celery-salt, or 3 stalks of celery.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -A little white pepper.<br /> -A speck of cayenne.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of flour.<br /> -2 Teaspoons of butter.<br /> -1 Pint of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Pare and boil the potatoes. Cook the onion and celery -in the milk, with which make a white sauce with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -the flour and butter. When the potatoes are done, -drain off the water and dry them over the fire by moving -the pan back and forth on the stove to keep them -from sticking. Then, without removing the pan from -the fire, mash them thoroughly with a potato-masher, -and put in the sauce, pepper, cayenne, and salt; strain -all through a soup-strainer, and if the consistency be -not perfectly smooth and even, strain it again. Put -it into a double boiler, set back on the stove, and -when hot it is ready to serve. If the soup seems very -thick, add a little more milk, for some potatoes are -drier than others, and will consequently absorb more -moisture. It should be like a <em>thin purée</em>.</p> - -<p>This soup may be varied by using a quart instead -of a pint of milk, and the whites of two eggs well -beaten, the latter to be added just two minutes before -it is removed from the fire, which will be sufficient -time for the egg to cook. Care should be taken not -to allow the egg to harden, or the soup will have a -curdled appearance.</p> - -<h4>CREAM-OF-CELERY SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Head of celery.<br /> - 1 Pint of water.<br /> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of butter.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of flour.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of white pepper.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Wash and scrape the celery, cut it into half-inch -pieces, put it into the pint of boiling water, and cook -until it is very soft. When done mash it in the water -in which it was boiled, and add the salt and pepper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -Cook the onion in the milk, and with it make a white -sauce with the butter and flour; add this to the celery, -and strain it through a soup-strainer, pressing and -mashing with the back of a spoon until all but a few -tough fibers of the celery are squeezed through. Return -the soup, in a double boiler, to the fire, and heat -it until it is steaming, when it is ready to serve.</p> - -<p>By substituting chicken broth for water, and using -celery-salt instead of fresh celery when it is not in season, -a very acceptable variation of this soup may be -made.</p> - -<h4>CREAM-OF-RICE SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Cup of rice.<br /> - 1 Pint of chicken broth or stock.<br /> - 1 Pint of sweet cream.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion.<br /> - 1 Stalk of celery.<br /> - 3 Saltspoons of salt.<br /> -A little white pepper.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of curry-powder.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Pick over and wash the rice, and put it into the -chicken broth in a saucepan to cook. Simmer it slowly -until the rice is very soft. It will require two hours' -cooking to accomplish this. Half an hour before the -rice is done put the cream into a saucepan with the -onion, celery, pepper, and curry, and let them simmer -slowly for twenty minutes; then pour the mixture -into the rice; press all through a soup-strainer; add -the salt, and set it back on the stove to heat to the -boiling-point. It should be a rather thin soup, not a -<em>purée</em>. Should the broth boil away while the rice is -cooking, or should the soup be too thick, add more -broth, or some water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> - -<h4>QUEEN VICTORIA'S FAVORITE SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of chopped chicken meat.<br /> - 1 Pint of strong chicken broth.<br /> - 1 Pint of sweet cream.<br /> -½ Cup of cracker- or bread-crumbs.<br /> - 3 Yolks of eggs.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of pepper.<br /> -</div> - -<p>The chicken may be obtained from what remains of -a roast, in which case the bones, skin, tendons, and all -the scraps left should be boiled for the broth. It is -better, however, to use a fowl which has been cooked -on purpose, as the broth from such a one is of finer -flavor. Soak the cracker-crumbs in a little of the -cream. Break three eggs, separate the whites from -the yolks, and carefully drop the yolks into hot water; -boil them until they are hard. Chop the chicken in a -chopping-tray until it is as fine as meal, previously -having removed everything except the clear meat; -mix the soaked cracker with it; press the hard egg-yolks -through a coarse wire strainer and put them in, -and also the salt, pepper, and broth. Then strain the -whole through a colander, adding the cream a little -at a time, and pressing through all of the meat. Boil -it for five minutes in a saucepan, or cook it in a -double boiler for half an hour. This makes a delicious -soup.</p> - -<h4>CHICKEN-TAPIOCA SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Tablespoons of tapioca.<br /> -½ Cup of cold water.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> - 1 Pint of strong chicken broth or white stock.<br /> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 1 Stalk of celery, or some celery-salt.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of chopped onion.<br /> -½ Square inch of mace.<br /> - 1 Scant teaspoon of salt.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of white pepper.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of butter.<br /> -</div> - -<p>The broth for this dish may be made by boiling the -bones of a roast with the left-over pieces of meat, and -then reducing the liquor until it is strong enough. -Put the tapioca to soak in the cold water, overnight -if it be the common, coarse kind, but if pearl or granulated -tapioca is used, twenty minutes will do. Then -add the chicken stock, and simmer it until the tapioca -is completely softened. It will require two or three -hours. About half an hour before the tapioca will be -done, put the milk, celery, onion, and mace into a -saucepan to cook, and as soon as the tapioca becomes -soft pour it in; remove from the fire, and strain the -whole through a wire strainer, forcing through with -a spoon all the grains of tapioca. Then add the salt, -pepper, and butter; set it back on the stove, and heat -it just to the boiling-point, when it is ready to serve.</p> - -<h4>BEEF-TAPIOCA SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - ¼ Cup of granulated tapioca.<br /> -1½ Cups of water.<br /> - 1 Pint of strong beef broth.<br /> - ½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - ½ Teaspoon of mixed sweet herbs.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion.<br /> - A little black pepper.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> - -<p>Soak the tapioca for twenty minutes in a half cup -of cold water, then set it to cook in a double boiler -with the rest of the water (one cupful). When the -grains become soft and begin to look transparent, put -in all the other ingredients and cook until the tapioca -is completely dissolved. This will require two or -three hours. Strain it, and return it to the fire to -boil for five minutes, when it is ready to serve. This -soup may be made with the ordinary stock from a -stock-kettle. A little chicken broth is an improving -addition, and really makes a most savory soup.</p> - -<h4>CHICKEN PANADA</h4> - -<p>A panada is a dish the foundation of which is bread. -For chicken panada there will be needed:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of chicken meat.<br /> -½ Cup of bread soaked in milk.<br /> - 1 Pint of chicken liquor or broth.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -¼ Saltspoon of pepper.<br /> -</div> - -<p>The chicken may be obtained from a cold roast, -the bones, gristle, and tendons of which should be -boiled for the broth, or a fowl may be used on purpose -for it.</p> - -<p>Put the bread-crumbs to soak in enough milk to -cover them. Cut the chicken into small pieces, leaving -out everything which is not clear meat, and chop it -in a chopping-tray until it is very fine. Press the -bread-crumbs through a coarse wire strainer into it, -pour in the broth (from which the fat has been removed -by skimming with a spoon), and add the pepper -and salt. Boil for one minute. The panada should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -be about the consistency of thick gruel. It may be -varied by seasoning it with either celery-salt or curry-powder. -Two tablespoons of sweet cream is also a -desirable addition.</p> - -<h4>CONSOMMÉ</h4> - -<div class="recipe15"> - 3 Quarts of cold water.<br /> -½ of a good fowl.<br /> - 2 Pounds of lean beef, or 2½ pounds of beef and bone.<br /> -¼ Pound of lean ham.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of chopped carrot.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of chopped turnip.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of celery.<br /> - 3 Cloves.<br /> - 3 Peppercorns.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of mixed sweet herbs.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Wipe but do not wash the beef, unless, of course, it -is very dirty. Cut it into small slices, and fry it in a -hot frying-pan to brown it and to develop the flavor -of the meat. Then divide the slices into small pieces, -so as to expose as large a surface as possible to the -action of the water. Put it, with the chicken (after it -has been cleaned and cut into small pieces), into a -porcelain-lined or granite-ware soup-digester, with the -piece of ham and three quarts of cold water. Let it -slowly reach the boiling-point, and simmer it gently -for six hours. Boiling briskly dissipates the flavors -by separating certain subtle substances which are perceptible -to the sense of smell, and if they are in the air -they cannot also be in the broth.</p> - -<p>When it has been cooking for three hours, fry the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -carrot, turnip, and onion together in a little butter -until they are brown, and put them with the cloves, -sweet herbs, peppercorns, and celery into the soup. If -these are cooked with the meat from the beginning, -the flavor is not so good.</p> - -<p>At the end of the six hours, when the meat is in -rags, strain the liquid into a china bowl, and set it -away to cool until all the fat rises and forms in a -cake on the top. It is a good plan to cool it overnight -when there is plenty of time. Every particle -of fat must be removed, and it is not possible to do -this unless the soup is cooled. <em>To clear consommé</em> -return it to the fire, and as soon as it becomes liquid -break into it two eggs, and stir slowly until the soup -begins to steam and the albumen of the eggs is coagulated. -The coagulum will entangle all the insoluble -matter; then strain the liquid through a napkin, salt -it, and heat it just to the boiling-point, when it is -ready to serve.</p> - -<p>It should be perfectly clear, and of a golden-brown -color like sherry wine. If the color is not dark enough, -a little caramel (burnt sugar) may be added.</p> - -<p>The above quantity of meats and flavoring should -give a quart of consommé.</p> - -<h4>BOUILLON</h4> - -<p>Make a plain beef broth according to the rule on -<a href="#Page_78">page 78</a>. To a quart of this add a pinch each of -thyme, sage, sweet marjoram, and mint (or enough to -make in all what will fill a teaspoon), and a teaspoon -each of chopped onion and carrot. Boil all together -until the broth is reduced to one pint. Strain, season -with salt and pepper, and serve very hot in covered -cups.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> - -<h4>APPLE SOUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2 Cups of apple.<br /> -2 Cups of water.<br /> -2 Teaspoons of corn-starch.<br /> -1½ Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of cinnamon.<br /> -A bit of salt.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Stew the apple in the water until it is very soft. -Then mix together into a smooth paste the corn-starch, -sugar, salt, and cinnamon with a little cold -water. Pour this into the apple, and boil for five -minutes. Strain it into a soup-tureen, and keep hot -until ready to serve. This is very good eaten with -hot buttered sippets.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">OYSTERS</h3> - -<p>Oysters are a highly prized food, though why it is -difficult to say, as they are neither very easy of digestion -nor very nutritious. But they possess a delicate -insinuating flavor that is generally acceptable to most -palates, and probably are really valuable for the salts -which they contain.</p> - -<p>The composition of oysters (Payen's analysis) is as -follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdr">14.010%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdr">1.515%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Saline substances</td><td class="tdr">2.695%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">80.385%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Non-nitrogenous matter and waste</td><td class="tdr">1.395%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">————</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4">Total</td><td class="tdr">100.000 </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>According to Professor Mott's Chart of the Composition, -Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Foods, -from actual experiment the time required for the -digestion of oysters is as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc wd15">Hours.</td><td class="tdc wd15">Minutes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Raw oysters</td><td class="tdc">2</td><td class="tdc">55</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Roasted oysters</td><td class="tdc">3</td><td class="tdc">15</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Stewed oysters</td><td class="tdc">3</td><td class="tdc">30</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>This shows that they require a longer time than do -most kinds of fish, venison, beefsteak, tripe, soused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -pig's feet, eggs, and roast beef, all of which are digested -in varying times less than those mentioned.</p> - -<p>Oysters are found in greatest perfection in the -Eastern States, and in the cooler waters of the western -Atlantic. The choicest varieties in the world -come from the shores of Long Island, and from the -Providence River. Chesapeake Bay is noted for the -abundance of its oysters.</p> - -<p>Oysters are in season from September to May; during -the rest of the year they are insipid and unfit for -food, although they are sometimes used.</p> - -<p>Convalescents often begin with fresh, sound oysters, -before they venture to try other kinds of solid -animal food.</p> - -<p>Oysters may be used in a variety of ways, but -served raw and broiled slightly in the shells are perhaps -the two most desirable ways with which to -begin. Afterward stews and soups are recommended -on account of their liquid form and warmth, warm -foods being always so much more desirable than cold.</p> - -<p>There are some points to be carefully observed in -preparing oysters for the sick. (1) Make every effort -to have the oysters alive when used. If this is impossible, -buy salt-water oysters as fresh as they can -be obtained of a reliable dealer. Many serious cases -of illness, and even death, have been caused by eating -oysters so long dead that poisonous substances had -formed in them. (2) Remember that oysters contain -an albuminous juice which increases in hardness with -an increase of temperature, just as the albumen of an -egg does. When oysters are cooked with reference -to this juice alone, they are also cooked in the best -possible manner with reference to their other ingredients; -therefore subject them to a low temperature, -and for a short time, bearing in mind that 160° Fahr. -is the cooking temperature of albumen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> - -<h4>RAW OYSTERS</h4> - -<p>Wash and scrub the shells well under a stream of -water, with a vegetable brush. With a hammer break -the thin edges of the shell so that a knife may be inserted -to sever the muscle which holds the two parts -of the shell together; when this is cut remove the upper -half, and wipe the edges free from any grains of -sand. Then sever the muscle which joins the oyster -to the other half, so that it may be easily lifted out, -without the necessity of cutting. Arrange them on -an oyster-plate, and serve with salt, black pepper, and -lemon-juice. A half or a quarter of a lemon may be -placed in the center of the plate, which usually has -a groove on purpose for it.</p> - -<h4>OYSTERS ROASTED IN THE SHELL</h4> - -<p>Wash the shells very carefully with a brush. Put -them in a wire broiler over glowing coals, the round -side of the shell down so as to hold the juice. Cook -them quickly, turning once or twice until the shells -open. They may also be done in a hot oven. When -done, remove the upper half of the shell; season them -quickly with salt, pepper, and a tiny bit of butter, -and vinegar, if liked, and serve them while they are -very hot. The true oyster flavor is delightfully developed -by preparing in this way. They may also be -served with melted butter, seasoned with salt, pepper, -and lemon-juice.</p> - -<h4>OYSTER SOUP</h4> - -<p>See recipe under <b>Soups</b>, on <a href="#Page_134">page 134</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> - -<h4>OYSTER STEW</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of oysters.<br /> - 1 Cup of rich milk.<br /> - 2 Saltspoons of salt.<br /> - A little white pepper.<br /> -¼ Teaspoon of butter.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Set the milk in a saucepan on the fire to heat. Prepare -the oysters by pouring over them a cup of cold -water to wash them, from which lift them out with a -fork, and search for bits of shell which sometimes adhere -when they are opened. Then lay them on a -napkin or a piece of clean cloth, to drain off as much -as possible of the water. Unless oysters are just taken -from the shells, the liquor is not of much value. Just -as the milk reaches the boiling-point, put the oysters -into an omelet-pan, which has been previously set on -the stove to heat, and cook them for a minute, or -until they become plump, turning them every ten -seconds with a fork. The moment the edges or frills -begin to curl, drop them into the milk and remove it -immediately from the fire. Now add the seasoning -and butter, and the stew is ready to serve—which -should be done as soon as possible.</p> - -<p>Oyster stew may also be made by preparing the -oysters as above and then dropping them into boiling-hot -milk, which should remain for one or two minutes -on the fire before removal.</p> - -<h4>CREAMED OYSTERS</h4> - -<p>Clean a pint of oysters according to the directions -in the previous rule. After drying them on a napkin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -spread them on a plate and season them with salt, -pepper, and a suspicion of cayenne.</p> - -<p>Make a rich cream sauce with <em>one pint</em> of cream, -<em>one tablespoon</em> of butter, and <em>two tablespoons</em> of flour.</p> - -<p>When the sauce is cooked, roll into it the seasoned -oysters, put them in individual scallop-dishes, or a dish -such as might be used for scalloped oysters, or any -shallow baking-dish that is good enough to serve; -then bake them in a hot oven, on the grate, for ten -minutes if in small dishes, or for fifteen if in a single -large one. This gives time enough for the oysters to -become cooked but not hardened. The mixing of the -oysters and sauce should be done quickly, so that the -sauce may not become cold before they are put into -the oven; for if there is much delay, it will take longer -to cook them than the time given.</p> - -<p>This is a good way to cook oysters for the sick, for -the sauce made according to the rule for such sauces -(<a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>) is easily digested, nutritious, and of good -flavor.</p> - -<h4>BROILED OYSTERS</h4> - -<p>Select large oysters. Drain them on a cloth or -napkin, turning them from one side to the other, to -make them as dry as possible. Meanwhile soften -some butter, and season some cracker-crumbs with salt -and pepper. Then, holding each oyster on a fork, dip it -into the crumbs, then into the melted butter, and again -into the crumbs. Arrange them in an oyster-broiler -(which differs from ordinary broilers by having the -wires closer together), and broil over a hot fire for -about two minutes, turning the broiler every few seconds. -They should not be shriveled, but plump, soft, -tender, and juicy. The salt and pepper in the crumbs -will sufficiently season them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> - -<h4>FANCY ROAST OR PAN-BROILED OYSTERS</h4> - -<p>Eight oysters will be enough for one person. -Drain the oysters on a cloth or napkin, making them -as free from moisture as possible. Heat an omelet-pan, -with a small piece of butter in it, very hot; then -drop the oysters one by one into the pan, turning each -before the next is put in. One should work quickly, -otherwise the first will be overdone before the last is -put in. When the pan is full, shake it a moment, lift it -from the fire, and turn the oysters quickly into a square -covered dish, with toast-points in the corners. Season -them with salt, pepper, and a bit of butter, and -serve them as quickly as convenient.</p> - -<p>Each oyster should be cooked so quickly that its -juices are shut into itself and do not ooze out into -the pan. There is usually a very little juice with the -butter, but if it is considerable, one may know that -the oysters have not been cooked in a sufficiently high -temperature. Oysters are very nice done in this way, -but it takes a skilful worker to do them without -letting the juice ooze out, or, on the other hand, over-cooking -them. The toast-points are made by cutting -small squares of bread diagonally across.</p> - -<h4>OYSTER BROTH</h4> - -<p>Chop a dozen oysters in a chopping-tray until they -are quite fine. Turn them into a small saucepan with -a cup of cold water, and let them slowly approach the -boiling-point, and then simmer them for five minutes, -the object being to get as much as possible of the flavor -of the oysters into the water. Then strain out the -oysters, season the liquor with a bit of salt, and serve.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p> - -<p>A broth with milk may be made by putting in less -water, and adding milk three or four minutes before -the broth is taken from the fire.</p> - -<h4>OYSTERS COOKED IN A CHAFING-DISH</h4> - -<p>Chafing-dishes are generally made of silver, and -are much used just at present for cooking oysters -at the table. A chafing-dish consists of a covered -dish resting in a frame, and heated from below with -an alcohol lamp. It is brought to the table with the -lamp lighted and the raw oysters ready to be cooked. -Some member of the family takes it in charge, and -the result is a much more satisfactory dish than could -be otherwise obtained, for it requires intelligence and -a cultivated taste to cook and season these delicious -bivalves.</p> - -<p><b>Uses of the Chafing-dish.</b> It may be used for broth, -stew, soup, and fancy roast, the treatment being exactly -the same as with a saucepan or an omelet-pan -on a stove.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">EGGS</h3> - -<p>Eggs, next to milk, are the most valuable form of -food for those who are very ill. They contain in excellent -proportion most of the elements necessary to -nourish the body; but being a concentrated form -of food, it is well to associate with them milk or -some other liquid, and such starchy foods as bread, -potatoes, etc.</p> - -<p>According to <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Laws and Gilbert'">Lawes and Gilbert</ins> the composition of -egg is as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Shell</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Carbonate of lime</td><td class="tdr">10.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl wd20"></td><td class="tdl wd5">{</td><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdr">16.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Fatty matter</td><td class="tdr">30.70%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Yolk</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Saline matter</td><td class="tdr">1.30%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">52.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl pad4">Total</td><td class="tdr">100.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdr">20.40%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">White</td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Saline matter</td><td class="tdr">1.60%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{</td><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">78.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl pad4">Total</td><td class="tdr">100.00%</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>A large proportion of both yolk and white is <em>albumen</em>.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> -It has been found by experiment (<a href="#Page_25">page 25</a>) -that when white of egg is subjected to a temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -of 134°-140° Fahr. little white threads appear in it; -that if the temperature be increased to 160° Fahr., -the whole mass becomes a white, but tender, easily -divided substance; that if the heat be raised to 200° -Fahr. it loses its tender, jelly-like consistency, and -becomes firm and tenacious; and that with continued -rise of temperature the toughness increases until at -from 300°-350° Fahr. it becomes so hard that it is -used as a cement for marble.</p> - -<p>From these statements it will at once be inferred -that the proper cooking temperature of eggs is not -that of boiling water, but 52° lower. Eggs cooked -the customary three minutes in boiling water will be -overdone in the part nearest the shell, and not cooked -at all in the center of the yolk, as three minutes is -not long enough for the heat to penetrate to that -point. The yolk, though not injurious in this condition, -is not as palatable as when it is cooked. The -condition of the white, however, is of grave importance, -as even well persons are sometimes made ill by -eating it.</p> - -<p>It is generally agreed that although albumen will -coagulate at a temperature somewhat lower than 160° -Fahr., the degree of firmness obtained by exposing it -to this temperature is the most desirable for food. -Therefore we speak of 160° Fahr. as its <em>cooking temperature</em>. -An egg cooked ideally would be subjected -to that temperature for a sufficient time to allow the -heat to penetrate and act upon all portions of it. The -time required is half an hour. Cooked according to -this method, the white would be opaque and firm, but -tender and delicate, the yolk not liquid and lukewarm, -but thick and almost firm. The flavor of both is delicious.</p> - -<p>A knowledge of the proper temperature necessary -to bring about this change is absolutely essential to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -any one who would cook eggs, and dishes which contain -them, such as creams, puddings, etc., as they -should be cooked. A great deal of the philosophy of -cooking depends upon this knowledge, for nearly all -kinds of meat, fish, oysters, milk, and other albuminous -foods contain as one of their most valuable nutrients -the substance known as albumen. When they are -cooked with reference to this <em>alone</em>, we find that they -are also done in the best-known way with reference -to their other ingredients.</p> - -<p>Practically with our present kitchen appliances it -is exceedingly difficult to maintain for half an hour -a steady temperature of 160°, but excellent results -may be obtained by the following method.</p> - -<h4>SOFT-COOKED EGGS</h4> - -<p>Pour enough boiling water into a saucepan to more -than cover whatever number of eggs are to be cooked; -then put in the eggs, and let them stand for ten minutes -on the hearth or any place where the water will -not lose its warmth too quickly. Remember that it -is the heat in the water which is to do the cooking. -The saucepan should remain uncovered. Practically -this is an excellent way to do, for the amount of heat -in the water will not fall below 160° Fahr. in the ten -minutes, and that time is sufficient for it to penetrate -to the center of the egg. Moreover, if the egg be forgotten, -and remains in the water for a longer time, it -will not become hard unless the temperature of the -water be raised.</p> - -<p>Theoretically an egg should be cooked at 160° Fahr., -but practically this would involve a considerable -waste of time and necessitate the use of a thermometer. -Almost the same result is obtained in an easy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -and convenient way by the above method, although -it is not an exact one. The proportion of boiling -water for each egg which will insure cooking in the -time given is one pint, but somewhat less will do if -many are to be cooked; for instance, eight eggs will -do in six pints, as comparatively less heat is lost in -warming the pan.</p> - -<h4>POACHED OR DROPPED EGGS</h4> - -<p>From a thin, even slice of home-made bread cut out -a round piece with a biscuit-cutter; toast it a delicate -brown.</p> - -<p>Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan and -salt it, using a saltspoon of salt to a cup of water; -place it on the stove to boil. Break a fresh egg into -a cup, and when the water is boiling slip it gently -into the pan. At first the egg will cool the water -below the boiling-point, but should the water again -begin to boil, withdraw the pan to a cooler part of -the stove. When the white is firm, or at the end of -about two minutes, lift out the egg by means of two -spoons or a skimmer (being careful not to break the -yolk), and place it on the round of toast. The egg -should not be trimmed. Season it with a speck of -salt, a little pepper, and a bit of butter placed on the -middle of the yolk. This is a dainty and easy way of -preparing eggs for the sick, and one is always sure -of the condition of the eggs, which is not the case -when they are cooked in the shell.</p> - -<p>A layer of minced ham or of minced chicken laid -on the toast makes a palatable variation.</p> - -<p>Egg-poachers, or little tin cups with perforated -bottoms set in a frame, may be bought for poaching -eggs, but in those that the author has seen the raw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -albumen runs into the little holes and makes it difficult -to remove the egg after it is done without -breaking it. Muffin-rings may also be used.</p> - -<h4>SCRAMBLED EGGS. No. 1</h4> - -<p>Break two eggs into a plate, and sprinkle on a little -pepper and a saltspoon of salt; beat them with a fork -for one minute, add two tablespoons of milk or, better, -thin sweet cream; beat again and pour the mixture -into a buttered pan; stir it gently, letting it cook -slowly for about two minutes, or until the albumen -of the egg is coagulated. It should be soft and tender, -not hardened. Serve it on toast, or in a small, -square covered dish.</p> - -<h4>SCRAMBLED EGGS. No. 2</h4> - -<p>Beat two eggs, a saltspoon of salt, and a sprinkle -of white pepper in a bowl with a Dover egg-beater -until quite light; add two tablespoons of sweet cream -or of milk, and turn the mixture into a double boiler -to cook, stirring it constantly until the albumen is just -coagulated. A delicate and easily digested dish is the -result. It is a safer way to use the double boiler -rather than an omelet-pan. If no double boiler is at -hand, one may be improvised with a bowl or dish set -into a kettle of hot water.</p> - -<h4>OMELETS</h4> - -<p>Omelets may be made in a great variety of ways, -the kind depending not upon a difference in mixing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -the eggs, but upon the ingredients which are added. -<em>Spanish</em> omelet is ordinary omelet with onion. <em>Truffles</em>, -<em>mushrooms</em>, <em>chopped oysters</em>, <em>rum</em>, and <em>tomato</em> -make other varieties. Flour should never be used in -them, as it cannot be properly cooked in the short -time that should be given to the eggs. If it should -happen that an omelet is to be made, and there is no -milk at hand, water may be substituted, but an omelet -should never be made without one or the other.</p> - -<h4>CREAMY OMELET</h4> - -<p>Beat four eggs slightly with a fork until you can -take up a spoonful; add two saltspoons of salt, half -a saltspoon of pepper, four tablespoons of milk or -cream, and mix well. Butter an omelet-pan, and before -the butter browns turn in the mixture. Then -with the point of a fork pick or lift up the cooked -egg from the center, and let the uncooked egg run -under. This leaves the butter on the pan, and is better -than stirring. Continue the lifting until the -whole is of a soft creamy consistency, then place it -over a hotter part of the fire and brown slightly, fold -and turn out as usual. (Adapted from Mrs. D. A. -Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book.")</p> - -<p>For an invalid's use take half the quantities mentioned -above—that is, use two eggs, two tablespoons -of milk or cream, a saltspoon of salt, and a bit of pepper; -and instead of having the omelet-pan hot, -have it just warm enough to melt the butter; otherwise -the first layer of egg which is cooked may be -overdone and hardened.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> - -<h4>FOAMY OMELET</h4> - -<p>Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs, and -put them into bowls. To the yolks add a saltspoon -of salt and one fourth of a saltspoon of pepper. Beat -with a Dover egg-beater until light. Then add two -tablespoons of milk. Beat the whites until stiff, but -not as stiff as possible, and <em>fold</em>, not <em>beat</em> them into -the yolks, so that the whole shall be very light and -puffy. Pour the mixture into a buttered omelet-pan, -and cook slowly until the under side begins to -change color and become brown, or for about <em>two -minutes</em>. Then put the pan on the grate in the oven -for about <em>one minute</em>, to cook the upper surface. One -must endeavor to avoid both over and under cooking. -If the omelet is not done enough, the raw egg will -ooze out after it is folded; on the other hand, if it is -cooked too much, it will be dry and tough. When it -seems to be coagulated on the upper surface, run a -case-knife under it to separate it from the pan, and -fold one half over the other. Take the platter which -is to receive it in the right hand, lay it against -the edge of the pan, and tip the omelet out. Serve -immediately.</p> - -<p>An omelet is a dainty and delicate way of serving -eggs, and may be well made by any one who will bear -in mind that the cooking temperature of albumen is -160° Fahr., and that if exposed to a very much higher -degree of heat for many minutes, it will be spoiled,—rendered -both unpalatable and indigestible.</p> - -<h4>OMELET WITH HAM. No. 1</h4> - -<p>Broil a thin, small slice of ham until thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -well done. Lay it between the folds of an omelet. -Either creamy or foamy omelets may be used.</p> - -<h4>OMELET WITH HAM. No. 2</h4> - -<p>Mince a piece of cooked ham until it is fine. Stir it -into an omelet in the proportion of one teaspoon to -an egg, or it may be sprinkled over the surface just -before folding. When seasoned with a little mustard, -it makes a very piquant addition. Either creamy or -foamy omelets may be used.</p> - -<h4>OMELET WITH JELLY</h4> - -<p>Spread a tablespoon of grape or currant jelly over -the middle of the upper surface of a two-egg omelet -just before folding it.</p> - -<h4>OMELET WITH CHICKEN</h4> - -<p>Chop fine the cooked white meat of a piece of -chicken. Season it with salt and pepper, and sprinkle -it over an omelet, or stir it into the egg before cooking, -in the proportion of one teaspoon to an egg, as -is done with ham.</p> - -<h4>OMELET WITH TOMATO</h4> - -<p>Prepare thin slices of very ripe tomatoes, by removing -the skin and seasoning slightly with salt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -Lay them on that part of the omelet which is to be -the lower half, and fold; or the tomato may be -tucked into the omelet after folding.</p> - -<h4>OMELET WITH PARSLEY</h4> - -<p>Wash some parsley. Break off the stems and roll -the rest into a little ball; then, holding it firmly in the -left hand, cut slices from it, or chop it on a board. -Stir it into the omelet mixture before it is cooked, in -the proportion of one teaspoon for each egg.</p> - -<h4>SPANISH OMELET</h4> - -<p>To an omelet mixture add two drops of onion-juice -for each egg, or half a teaspoon of very finely minced -onion.</p> - -<h4>ORANGE OMELET</h4> - -<p>"The thinly grated rind of one orange and three -tablespoons of the juice, three eggs, and three teaspoons -of powdered sugar. Beat the yolks, add the -sugar, rind, and juice, fold in the beaten whites, and -cook. Fold, turn out, sprinkle thickly with powdered -sugar, and score in diagonal lines with a clean red-hot -poker. The burnt sugar gives to the omelet a -delicious flavor.</p> - -<p>"This is a convenient dessert for an emergency, and -may be prepared in ten minutes if one has the oranges." -(From Mrs. D. A. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book.")</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">POTATOES</h3> - -<p>Next to wheat flour, potatoes are our most common -form of starch food. The potato is a tuber, a native -of America, and may be said to have been discovered -to the civilized world by the Spaniards, who found it -growing in Chili and Peru. Thence it was carried to -Spain, and from there to other parts of Europe, some -time in the sixteenth century. Potatoes were at first -used as luxuries, but are now almost ranked among -the necessities of life.</p> - -<p>The composition of potatoes (Letherby) is as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">75.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Starch</td><td class="tdr">18.80%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdr">2.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar</td><td class="tdr">3.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdr">.20%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts</td><td class="tdr">1.00%</td> - <td class="tdl wd5"><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>From this we see that starch is the principal nutrient, -therefore potatoes in use for food should be associated -with nitrogenous substances, such as eggs, meat, -fish, and milk. The potash salts which potatoes contain -are very valuable. According to Letherby, an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -average of thirty-one analyses of the ash of potatoes -gave 59.8 per cent. of potash, 19.1 per cent. of phosphoric -acid, the other ingredients being in exceedingly -small proportions. These salts are necessary to a -healthy condition of the blood. Potatoes are a valuable -antiscorbutic.</p> - -<p>According to Mattieu Williams, scurvy prevailed -in Norway to a very serious extent until the introduction -of the potato; and Lang, with other good -authorities, testifies that its disappearance is due to -the use of potatoes by a people who formerly were insufficiently -supplied with salts-giving vegetable food.</p> - -<p>The salts of the potato are most abundant in or -near the skin, and the decision of the question as to -whether potatoes shall be pared or not before cooking -is somewhat aided by this fact. For persons -who eat but few other fresh vegetables by all means -leave the skins on, but for those who have access to -a good kitchen garden and have plenty of other -vegetables and fruits from which to get their salts, -it makes no important difference whether the skins -are removed.</p> - -<p>The potato is eminently a starch food, and this -knowledge indicates the method of treatment in cooking. -Since starch is its principal ingredient (the -amount of nitrogenous matter being very small), if -it is cooked with reference to that alone, it will be -done in the best possible manner.</p> - -<p>Starch, in order to be rendered most digestible and -acceptable to the human system, must be subjected to -a high temperature in the presence of some liquid. At -401° Fahr. (see <a href="#Page_33">pages 33</a> and <a href="#Page_34">34</a>) it is converted into -dextrine. This change, if not performed outside the -body, will be done in the ordinary processes of digestion -after the starch is eaten; therefore the nearer we -approach to it in cooking, the more perfectly is the -food prepared which contains it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> - -<p>Usually the first vegetable prescribed by the physician -for a sick person who is beginning to use solids, is -a baked potato. A baked potato, however, may be no -better than a boiled potato unless it is cooked in so -high a temperature that the starch is affected. Boiled -potatoes cannot be subjected to a higher temperature -than 212° Fahr. Baked potatoes may be done in such -a way that they are but little better than boiled—for -instance, done in a slow oven. On the other hand, -if they are put into a temperature of 380° or 400° -Fahr., or a hot oven, they will be done in such a manner -that the conversion of starch will in a degree take -place, and they will be consequently both palatable -and easily digested.</p> - -<p>Potatoes roasted in hot ashes or embers are delicious, -and for the same reason. But it must not be -understood that by cooking potatoes in a high temperature -the starch which they contain is <em>all</em> changed -into dextrine. This does not usually take place except -in slight degree, but by the high temperature it -is better prepared for this change in the processes of -digestion. Probably what does take place is a sort -of hydration of the starch, resulting in the complete -swelling and final bursting of the granules, with possibly -an intermediate change between this and dextrine. -Just at the moment when potatoes are done -they should be immediately taken from the fire and -served at once. The potato is capable of being made -into a variety of dishes, and when properly prepared -has a delicate flavor which is very acceptable to most -people. <em>It is one of the most easily digested forms of -starch-containing food.</em></p> - -<h4>BOILED POTATOES</h4> - -<p>For boiled potatoes, if they are to be served whole, -select those of the same shape and size. Wash them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -under a stream of water with a vegetable brush. Pare -carefully so as not to waste the potato, and evenly, -that they may look smooth and shapely. Cook them -in a granite-ware kettle or covered saucepan, in -enough salted boiling water to just cover them. If -cold water is used, there is a greater loss of potash salts -by solution, because of the longer time of exposure to -the action of the liquid. The proportion of salt should -be one teaspoon to a quart of water.</p> - -<p>Potatoes being already hydrated, it makes no great -difference whether they are put into hot or cold water, -except in the time which will be required to boil them -and the slight loss of salts. For medium-sized potatoes -from thirty to forty minutes will be necessary -after they begin to boil. The moment they feel soft -when pierced with a fork they are done. Take them -at once from the fire, drain off all the water, and dry -them by gently moving the pan back and forth over -the top of the stove for a minute. Serve as quickly -as possible. Unless they are to be eaten at once, it is -better to mash them, and keep them in the oven until -needed.</p> - -<h4>MASHED POTATOES</h4> - -<p>For mashed potatoes the uneven sizes may be used; -the large ones should be cut into small pieces. Prepare -according to the foregoing rule, and when they -are cooked and dried, add salt, butter, pepper, and -cream, in the following proportions:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of potatoes.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of butter.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of pepper (white).<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of sweet cream or of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p> - -<p>Put into the potatoes the butter, salt, and pepper, -and mash them on the stove, in the dish in which they -were boiled, to keep them hot. Use an open wire -potato-masher, and mash quickly so that they may be -light and dry, not "gummy." Last put in the cream, -mix for a moment, and serve immediately in a covered -vegetable-dish. If it is necessary to keep them for a -time, arrange them like a cake in the dish in which -they are to be served, smooth over the top, dot it -with little bits of butter, or brush it over with milk -or the beaten white of egg, and brown them a delicate -golden color by placing the dish on the grate in the -oven.