diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/54568-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/54568-0.txt | 12569 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 12569 deletions
diff --git a/old/54568-0.txt b/old/54568-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 46138e5..0000000 --- a/old/54568-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12569 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's A Handbook of Invalid Cooking, by Mary A. Boland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Handbook of Invalid Cooking - For the Use of Nurses in Training, Nurses in Private - Practice and Others Who Care for the Sick - -Author: Mary A. Boland - -Release Date: April 18, 2017 [EBook #54568] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF INVALID COOKING *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, MWS, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - A subscript is denoted by _{x}, for example CO_{2} or C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. - - Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fraction are shown - in the form a/b, for example 1/7 or 1/3000. - - Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - A HANDBOOK - - OF - - INVALID COOKING - - FOR THE USE OF - - NURSES IN TRAINING-SCHOOLS - NURSES IN PRIVATE PRACTICE - AND OTHERS WHO CARE FOR THE SICK - - CONTAINING EXPLANATORY LESSONS ON THE PROPERTIES - AND VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD, AND RECIPES - FOR THE MAKING OF VARIOUS DISHES - - - BY - - MARY A. BOLAND - - INSTRUCTOR IN COOKING IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS - HOSPITAL TRAINING-SCHOOL FOR NURSES; MEMBER - OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION - - [Illustration:(Publisher's colophon)] - - - NEW YORK - THE CENTURY CO. - 1893 - - - - - Copyright, 1893, by - MARY A. BOLAND. - - - THE DE VINNE PRESS. - - - - -_PREFACE_ - - -_In preparing the following pages for publication, it has been my -object to present a collection of recipes and lessons on food, for -the use of nurses. The idea was suggested by the need of such a -book in the training-school of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. It is -hoped that it will be found useful in other hospitals and schools -where the teaching of the subject of food is receiving attention, -and also to those who care for their own sick and invalid ones at -home._ - -_Part I--the explanatory lessons--includes general remarks on -chemistry, lessons on the properties of the different classes of -foods, and special articles on Air, Water, Milk, Digestion and -Nutrition. Part II consists of recipes, menus of liquid, light, and -convalescent's diet, and articles on Serving, Feeding of Children, -and District Nursing._ - -_In arranging the explanatory lessons, information has been drawn -from many sources, but particularly from the works of Atwater -and Parkes. It is the intention that these lessons be studied in -connection with the practical work; they contain matter suggestive -of that which it is necessary to understand in order that something -may be known of the complex changes which take place in food in the -various processes of cooking._ - -_The recipes have been carefully chosen and perfected, some having -been changed many times before final adoption. In most of them the -quantities are small,--such amounts as would be required for one -person,--but by multiplying or dividing the formulæ any quantity -may be made, with uniform results._ - -_Detailed descriptions have been given in order that those who know -nothing of cooking may be able, by intelligently following the -instructions, to make acceptable dishes. Repetition and similarity -of arrangement will, it is hoped, serve to impress upon the mind -certain points and principles._ - -_In some instances the recipes are original, but for the most part -the ideas have been gathered from lessons and lectures on cooking, -and from standard books, among them Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook -Book." Generally the order in which each recipe has been written -is the order in which the different ingredients should be put -together. The proportions have been placed first, and separately -from the description of the process, for greater convenience in -using._ - -_Valuable information for the chapter on the feeding of children -was found in Uffelmann's "Hygiene of the Child."_ - -_I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Drs. Simon Flexner -and William D. Booker of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in reviewing, -respectively, the explanatory lessons and the chapter on the -feeding of children._ - - _M. A. B._ - -_Baltimore, Jan. 18, 1893._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION - - PART I - - EXPLANATORY LESSONS - - PAGE - - PREPARATION OF FOOD 9 - - CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES 10 - - ELEMENTS 12 - - AIR 14, 38 - - FIRE 14 - - COMPOSITION OF THE BODY 16 - - PRINCIPAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY 17 - - THE FIVE FOOD PRINCIPLES 18 - - WATER 19 - - PROTEIN 24 - - FATS 28 - - CARBOHYDRATES 31 - - MINERAL MATTERS 65 - - MILK 44 - - DIGESTION 49 - - NUTRITION 53 - - - PART II - - RECIPES - - BEEF-JUICE, BEEF-TEA, AND BROTHS 75 - - GRUELS 83 - - MUSH AND PORRIDGE 90 - - DRINKS 95 - - JELLIES 120 - - TOAST 128 - - SOUPS 134 - - OYSTERS 145 - - EGGS 153 - - POTATOES 161 - - MEATS 168 - - STEWS 185 - - SWEETBREADS 188 - - FISH 191 - - CUSTARDS, CREAMS, PUDDINGS, AND BLANC-MANGE 195 - - SALADS 211 - - ICE-CREAM, SHERBETS, AND ICES 217 - - COOKED FRUITS 225 - - BREAD 232 - - CAKE 246 - - DIET LISTS OR MENUS FOR THE SICK 254 - - LIQUID DIET--FIVE MENUS 254 - - LIGHT DIET--FIVE MENUS FOR BREAKFAST, DINNER, - SUPPER, AND LUNCH 256 - - CONVALESCENT'S DIET--EIGHT MENUS FOR SPRING, - SUMMER, AUTUMN, AND WINTER 260 - - - SERVING - - IMPORTANCE OF SKILL IN COOKING THE THINGS TO BE - SERVED 267 - - GOOD SERVING A NECESSITY FOR THE SICK 268 - - PREPARATION OF THE INVALID'S TRAY 268, 270 - - IMPORTANCE OF HARMONY OF COLORS IN DISHES, LINEN, - AND FLOWERS 269 - - CARE OF DISHES AND TRAY IN CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 271 - - TRAY DECORATION 272 - - VARIETY, INTERVALS OF FEEDING, AND QUANTITY OF - FOOD TO BE GIVEN 273, 274 - - A PLAN FOR THE PREPARATION OF AN INVALID'S BREAKFAST 278 - - - THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN - - WAYS IN WHICH A CHILD MAY BE SUPPLIED WITH FOOD 280 - - ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 280 - - COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF COW'S AND HUMAN MILK 281 - - BUYING, CARE, AND STERILIZATION OF COW'S MILK 281, 284 - - MELLIN'S FOOD AND OTHER ATTENUANTS 283, 290, 291 - - PREDIGESTION 283, 284 - - BACTERIAL POISONS IN MILK 285, 286 - - APPARATUS FOR STERILIZING MILK 287 - - CARE OF FEEDING-BOTTLES 287 - - USE OF CONDENSED MILK 288 - - PRESERVED MILK 289 - - FARINACEOUS FOODS, MELLIN'S FOOD, MALTED MILK, ETC. 289, 290 - - AMOUNT OF FOOD FOR EACH MEAL--DILUTION OF--MANNER - OF GIVING 293 - - TEMPERATURE OF FOOD WHEN GIVEN, AND INTERVALS OF - FEEDING 294 - - GENERAL RULES FOR FEEDING 294 - - FOR THE FIRST WEEK 295 - - AFTER THE FIRST WEEK AND UNTIL THE SIXTH WEEK 295 - - FROM THE SIXTH WEEK TO THE SIXTH MONTH 296 - - FROM THE SIXTH TO THE TENTH MONTH 297 - - FROM THE TENTH TO THE TWELFTH MONTH 298 - - FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH MONTH 299 - - AFTER EIGHTEEN MONTHS 299 - - FOODS TO BE CAREFULLY AVOIDED 300 - - - DISTRICT NURSING - - DISTRICT NURSING 301 - - TO MAKE A FIRE 302 - - TO WASH DISHES 303 - - SWEEPING AND DUSTING 303 - - BILLS OF FARE FOR SATURDAY, SUNDAY, MONDAY, AND TUESDAY: - - IN MAY 304-308 - - IN SEPTEMBER 308-310 - - IN JANUARY 310-313 - - - LITERATURE - - A LIST OF BOOKS ON THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS, BACTERIOLOGY, - NUTRITION, HEALTH, PRACTICAL COOKING, AND ALLIED - SUBJECTS, USEFUL FOR REFERENCE 313 - - CHARTS OF THE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FOODS FOR USE IN A - COOKING-SCHOOL 314 - - APPARATUS FOR FURNISHING A COOKING-SCHOOL 315 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The work of the nurse is to care for her patient, to watch, to -tend, and to nurture him in such a way that he shall gain and -maintain sufficient strength to overcome disease, that he may -finally be restored to a state of health. Her greatest allies in -this work consist in the proper hygienic surroundings of good air, -warmth, cleanliness, and proper nourishment. - -The most scrupulous cleanliness in the care and preparation of food -is an important point in her work, and practically to appreciate -this, some knowledge of bacteriology is necessary, for the various -fermentative and putrefactive changes (often unnoticed) which take -place in both cooked and uncooked foods are caused by the growth -of microscopic forms of life. Most of us realize the necessity for -removing all visible impurities, but that is not enough; we should -also combat those unseen agents which are everywhere at work, -in order that we may prevent their action upon food material or -destroy the products of their growth. Often these products are of a -poisonous nature, and cause grave physical disturbances when they -occur in our foods. When such knowledge is more general, we shall -have arrived at a state of progress in the care and preparation of -foods not yet universally reached. - -The indications at present are that nothing of importance will -be done to change for the better the existing methods of -housekeeping, until housekeepers are educated in the science of -household affairs. They should comprehend (1) that the atmosphere -is an actual thing; that it has characteristics and properties -like other actual things; that it is a necessity of life, and -may be made a medium for the transmission of disease; and that -it is as necessary that it should be kept clean as the floor, -the table, or the furniture; (2) that food is a subject which -may be studied and mastered like any other subject; that the -changes it undergoes in its care and preparation are governed by -fixed laws; (3) they should have a knowledge of heat in order to -appreciate the effects of temperature on different food materials, -to regulate the ventilation of their houses, and to control fires -wisely and economically; and (4) they should have some knowledge -of bacteriology, that milk and water, flesh, fruit, and vegetables -may be kept, or rendered, absolutely free from disease-giving -properties, and that perfect cleanliness may be exercised in -preparing all materials that enter the body as nutrients. - -It is not the intention to imply that all micro-organisms produce -injurious effects wherever they are found; on the contrary, they -are as essential to man's existence as are the higher forms of -life; but often they seriously, even fatally, interfere with that -existence, and in order to discriminate and to combat the evil a -knowledge of their ways and modes of life is essential. - -A Harvard professor is credited with saying that no man could be a -gentleman