</p> - -<h4>BAKED POTATOES</h4> - -<p>For baked potatoes, select those which are of uniform -size and not very large. Scrub them thoroughly -in a stream of water from the faucet, to wash off every -particle of sand, for many like to eat the outside. -Bake them in a hot oven for from forty-five to fifty -minutes. If the potatoes are of <em>medium</em> size, and do -not cook in that time, it indicates that the oven is not -of the proper temperature.</p> - -<p>Baked potatoes, not being exposed to the solvent -action of a liquid, lose none of their potash salts in -cooking, as boiled potatoes do. The same is true of -those roasted, and of those fried raw in deep fat.</p> - -<h4>ROASTED POTATOES</h4> - -<p>Bury medium-sized potatoes in the embers or ashes -of an open fire for a half hour or more, according to -their size. At the end of that time dust off the ashes -with a brush. Burst the shells by squeezing them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -the hand, and serve at once with salt, and butter or -cream. Either baked or roasted potatoes are delicious -eaten with sweet cream, salt, and pepper.</p> - -<h4>CREAMED POTATOES</h4> - -<p>Left-over potatoes may be used for this dish, or -potatoes may be boiled on purpose for it. Whichever -is used, cut them into half-inch dice, put them in an -omelet-pan, season them with salt and pepper, and -pour in milk until it is even with the surface of the -potato; then simmer gently until all the milk is absorbed, -or for about half an hour. For every pint of -potatoes make a pint of white sauce, season it with -a saltspoon of salt and a teaspoon of chopped parsley, -and pour it over. Potatoes are very nice done -in this way, if care is taken in simmering them in the -milk. Unless this is done according to the rule, they -will have the cold-potato taste, which is not at all -palatable.</p> - -<p>A little chopped onion may replace the parsley with -good effect.</p> - -<h4>DUCHESS POTATOES</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of potatoes.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of butter.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Egg.<br /> -¼ Teaspoon of white pepper.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Wash, pare, and boil the potatoes. Drain out every -drop of water, and dry them in the usual way. When -dry and mealy, put in the butter, salt, and pepper, and -mash them thoroughly and quickly. If potatoes are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -mashed for a long time slowly, they become waxy, -so endeavor to do it quickly and as lightly as possible. -Then add the egg, well beaten, and the cream; mix, -and form it into a flat cake (on a board) about half an -inch thick. Cut it into oblongs or squares, or shape -it into rounds or balls, brush over with the beaten -white of egg, or milk, and bake in a hot oven until -a delicate brown. Serve the cakes on a platter as -soon as they are done.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">MEATS</h3> - -<p class="pfs90">(BROILED)</p> - -<p>Of the different ways of cooking the flesh of animals, -especially for the sick, broiling is at once the -most delicious and the most difficult.</p> - -<p>The difference between broiled meat and meat -cooked in water is that the broiled meat is cooked in -its own juices, while the other is not. The albumen -is coagulated in both cases, and the gelatinous and -fibrinous tissues are softened by being heated in a -liquid. In broiling or roasting meat the juices are -retained, while in stewing they go more or less into -the water, and the loosening of the fibers and solution -of the gelatin and fibrin may be carried further, -on account of the longer exposure to heat and the -larger amount of solvent. In broiling, as the meat is -to be cooked in its own juices, it is evident that these -must be retained as completely as possible; and in -order to succeed in this, we have to struggle with a -dry heat, which may not only cause rapid evaporation, -but may volatilize or decompose some of the flavoring -principles.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> - -<p>We should, therefore, endeavor to have such a temperature -as shall at first be sufficiently high to quickly -coagulate, even harden, the albumen in the outside -surface, and thus form a layer or protecting coat over -the whole, and then to so modify and regulate the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -heat afterward that the interior shall be raised to -such a temperature as shall properly cook it without -loss of its nutritive properties.</p> - -<p>The time of exposure will be different for different -kinds of meat—beef and mutton requiring a shorter -time than lamb, chicken, or game. Beef and mutton -are best when cooked rare; lamb, chicken, and some -kinds of game are best when well done. Game with -<em>white flesh</em> should be <em>well done</em>; <em>all other kinds</em>, generally -speaking, may be <em>rare</em>.</p> - -<p>Much of the science of cooking depends upon a -knowledge of the effects of heat; and as many changes -in food are due to the dissociation caused by heat, the -degree of change depending upon the temperature, -the value of a sound knowledge of the subject cannot -fail to be seen.</p> - -<p>To illustrate: aside from the evaporation of juices -and coagulation of albumen in a piece of steak, the -chemical separation of its constituents, especially of -the outside shell or sheath, will vary with the degree -of heat in which it is cooked.</p> - -<p>Not only for meats, but for most animal foods, a -cooking temperature less than 212° but above 160° is -most advisable. This applies particularly to milk, -eggs, oysters, meats, and fish. Of course in broiling -we partially sacrifice the outside by cooking in a -high temperature for the sake of preserving the inner -portions.</p> - -<h4>BEEF</h4> - -<p>Beef is, without doubt, our most valuable kind of -meat. It is nutritious, of excellent flavor, and comparatively -easy of digestion. It contains many of the -substances necessary to nourish the body—water, fat, -albumen, gelatin, fibrin, salts, and flavoring properties.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -The direct nutrients which it contains are fat -and protein.</p> - -<p>The quality of beef varies with the age of the animal -and the manner in which it has been fattened. -It requires a considerable amount of study to be -able to select a good roast or steak. If the fat be -of light, golden color, firm and thick, and the lean -be streaked with fine lines of fat, it is one indication -of a well-nourished animal. A reliable dealer may -be of great service in aiding one to distinguish between -good and poor qualities.</p> - -<p>The best portions for steak are from the loin, top -of the round, and rump. The cut called "porterhouse" -is from near the middle of the loin, and is -the best portion of the animal. It has a rich, fine -flavor, and contains a section of tenderloin. Sirloin -steak is from the loin, and is also very nice. The -first and second cuts from the top of the round are -excellent, containing much well-flavored juice. The -composition of a round steak free from bones is as -follows (in 100 parts):</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">{</td><td class="tdl">Protein, gelatin, fibrin, etc.</td><td class="tdr">23.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Nutrients</td><td class="tdr">{</td><td class="tdl">Fats</td><td class="tdr">9.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">{</td><td class="tdl">Mineral matters</td><td class="tdr">1.30%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap">Water</td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">66.70%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr">100.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap padr2" colspan="4">Atwater.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The time given below for the digestion of beef is -taken from calculations by Dr. Beaumont:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc">Hours.</td><td class="tdc">Minutes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Beefsteak broiled</td><td class="tdc">3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Beef, fresh, lean, roasted</td><td class="tdc">3</td><td class="tdc">30</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Beef fried</td><td class="tdc">4</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p2 pfs80">VALUE OF BEEF</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">As material for muscle</td><td class="tdr">19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">As heat-giver</td><td class="tdr">14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">As food for brain and nervous system</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">65</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap padr2" colspan="2">Atwater.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>To Broil Steak.</b> Select a steak from the loin, top of -the round, or rump. Have it cut an inch and a half -(or, better, two inches) thick. If there is a great deal -of fat, trim off part of it, and wipe the steak with a -clean, wet cloth. A fire of glowing red coals is necessary -to do broiling well. Place the steak in a wire -broiler, and put it as near the coals as possible (one -writer says plunge it into the hottest part of the fire), -<em>count ten</em> and turn it, count again and turn again until -it has been turned <em>five</em> or <em>six times</em> so as to quickly cook -a thin layer all over the outside, to shut in the juices -of the meat, and to form a protecting sheath of -coagulated albumen over the whole. Then lift the -broiler away from the coals and do the rest of the -process <em>slowly</em>,—that is, in a lower temperature, that -the heat may have time to penetrate to the center of -the piece and raise the juices to a sufficiently high -temperature to soften the fibers, but not so high as -to hornify the albumen or char the outside. Turn it -every half minute until done.</p> - -<p>If the fat melts and flames, do not lift up the broiler; -it will do no harm, and the black deposit which results -is only carbon. This carbon is not injurious; the color -is not especially attractive, but the taste will be good. -The cautious cook who does not appreciate this will lift -up the broiler, thus cooling the meat, and will perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -blow out the flame, a proceeding which is open to -question as a point of neatness.</p> - -<p>As coal fires are never twice alike, and the amount -of heat sent out is variable, it is constantly necessary -to judge anew as to where the broiler shall be placed. -A certain amount of practice is required to be able -to broil with even fair success. When done a steak -should be brown on the outside, pink and juicy inside, -and plump, not shriveled. Steak should be at least an -inch thick, otherwise the proportion of surface exposed -to the heat will be so great in proportion to -the amount of meat as to cause the loss by evaporation -of most of the juice, thus making the steak -tough and dry.</p> - -<p>From <em>five</em> to <em>seven</em> minutes will be required to cook -a steak an inch thick; if an inch and a half thick, -from <em>eight</em> to <em>ten</em> minutes. Serve the steak on a hot -platter after having seasoned <em>both</em> sides of it with salt -and pepper, but no butter. If it is desirable to use -butter, serve it with the steak rather than on it.</p> - -<h5>HAMBURG STEAK. No. 1</h5> - -<p class="pfs90">(SCRAPED BEEF)</p> - -<p>Cut a piece of tender steak half an inch thick. Lay -it on a meat-board, and with a sharp knife scrape off -the soft part until there is nothing left but the tough, -stringy fibers. Season this pulp with salt and pepper, -make it into little flat, round cakes half an inch -thick, and broil them two minutes. Serve on rounds -of buttered toast. This is a safe and dainty way to -prepare steak for one who is just beginning to eat -meat. When it is not convenient to have glowing -coals, these meat-cakes may be broiled in a very hot -omelet-pan.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<h5>HAMBURG STEAK. No. 2</h5> - -<p>Pound a thin piece of beefsteak until the fibers are -broken; season it with salt and pepper, fold and -pound again; then broil it three or four minutes over -a clear hot fire. Serve at once.</p> - -<h5>TENDERLOIN STEAK</h5> - -<p>Broil a tenderloin steak, and at the same time a -small piece of round steak, which usually contains -a great deal of well-flavored juice. Cut the round -steak into small pieces, and squeeze the juice from it -over the tenderloin. Tenderloin steak is tender, but -usually neither juicy nor particularly well flavored. -By this method one gets a delicious steak.</p> - -<h5>BEEFSTEAK <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">À LA MAÎTRE D'HÔTEL</span></h5> - -<p>Broil a steak, place it on a platter, and season it with -salt and pepper; sprinkle it with finely chopped parsley, -drops of lemon-juice, and some little bits of -butter. Set it in the oven long enough to soften the -butter. A steak done in this way may be made quite -attractive by garnishing it with hot mashed and seasoned -potatoes which have been squeezed through a -potato-strainer. A colander may be used in lieu of a -strainer. The potato loses some of its heat in the -process, so care must be taken to have the dish very -hot or to place it in the oven until it becomes so.</p> - -<p>A steak may always be garnished with parsley, -water-cress, or slices of lemon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p> - -<h4>CHICKEN</h4> - -<p class="pfs90">(BROILED)</p> - -<p>For broiling, select a young chicken—one from -three to eight months old. Singe it. Split it down -the back, and free it from all refuse, such as pin-feathers, -lungs, kidneys, oil-bag, windpipe, and crop -(the latter is sometimes left in when the chicken is -drawn). Wash it quickly in cold water, fold it in a -clean cloth kept for the purpose, and clap gently -between the hands until all the water is absorbed. -Separate the joints—the <em>lower joint of the leg</em> and the -<em>upper joint of the wing</em>—by cutting the flesh on the -under side and severing the white tough tendons. -Soften some butter until it runs, then dip the chicken -into it, season it with salt and pepper, dredge with -flour, and broil it in a wire broiler for from fifteen to -twenty minutes, according to the size.</p> - -<p>The same principle holds in broiling chicken as in -steak. The first part of the process should be done -in a high temperature to coagulate the juices of the -outer layers, and the last part very slowly. Care -must be taken that it is thoroughly done at the thick -joints of the wing and leg. Serve hot.</p> - -<p><b>To Buy a Chicken.</b> The best chickens have yellow -skin, but one may be deceived if guided by this alone, -for <em>fowls</em> often have yellow skin also. The flexibility -of the end of the breast-bone is always a sure means -of deciding as to the age of the bird. If it be soft, -easily bent, and if it feels like cartilage, the chicken -is young. Sometimes dealers break the bone for the -purpose of deceiving buyers, but it does not take a -great deal of intelligence to decide between a broken -bone and one that is easily bent. If the bone be hard -and firm, it is an indication of age. For broiling, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -course, the chicken should be young, the flesh of good -color and well nourished, and, as in the buying of -beef, one may rely upon the judgment of a good -dealer. The way in which chickens are fed has much -to do with the flavor of the meat.</p> - -<h4>BIRDS</h4> - -<p>Various kinds of birds, such as squab, partridge, -plover, snipe, pheasant, etc., are particularly appropriate -food for the sick, partly because we associate -them with the dainty things of life, but more on -account of the valuable nutrient properties which -they contain. They are especially rich in salts (particularly -the phosphates), which are so much needed -by a system exhausted by disease.</p> - -<p>Birds which feed mostly on grains, such as the -partridge and the pheasant, will bear transportation, -and will keep, in cold weather, a long time. Birds -with dark flesh, which live mostly on animal food, -decay quickly.</p> - -<p>A general rule for the cooking of game is this: that -with white flesh should be well done, that with dark -should be rare, and usually is only properly cooked when -served so, as in the case of woodcock, duck, and snipe.</p> - -<p><b>When in Season.</b> Some birds, such as reed-birds, -partridge, and plover, have a season which varies -slightly in different parts of the country, according to -the game laws of different States. In Maryland, the -following birds may be found in market according to -the time stated:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Squabs</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Partridge</td><td class="tdl">November 1—December 25.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Snipe</td><td class="tdl">September—December.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Plover</td><td class="tdl">September—November.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Pheasants</td><td class="tdl">October—January.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Woodcock</td><td class="tdl">August—February.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Rice- or reed-birds</td><td class="tdl">September—Middle October.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Field-larks</td><td class="tdl">Summer and early autumn.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Grouse (prairie-hen)</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Pigeons</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The cleansing and preparation of birds is in general -carried out in the same manner as with chickens. -When there is any variation from this, it will be mentioned -under the rule for each.</p> - -<h5>SQUABS</h5> - -<p>Squabs are young domestic pigeons. The Philadelphia -market supplies nearly all of those used in the -eastern part of the United States.</p> - -<p>Remove the feathers, and all pin-feathers; cut off -the head and legs, and split the bird down the back -carefully with a sharp knife. Lift out carefully the -contents of the body, which are contained in a little -sac or delicate membrane; they should be taken out -without breaking. Do not forget the windpipe, crop, -lungs, and kidneys. Wash, and prepare the squab in -the same manner that chicken is done, except the dipping -in butter and dredging with flour; this may -be omitted, as squabs are generally fat and do not -require it. Broil from twelve to fifteen minutes, -according to the size of the bird and the intensity of -the fire. It should be well done. Serve on hot buttered -toast.</p> - -<h5>PARTRIDGE</h5> - -<p>The partridge is a white-fleshed bird. It may be -broiled or roasted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>To Broil.</b> Follow the same rule as that given for -squab, except dip in melted butter and dredge with -flour.</p> - -<p><b>To Roast.</b> Prepare in the same manner as for broiling, -except dip in butter and dredge twice. Do not -forget the salt and pepper. Then skewer the body so -that it will resemble a whole bird, and look as if it -had not been split down the back. Spread a teaspoon -of butter on the breast, and bake it in a hot oven for -twenty to thirty minutes. Partridge done in this -way is delicious, for the butter enriches the meat, -which is naturally dry. It should be served well -done, not rare, on hot buttered toast, with currant -jelly.</p> - -<p>The season for partridges is in most States during -the last part of the autumn, and generally the laws in -regard to them are rigid. Nevertheless, they can be -bought from the middle of October until May, or the -beginning of warm weather. The partridge is a bird -that keeps well, bears transportation, and is sent from -one part of the country to another, many coming from -the West when the season is over in the Eastern -States. It is a medium-sized bird, with mottled brown -feathers, which are black at the ends, especially those -on the back, and mottled brown and silver-gray on -the breast.</p> - -<h5>SNIPE</h5> - -<p>Snipe may be both prepared and cooked as partridges -are—that is, broiled and roasted. The snipe -has rich, dark meat, and therefore will not need to be -dipped in butter for either broiling or roasting. It -is about the same size as a squab, but as it is to be -cooked rare (it is more tender and of nicer flavor so), -ten minutes is sufficient time for broiling, and from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -twelve to fifteen minutes for roasting in a hot oven. -Serve it with currant jelly on hot buttered toast.</p> - -<p>The snipe has a long bill, from two to two and a -half inches in length. It is about the size of a squab, -with dark, almost black, wing-feathers tipped with -white, and the feathers of the back are intermingled -with flecks of golden brown. The under sides of the -wings are pearl-gray, and the breast is white.</p> - -<h5>PHEASANTS</h5> - -<p>Pheasants may be broiled or roasted. As the meat -is dry, they should be well rubbed with soft butter -and dredged with flour. It is a good way, after putting -on the salt and pepper, to dip the bird into -melted butter, then dredge it with flour, then lay on -soft butter and dredge a second time; or, when it is -skewered and ready for the oven, it may be spread -thickly over the breast with softened butter. Care -must be taken that the very thick portion of the -breast be cooked through, as pheasant should be well -done, and from one half to three quarters of an hour -will be necessary for this.</p> - -<h5>WOODCOCK</h5> - -<p>The woodcock is about the size of a partridge, with -mottled dark brown and gray feathers, except on the -breast, where they are a sort of light salmon brown. It -has a long slender beak, somewhat like that of a -snipe.</p> - -<p>Prepare woodcock like squab, only do not cut off -the head, as the brain is considered a dainty by epicures. -Remove the skin from the head, and tie or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -skewer it back against the body. Use salt and pepper -for seasoning, but neither flour nor butter, as the -woodcock has dark, rich flesh. Broil from eight to -ten minutes. Serve rare on toast.</p> - -<h5>REED-BIRDS</h5> - -<p>Reed-birds are to be prepared after the general -rule for dressing birds. Although they are sometimes -cooked whole, it is better to draw them. Split -them down the back, remove the contents of the body, -and after washing and wiping them, string three or -four on a skewer, pulling it through their sides, so -that they shall appear whole. Roast in a shallow pan -in a hot oven, from <em>eight</em> to <em>ten</em> minutes; or, before -roasting, wrap each one in a very thin slice of fat -pork and pin it on with a skewer (wire).</p> - -<p><b>Broiled.</b> Prepare as for roasting, except peel off -the skin, taking the feathers with it. Broil from two -to four minutes. Serve on toast.</p> - -<p>It is a good plan to skin all small birds.</p> - -<p>The reed-bird is the bobolink of New England, the -reed-bird of Pennsylvania, and the rice-bird of the -Carolinas.</p> - -<h5>GROUSE</h5> - -<p>The grouse or prairie-hen is in season all the year, -but is at its best during the fall and winter.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare.</b> Clean, wash, and wipe it. Lard the -breast, or fasten to it with slender skewers a thin -slice of salt pork. Grouse has dry flesh, consequently -it will be improved by rubbing softened butter over -it, as well as by using pork. Sprinkle on a little salt,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -dredge it with flour, and cook in a quick oven for -thirty minutes.</p> - -<p>Grouse are also very nice potted. After they are -made ready for cooking, fry a little fat pork and some -chopped onion together in a large deep spider for a -few minutes, then lay in the grouse, cover the spider, -and fry until the outside of each bird is somewhat -browned, or for twenty minutes, slowly. Then put -them into a granite-ware kettle and stew until tender, -which will take from one to two hours. When they -are done, lift them out, thicken the liquid slightly -with flour, and season it with salt and pepper for a -gravy. Serve the grouse on a deep platter with the -gravy poured around, or simply season the liquid -and cook tiny dumplings in it, which may be served -around the birds. Then thicken the liquid and pour -over. The amount of onion to be fried with the pork -should not exceed half a teaspoon for each bird, and -of pork the proportion of a cubic inch to a bird is -enough.</p> - -<p><em>Pigeons</em> potted according to these directions for -grouse are excellent.</p> - -<h5>FIELD-LARKS</h5> - -<p>Field-larks and robins may be prepared and cooked -in exactly the same way that reed-birds are done. -Robins are good in autumn.</p> - -<h4>VENISON</h4> - -<p>Venison is in season during the late autumn and -winter. When "hung" for a proper length of time, -it is the most easily digested of all meats. For this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -reason it is a favorite with epicures who eat late suppers. -According to Dr. Beaumont it is digested in -<em>one hour and thirty-five minutes</em>.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<p>Steaks may be taken either from the loin or the -round. Broil them according to the rule for beefsteak, -and serve very hot with a slice of lemon or a little -claret poured over.</p> - -<p>Venison will not please an epicure unless it is hot -and rare when served. To accomplish this in a perfectly -satisfactory manner, it has become the fashion -in families to have the broiling done on the table, in -a chafing-dish, each person attending to his own steak, -and cooking it according to his particular fancy.</p> - -<h4>MUTTON</h4> - -<p>A good piece of meat freed from refuse,—that is, -indigestible portions such as bone, etc.,—if neatly prepared -and <em>properly cooked</em>, is practically entirely digested. -If carelessly handled and cooked so that its -juices are evaporated, and its natural flavors undeveloped -or destroyed, there will be more or less waste -in the process of digestion.</p> - -<p>Mutton requires more care in cooking than beef, -or, in other words, it is more easily spoiled in that -process; but when done with due consideration, it is -a most acceptable meat. A thick, carefully broiled, -hot, juicy mutton chop just from the coals is a very -delicious morsel. The same piece with the adjectives -reversed,—that is, done without thought, perhaps -raw in the middle, charred on the outside, and -cold,—is far from being acceptable to even a healthy -person.</p> - -<p>Just inside of the outer skin of the sheep there is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -a thick, tough membrane enveloping the whole animal; -the peculiar flavor called "woolly," which makes -mutton disagreeable to many, is given to the meat -largely by this covering. It is supposed that the oil -from the wool strikes through. An important point -in the preparation of the meat for cooking is the removal -of this skin, for otherwise the unpleasant taste -will be very strong, and the chop or roast consequently -far from as delicate as it might be.</p> - -<p>The value of mutton as a nutrient is practically the -same as that of beef, as may be seen by comparing the -following table with that of beef previously given.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">As material for muscle</td><td class="tdr">21</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">As heat-giver</td><td class="tdr">14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">As food for brain and nervous system</td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">63</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="p2 pfs90">DIGESTIBILITY OF MUTTON</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc wd15">Hours.</td><td class="tdc wd15">Minutes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Broiled</td><td class="tdc">3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Boiled</td><td class="tdc">3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Roasted</td><td class="tdc">3</td><td class="tdc">15</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<h5>MUTTON CHOPS</h5> - -<p>For the same reason that is given in the rule for -beefsteak, mutton chops should be thick. When the -fat is abundant and little lines of fat run through the -flesh, it is an indication of a good quality of meat.</p> - -<p>To prepare the chops for broiling, cut away the -tough outside skin, trim off a part of the fat, but not -all, and any portion of the spinal cord which may be -attached. Broil in the same manner that steak is -done—that is, close to the glowing coals—for about -one minute, turning often, and at a distance from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -them for the rest of the time, which should be from -<em>four</em> to <em>six</em> minutes for a chop an <em>inch thick</em>.</p> - -<p>Mutton, like beef, should be served rare. Season -chops with salt and pepper, but no butter, as the meat -is rich in fat and does not require it. Tomato-sauce -is an old-fashioned accompaniment of a chop, and may -or may not be served with it. For breakfast it is better -omitted.</p> - -<h5>CHOPS, PAN-BROILED</h5> - -<p>Chops are fairly good pan-broiled. The same principle -is to be followed as in cooking over coals—that -is, a high degree of heat at first, to sear over the outside -before the juices escape, and a low temperature -afterward; therefore heat the pan or spider <em>exceedingly</em> -hot (use no fat), drop in the chop, count ten and -turn, count again and turn again for about one minute, -then draw the pan to the side or back of the -stove and finish slowly. A chop one inch thick will -be perfectly done in from <em>five</em> to <em>seven</em> minutes. If -the pan is hot enough at first, there will be no loss of -juice or flavor. Season and serve in the same manner -as broiled chops.</p> - -<h5>FRENCH CHOPS</h5> - -<p>Trim a chop until there is nothing left but the -round muscle at the thick end, with a little fat about -it. Cut away all the meat from the bone, which will -then look like a handle with a neat morsel at one -end. Broil.</p> - -<h5>CHOPS IN PAPER</h5> - -<p>Spread a piece of paper evenly and thickly with -butter. Lay upon it a nicely trimmed chop, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -double the paper with the edges together. Fold and -crease these edges on the three sides; then fold and -crease again, so that the butter cannot run out. These -folds should be <em>half an inch</em> wide. It will be necessary -to have the sheet of paper (note-paper or thick -brown paper will do) considerably more than twice as -large as the chop. Broil over coals, not too near, -turning often so that the temperature shall not get so -high as to ignite the paper. A chop broiled in this -way is basted in the butter and its own juices, and is -very delicate. Be careful not to let the paper ignite, -and yet do not have it so far from the coals that the -meat will not cook. This is best accomplished by -holding the broiler near the coals and turning often: -that is, about once in twenty seconds. There is no -danger that the paper will catch fire if the broiler is -turned often enough. A chop three quarters of an -inch thick will cook in <em>five</em> minutes, one an inch thick -in <em>eight</em>. Should the paper catch fire, it need not destroy -the chop. Take it out, put it into a fresh paper, -and try again. The chop should be served very hot, -seasoned with salt and pepper.</p> - -<h4>LAMB CHOPS</h4> - -<p>Lamb chops are very delicate and tender. They -may be known by the lighter color of the flesh as -compared with mutton chops, and by the whiteness of -the fat. Prepare and broil them in the same way -that mutton chops are broiled, except that they are -to be <em>well done</em> instead of rare, and to accomplish -this longer cooking by about three minutes will be -required: for a chop an inch thick, from <em>eight</em> to <em>ten</em> -minutes, instead of from four to six as for mutton.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">STEWS</h3> - -<h4>CHICKEN STEW</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of chicken meat.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of white turnip.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of curry-powder.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - A little white pepper.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of rice.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Left-over broiled chicken or the cuttings from a -cold roast will do for this dish. Divide the meat into -small pieces, excluding all skin, gristle, tendons, and -bone. Boil the bones and scraps, in water enough to -cover them, for an hour. Then strain the liquor, skim -off the fat, and put into it the chicken, onion, turnip -(which should be cut in small cubes), curry-powder, -salt, pepper, and rice. Simmer all together for an -hour. Serve. The vegetables and curry flavor the -meat, and a most easily digested and palatable dish -is the result.</p> - -<p>Potatoes may be substituted for the rice, and celery-salt, -bay-leaves, or sweet marjoram for the curry. If -herbs be used, tie them in a bag and drop it into the -stew, of course removing it before carrying the dish -to the table.</p> - -<p>The above rule will make enough stew for two -persons. By multiplying each item in it, any amount -may be made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> - -<h4>BEEF STEW</h4> - -<p>Use for beef stew either cold beefsteak, the portions -left from a roast, or uncooked meat.</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of beef cut into small pieces.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of turnip.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of carrot.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -½ Cup of cut potatoes.<br /> - A little black pepper.<br /> -</div> - -<p>If beefsteak is selected, free it from fat, gristle, and -bone, and cut it into small pieces. Fry the onion, -carrot, and turnip (which should be cut into small -cubes) in a little butter, slowly, until they are brown. -Add them to the meat, cover it with water, and simmer -for one hour. Then skim off the fat, put in the -potatoes (cut in half-inch cubes) and the salt and pepper. -Boil for half an hour more. Serve in a covered -dish with croutons.</p> - -<p>The vegetables are fried partly to give the desirable -brown color to the stew, and partly because -their flavor is finer done that way. A beefsteak stew -is a very savory and satisfactory dish. If fresh, uncooked -meat is used, cut it into small pieces and fry -it in a hot buttered pan for a few minutes, to brown -the outside and thus obtain the agreeable flavor that -is developed in all meats by a high temperature. -Simmer two and a half hours before putting in the -potatoes.</p> - -<p>When the left-over portions of a roast are used, the -meat should be freed from all gristle, bone, and fat; -these may be boiled separately for additional broth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> - -<h4>MUTTON STEW</h4> - -<p>Exactly the same rule may be followed for mutton -stew as for beef. Do not forget to trim the meat -carefully. Use only clear pieces of the lean. If a -roast is used and there are bones, boil them in water -with the scraps for additional broth. Mutton stew is -good made with pearl-barley instead of potatoes, in the -proportion of one teaspoon of grain to a cup of meat; -it should be put in at the beginning of the cooking. -A half teaspoon of chopped parsley is a nice addition, -or a few tablespoons of stewed and strained tomato.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">SWEETBREADS</h3> - -<p>Sweetbreads are the pancreatic glands of the calf. -They are good while the animal lives on milk, but -change their nature when it begins to eat grass and -hay, and are then no longer useful for food. The -gland consists of two parts, the long, slender portion -called the "neck" sweetbread, and the round, thick -part known as the "heart" sweetbread. These are -sometimes sold separately, but they should be together. -Among epicures sweetbreads are considered -a dainty, and are certainly a most acceptable form of -food for the sick.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare.</b> As soon as sweetbreads come from -market, they should be cleaned and parboiled. Cut -off any refuse,—such as pipes, fat, and all bruised -portions,—and wash them quickly in cold water. -Pour into a saucepan some boiling water, salt it, and -add a little lemon-juice or vinegar (not more than a -teaspoon to a pint of water); boil the sweetbreads -in this for fifteen minutes if they are to be creamed, -broiled, or baked, or again cooked in any way; but -if they are to be served plain with peas, they should -remain on twenty-five or thirty minutes. When -done, drain off the water and set them aside to cool. -Sweetbreads must always be parboiled as soon as -possible after being taken from the animal, as they -decay quickly. Sweetbreads may be made white by -soaking them in cold water for half an hour; the -flavor, however, is said to be injured by so doing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p> - -<h4>CREAMED SWEETBREADS</h4> - -<p>Make a <em>cream sauce</em> with a cup of sweet cream, a -tablespoon of flour, and half a tablespoon of butter. -Then cut a sweetbread into half-inch cubes, salt it -slightly, and sprinkle on a little white pepper. Mix -equal quantities of it and the cream sauce together, -put the mixture into individual porcelain patty-dishes -or scallop-dishes, sprinkle the top with buttered -crumbs, and bake on the grate in a hot oven for ten -minutes. This will give sufficient time to finish the -cooking of the parboiled sweetbread without hardening -it.</p> - -<p>The sauce may be made quite acceptably with milk, -by using a tablespoon of butter instead of half that -quantity. This is a good way to prepare sweetbreads, -and one particularly desirable for the sick. -They will be tender and delicate if care is taken -not to overcook them in either the boiling or the -baking.</p> - -<h4>FRICASSEED SWEETBREADS</h4> - -<p>Cut a parboiled sweetbread into half-inch cubes. -Then make a sauce with half a teaspoon of flour, -a teaspoon of butter, three fourths of a cup of strong -chicken broth, and one fourth of a cup of sweet cream. -Heat the broth. Cook the flour in the butter, letting -the two simmer together until brown, then add the -hot broth, a little at a time, stirring constantly, and -last put in the cream. Season the sauce with a bit of -salt, a little black pepper, half a teaspoon of lemon-juice, -and a speck of curry-powder. Roll the cut -sweetbread into it, simmer for five minutes, and -serve on sippets, or on squares of dry toast in a covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -dish. The chicken broth may be made by boiling -the bones and cuttings of a roast, and milk may -be substituted for the cream.</p> - -<h4>SWEETBREADS WITH PEAS</h4> - -<p>A favorite way of serving sweetbreads is with fresh -peas. They should be boiled in salted water and -arranged in the middle of a platter with the peas -(cooked and seasoned) around them. Serve them -with a cream sauce. Or the peas may be piled in the -middle of a platter, the sweetbreads arranged as a -border, and the sauce poured around the whole. Sweetbreads -larded and baked may also be served in this -way.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">FISH</h3> - -<p>Fish fresh from the lakes or sea is excellent food. -The point of freshness is a very important one, for -all kinds spoil quickly, and, unless you can be quite -sure how long they have been out of the water, it is -better to find some other food for your invalid. Some -shell-fish, such as crabs and lobsters, are especially -dangerous, and should not be eaten by either sick or -well, unless they are <em>known</em> to be in perfect condition. -For the sick they had better not be used at all.</p> - -<p>"The flesh of good fresh fish is <em>firm</em> and <em>hard</em>, and -will rise at once when pressed with the finger. If -the eyes be dull or sunken, the gills pale, and the -flesh soft and flabby, the fish is not fresh." (Mrs. -Lincoln.)</p> - -<p>Fish with red blood, such for instance as <em>salmon</em>, -are highly nutritious but not easily digested, partly -because of the amount of fat distributed through the -flesh. <em>Herring</em> and <em>mackerel</em> belong to this class. -White fish, such as <em>cod</em>, <em>haddock</em>, <em>turbot</em>, <em>halibut</em>, and -<em>flounder</em>, contain comparatively little fat, and that -mostly in the liver. They are easy of digestion, and -possess a delicate flavor. When in season and just -from their native element, these fish are delicious, -and make excellent food for the sick, on account of -the ease with which they are digested.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare.</b> If fish be brought from market with -the scales on, as is usually the case, it is a very easy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -matter to remove them. A large sheet of brown -paper, or a newspaper, and a knife not very sharp, are -all that are necessary. Spread the paper on the table, -lay the fish upon it, and then with the blade of the -knife held <em>parallel</em> with the body of the fish, or nearly -so, not at right angles to it, push off the scales. -They will come off easily, and will not fly unless you -turn the edge of the knife too much. Should this -happen, the paper will catch the scales, and when the -fish is finished all the refuse can be rolled up in the -paper and burned. After removing the scales, cut -off the head, fins, and tail. Make a slit on the under -side, and take out the contents of the cavity, clearing -out everything that is not flesh. Then wash the fish -quickly in a stream of cold water, wipe it, and set it -in a cool place (a refrigerator if you have it) until it is -required for cooking. Do not lay it directly on ice, -for the juices of the fish are dissolved by the water -which is formed as the ice melts, and its delicate -flavor is thus impaired.</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs90">WHEN IN SEASON</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd60">Cod</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Haddock</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cusk</td><td class="tdl">Winter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Halibut</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Flounders</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salmon</td><td class="tdl">May to September.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Shad</td><td class="tdl">Spring.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Bluefish</td><td class="tdl">June to October.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Whitefish</td><td class="tdl">Winter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Swordfish</td><td class="tdl">July to September.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Smelts</td><td class="tdl">September to March.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Perch</td><td class="tdl">Spring and summer.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mackerel</td><td class="tdl">April to October.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Oysters</td><td class="tdl">September to May.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Clams</td><td class="tdl">All the year.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> - -<h4>BROILED FISH</h4> - -<p>Small fish, such as perch, scrod (young cod), etc., are -excellent broiled. After the fish is cleaned, washed -out, and wiped, split it lengthwise if it be thick, -sprinkle on salt and pepper, squeeze over it some -drops of lemon-juice, dip it in melted butter, and -broil over clear coals, quickly at first and then very -slowly, allowing ten minutes for each inch of thickness. -Serve with butter cream.</p> - -<p><b>To Make Butter Cream.</b> Cream some butter in a cup -or bowl, season it with salt, Cayenne pepper, lemon-juice, -and vinegar. A teaspoon of butter is enough -for an ordinary small fish such as a perch, and to -season it a speck of cayenne, a speck of salt, and a -teaspoon of vinegar and lemon-juice (half of each), -will be good proportions. Spread it on the fish, and -let it melt and run over it, or serve it separately in -a little ball on a glass butter-plate. A nice addition -to the butter is a little finely minced parsley, or -chopped pickle, such as cucumbers or olives, or the -three mixed, if they are at hand.</p> - -<h4>CREAMED FISH</h4> - -<p>To make creamed fish, any white fish which flakes -easily may be used. Cusk, cod, and haddock are especially -recommended. Cook the fish fifteen or twenty -minutes by gentle boiling. Then remove the flesh -carefully from the bones, letting it separate into flakes; -season it with pepper and salt, and a few drops of -lemon-juice sprinkled over. For every pint of prepared -fish make a rich cream sauce with four tablespoons -of butter, two of flour, and a pint of milk in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -which a small slice of onion has been boiled. Pour -the sauce over the seasoned fish, rolling them together -gently so that the flakes may not be broken, arrange -on a platter, sprinkle the top with buttered crumbs, -and bake in a hot oven from twenty minutes to half -an hour. A speck of cayenne is a good addition to -make to the sauce. This is a delicious and wholesome -dish. The butter is so thoroughly incorporated with -the flour of the sauce that it becomes one of the few -very easily digested forms of cooked fat.</p> - -<h4>BOILED FISH</h4> - -<p>Select any white fish—fresh cod for instance. Prepare -it according to the directions given for cleaning -fish, put it into a wire vegetable-basket, drop the -basket into a dish of boiling salted water, and let it -simmer for from fifteen minutes to three quarters of -an hour according to the size of the fish (a cod weighing -three pounds will require cooking a half hour). -Do not allow it to boil rapidly at any time, or it will -break. When it is done lift it out of the basket and -serve it at once with drawn butter made in the following -manner:</p> - -<p>Put two tablespoons of butter and one of flour into -a saucepan; let them simmer together for two minutes -(count the time); then add, a little at a time, a pint -of boiling water or of chicken broth, stirring constantly. -This will give a smooth cream-like sauce -which will be enough for two pounds of fish. Season -it with parsley, grated yolks of hard-boiled eggs, a -few drops of lemon-juice, a bit each of cayenne and -mustard, and a few drops of onion-juice.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">CUSTARDS, CREAMS, PUDDINGS, AND -BLANC-MANGE</h3> - -<h4>SOFT CUSTARD</h4> - -<p class="pfs90">(BOILED)</p> - -<p>Soft custard is a nutritious dish made of yolk of -egg and milk. It is frequently used as a sauce for -puddings, but is very good, eaten by itself, for one -who is confined to light or liquid diet.</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Pint of milk.<br /> -Yolks of two eggs.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the milk into a saucepan, and set it on the stove -to boil. Beat together the yolks of the eggs, the salt, -and the sugar, in a bowl, and when the milk just -reaches the boiling-point, pour it in slowly, stirring -until all is mixed. Return it to the saucepan without -delay, and cook for <em>three minutes</em>, meanwhile stirring -it slowly. Carefully endeavor not to either overcook -or undercook the custard, for if it is not cooked enough, -it will have a raw, unpleasant, "eggy" taste, and if it is -cooked too much, it will have the appearance of being -curdled. If there is no unnecessary delay in pouring -the milk into the egg so that not much of its heat is -lost, and if it is returned immediately to the fire, -three minutes' exposure to the heat will usually be -long enough, but of course the time will vary according -to the condition of the fire and the kind of pan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -used. When done, strain it at once into a cool dish, -and flavor it with a teaspoon of vanilla. Soft custard -may also be flavored with sherry wine, almond extract, -cinnamon-bark, caramel, and nutmeg. It should -be of a smooth and even consistency, and as thick as -rich cream.</p> - -<h4>BAKED CUSTARD</h4> - -<p class="pfs90">(IN CUPS)</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 2 Eggs.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -½ Square inch of cinnamon-bark.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the cinnamon and milk together in a saucepan, -and set on the stove to heat. Break the eggs into a -bowl, add the salt and sugar, and beat them until well -mixed, but not light. When the milk boils, pour it on -the beaten egg, stir slowly for a minute to dissolve -the sugar, and then strain it into custard-cups. Place -the cups in a deep iron baking-pan, and pour <em>boiling</em> -water around, until it reaches almost to their tops. -Bake in a hot oven twenty minutes.</p> - -<p>The blue baking-cups which are small at the bottom -and widen toward the top are good ones to use. They -bear the fire well, and are pretty enough to serve.</p> - -<p>By baking the custards in a dish of boiling water, -the temperature cannot rise higher than 212° Fahr., -and there is less danger of hardening the albumen in -the more exposed portions before the middle is cooked -enough, than if water is not used. The top is sacrificed—somewhat -overcooked—for the sake of the -pretty brown color which they should always have. -Custards, when done, should be of a perfectly smooth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -even, velvety consistence throughout, not curdled or -wheyey.</p> - -<p>To test them after they have been cooking twenty -minutes, dip a pointed knife into water, and plunge -it into the middle of the custard. If it comes out -clean, the custard is done; if milky, it is not cooked -enough, and should be put into the oven for five minutes -longer. Do not try every one unless the cups are -of different sizes, and make a small, narrow slit, so that -their appearance will not be too much injured. This -mixture may also be baked in a pudding-dish. Baked -custards may be flavored with a variety of substances, -among the best of which are grated nutmeg, almond -extract, vanilla, and caramel.</p> - -<p><b>To Make Caramel.</b> Boil together one cup of sugar -and one third of a cup of water until the color is a -rich reddish brown, then add one cup of water, and -bottle for use. Two tablespoons of this syrup will be -required to flavor a pint of custard.</p> - -<h4>FRENCH CUSTARD</h4> - -<p>Make a custard mixture according to the above rule, -omitting the cinnamon. Put into the bottom of the -custard-cups in which it is to be baked, a teaspoon of -raspberry jam. Then with a tunnel pour the custard -in slowly. Bake twenty minutes. The jam, if firm, will -not mix with the custard. It imparts a nice flavor to -the whole, and is an interesting dish to many, who -wonder how the jam can be kept from dissolving.</p> - -<h4>RENNET CUSTARD OR SLIP</h4> - -<p>Put into a glass pudding-dish a pint of milk, a -tablespoon of sugar, and a teaspoon of rennet. Stir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -to dissolve the sugar, cover it and place it on the -stove-hearth, or any warm place, to heat sufficiently -for the rennet to act upon the casein of the milk—that -is, to about 98° Fahr. As soon as it is "set," or -becomes solid, remove to a cool place, so that the separation -of the casein shall not go too far and whey -appear. When it is cool, serve it in glass dishes. Rennet -custard may be flavored with nutmeg grated over -the surface, or by stirring in with the rennet a teaspoon -of vanilla, or of rose-water, or a tablespoon of -wine. When brandy is added, it is called <em>junket</em>.</p> - -<p>Liquid rennet is an extract of the inner lining of -the stomach of the calf. It has the power of freeing -the albuminous part of milk from its solution,—in -other words, of coagulating it. Rennet custard is not -of course strictly a custard; it is also called slip, and -in Cape Cod it bears the graphic name of "Gap-and-swallow."</p> - -<h4>EGG CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2 Eggs.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -Juice and grated rind of half a lemon.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Separate the yolks of the eggs from the whites, and -beat them with the sugar in a bowl until both are -well mixed. Then put in the lemon-juice and rind, -and place the bowl in a dish of boiling water on -the fire. Stir slowly until the mixture begins to -thicken; then add the beaten whites of the eggs and -stir for two minutes, or until the whole resembles -<em>very thick</em> cream; then remove it from the fire, pour -into a small pudding-dish, and set it away to cool. -Serve in small pretty china cups, or small glass dishes, -for a mid-afternoon lunch or for tea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> - -<h4>VELVET CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> -¼ Cup of sherry wine.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice.<br /> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> - 1¼ Cups of creamy milk, or<br /> - 1½ Cups of sweet cream.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the gelatine in the cold water in a bowl for -half an hour; then pour in the wine, and set the bowl -in a dish of boiling water on the fire. When the -gelatine is dissolved, put in the lemon-juice and -sugar, stir for a minute to dissolve the sugar, and -then strain it through a fine wire strainer into a granite -or other metal pan. Set the pan in a dish of ice -and water to cool. As soon as it begins to thicken, -or is about the consistency of molasses on a warm -day, turn in the cream and stir regularly and constantly -until it begins to thicken. Before it is quite -as hard as it will become, turn it into a glass or -pretty china dish, in which it may be served, and set -it away in the refrigerator or back in the dish of ice -and water until perfectly firm. Serve it in small glass -or china dishes, with sweet cream poured over. This -cream should be of a perfectly smooth, even consistency, -hence the name "velvet cream."</p> - -<h4>COFFEE CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -½ Cup of strong coffee.<br /> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> - 1½ Cups of sweet cream, or<br /> - 1¼ Cups of creamy milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the gelatine in the cold water for half an -hour. Then pour on the coffee, boiling hot, to dissolve -it; add the sugar, stir until it is dissolved, and -strain the liquid into a granite pan. Set it in iced -water to cool; when it has become so, and is beginning -to thicken, or is about the consistency of syrup or -a little thinner, pour in the cream; stir regularly and -evenly for about ten minutes, or until it is thick, but -not hard; then turn it into a glass dish while it is -still slightly soft, and it will settle into a smooth, even -mass. It may be returned to the iced water, or put -into a refrigerator, to stiffen.</p> - -<p>Coffee cream is similar to velvet cream and the process -is exactly the same for both. They are delicious -creams, very nutritious, and to be recommended for -their excellent nourishing properties and flavors.</p> - -<p><b>To Make the Coffee.</b> Mix two tablespoons of ground -fresh Java, or Java and Mocha coffee mixed, with a -little cold water and raw egg (either white or yolk) in a -coffee-pot. Stir it to thoroughly mix the egg and coffee. -Pour in a cup of boiling water, and set it to boil for -five minutes. Then move the pot to a less hot part -of the stove, where the coffee will barely simmer, for -ten minutes, when it will be ready for use.</p> - -<h4>CHOCOLATE CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -½ Ounce (½ square) of Baker's chocolate.<br /> - 1 Pint of cream.<br /> -Whites of four eggs.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p> - -<p>Cook the sugar, chocolate, and cream (sweet cream -or, if that cannot be had, rich milk) together in a -double boiler until the chocolate is perfectly dissolved. -It will require occasional stirring, and should -be, when done, entirely free from specks or flakes of -chocolate. Then stir in, pouring slowly, the well-beaten -whites of the eggs while the cream is still on -the stove. Cook for three minutes, or until the albumen -is coagulated, but not hardened. It should look -creamy and smooth, not curdled. Turn into a pudding-dish -and cool.</p> - -<h4>TAPIOCA CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Cup of granulated tapioca.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 3 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 2 Eggs.<br /> -</div> - -<p>After the tapioca is picked over and washed, put it -into a double boiler with the cold water, and let it -stand until the water is absorbed. Then pour in the -pint of milk, and cook until each grain is transparent -and soft. It will take an hour. At this point, beat -the eggs, sugar, and salt together until very light, and -pour them slowly into the hot pudding, at the same -time stirring rapidly, so that the two will be perfectly -mixed. After the egg is in, continue to stir for about -three minutes, or long enough to cook the egg as it -is done in soft custard. The pudding should have -the appearance of cream, as the name indicates, with -flecks of tapioca all through it. Turn it into a china -dish. Serve either hot or cold.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> - -<h4>RICE CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2 Tablespoons of rice.<br /> -2 Cups of milk.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -2 Eggs.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Cleanse the rice by washing it several times in cold -water; cook it in a double boiler with the milk until -the grains will mash. Three hours will generally -be required to do this. Should the milk evaporate, -restore the amount lost. When the rice is perfectly -soft, press it through a coarse soup-strainer or colander -into a saucepan, return it to the fire, and -while it is heating beat the eggs, sugar, and salt -together until very light. When the rice boils, pour -the egg in rather slowly, stirring lightly with a spoon -for three or four minutes, or until it coagulates and -the whole is like a thick, soft pudding; then remove -from the fire, and pour it into a pretty dish. By -omitting the yolks and using the whites of the eggs -only, a delicate white cream is obtained.</p> - -<h4>PEACH FOAM</h4> - -<p class="pfs90">(DELICIOUS)</p> - -<p>Peel and cut into small pieces three or four choice -and very ripe peaches (White Heaths are good), so -that when done there will be a cupful. Put them -into a bowl, with half a cup of powdered sugar, and -the white of one egg. Beat with a fork for <em>half an -hour</em>, when it will be a thick, perfectly smooth, velvety -cream, with a delightful peach flavor, and may -be eaten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad libitum</i> by an invalid.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> - -<h4>SNOW PUDDING</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> - 1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar.<br /> -¼ Cup of lemon-juice.<br /> -Whites of three eggs.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a><br /> -</div> - -<p><em>For the sauce</em>:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -Yolks of two eggs.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of vanilla.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Divide a box of gelatine into fourths by notching one -of the upright edges. Cut off one fourth of the box -for a measure, which can afterward be used as a cover. -When taking out a fourth, be sure to pack the measure -as closely as it was packed in the box. Soak the -gelatine in the cold water for half an hour. Then -pour on the boiling water, add the sugar and lemon-juice, -stir for a minute, and strain through a fine wire -strainer into a granite pan; place the pan in iced water -to cool. Meanwhile beat the eggs as light as possible, -and as soon as the gelatine mixture begins to thicken, -or is about as thick as honey, turn in the eggs, and -stir slowly and regularly, with the back of the bowl of -the spoon against the bottom of the pan, until the egg -is mixed completely with the gelatine and the whole -nearly stiff. Just before it becomes firm turn it into a -melon-mold, and return it to the iced water to harden. -It should be perfectly white, <em>literally</em>, like snow.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> -<p>With the materials for the sauce make a soft custard, -cool it, and serve with the pudding either in a -pitcher, or poured around it in an ice-cream dish, or -other shallow pudding-dish.</p> - -<h4>PRINCESS PUDDING</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Box of gelatine.<br /> -¼ Cup of cold water.<br /> -¾ Cup of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar.<br /> -½ Cup of white wine (sherry).<br /> -Juice of one lemon.<br /> -Whites of three eggs.<br /> -</div> - -<p><em>For the sauce</em>:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Pint of milk.<br /> -Yolks of two eggs.<br /> -3 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of rose-water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>The process is exactly the same as for <em>snow pudding</em>, -and it is served in the same manner, with the -soft custard for a sauce. Ordinary sherry wine may -be used, although white sherry is better.</p> - -<h4>CORN-STARCH PUDDING</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1½ Tablespoons of corn-starch.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of cold water.<br /> -1 Pint of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> - -<p>Put the milk on the stove to heat. Mix in a saucepan -the corn-starch, sugar, and salt with the cold -water, and when the milk has just begun to boil pour -it in, slowly at first, stirring all the while. The corn-starch -should become thick at once, when it may be -poured into a clean double boiler and cooked thirty -minutes. The time should be faithfully kept, as corn-starch -is an unpalatable and indigestible substance unless -thoroughly cooked. See to it that the water in the -under boiler <em>actually boils</em> during the thirty minutes. -At the end of that time beat one egg very light, and -stir it in, pouring slowly, so that it may be mixed -all through the hot pudding and puff it up. Then -cook for one minute, turn it into a china pudding-dish, -or into individual molds, and cool. Serve with -cream.</p> - -<p>Corn-starch pudding should have a tender consistency -and a sweet and wholesome taste. The difficulty -with many is that they are not thoroughly -cooked, and are too stiff and hard when cool. When -you find this to be the case, lessen the amount of -corn-starch used. The proportion in this recipe may -always be relied upon.</p> - -<p>Other similar puddings may be made by substituting -in the above recipe arrowroot, flour, or farina for -the corn-starch.</p> - -<h4>BARLEY PUDDING</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Tablespoons of Robinson's barley flour.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Cup of water (boiling).<br /> -½ Cup of rich milk.<br /> -Whites of three eggs.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mix the flour, sugar, and salt in a saucepan with a -little cold water. When smooth and free from lumps -pour in the boiling water, slowly stirring meanwhile -to keep it smooth; then set it on the fire to simmer for -ten minutes, continuing the stirring until it is thick. -To prevent burning, draw the pan to the side of the -stove, unless the fire is very slow, for barley is a grain -which sticks and burns easily. At the end of the ten -minutes put in the milk, and strain all into a clean -saucepan, through a coarse strainer, to make the consistency -even. Beat the whites of the eggs until light -but not stiff, and stir, not beat, them into the pudding, -making it thoroughly smooth before returning it to -the fire. Cook for five minutes, stirring and folding -the pudding lightly until the egg is coagulated. Then -pour it into a china pudding-dish. Serve cold with -sweet cream. This is good for one who is just beginning -to eat solid food.</p> - -<h4>CREAM-OF-RICE PUDDING</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Quart of milk.<br /> -½ Cup of rice.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the milk, rice, sugar, and salt together in a -pudding-dish, stir until the sugar is dissolved, then -place the dish in a pan of water, and bake in a slow -oven for three hours, cutting in the crust which forms -on the top once during the time. Should the pudding -become dry, pour over it a little more milk, but this -will not happen unless the fire is too hot. When -done it ought to be creamy inside, with the grains of -rice almost dissolved in the milk. The long exposure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -to heat changes both the sugar and the starch, and -gives them an agreeable flavor.</p> - -<h4>FRUIT TAPIOCA</h4> - -<p>Wash half a cup of tapioca, put it into a double -boiler with a pint of water, and cook until the grains -are soft and transparent. If granulated tapioca is -used, one hour is sufficient time. Then add to it half -a cup of grape or currant jelly, and mix until the -jelly is dissolved; turn it into a pudding-dish. Serve -cold, with sugar and cream. Any well-flavored fruit -jelly may be used instead of the grape or currant.</p> - -<h4>TAPIOCA JELLY</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Cup of tapioca.<br /> - 2 Cups of water.<br /> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> -Juice and grated rind of half a lemon.<br /> -¼ Cup of sherry wine, or<br /> -¼ Cup of brandy (French).<br /> -</div> - -<p>Pick over and wash the tapioca. Put it into a -double boiler with the water, and cook it for one -hour, or until the grains are transparent and soft. -Then add to it the sugar, juice and grated rind of -the lemon, the sherry and the brandy, mixing them -thoroughly. Press all through a wire strainer into -a glass pudding-dish, and set it in a cool place to become -a jelly. It should be served cold, and with -cream.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> - -<h4>ORANGE LAYERS</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 4 Oranges.<br /> - 3 Bananas.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar.<br /> -⅓ Cup of water.<br /> - 1 Cup of claret wine.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Peel the oranges, slice them in thin slices, and remove -the seeds. Peel and slice the bananas. Arrange -both in alternate layers in a glass dish. Make a -syrup of the sugar and water by boiling them together, -without stirring, for ten minutes; then add -the wine, and remove at once from the fire; cool it, -and pour it over the fruit. In half an hour it will be -ready to serve.</p> - -<p>It will not do to keep this dish long, as the fruit -shrinks and loses its freshness. One fourth of an -inch is the proper thickness for the slices of orange, -and one sixth or one eighth for the bananas.</p> - -<h4>ORANGE BASKETS</h4> - -<p>From the end opposite the stem end of an orange cut -out sections in such a way as to form a basket with -a handle.</p> - -<p>The body of the basket should be <em>more</em> than <em>half</em> the -orange. With a knife and spoon cut and scrape out -all the pulp from the inside. Fill the baskets with -blocks of orange jelly, or with raspberries, strawberries, -or other fruits. They are pleasing to children, -and are pretty for luncheon or tea. The edges may -be scalloped, and diamonds or rounds cut out of the -sides, if one has time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> - -<h4>IRISH MOSS BLANC-MANGE</h4> - -<p>Irish moss, or carrageen, is a sea moss which grows -abundantly along the shores of Europe and America. -After gathering, it is dried and bleached in the sun, -and then packed for market. It is exceedingly rich -in an easily digested vegetable jelly, and is also valuable -for food because of its mineral constituents.</p> - -<p><b>To Prepare.</b></p> - -<div class="recipe"> -⅓ Cup of dry moss.<br /> - 1 Quart of milk.<br /> -¼ Cup of sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the moss for half an hour in warm water, to -soften it and to loosen the sand which is dried and -entangled in it. Wash each piece separately under a -stream of cold water. Its weight (that of the water) -will carry down the sand. Then put the moss in a -pudding-bag, and cook it in a double boiler in the -quart of milk for one hour. At the end of that time -lift out the bag, squeeze it a little, throw away the -moss, and put the bag to soak in cold water. Add -the sugar to the mixture, strain it into molds, and set -in a cool place to harden. It will form a tender jelly-like -pudding, which has an agreeable taste, resembling -the odor of the sea, which many like. Serve it with -cream, and with or without pink sugar.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<p>This blanc-mange may also be made without sugar -if it is desirable to have an unsweetened dessert.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> - -<h4>PINK BLANC-MANGE</h4> - -<p>Make a pudding according to the above rule. Color -it, just before straining, with three or four drops of -carmine, barely enough to give a delicate shell pink, -for if it is very dark it is not attractive.</p> - -<p>Carmine for use in cooking is made by mixing one -ounce of No. 40 carmine (which may be obtained of a -druggist) with three ounces of boiling water and one -ounce of ammonia. It should be bottled, and will keep -indefinitely. It is useful for coloring ice-cream, cake, -and puddings.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">SALADS</h3> - -<p>Salads are of two classes: the plain salads, consisting -of green herbs or vegetables, such as lettuce, -endive, water-cress, cucumber, etc., dressed or seasoned -with salt, pepper, oil and vinegar, or oil and lemon-juice; -and the so-called meat salads, which consist of -one or more green vegetables, with an admixture of -fish, lobster, crab, fowl, or game. A salad of whichever -kind should be cool, delicate, and prepared by a -gentle hand. Ordinary servants do not enough appreciate -the "niceties" to make acceptable salads. -The lettuce, cress, or whatever green is used, should -be thoroughly washed, but not crushed, broken, or -roughly handled, drained in a wire basket, dried in -a napkin, and then torn with the fingers, <em>not cut</em>. Of -course, cucumbers, beet-root, olives, etc., are exceptions.</p> - -<p>The dressing for salads, whether simply oil and vinegar, -or a mayonnaise, should be mixed with a wooden -spoon, and an intelligent mind. As for the seasonings, -the Spanish maxim which reads as follows is a -good guide: "Be a miser with vinegar, a counselor -with salt, and a spendthrift with oil." Let the oil be -of the first quality of genuine olive-oil. In nearly all -the large cities one may get fine oil by searching for -it. Once found, there is no longer any difficulty, so -long as the brand does not deteriorate.</p> - -<p>To vary and flavor the salads of vegetables <em>only</em>, use -the fine herbs when in season, for instance balm, mint, -parsley, cress, and sorrel, chopped or minced, and -scattered through the salad. Unless the vinegar is -known to be pure cider or wine vinegar, use lemon-juice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -Theodore Child says: "Lemon-juice is the -most delicate and deliciously perfumed acid that nature -has given the cook."</p> - -<h4>FRENCH DRESSING</h4> - -<p>French dressing is a mixture of fine olive-oil, vinegar -or lemon-juice, or both, salt, Cayenne pepper, and -onion-juice. The following proportions will make -enough for one head of lettuce:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Tablespoon of oil.<br /> -A bit of cayenne.<br /> -½ Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 4 Drops of onion-juice.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of vinegar.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix all together well. This dressing may be used -with lettuce, tomatoes, cold meat, potato salad, and -to marinate chicken, lobster, and crab when they are -to be used for salads.</p> - -<h4>MAYONNAISE DRESSING</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 2 Saltspoons of mustard.<br /> - 2 Saltspoons of sugar.<br /> -¼ Saltspoon of cayenne.<br /> -Yolk of one egg.<br /> -½ Cup of olive-oil.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of vinegar.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of thick sweet cream.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p> - -<p>These proportions may be multiplied or divided to -make larger or smaller quantities. Put the first five -ingredients together in a bowl, and mix them well; -then add the oil one drop at a time, stirring constantly -with a wooden paddle or spoon "round and -round," not back and forth. After dropping and -stirring for ten minutes, the mixture will become stiff -and difficult to turn. At this point stir in a little of -the vinegar or lemon-juice. Then drop in more oil, -and stir until it again becomes stiff. Continue putting -in oil and the acids until all are used, when you -should have a thick, smooth cream which, when taken -up on the end of the spoon, will keep its shape and -not "run." It will take from twenty minutes to half -an hour to make it. Last stir in the cream.</p> - -<p>Should the dressing "break," or appear as if curdled, -it may sometimes be restored to smoothness by beating -with a Dover egg-beater, or by adding more egg and -stirring for a while without adding oil. If these expedients -fail, begin all over again, adding the spoiled -dressing to a new one. However, a mayonnaise -dressing will not go wrong except in the hands of a -careless worker. The only points to be observed are -to put the oil in <em>slowly</em>, and to stir <em>constantly</em> and -<em>rapidly</em>. The sweet cream is a valuable addition, giving -the mayonnaise a delicate, satisfying flavor.</p> - -<h4>LETTUCE SALAD</h4> - -<p>Prepare a head of lettuce by washing each leaf separately -in a stream of water, tearing off any portion -that is bruised or brown, and looking carefully for -little green creatures that may be lodged in the -creases; they are not easily seen. Then drain the -lettuce on a fresh towel or napkin, for if the leaves are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -very wet the dressing will not cling to them. Next -tear it to pieces with the fingers, rejecting the large -part of the midrib, put it into a deep bowl, pour -on a French dressing, and toss it with a wooden salad-spoon -and fork until all the lettuce seems oiled. -Serve immediately.</p> - -<p>Mayonnaise dressing may be used instead of the -French dressing in this salad.</p> - -<h4>TOMATO SALAD</h4> - -<p>Wash in cold water and wipe some fair, ripe tomatoes. -Cut them in slices one third of an inch thick. -Do not peel them. Arrange some clean white lettuce -leaves on a silver or china platter, with two large -leaves at either end, their stems toward the middle, -and two small ones at the sides. Lay on them the -slices of tomato, with their edges overlapping each -other. Serve with this salad French dressing.</p> - -<h4>CHICKEN SALAD</h4> - -<p>Prepare a nice chicken (one not too young) by boiling -it until tender. Then set it away in its own -broth to cool. (It is a good plan to boil the chicken the -day before it is intended for use.) Meanwhile make -a mayonnaise dressing. When the chicken has become -cold, take it from the broth, and cut it as nearly -as possible into half-inch cubes, rejecting all skin, -tendons, cords, and bones. Season it with salt and -pepper. Tear into small pieces with the fingers some -tender, well-cleaned lettuce, and then mix equal quantities -of chicken and lettuce with a part of the dressing; -arrange it in a shallow salad-bowl, and spread -the remainder of the mayonnaise over the top. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -yolk of egg hard-boiled and pressed through a wire -strainer with the back of a spoon, so that it falls in -little crinkled pieces all over the top, makes a pretty -garnish. Celery tops, the tiny inside leaves of lettuce, -and parsley may be used singly or together for -a border.</p> - -<p>Chicken salad is usually made with celery instead -of lettuce, but the latter is better for an invalid, -although tender, delicate celery may be used. Serve -a very small quantity, for chicken salad is a concentrated -food, and should not be eaten in large -amounts by either the convalescent or the well. The -chicken, lettuce, and dressing may all be prepared -beforehand, but on no account should they be mixed -together until just before serving.</p> - -<h4>POTATO SALAD</h4> - -<p>For this salad fresh boiled potatoes, red sugar-beets, -and French dressing are needed. The potatoes and -beets should be cooked in salted water purposely for -the salad, and allowed to become just cool. Cold -potatoes left over from the last meal may be used, but -they are not nice. When the potatoes are cool, cut -them into thin slices, season with a little more salt -and a bit of white pepper; cut the beets also in thin -slices, and mix the two in the proportions of one -third beets to two thirds potatoes, with the dressing, -or arrange them in alternate layers in a salad-bowl, -with the dressing poured over each layer as it is made.</p> - -<p>A more dainty way, and one which a person of cultivated -taste will appreciate (as it really makes a -perceptible difference in the flavor of the salad), is to -mix the lemon-juice, vinegar, salt, and pepper together -without the oil, and pour it over the different layers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -as they are laid, and then add the oil by itself. The -acids penetrate and season the vegetables, and the oil -is left on the outside of each piece.</p> - -<h4>POTATO SALAD WITH OLIVES</h4> - -<p>Make a potato salad according to the foregoing -rule, except substitute chopped olives for the beets, in -the proportion of one eighth olives by measure to -seven eighths potato.</p> - -<h4>CELERY SALAD</h4> - -<p>"One of the finest salads to be eaten, either alone or -with game, especially partridges or wild duck, is a -mixture of celery, beet-root, and corn-salad. Water-cresses -will make a poor substitute when broken into -small tufts.</p> - -<p>"The beets are cut into slices one sixteenth of an -inch thick; the celery, which must be young and -tender and thoroughly white, should be cut into -pieces an inch long, and then sliced lengthwise into -two or three pieces. (N. B.—Select only the tender -inside branches of celery.) This salad will require -plenty of oil, and more acid than a lettuce salad, -because of the sweetness and absorbent nature of -the beet-root. The general seasoning, too, must be -rather high, because the flavors of the celery and the -beet are pronounced." ("Delicate Feasting," by Theodore -Child.)</p> - -<p>There are many kinds of salads, but they are all -based upon the principles stated in these rules. Green -herbs or vegetables treated with French or mayonnaise -dressing, either by themselves or with meats, -form the foundations of all salads.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">ICE-CREAM, SHERBETS, AND ICES</h3> - -<p>For patients suffering with fevers, and for use in -very warm weather, good ice-cream and sherbet are -most acceptable. They should, however, be used with -great care, particularly if the illness be due to disturbance -of digestion, for they lower the temperature -of the stomach and often cause such disorders as lead -to severe illness. Even if this does not happen, they, -in order to be raised to a temperature at which digestion -will take place, absorb heat from the body, and a -person reduced by illness cannot afford to needlessly -part with any form of energy.</p> - -<p>Sherbet in its literal sense means a <em>cool drink</em>. It -is of oriental origin, but in this country it has come -to mean a frozen mixture of fruit, or fruit-juice, -water and sugar. There is a distinction made, however, -between water-ice and sherbet. Sherbet has, in -addition to the fruit-juice and water, either sugar-syrup, -white of egg, or gelatine, to give it sufficient -viscousness to entangle and hold air when beaten in a -freezer, so that sherbets (unless colored by the fruit -used) will be white and opaque like snow. Water-ices, -on the contrary, are made without the white of egg, -syrup, or gelatine, do not entangle air, and are translucent -and what might be called "watery." Both -are delicious when made with fresh, ripe fruit, and -both may be enriched by the addition of sweet cream -if desired.</p> - -<p><b>Freezers.</b> Of the various kinds of freezers perhaps -the "Improved White Mountain Freezer" is, everything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -considered, as good as any. It is strong and -freezes quickly when the salt and ice are properly proportioned.</p> - -<p>It is well to study the gearing before attempting -to use a freezer. The different parts should be -taken apart and put together until it is understood -how the machine works. See that the paddles in -the can do not interfere with each other, and that -the crank turns easily. Then put all together again, -fasten down the crank-bar across the top of the can, -and have everything in readiness before packing the -freezer with salt and ice. The object in using the salt -is to get a greater degree of cold than could be obtained -with the ice alone. The affinity of salt for -water is very great—so great, that it will break down -the structure of ice in its eagerness for it. Heat is -involved in this process of melting, and will be drawn -from surrounding objects, from the can, the bucket, -the cream, and even the ice itself. The more rapid -the union of salt and ice, the more heat is absorbed, -consequently the greater is the degree of cold and the -quicker the mixture to be frozen will become solid.</p> - -<p><em>Water</em> is converted into steam by a certain amount -of heat. <em>Ice</em> is transformed into <em>water</em> by the same -agency, and in the case of the ice-cream freezer heat -is drawn from whatever comes in contact with the -ice that is warmer than itself. If the melting of the -ice can be hastened in any way, the abstraction of -heat will be correspondingly greater; hence the use -of salt, which is so eager for water that it takes it -even in the form of ice. Now it will be easily seen -that if the ice is in small pieces, and there is the -proper amount of salt for each piece, union between -the two will be immediate, the amount of heat used -will be very great, consequently the degree of cold -will be great. Cold is only a less degree of heat.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p> - -<p>Ordinary liquid mixtures that contain a large percentage -of water become solid when reduced to a -temperature of 32° Fahr.</p> - -<p><b>To Pack an Ice-Cream Freezer.</b> Break a quantity of -ice into small pieces by pounding it in an ice-bag -(a bag made of canvas or very strong cloth) with a -wooden mallet. The ice should be about as fine as -small rock-salt. Put into the bucket, around the tin -can which is to hold the cream, alternate layers of -the pounded ice and salt in the proportions of two -thirds ice to one third salt (a quart cup may be used -for measuring). Should it happen that you have -"coarse-fine" salt, put all the ice into the freezer first, -and then the salt on top of it, as it will quickly work -down to the bottom. When the packing is complete -unfasten the cross-bar and lift off the cover of the -can carefully, so that no salt shall get inside; then -put in the mixture to be frozen, replace the cover, -and fasten the bar. Let it stand till the mixture is -thoroughly chilled, then turn <em>steadily</em> but not <em>very</em> -fast for about ten minutes, or until the turning becomes -difficult; that is an indication that the contents -of the can are freezing. Continue turning for a few -minutes longer, to give the cream a fine and even consistency; -then take out the paddle, drain off the water -through the hole in the side of the bucket, fill in all -about the can with coarse ice, and cover it with a thick -wet cloth or towel. Let it stand for half an hour to -become firm, when it is ready to serve. If it is desirable -to keep the ice-cream for a length of time, it may -be done by packing the freezer closely with ice and -salt, and covering it with wet cloths. Or, the ice-cream -may be taken from the can, packed in molds of -fanciful shapes, sealed at the edges with melted tallow, -and repacked in ice and salt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> - -<h4>PHILADELPHIA ICE-CREAM</h4> - -<p>The so-called Philadelphia ice-cream is pure, sweet -cream, sweetened with sugar, and flavored. For a -small quantity use the following:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -¾ Cup of sugar.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of brandy.<br /> - 1 pint of scalded sweet cream.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix and freeze. The whites of two eggs beaten -stiff is a valuable addition to this cream.</p> - -<h4>ROYAL ICE-CREAM</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Tablespoon of flour.<br /> - 1½ Cups of sugar.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 2 Eggs.<br /> - 1 Pint of sweet cream.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of vanilla.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of almond.<br /> -½ Cup of sherry wine, or<br /> -¼ Cup of brandy.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Heat the milk until it boils; meanwhile mix the -flour, sugar, and salt in a little cold water, and when -the milk reaches the boiling-point pour it in; stir it -for a minute over the fire in a saucepan, and then -turn it into a double boiler and cook it for twenty -minutes. At the end of this time beat the eggs very -light, and pour them into the boiling mixture slowly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -stirring it rapidly; continue stirring, after all the -egg is in, for from one to two minutes; then strain -the mixture into a dish and set it aside to cool. Last, -add the cream and flavorings, and freeze. This makes -a rich and delicious cream. It may be colored with -carmine a pretty pink, or with spinach a delicate -green.</p> - -<h4>ICE-CREAM WITH AN IMPROVISED FREEZER</h4> - -<p>Make the Philadelphia ice-cream mixture, or half -of it, dividing each ingredient exactly. Put it into a -small tin can (the Dutch cocoa-cans are convenient) -with a closely fitting cover. Place it in the middle of -a deep dish, and surround it with alternate layers of -ice and salt, in the same manner as for ordinary -freezing, and cover it closely; then lay wet cloths on -the top and set it in a cool place. It will become solid -in from one to two hours, according to the amount of -mixture to be frozen. It is well to cut in the thick -layer on the sides of the can once or twice during the -freezing. If the cream which you have to use is thick -enough to whip, do so; the result, when frozen, will be -a very dainty dish.</p> - -<p>This is a convenient way of making a little ice-cream -for one person.</p> - -<h4>FROZEN CUSTARD</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Pint of milk.<br /> -1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> -1¼ Cups of sugar.<br /> -Yolks of three eggs.<br /> -1 Pint of milk or cream.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of rose-water.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of wine or brandy.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> - -<p>Make a soft custard with the first four ingredients, -according to the rule on <a href="#Page_195">page 195</a>. When done, strain -it into a granite-ware pan and let it cool. Then add -the flavoring and the remaining pint of milk or cream, -and freeze.</p> - -<h4>LEMON SHERBET WITH GELATINE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Tablespoon of gelatine.<br /> - 1 Pint of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar<br /> -⅓ Cup of lemon-juice.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of brandy.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the gelatine (Plymouth Rock or Nelson's) in a -little cold water for <em>half an hour</em>. Then pour over -it the boiling water, stirring until the gelatine is dissolved; -add the sugar, lemon-juice, and brandy, and -strain all through a fine wire strainer. Freeze.</p> - -<p>Nelson's gelatine and the Plymouth Rock or phosphated -gelatine are the best to use for sherbets and -water-ices, because they have a delicate flavor, and -lack the strong, fishy taste which characterizes some -kinds. The phosphated gelatine should, however, never -be used except when a slight acidity will do no harm. -Avoid it for all dishes made with cream or milk, as -it will curdle them. The directions on the packages -advise neutralizing the acid with soda; but, as there -is no means of determining the amount of acid in a -given quantity, it is not a process that recommends -itself to an intelligent person.</p> - -<p>Phosphated gelatine may, however, be used in -sherbets even when milk or cream forms a part of -them, for when it is added to a slightly acid mixture -which has a low temperature, or is partially frozen, -curdling does not take place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> - -<h4>LEMON SHERBET WITH SUGAR SYRUP</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar.<br /> -⅓ Cup of lemon-juice.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Boil the water and sugar together without stirring -for twenty minutes. You will thus obtain a thin -sugar syrup, which, however, has enough viscousness -to entangle and hold air when beaten. As soon as it -is cool, add the lemon-juice, strain, and freeze it. This -makes a snow-white sherbet of very delicate flavor. -Lemon sherbet may also be made with water, sugar, -lemon-juice, and the whites of eggs well beaten, -instead of with gelatine or syrup.</p> - -<h4>ORANGE SHERBET</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Tablespoon of gelatine.<br /> -1 Cup of boiling water.<br /> -1 Cup of sugar.<br /> -1 Cup of orange-juice.<br /> -Juice of one lemon.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of brandy.