without a knowledge of chemistry; and forthwith all the -students took to chemistry, for all wanted to be gentlemen. Would -that somebody would authoritatively declare that no woman could be -a lady without a knowledge of the chemistry of the household--what -a glorious prospect would there be opened for the future health of -the nation! - -We read in history that after a grand medieval repast the bones and -refuse of the feast were thrown under the table and left to decay. -The scourges which have swept over Europe in past centuries we -know, to-day, were not visitations of Providence, but were simply -the result of natural causes, due to ignorance of all hygienic laws -on the part of the people. Compared with the barbarians of old, -in these matters, we are a civilized people; compared with the -possibilities of the future, we are still little more than savages. - -The ideal life is one in which there shall be no sickness except -from accident or natural causes. When we have mastered the laws -of hygiene, then will such life be possible. Meanwhile, with -sickness always in our midst, we should keep the ideal ever before -us, and endeavor by all means to restore suffering human beings -to a perfect state of health. A sound body is a material thing, -prosaically nourished by material substances, which produce just -as exact results in its chemical physiology as if those substances -entered into combination in the laboratory of the chemist. The -cooking of food should be governed by exact laws which for the most -part as yet remain undemonstrated. It is a foregone conclusion that -many young women fail in their first attempts at cooking; that they -do so is not surprising, for not only are their friends unable -to teach them, but the majority of books on the subject furnish -no intelligible aid.[1] The science of cookery is still in the -empirical stage. - -Even among experienced housekeepers there is not enough knowledge -of the nature of foods and their proper combinations; the result -is a great deal of unwholesome cookery and the consequent injury -and waste which must follow. Dislike for the work is usually due -to want of success, and failure is attributed to ill luck, poor -materials, the fire, or any cause but the true one--which is -ignorance of the subject. Of course good dishes cannot be made out -of poor materials, but too often poor dishes are made out of good -materials. - -The systematic teaching of the subject of household affairs cannot -fail of good results. Especially is this true in the case of the -nurse, who will need at all times to exercise care and wisdom in -the choice of food for the sick, to avoid the use of injurious -substances, and to select that which is perfectly wholesome and -suited to the needs and condition of each individual. - -It may be said that most women can prepare a fairly satisfactory -meal for those who are well, but very few are able to do the same -for the sick. - -Count Rumford says: "I constantly found that the richness or -quality of a soup depended more upon the proper choice of -ingredients than upon the quantity of solid nutrient matter -employed; much more upon the art and skill of the cook than upon -sums laid out in the market." This is equally true of other dishes -than soup. The skill to develop the natural flavors of a food, to -render it perfectly and thoroughly digestible, to convert it into -a delicate viand, cannot be acquired in a haphazard way. Cooking -cannot be done by guesswork. There are right and wrong methods in -the kitchen as well as in the laboratory, and there is no doubt -that the awakening interest in the subject of domestic science -generally is neither an accident nor a whim, but the result of a -necessity for better ways of living. We live different lives from -those of our grandfathers before the days of the steam-engine, -electricity, the telegraph, and the telephone. Now much more energy -is needed to meet each day's demand than was required a hundred -years ago, and so, much more nutriment is needed to sustain that -energy. When the food does not supply the material to meet the -demand, the whole being suffers. - -A course of study in cooking taken by the nurses of a hospital, -while they are still pupils, is valuable for their present and -future work. A nurse with the information that such a course should -give, will be able to care for the feeding of her patients more -wisely,[2] will see the necessity for variety, will learn to avoid -suspicious substances, such as fermented meat or fish, canned -foods, etc., and will put forth every effort to secure that which -is appetizing and wholesome, and suited to the needs of those in -her care. She will more easily exercise patience and forbearance -with the idiosyncrasies of the sick in regard to articles of diet, -knowing that these are usually the symptoms of disease. The proper -modes of caring for milk, eggs, oysters, and other perishable -foods, the practice of economy in the use of wines, cocoa, and -like costly substances, and an appreciation of the value of food -materials in general, are some of the points which she will have -learned. - -She will not forget that cleanliness in the kitchen in the -preparation of all food, and in the washing of dishes, towels, -waste-pails, sinks, and all receptacles in which easily decomposing -substances are kept, means protection against many evils. The -little knowledge of bacteriology that it is possible to give in a -course in cooking, will enable her to understand that many animal -foods, such as oysters, fish, and lobsters, are extremely prone -to decay, and, although _apparently_ good, may have been the -camping-ground of millions of organisms which have produced such -changes in them as to render them suspicious articles of diet. -She will, therefore, always endeavor to have such food alive if -possible, or at least fresh, and to keep it in such conditions of -temperature as shall preserve it in a wholesome state. - -The actual practical knowledge of how a certain number of -dishes should be made has, of course, its value; but it is not -the only consideration which should enter into the teaching of -cookery. Perhaps the most important point in all such work is the -recognition in certain cases of the _necessity_ for particular -dishes, and the reasons for, and the value of, their ingredients. -Why one kind of food is better for one person and a different kind -for another is, without doubt, an essential point in all such study. - -A system depleted by disease, exhausted by long-continued illness, -is an exceedingly delicate instrument to handle. It requires -the greatest wisdom and good judgment on the part of physician -and nurse to restore a patient to health without a lingering -convalescence. There is no doubt that the period of convalescence -may be much shortened by the wise administration of food, and that -the subsequent health of the patient may be either made or marred -by the action of the nurse in this respect. - - - - -PART I - -EXPLANATORY LESSONS - - - - -PART I - -EXPLANATORY LESSONS - - -PREPARATION OF FOOD - -=Digestibility.= There are comparatively few kinds of food that -can be eaten uncooked. Various fruits, milk, oysters, eggs, and -some other things may be eaten raw, but the great mass of food -materials must be prepared by some method of cooking. All the -common vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, beets, -and the different grains, such as rice, wheat, corn, oats, etc., -neither taste good nor are easily digestible until their starch, -cellulose, and other constituents have been changed from their -compact indigestible form by the action of heat. Some one has -spoken of cooking as a sort of artificial digestion, by which -nature is relieved of a certain amount of work which it would be -very difficult, if not impossible, for her to perform. - -=Flavors.= The necessity of cooking to develop, or to create, a -palatable taste is important. The flesh of fowl is soft enough to -masticate, but only a person on the verge of starvation could eat -it until heat has changed its taste and made it one of the most -savory and acceptable of meats. Coffee also well illustrates this -point. When coffee is green--that is, unbrowned--it is acrid in -taste, very tough, even horny in consistency, and a decoction made -from it is altogether unpleasant. But when it is subjected to a -certain degree of heat, for a certain time, it loses its toughness, -becomes brittle, changes color, and there is developed in it a most -agreeable flavor. This flavoring property is an actual product -of the heat, which causes chemical changes in an essential oil -contained in the bean. Heat not only develops but creates flavors, -changing the odor and taste as well as the digestibility of food. - -=Effects of Cold.= Some foods are better for being cold; for -example, butter, honey, salads, and ice-cream. Sweet dishes as a -rule are improved by a low temperature. The flavor of butter is -very different and very much finer when cold than when warm. It -is absolutely necessary to keep it cool in order to preserve the -flavor. - - -CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES - -=Chemical Changes.= Since many of the changes which cooking -produces in the different food materials are of a chemical nature, -it is well to consider what constitutes a chemical process. -This idea may perhaps be best conveyed by a few experiments and -illustrations, the materials for which may be easily obtained. - - =Exp. with Cream of Tartar and Bicarbonate of Soda.= Mix two - teaspoons of cream of tartar with one of bicarbonate of soda, - in a little warm water. A union of the two substances follows - and they neutralize each other; that is, the cream of tartar is - no longer acid, and the soda is no longer alkaline. Owing to - the power of chemical affinities a separation or breaking up of - these compounds takes place, and new substances, _carbonic acid_ - and _rochelle salts_, are formed out of their constituents. - The effervescence which is seen is caused by the escape of the - carbonic acid. - - =Exp. with Hydrochloric Acid and Soda.= Put a few drops of - chemically pure hydrochloric acid into a little water; then add - soda. A violent effervescence will follow. Continue putting in - soda until this ceases, when the reaction should be neutral. - Test it with litmus-paper. If it turns blue litmus-paper red, it - is acid; if red litmus-paper blue, it is alkaline. Add acid or - soda, whichever is required, until there is no change produced in - either kind of litmus-paper. The results of this experiment are - similar to those in the first one, namely, carbonic acid and a - salt. In this case the salt is _sodium chlorid_ or _common salt_, - which is in solution in the liquid. Evaporate the water, when - salt crystals will be found.[3] - - =Oxid of Iron.= A piece of iron when exposed to the weather - becomes covered with a brownish-yellow coating, which does not - look at all like the original metal. If left long enough it will - wholly disappear, being completely changed into the yellowish - substance, which is _oxid of iron_, a compound of oxygen and - iron, commonly called _iron rust_. - - =Burning of Coal.= A piece of coal burns in the grate and is - apparently destroyed, leaving no residue except a little ashes. - The carbon and hydrogen of the coal have united with the oxygen - of the air, the result of which is largely the invisible gas, - _carbonic acid_, which escapes through the chimney. - - =Formation of Water.= Water is formed by the union of two - invisible gases, hydrogen and oxygen. It bears no resemblance - whatever to either of them. Its symbol is H_{2}O. - -All these are examples of chemical changes. - -=Definition of Chemical Change.= Chemical changes or processes -may be defined as those close and intimate actions amongst the -particles of matter by which they are dissociated or decomposed, or -by which new compounds are formed, and involving a complete loss of -identity of the original substance. - - =Physical Changes.= Mix a teaspoon of sugar with an equal amount - of salt; the sugar is still sugar, and the salt remains salt; and - they may each be separated from the mixture as such. - - Water when frozen is changed from a liquid to a solid; its - chemical composition, however, remains unchanged. - - Water converted into steam by heat is changed from a liquid to - a gas, but chemically there is no difference between the one and - the other. _Steam_, _water_, and _ice_ are forms of the same - substance, the difference being physical, not chemical, and - caused by a difference in temperature. - - Lead melted so that it will run, and the solid lead of a bullet, - are the same thing. - -These illustrate physical changes. - -=Definition.= When substances are brought together in such a way -that their characteristic qualities remain the same, the change -is called physical. It is less close and intimate than a chemical -change. The transition from one state into another is also -frequently only a physical change, as is seen in the transformation -of water into steam, water into ice, etc. - - -ELEMENTS - -One feature of the work of the chemist is to separate compound -bodies into their simple constituents. These constituents he -also endeavors to dissociate; and if this cannot be done by any -means known to him, then the thing must be regarded as a simple -substance. Such simple bodies are called _elements_. - -=Definition.= An element then may be defined as a simple substance, -which cannot by any known process be transformed into anything -else; that is, no matter how it is treated, it still remains -chemically what it was before. Gold, silver, copper, iron, -platinum, carbon, phosphorus, calcium, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, -and chlorin are examples of elements. Once it was believed that -there were but four elements in the world--earth, air, fire, and -water. Then it was learned that these were not elements at all, -but compounds, and the number of elements increased, until now -sixty-eight are admitted to be simple primary substances. Some of -these may in the future be proven to be compounds. Sulphur is at -present in the doubtful list. - -=Oxygen.= Oxygen is an element. It is an invisible gas, without -taste or smell. It is the most abundant substance in the world, -and an exceedingly active agent, entering into nearly all chemical -changes and forming compounds with all known elements except -one--fluorin. It is a necessity of life and of combustion.[4] It -constitutes about two thirds of the weight of our bodies and one -fifth of the weight of the air. - -=Hydrogen.= Hydrogen is a gas. It is the lightest substance known. -It unites with oxygen to form water, and, as will be seen later, -enters into the composition of the human body.[5] - -=Nitrogen.= Nitrogen is also a gas, but, unlike oxygen, is an -inactive element. It supports neither fire nor life. It is not -poisonous, however, for we breathe it constantly in the atmosphere, -where its office is to dilute the too active oxygen. A person -breathing it in a pure state dies simply from lack of oxygen. - -=Carbon.= Carbon is a solid and an important and abundant element. -It is known under three forms: diamond, graphite, and charcoal. -The diamond is nearly pure carbon. Graphite (the "black-lead" of -lead-pencils), coal, coke, and charcoal are impure forms of it. -Carbon is combustible; that is, it burns or combines with oxygen. -In this union carbonic acid is formed, and there is an evolution -of heat, and usually, if the union be rapid and intense enough, -of light. It is the valuable element in fuels, and in the body of -man it unites with the oxygen of the air, yielding heat, to keep -the body warm, and energy or muscular strength for work (Prof. -Atwater). The carbonic acid formed in the body is given out by the -lungs and skin. - -=Other Elements.= There are many other elements about which it -would be interesting to note something, such as calcium and -phosphorus (found abundantly in the bones), magnesium, sulphur, -sodium, iron, etc. Samples of these may be obtained to show to -pupils, and descriptions given and experiments made, at the -discretion of the teacher. Of the four most abundant elements of -the body and of food,--oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen,--it -is extremely important that some study be made, and if the -apparatus can be procured, that it be of an experimental nature -rather than simply descriptive.[6] - - -AIR - -Air is made up principally of two elements, nitrogen and oxygen. It -also always contains vapor of water and carbonic acid. Its average -composition is as follows: - - Nitrogen 78.49% - Oxygen 20.63% - Aqueous Vapor .84% - Carbonic Acid .04% - -These are mixed together, not _chemically united_. Oxygen and -nitrogen do unite chemically, but not in the proportions in which -they exist in the air. Nitrous Oxid (N_{2}O), sometimes called -"Laughing Gas," is one of the compounds of nitrogen and oxygen. - - -FIRE - - =Exp. with a Candle.= Take a tallow candle, and by means of a - lighted match raise its temperature sufficiently high to start an - action between the carbon in the candle and the oxygen of the - air; in other words, light the candle. A match is composed of - wood, sulphur, and phosphorus. The latter is a substance which - unites with oxygen very easily; that is, at a _low temperature_. - By friction against any hard object, sufficient heat is aroused - to effect a union between the phosphorus of a match and the - oxygen of the surrounding air; the flame is then conveyed to - the sulphur, or the heat thus generated causes a union between - it (the sulphur) and the oxygen, sulphur burning somewhat less - freely than phosphorus; this gives enough heat to ignite the - wood, and with its combustion we get sufficient heat to light - the candle, or to start a chemical union between the combustible - portion, carbon chiefly, of the candle and the oxygen of the air. - Allow the candle to burn for a time, then put over it a tall - lamp-chimney; notice that the flame grows long and dim. Next - place on the top of the chimney a tin cover, leaving a small - opening, and make an opening into the chimney from below, with - a pin or the blade of a knife placed between it and the table; - note that the candle burns dimly. Then exclude the flow of air by - completely covering the top; in a moment, as soon as the oxygen - inside the chimney is consumed, the candle will go out. - -This shows (1) that air--in other words, oxygen--is necessary to -cause the candle to burn; (2) that by regulating the draft or -flow of air the intensity of the combustion may be increased or -diminished; (3) that by completely excluding air the candle is -extinguished. This experiment with the candle illustrates the way -in which coal is consumed in a stove. By opening the drafts and -allowing the inflow of plenty of oxygen, combustion is increased; -by partially closing them it is diminished, and by the complete -exclusion of air burning is stopped. - -The products of the burning of coal are carbonic acid and a small -amount of ash. Twelve weights of coal, not counting the ash, -will unite with thirty-two weights of oxygen, giving as a result -forty-four weights of carbonic acid. Accompanying the union there -is an evolution of light and heat. The enormous amount of carbonic -acid given out daily from fires is taken up by plants and used by -them for food. In the course of ages these plants may become coal, -be consumed in combustion, and, passing into the air, thus complete -the cycle of change. - -=Fuel and Kindlings.= The common fuels are coal, coke, wood, gas, -coal-oil, and peat. For kindling, newspaper is good because, being -made of straw and wood-pulp, it burns easily, and also because -printers' ink contains turpentine, which is highly inflammable. - - -COMPOSITION OF THE BODY - -Before entering upon the study of foods it is well to consider -the composition of the human body, that some idea of its chemical -nature may be gained. In the United States National Museum at -Washington may be found some interesting information on this -subject. From there much that is contained in the following pages -is taken. - -A complete analysis of the human body has never been made, but -different organs have been examined, and chemists have weighed and -analyzed portions of them, and from such data of this nature as -could be obtained, estimates of the probable composition of the -body have been calculated. Thirteen elements united into their -compounds, of which there are more than one hundred, form it. - -The following table gives the average composition of a man weighing -148 pounds. - - Oxygen 92.4 - Carbon 31.3 - Hydrogen 14.6 - Nitrogen 4.6 - Calcium 2.8 - Phosphorus 1.4 - Potassium .34 - Sulphur .24 - Chlorin .12 - Sodium .12 - Magnesium .04 - Iron .02 - Fluorin .02 - PROF. ATWATER. - -It will be seen from this that oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and -nitrogen constitute nearly the whole, the other elements being in -very small proportions. - - -PRINCIPAL CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY - -The following interesting table, obtained at the National Museum, -gives the principal compounds of the body. Some of the more rare -organic compounds are omitted. - - WATER:--A compound of oxygen and hydrogen. - - PROTEIN { _ALBUMINOIDS_ { MYOSIN AND SYNTONIN OF MUSCLE - COMPOUNDS, { or { (sometimes called "muscle - { _Proteids_. { fibrin"). - composed { { Albumen of blood and milk. Casein - mainly of { { of milk. - { - { { Collagen of bone and } - _Carbon_, { { tendons. } which - { _Gelatinoids._ { Chondrigen of cartilage, } yield - _Oxygen_, { { gristle, } gelatin. - { - _Hydrogen_, { { - { _Hemoglobin._ { The red coloring matter of blood. - _Nitrogen_. { { - - FATS, { { } These make up the - { { Stearin, } bulk of the fat of - composed { _Neutral { } the body. - mainly of { Fats._ { Palmitin, } They are likewise - { { } the chief - { { Olein, etc. } constituents of - _Carbon_, { { } tallow, lard, etc. - { - _Oxygen_, { _Complex { Protagon, } Found chiefly in - { Fats_, { } the brain, spinal - _Hydrogen_, { containing { Lecithin, } cord, nerves, etc. - { phosphorus { } - { and nitrogen. { Cerebrin. } - - CARBOHYDRATES, { Glycogen, "animal starch." Occurs in the - composed { liver and other organs. - of { Inosite, "muscle sugar." Occurs in various - _Carbon_, { organs. - _Oxygen_, { Lactose, "milk sugar." Occurs in milk. - _Hydrogen_. { Cholesterin. Occurs in brain, nerves, and other - { organs. - - { Phosphate of lime, or calcium } - { phosphate. } Occurs chiefly - { Carbonate of lime, or calcium } in bones and - { carbonate. } teeth, though - { Fluorid of calcium, or calcium } found in - { fluorid. } other organs. - { Phosphate of magnesia, or } - { magnesium phosphate. } - { - - MINERAL { PHOSPHATE OF POTASH, OR POTASSIUM } - SALTS. { phosphate. } - { Sulphate of potash, or potassium } Distributed - { sulphate. } through the - { Chlorid of potassium, or } body in the - { potassium chlorid. } blood, muscle, - { Phosphate of soda, or sodium } brain, - { phosphate. } and other - { Sulphate of soda, or sodium } organs. - { sulphate. } - { Chlorid of sodium, or sodium } - { chlorid. } - - -Now, since the body is composed of these substances, our food, -including air and water, should contain them all in due proportion, -that the growth, energy, and repair of the body may be healthfully -maintained. - - -THE FIVE FOOD PRINCIPLES - -For convenience of comparison foods may be divided into five -classes: Water, Protein, Fats, Carbohydrates, Mineral Matters. - -Some scientists include air in the list, but it has been thought -best in this work to speak of it separately as the greatest -necessity of life, but not in the sense of a direct nutrient. - -An average composition of three of the principles is as follows: - - { Carbon 53 - PROTEIN { Hydrogen 7 - { Oxygen 24 - { Nitrogen 16 - - { Carbon 76.5 - FATS { Hydrogen 12 - { Oxygen 11.5 - { Nitrogen -- - - { Carbon 44 - CARBOHYDRATES { Hydrogen 6 - { Oxygen 50 - { Nitrogen -- - - -It will be seen from the above that the protein compounds contain -nitrogen; the fats and carbohydrates do not. - - -WATER - -We will now consider the first of the food principles--water. Water -is one of the necessities of life. A person could live without air -but a few minutes, without water but a few days. It constitutes by -weight three fifths of the human body, and enters largely into all -organic matter. Water is an aid to the performance of many of the -functions of the body, holding in solution the various nutritious -principles, and also acting as a carrier of waste. It usually -contains foreign matter, but the nearer it is to being pure the -more valuable it becomes as an agent in the body. Ordinary hydrant, -well, or spring water may be made pure by filtering and then -sterilizing it. - - =Exp.= Put a little water into a test-tube, and heat it over - the flame of an alcohol-lamp. In a short time tiny bubbles will - appear on the sides of the glass. These are not steam, as may - be proved by testing the temperature of the water; they are - bubbles of atmospheric gases which have been condensed in the - water from the air; they have been proved to be nitrogen, oxygen, - and carbonic acid, but as they do not exist in the water in the - same proportions as in the air, they are not called _air_, but - _atmospheric gases_. Continue the heating, and the bubbles will - continue to form. After a while, very large bubbles will appear - at the bottom of the tube; they increase rapidly and rise toward - the top; some break before reaching it, but as the heat becomes - more intense others succeed in getting to the surface,--there - they break and disappear. If the water now be tested with a - thermometer, it will be found to have reached 212° Fahrenheit or - 100° Centigrade, provided the experiment be tried at or near the - level of the sea. - -=Steam.= The large bubbles are bubbles of steam, or water expanded -by heat until its particles are so far apart that it ceases to be -a liquid and becomes a gas. True steam is invisible; the moisture -which collects on the sides of the tube and is seen coming out at -the mouth is partially condensed steam, or watery vapor. Watch a -tea-kettle as it boils on a stove; for the space of an inch or two -from the end of the spout there seems to be nothing; that is where -the _true_ steam is; beyond that, clouds of what is commonly called -steam appear; they are watery vapor formed from the true steam by -partial condensation which is produced by its contact with the cool -air.[7] - -=Boiling-point of Water.= Water boils at different temperatures, -according to the elevation above the sea-level. In Baltimore it -boils practically at 212° Fahr.; at Munich in Germany at 209½°; at -the city of Mexico in Mexico at 200°; and in the Himalayas, at an -elevation of 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, at 180°. These -differences are caused by the varying pressure of the atmosphere -at these points. In Baltimore practically the whole weight of the -air is to be overcome. In Mexico, 7000 feet above the sea, there -are 7000 feet less of atmosphere to be resisted; consequently, less -heat is required, and boiling takes place at a lower temperature. -By inclosing a vessel of water in a glass bell, and exhausting -the air by means of an air-pump, water may be made to boil at a -temperature of 70° Fahr., showing that much of the force (heat) -that is consumed in causing water to be converted into steam -is required to overcome the pressure of the air. The foregoing -illustrates the point that _boiling water_ is not of invariable -temperature; consequently, that foods which in some places are -cooked in it may in other places be cooked in water that is not -boiling,--in other words, that it is not ebullition which produces -the change in boiling substances, but heat. - -=Changes Produced in Water by Boiling.= By boiling water for a -moderate time the greater part of the atmospheric gases is driven -off. The flavor is much changed. We call it "flat"; but by shaking -it in a carafe or other vessel so that the air can mingle with it, -it will reacquire oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, and its -usual flavor can thus be restored. - -Water which flows through soil containing lime is further changed -by boiling. - - =Exp. with Lime-water.= Pour a little lime-water into a - test-tube. With a small glass tube blow into it for a few - minutes, when it will become milky; continue the blowing for a - few minutes more, when it will lose its cloudy appearance and - become clear again. The following explains this: in the first - place there was forced into the lime-water, from the lungs, air - containing an excess of carbonic acid; this united with the lime - in solution in the water and formed carbonate of lime. Carbonate - of lime is insoluble in water which contains no carbonic acid, or - very little,[8] but will dissolve in water which is charged with - it, and this is produced by the continued blowing. Now if this - water be freed of its excess of carbonic acid by boiling, the - carbonate of lime will be freed from its soluble state, and will - fall as a precipitate and settle on the sides of the vessel. From - this we learn that water may be freed from carbonate of lime in - solution in it by boiling. - -=Organic Matter in Water.= There is another class of impurities in -water of vastly more importance than either the atmospheric gases -or lime. These are the organic substances which it always contains, -especially that which has flowed over land covered with vegetation, -or that which has received the drainage from sewers. The soluble -matter found in such water is excellent food for many kinds of -micro-organisms which often form, by their multiplication, poisons -very destructive to animal life. Or the organisms themselves may be -the direct producers of disease, as for instance the typhoid fever -bacillus, the bacillus of cholera, and probably others which occur -in drinking-water. These organisms are destroyed by heat, so that -the most valuable effect produced in water by boiling it is their -destruction. Such water is, therefore, a much safer drink to use -than that which has not been boiled. Water should always be boiled -if there is the slightest suspicion of dangerous impurities in the -supply. - -=Use of Tea and Coffee.= This leads us to the thought that the -extensive use of tea and coffee in the world may be an instinctive -safeguard against these until recently unknown forms of life. The -universal use of cooked water in some form in China is a matter of -history. The country is densely populated, the sewage is carried -off principally by the rivers, so that the danger of contracting -disease through water must be very great, and it is probable that -instinct or knowledge has prompted the Chinaman to use but very -little water for food except that which has been cooked. Whatever -the reason, the custom is a national one. The every-day drink is -weak tea made in a large teapot and kept in a wadded basket to -retain the heat; the whole family use it. The very poor drink plain -hot water or water just tinged with tea. - -That tea and coffee furnish us each day with a certain amount of -wholesome liquid in which all organic life has been destroyed, -remains a fact; they may be, in addition, when _properly made_ and -of _proper strength_, of great value on account of their warmth, -good flavor, and invigorating properties. There is no doubt that -it is of the greatest importance that tea and coffee be used of -_proper strength_; for if taken too strong, disorders of the system -may be produced, necessitating their discontinuance, and thus -depriving the individual of a certain amount of warm and wholesome -liquid. - -=To Summarize.= The effects produced in water by boiling which have -been spoken of are: (1) the expulsion of the atmospheric gases; (2) -the precipitation of lime when in solution; and (3) the destruction -of micro-organisms. The most important points to remember in -connection with water are, that a certain amount each day is an -absolute necessity of life, and that unless the supply be above -suspicion it should be filtered and then sterilized. - -=Filtration and Sterilization of Water.= Filtration as a general -thing is done by public authorities, but sterilization is not, -and should be done when necessary by the nurse. For immediate -use, simply boiling is said on good authority to be sufficient to -destroy all _organisms_ then in the water. _Spores_ of organisms -are, however, not killed by boiling, as they are very resistant -to heat. Fortunately they are not common. As they do not develop -into bacteria for some hours after the water has been boiled, they -may be entirely gotten rid of by allowing them to develop and then -destroying by a second boiling; but for all practical purposes, -and under ordinary circumstances, water is rendered safe for use -by boiling it once.