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the gelatine in just enough cold water to -moisten it, for half an hour. Then pour over it the -cup of boiling water, and put in the other ingredients -in the order in which they are written; when the -sugar is dissolved, strain all through a fine wire -strainer, and freeze it.</p> - -<p><b>To get Orange-juice.</b> Peel the oranges, cut them in -small pieces, quarters or eighths, put them into a -jelly-bag or napkin, and press out the juice with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -hand. By this means the oil of the rind, which has -a disagreeable flavor, is excluded.</p> - -<h4>APRICOT ICE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Quart of apricots.<br /> - 1 Quart of water.<br /> -½ Quart of sugar.<br /> - 3 Tablespoons of brandy.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Either fresh or canned apricots may be used for -this ice. If fresh ones are chosen, wash and wipe -them carefully, cut them into small pieces, mash them -with a potato-masher until broken and soft, and add -the water, sugar, and brandy; then freeze. The -treatment is the same if canned fruit be used. This -ice may be made without the brandy, but it is a valuable -addition, especially for the sick.</p> - -<p>Peaches, strawberries, raspberries, pineapple, and -in fact any soft, well-flavored fruit may be made into -water-ice by following exactly the above rule, except, -of course, substituting the different kinds of fruits for -the apricots, and possibly varying the sugar. If pineapple -is selected, it should be chopped quite fine, and -quickly, so that the knife will not discolor it. Peaches -should be pared, and strawberries and raspberries -carefully washed. All of these ices are delicious, and -most wholesome and grateful in very warm weather, -or for feverish conditions when fruit is allowed. If -there is a question about seeds, as might be the case -in using strawberries, strain the fruit through a coarse -wire strainer after it is mashed; it is advisable to do -this always in making strawberry, raspberry, or pineapple -ice.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">COOKED FRUITS</h3> - -<h4>BAKED TART APPLES</h4> - -<p>Select fair, sound, tart apples. Wash and wipe -them, and cut out the cores with an apple-corer, being -careful to remove everything that is not clear pulp. -Sometimes the tough husk which surrounds the seeds -extends farther than the instrument will reach with -once cutting; this can be detected by looking into -the apple, and removing with the point of the corer -anything that remains. If there are dark blotches -or battered places on the outside of the apple, cut -them off. Everything of that kind is valueless as -food, and injures the flavor of that which is good.</p> - -<p>When they are prepared place the apples in an -earthen baking dish (granite-ware will do), put a -teaspoon of sugar and half an inch of dried lemon-peel, -or fresh peel cut very thin, into each hole, pour -boiling water into the dish until it is an inch deep, -and bake in a moderately hot oven; when the skins -begin to shrink and the apples are perfectly soft all -the way through, they are done; then take them from -the oven, arrange them in a glass dish, and pour -around them the syrupy juice that is left.</p> - -<p>The time for baking varies, according to the species -of apple, from half an hour to two hours. They should -be basted once or twice during the time with the water -which is around them. It will nearly all evaporate -while they are baking. If the apples are Baldwins, or -Greenings, or any others of fine flavor, the lemon-peel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -may be omitted. Stick cinnamon may be used instead -of lemon-peel for apples which are not quite sour.</p> - -<h4>BAKED SWEET APPLES</h4> - -<p>Prepare sweet apples according to the foregoing -rule, except use a fourth of a square inch of cinnamon -instead of the lemon-peel, and half a teaspoon of sugar -for each apple. Sweet apples require two or three -hours' baking. They should be cooked until perfectly -soft, and until the juice which oozes out becomes -gelatinous. Serve cold with sweet cream. Cooked -apples are an excellent addition to a diet. They contain -acids and salts of great value.</p> - -<h4>STEWED APPLES</h4> - -<p>Pare and quarter three slightly sour apples. Put -them into a saucepan with a cup of water and two -tablespoons of sugar, and stew gently until they are -soft, but not broken. Each piece should be whole, -but soft and tender. A tablespoon of lemon-juice put -in just before they are taken from the fire is a good -addition to make if the apples are poor in flavor; or, -lemon-peel may be used, and also cinnamon and cloves.</p> - -<h4>APPLE COMPOTE</h4> - -<p>Wash and wipe some fair, well-flavored apples (not -sweet). Core them with an apple-corer (not a knife), -being careful not to leave in any of the hulls, which -sometimes penetrate far into the fruit; pare them -evenly, so that they will be smooth and of good shape. -Then boil them gently, in water enough to just reach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -their tops, with a square inch or two of thin lemon-peel, -and a teaspoon of sugar for each apple, until -they are soft, but not broken, watching them carefully -toward the last part of the cooking, lest they go to -pieces. When done lift them out into a glass dish, -reduce the water by further boiling until it is somewhat -syrupy, and set it aside to cool. Fill the holes -with apple, grape, or any bright-colored jelly, and -when the syrup is cold pour it over and around the -apples.</p> - -<h4>STEWED PRUNES</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of prunes.<br /> - 1½ Pints of water.<br /> -¼ Cup of sugar.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Soak the prunes in warm water for fifteen minutes, -to soften the dust and dirt on the outside. Then -wash them carefully with the fingers, rejecting those -that feel granular (they are worm-eaten); stew them -gently in the sugar and water in a covered saucepan -for two hours. Just before taking them from the fire -put in the lemon-juice. They should be plump, soft, -and tender to the stone. As the water evaporates -the amount should be restored, so that there will be -as much at the end as at the beginning of the cooking. -French prunes may not require quite so long -time for cooking as most ordinary kinds.</p> - -<h4>CRANBERRY SAUCE AND JELLY</h4> - -<p>Pick out the soft and decayed ones from a quantity -of Cape cranberries; measure a pint, and put with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -it <em>half</em> the bulk of sugar, and <em>one fourth</em> the bulk of -water. Stew the berries ten minutes without stirring, -counting the time from the moment when they -are actually bubbling. Done in this way, the skins -will be tender, and the juice on cooling will form a -delicate jelly. Or, the fruit may be pressed through -a soup-strainer and the whole made into jelly.</p> - -<h4>GRAPE SAUCE</h4> - -<p>Take any small quantity of grapes. Wash them by -dipping each bunch several times in water, unless you -know that they have been gathered and handled by -clean hands. Separate the skins from the pulps by -squeezing each grape between the fingers and thumb. -Cook the pulps about five minutes, or until soft -and broken. Cook the skins for the same length of -time in a separate saucepan, then press the pulps -through a strainer into them, until there is nothing -left but the seeds. Measure the mixture, and for -each measure, pint or cup, as the case may be, add -half a measure of sugar, and simmer for five minutes. -Many invalids who cannot eat grapes uncooked, on -account of the seeds, may take them stewed in this -way. More or less than the above amount of sugar -may be used, according to the requirements of the -individual.</p> - -<h4>GRAPE JELLY</h4> - -<p>Separate the pulps from the skins of a quantity of -washed grapes. Cook each separately for a few minutes, -and slowly, so as not to evaporate the juice. -Press the pulps through a soup-strainer, mashing -them if they are not broken, until there is nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -left but the seeds; strain into this the juice from the -skins, mashing and squeezing out all that is possible. -Measure the mixture, and for every cup add a cup of -sugar. Put all into a granite-ware saucepan and boil -slowly for ten or twelve minutes.</p> - -<p>The time required for cooking depends upon the -condition of the grapes. If they are very ripe, and -it is late in the season, ten minutes is sufficient time -to obtain a fine, delicate jelly; but if it is early in the -autumn, and the fruit has not been as thoroughly -changed by nature as late in the season, twelve or -fifteen minutes will be required to obtain the same -result. Even less than ten minutes' cooking will -sometimes cause the pectin of the fruit to dissolve, -which, on cooling, forms the jelly. The time required -will always be variable, according to the condition -of the fruit, so it is well to ascertain by experiment -what number of minutes gives the desired result.</p> - -<p>Another and important point to notice in making -fruit jellies is, that if the fruit be cooked longer than -is necessary to dissolve the jelly-forming substance, -that is the pectin, the natural flavor of the fruit is -more or less injured; consequently, if grapes which -require only ten minutes' boiling are boiled for fifteen, -the flavor is inferior to what it would be if they -were exposed for the lesser time.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to give a rule which shall at all -times apply to the making of fruit jellies, on account -of the always variable condition of the fruit. But -in general, grapes, cranberries, currants, and similar -fruits require a short time, while apples, crab-apples, -lemons, and oranges will take from one and a half to -three hours. One is therefore obliged to test the jelly -at intervals by taking out a little on a saucer to cool. -If it becomes firm quickly, the mixture is cooked -enough; if not, one may get an idea, from the consistency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -which it has, what further cooking will be -necessary.</p> - -<h4>APPLE JELLY</h4> - -<p>Wash and wipe good tart apples. Cut them in -quarters or, better, eighths, but do not pare them. -Stew them in half their bulk of water,—that is, if -you have four quarts of cut apples, put in two quarts -of water,—until the skins as well as the pulp are -perfectly soft. No definite time can be given, because -that depends upon the kind and ripeness of the fruit. -When done, turn them into a jelly-bag and drain -until the juice is all out. Measure it, and for each cup -add a cup of sugar, one clove, and one square inch of -thin lemon-peel. Simmer gently for half an hour, -then test it, to see how near the jellying-point it is, -by taking out a little into a cool saucer. With some -kinds of apples it will be done in that time, with -others it will take an hour or more longer. When a -little becomes firm on cooling, remove the whole immediately -from the fire, skim it, and strain it into -jars or tumblers which have been thoroughly washed -in soap and water, and have been standing in boiling -water for some minutes.</p> - -<p>When the jelly is cool, pour over the surface a thin -coating of melted paraffin, let it harden, then pour -in another; for, as the first hardens, it may crack or -shrink from the sides and leave spaces where ferments -may enter; in other words, the jars need to be -made air-tight—not that the air does mischief, but because -it contains the organisms which, on entering the -jelly, cause by their growth the various fermentative -changes known to occur in fruits. The object then -will be to exclude all micro-organisms.</p> - -<p>There are other ways of sealing jelly than by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -use of paraffin, as, for instance, with paper soaked in -alcohol, or coated with oil; but paraffin, if properly -used, is a sure, easy, and economical means.</p> - -<p>A wad of sterilized cotton batting, packed into the -mouth of the jar or tumbler, like a stopper, is sometimes -employed, but it is not as effectual as the -paraffin; for that, being poured in hot, sterilizes the -surface of the jelly, thus killing any organisms that -may have lodged upon it during the cooling. Organisms -cannot go through batting; but, though it may -be properly sterilized, it cannot be packed over the -jelly until it has become firm, and during the time -ferments may have settled upon it. Paraffin is a most -satisfactory means of preserving jelly, and the only -precaution necessary in using it is to put on two layers, -the second one two or three hours after the first, -or when all contraction has ceased.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">BREAD</h3> - -<p>The two most practicable methods of making bread -are with yeast, and with cream of tartar and bicarbonate -of soda.</p> - -<p>Yeast is a micro-organism—an exceedingly minute -form of plant life—which by its growth produces -carbonic acid and alcohol. When this growth -takes place in a mass of flour dough, the carbonic -acid generated, in its effort to escape, puffs it up, but, -owing to the viscous nature of the gluten, it is entangled -and held within. Each little bubble of gas -occupies a certain space. When the bread is baked, -the walls around these spaces harden in the heat, and -thus we get the porous loaf.</p> - -<p>Barley, rye, and some other grains would be very -useful for bread if it were not that they lack sufficient -gluten to entangle enough carbonic acid to -render bread made from them light.</p> - -<p>Good bread cannot be made without good flour. -There are two kinds usually to be found in market, -namely <em>bread</em> flour, and <em>pastry</em> flour. The former is -prepared in such a way that it contains more gluten -than the latter. In making Pastry, or St. Louis flour, -as it is sometimes called, the grain is crushed in such -a manner that the starch, being most easily broken, -becomes finer than the gluten, and in the process of -bolting some of the latter is lost. For pastry and -cake this kind is best. Lacking gluten, bread made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -from it is more tender, whiter, but less nutritious -than that made from so-called <em>bread</em> flour.</p> - -<p>New Process, or bread flour may be distinguished -by the "feel," which is slightly granular rather than -powdery, by its yellow color, and by the fact that it -does not "cake" when squeezed in the hand; while -St. Louis is white, powdery, and will "cake."</p> - -<p>The best method to pursue in buying flour is, first, -to find a good dealer, upon whose advice you may -rely. Next, take a sample of the flour recommended -and, with a recipe which you have <em>proved</em> to be correct, -try some; if the first loaf of bread is not satisfactory, -try another, and then another, until you are -confident that the fault lies in the flour, and not in -the method of making. Finally, having found a -brand of flour from which you can make yellow-white -instead of snow-white bread, which has a nutty, sweet -flavor, which in mixing absorbs much liquid, and -does not "run" after you think you have got it stiff -enough, and which feels puffy and elastic to the hand -after molding, keep it; it is probably good.</p> - -<p>Often the same flour is sold in different sections -of the country under different names, so that it is -impossible to recommend any special brand. Each -buyer must ascertain for herself which brands in her -locality are best. It is just as easy to have good -bread as poor. It only requires a <em>little</em> care and a -<em>little</em> intelligence on the part of the housekeeper.</p> - -<p>Having found a brand of good flour, next give your -attention to yeast. In these days, when excellent -compressed yeasts may be found in all markets, it is -well to use them, bearing in mind that they <em>are</em> compressed, -and that a very small quantity contains a -great many yeast cells, and will raise bread as well, if -not better, than a large amount.</p> - -<p>Home-made liquid yeast is exceedingly easy to prepare.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -It simply requires a mixture of water and -some material in which the plant cells will rapidly -grow. Grated raw potato, cooked by pouring on -boiling water, flour, and sugar form an excellent -food for their propagation. A recipe for yeast will -be given later.</p> - -<p>Now we have come to the consideration of what -will take place when the two, flour and yeast, are made -into dough. According to some accounts of the subject, -the yeast begins to act first upon the starch, converting -it into sugar (glucose C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>). While this -is taking place there is no <em>apparent</em> change, for nothing -else is formed except the glucose, or sugar. -Then this sugar is changed into alcohol and carbonic -acid; the latter, owing to its diffusive nature, -endeavors to escape, but becomes entangled in the -viscous mass and swells it to several times its original -bulk.</p> - -<p>This has been the accepted explanation; it is now, -however, believed not to be correct. It is thought, -and I believe demonstrated, that the yeast plant -lives upon sugar; that it has not the power to act directly -upon starch, but that it is capable of <em>producing</em> -a substance which acts upon starch to convert it -into sugar.</p> - -<p>The production of the carbonic acid is the end of -desirable chemical change, and when it has been -carried to a sufficient degree to fill the dough with -bubbles, it should be stopped.</p> - -<p>Kneading bread is for the purpose of distributing -the gas and breaking up the large bubbles into small -ones, to give the loaf a fine grain. One will immediately -see that kneading before the bread is raised -is a more or less useless task. Kneading is a process -which should be done gently, by handling the dough -with great tenderness; for if it is pressed hard against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -the molding-board, the bubbles will be worked out -through the surface, and the loaf consequently less -porous than if all the gas is kept in it.</p> - -<p>The best temperature for the raising of bread (in -other words, for the growing of yeast) during the first -part of the process is from 70° to 75° Fahr. It may -touch 80° without harm, but 90° is the limit. Above -that acetic fermentation is liable to occur, and the -bread becomes sour. When the bread is made into -loaves, it may be placed in a very warm temperature, -to rise quickly if it is intended for immediate baking. -Besides killing the yeast, the object sought in baking -is to form a sheath of cooked dough all over the outside, -for a skeleton or support for the inside mass -while it is cooking. Baking also expands the carbonic -acid, and volatilizes the alcohol. The latter is lost.</p> - -<p>A good temperature in which to begin the baking -of bread is 400° Fahr. This may gradually decrease -to not lower than 250°, and the time, for a good-sized -brick loaf, is one hour. If it is a large loaf, increase -the time by a quarter or a half hour.</p> - -<p>"The expansion of water or ice into 1700 times its -volume of steam, is sometimes taken advantage of in -making snow bread, water gems, etc. It plays a part -in the lightening of pastry and crackers. Air at 70° -Fahr. expands to about twice its volume at the temperature -of a hot oven, so that if air is entangled in -a mass of dough it gives a certain lightness when the -whole is baked. This is the cause of the sponginess -of cakes made with eggs. The viscous albumen -catches the air and holds it."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p>There are other means of obtaining carbonic acid -to lighten bread, besides by the growing of yeast. -The most convenient, perhaps the most valuable, -method is by causing cream of tartar and bicarbonate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -of soda to unite chemically. (The products of -the union are carbonic acid and Rochelle salts.) The -advantage of using these over everything else yet -tried is, that they do not unite when brought in contact -except in the presence of water and a certain -degree of heat. Rochelle salts, taken in such minute -quantities as it occurs in bread made in this way, is -not harmful.</p> - -<p>Cream of tartar bread, if <em>perfectly</em> made, is more -nutritious than fermented bread, for none of the constituents -of the flour are lost, as when yeast is used.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> - -<p>The difficulty of obtaining good cream of tartar is -very great. It is said to be more extensively adulterated -than any other substance used for food. Moreover, -in the practice of bread-making the cream of -tartar and soda are generally mixed in the proportion -of two to one—that is, two teaspoons of cream of -tartar to every teaspoon of soda; but this is not the -<em>exact</em> proportion in which they neutralize each other, -so that under ordinary circumstances there is an excess -of soda in the bread.</p> - -<p>To be exact they should always be combined by -weight, as is done in making baking-powders, the proportion -being 84 parts of soda to 188 of cream of -tartar, or, reducing to lower terms, as 21 to 47—a little -less than half as much soda as cream of tartar. For -practical use in cooking there are no scales known to -the author for the purpose of weighing these materials, -so the proportion will have to be approximated -with teaspoons, and a fairly accurate result for bread-making -may be obtained most easily by measuring -a teaspoon of each in exactly the same manner, and -then taking off a little from the soda.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p> -<p>With good materials, care in measuring them, and -a hot oven to set the bread before the gas escapes, -cream of tartar biscuits are both wholesome and -palatable.</p> - -<h4>LIQUID YEAST</h4> - -<p class="pfs90">(HOME-MADE WITH GRATED POTATO)</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Medium-sized potato.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of flour.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -1½ Pints of boiling water.<br /> -⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast.<br /> -</div> - -<p>First see that there is a supply of boiling water. -Then put the salt, sugar, and flour together in a -mixing-bowl. Wash and peel the potato, and grate -it quickly into the bowl, covering it now and then -with the flour to prevent discoloring. As soon as the -potato is all grated, pour in the boiling water and -stir. It will form into a somewhat thick paste at -once. Set it aside to cool. Then dissolve the yeast -in a little cold water, add it, and set the mixture to -rise in a temperature of 70° to 80° Fahr.</p> - -<p>In a short time bubbles will begin to appear; these -are carbonic acid, showing that the alcoholic stage of -the fermentation has begun. In six or eight hours -the whole will be a mass of yeast cells, which have -grown in the nutrient liquid. It is then ready for -use. It should be bottled in wide-mouthed glass or -earthen jars, and kept in a cool place. It will remain -good for two weeks. At the end of that time make a -fresh supply.</p> - -<p>Yeast is an organism—a microscopic form of plant -life—which grows by a species of budding with great -rapidity when it finds lodgment in material suitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -for its food. The dissolved compressed yeast is like -seed, which, when put into a fruitful soil, grows so -long as sustenance lasts.</p> - -<h4>WATER BREAD</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of boiling water.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of butter.<br /> -⅓ Cup of liquid yeast, or<br /> -⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast.<br /> -Enough sifted flour to make a stiff dough.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put the sugar, salt, and butter with the boiling -water into a mixing-bowl or bread-pan. Stir until -the sugar is dissolved and the water lukewarm, then -add the yeast (if compressed, it should be dissolved in -a little water). Last, stir in the flour until a dough -stiff enough to mold easily is made. Mold it for a -minute or two to give it shape and to more thoroughly -mix the ingredients, and then set it to rise in a room -warm enough to be comfortable to live in—that is, -having a temperature of 70° Fahr. It should remain -in this temperature for eight hours. Cover it closely, -that the top may not dry.</p> - -<p>It is often convenient to let bread rise over night. -There is no objection to this, provided the bread is -mixed late in the evening, and baked early the next -morning. Care must be taken, however, that the -room in which it is left is warm enough to insure rising -in the time given. On the other hand, if allowed -to rise too long, or at too high a temperature, the fermentation -is carried so far that an acid is produced, -and the dough becomes sour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p> - -<p>Eight hours at 70° Fahr. is a good rule to keep in -mind. During the time of raising the dough should -double itself in bulk. If this does not happen, or it -does not appear to have risen at all, either the yeast -was not good, or the temperature was too low.</p> - -<p>When the bread has risen sufficiently, cut it down, -and knead it for five minutes on a bread-board, to -distribute the gas and break the large bubbles, so that -the bread may have an even grain; then shape it into -a loaf, put it into an oiled baking-pan, and let it rise -quickly in a warm place, until it again doubles itself. -The amount of dough indicated in the rule will make -one large loaf, or a medium-sized loaf and some biscuit. -Multiply the rule by two if you want two loaves. -Bake the bread in an oven which is hot at first, but -gradually decreases in temperature, for an hour and -a quarter. If you have an oven thermometer use it.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> - -<h4>MILK BREAD</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of <em>scalded</em> milk.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -⅓ Cup of liquid yeast, or<br /> -⅕ Cake of Fleischmann's yeast.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Measure the milk after scalding, but otherwise proceed -exactly as in the making of water bread.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> - -<h4>STICKS</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of <em>scalded</em> milk.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of butter.<br /> -⅕ Cake of yeast, or<br /> -¼ Cup of liquid yeast.<br /> -White of one egg.<br /> -Flour enough to make a slightly soft dough.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Dissolve the salt and sugar, and soften the butter in -the hot milk, which must be measured <em>after</em> heating. -When it is cooled to lukewarmness, put in the yeast -(which, if compressed, should be dissolved in a little cold -water), the beaten white of the egg, and flour enough -to make a dough <em>slightly</em> softer than that for ordinary -bread. Let it rise overnight, or until light. Then cut it -into small pieces, shape the pieces into balls, and roll -and stretch them into tiny slender sticks, from ten to -twelve inches long, about half an inch thick in the -middle, and tapering toward each end. Place them, -two inches apart, in shallow, buttered pans, and put -them in a warm place for an hour to rise; then bake -them in a moderate oven fifteen or twenty minutes, or -until they are a golden brown. Sticks are good at any -time; they are especially nice served with soup, or for -lunch, with cocoa or tea.</p> - -<p>This dough may also be made into tiny loaves for -tea-rolls.</p> - -<h4>RUSK</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> - 1 Cup of <em>scalded</em> milk.<br /> -¼ Cup of liquid yeast, or<br /> -⅙ Cake of compressed yeast.<br /> -Flour enough to make a soft dough.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Mix the above ingredients together, and let the -dough rise overnight in the usual time given to -bread. Then beat one-fourth of a cup of butter, one-fourth -of a cup of sugar, and one egg together, and -work the mixture into the dough, adding a little more -flour to make it stiff enough to mold. Set it to rise a -second time; then shape it into rolls or tiny loaves, -allow them to rise again until quite light, or for an -hour in a warm place, and bake like bread.</p> - -<h4>DRIED RUSK</h4> - -<p>Cut the rusk when cold into thin slices, dry them -slowly in the oven, and then brown them a delicate -golden color.</p> - -<p>Dried rusk is exceedingly easy of digestion, and -makes a delicious lunch with a glass of warm milk -or a cup of tea.</p> - -<h4>GRAHAM BREAD</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -⅕ Cake of compressed yeast.<br /> - 2 Cups of white flour.<br /> -Enough Graham flour to make a dough.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Scald some milk, and from it measure a pint; to -this add the sugar and salt. While it is cooling sift -some Graham flour, being careful to exclude the chaff<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -or outside silicious covering of the grain, but <em>nothing -else</em>. When the milk has become lukewarm, put in -the yeast, which has previously been dissolved in a -little cold water, and the white flour (sifted), with -enough of the Graham to make a dough which shall -be stiff, but yet not stiff enough to mold. Mix thoroughly, -and shape it with a spoon into a round mass -in the dish. After this follow the same directions as -for water bread, letting it rise the same time, and -baking it in the same manner.</p> - -<p>After the dough has risen, although it is soft, it -can be <em>shaped into a loaf</em> on the bread-board, but not -molded.</p> - -<h4>CREAM-OF-TARTAR BISCUIT</h4> - -<p>First, attend to the fire; see that you have a clear, -steady one, such as will give a hot oven by the time -the biscuits are ready for baking. Then sift some -flour, and measure a quart. Into it put two teaspoons -of cream of tartar, and one of soda, the latter -to be measured exactly like the teaspoons of cream of -tartar, and then a very little taken off. This is a -more accurate way of getting a scanted teaspoon than -by taking some on the spoon and guessing at it. Add -one teaspoon of salt, and sift all together four times, -then with the fingers rub into the flour one spoon of -butter.</p> - -<p>At this point, if it has not been already done, get -the baking-pans, rolling-pin, board, dredging-box, and -cutter ready for use. Then with a knife stir into the -flour enough milk to make a soft dough. Do this as -quickly as convenient, and without any delay mold -the dough just enough to shape it; roll it out, cut it -into biscuits, and put them immediately into the oven, -where they should bake for thirty minutes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p> - -<p><b>Pocket-Books.</b> Work or knead together the pieces -that are left after making cream-of-tartar biscuit (or -make a dough on purpose), roll it out very thin, cut -it into rounds, brush them over with milk or melted -butter, fold once so as to make a half-moon shape, -and you will have "pocket-books."</p> - -<p><b>Twin Biscuit.</b> Roll out some dough very thin, cut -it into very small rounds, and place one on top of -another, with butter between.</p> - -<p>Iced water may be substituted for milk in the above -rule. In baking, however, the oven should be unusually -hot, so as to take advantage of the expansion of -the water. Also, baking-powder may be substituted -for the cream of tartar and soda, using a fourth more -of the baking-powder than of the two together.</p> - -<h4>SNOW-CAKES</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Tablespoon of butter.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of sugar.<br /> -Whites of two eggs.<br /> - 1½ Cups of flour.<br /> - 1 Saltspoon of salt.<br /> - 1½ Teaspoons of baking-powder.<br /> - 1 Cup of milk.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Measure each of the ingredients carefully, then sift -the flour, salt, and baking-powder together four times. -Cream the butter and sugar with a little of the milk, -then add the whites of the eggs well beaten, the rest -of the milk, and last the flour. Bake this batter in -hot buttered gem-pans from twenty minutes to half -an hour. These cakes are delicious eaten hot for -lunch or tea. This mixture may also be baked in -small, round earthen cups.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> - -<h4>GRAHAM GEMS</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of milk.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -½ Cup of white flour.<br /> - 1 Cup of Graham flour.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of soda (<em>slightly</em> scanted).<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of melted butter.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Sift and measure the Graham flour, add the cream -of tartar, soda, and white flour, and sift again. Mix -the milk, salt, and sugar together, and stir it into the -flour; last, put in the melted butter, beat for a minute, -and then drop a spoonful in each division of a -roll gem-pan, which should be well buttered, and -made very hot on the top of the stove. Bake in a -hot oven from twenty-five minutes to half an hour. -Serve hot.</p> - -<h4>OATMEAL MUFFINS</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -2¼ Cups of flour.<br /> -2 Teaspoons of baking-powder.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of sugar.<br /> -1 Egg.<br /> -1 Cup of milk.<br /> -1 Cup of cooked oatmeal.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of butter melted.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Sift the flour and baking-powder together twice. -Beat the egg very light, stir into it the salt, sugar, -and milk, then add the flour, and last the oatmeal and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -butter; beat for half a minute, and bake immediately -in gem-pans or muffin-rings in a hot oven for -half an hour.</p> - -<p>N. B.—The oatmeal should not be cooked to a soft, -thin mush, but should be rather dry; so, in preparing -it, use less water than for porridge. These cakes are -to be eaten hot.</p> - -<h4>GLUTEN BREAD</h4> - -<p>Gluten flour is prepared in such a way that much -of the starch of the grain is excluded. It is frequently -required for persons suffering with diabetes, who -cannot digest either sugar or starch. It should be -made with flour, water, yeast, and salt only. Do not -use milk for mixing, as it contains sugar.</p> - -<p>One pint of water, one half teaspoon of salt, one -fifth of a cake of yeast, one tablespoon of butter, and -enough flour to make the usual bread dough will be -required. Otherwise the process is exactly the same as -for ordinary bread.</p> - -<h4>BAKING-POWDER</h4> - -<p>Baking-powder is a mixture of cream of tartar, bicarbonate -of soda, and arrowroot. The latter is used -to keep the two chemicals dry, and thus prevent the -slow union which would otherwise take place. Sometimes -tartaric acid is used instead of cream of tartar. -The following rule may be relied upon:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Tartaric acid</td><td class="tdl">2 oz. by weight.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Bicarbonate of soda</td><td class="tdl">3 " " "</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Arrowroot</td><td class="tdl">3 " " "</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Mix and sift together thoroughly. Keep in a dry -place, in a wide-mouthed bottle.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">CAKE</h3> - -<p>Cake of the simpler kinds, especially sponge cake, -is frequently given to the sick. Good sponge cake, -served with sweet cream or a glass of milk, is an excellent -lunch for an invalid. Some of the plain kinds -of butter cakes—those made with a little butter—such -as white, feather, and similar varieties, are excellent -food.</p> - -<p>Consider for a moment what they contain: eggs, -milk, butter, sugar, and flour—five of the most valuable -of all our food products. Yet there are those -who pride themselves upon not eating cake, which -idiosyncrasy can only be explained in one of two -ways: either the cake which they have had has not -been properly made, or else it has been so good -that, during a lapse of judgment, they have eaten -too much.</p> - -<p>The dark fruit cakes should be avoided by both -sick and well, on account of the indigestible nature -of the dried fruits used in them, and also because they -are often compact and close-grained, not light.</p> - -<p>There is a custom prevalent in many kitchens of -using what is called "cooking" butter—that is, butter -which is off taste or rancid—for cake. It is but poor -economy, even if it can merit that name at all. If -you have no other butter for cake, don't make any. -Sweet butter and fresh—not "store"—eggs are <em>absolutely -necessary</em>. Also, a dainty worker to mix the -ingredients with accuracy and care, and to oil the pan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -in which the cake is to be baked, so that the outside -shall not taste of fat. Many an otherwise nice cake -has been spoiled by oiling the pan in which it was -baked with dirty or rancid grease. Use a very little -sweet butter or olive-oil.</p> - -<p class="p2" /> -<h4 class="fwnormal fs90">THE PROCESS OF CAKE MAKING</h4> - -<p>All ordinary cakes are made in much the same way -as to the order in which their ingredients are mixed. -First the butter and sugar are creamed together, then -the yolks of the eggs are beaten and added, with the -milk, to the butter and sugar; then the flour, into -which the cream of tartar and soda have been well -mixed by sifting them together several times, is put -in; and last, the beaten whites of the eggs.</p> - -<p><b>Care in Baking.</b> For sponge cake made with baking-powder, -or soda and cream of tartar, an oven -moderately heated will be required—that is, one of -300° Fahr., or one which will <em>slightly</em> brown a loaf in -twenty minutes.</p> - -<p>For sponge cake made without raising material, -such as the old-fashioned kind, in which only eggs, -sugar, and flour are used, a slow oven is necessary.</p> - -<p>For butter cakes a temperature somewhere between -350° and 380° will not fail.</p> - -<p>The baking of cake is the most difficult part of the -process, on account of the constantly variable condition -of ovens in common iron stoves, and because it is -more easily spoiled than bread and other foods usually -cooked in an oven. One is obliged to exercise a new -judgment every time cake is made. Even thermometers -are only a partial help, for if an oven has a temperature -of 300° Fahr. at a certain time, there is no -means of being sure what the temperature will be half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -an hour from then. However, by giving attention -and some practice to it, one may gain considerable -skill in managing fires. Should the cake be cooking -too fast, and arranging the stove dampers does not -lessen the heat, a piece of buttered paper laid over -the top will protect it, and will not stick. Layer, or -thin cakes, require a hotter oven than loaves.</p> - -<p>Pans for baking cake should be lined with buttered -paper (the buttered side up), letting it overlap the -sides for about an inch to assist in lifting out the -cake. An earthenware bowl and a wooden spoon -should be used for mixing.</p> - -<p>Get everything ready before beginning to mix cake, -the oven first of all. Bake as soon as possible after -the flour is in, for carbonic acid begins to be formed -as soon as the soda and cream of tartar come in contact -with the liquid, and some of it will escape unless -the mixture is baked at once. Do not stop to scrape -every bit from the bowl; that can be attended to afterward, -and a little patty-cake made of what is left.</p> - -<h4>INVALID'S SPONGE CAKE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Cups of pastry flour measured after sifting.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of soda (slightly scanted).<br /> - 4 Eggs.<br /> - 1½ Cups of powdered sugar.<br /> -½ Cup of water.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Get everything ready before beginning to make -the cake; oil the pan, or oil paper and line the pan -with it; measure the flour, cream of tartar, and soda, -and sift them together four times; measure the sugar,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -water, and lemon-juice, and separate the yolks from -the whites of the eggs. Beat the whites of the eggs -with half the sugar until they are very light. Then -beat the yolks very light, or until they become lemon-colored, -add the remaining half of the sugar and beat -again, and then a little of the water if it is difficult to -turn the egg-beater. When the sugar is well mixed, -add the remainder of the water, the lemon-juice, and -the flour. Beat for a few seconds, but not long, as all -mixtures that have cream of tartar and soda should -be baked as quickly as possible. Last of all <em>fold</em> in -(not beat) the whites of the eggs lightly, so as not to -break out the air which has been entangled by the -beating, as it helps to make the cake light.</p> - -<p>Bake in a moderate oven from forty-five to fifty -minutes, or until the cake shrinks a little from the -pan.</p> - -<h4>FEATHER CAKE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -¼ Cup of butter.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar.<br /> - 2 Eggs.<br /> - 1½ Cups of pastry flour.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of soda (slightly scanted).<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar.<br /> -A little grated nutmeg.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla.<br /> -</div> - -<p>See first of all that you have a proper fire. Measure -the ingredients, and get everything ready before beginning—mixing-bowl, -pans, etc. Use a wooden cake -spoon, with slits in the bowl, for mixing. Line the -pans with buttered paper. Then cream the butter, -adding to it half the sugar and half the milk, the -latter very slowly; separate the yolks of the eggs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -from the whites, and beat them with the remaining -sugar; when they are very light add the rest of the -milk. Beat the whites until stiff. Now mix the -creamed butter and yolks together with the flavoring, -then stir in the flour, and last the whites, which -are to be cut and folded in, <em>not beaten</em>. Bake it in -shallow pans in a moderate oven forty minutes, or -about that time. When the cake begins to shrink a -little from the sides of the pan, there is no doubt that -it is cooked enough. This recipe may be used for a -variety of plain cakes.</p> - -<p><b>For Chocolate Cake.</b> Melt and stir into the above -mixture two ounces of Baker's chocolate, or two teaspoons -of cocoa wet in a little warm water.</p> - -<p><b>For Rose Cake.</b> Color the feather cake mixture with -six drops of carmine.</p> - -<h4>LAYER CAKE</h4> - -<p>Oil three layer cake pans, or pie-plates. Make the -feather cake mixture, and divide it into three portions. -Bake one white, color another pink with three -or four drops of carmine, and the third brown with -an ounce of melted chocolate. Bake in a hot oven -for fifteen minutes. When cool, join the layers with -White Mountain frosting, and frost the top of the last -layer. Any of the fillings given under the head of -"Cake Filling" may also be used.</p> - -<p>When chocolate is used in cake, it is not necessary -to grate it or even to break it into small pieces. It -contains a large proportion of fat which liquefies at -a low temperature, consequently it is necessary only -to heat it slowly to reduce it to the liquid state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p> - -<h4>CARMINE FOR COLORING</h4> - -<p>The following rule for making liquid carmine for -coloring cake, ice-cream, blanc-mange, etc., will be -found useful:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Ounce of No. 40 carmine.<br /> -3 Ounces of boiling water.<br /> -1 Ounce of ammonia.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Bottle for use. It will keep indefinitely.</p> - -<h4>WHITE CAKE</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Tablespoon of butter.<br /> - 1 Cup of sugar (powdered).<br /> - 1¼ Cups of pastry flour.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of soda.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar.<br /> -Whites of four eggs.<br /> -¼ Teaspoon of almond extract, or<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Proceed, as with all cake mixtures, by getting everything -ready before beginning to mix any of the ingredients, -not forgetting the fire. Then cream the -butter with the sugar, and add the milk to it slowly, -so that the cream shall not break. Beat the whites of -the eggs very stiff. Then to the butter, sugar, etc., -add the flour, with which the cream of tartar and soda -have been sifted at least four times, and the flavoring; -last, fold in the whites of the eggs, and bake in a round -loaf for an hour and a quarter or an hour and a half in -a <em>slow</em> oven.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p> - -<h4>DREAM CAKE</h4> - -<p>Make a white cake mixture. Bake it in shallow -layer-cake pans, in a moderate, not slow, oven. Join -them with a caramel filling, and frost the top with -the same, or use White Mountain frosting instead of -the caramel, flavored with rose-water, and left either -white, or colored a delicate shell pink with carmine.