[9] Should the water be very bad, boil it in a -jar plugged with cotton for half an hour three days in succession, -keeping it meanwhile in a temperature of 70° or 80° Fahr., so -that any _spores_ of organisms which may be in it will have an -opportunity to get into such a state of existence that they will be -capable of being killed by the next boiling. The third treatment -is for the purpose of making sure of any that may have escaped the -first and second. - - -PROTEIN - -The second of the food principles, protein, is a complex and -very important constituent of our food. The protein compounds -differ from all others as to chemical composition by the presence -of nitrogen; they contain _carbon_, _oxygen_, _hydrogen_, and -_nitrogen_, while the fats and carbohydrates are composed -principally of _carbon_, _oxygen_, and _hydrogen_, but no nitrogen. -The so-called extractives or flavoring properties of meats are -nitrogenous, and are consequently classed with the protein -compounds.[10] - -The body of an average person contains about _eighteen_ per cent. -of protein. The proteins of various kinds furnish nutriment for -blood and muscle, hence the term "muscle-formers," which is -sometimes given them. They also furnish material for tendons and -other nitrogenous tissues. When these are worn out by use, it is -protein which repairs the waste. - -Most of the valuable work upon the analysis of food has been done -in Germany. From estimates made by chemists of that country it has -been decided that the amount of protein in a diet should not fall -below _four ounces daily_. This is to represent an allowance for a -man of average weight doing an average amount of work, below which -he cannot go without loss in health, in work, or in both. Although -protein is the most expensive of all food materials, one should -endeavor to use at least four ounces each day. Meat, milk, eggs, -cheese, fish of all kinds, but especially dried cod, wheat, beans, -and oatmeal are all rich in this substance. The protein compounds -are divided into three classes: - - -ALBUMINOIDS, GELATINOIDS, EXTRACTIVES. - -=Albuminoids.= The most perfect type of an albuminoid is the white -of egg. It is a viscous, glairy, thick fluid which occurs also in -the flesh of meat as one of its juices, in fish, in milk, in wheat -as gluten, and in other foods. It is soluble in cold water. - - =Exp.= Mix some white of egg in a tumbler with half a cup of cold - water. As soon as the viscousness is broken up it will be found - to be completely dissolved. It is insoluble in alcohol. - - =Exp.= Pour upon some white of egg double its bulk of alcohol. It - will coagulate into a somewhat hard opaque mass. - -Heat also has the power of coagulating albumen. - - =Coagulation of Albumen by Heat.= Put into a test-tube some white - of egg, and place the tube in a dish of warm water. Heat the - water gradually over a gas-flame or an alcohol-lamp. When the - temperature reaches 134° Fahr. it will be seen that little white - threads have begun to appear; continue the heating to 160°, when - the whole mass becomes white and firm. Now remove a part from the - tube and test its consistency; it will be found to be tender, - soft, and jelly-like. Replace the tube in the dish of water - and raise the heat to 200° Fahr.; then take out a little more - and test again; it will now be found hard, close-grained, and - somewhat tough. Continue the heating, when it will be seen that - the tenacity increases with rise of temperature until at 212° - Fahr., the boiling-point of water, it is a firm, compact solid. - When heated to about 350°, white of egg becomes so tenacious that - it is used as a valuable cement for marble. - -These experiments illustrate a very important point in the cooking -of albuminous foods. They show that the proper temperature for -albumen is that at which it is thoroughly coagulated, but not -hardened; that is, about 160° Fahr. Most kinds of meat, milk, eggs, -oysters, and fish, when cooked with reference to their albumen -alone, we find are also done in the best possible manner with -reference to their other constituents. For instance, if you cook -an oyster thinking only of its albuminous juice, and endeavor to -raise the temperature throughout all of its substance to, or near, -160° Fahr., and not higher, you will find it most satisfactory -as to flavor, consistency, and digestibility. The same is true -of eggs done in all ways, and of dishes made with eggs, such as -custards, creams, and puddings. With the knowledge that albumen -coagulates at a temperature of 52° below that of boiling water, one -can appreciate the necessity of cooking eggs in water that is not -boiling, and a little experiment like the above will impress it -upon the mind as no amount of mere explanation can possibly do. - -The cooking of eggs, whether poached, cooked in the shell, or in -omelets, is of much importance, for albumen when hard, compact, and -tenacious is very difficult of digestion; the gastric juice cannot -easily penetrate it; sometimes it is not digested at all; while -that which is properly done--cooked in such a way that it is tender -and falls apart easily--is one of the most valuable forms of food -for the sick. - -Albumen should always be prepared in such manner as to require the -least possible expenditure of force in digestion. Those who are ill -cannot afford to waste energy. Whether they are forced to do so in -the digestion of their food depends very much upon the person who -prepares it. - -Advantage is often taken, in cooking, of the fact that albumen -hardens on exposure to certain degrees of heat, to form protecting -layers over pieces of broiling steak, roast meats, etc. If a piece -of meat is placed in cold water to cook, it is evident, since -albumen is soluble in cold water, that some of it will be wasted. -If the same piece is plunged into boiling water the albumen in its -outer layers will be immediately hardened, and form a sheath over -the whole which will keep in the juices and the very important -flavors. When broth or soup is made, we put the meat (cut into -small pieces to expose a large extent of surface) into cold water, -because we wish to draw out as much as possible the soluble matter -and the flavors. If, on the other hand, the meat is to be served -boiled, and broth or soup is not the object, then this order should -be reversed, and every effort made to prevent the escape of any of -the ingredients of the meat into the liquid. - -In broiling steak, we sacrifice a thin layer of the outside to -form a protecting covering over the whole by plunging it into the -hottest part of the fire, so that the albumen will become suddenly -hard and firm, and plug up the pores, thus preventing the savory -juices from oozing out. More will be said on this subject in the -recipes for cooking these kinds of foods. - -=Gelatinoids.= The second class of protein compounds comprises the -gelatinoids, gelatin being their leading constituent. It is found -in flesh, tendons, cartilage and bone; in fact, it exists in all -the tissues of the body, for the walls of most of the microscopic -cells of which the tissues are composed contain gelatin. - - =Exp.= Boil a pound of lean meat freed from tendons, fat, and - bone, in a pint of water for three hours; then set the liquid - away to cool. Jelly resembling calf's-foot jelly will be the - result. The cell-walls of the flesh have been dissolved by the - long-continued action of heat and liquid. This is commonly called - stock or glaze. - - =Exp.= Put a piece of clean bone into a dilute solution of - hydrochloric acid. In two or three days the acid will have acted - upon the earthy matters in the bone to remove them, and gelatin - will remain. The average amount in bone is about thirty per cent. - -Calves' feet were formerly used for jelly because of the excess -of gelatin which they contain. They were cooked in water for a -long time and the liquid reduced by further boiling; it was then -clarified, flavored, and cooled; the result was a transparent, -trembling jelly. The prepared gelatin of commerce, or _gelatine_, -has now largely displaced this, for it is much more convenient to -use, and less expensive. - -=Extractives.= The extractives or flavoring properties of meats and -other substances are usually classed with the protein compounds. -Their chemical nature is not well understood. - - -FATS - -=Fixed and Volatile Oils.= There are two classes of fats, called -_fixed oils_ and _volatile oils_. All kinds of fats good for food -belong to the class of fixed oils. A volatile oil is one which -evaporates away, like alcohol or water, and leaves no residue. -The fixed oils, at least most of them, will not do this; they -do not vaporize even at very high temperatures, but they become -dissociated or decomposed,--that is, their chemical structure is -broken up before their boiling-point is reached. Volatile oils, -on the contrary, are capable of being boiled and transformed into -gases. Some one illustrates this by the changes which take place in -water. When water is heated to 212° Fahr. it is converted into a -gas, which on cooling below 212° returns to the liquid state again -without loss. The essential oil, turpentine, if heated to 320° -Fahr. ceases to be a liquid and becomes a gas, which on cooling -becomes a liquid oil again without loss of weight. Other volatile -oils are oil of cloves, oil of bitter almonds, orange and lemon -oil, oil of cinnamon, bergamot, and patchouli. - -The boiling sometimes noticed in a pot of lard is owing to the -presence in it of a little water which is very soon converted into -steam, when the bubbling ceases, and after that the temperature -of the fat rises rapidly, reaching in a short time four or five -hundred degrees Fahrenheit, when a separation of its constituents -takes place, and carbon is revealed as a black mass. - -=Composition of Fats.= Fats are _hydrocarbons_--that is, they -are composed chiefly of carbon united with hydrogen and oxygen. -They must not be confounded with the _carbohydrates_, which are -always composed of carbon with the elements of water--that is, the -proportion of hydrogen to oxygen is as two to one,--whereas in the -hydrocarbons this is not the case. These elements enter into the -compositions of fats as various fatty acids and glycerin; the acids -are not sour, as one would suppose from the name, but are so called -because they behave chemically toward bases as sour acids do, that -is, they unite with them. The glycerin of commerce is obtained by -decomposing fats. - -=Fat in Milk.= The white color of milk is given to it by minute -globules of fat suspended in it. - - =To prove this=: Put a little milk into a bottle with a - ground-glass stopper; pour upon it three times its bulk of ether - and shake gently; let it stand for two or three days, when it - will be found that the ether has dissolved the fat and left a - semi-transparent yellowish white liquid resembling blood serum. - By pipetting or carefully pouring off the ether, and evaporating - it by placing the vessel containing it in a dish of warm water, - clear oil will be obtained. Care must be taken not to put the - ether near a flame or the fire, as it is highly inflammable, and - an explosion might occur. Ether boils at 94.82° Fahr. - -The proportion of fat in milk is from 2.8 to 8 per cent. It -varies in milk from different species of cows, and from the same -species at different times, according to age, feeding, and other -circumstances. - -=Cream.