</p> - -<h4>CAKE FILLING AND FROSTING</h4> - -<h5>WHITE MOUNTAIN FROSTING</h5> - -<p>Boil together, <em>without stirring</em>, one cup of granulated -sugar with one third of a cup of boiling water, -for eight or ten minutes. When the sugar has been -boiling five minutes, beat the white of one egg until -it is very light. Then test the sugar mixture by letting -a little run off the side of a spoon. If in falling -it forms a delicate thread, it is just at the point to -stop the boiling. When it has reached this point, -pour it at once into the beaten egg in a small stream, -stirring the egg constantly to keep it smooth. Continue -stirring for two or three minutes until it begins -to thicken, then spread it either between layer cakes -for filling, or use it for frosting.</p> - -<h5>CARAMEL FILLING</h5> - -<div class="recipe"> - 1 Cup of brown sugar.<br /> -¼ Cup of sweet cream.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of butter.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> - -<p>Boil all together until it threads, stirring it slowly -as it boils. It will take about eight minutes. Use -either for frosting or filling.</p> - -<h5>CHOCOLATE ICING</h5> - -<div class="recipe"> -½ Cup of sugar.<br /> - 4 Tablespoons of water.<br /> - 2 Eggs.<br /> - 1 Ounce of chocolate, or<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of Dutch cocoa.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Boil the sugar, water, and chocolate together, two -minutes, to render the chocolate smooth. Then add -the beaten eggs. Cook two minutes more, stirring -slowly and gently. Add the vanilla just as it is taken -from the fire, and use at once, as it becomes firm -quickly. It is good either for icing cakes or for -filling.</p> - -<h5>CREAM FILLING</h5> - -<p>Make a cream sauce with one cup of milk, a tablespoon -of butter, and a tablespoon of flour. Beat one -egg with half a cup of sugar, and stir it into the sauce -slowly. Cook for two minutes, or until the egg is -done. It should look like a thick smooth cream. -Flavor it with a piece of cinnamon bark boiled in -the milk, or with vanilla or almond. Use this cream -for filling, for layer cakes, or split a thin sponge -cake in two, and spread it between the halves.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="h3large pg-brk">DIET LISTS OR MENUS FOR THE SICK</h3> - -<p>Diet for the sick may be divided into three kinds: -Liquid, Light, and Convalescent's or Invalid's Diet.</p> - -<p>Liquid diet consists entirely of liquids, of which -milk is the most valuable. The meat broths (those -made with beef, chicken, and mutton), oyster and -clam broth, albumen water, eggs in the form of egg-nog, -egg cream, and mulled wine, and tea and coffee -are excellent. To this list may be added, as the patient -shows signs of recovery, soft custards, and jellies -made with wine, lemon, coffee, or orange-juice, -which quickly become liquid when eaten.</p> - -<p>A patient is given liquid diet during times of severe -and dangerous illness. Usually the amount of food -and intervals at which it is to be given are prescribed -by the physician.</p> - -<p>The following table may be of assistance to those -who are without such aid:</p> - -<h4>LIQUID DIET</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bold" colspan="3">No. 1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">10 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot coffee with cream and a little sugar</td><td class="tdr">½ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">12 <span class="fs70">M.</span> </td><td class="tdl">Beef-juice</td><td class="tdr">2 tablespoons</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">2 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Warm milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">4 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Wine whey</td><td class="tdr">½ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">6 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot cocoa</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>No. 2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">10 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Chicken broth</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">12 <span class="fs70">M.</span> </td><td class="tdl">Egg-nog</td><td class="tdr">½ tumbler</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">2 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">4 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot tea with cream and sugar</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">6 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Chicken broth</td><td class="tdr">¼ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="3">No. 3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">10 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Beef broth</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">12 <span class="fs70">M.</span> </td><td class="tdl">Beef-juice</td><td class="tdr">2 tablespoons</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">2 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Milk, either warm or cold</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">4 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Oyster broth with milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">6 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot cocoa</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="3">No. 4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot cocoa</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">10 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">12 <span class="fs70">M.</span> </td><td class="tdl">Beef-juice, warm or cold</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">2 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Beef broth, hot</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">4 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Wine jelly</td><td class="tdr">2 tablespoons</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">6 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot cocoa</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="3">No. 5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Hot milk</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">10 <span class="fs70">A. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Coffee with cream and sugar</td><td class="tdr">½ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">12 <span class="fs70">M.</span> </td><td class="tdl">Hot beef broth</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">2 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Orange jelly</td><td class="tdr">3 tablespoons</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">4 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Mulled wine</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">6 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Warm or cold soft custard</td><td class="tdr">½ of a cup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8 <span class="fs70">P. M.</span></td><td class="tdl">Warm cocoa</td><td class="tdr">¾ of a cup</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>If nourishment is to be given throughout the night, -either hot or warm milk or cocoa is good. They -are soothing and sometimes induce sleep. Tea and -wine whey should be avoided at night, unless, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -course, the patient needs stimulating, in which case -use the wine only, for tea often causes wakefulness.</p> - -<p>The whites of eggs beaten and strained, and mixed -with finely crushed ice, is a valuable form of food -for a typhoid fever patient. Toast-water and cracker -tea are good in all feverish conditions. Milk may be -varied by making it into milk-punch, with a very little -sugar (a scanty teaspoon) and a tablespoon of brandy -or sherry to each tumbler, or it may be made with a -few drops of vanilla, instead of the brandy or sherry.</p> - -<h4>LIGHT DIET</h4> - -<p>Light diet consists of everything included in liquid -diet, and in addition fruits, such as grapes and -oranges; porridge of granum or farina; soft-cooked -or poached eggs; dry, water, milk, and cream toast; -the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">maigre</i> soups, such as celery and mock-bisque, and -chicken; delicate puddings, coffee and velvet cream, -and baked custards, with perhaps for dinner a meat -ball, a small bit of beefsteak or roast beef, and a -baked potato.</p> - -<p>Jellies made with gelatine, especially when flavored -with wine, are a very valuable form of food with which -to make the transition from liquid to light diet. They -are palatable, nutritious, and, being in solid form, -are satisfying to the minds of those who think they -are not getting much to eat when fed on liquids alone.</p> - -<p>The change from liquid to light diet should be -made gradually, adding one kind of solid food at a -time. Perhaps after the jellies a bit of water or milk -toast, then an egg, then a little soup or pudding, until, -as strength is gained, the person is able to take anything -in the list, and finally is able to eat almost any -kind of nutritious and well-prepared food.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p><span class="smcap">First Day.</span></p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Poached Egg on Toast. Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Milk-punch.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Raw Oysters. Cream-crackers. Port Wine.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Milk Toast. Wine Jelly. Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p><span class="smcap">Second Day.</span></p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Soft-cooked Egg. Milk Toast.<br /> -Coffee with Sugar and Cream.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Soft Custard.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Cream-of-celery Soup. Sippets.<br /> -A little Barley Pudding, with Cream. Sherry Wine.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Milk-punch.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Water Toast, Buttered. Wine Jelly. Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p><span class="smcap">Third Day.</span></p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Scrambled Egg. Cream Toast. Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Chicken Panada. Bread. Port Wine.<br /> -A little Tapioca Cream.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -An Egg-nog.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Buttered Dry Toast. Baked Sweet Apples and Cream.<br /> -Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fourth Day.</span></p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -An Orange.<br /> -Farina Mush, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Poached Egg on Toast. Baked Potato. Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Soft Custard.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Potato Soup. Croutons.<br /> -A small Piece of Beefsteak. Creamed Potatoes.<br /> -Baked Custard. Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Chicken Broth, with Rice.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Raw Oysters. Banquet Crackers.<br /> -Graham Bread, Toasted. Wine Jelly. Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fifth Day.</span></p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -An Orange.<br /> -Coffee. Mush of Wheat Germ, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Broiled Mutton Chop. Toast.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Mulled Wine.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Chicken Soup. Bread.<br /> -Creamed Sweetbreads. Duchess Potato.<br /> -Snow Pudding. Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Siphon Soda, with Coffee Syrup and Cream.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Buttered Dry Toast. Orange Jelly.<br /> -Sponge Cake and Cream. Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p> - - -<h4>CONVALESCENT'S DIET</h4> - -<p>Convalescent's diet includes the liquid and light -diets, and, in addition, all easily digested and nutritious -food. For meats, game, especially venison and -birds, beef, mutton, and chicken may be given, but -never either pork or veal. They are difficult of digestion. -Eggs in all ways, soft-cooked, scrambled, -poached, and as omelets, well-baked potatoes, creamed -potatoes, celery, snow pudding, cream of rice pudding, -and tapioca cream, jellies, both those made from gelatine -and fruits, Graham bread, Graham gems, rusk, -and, in fact, any well-made bread, and good cake.</p> - -<p>A convalescent may use for drinks plenty of good -milk, cocoa, <em>carefully made</em> tea and coffee, occasionally -good wine, and the different mineral and drinking -waters. Some foods to be avoided are pastry, -dark or badly made cakes, pork, veal, any highly seasoned -meat dish made with gravy, all kinds of fried -food, sausages, heavy puddings, badly made bread, -lobsters and crabs.</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs120">SPRING</p> - -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 1</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -An Orange.<br /> -Porridge of Wheat Flakes, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Omelet, with Broiled Ham.<br /> -Coffee. Hot Graham Gems and Butter.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. A Cream-cracker.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Chicken Soup. Creamed Fish.<br /> -Mashed Potato. Snow Pudding.<br /> -White Cake. Tea.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Milk.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Broiled Squab on Toast. Creamed Potatoes.<br /> -Bread and Butter. Jelly.<br /> -Cocoa.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 2</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -An Orange.<br /> -Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -French Chops (Mutton). Baked Potato.<br /> -Cream Toast of Graham Bread.<br /> -Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Cracker Gruel.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Mock-bisque Soup. Sticks.<br /> -Roast Beef. French Peas. Mashed Potato.<br /> -Bread and Butter.<br /> -Baked Cup Custard. Coffee or Claret.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Bouillon.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Scrambled Eggs. Creamed Potatoes.<br /> -Water Toast, with Apple Compote.<br /> -Feather Cake. Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2 pfs120">SUMMER</p> - -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 1</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Blackberries.<br /> -Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Broiled Steak. Baked Potatoes.<br /> -Dry Toast. Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Tumbler of Kumiss.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Potato Soup made with New Potatoes.<br /> -Baked Fish. Mashed Potatoes. Peas.<br /> -Chicken Salad. Lemon Jelly.<br /> -Tea.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Soda-water, with Vanilla Syrup and Cream.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Cold Broiled Chicken. Bread and Butter.<br /> -Blueberries. White Cake.<br /> -Cocoa.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 2</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Blueberries.<br /> -Broiled Perch. Baked Potatoes.<br /> -Hot Snow Cakes, with Butter.<br /> -Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Milk-punch.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Broiled French Chop. Duchess Potato.<br /> -Peas. Tomato Salad.<br /> -Tapioca Cream. Wine Jelly.<br /> -Lemonade.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Egg-nog.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Hot Water Toast, Buttered. Berries.<br /> -Omelet, with Parsley.<br /> -Tea. Soft Custard in Cups.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2 pfs120">AUTUMN</p> - -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 1</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Oatmeal Mush, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Broiled Steak. Baked Potatoes.<br /> -Oatmeal Muffins, Hot, with Butter.<br /> -Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. A Banquet Cracker.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Celery Soup. Sippets. Roast Pheasant, with Jelly.<br /> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Potato. Stewed Mushrooms.'">Potatoes. Stewed Mushrooms.</ins><br /> -Velvet Cream. Cocoa.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -A thin Sandwich of Bread and Butter. Tea.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Raw Oysters. Cream Toast. Baked Apples.<br /> -Rusk. Tea.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 2</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -Cantaloup.<br /> -Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Broiled Mutton Chop. Baked Potatoes.<br /> -Dry Toast. Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Oyster Soup. Sticks.<br /> -Roast Beef. Creamed Potatoes.<br /> -Celery Salad.<br /> -Coffee Cream. Tea.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -A Cup of Hot Oatmeal Gruel.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Poached Egg on Toast. Cocoa.<br /> -Graham Bread and Butter. Sponge Cake.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2 pfs120">WINTER</p> - -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 1</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -An Orange.<br /> -Oatmeal Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. Coffee.<br /> -Broiled Steak. Baked Potato. Cream Toast.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Egg-nog.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Celery Soup. Croutons.<br /> -Roast Chicken. Creamed Onions. Duchess Potato.<br /> -Lettuce Salad (plain). Velvet Cream. Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -Cocoa Cordial. Sponge Cake.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Fancy Roast of Oysters. Dry Toast.<br /> -Chocolate, with Whipped Cream. Orange Jelly.<br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="p2" /> -<div class="menu"> -<p class="bold">No. 2</p> - -<p><em>Breakfast.</em></p> - -<p> -An Orange.<br /> -Wheat Germ, with Cream and Sugar.<br /> -Broiled Partridge. Dry Toast. Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Dinner.</em></p> - -<p> -Consommé. Bread.<br /> -Roast Beef. Mashed Potatoes.<br /> -Tomato Salad.<br /> -Cream of Rice Pudding. Coffee.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Lunch.</em></p> - -<p> -1 Cup of Mulled Wine.<br /> -</p> - -<p><em>Supper.</em></p> - -<p> -Venison Steak, with Port Wine Sauce.<br /> -Toast. Sponge Cake, with Sweet Cream.<br /> -Cocoa.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="SERVING" id="SERVING"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">SERVING</a></h2> - -<p>If cooking be a science, then serving is an art. It -perhaps more closely resembles painting than any -other, for a well-spread table should be a picture, and -each separate dish a choice bit in the landscape. The -invalid's tray should be a dainty Dresden water-color -of delicate hues and harmonious tints.</p> - -<p>It is not easy to give definite directions in regard -to serving, for it involves so much of good taste in so -many directions, and depends so largely upon the individual -and the circumstances. It requires intelligent -study, a cultivated habit of thought, and the -appreciation of symmetry, and the harmony of colors; -to do it well one must ever judge anew and arrange -again, for no two meals are exactly alike in all their -details.</p> - - <!-- These indented h3 headings are 'hidden' (not displayed). --> - <!-- They exist in the Table of Contents but not in the --> - <!-- main text, and are inserted here for epub navigation. --> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Importance of Skill in Cooking</span></h3> - -<p>Of course, the most important thing in serving is -the thing to be served. A badly prepared or unwholesome -dish, no matter how beautifully it may be -presented, is worthless—perhaps even worse, for it -may prove a positive source of evil. An indifferently -done steak, served on a silver platter, is less acceptable -than one perfectly cooked on plain china, or a bit -of burned toast on Dresden ware than a daintily -browned piece on a common white plate. Put the -force, therefore, of your efforts on securing that -which is wholesome in itself, adapted to the needs of -the patient, and perfectly cooked; then serve it in the -most attractive manner at your command.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Good Serving a Necessity</span></h3> - -<p>Good serving is a necessity for the sick. It should -never be regarded as simply ornamental. When a -person has the hunger of health, colors and dishes are -not of great account; but when one is ill, or exhausted -with fatigue, sometimes a pretty color, a dainty cup, or -beauty of arrangement makes all the difference, and -one is tempted to eat when otherwise the food would -remain untouched.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Preparation of the Invalid's Tray</span></h3> - -<p>Simplicity should rule at all times the arrangement -of an invalid's tray. Anything like display is entirely -out of place. Japanned trays of oval shape are the -ones in general use. When one is fortunate enough -to possess a silver tray, the dishes may be placed directly -upon it, or on a doily, which covers the center -of it. All other trays should be completely covered -with a dainty snowy napkin, or tray-cloth.</p> - -<p>After the napkin has been neatly spread upon the -tray, place a plate in the middle of the side nearest to -you, and then arrange the other dishes about it, with -the tiny earthen teapot on the right, and the sugar-bowl -and cream-pitcher of silver next to it; the knife, -fork, and spoons should be on the right and left of -the plate, never in front of it. The various dishes to -be served should then be arranged symmetrically in -other parts of the tray, not scattered about without -the appearance of order.</p> - -<p>Never crowd a tray. Calculate beforehand how -many dishes you will probably have, and select a size -accordingly. Serve a single glass or a single cup on -a small round or oval tray with a doily, never on a -large tray, such as might be selected for a meal.</p> - -<p>When practicable use silver dishes for meats, soups, -coffee, hot milk, or any hot food; when these cannot -be had, use hot china.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Importance of Harmony of Colors</span></h3> - -<p>Avoid discords in color. Most women have an instinctive -appreciation of color, and by giving some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> -thought to the subject of harmonies, and observing -the methods of others who are known to have good -taste in such matters, bad blunders in the arrangement -of a tray or a table may be avoided.</p> - -<p><em>Red</em> with <em>yellow</em>, <em>blue</em> with <em>green</em>, and <em>yellow</em> with -<em>pink</em> are inharmonious combinations of color; but -<em>yellow</em> with <em>white</em>, <em>blue</em> with <em>white</em>, <em>dull orange</em> with -<em>brown</em>, <em>violet</em>, and <em>pale gold</em> are exquisite together.</p> - -<p>A cup of chocolate in pale pink or dull red, coffee -in buttercup yellow, especially when served without -cream, and green tea in Nile green, appeal to the eye -as well as to the taste, giving double pleasure—gratifying -two senses instead of one.</p> - -<p>Color plays a very important part in serving food. -It produces strong effects in some persons who are -deeply moved by harmonies or discords in it, as -others are by harmonies or discords in music. Color -appeals to the esthetic side of some natures much -more forcibly than many of us are aware.</p> - -<p>The story is told of a lady, possessed of unusually -keen color-perception, who had been living for many -months in a house furnished in monotonous hues, -and in which the table was always set in plain white -cloth and white china. Being invited to lunch with -a friend in the neighborhood, she was moved to tears -at the sight of a beautiful table, decorated with a -scarlet cloth, flowers, and harmoniously contrasting -colored china.</p> - -<p>The effect of the colors upon the emotions was similar -to that which is sometimes produced by an exquisite -strain of music. Who can say how much of -subtle refining influence may be exerted by such -things? Regarded as a general thing only in the light -of the ornamental, they are too often looked upon as -luxuries, and therefore dispensable; but whatever -ministers to the esthetic side of the mind must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -elevating, and the influence of neatness, of beautiful -surroundings, of harmonious colors, of art in any -form, inevitably produces an effect upon character. -In time such surroundings become necessities, and -when the individual is deprived of them they are -missed, and he feels a sense of dissatisfaction with -those of meaner kind—perhaps dissatisfaction with a -poorer or lower life in any way—and imperceptibly -these seeming ornaments of existence may be the -means which shall lift many an one into a higher plane -of life, so that, aside from their practical value, all the -niceties of household affairs may have a lasting effect -for good upon character.</p> - -<p>To be progressive, one must be constantly in a -frame of mind to learn, and ever on the alert for information. -Fashions change in serving foods as in -other things. However, there are certain fixed principles -which always remain unchanged. Perfect -neatness, orderly and pleasing arrangement, and harmonious -coloring are ever essential.</p> - -<p>For the invalid's tray use the prettiest china obtainable. -In a private house there are always some choice -and precious pieces—teacups, quaint silver pitchers -and spoons, pretty plates, and delicate thin tumblers. -These will be gladly placed at the disposal of the -sick one, especially if the nurse will volunteer to be -responsible for them.</p> - -<p>To prepare a meal for an invalid after planning the -food, the first necessary articles are a tray clean on -both sides, a neat napkin to spread over it, and exquisitely -clean dishes done by a servant known to be -neat, or by one's self. It not infrequently happens, -especially in houses in which the mistress leaves everything -to the servants, and never goes into the kitchen, -that dishes are washed in such surroundings of dirt, -and wiped with such unclean towels, as to be dangerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -for any one to use. It is therefore necessary for -a nurse to understand about such matters, and to see -to it that her patient's dishes are above suspicion. In -fact, it is a dainty attention on her part to care entirely -for the tray-dishes of her charge.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Care of Dishes and Trays in Contagious Diseases</span></h3> - -<p>In some forms of disease it is absolutely necessary, -in order to prevent contagion, that a nurse should attend -altogether to the tray and dishes, for it would -almost never occur that any member of a household -would understand an effectual method of sterilization.</p> - -<p>In a contagious disease everything that goes to the -bedside—dishes, knives, forks, spoons, napkin, the -tray itself—should be rendered sterile by boiling in -water for half an hour, or by treatment with steam -for a similar time, before any one, except the nurse, -even touches them.</p> - -<p>Nothing should be used in the way of linen or -dishes that cannot be washed without spoiling; therefore -fancy silk doilies and other similar furnishings -are to be avoided.</p> - -<p>When it is necessary to taste of food before giving -it to a patient, take some into a separate dish, and use -a separate spoon or fork; or, if it is a liquid, take out -a little with a spoon into another spoon, being careful -that the one used for tasting does not at any time -touch the liquid.</p> - -<p>Never touch the bowls of spoons, nor the inside -of plates and cups, with the fingers, unless the hands -are prepared by thorough cleansing for it. A nurse -who understands antiseptic surgery, and knows how -easily contagion is carried, will appreciate the necessity -of these precautions. The hands should be -washed after arranging a bed, using a handkerchief, -arranging the hair—in fact, always before handling -either food or dishes.</p> - -<p>Food and drink should not be allowed to remain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -exposed to the air for any length of time. Most -kinds of food are excellent media for micro-organisms -to flourish in, and consequently the food, if it be such -as might be eaten afterward, deteriorates.</p> - -<p>Then, from an esthetic point of view, it is the height -of untidiness to allow a tray to remain in the sick-room -any length of time after the meal has been eaten. It -should be immediately removed with all traces of the -meal, as should also fruit, glasses for water, lemonade, -milk, etc., which may be used at different times -during the day.</p> - -<p>If the patient objects and wishes to have what is -left for future use, assure him that it is near at hand, -and being kept cool and clean for him. By punctually -fulfilling promises made about such matters, he -will very quickly learn to trust a nurse, not only in -these, but in other things.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Tray Decoration</span></h3> - -<p>For decoration for a tray nothing should be used -besides pretty china and flowers. A slender glass or -silver vase with a blossom or two, or a delicate fern -with a white or pink flower, are always suitable. It -is well to use ferns and other fresh green decorations -liberally, especially in winter. Green is always grateful -to the sight, and sometimes a single spray will -give pleasure to an invalid for hours.</p> - -<p>Violets, roses, orchids, and all flowers that are -dainty in themselves, are always in good taste, but a -very few or a single blossom is all that is allowable. -A big bouquet on a tray or an invalid's table is as out -of place as a whole roast or a whole pudding. Flowers -with strong odors or primary colors should be -avoided, such, for instance, as marigolds, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur de lis</span>, -and dahlias. They are handsome in a garden or a -hall, but not at the bedside.</p> - -<p>Little attentions in the way of ornamentation, and -thoughtfulness as to an invalid's meal, are deeply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -appreciated. They show that an effort has been made -to please, and to many sick ones the feeling that they -are a constant care to those about them is a very oppressive -one. It should be the pleasure of a good -nurse to dispel such thoughts. It is the duty of every -nurse to do so.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Variety, Intervals of Feeding</span></h3> - -<p>Variety for those who are sick (after they are out -of danger, and waiting for strength to return) is just -as necessary as for those who are well, and for the -same reason—that is, to furnish the body with all -those substances required for perfect nutrition. Many -think that because a person is ill, or an invalid, he -must be denied all things that are good, and fed -upon such dishes as well persons generally abhor, like -water gruel, thin oyster stews, and half-cooked corn-starch -pudding.</p> - -<p>It is curious how such an idea should have been -lodged in the mind, but it is probably a relic of the -old treatment in the days before antiseptic surgery -and the modern practice of medicine. Now, as soon -as a patient is out of danger, careful feeding with -a variety of wholesome, perfectly cooked, nutritious -food—of course, wisely administered as to quantity—is -an essential part of the treatment, and constitutes -nearly the whole cure in some forms of disease of the -nervous system.</p> - -<p>The body, depleted and exhausted by long-continued -sickness, is without resources, and must draw -from food (and, of course, air) all those substances -needed for repair and the restoration of bodily vigor. -To insure this, different kinds of food are required, -for no single one, not even milk, contains everything -needed.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Fruits of various kinds, green salads and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> -vegetables, fish, beef, and mutton should be used, as -well as milk, eggs, chicken, and toast.</p> - -<p>Ease in serving the sick is an accomplishment in a -nurse, and a certain amount of <em>seeming</em> indifference -is an advisable quality to cultivate. It is a good plan -to take every <em>possible care</em> in preparing a meal for a -sick person, and then to appear not to notice whether -he eats; for sometimes sensitive people, in their desire -not to disappoint, or in their endeavors to please, will -eat when they do not care for food.</p> - -<p>Endeavor to remember individual tastes, and try -to gratify them; always do so when it is in your -power, for these individual preferences are often true -instincts of the individual nature striving to secure -that which is best for it. If a man asks for the -second joint of a fowl, don't take to him a cut from -the breast, even though <em>you</em> may think it the choicest -portion.</p> - -<p>Food should be given at <em>regular intervals</em>. If a -patient is very ill, the rule is to administer nourishment -in small quantities and often. Sometimes a -patient is too feeble to help himself to food, and then -he must be fed by the nurse. When such is the case, -she should be extremely careful, no matter what the -pressure of other work may be, not to hurry him. -Give him plenty of time,—first, that the food may remain -in the mouth long enough to be mixed with the -saliva, for saliva is one of the digestive juices; and -second, so that it may be thoroughly masticated and -broken; otherwise it will be thrown into the stomach -in large masses, and may not digest at all.</p> - -<p>The <em>quantity</em> of food given will always depend -upon the condition of the person, and will consequently -vary for each individual. Give rather <em>too -little</em> than too much, with, of course, the understanding -that there is always an abundance to be had. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -little is often a challenge, especially to one of delicate -appetite; a large quantity is always vulgar. It is -much better to carry a second portion to one who -needs it than to offer too much at first.</p> - -<p>No exact and definite directions can be given for -the serving of special dishes, for a nurse's resources -in the way of china, etc., are so uncertain; but a few -hints in regard to some principles that, no matter -what the circumstances are, never change may be -found of service.</p> - -<p>For instance, water, lemonade, milk, milk-punch, -and all other cold drinks are most healthful when -<em>cool</em>, not ice-cold. Ice-cold water, ice-cold milk, and -all chilled drinks are <em>always forbidden</em> for both sick -and well, except in fevers, in extremely hot weather, -and in unusual cases, when only a few spoons of -liquid are taken. Even in these cases it is a question -whether <em>cool</em> liquids would not do as well. We all -know the danger of taking a large quantity of ice-cold -drink when overheated. Even death has frequently -resulted from it.</p> - -<p>Serve tea, coffee, cocoa, bouillon, broth, gruel, and -all hot drinks in cups which are <em>hot</em>, not lukewarm. -Soup as a part of a meal should be served in a covered -silver dish when practicable, for silver may be -made very hot, and no other is so pretty. In lieu of -silver use a covered china dish, or a bouillon-cup -made hot in an oven beforehand. Remember that -the <em>warmth</em> of all these foods is one of their valuable -qualities.</p> - -<p>Beef-juice and beef-tea may be offered in a red -wine-glass, to conceal the color, which is sometimes at -first unpleasant to those unaccustomed to the use of -rare beef; but the taste of these is so acceptable and -savory that, after taking a few spoons, the objection -vanishes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p> - -<p>Cups and tumblers ought not to be filled to more -than within a half inch of the top. The best argument -for this custom is, that it is considered good -form; but there is a good reason back of it, as is the -case in most other established customs. If a cup be -filled to the brim it cannot be moved without spilling -the liquid over the outside; this occasions wiping, -which it is especially difficult to do, and waste of a -certain portion of the contents; then it is not easy -to drink from a cup so filled.</p> - -<p>Fruits, such as oranges, grapes, peaches, and tomatoes, -should be served cool, but not cold or chilled. -The ideal way to eat fruits is without artificial cooling. -A peach is never so delicious as at the moment it -is gathered from the tree, just ripe, and tomatoes -have the finest flavor eaten directly off the vines; but -it is seldom that these fruits or others can be so obtained, -and we, knowing that fruits do not keep well -except in cool places, are apt to associate a certain -degree of coolness with them. The objection to serving -fruits very cold is that, besides the fact that they -are not as readily digested so, their delicate flavor -is lost, for the cold contracts the sensitive papillæ of -the tongue, and thus the power of tasting is temporarily -deadened.</p> - -<p>Oranges, peaches, and plums may be used uncooked, -as they are extremely easy of digestion so, and also -grapes, unless there is objection to the seeds, in -which case they should be cooked, and the seeds -strained out. Apples and pears are safer cooked; tomatoes -may be eaten either way.</p> - -<p>Transparent jellies are pretty served in glass -dishes, and ice-cream, sherbets, and ices in china -saucers, or ice-cream dishes of pink, or other delicately -warm colors. Ice-cream, uncolored, in shell -pink, is much more attractive than it is in cold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -mauve or green. Water-ices, which usually have -color of their own, may be served in dishes to match it. -Raspberry or strawberry ice is lovely in dull rich red; -apricot ice in yellow—that is, a certain shade of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">écru</span> -which harmonizes with the color of the fruit—and -pineapple and lemon ice in Dresden ware are very -pretty.</p> - -<p>Eggs should be opened into a hot, though not very -hot, egg-glass. It is the proper thing to do so even -when a patient is well enough to open them for himself, -for, although the supply may have been obtained -from the very best sources, there is always the risk -that some of the eggs may be old, too old to be good.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<p>Oysters in the half-shell are served simply with salt, -pepper, and lemon-juice, or horse-radish. A quarter -or a half of a lemon is placed on the oyster-plate with -the oysters, and after the salt and pepper are sprinkled -on a few drops of lemon-juice are squeezed over each -oyster, or a bit of horse-radish is placed on each.</p> - -<p>Broiled oysters may be served with a sauce of -melted butter, seasoned with salt, pepper, and lemon-juice -or vinegar.</p> - -<p>Toast is particularly acceptable with nearly all -kinds of cooked oysters, and fancy shapes, such as -tiny rounds, squares, and points, are excellent with -stews, soups, and roasts, instead of crackers.</p> - -<p>Dry toast ought to be eaten directly off the toaster, -and, except in serious illness, butter may be given -with it. Orange, gooseberry, raspberry, and other -marmalades, currant, apple, and grape jellies, and -baked sweet apples or apple-sauce, are excellent with -either dry or water toast. Cooked apples in any -form are delicious with milk and cream toasts.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p> -<p>It is the fashion just now to serve junket, slip, -soft custard, lemon cream, tapioca cream, and similar -delicate desserts in cups and saucers, not glasses. -The quainter the pattern of the china, the prettier -the effect.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - <h3><span class="hidden">A Plan for the Preparation of an Invalid's Breakfast</span></h3> - -<p>A plan for a breakfast, to consist of a peach, rolled -wheat porridge, beefsteak, baked potato, coffee, and -toast:</p> - -<p>(1) Put the porridge, which should have been -cooked the day before, on the fire to heat, and the -potato into the oven to bake.</p> - -<p>(2) Set some water to boil for the coffee, and the -milk to heat to serve with it.</p> - -<p>(3) Trim the steak, which should be a small piece -an inch thick, an inch and a half wide, and three or -four inches long; cut the bread, and make a butter-ball -by rolling a bit of butter between two spatters -made for the purpose.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> - -<p>(4) Set a plate, cup and saucer, and dishes for serving -the food, in the warming-oven to heat.</p> - -<p>(5) Arrange the tray with a fresh napkin, knife, -fork, spoons, salt and pepper, fine granulated sugar -and cold cream for the porridge, and some lumps of -loaf sugar for the coffee.</p> - -<p>(6) Fifteen minutes before the potato is done make -the coffee, and ten minutes later broil the steak; in -the interim pare the peach, laying it open from the -stone, and toast the bread.</p> - -<p>Now, if calculation as to the time has been well -made, everything will be ready—the potato baked, -the porridge steaming, the coffee cooked, and the -steak and toast waiting in the oven.</p> - -<p>(7) Serve the fruit on a tiny fruit-plate, the porridge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -in a hot saucer, and the coffee, together. When -the fruit and porridge are finished, offer the potato, -wrapped in a doily to keep it warm, the steak in a -hot covered silver dish, and the toast on an individual -bread-plate. Or all may be served together when -for any reason it seems best to do so: for instance, if -the tray has to be carried a long distance, or up many -flights of stairs.</p> - -<p>The above arrangement is simply beginning with -the things which require the longest time, and then -taking each in such order that all shall be finished at -the same moment.</p> - -<p>By understanding the length of time required for -each dish, there need be no hurrying, nor will anything -be cooked too soon.</p> - -<p>Dinner should be planned in the same way, and -also supper. Even when there is not much cooking to -be done the same idea prevails—that is, to begin with -whatever requires the longest time, and to do last -those dishes which spoil by standing; in other words, -to be systematic, (1) because your meal is in better -condition when so done, and (2) because it is easier -for yourself. There then will be neither hurry nor -worry, and work which ends with a satisfactory -result is always a pleasure.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="THE_FEEDING" id="THE_FEEDING"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN</a></h2> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Ways in which a Child may be Supplied with Food</span></h3> - -<p>There are three ways in which a child may be supplied -with food during its infancy: by its mother; -by a substitute for its mother—a wet nurse; and by -artificial feeding. This chapter will treat only of the -latter method.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Artificial Feeding</span></h3> - -<p>The child is fortunate whose mother can supply it -with a sufficient quantity of wholesome milk. There -is nothing more to be desired for it during the first -ten or twelve months of its life. But often a mother, -for one reason or another, is not able to nurse her -child, and other means of feeding must be sought. -In such cases, among the wealthier classes, a wet -nurse is sometimes employed; but with the majority -of people there is no alternative except artificial feeding. -When this has been decided upon, the question -naturally arises as to what shall be the best substitute -for the natural nourishment of the child—mother's -milk, which must always be taken as the perfect -type of infants' food.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> To this subject doctors and -hygienists have given much attention for a long time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -Many kinds of food preparations have been made and -tested. The result has been that, almost without exception, -authorities agree that milk from healthy, -well-fed cows, properly prepared, is the most valuable -substitute for human milk that is at present known.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Comparison of the Composition of Cow's and Human Milk</span></h3> - -<p>The following analyses give the comparison between -cow's milk and human milk:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc wd20"><em>Human Milk.</em></td><td class="tdc wd20"><em>Cow's Milk.