= When milk is allowed to stand without disturbance for a -time the globules of fat, being lighter than water, rise to the -surface and form cream. Cream is the most wholesome, palatable, and -easily digested form of fat. Butter is obtained by beating milk or -cream in a churn until the little globules of fat break and stick -together in a mass. - -=Olive-Oil.= Olive-oil is one of the most easily digested and -palatable of fats. A genuine oil of the first quality is, in this -country unfortunately, expensive, much of that sold under the name -being adulterated with cotton-seed oil, poppy-oil, and essence of -lard.[11] - -Cotton-seed oil has no especially bad flavor, but it is unpleasant -and indigestible when used raw as in sardines and salads. The after -taste which it leaves reminds one too forcibly of castor-oil. - -Olive-oil of the best quality is almost absolutely without flavor. -It is prepared in several grades: the first pressing from the fruit -is the best, the second is fair, the third inferior, and there -is sometimes a fourth known as refuse oil. For deep fat frying -nothing is so good as olive-oil, but its costliness in this country -excludes it from common use. - -The fat of the sheep and ox, after it has been rendered, and -deprived of all membrane and fibers, is called _tallow_. The term -is also applied to the fat of other animals, and to that of some -plants, as bayberry-tallow, piny tallow, and others. The uncooked -fat of any animal is called _suet_, but the name has come to be -applied to the less easily melted kinds, which surround the kidneys -or are in other parts of the loin. The fat which falls in drops -from meat in roasting is called _dripping_. - - -THE CARBOHYDRATES - -=Starch.= Starch is a substance found in wheat, corn, oats, and -in fact in all grains, in potatoes, in the roots and stems of -many plants, and in some fruits. In a pure state it is a white -powder such as is seen in arrowroot and corn-starch. Examined by -a microscope this powder is found to be made up of tiny grains of -different shapes and sizes, some rounded or oval, others irregular. -Those of potato-starch are ovoid, with an outside covering which -appears to be folded or ridged, and looks somewhat like the outside -of an oyster-shell, although its similarity extends no further -than appearance, as the little ridges are true folds, and not -overlapping edges. - -=Size of Starch Grains.= Starch grains vary in size according to -the source from which the starch is obtained. Those of ground rice -are very small, being about 1/3000 of an inch in diameter; those of -wheat are 1/1000 of an inch, and those of potato 1/300 of an inch. - -Starch is a carbohydrate, being composed of six parts of -carbon, ten of hydrogen, and five of oxygen. Its symbol is -C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. It is insoluble in water, but when the water is -heated, the grains seem to absorb it; they increase in size, the -ridges or folds disappear, and when the temperature reaches 140° -Fahr. or a little over, they burst, and the contents mingle with -the liquid forming the well-known paste. - - =Test for Starch.= Mix a teaspoon of starch with a cup of cold - water and boil them together for a few minutes until a paste is - formed; then set it aside to cool. Meanwhile make a solution of - iodine by putting a few flakes into alcohol, or use that which is - already prepared, and which may be obtained at any pharmacy. Add - a drop of this solution to the paste mixture; it will immediately - color the whole a rich dark blue. This is known as the "iodine - test," and is a very valuable one to the chemist, for by means of - it the slightest trace of starch can be detected. - - =Exp. with Arrowroot.= Make a thin paste by boiling a little - arrowroot and water together. When cool test it with a drop of - the iodine solution. The characteristic blue color will be very - strong, showing that arrowroot is rich in starch. - -Similar tests may be made with grated potato, wheat-flour, -rice-flour, tapioca, and other starch-containing substances. Also -powdered sugar, cream of tartar, and other substances may be -tested, when it is suspected that they have been adulterated with -starch. - -Although starch grains burst and form a paste with water at 140° -Fahr., that is not the temperature at which it should be cooked -for food, and the thickening which then takes place should not be -confounded, as often happens, with the true cooking of starch. -In order to understand the difference between the proper cooking -of starch and the simple bursting of the grains, let us consider -the changes which take place in starch when it is subjected to -different degrees of heat, and also those which are produced in -it during the process of digestion. All starch in food is changed -into dextrine and then into sugar (glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) in -the process of digestion. Glucose is a kind of sugar, resembling -cane-sugar, but it is not so sweet. - -=Dextrine.= Dextrine is a substance having the same chemical -nature as starch, but differing in many of its properties. It may -be described as a condition which starch assumes just before its -change into glucose. - - =Exp. to show Dextrine.= Carefully dry and then heat a little - starch to about 400° Fahr. Keep it at this temperature until it - turns brown, or for ten minutes. Then mix it with water, when it - will dissolve, forming a gummy solution. Starch will not do this. - Test it with iodine; it will not change color. The remarkable - thing about the relation of dextrine to starch is that although - they differ so much in properties they have the same chemical - composition. - -The change of starch into dextrine is an important point in -cooking, because starch cannot be assimilated until the conversion -has taken place, either before or after it is eaten. Now it will -be seen that unless this change is either produced or approached -in the cooking of starch-containing foods, they are not prepared -as well as it is possible to prepare them; also, that it is not -possible to cause this change at a low temperature; therefore -140° (the temperature at which the grains burst) should not be -regarded as the cooking temperature of starch. It should be such a -temperature as shall actually convert it into dextrine, or at least -change it to such an extent that it will be more easily converted -into dextrine, and ultimately into sugar, by the digestive fluids. -This should be as near 401° Fahr. as practicable,--not that a -potato, or a loaf of bread, or a pudding will have all the starch -in it changed when it is put into an oven of that temperature. -It would not be possible, on account of the water contained in -each; but that in the outside may be, and the preparation of the -remainder will be better than at a lower temperature. - -There are other means of changing starch into dextrine than -by heat, one of the most remarkable of which is _diastase_, a -substance found in sprouting grains, which has the power to -transform the starch stored in the grain by nature into soluble -dextrine, in which form it can be taken up by the young plant for -food. The crude starch could not thus be absorbed. The starch which -we use as food is of no more value to us than it is to the young -plant until it has been changed into dextrine or sugar. Now, if art -outside of the body can accomplish what nature is otherwise forced -to do in the alimentary canal, the body will be saved a certain -amount of force,--a point of great importance, especially in the -case of the sick or invalid, who can ill afford to waste energy. - -Starch constitutes half of bread, our "staff of life"; nearly -all of rice, the staff of life in the East; and the greater part -of corn-starch, sago, arrowroot, tapioca, peas, beans, turnips, -carrots, and potatoes. - -_Arrowroot_ is the purest form of starch food known. _Rice_ is -richest in starch of all the grains. _Tapioca_ is prepared from -the root of a tropical plant; it is first crushed and the grains -washed out with water, then the whole is heated and stirred, -thus cooking and breaking the starch grains, which on cooling -assume the irregular rough shapes seen in the ordinary tapioca of -commerce. Probably a part of the starch is converted into dextrine, -which accounts for the peculiarly agreeable flavor which tapioca -possesses. Mixed with the grains, as they are taken from the -plant, is a very dangerous poison which, being soluble in water -and volatile, is partially washed away and partially driven out by -the heat,--in fact the heating is done for this purpose. _Sago_ is -principally starch. It is obtained from the pith of the sago-palm. -Imitations of both tapioca and sago are sometimes made from common -starch. - -Starch may be converted into grape-sugar by treating it with -acids; that of corn is generally used for the purpose. Much of the -glucose of commerce is made in this way. In the United States it -is estimated that $10,000,000 worth is manufactured every year. -It is used for table syrup, in brewing beer, in the adulteration -of cane-sugar, and in confectionery. Honey is also made from it. -The nutritive value of vegetables is due largely to the starch and -sugar which they contain. - -In the economy of the body starch is eminently a heat producer. -Pound for pound it does not give as much heat as fat, but owing -to its great abundance and extensive use it, in the aggregate, -produces more. (Atwater.) - -Starch is an abundant and easily digested form of vegetable food, -but it is incapable of sustaining life. It contains none of the -nitrogenous matter needed for the nutrition of the muscles, nerves, -and tissues. Indeed, it is said on good authority that many an -invalid has been slowly starved to death from being fed upon this -material alone. - -=Sugar.= There are many kinds of sugar, the most familiar of which -is _cane-sugar_, or _sucrose_ (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}). It is obtained -from the juices of various plants, for instance, sugar-cane, -beet-root, the sugar-maple, and certain kinds of palms. By far the -greatest amount comes from the sugar-cane. It is made by crushing -the stalks of the plant (which somewhat resembles Indian corn) and -extracting the sweet juice, which is then clarified and evaporated -until, on cooling, crystals appear in a thick liquid; this liquid -is molasses, and the grains or crystals are brown sugar. White -sugar is obtained by melting this brown sugar in water, removing -the impurities, and again evaporating in vacuum-pans, which are -used for the purpose of boiling the liquid at a lower temperature -than it could be boiled in the open air, thus avoiding the danger -of burning, and otherwise preserving certain qualities of the -sugar. _Loaf-sugar_ is made by separating the crystals from the -liquid by draining in molds; and _granulated_ sugar by forcing out -the syrup in a centrifugal machine. The process of making beet-root -sugar is similar. Sugar from maple sap is obtained by simply -evaporating away the excess of water. In the East a considerable -quantity of sugar is made from the juices of certain varieties of -palm, especially the date-palm. Maple-sugar and palm-sugar are -generally not purified. - -Sucrose dissolves readily in water. By allowing such a solution -to stand undisturbed for a time until the water has disappeared, -transparent crystals are obtained, known as _rock candy_. Again, -sucrose melted at a temperature of 320° Fahr. forms, on cooling, -a clear mass, called _barley-sugar_. Heated to 420° Fahr. -dissociation of the carbon from the water of crystallization takes -place, the carbon appearing in its characteristic black color. This -dark brown, sweetish-bitter syrup is called _caramel_. On cooling -it forms a solid, which may be dissolved in water, and is used to -color gravies, soups, beer, and so forth. - - =Exp. with Sulphuric Acid.= A very pretty experiment to show the - separation of the water from the carbon may be made by treating - a little sugar in sulphuric acid. Put a tablespoon of sugar in - any vessel that will bear heat, a thin glass or stout cup. Pour - over enough concentrated sulphuric acid to thoroughly moisten it, - let it stand for a few minutes, when it will be seen that the - mass has changed color from white to a yellowish brown. The color - increases in intensity until it is perfectly black, when the - whole puffs and swells up, fumes are driven off, and a mass like - a cinder remains. This is charcoal, or nearly pure carbon. - -The explanation is as follows: So strong is the affinity of the -acid for the water that it breaks up the chemical combination -between it and the carbon, unites with the water, and leaves the -carbon free. So intense is the chemical change that an enormous -amount of heat is evolved,--so much, in fact, that a considerable -part of the water is vaporized, leaving the more or less solid -charcoal. The light color noticed during the first part of the -union indicates that the chemical dissociation is just beginning, -and that only a small amount of carbon has been set free. - -=Glucose.= Glucose or grape-sugar (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) is one of -the kinds of sugar found in grapes, peaches, and other fruits. It -is about two and one half times less sweet than cane-sugar. It is -manufactured on a large scale from the starch of corn. - -=Lactose.= Lactose or milk-sugar is the sugar found in the milk of -the _Mammalia_. That of commerce comes chiefly from Switzerland, -where it is made by evaporating the whey of cow's milk. For -sweetening drinks for infants and for the sick, milk-sugar is said -to be less liable to produce acid fermentation than cane-sugar, and -also to be more easily digested. - -Sugar is a valuable nutrient, being very easily digested and -absorbed. Cane-sugar is converted into glucose in the process of -digestion by the pancreatic juice, and after absorption it is -completely utilized in the body, furnishing heat and probably -energy. - -=Effects of Heat on Sugar.= Sugar undergoes various changes, -with different degrees of heat, by loss of some of its water of -crystallization. One of the most remarkable of these is seen in -caramel sauce, which is a rich crimson-brown syrup generally -supposed to contain foreign coloring matter, but which does not. -It is made by melting sugar without water, and heating it until -the desired hue and thickness are reached. Nothing is added, but -something is taken away; that is, some of the water is driven out, -with the result of change in both color and taste. - -In a recent article in "The Century Magazine" (November, 1891) -Prof. Atwater touches upon the subject of the production of -artificial foods from the crude materials of the earth, and states, -among other things, that a sugar resembling fruit-sugar has been -made artificially by synthesis, by Prof. Fischer of Würzburg, -Germany. - - -AIR - -Air is a gaseous elastic body which envelops the earth on every -side, extending possibly two hundred miles from its surface, but -all the while growing more and more rare as the distance increases. -When pure it is tasteless and odorless. We really live at the -bottom of an atmospheric ocean, and are pressed upon by its weight. -At the sea-level the pressure upon every square inch of surface is -equal to fifteen pound. - -=Atmospheric Pressure Variable.= Atmospheric pressure diminishes -and is constantly variable, according to the height above the -sea-level. If we ascend into the air 5000 feet, it is perfectly -evident that there are 5000 feet less of atmosphere pressing upon -us than at the point from which we started. This diminution of -pressure is often measured by the temperature at which water boils -at different heights. - -=Composition.= An average composition of the atmosphere has been -previously stated. Besides nitrogen and oxygen, it always contains -water in the form of vapor, and carbonic acid. The amount of -aqueous vapor in the air changes according to the temperature; the -amount of carbonic acid is also constantly variable. Air usually -contains, in addition to these, traces of ammonia, organic matter -which includes micro-organisms, ozone, salts of sodium, and other -mineral matters in minute and variable quantities. - -=Air in Motion.= The atmosphere is almost always in motion. We feel -it in the gentle breeze and the more forcible wind. If it moves -at a slower rate than two and one half feet a second this motion -is not noticeable. Motion in the air is caused by the unequal -heating of portions of it. If from any cause the atmosphere over -a certain region becomes warm, it will expand (all bodies expand -with heat), become lighter, and its tendency will be to move in the -direction of least resistance,--that is, upward; so we say heated -air rises. Currents of cooler air will immediately flow in to take -its place, and thus we have a breeze, a wind, or a gale, according -to the velocity and force with which the currents move. It is upon -a knowledge of these movements that the theory of ventilation is -based. It is because of the constant motion of air-currents that -out of doors, except in densely populated cities, air remains -constantly pure. When poisonous gases and other impurities -accumulate, winds scatter them far and wide until they are so -diluted as to be harmless; or under some conditions they unite -with other things and form new and simple substances of a harmless -nature, while under others, if they are compounds, they may be -decomposed or washed down to the surface of the earth again. - -=Impurities.= The chief chemical product of fires and of that -slower combustion breathing is carbonic acid. Plants during the -day, and under the influence of sunlight, take it up from the air -for food, use the carbon for their growth, freeing the oxygen -which man and the lower animals need. Thus is the balance most -beautifully maintained. - -Air is purest over the sea and over wind-swept heights of land. -It, however, always contains some foreign substances, and always -micro-organisms except over mid-ocean. Even the upper strata of -atmosphere are not free from microscopic forms of life, as has been -shown in experiments made with hail at the Johns Hopkins Hospital -in 1890 by Dr. Abbott. Large hailstones were washed in distilled -and sterilized water, and then melted, and cultures made from -different layers; in all of these organisms were found, showing -that they extend into the air a long distance from the earth.[12] - -Impurities of various kinds are constantly passing into the air, -but so vast is the expanse of the atmosphere as compared with the -impurities daily thrown into it from the lungs of man and the lower -animals, from fires, manufactories, and decomposing matter, that -they quickly disappear. - -Air is the greatest or, as one writer says, the most immediate -necessity of life. We could live without it only a few seconds. -We constantly use it, whether sleeping or waking, and perhaps this -accounts in part for the utter carelessness and indifference which -most people have for the quality of that which they breathe. Even -those persons who know something of the nature of air, make but -little effort to provide themselves with a constantly pure supply. - -=Effects of Breathing Bad Air.= If the effects of breathing bad air -were immediate, there would then be an immediate remedy for the -present total lack of any systematic means of ventilation in most -houses. But the effects of breathing bad air are, like those of -some slow and insidious poison, not noticeable at once, and often -manifested under the name of some disease which gives no clue to -the true cause. - -Dr. Van Rensselaer, in the Orton Prize Essay on Impure Air and -Ventilation, makes the statement that statistics show that of the -causes of mortality the most important and farthest-reaching is -impure air. - -=Amount of Air Required for one Person.= Sanitarians have agreed -that each individual requires at least 3000 cubic feet of air every -hour. A room 10 × 15 × 20 holds 3000 cubic feet of air, which -should be changed once every hour in order that one individual -shall have the required amount. If three persons are in the room, -it must be changed three times. - -The effect of bad ventilation is well illustrated by the condition -of the horses in the French army some years ago. With small -close stables the mortality was 197 in every 1000 annually. The -simple enlargement of the stables, and consequent increase of -breathing-space, reduced the number in the course of time to 68 in -every 1000, and later, from 1862 to 1866, with some attention paid -to the air-supply, the number fell to 28½ per 1000.[13] - -=Necessity for a Constant Supply of Pure Air.= When we consider -that the food we eat and digest cannot nourish the body until it -has been acted upon by oxygen in the lungs, and that this action -must be constant, never ceasing, it will help us to understand the -necessity for a constant supply of air such as shall furnish us -a due proportion of the life-giving principle, oxygen, and which -shall not contain impurities that interfere with its absorption. - -We take into the lungs a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic -acid. We give out a mixture which has lost some of its oxygen, -and gained in carbonic acid. Now, unless the amount of oxygen is -what it should be, the blood will not gain from an inspiration the -amount it should receive, consequently it will be but imperfectly -purified and able but imperfectly to nourish the body. So the -whole system suffers, and if a person for a long time continues to -breathe such an atmosphere, the condition of the body will become -so reduced as to produce disease. Even though in other ways one -lives wisely, all the factors of health multiplied together cannot -withstand the one of impure air. We eat food three or four times -daily. Some of us are very particular about its quality. We breathe -air every instant of our lives, but generally we give but little -consideration as to whether it is pure or impure. - -=Ventilation.