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous substances</td><td class="tdrx">2.35%</td><td class="tdrx">4.30%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">3.40%</td><td class="tdrx">3.80%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar</td><td class="tdrx">4.85%</td><td class="tdrx">3.70%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts</td><td class="tdrx">.20%</td><td class="tdrx">.60%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">89.20%</td><td class="tdr">87.60%<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Buying, Care, and Sterilization of Cow's Milk</span></h3> - -<p>Cow's milk varies considerably in nutritive properties, -and for the growing infant who receives no other -food it is extremely important that it be of the first -quality. It should be tested in every possible way to -enable one to form a correct estimate of its value, -and unless unquestionably good should be rejected.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> -When fresh from the cow, not more than two hours -old, and of superior quality, it need not be sterilized, -but should be put into perfectly cleansed and sterile -vessels,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> and kept in an ice-box, or refrigerator, at a -temperature of 50° to 60° Fahr.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<p>When obliged to buy the ordinary milk of commerce, -select if possible that which is put up in glass -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -jars. There are farmers who do this. Each jar is -sealed, marked with the owner's name and address, -and the date of sending. Such milk does not become -contaminated with bad air in transit, cannot be tampered -with by middlemen, and must be free from -dirt, as it would show through the glass; each customer -gets exactly a quart, with all the cream that -belongs to it; moreover, the owner, having attached -his name, has thus put his reputation at stake, and -is not likely to sell inferior milk. When this is not -practicable, search for the best and cleanest dairy, and -see that the milk is delivered as soon as possible after -being received at the dairy. Milk should not be -bought from small stores.</p> - -<p>The best milk comes from cows that have good -pasturage, with clean running water, and that are fed -in winter on dry fodder and grain, and not on ensilage -and brewery waste.</p> - -<p>According to the reports of the American Public -Health Association, <em>one fifth</em> of all the deaths among -infants may be traced to the milk supply, and there -is no doubt that most of the sickness of bottle-fed -children, during the summer months, is directly due -to the unhealthy condition of their food.</p> - -<p>It then becomes the imperative duty of every mother, -nurse, or other person who has the care of children, to -learn, if she does not already know, the simpler tests -for milk, and something of the philosophy of the feeding -of her charge.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> When such knowledge is more -general, and women are able to determine intelligently -the quality of the milk which is offered them, then -will milk-dealers be forced to cease mixing, adulterating, -and otherwise tampering with the milk, which, -as a general thing, is sold at the farms in excellent -condition.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p> -<p>The first object is to secure a good quality of milk; -then comes the consideration of how it shall be prepared: -this must be in such manner as shall render it -as nearly like human milk, in composition and digestibility, -as possible.</p> - -<p>Comparison of the tables just given shows that cow's -milk contains more nitrogenous matter and salts, and -less sugar, than human milk.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> By diluting with water -to reduce the protein and salts, and adding sugar and -a little cream, the proportions of these different substances -may be made to approximate those in mother's -milk. In both the sugar is the same—lactose, or -milk-sugar; the fats are also much alike in each; but -the albuminous matter of cow's milk differs somewhat -from that of human milk, particularly in the way in -which it coagulates in the presence of acids. Human -milk forms into small, light, feathery curds; cow's -milk into large, compact, not so easily digested -masses. It is necessary, therefore, to seek the means -for preventing the coagulation of milk in large curds -in the stomach of the child—in other words, to so -treat cow's milk that it shall coagulate more like -human milk. This may be done in two ways:</p> - -<p>(1) By mixing into the milk some substance which -shall separate the particles of albumen from each -other, and so cause it to form into smaller masses.</p> - -<p>(2) By partial predigestion.</p> - -<p>To accomplish the first, it is necessary to use some -diluting substance of a harmless nature; if it be nutritious, -so much the better. For this, Mellin's food, -barley-water, veal broth, lime-water, and gelatin are -recommended.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Mellin's Food and other Attenuants</span></h3> - -<p>Mellin's food is a partially predigested grain, in such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -a condition that it can be assimilated by the infant; -barley-water is valuable for its potash salts, in which -cow's milk is deficient, and which the growing babe -needs; veal broth is rich in lime; and lime-water -neutralizes the acid of the gastric juice, so that milk -is not acted upon so strongly, and consequently forms -into a lighter curd.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Predigestion</span></h3> - -<p>The second method is that of partial predigestion, -and is accomplished by the use of peptonizing agents, -among which Fairchild's peptogenic milk-powder is -good (directions for its use will be given later). On -account of the expense of these preparations it is not -probable that they will come into general use, except -in cases of sickness.</p> - -<p>It is therefore evident that dependence must be -placed almost entirely upon attenuants to render the -casein of cow's milk more easily digestible. Probably -for this Mellin's food is as good, if not better, than -any other of the recommended preparations. It is not -injurious, is nutritious in itself, and is a good diluting -agent, causing milk to form into looser curds than -it would otherwise do, and it contains sufficient sugar -to require no further addition of this substance.</p> - -<p>Now arises the question whether milk shall be -sterilized for infants' feeding. The weight of evidence -seems to be as follows: if it is possible to see -the conditions under which the cows live, and to <em>know</em> -that they are unquestionably good, that the animals -are in perfect health, that the milk is drawn from -cleansed udders into cleansed vessels by clean hands, -kept in a cool place, and used fresh, then it is probably -wise not to sterilize it. All milk otherwise -obtained should be made sterile before using, and -as soon as possible after milking. Looking to the -standard—human milk—there are no organisms in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -it. That alone is sufficient reason why cow's milk -should be freed from them.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> - -<p>Again, most bottle-fed children do well during the -cold weather of autumn and winter; in summer the -mortality is very great among them, especially in -the poorer districts of large cities. It is well known -that the chances for life with children nourished by -mother's milk are greater than with those artificially -fed. Why should this be? There is no doubt that it -is owing to the presence in cow's milk of extraneous -substances, the products of bacterial growth—products -which are often absolute poisons; and it is -highly probable that <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cholera infantum</span>, in a vast majority -of cases, may be traced to the action of such -poisons.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Bacterial Poisins in Milk</span></h3> - -<p>Under favorable conditions of temperature, such as -prevail in the warm months of summer and early -autumn, micro-organisms grow with almost incomprehensible -rapidity in any substance which is suitable -food for them. Milk is such a substance; and, as -bacteria multiply with wonderful rapidity, millions -forming in a few hours in every thimbleful,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> it is -perfectly evident that they must produce something. -This something may or may not be of a harmful nature, -depending upon what species of organism produces -it. I have no evidence at hand to show what is -the nature of the product of any one organism which -finds a home in milk; but there are instances on -record where the nature of the product of certain bacteria -is known: for example, the diphtheria bacillus. -This little rod, growing upon the outside of the tonsils -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -in the human throat, produces a most virulent -poison, which, taken up by the circulation, pervades -the whole body, and often so enfeebles its functions -as to destroy it.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - -<p>Reasoning from analogy, it is not impossible to -suppose that other organisms may produce substances -of a similar character, poisonous in their effects, and -which, when taken into the alimentary canal, may -produce very grave digestive disorders.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - -<p>Further, bacteria, by their multiplication, use some -of the constituents of milk for their food, thus changing -its composition. It is very important to prevent -this growth, or, in case it has begun, to check it before -it has rendered the milk unwholesome food. Hence -the necessity of sterilizing <em>immediately</em> all milk which -is not received directly from the cow. Besides, cows -are often infected with tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth -disease, splenic fever, pneumonia, and other dangerous -disorders. Their milk may be a direct cause of -infection. When it is sterilized there is less danger -from it; but even then it is not, of course, a wholesome -food, because of the poisons which may be produced -in the animal during the progress of the disease, and -because a sick and weakened cow cannot give wholesome -milk.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - -<p>In many cities, through the influence of children's -hospitals and sanitariums, the knowledge and methods -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -of sterilizing milk for infants' food are gradually -spreading.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Apparatus for Sterilizing Milk</span></h3> - -<p>Circular wire frames, made something like casters, -and fitted with eight bottles, each holding enough -milk for one feeding, may be bought for the purpose -of sterilizing at almost any pharmacy. The frame is -to be set in a kettle with water in the bottom, which -on boiling produces steam, the heat of which does -the sterilizing.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> This is an easy method. Another -good way is to sterilize at a lower temperature for a -longer time, as less change is produced in the constituents -of the milk by the lower degree of heat. -This may be easily done by immersing the bottles in -water at 190° Fahr., and maintaining that temperature -for an hour.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Care of Feeding-Bottles</span></h3> - -<p><b>Care of Feeding-bottles.</b> Great care must be taken -in cleansing feeding-bottles. When they can be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -washed immediately after using, it is easy to make -them perfectly clean; but when this is impracticable -they should be put to soak in <em>cold</em> water, then washed -with hot soap-suds, and last boiled for ten minutes in -clear water. If flecks dry on the inside, put a teaspoon -of rice, or coarse salt, into the bottle with a little -water, and shake well until all is removed. Never -use shot: it might cause lead poisoning.</p> - -<p>Plain rubber nipples alone should be used, never -the tube attachment. The nipples should be washed -clean and dried after each nursing. Before again -using the nipple it should be put into boiling water -for ten minutes, and only the rim of it should be -touched in handling. The nipple should never be put -into the mouth of another person to test the milk.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Condensed Milk</span></h3> - -<p><b>Condensed Milk.</b> When a large percentage of the -water of milk is evaporated, and sugar added, a thick -syrup is formed, known as condensed milk.</p> - -<p>It is made extensively in Switzerland and America. -When sealed air-tight in cans it will keep indefinitely.</p> - -<p>Its average composition—a mean of 41 analyses -by Prof. Leeds—is as follows:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr wd20">30.34%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdr">12.10%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Milk-sugar</td><td class="tdr">16.62%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cane-sugar</td><td class="tdr">22.26%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Albuminoids</td><td class="tdr">16.07%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Ash</td><td class="tdr">2.61%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">Total,</td><td class="tdr">100.00 </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p> - -<p>Owing to the additional sugar it is impossible to -dilute it so that the protein and sugar shall approach -the standard of human milk.</p> - -<p>Children fed with it are plump, but have soft flesh; -they are large, but not strong, and lack the power of -endurance and resistance to disease. Their teeth -come late, and they are very likely to have rickets.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> -This is enough to indicate that it is not a proper -food upon which to feed a child exclusively.</p> - -<p>Condensed milk is valuable in emergencies or in -traveling, and may also be used occasionally when for -any reason the milk supply fails. It has the advantage -of being free from ferments and easily kept.</p> - -<p>There are physicians who recommend the use of -condensed milk, and no doubt, compared with the -germ-laden, watery fluid called milk, obtainable in -the poorer sections of large cities, it is infinitely better. -It should always be diluted with at least ten -times its bulk of water.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Preserved Milk</span></h3> - -<p><b>Preserved Milk.</b> Preserved milk is milk which has -been condensed and canned without the addition of -sugar. It would be a valuable food for children -were it not that it is expensive, and will keep but a -few hours after the can is opened. By sterilizing it in -flasks with narrow necks, plugged with cotton, it may -be kept as other milk is for an indefinite time. As -soon as the can is opened, the contents should be -poured into a glass or earthen vessel, for, on exposure -of the milk to the air, chemical action takes place -with the tin.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Farinaceous Foods</span></h3> - -<p><b>Farinaceous Foods.</b> There are many farinaceous -forms of food prepared for the use of infants and -children. Probably the most valuable of them are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -those made according to the Liebig process. The -starch of the grain from which such foods are prepared -is, in the process of manufacture, changed into -soluble dextrine, or sugar (glucose), by the action of -the diastase of malt: the very thing which an infant -cannot do.</p> - -<p>When we consider that the digestion of starch in -the alimentary canal consists of this change into -glucose, and that it is effected principally by the -saliva and the pancreatic juice, the significance of -the value of such foods will be seen.</p> - -<p>It is also well to bear in mind that neither of these -functions (the secretion of saliva and pancreatic juice) -is developed in an infant until it enters the third -month of its life, and then but very imperfectly. -That alone shows the necessity of <em>excluding all starch</em> -from its food up to that age.</p> - -<p>Mellin's food and malted milk are prepared according -to the Liebig process. In them the starch has -been converted into soluble matter by the action of -the ferment of malt. It is really a partial predigestion. -Mellin's food does not contain milk.</p> - -<p>The following analysis of Mellin's food is one made -by Professor Fresenius, of Wiesbaden, Germany:</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Non-nitrogenous substances soluble in water</td><td class="tdr">69.38%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Non-nitrogenous substances insoluble in water</td><td class="tdr">3.18%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad6"><em>Total carbohydrates</em></td><td class="tdr">72.56%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Nitrogenous substances soluble in water</td><td class="tdr">4.69%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous substances insoluble in water</td><td class="tdr">5.06%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad6"><em>Total albuminoids</em></td><td class="tdr">9.75%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad6 tdpp"><em>Total salts</em>, mostly phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and potassa</td><td class="tdr">4.37%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad6"><em>Total moisture</em></td><td class="tdr">13.32%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Cane sugar, none. Reaction, alkaline.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p1" /> -<p>Comparative analysis of Mellin's food, prepared for -use, with that of woman's milk and cow's milk.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3"><em>Constituents.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Mellin's Food.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Woman's Milk.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Cow's Milk.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">2.36%</td><td class="tdrx">4.00%</td><td class="tdrx">3.30%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Albuminoids</td><td class="tdrx">2.83%</td><td class="tdrx">2.50%</td><td class="tdrx">3.50%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Carbohydrates</td><td class="tdrx">6.81%</td><td class="tdrx">6.50%</td><td class="tdrx">5.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts and inorganic matter</td><td class="tdrx">.74%</td><td class="tdrx">.50%</td><td class="tdrx">.70%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">87.26%</td><td class="tdrx">86.50%</td><td class="tdrx">87.50%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cellulose</td><td class="tdrx">A trace.</td><td class="tdrx">— </td><td class="tdrx">— </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cane-sugar</td><td class="tdrx">None. </td><td class="tdrx">— </td><td class="tdrx">— </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Starch</td><td class="tdrx">None. </td><td class="tdrx">— </td><td class="tdrx">— </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx" colspan="4"><span class="smcap">Dr. A. Stutzer</span>, Bonn, Germany.</td></tr> -</table></div> -<p class="p2" /> - -<p>This analysis shows that Mellin's food bears comparison -with milk. It is easily digested, and as an -<em>attenuant</em> for milk may be used without harm during -the early months of life, but it should not be used -to the exclusion of milk for more than a few days at -a time, and then only when milk is not retained by -the stomach.</p> - -<p>Later it is doubtless a valuable addition to the regular -daily food of the child.</p> - -<p>Malted milk is made from selected grain and desiccated -or dried milk. To prepare it for the infant -it needs only the addition of water. It is probably -one of the best substitutes for milk, but should not -be used for any length of time when it is possible to -get good milk.</p> - -<p>The starch of grains may be converted into dextrine -and glucose by the action of heat as well as by -the action of diastase, so that when flour is subjected -to a certain temperature, and for a certain time, this -change is produced.</p> - -<p>Nestlé's food, Imperial Granum, Ridge's food, and -some others are made very carefully from selected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -wheat by this process. Nestlé's food contains dried -milk.</p> - -<p>These foods are all valuable when made into gruel -or porridge, but should be used very sparingly under -the age of twelve months, and then only as attenuants -for milk, <em>not as substitutes</em> for it.</p> - -<p>Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, editor of "Domestic Hygiene -of the Child," by Uffelmann (a translation), in -speaking of the value of the various preparations of -infants' food on the market, says: "There is not the -slightest reason to prefer them to milk or its preparations, -except that the latter requires more care; and -for any intelligent and affectionate mother this reason -is quite insufficient.... During the first year -the baby is building up tissues and organs that are -to last him throughout life; and these will work well -or ill according to the degree of perfection and precision -of structure which they attain at the beginning. -And this depends to an immense extent upon -the suitability of the food, not only to be digested, -but to be absorbed, and then to be assimilated and -organized.</p> - -<p>"So mysterious are the properties of the molecules -of albumen and fat, when once they have been thrown -into the whirl of the living organism, that we must -strive to deviate as little as possible from the exact -forms given to us in nature, if only because we do -not know what remote effects might result from the -deviations. If nature provides the albumen of milk -and a living fluid, we cannot expect the same results -from any other albumen, or from long dead organic -matter, as condensed milk."</p> - -<p>The farinaceous foods have value, but they cannot -replace good milk, which should be almost the sole -food of the child to at least the age of ten months, -and the principal nutrient to the age of two years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p> - -<p>When a baby is nursed, and its mother has an -abundance of milk, it takes nothing else during the -first ten or twelve months of life. When a baby is -artificially fed, this fact should be borne in mind. -The important thing is to attain as nearly as possible -to the standard that nature has set.</p> - -<p>Biedert's cream mixture and the whey mixture are -valuable for young infants and those which for any -reason do not thrive on milk.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Amount of Food for Each Meal</span></h3> - -<p><b>Amount for Each Meal.</b> A child is nourished, not by -what it swallows, but by what it digests. Giving -too much or too concentrated milk is very unwise, -for the delicate system cannot manage it, and too -frequently the meal becomes a source of pain rather -than of strength. Each individual babe will require -a little different treatment in this respect from -every other.</p> - -<p>In general, for the first six weeks from two to four -tablespoons at a feeding may be given; from that age -to six months, from four to eight tablespoons, gradually -increasing the amount to twelve tablespoons at -one year.</p> - -<p><b>Dilution.</b> Cow's milk is more easily digested when -diluted with water, and we are more likely to dilute -too little than too much. The amount of water used -should vary with the age and strength of digestion -of the child. As a rule the new-born infant should -have two parts water to one of milk; at four months -equal parts of milk and water; at ten months one -part water and two parts milk. When digestion is -particularly feeble, it may be necessary to dilute milk -with six or eight times its bulk of water.</p> - -<p><b>Manner of Giving.</b> It is best to give milk from a -bottle so constructed that suction is necessary, for it -induces the flow of the digestive juices. Use the -plain rubber nipple; those with tube attachments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -which extend into the bottle are to be avoided, on account -of the difficulty of making them perfectly clean -inside. Cultures from these tubes always give large -numbers of bacteria, as do also those made from the -nipples, unless they are boiled.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Temperature of Food, and Intervals of Feeding</span></h3> - -<p>The <em>intervals</em> of feeding will vary somewhat with -the age of the child. Once in two or two and a half -hours during the day for the first six months, and -every three hours from the sixth to the twelfth month, -is the general rule.</p> - -<p>The <em>temperature</em> of the meal should be 100° Fahr.</p> - -<p>A babe needs less variety in its food than older -children, and they in turn require less than grown -persons; but both must have a certain proportion of -the five essential food principles.</p> - -<p>There is an impression in the minds of many that -children should not have fat. This has perhaps -sprung from the fact that mother's milk has a watery, -thin appearance. It seems not rich; nevertheless it -has a due proportion of fat, and it is extremely important -that this be maintained when cow's milk is -diluted, for this cream is the best addition.</p> - -<p>Fat is needed not only for the growth of brain and -nerves, which is very rapid in children, but also for -the perfect formation of other tissues.</p> - -<p>The following table is that given by Dr. Louis -Starr as a guide for feeding:</p> - -<p class="p2" /> -<h3 class="smcap fwnormal fs100">General Rules for Feeding.</h3> - - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Age.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Intervals of<br />Feeding.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Average Am't<br />each Meal.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Average Am't<br />in 24 hours.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">First week</td><td class="tdl">2 hours</td><td class="tdl"> 2 tablespoons</td><td class="tdl">1¼ pints</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Second to sixth week</td><td class="tdl">2½ hours</td><td class="tdl"> 3–4 tablespoons</td><td class="tdl">1½–2 pints</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sixth week to sixth month</td><td class="tdl">3 hours</td><td class="tdl"> 6–8 tablespoons</td><td class="tdl">2½–3 pints</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">At six months</td><td class="tdl">3 hours</td><td class="tdl">12 tablespoons</td><td class="tdl">4½ pints</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">At ten months</td><td class="tdl">3 hours</td><td class="tdl">16 tablespoons</td><td class="tdl">5 pints</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> - -<h4>For the First Week; One Feeding</h4> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Tablespoon of whey.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></td><td class="tdl">⅔ Tablespoon of cream.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Tablespoon of water.</td><td class="tdl">⅙ Teaspoon of sugar.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3 tdpp" colspan="2">Or Biedert's cream mixture:</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Tablespoon of cream.</td><td class="tdl">3 Tablespoons of water.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">¼ Teaspoon of milk-sugar.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3 tdpp">Or,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Tablespoon of milk.</td><td class="tdl">3 Tablespoons of water.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">¼ Teaspoon of milk-sugar.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>If it is desirable to make at once a sufficient quantity -of Biedert's cream mixture for several feedings, -the above rule multiplied by eight will furnish enough -for eight bottles, and is as follows: one cup of cream, -three cups of boiling water, and one tablespoon of -milk-sugar. Mix all together; put the mixture in -equal portions into eight feeding-bottles, and plug -each with cotton. Either sterilize it or put it immediately -on ice to keep.</p> - -<h4>After the First Week, and Until the Sixth Week</h4> - -<p>Use either the cream mixture, the whey mixture, or -the following:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Tablespoons of cow's milk.<br /> - 4 Tablespoons of water.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of Mellin's food.<br /> -⅓ Teaspoon of milk-sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p> - -<h4>From the Sixth Week to the Sixth Month</h4> - -<p>Water and milk in equal quantities, with a little -cream and milk-sugar, and some attenuant, such as -Mellin's food or barley jelly.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Tablespoons of cow's milk.<br /> - 2 Tablespoons of water.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of cream.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a><br /> - 1 Teaspoon of Mellin's food.<br /> -⅜ Teaspoon of sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p>The above proportion to be maintained, but the -amount to be varied according to the age of the babe.</p> - -<p>If at any time this disagrees, use instead Biedert's -cream mixture or the whey mixture. When both of -these fail it may be necessary to peptonize the food.</p> - -<p><em>To peptonize milk</em>:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -<span class="fs90 bold pad6">No. 1</span><br /> -2 Tablespoons of milk.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of water.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of cream.<br /> -1 Small measure of peptogenic milk powder.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put all into a clean porcelain-lined saucepan and -heat it, stirring slowly until the mixture boils: this -should not require more than ten minutes.</p> - -<p class="pfs90 bold">No. 2</p> - -<p>A special preparation for sick or feeble infants, or -those suffering from indigestion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span></p> - -<div class="recipe15"> -2 Tablespoons of milk.<br /> -2 Tablespoons of water.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of cream.<br /> -1 Small measure of peptogenic milk powder.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Put all into a bottle, shake it well, place it in a -bath or kettle of hot water of a temperature of 115° -Fahr. (so hot that the hand cannot be borne in it -long without discomfort), and keep it at that temperature -for exactly thirty minutes; then pour it into -a saucepan, and heat quickly to the boiling point. -By this method a very thorough predigestion takes -place. The process should be stopped before the bitter -taste is developed.</p> - -<h4>From the Sixth to the Tenth Month</h4> - -<p>Increase the proportion of milk and of Mellin's food, -or other attenuant used.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 4 Tablespoons of cow's milk.<br /> - 3 Tablespoons of water.<br /> - 1½ Teaspoons of cream.<br /> - 1 Tablespoon of Mellin's food.<br /> -½ Teaspoon of milk-sugar.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Boil the water, then add the milk, Mellin's food, -cream, and sugar, or put all together in a feeding-bottle, -place in a kettle of water heated to 190° Fahr., -and keep it at that temperature for one hour.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> This -amount is only a general rule, and may, of course, -be varied according to the age and individual need of -the child. The <em>proportion</em> of the ingredients should, -however, not be changed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p> - -<h4>From the Tenth to the Twelfth Month</h4> - -<div class="recipe"> -6 Tablespoons of cow's milk.<br /> -3 Tablespoons of water.<br /> -1½ Tablespoons of cream.<br /> -1 or 2 Tablespoons of Mellin's food.<br /> -1 Teaspoon of milk-sugar.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a><br /> -</div> - -<p><em>Mellin's Food with Condensed Milk.</em> Although, as -has been previously stated, condensed milk is not a -proper food for children, there are times when it may -be necessary to use it: for instance, in traveling, or -when the daily supply of milk for any reason fails.</p> - -<p>The usual mixture of condensed milk given to babies -is one part of milk to twelve parts of water, the -analysis<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> of which shows the fat and casein to be in -too small proportions. If more condensed milk be -added, the sugar will be increased too much; but by -increasing the water, and using Mellin's food and -cream, a very good mixture may be obtained. The -following is recommended:</p> - -<div class="recipe"> -1 Teaspoon condensed milk.<br /> -1 Tablespoon of Mellin's food.<br /> -8 Tablespoons of water (1 cup).<br /> -1 Teaspoon of cream.<br /> -</div> - -<p>Boil the water, then add the condensed milk, Mellin's -food, and cream in the order in which they are -mentioned, stirring until all is dissolved.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> - -<p>Nothing should be used during the first twelve -months except liquid food, and that must not be of -too great density.</p> - -<p>Avoid any food which contains cellulose, or starch -as such.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Cellulose is but imperfectly if at all digested -by grown persons; and starch, not being a natural -kind of nourishment for an infant, is extremely liable -to ferment and cause serious digestive disturbances.</p> - -<p>It should be remembered that, although the chief -function of a babe is to eat, sleep, and grow, its -stomach cannot work all the time, and, consequently, -the wise plan is to feed it only at regular intervals.</p> - -<p>The best proof that a child is doing well is increase -of weight, a healthy appearance, and lack of fretfulness. -Sometimes, when restless, it is only a drink of -water that it needs, as children suffer much from thirst -in warm weather.</p> - -<h4>From the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Month</h4> - -<p>Continue with milk, <em>undiluted</em> with water, as the -principal food. Use with it Mellin's food as before, -Nestlé's food, Ridge's food, Imperial Granum, oatmeal -porridge <em>strained</em>, soft custard, soft-cooked eggs, -cocoa<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> cooked in water, with milk added or cooked in -milk, and cracker-crumbs boiled in water, with milk -added.</p> - -<h4>After Eighteen Months</h4> - -<p>The same diet as for the previous six months, with -the addition of scraped or pounded chicken, mutton, -or beef; mashed baked potatoes with beef-juice poured -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -over; toasted bread or toasted crackers rolled into -crumbs, and soaked in milk or broth; junket, and -plain, simple puddings, such as cream-of-rice, tapioca, -and arrowroot.</p> - -<p>A diet similar to this should be the chief food to -the seventh year. It may be varied by farina, wheat-germ, -and other grain mushes, dried rusk and milk, -or Zwieback<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> and milk, sponge cake with cream or -milk, snow-pudding, and other wholesome and delicate -desserts, and cooked fruits.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Foods to be Avoided</span></h3> - -<p><b>Foods to be Carefully Avoided.</b> Veal, pork in any -form except bacon,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> highly seasoned stews, curries, -canned meats or dried meats in any form, baked -beans, fruit cake, also all cakes or gingerbread made -with so-called "cooking-butter" or with common lard, -raw fruits, lobsters and crabs, new potatoes, berries, -and cabbage.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="DISTRICT_NURSING" id="DISTRICT_NURSING"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">DISTRICT NURSING</a></h2> - -<p>In England and in some parts of America district -nursing, or nursing among the very poor of certain -sections of a city, is an established part of a nurse's -work. Her duties are to go from house to house -among the sick, to administer medicine and food, -and to make the surroundings of her patient comfortable.</p> - -<p>There is no way in which one may reach the hearts -and sympathies of the poor so quickly as by helping -them to, or showing them how to do for themselves, -those things which they think they need.</p> - -<p>Their first consideration is for the immediate necessities -of life—food, clothing, and shelter. Their -days are spent in a struggle with the world for these—too -often an unequal struggle, in which the world -conquers. A nurse, or any other person who can gain -admission to their homes and sympathies, may help -them in many ways as no other can. Great good -may be done by teaching them economical and simple -methods of preparing their food, which as a general -thing is cooked both badly and wastefully.</p> - -<p>A nurse doing district nursing, besides administering -medicine and making her patient generally -comfortable, will inevitably and naturally turn to -the preparation of some form of nourishment for -him. If she can make it acceptably with the materials -and cooking utensils at hand, or is able to ask -for that which is within the means of the family, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -to direct the buying of it, she will add greatly to the -comfort of the household.</p> - -<p>The object of this chapter is not, however, to deal -with cooking for the sick. That will be left entirely -to the judgment of the nurse, who is supposed to -have studied the subject as a part of her training. -But it has occurred to the author that a nurse doing -district nursing would often find the opportunity to -help the <em>families</em> of her patients, and that often such -help would need to be given in order to prevent actual -suffering. Especially would this be true if it were -the mother of a family who was ill, and there was no -one to prepare food for the father and children, who -must be fed. Usually there is a child, either boy or -girl, who is old enough to learn if there is some one -to teach.</p> - -<p>The following pages have been written for the purpose -of suggesting, to such nurses as are disposed to -do good in this way, some easily made and economical -dishes which are really both palatable and nutritious. -A few directions about building a fire, washing dishes, -sweeping, etc., will be given, and then some bills of -fare with recipes adapted for the use of people of -small means, and taken for the most part from the -Lomb Prize Essay by Mary H. Abel, entitled "Practical, -Sanitary, and Economic Cooking," and published -by the American Public Health Association, 1890.</p> - -<p>Permission to use these recipes has been graciously -granted by Mrs. Abel, and the American Public -Health Association, through Mr. Lomb.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">To make a Fire</span></h3> - -<p><b>To Make a Fire.</b> First, clear the stove of ashes and -cinders, then put in wood-shavings, or twisted newspaper; -over this foundation lay small pieces of wood, -crossed, so as to leave air-spaces for draft, then larger -pieces of wood, and lastly two or three fire-shovels -of coal. Light the kindling from the bottom of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> -grate, and let it burn for a while before putting on -more coal; remember that it is the heat from the -burning wood which ignites the coal, and if it does -not burn it is because there is not wood enough to -produce sufficient heat to start the union between the -combustible part of the coal—carbon chiefly—and -the oxygen of the air. Add coal a little at a time, -thus keeping a fresh fire.</p> - -<p>After the fire is well started regulate the dampers -often, to economize as much as possible the consumption -of coal. Keep them partially or wholly closed, -unless a hot fire is needed for some purpose. The -cinders left from an old fire should be sifted and re-burned. -Many dollars' worth of coal may be saved -in a year by giving attention to the drafts of a stove.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">To Wash Dishes</span></h3> - -<p><b>To Wash Dishes.</b> Mixing-bowls, double boilers, and -all dishes which for any reason have food clinging to -them, should be put to soak in cold water as soon as -used. If this has not been done, attend to it before -making other arrangements for washing the dishes. -See then that the dish-pan or tub, dish-cloths, and -sink are perfectly clean; if not, make them so with -hot water and soap. Wash the dishes in hot soapy -water, not hot water alone, even if they are not -greasy, and rinse them in a pan of clear hot water. -Take glassware, silver, and china first, then steel -knives and forks, granite-ware, kettles, tins, etc. -When the dishes are finished, wash thoroughly and -dry, or put to dry, both the wiping-towels and the -dish-cloths; unless they are white, clean, and sweet -when done, boil them in clear soapy water until they -become so, changing it frequently if it looks dark.</p> - - <h3><span class="hidden">Sweeping and Dusting</span></h3> - -<p><b>Sweeping and Dusting.</b> Sweep slowly and carefully, -holding the broom close to the floor, so that the dust -shall not be thrown into the air. <em>Burn the dirt</em>; never -allow it to be thrown into a box or into the coal-hod.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> - -<p>Dusting should be done with a damp cloth, wiping -up the dust, not brushing it into the air, from which -it will settle upon some other object. When you have -finished, wash the duster and hang it to dry. Never -use a feather duster. With it one simply brushes the -dust from one place only to have it settle in another.</p> - -<p class="p1x" /> -<h3>BILLS OF FARE</h3> - -<p>Mrs. Abel says, in her chapter headed "Bills of -Fare": "The following bills of fare are made out for -a family of six persons, consisting of a workingman, -two women, and three children between the ages of -six and fifteen.</p> - -<p>"The amount of food, and the proportion in which -the great food principles are represented, approximate -to that which is demanded by standard dietaries for -such a family....</p> - -<p>"To keep us in health and in working order, we -ought to have a certain amount of what is best furnished -by meat, eggs, milk, and other animal products, -and we must also have fats, as well as what is given -us in grains and vegetables." The following bills of -fare are made up with this object in view:</p> - -<p>For a family of six; average price, seventy-eight -cents per day, or thirteen cents per person.</p> - -<h4>SATURDAY, MAY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Soda-biscuit.</td><td class="tdc">Bread Soup.</td><td class="tdc">Browned Flour Soup</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Sugar-syrup.</td><td class="tdc">Beef-neck Stew.</td><td class="tdc">with Fried Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Noodles.</td><td class="tdc">Toast and Cheese.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Cream-of-rice<br />Pudding.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The recipe for <b>Soda-biscuit</b> will be found on <a href="#Page_242">page 242</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Bread Soup.</b> <em>Ingredients</em>, dry bread broken in small -bits, water, salt, pepper, onion, and a little fat. Soak<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -the bread in the water for a few minutes. Fry the -onion, sliced, in the fat, and add it to the soup, with -the salt and pepper.</p> - -<p>Or, use milk instead of water, and toasted or fried -bread. Boil slowly for five minutes to perfectly soften -the bread.</p> - -<p><b>Beef-neck stew</b>, <a href="#Page_186">page 186</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Noodles.</b> <em>Ingredients</em>, three eggs, three tablespoons -of milk or water, one teaspoon of salt, and flour.</p> - -<p>Make a hole in the middle of the flour, put in the -other ingredients, and work to a stiff dough, then cut -it into four strips. Knead each till fine grained, roll -out as thin as possible, and lay the sheet aside to dry. -When all are rolled, begin with the first, cut it into -four equal pieces, lay the pieces together, one on top -of another, and shave off very fine, as you would -cabbage; pick the shavings apart with floured hands -and let them dry a little.</p> - -<p><em>To use.</em> Boil the strips a few at a time in salted -water, taking them out with a skimmer, and keeping -them warm. Strew over them bread crumbs fried in -butter, or use like macaroni.</p> - -<p>These noodles will keep indefinitely when dried -hard. Therefore, when eggs are cheap, they may be -made and laid up for the winter. The water in which -they are boiled is the basis of noodle soup. It needs -only the addition of a little butter, a teaspoon of -chopped parsley, and a few of the cooked noodles.</p> - -<p><b>Cream-of-rice Pudding</b>, <a href="#Page_206">page 206</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Browned Flour Soup.</b></p> - -<div class="recipe"> - 2 Tablespoons of butter or fat.<br /> -½ Cup of flour.<br /> - 2 Pints of water.<br /> - 1 Pint of milk.<br /> - 1 Teaspoon of salt.<br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></p> - -<p>Cook the flour brown, in the fat over a slow fire, or -in an oven. Add slowly the water and other ingredients. -Serve with fried bread.</p> - -<p><b>Toast and Cheese.</b> Toast some slices of white or -Graham bread, arrange them in a platter, and pour -over sufficient salted water to soften them. Grate over -enough old cheese to cover the toast. Set it in the -oven to melt, and place the slices together as sandwiches. -This is the simplest form of "Welsh Rarebit."</p> - -<h4>SUNDAY, MAY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Milk Toast.</td><td class="tdc">Beef Stew.</td><td class="tdc">Noodle Soup.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Creamed Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">Broiled Herring.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Dried Apple Pie.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bread and Cheese.</td><td class="tdc">Tea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Corn Coffee.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Milk Toast</b>, <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>. <b>Beef Stew</b>, <a href="#Page_186">page 186</a>. <b>Creamed -Potatoes</b>, <a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Dried Apple Pie.</b> Make a crust in the following -manner: One quart of flour, one teaspoon of salt, one -tablespoon of butter or lard, or butter and suet, one -scant pint of sweet milk, or water, with one teaspoon -of soda and two of cream of tartar, or three teaspoons -of baking powder.</p> - -<p>Sift the flour, salt, cream of tartar, and soda together -twice, put it into a chopping-tray, and chop -in the shortening, which should be cold and hard, till -all is fine and well mixed. Now add the milk a little -at a time, still mixing with the chopping-knife. Turn -the dough on to a molding-board, and roll it out -quickly. When half an inch thick, bake in a sheet or -cut it into rounds, and bake in layer cake tins.</p> - -<p>When done, split it in two, and spread each half -with dried apples, stewed with a little lemon-peel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -and sugar. Lay the two pieces together, and eat -while warm.</p> - -<p>Any other fruit may be used in the same way, and -if a richer crust is wanted, two tablespoons of fat instead -of one may be used.</p> - -<p><b>Corn Coffee.</b> Roast common field corn as brown as -possible without burning. Grind coarsely, and steep -like coffee. Add milk and sugar, and you will find it -a delicious drink.</p> - -<p><b>Noodle Soup</b>, <a href="#Page_305">page 305</a>.</p> - -<h4>MONDAY, MAY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Oatmeal Mush, with</td><td class="tdc">Pea Soup.</td><td class="tdc">Bread Pancakes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Milk and Sugar.</td><td class="tdc">Mutton Stew.</td><td class="tdc">Fried Bacon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Broiled Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">Tea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Oatmeal Mush</b>, <a href="#Page_91">page 91</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Pea Soup.</b> <em>Ingredients</em>, one pound of peas, one onion, -two tablespoons of beef fat, salt and pepper. Additions -to be made according to taste. One fourth of -a pound of pork, or a ham-bone, a pinch of red pepper, -or, an hour before serving, different vegetables, as -carrots and turnips, chopped and fried.</p> - -<p>Soak the peas over night in two quarts of water. -In the morning pour it off, put on fresh water, and -cook with the onion and fat until very soft. Then -mash or press the peas through a colander or soup-strainer -to remove the skins, and add enough water -to make two quarts of somewhat thick soup. Season.</p> - -<p><b>Mutton Stew</b>, <a href="#Page_187">page 187</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Bread Pancakes.</b> Make in the following manner: -One quart of milk, three eggs, one tablespoon of butter, -one teaspoon of salt. Add to this one cup of flour, -and two cups of bread crumbs that have been soaked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -soft in milk or water and mashed smooth. The batter -should be rather thick. Bake in small cakes, adding -more flour if they stick.</p> - -<h4>TUESDAY, MAY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Oatmeal Mush and</td><td class="tdc">Fried Fish, with</td><td class="tdc">Fried Farina Pudding.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Milk.</td><td class="tdc">Mint Sauce.</td><td class="tdc">Broiled Salt Pork.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Buttered Toast.</td><td class="tdc">Fried Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">Bread. Tea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Mint Sauce.</b> Two tablespoons of chopped green mint, -one tablespoon of sugar, one half cup of vinegar. Mix -and let stand an hour or two.</p> - -<p><b>Fried Farina Pudding.</b> One pint of water, one pint -of milk, one teaspoon of salt, one half pint of farina, -two eggs. Mix the flour and eggs smooth with a part -of the milk. Heat the remainder to boiling, and stir -in the egg and flour. Continue stirring until it thickens, -then cook for fifteen minutes in a double boiler. -When cold, cut it in slices and fry them brown on a -griddle.</p> - -<h4>SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Soda-biscuit.</td><td class="tdc">Pea Soup.</td><td class="tdc">Corn Mush and</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Baked Potatoes, with</td><td class="tdc">Irish Stew.</td><td class="tdc">Molasses.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Drawn Butter Sauce.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Bread and Grated</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Cocoa.</td><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Cheese. Tea.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Drawn Butter Sauce.</b> Make according to the rule -for White Sauce (<a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>), except use water instead -of milk, and part beef fat instead of all butter.</p> - -<p><b>Irish Stew</b> (<a href="#Page_186">page 186</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p> - -<h4>SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Oatmeal and Milk.</td><td class="tdc">Broiled Beef Liver.</td><td class="tdc">Lentil Soup, with</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Bread and Butter.</td><td class="tdc">Boiled Potatoes</td><td class="tdc">Fried Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Cocoa.</td><td class="tdc">and Carrots, with</td><td class="tdc">Smoked Herring.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Fried Onions.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bread and Cheese.</td><td class="tdc">Barley Porridge.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Boiled Potatoes, and Carrots with Fried Onions.</b> Slice -hot boiled potatoes and boiled carrots together. Season -them with salt and pepper, and pour over them -hot fried onions.</p> - -<p><b>Lentil Soup.</b> Made like Pea Soup, <a href="#Page_307">page 307</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Fried Bread.</b> Cut bread into small cubes and fry it -in hot fat until light brown.</p> - -<p><b>Barley Porridge.</b> Made with pearl barley soaked -over night in water, and then cooked for two hours, -or until it is soft. During the last hour add milk -instead of water. Flavor with salt and butter.</p> - -<h4>MONDAY, SEPTEMBER</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Buckwheat Cakes.</td><td class="tdc">Giblet Soup.</td><td class="tdc">Codfish Balls.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Fried Bacon.</td><td class="tdc">Baked Potatoes, with</td><td class="tdc">Cheese.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Drawn Butter Sauce.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Tea.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Giblet Soup.</b> Giblet soup is made from the heart, -liver, and neck of chicken and other fowls, which in -city markets are sold separately and very cheap. -Clean them very carefully, wash in cold water, cut into -small pieces, and boil for two hours with onions and -herbs. Then add a little butter, thickening, salt, and -pepper.</p> - -<p><b>Codfish Balls</b> (<em>Salt Cod</em>). Codfish is one of the cheap -foods that seems to be thoroughly appreciated among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -us, and good ways of cooking it are generally understood. -It must be freshened by laying it in water -over night. When soaked, put it into cold water, and -bring gradually to the boiling point; then set the -kettle back where it will keep hot for half an hour; -at the end of that time separate it into fine shreds, -add an equal amount of fresh mashed potato, make -into balls, and fry on a griddle.</p> - -<h4>TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Fried Bacon.</td><td class="tdc">Boiled Corned Beef,</td><td class="tdc">Pea Soup.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Boiled Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">with</td><td class="tdc">Yeast Biscuit and</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Horse-radish Sauce.</td><td class="tdc">Butter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Stewed Cabbage.</td><td class="tdc">Stewed Fruit.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Barley Porridge.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Boiled Corned Beef.</b> Boil the beef for three hours, -very slowly at first, changing the water once if it is -very salt.</p> - -<p><b>Horse-radish Sauce.</b> Add grated horse-radish to -drawn batter sauce. Simmer a few minutes.</p> - -<p>Barley Porridge, <a href="#Page_309">page 309</a>.</p> - -<h4>SATURDAY, JANUARY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Fried Bacon.</td><td class="tdc">Browned Flour Soup.</td><td class="tdc">Baked Beans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Corn Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Stewed Mutton.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Mashed Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">Apple Dumplings, with</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Pudding Sauce. Tea.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Corn Bread.</b> (1) Plain. One cup of sweet milk, one -cup of sour or buttermilk, or both of sour milk, one teaspoon -of salt, one teaspoon of soda, one tablespoon of -butter or suet or lard, three cups of Indian meal, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> -one cup of wheat flour, or all of Indian meal. Mix, -pour into a tin, and bake forty minutes.</p> - -<p>(2) Richer. The same, with an egg and one half -cup of sugar added.</p> - -<p>(3) Very nice. No. 1, with the addition of three eggs, -one half cup of sugar, and one third of a cup of butter, -one cup of meal being omitted.</p> - -<p><b>Browned Flour Soup</b>, <a href="#Page_305">page 305</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Apple Dumplings, with Pudding Sauce.</b> <em>The Dumplings.</em> -Make a crust like that used in dried apple pie. -Cut it in squares; place sliced apples in the middle, -and gather up or pinch the corners. Bake or steam.</p> - -<p><em>Sauce.</em> One pint of water made into a smooth -paste with a heaping tablespoon of flour. Cook ten -minutes. Strain if necessary, sweeten to taste, and -pour it over one tablespoon of butter, and the juice -of a lemon, or other flavoring. If lemon is not used, -add one tablespoon of vinegar. This can be made -richer by using more butter and sugar. Stir them to -a cream with the flavoring, and then add the paste.</p> - -<h4>SUNDAY, JANUARY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Fried Codfish.</td><td class="tdc">Sheep's-head Stew,</td><td class="tdc">Potato and Onion</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Bread and Butter.</td><td class="tdc">with Soda-biscuit</td><td class="tdc">Salad.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Dumplings.</td><td class="tdc">Broiled Salt Pork.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Baked Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">Bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bread and Grated</td><td class="tdc">Corn Mush, with</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Cheese. Cocoa.</td><td class="tdc">Pudding Sauce.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Sheep's-head Stew</b> (see Mutton Stew, <a href="#Page_187">page 187</a>).</p> - -<p><b>Potato and Onion Salad.</b> Slice some potatoes (fresh -boiled and slightly warm are best). Sprinkle them -with minced onion, salt, and pepper. Dress with a -little melted butter and vinegar.</p> - -<p><b>Pudding Sauce</b>, the same as that for Apple Dumplings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p> - -<h4>MONDAY, JANUARY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Fried Mush and</td><td class="tdc">Soup from Boiled</td><td class="tdc">Boiled Potatoes, with</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Molasses.</td><td class="tdc">Beef, with Macaroni.</td><td class="tdc">Butter Gravy.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Broiled Beef Flank,</td><td class="tdc">Dried Apple Roly-</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">with Mustard Sauce.</td><td class="tdc">poly Pudding.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Bean Purée. Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Bread. Tea.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Mustard Sauce.</b> Make some drawn butter in the following -manner:</p> - -<p>A heaping tablespoon of butter, or beef fat, is put -into a saucepan. When it boils, one heaping tablespoon -of flour is added, and stirred as it cooks. To -this add gradually one pint of water, one teaspoon of -salt, and one fourth of a teaspoon of pepper. If you -wish to unite economy and good flavor, use one half -teaspoon of beef fat in making the sauce, and add -one half teaspoon of butter cut in small pieces just -before serving. Add a little mustard, and you have -mustard sauce.</p> - -<p><b>Bean Purée.</b> Make like Pea Soup, <a href="#Page_307">page 307</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Dried Apple Roly-poly Pudding.</b> Make the soda-biscuit -dough which is used in dried apple pie. Roll it -out into a thin sheet, and spread with stewed and -flavored dried apples. Roll it into a round or loaf, -and bake in a pan containing a little water.</p> - -<h4>TUESDAY, JANUARY</h4> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><em>Breakfast.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Dinner.</em></td><td class="tdc"><em>Supper.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Fried Potatoes.</td><td class="tdc">Browned Farina</td><td class="tdc">Bean Soup.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Bread.</td><td class="tdc">Soup, with Toast.</td><td class="tdc">Milk Toast.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Coffee.</td><td class="tdc">Stewed Mutton, with</td><td class="tdc">Tea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Yeast Dumplings.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><b>Browned Farina Soup.</b> Make like Browned Flour -Soup, except use farina.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p> - -<p>For other similar bills of fare and recipes, see the -Lomb Prize Essay, entitled "Practical, Sanitary, and -Economic Cooking," which is published and sold at -a low price by the American Public Health Association, -and may be bought at any book-store. It is -most heartily recommended to nurses who do district -nursing as a book which will be found useful -among the poor and those possessed of moderate -means.</p> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<h2 class="fs120 bold"><a name="LIT" id="LIT"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">LITERATURE</a></h2> - - <h3><span class="hidden">A List of Books</span></h3> - -<p>In preparing the preceding pages the following -authorities have been consulted. Their works will -be found useful for reference on subjects connected -with the chemistry of food, bacteriology, nutrition, -health, practical cooking, and allied topics.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>"The Chemistry of Cookery." <span class="smcap">W. Mattieu Williams.</span> 1885.</p> - -<p>"Food Materials and their Adulterations." <span class="smcap">Ellen H. Richards.</span> -1886.</p> - -<p>"The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning." <span class="smcap">Ellen H. Richards.</span> -1882.</p> - -<p>Various Articles on Food in "The Century Magazine." <span class="smcap">W. O. -Atwater.</span> 1887–88.</p> - -<p>"Elementary Manual of Chemistry." <span class="smcap">Eliot and Storer.</span> -Compiled by <span class="smcap">W. Ripley Nichols</span>. 1880.</p> - -<p>"A Manual of Practical Hygiene." <span class="smcap">Edmund A. Parkes.</span> -Edited by <span class="smcap">François de Chaumont</span>. 1887.</p> - -<p>"A Simple Treatise on Heat." <span class="smcap">W. Mattieu Williams.</span> 1880.</p> - -<p>"Food for the Invalid." <span class="smcap">J. Milner Fothergill.</span> 1880.</p> - -<p>"Food and Feeding." <span class="smcap">Sir Henry Thomson.</span> 1880.</p> - -<p>"The Boston Cook Book." <span class="smcap">D. A. Lincoln.</span> 1884.</p> - -<p>"New England Breakfast Breads." <span class="smcap">Lucia Gray Swett.</span> 1890.</p> - -<p>"Miss Parloa's New Cook Book." <span class="smcap">Maria Parloa.</span> 1880.</p> - -<p>"Diet for the Sick." <span class="smcap">Mary E. Henderson.</span> 1885.</p> - -<p>"Food in Health and Disease." <span class="smcap">I. Burney Yeo.</span></p> - -<p>"Delicate Feasting." <span class="smcap">Theodore Child.</span> 1890.</p> - -<p>"The Story of the Bacteria." <span class="smcap">T. Mitchell Prudden.</span> 1890.</p> - -<p>"Dust and its Dangers." <span class="smcap">T. Mitchell Prudden.</span> 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span></p> - -<p>"Bacteria and their Products." <span class="smcap">German Sims Woodhead.</span> -1892.</p> - -<p>"The Methods of Bacteriological Investigation." <span class="smcap">Ferdinand -Heuppe, M. D.</span> 1886.</p> - -<p>"Microbes, Ferments, and Molds." <span class="smcap">E. L. Trouessart.</span> 1886.</p> - -<p>"Principles of Bacteriology." <span class="smcap">Alexander C. Abbott, M. D.</span> -1892.</p> - -<p>"The Human Body." <span class="smcap">H. Newell Martin.</span> 1890.</p> - -<p>"A Text-book of Human Physiology." <span class="smcap">Austin Flint, M. D., -LL. D.</span> 1888.</p> - -<p>"Domestic Hygiene of the Child." <span class="smcap">Julius Uffelmann, M. D.</span> -(A Translation.) Edited by <span class="smcap">Mary Putnam Jacobi, M. D.</span> 1891.</p> - -<p>"A Treatise on the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood." -<span class="smcap">J. Lewis Smith, M. D.</span> 1886.</p> - -<p>Article in the "Medical News" on "Diseases of Children Incident -to Summer." <span class="smcap">Victor C. Vaughan.</span> June 9, 1888.</p> - -<p>"Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking." <span class="smcap">Mary H. -Abel.</span> 1890. (The Lomb Prize Essay.)</p> - -<p>"The Town Dweller." <span class="smcap">Dr. Fothergill.</span></p> - -<p>"A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection." <span class="smcap">W. Paul Gerhard.</span> -1890.</p> - -<p>"Papers of the American Public Health Association." 1892.</p> - -<p>"Foods." <span class="smcap">Edward Smith.</span> 1883.</p></div> - - -<p class="p2" /> -<h3>CHARTS</h3> - -<p>Charts of the composition of various foods may be -made like the following, for use in a cooking school. -They are valuable and convenient for reference.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bold" colspan="2">CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF AN EGG</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlz"><em>Shell.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Carbonate of lime.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlz"><em>Yolk.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">16.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">30.70%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts</td><td class="tdrx">1.30%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">52.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlz"><em>White.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">20.40%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts</td><td class="tdrx">1.60%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">78.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">COMPOSITION OF COW'S MILK - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">87.4%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">4.0%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar and soluble salts</td><td class="tdrx">5.0%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter and insoluble salts</td><td class="tdrx">3.6%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap" colspan="2">Dr. Miller.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">COMPOSITION OF COCOA</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cocoa butter</td><td class="tdrx">48.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter, albumen, etc.</td><td class="tdrx">21.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Theobromine</td><td class="tdrx">4.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Starch and traces of sugar</td><td class="tdrx">11.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cellulose</td><td class="tdrx">3.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Coloring matter and aromatic essences</td><td class="tdrx">Traces</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mineral matter</td><td class="tdrx">3.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">10.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap" colspan="2">Payen.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">COMPOSITION OF BREAD</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">8.10%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Carbohydrates, starch, sugar, etc.</td><td class="tdrx">51.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fatty matter</td><td class="tdrx">1.60%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mineral matter</td><td class="tdrx">2.30%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">37.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cellulose</td><td class="tdrx">0.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">COMPOSITION OF POTATO</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">75.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Starch</td><td class="tdrx">18.80%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">2.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar</td><td class="tdrx">3.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">0.20%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts, principally potash</td><td class="tdrx">1.00%</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="p2" /> -<h3>APPARATUS</h3> - -<p>The following is a list of the necessary furniture, -utensils, china, and miscellaneous articles for furnishing -a cooking school:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="95%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">CHINA FOR SERVING</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">3 Glass cream pitchers.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Oatmeal set.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Small china cream pitchers.</td><td class="tdl">1 Cracker jar.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Coffee-cups and saucers.</td><td class="tdl">6 Dinner plates.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Tea-cups and saucers.</td><td class="tdl">6 Tea plates.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Cocoa-cups and saucers.</td><td class="tdl">6 Individual bread plates.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Bouillon-cups and saucers.</td><td class="tdl">6 Individual Butter plates.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Egg-cups.</td><td class="tdl">6 Glass sauce dishes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Egg-glasses.</td><td class="tdl">6 Bone dishes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Tall, slender glasses for milk-punch, egg-nog, etc.</td><td class="tdl">1 Vinegar cruet.-nog, etc.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Small red goblet for serving beef-juice.</td><td class="tdl">2 Individual salt-cellars.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Tumblers.</td><td class="tdl">2 Individual pepper-bottles.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Spoon-holder.</td><td class="tdl">3 Small oval platters.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Glass sugar bowls.</td><td class="tdl">3 Medium-size oval platters.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Soup bowls.</td><td class="tdl">3 Silver or planished tin covers, for platters or vegetable, dishes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Salad bowls.</td><td class="tdl">6 Silver knives.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Finger bowls.</td><td class="tdl">6 Silver forks.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Small teapots.</td><td class="tdl">6 Silver spoons.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Cocoa-pot.</td><td class="tdl">1 Pair of silver sugar-tongs.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Tête-à-tête set.</td><td class="tdl">1 Champagne tap.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">COMMON KITCHEN CHINA</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">3 Large pitchers.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">6 Quart bowls.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Small pitchers.</td><td class="tdl">6 Pint bowls.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Half-pint cups.</td><td class="tdl">3 Large vegetable dishes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Saucers.</td><td class="tdl">3 Small vegetable dishes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">12 Custard cups.</td><td class="tdl">3 Pudding dishes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Individual scallop dishes.</td><td class="tdl">1 Large jelly-mold.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Mixing bowls.</td><td class="tdl">6 Small jelly-molds.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">GRANITE-WARE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">2 Six-quart covered kettles.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">3 Stew-pans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Six-pint double boiler.</td><td class="tdl">6 Saucepans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Three-pint double boilers.</td><td class="tdl">2 Omelet-pans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Quart double boiler.</td><td class="tdl">2 Hand-basins.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Coffee-pot.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">IRON AND TIN WARE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Tin tea-kettle.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">3 Frying-pans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Half-pint measure cups in thirds.</td><td class="tdl">2 Iron baking-pans for bread.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 Half-pint measure cups in fourths.</td><td class="tdl">2 Sponge-cake pans.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Tin jelly-molds.</td><td class="tdl">1 Iron gem pan.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Large-mouthed tunnel.</td><td class="tdl">2 Muffin tins.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Small tunnels.</td><td class="tdl">1 Chafing-dish.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Colander.</td><td class="tdl">3 Lacquered trays.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Taper soup-strainer.</td><td class="tdl">3 Small trays.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Coarse wire strainers.</td><td class="tdl">12 Japanned boxes of different sizes, for flour, etc.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Fine wire strainers.</td><td class="tdl">6 Tea-caddies.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Tea-strainers.</td><td class="tdl">1 Biscuit-cutter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Flour sieve.</td><td class="tdl">4 Cutting-knives.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Dredging box.</td><td class="tdl">3 Vegetable knives.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Egg-poacher.</td><td class="tdl">1 Chopping-knife.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Grater.</td><td class="tdl">1 Meat-cleaver.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Whip-churn.</td><td class="tdl">6 Forks.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Dover egg-beaters.</td><td class="tdl">1 Set of steel skewers.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Lemon-squeezer.</td><td class="tdl">1 Corkscrew.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Meat-press.</td><td class="tdl">1 Can-opener.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Potato-masher.</td><td class="tdl">1 Ice-pick.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Large wire broilers.</td><td class="tdl">1 Sugar-scoop.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Small wire broilers.</td><td class="tdl">1 Basting-spoon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Oyster-broiler.</td><td class="tdl">6 Mixing-spoons.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Wire cake-rest.</td><td class="tdl">12 Tablespoons.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Large tin pans.</td><td class="tdl">12 Teaspoons.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">WOODEN WARE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Coffee-mill.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Molding-board.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Ice-cream freezer.</td><td class="tdl">1 Rolling-pin.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Salt-box.</td><td class="tdl">2 Butter-spatters for butter-balls.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Spice-box.</td><td class="tdl">2 Cake-spoons.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Dish-tub.</td><td class="tdl">2 Salt-spoons.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Large oval chopping-tray.</td><td class="tdl">2 Vegetable brushes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Meat-boards.</td><td class="tdl">2 Scrubbing brushes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Bread-board.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">LINEN</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">Table-cloths.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">Mops.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Napkins.</td><td class="tdl">Ice-bag.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Hand-towels.</td><td class="tdl">Jelly-bags.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Tea-towels.</td><td class="tdl">Cleaning-cloths.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Dish-cloths.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">MISCELLANEOUS</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Chemists' thermometer.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Quevenne's lactometer.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Oven thermometer.</td><td class="tdl">1 Hamper for soiled linen.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Arnold sterilizer.</td><td class="tdl">6 Quart Mason jars.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Feser's lactoscope.</td><td class="tdl">6 Pint Mason jars.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bold tdpp" colspan="2">FURNITURE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Cooking stove, with appurtenances.</td><td class="tdl tdpp">1 Refrigerator.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Coal-hod.</td><td class="tdl">1 China-closet.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Coal-shovel.</td><td class="tdl">1 Open dresser.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Galvanized iron covered waste-pail.</td><td class="tdl">6 Chairs.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 Galvanized iron sink.</td><td class="tdl">1 Broom.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Towel-racks.</td><td class="tdl">1 Dust-pan.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 Tables.</td><td class="tdl">1 Dust-brush.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="p4" /> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep2.jpg" width="35" alt="decorative separator" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">INDEX</a></h2> - -<p class="fs80"> -<br /> -Absorption, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Adaptation of food to particular needs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Air, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38-44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Albumen, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Albuminoids, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Ale, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Apparatus for furnishing a cooking-school, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Apple dumplings, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Apple (dried) pie, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Apple soup, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Apples, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Baked, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Stewed, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Apple-tea, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Arrowroot, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Atmospheric pressure, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Bacon, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bacteria, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bacterial poisons in milk, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bacteriology, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Baking-powder, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Barley jelly, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Barley porridge, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Barley pudding, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Barley-water, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Beef, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Beef-juice, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Bottled, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Broiled, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Beefsteak, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Beef-tapioca soup, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Beef-tea, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Bottled, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">With hydrochloric acid, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Beer, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Biedert's Cream Mixture, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bile, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bills of fare, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Birds, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Field-larks, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Grouse, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Partridge, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pheasants, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Reed-birds, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Squabs, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Snipe, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Woodcock, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Biscuits, cream-of-tartar, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Biscuits, twin, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Blanc-mange, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Boiled corned beef, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Boiled potatoes and carrots, with fried onions, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bouillon, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Brandy-milk, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bread, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cream-of-tartar biscuit, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gluten, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Graham, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Graham gems, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Milk, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oatmeal muffins, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rusk, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Snow-cakes, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sticks, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Water, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bread pancakes, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Bread soup, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Broths, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Beef, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Beefsteak, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chicken, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Clam, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mutton, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oyster, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scotch, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Browned farina soup, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Browned flour soup, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Butter-cream, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Buttered water toast, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Cake, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Care in baking, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chocolate, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Dream, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Feather, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Invalid's sponge, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Layer, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Process of making, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rose, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">White, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cake filling and frosting, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Caramel, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chocolate, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> -<br /> -White mountain, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Calf's-foot jelly, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Caramel, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">To make, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Carbohydrates, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Carbon, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Carbonic acid, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Carmine for coloring, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Carrageen, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -Cellulose, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Charts, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chemical changes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chemistry of foods, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chicken, broiled, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chicken jelly, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chicken panada, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chicken soup, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chicken-tapioca soup, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -<br /> -China for serving, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Chocolate, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">To make, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Clam broth, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cocoa, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cocoa cordial, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cocoa-nibs, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cocoa-shells, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Codfish balls, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Coffee, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">To make, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Coffee jelly, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Coffee-syrup, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Composition of the body, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Condensed milk, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Consommé, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Contagious diseases, care of dishes in, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Convalescent's diet, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Corn bread, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Corn coffee, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream, condensed, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream-of-celery soup, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream-of-rice soup, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream of tartar, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream-of-tartar biscuit, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Creams, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Chocolate, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Coffee, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Egg, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Peach foam, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rice, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tapioca, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Velvet, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cream sauce, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Cream toast, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Croutons, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Custards, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Soft, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Baked, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">French, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rennet, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Dextrine, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Diastase, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Diet, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Diet lists or menus for the sick, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Digestibility of foods, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Digestion, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Digestive fluids, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> -<br /> -District nursing, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Drawn butter, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Drawn butter sauce, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Dried apple pie, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Drinks, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Egg-nog, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Eggs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Omelets, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Creamy, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Foamy, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Orange, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Spanish, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">To serve, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">With chicken, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">With ham, No. 1, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">With ham, No. 2, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">With jelly, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">With parsley, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">With tomatoes, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Poached, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scrambled, No. 1, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scrambled, No. 2, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Soft-cooked, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Egg toast, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Elements, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Ether, boiling-point of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Extractives, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Farina, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Farinaceous foods, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Fats, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Feeding of children, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Analysis of Mellin's food prepared for use, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Care of feeding-bottles, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Condensed milk, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Farinaceous foods, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Food.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Amount at each meal, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Dilution, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">First week, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">From the first to the sixth week, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">From the sixth week to the sixth month, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">From the sixth month to the tenth, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">From the tenth to the twelfth month, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">From the twelfth to the eighteenth month, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Food after eighteen months, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Foods to be carefully avoided, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Field-larks, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Fire, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Fish, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Boiled, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Broiled, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Creamed, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">To prepare, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">When in season, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Flavors, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Flaxseed tea, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> -Food, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> -<br /> -French toast, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Fried bread, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Fried farina pudding, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Fruits, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Apple compote, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apple jelly, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apples, baked, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apples, stewed, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cranberry jelly and sauce, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Grape jelly and sauce, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Prunes, stewed, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Fuel and kindlings, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Gastric juice, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Gelatin, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Gelatine, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Gelatinoids, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> -<br /> -General rules for the feeding of children, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Giblet soup, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Glucose, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Graham bread, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Graham gems, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Granite-ware, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Grape jelly, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Grape juice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Grouse, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Gruels, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Arrowroot, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Barley, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cracker, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Farina, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Flour, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Imperial Granum, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Indian meal, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oatmeal, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Racahout des Arabes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Glycerin, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Glycogen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Hamburg steak, No. 1 (scraped beef), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Hamburg steak, No. 2, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Heat, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Hemoglobin, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Horse-radish sauce, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Human milk, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Hydrochloric acid, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Hydrogen, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Ice-cream, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Frozen custard, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Royal, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">With an improvised freezer, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ice-cream freezers, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Ices, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Apricot, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ideal diet, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Imperial Granum, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Inorganic matter of the body and of food, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Jellies, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">From fruits:</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Apple, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Cranberry, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Grape, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Serving of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">To preserve, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">From gelatine, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Chicken, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Coffee, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">French, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Lemon, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Orange, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Puncheon, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Wine, No. 1, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Wine, No. 2, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Restorative, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Junket, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Kitchen china, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Kumiss, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Lactometer, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lactoscope, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lactose, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lamb chops, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lead, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lemonade, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lemon jelly, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lentil soup, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lettuce salad, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Light diet, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lime-water (experiment with), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Linen, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Liquid diet, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Literature, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Liver, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lobsters, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lomb prize essay, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Malted milk, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Meats, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mellin's food, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Menus for the sick, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Micro-organisms, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Milk, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-49</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition of cow's, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Condensed, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Malted, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pasteurized, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Preserved, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sterilization of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Supplies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Milk and seltzer, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Milk and soda-water, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Milk lemonade, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Milk-punch, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Milk toast, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Milk-sugar, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mineral matter in milk, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -Mineral salts, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mint sauce, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mock-bisque soup, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mulled wine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mush and porridge, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Cracked wheat, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Farina, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Granula, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hominy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Imperial Granum, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Indian meal, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oatmeal, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Wheat germ, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mustard sauce, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Mutton, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Nestlé's food, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Nitrogen, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Nitrogenous compounds, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Noodles, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Noodle soup, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Nutrition, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Absorption, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Adaptation of foods to particular needs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Definition, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ideal diet, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Imperfect, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Inorganic matters and vegetable acids, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Summary of the digestibility of foods, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Value of protein, fats, carbohydrates, and extractives, <a href="#Page_58">58-65</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ways in which food supplies the wants of the body, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Oatmeal, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Oatmeal muffins, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Oil, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Cod-liver, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fixed and volatile, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Olive, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Omelets, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Orange jelly, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Oxygen, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Oysters, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Broiled, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Broth, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chafing-dish, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Creamed, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fancy roast, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pan-broiled, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Raw, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Roasted in the shell, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Soup, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Stew, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tea No. 1, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tea No. 2, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Panada, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pancreatic juice, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Paraffin, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Partridges, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pasteurized milk, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Peach foam, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Peas, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pea soup, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Peptogenic milk powder, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Peptonized milk, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pheasants, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Phosphated gelatine, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Physical changes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pigeons, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pink blanc-mange, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pink sugar, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Poisons in milk (bacterial), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Porridge, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Porter, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Potato and onion salad, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Potatoes, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Baked, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Boiled, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Creamed, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Duchess, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mashed, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Roasted, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Potato soup, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Preserved milk, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Protein, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Puddings, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Baked custards, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Barley, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chocolate cream, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Coffee cream, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Corn-starch, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cream-of-rice, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Egg cream, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">French custard, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fruit tapioca, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Irish moss blanc-mange, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orange baskets, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orange layers, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orange omelet, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Peach foam, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pink blanc-mange, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Princess, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rennet custard, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rice cream, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Slip, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Soft custard, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Snow pudding, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tapioca cream, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tapioca jelly, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Velvet cream, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Puncheon jelly, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Racahout des Arabes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Reed-birds, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Rennet, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Restorative jelly, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Rice, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Rice-water, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Ridge's food, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Roly-poly pudding, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -Rules for the feeding of children, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Salads, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Celery, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chicken, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lettuce, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Potato, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">" with olives, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Salad Dressing, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">French, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mayonnaise, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Saliva, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Salt (sodium chlorid), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Scotch broth, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Scraped beef, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Serving, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sherbets, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Lemon, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orange, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sherry and egg, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sippets, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Snipe, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Soda-water, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sodium chlorid, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Soups, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Apple, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Beef-tapioca, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bouillon, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Bread, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Browned farina, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad3">" flour, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chicken, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chicken panada, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chicken-tapioca, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Consommé, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cream-of-celery, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cream-of-rice, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Giblet, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lentil, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mock-bisque, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Noodle, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oyster, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pea, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Potato, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Queen Victoria's favorite, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Spores, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Squabs, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Starch, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Digestion of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tests for, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Steak (beef), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">A la Maître d'Hôtel, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hamburg. No. 1 (scraped beef), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad3">" " 2, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tenderloin, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Steam, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sterilization,<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Milk, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Vessels for holding milk, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Water, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Stews, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Chicken, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Beef, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mutton, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Strawberries, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sucrose, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sugar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sweeping and dusting, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Sweetbreads, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Creamed, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fricasseed, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">With peas, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Syrups, Apple, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Apricot, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chocolate, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Coffee, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Currant, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orange, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Peach, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Raspberry, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Strawberry, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Vanilla, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Tapioca, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Tea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Composition, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Kinds, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Serving of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">To prepare, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Value as food, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tenderloin (steak), <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Thermometers (oven), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Toast, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Cream, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Croutons, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">French, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Milk, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sippets, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Vermicelli, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Water (buttered), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Toast and cheese, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Tomatoes, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Vanilla syrup, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Veal broth, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Venison, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Ventilation, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Volatile oils, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Washing of dishes, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Waste, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Waste-pails, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Water, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Water-ice, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Wheat-flour, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Whey, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Wine, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">With rennet, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -White-sauce, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Wine jelly. No. 1, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Wine jelly. No. 2, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Wine, mulled, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Wine whey, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Woodcock, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Wooden ware, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Yeast, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Liquid, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Zwieback, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> A notable exception is the "Boston Cook Book."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Although in some hospitals it is not practicable for a nurse to do -much cooking for her patients, she has the control and distribution of -the food which is prepared.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Carbonic acid is composed of one part of carbon and two parts of -oxygen. Its symbol is CO<sub>2</sub>. One volume of hydrogen united with one -volume of chlorin forms hydrochloric acid, HCl. Common salt, or sodium -chlorid, is composed of one part sodium and one part chlorin. -Symbol, NaCl.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Oxygen is often called the <em>supporter</em> of combustion, but it is no -more so than the carbon and hydrogen of fuels, since they are necessary -for a fire.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Hydrogen is 14.44 times lighter than air.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See Eliot and Storer's "Chemistry," the revised edition, edited by -Nichols, and the "Elementary Text-book of Chemistry," by Mixter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Mattieu Williams, in "Chemistry of Cookery."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The carbonic acid breathed in has united with the lime, thus leaving -the water without excess of it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> As a general thing water does not contain organisms that form spores.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Atwater.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The decline in the sardine trade during the last few years is accounted -for by the fact that cotton-seed oil has so largely replaced olive-oil in -the packing of these fish. People who once regarded them as a great -delicacy no longer find them satisfying.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> This is not the first instance of the discovery of organisms in hail; -but Dr. Abbott, if not the first, is one of the first bacteriologists to demonstrate -the fact in this country.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Parkes's "Practical Hygiene."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> For a detailed description of this method of heating and ventilation, -see the report of the Johns Hopkins Hospital for the year 1891.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Variations in the composition of cow's milk (300 analyses): -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr"><em>Minimum.</em></td><td class="tdr"><em>Maximum.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Albuminoids or Protein</td><td class="tdrx">2.04%</td><td class="tdrx">6.18%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">1.82%</td><td class="tdrx">7.09%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar</td><td class="tdrx">3.20%</td><td class="tdrx">5.67%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Salts</td><td class="tdrx">.50%</td><td class="tdrx">.87%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap" colspan="3">—König.</td></tr> -</table></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The following is the police order for milk, published in Darmstadt, -1879: (1) All milk must have a specific gravity of 1.029–1.033. (2) When -skimmed it must have a specific gravity of 1.033. (3) All milk with a -specific gravity under 1.027 is to be considered as watered and immediately -confiscated. (4) All milk with specific gravity over 1.027, if after -twenty-four hours standing and skimming the specific gravity is under -1.033, must also be confiscated, also all skimmed milk with a specific -gravity under 1.033. (5) All milk must be considered skimmed which -has less than 2.8 per cent. of fat.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See article on the <a href="#Page_280">Feeding of Children</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Spores may be further described as resistant forms which some -organisms assume in times of danger, or lack of nourishment for the -purpose of preserving their lives. Not all organisms form spores.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> It is supposed, but I think not yet demonstrated, that bacteria are -among the transforming agents of our food, in the alimentary canal. -Organisms in the saliva have been isolated and found to produce substances -which will partially digest starch.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Flint's "Physiology."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> It is possible that albumen and fibrin are acted upon by some of the -juices secreted in the mouth.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The body loses each day, in the performance of its ordinary and -usual functions, about nine pounds of matter (Martin); therefore, that -amount of income of food, water, and air will be needed in every -twenty-four hours.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Prof. Atwater, in "The Century Magazine," 1887–88.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Hemoglobin, the red coloring matter of the blood, contains albumen.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Protein may be converted into fat; but although this will happen, -it will not do to depend upon it for the supply in the nutrition of the -body; for either it cannot be formed in sufficient quantity, or the excess -of nitrogen acts as a poison. The body suffers unless a due amount of -fat <em>as such</em> be taken. (Martin.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> By regulating the amount of fat taken each day with food, so that -a little less than is needed is consumed, one may reduce the amount of -fat of the body and become thin, or reduce an excess of fat without injury -to health. The process must be gradual, and continued for a -number of months. Bismarck, by the advice of his physician, reduced -himself in this way without loss of energy or any ill feeling.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Flint's "Physiology."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Parkes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Martin.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Martin.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Composition of oatmeal: -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">12.6%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Carbohydrates, starch, etc.</td><td class="tdrx">63.8%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fatty matter</td><td class="tdrx">5.6%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mineral matter</td><td class="tdrx">3.0%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">15.0%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad6">Total</td><td class="tdrx">100.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap" colspan="2">Letherby.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>From Prof. Mott's Chart of the Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive -Value of Food.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> For a further account of micro-organisms in milk, see the chapter -on <a href="#MILK">Milk</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> George Kennan, in his accounts of his perilous journeyings through -Siberia, bears ample testimony to the comforting effects of hot tea. -Often when he and his companion were chilled through, and almost -dead with cold and fatigue, after many hours' travel over the frozen -snows, they were revived by draughts of hot tea provided at the -stations.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The ash of tea contains potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric acid, -chlorin, carbonic acid, iron, silica, and traces of manganese.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{ Water</td><td class="tdrx">74.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl wd15">Egg Whole</td><td class="tdl">{ Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">14.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{ Fat</td><td class="tdrx">10.50%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">{ Inorganic matter</td><td class="tdrx">1.50%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdrx smcap padr2" colspan="3">Pavy.</td></tr> -</table></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Another analysis is that of Payen, the distinguished French chemist. -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">74.4%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Starch, sugar, pectose</td><td class="tdrx">21.2%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nitrogenous matter</td><td class="tdrx">1.7%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">.1%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cellulose and epidermis</td><td class="tdrx">1.5%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Inorganic matter</td><td class="tdrx">1.1%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdrx">———</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdrx">100.00%</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p> -Pohl found the proportion of starch, judging by specific gravity in different -varieties, to be as follows: 16.38%, 17.11%, 18.43%, 18.95%, 20.45%, -21.32%, 24.14%. -</p> - -<p class="rt2"><span class="smcap">Dr. Smith's</span> "Food."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Mattieu Williams.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> From actual experiment.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> From Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Pink sugar may be made by putting a few drops of carmine into a -cup of powdered sugar, and sifting it several times until the carmine is -entirely distributed through it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Mrs. Richards.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> A portion of the starch and sugar is consumed to feed the growing -yeast. It has been estimated that about -<span class="blkb"> - <span class="blka">1</span> - <span class="blka over">7</span> -</span> -of a barrel of flour is lost in -raising bread—that is, that amount is consumed by the yeast used.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Oven thermometers may be obtained of Joseph Davis & Co., Fitzroy -Works, London, S. E., England. 400° Fahr. is a good temperature -for the first fifteen minutes. Some writers give 380°, but the higher -temperature is better, provided it can be gradually decreased; it -should not fall below 250° until the loaf is done.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> There is, of course, an exception in the case of the use of milk for -young children, it being a perfect food for them during the first year -or year and a half of life.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> In England it is the custom to serve eggs in the shell, and it is -considered bad form to open them, but in America the latter way is -general; for an invalid there is no question but that it is the most -convenient way to do.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The spatters should be soaked in boiling water for a few minutes, -and then in cold water, to prevent the sticking of the butter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> It should not be inferred from this that mother's milk is the best -under <em>all</em> circumstances. It not infrequently happens that a mother, -disregarding all indications to the contrary, will continue to nurse her -baby after it has become disastrous both to herself and the infant to do -so. If a baby remains puny, and the mother is exhausted and languid -without any known cause, it is the part of wisdom to call in the aid of -a physician, and have the milk analyzed. Good and careful feeding is -infinitely better than nursing a baby upon impoverished milk, even if -the quantity seems sufficient. A mother, in nursing her child, should -do so at stated regular intervals. If it is injurious for a grown person -to eat at odd times all day long, it is far more injurious for an infant. -It will not hurt a child to be occasionally hungry, or even to cry, -whereas it <em>will</em> hurt it seriously and perhaps induce life-long dyspepsia -if food is introduced into the stomach while there yet remains in it -that previously taken in an undigested, or partly digested, condition. -The cry which a young mother thinks indicates hunger, and hopes to -allay by feeding, is often only a dyspeptic pain, which is increased by -the very means she takes to lessen it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> The milk of goats and asses is said to be more easily digested than -cow's milk, but is procurable only in exceptional cases.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> From Uffelmann's "Hygiene of the Child."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> See chapter on <a href="#MILK">Milk</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Vessels for holding milk may be made sterile by boiling them in -water for fifteen minutes. Glass is best.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> A low temperature retards the growth of micro-organisms.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Test for reaction, fat, and specific gravity. See article on <a href="#MILK">Milk</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> The following mineral substances occur in both cow's and woman's -milk: potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, iron, phosphoric acid, sulphuric -acid, and chlorin.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> It is worthy of notice, in this connection, that children have been -known to be made ill by drinking water which has stood for a length -of time—such water containing great numbers of bacteria, but none -of the so-called <em>disease-producing</em> organisms. The same water, when -boiled, produced no ill effects.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Stated by Sedgwick.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Welsh.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Since writing the above I have learned that Prof. Vaughan has -isolated a poisonous matter—the product of the growth of certain -organisms which multiply readily in milk—which caused active vomiting, -purging, collapse, and death when injected into the lower animals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> In England and America many cases of scarlatina, typhoid fever, -and diphtheria have been traced to the milk supply. But there is no -satisfactory evidence that those diseases were transmitted from the -cow; more probably the milk, which is an especially good nutritive medium -for bacteria, became infected after leaving the cow. In October, -1891, an epidemic of diphtheria prevailed in Melrose, Mass. Thirty-three -cases were reported. On investigation it was found that every case -could be traced to the milk supply. The farm from which it came was -situated in an adjoining town, and the family of the dealer had been -afflicted with diphtheria, two of the children having died. The use of -the milk was, of course, promptly stopped.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> A simple and inexpensive apparatus for sterilizing milk consists -of a covered tin kettle ten inches in height by eight inches in diameter, -a wire basket, which fits easily into the kettle, supplied with -supports or legs projecting one and a half inches from the bottom, one -dozen eight-ounce nursing-bottles, and a bundle of fresh cotton wadding. -The whole apparatus, costing about $1.25, is kept in most drug -stores. -</p> -<p> -Milk for twenty-four hours' use is properly sweetened and diluted with -water in a clean pitcher, and as much of this as the child will take at -one feeding is poured into each bottle, and the bottle stopped with cotton -wadding, which should fit only moderately tight in the neck of the -bottle. The kettle is filled to the depth of one half to one inch with water, -the basket containing the bottles placed in it, the kettle covered and -placed over a fire until the steam comes out from the sides of the top for -half an hour, when the basket containing the bottles should be removed -and put in a cool place. When the milk is to be used, it should be heated -by placing a bottle in warm water for a few minutes. The cotton is -then removed, and a sterilized nipple attached. After the feeding the -bottle is cleansed and kept in an inverted position until used again. -The above directions are those of Dr. Booker, specialist of children's -diseases, Johns Hopkins Hospital.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> In the Walker-Gordon Milk Laboratory, in Boston, milk is sterilized -at 175° to 180° Fahr. for fifteen minutes, and it is claimed that this -temperature gives the best results for milk to be used within twenty-four -hours. If the milk has to be kept a longer time, a higher temperature -is necessary, as only the bacteria and not the spores are destroyed by -175° Fahr. -</p> -<p> -Machines are in use in France which will heat great quantities of milk -to about 155° Fahr. and then rapidly cool it. Not all, but nearly all, -forms of bacteria likely to be found in milk are destroyed at the temperature -of 155°, and the good flavor of the milk is not injured. Such -milk is known as <em>Pasteurized milk</em>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> See the works of Drs. Louis Starr, Uffelmann, and Jacobi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The amount of condensation in preserved milk may be easily ascertained -by noting the amount of water which it is necessary to add in -order to make its specific gravity equal to that of ordinary milk.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> To prepare whey: 1 pint of milk mixed with 1 teaspoon of liquid -rennet. Set in a warm place until the curd is formed; then break the -curd and put it into a cloth or a wire strainer to drain.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> To make barley jelly: Boil two tablespoons of pearl barley in a -pint of water for two hours. Strain. It will form a tender jelly.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> The condensed cream of the Highland Co. may be used when other -cream cannot be obtained.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Malted milk, Nestlé's food, Ridge's food, Imperial Granum, or barley-flour, -may be used as attenuants.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Enough for the whole day may be made by multiplying the rule by -eight, dividing the quantity into eight bottles, and sterilizing all at -once. Keep in a cool place until needed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Milk-sugar may be obtained without difficulty, and always, at a -pharmacy. It is better for infants than cane-sugar, because it is -a little easier of digestion.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdrx">92.60%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat</td><td class="tdrx">1.00%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Casein</td><td class="tdrx">.84%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar</td><td class="tdrx">5.40%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Ash</td><td class="tdrx">.16%</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap" colspan="2">Dr. Meigs.</td></tr> -</table></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Although Mellin's food is made from grain, the starch in it has -been changed in the process of manufacture into easily assimilated -dextrine and sugar.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> The ordinary powdered cocoa, which has been deprived of oil. -Dutch brands are good.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Zwieback is a slightly sweetened and dried bread, which may be -bought at any grocer's. It is like dried rusk.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Bacon is very easy of digestion, and is a valuable form of fat for -children four or five years old. Given with bread or potatoes, it will -often be eaten when butter is refused.</p></div> -</div> - - -<div class="transnote pg-brk"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p> Some headings exist in the Table of Contents but not in the -main text of the original book. No changes or insertions have been made -to correct this (except for non-displayed h3-level insertions to aid -content navigation on handhelds). </p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, -milk-supply, milk supply; beef-tea, beef tea; over night, overnight; -to-day; oxid; inclosing; peptonizing.</p> - -<p> - Table of Contents:<br /> -<a href="#Page_vi">Pg vi</a>, insert missing entry: 'EGGS 153'.<br /> -<br /> - Main text:<br /> -<a href="#Page_152">Pg 152</a>, 'Laws and Gilbert' replaced by 'Lawes and Gilbert'.<br /> -<a href="#Page_264">Pg 264</a>, 'Potato. Stewed Mushrooms.' replaced by - 'Potatoes. Stewed Mushrooms.'.<br /> -<br /> - Index:<br /> -Format of the entry for 'Apples' changed to make its subheadings -consistent with all other subheadings.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Handbook of Invalid Cooking, by Mary A. 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