= No attempt will be made here to explain different -devices for ventilation, but only to touch upon the principle -it involves. Its objects are (1) to remove air which has been -breathed once; (2) to remove the products of combustion, whether -from fires, lamps, gas, or other sources; (3) to carry away all -other substances which may be generated from any cause, in a room -or building, as the impurities from manufacturing, those arising -from decaying matter, and micro-organisms. In a climate where -artificial warmth is necessary a part of the year, it is difficult -to warm and ventilate a room at the same time, without causing -unpleasant drafts; but with some knowledge of the necessity of -ventilation, and of the properties of air, one may in some measure -work out a scheme of ventilation adapted to the circumstances in -which he finds himself. - -There are always the doors and windows, which may be thrown wide -open at intervals, and in many houses there are fireplaces. If a -window be opened at the bottom at one side of a room, and another -be opened at the top on an opposite side, a current of air will be -established from the first window, passing through the room and out -at the second. This plan will do very well in warm weather when the -temperature outside is about the same as that of the room, but it -would be impracticable in cold weather. Then we may resort to the -very simple plan of placing a board about eight or ten inches wide -across the window at the bottom and inside of the sash. Then when -the lower half of the window is raised, a space is left between -the upper and lower sashes, through which the air passes freely as -it enters, and, being sent into the room in an upward direction, -causes no draft. The board is for the purpose of closing the window -below, and should fit quite close to the sash. - -Fireplaces are good, though not perfect, ventilators. Then there -are the preventive measures, such as burning the gas or lamp low -at night, avoiding oil- and gas-stoves, etc.; the latter are the -worst possible means of heating rooms, for not only do they draw -oxygen for burning from the air, but they give out the polluting -carbonic acid and other products of combustion, which in a coal- or -wood-stove go up the chimney. - -A well-ventilated room should have an inflow of warm, pure air, -and a means for the removal of the same after it has been used, -the current being so controlled that, although the air is kept in -motion, there is no perceptible draft. - -The plan for the heating and ventilation of the Johns Hopkins -Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland, is a most admirable one. Air from -out of doors is conveyed by a flue into a chamber in the wall, in -which are coils of pipe filled with hot water. The air in passing -over these becomes warm, and, rising, passes into the room to -be heated through a register. On the opposite side of the room -is a chimney-like flue, running to the top of the building and -containing two registers, by the opening and closing of which the -movements of the air in the room can be controlled. The temperature -is maintained by the temperature of the water in the pipes, and the -rapidity of the flow.[14] - -The ventilation by this method of heating is the most perfect -known to the author, who has lived for two years in a building -thus supplied with warmth and fresh air. The rooms were invariably -comfortable as to temperature, and the air as invariably sweet and -pure. - - -MILK - -Milk is one of our most perfect types of food, containing water -and solids in such proportions as are known to be needful for the -nourishment of the body. A proof of this is seen in the fact that -it is the only food of the young of the _Mammalia_ during the time -of their greatest growth. It contains those food principles in -such amounts as to contribute to the rapid formation of bone and -the various tissues of the body, which takes place in infancy and -childhood; but after this growth is attained, and the individual -requires that which will repair the tissues and furnish warmth and -energy, milk ceases to be a complete food. - -=Composition of Cow's Milk.= The composition of cow's milk varies -with the breed and age, care and feeding, of the animals. Cows -which are kept in foul air in stables all the year, and fed upon -bad food such as the refuse from breweries and kitchens, give a -quality of milk which is perhaps more to be dreaded than that -from any other source; for such animals are especially liable to -disease, and are often infected with tuberculosis, pneumonia, -and other fatal maladies. Cows are particularly susceptible to -tuberculosis, and may convey it to human beings either in their -milk or flesh. According to Dr. Miller, cow's milk contains the -following ingredients: - - Water 87.4% - Fat 4.0% - Sugar and soluble salts 5.0% - Nitrogenous matter and insoluble salts 3.6% - -Another analysis is that of Uffelmann: - - Water 87.6% - Albuminoids 4.3% - Fat 3.8% - Sugar 3.7% - Salts .6%[15] - -=Characteristics.= Milk from healthy, well-nourished cows should be -of full white color, opaque, and with a slightly yellowish tinge -sometimes described as "cream white." It should vary but slightly -in composition from the above analyses. The fat should not be -less than 2.5%. The amount of fat may be easily determined with a -Feser's lactoscope (Eimer and Amend, New York), directions for the -use of which come with the instruments. It will generally vary from -3% to 4% in good milk. Should it fall below 2.5% the milk should be -rejected as too poor for use. Such milk has probably been skimmed, -or comes from unhealthy or poorly fed cows. - -The specific gravity of milk should be from 1.027 to 1.033. This -may be found with a Quevenne's lactometer. If it falls below 1.027, -one has a right to claim that the milk has been watered or that the -cows are in poor condition.[16] - -The reaction of good milk varies from slightly alkaline to slightly -acid or neutral. That from the same cow will be different on -different days, even under the same apparent conditions of care, -varying from one to the other, probably because of some difference -in the nature of the food she has eaten. However, if the reaction -is _decidedly_ alkaline, and red litmus-paper becomes a distinct -blue, the milk is not good, and possibly the animal is diseased. -Should the reaction be decidedly acid, it shows that the milk has -been contaminated, either from the air by long exposure, or from -the vessels which held it, with those micro-organisms which by -their growth produce an acid, a certain amount of which causes -what is known as "souring." - -Milk from perfectly healthy and perfectly kept cows is _neutral_, -leaving both red and blue litmus-paper unchanged; but as a general -thing milk is slightly acid, even when transported directly from -the producer to the consumer and handled by fairly clean workmen -in fairly clean vessels. Such milk two or three hours old when -examined microscopically is found to contain millions of organisms. -Milk is one of the best of foods for bacteria, many of the ordinary -forms growing in it with exceeding rapidity under favorable -conditions of temperature. Now it has been found that such milk, -although it may not contain the seeds of any certain disease, -sometimes causes in young children, and the sick, very serious -digestive disturbances, and may thus become indirectly the cause of -fatal maladies.[17] - -All milk, unless it is _positively known_ to be given by healthy, -well-nourished animals, and kept in thoroughly cleaned vessels -free from contamination, should be sterilized before using. Often -the organisms found in milk are of disease-giving nature. In -Europe and America many cases of typhoid fever, scarlatina, and -diphtheria have been traced to the milk-supply. In fact milk and -water are two of the most fruitful food sources of disease. It -therefore immediately becomes apparent that, unless these two -liquids are above suspicion, they should be sterilized before -using. Boiling water for half an hour will render it sterile, but -milk would be injured by evaporation and other changes produced -in its constituents by such long exposure to so high a degree of -heat. A better method, and one which should be adopted by all who -understand something of the nature of bacteria, is to expose the -milk for a longer time to a lower temperature than that of boiling. - -=To Sterilize Milk for Immediate Use.= (1) Pour the milk into a -granite-ware saucepan or a double boiler, raise the temperature to -190° Fahr., and keep it at that point for one hour. (2) As soon as -done put it immediately into a pitcher, or other vessel, which has -been thoroughly washed, and boiled in a bath of water, and cool -quickly by placing in a pan of cold or iced water. A chemist's -thermometer, for testing the temperature, may be bought at any -pharmacy for a small sum, but if there is not one at hand, heat the -milk until a scum forms over the top, and then keep it as nearly as -possible at that temperature for one hour. Do not let it boil. - -=To Sterilize Milk which is not for Immediate Use.= Put the milk -into flasks or bottles with narrow mouths; plug them with a long -stopper of cotton-wool, place the flasks in a wire frame to support -them, in a kettle of cold water, heat gradually to 190° Fahr., and -keep it at that temperature for one hour. Repeat this the second -day, for although all organisms were probably destroyed during the -first process, _spores_ which may have escaped will have developed -into bacteria. These will be killed by the second heating. Repeat -again on the third day to destroy any life that may have escaped -the first two. - -Spores or resting-cells are the germinal cells from which new -bacteria develop, and are capable of surviving a much higher -temperature than the bacteria themselves, as well as desiccation -and severe cold.[18] Some writers give a lower temperature than -190° Fahr. as safe for sterilization with one hour's exposure, but -190 may be relied upon. Milk treated by the last or "fractional" -method of sterilization, as it is called, should keep indefinitely, -provided of course the cotton is not disturbed. Cotton-wool or -cotton batting in thick masses acts as a strainer for bacteria, and -although air will enter, organisms will not. - -All persons who buy milk, or in any way control milk-supplies, -should consider themselves in duty bound to (1) ascertain by -personal investigation the condition in which the cows are kept. -If there is any suspicion that they are diseased, a veterinary -surgeon should be consulted to decide the case. If they are -healthy and well fed, they cannot fail to give good milk, and -nothing more is to be done except to see that it is transported in -perfectly cleansed and scalded vessels. (2) If it is impossible -to obtain milk directly from the producer, and one is obliged to -buy that from unknown sources, it should be sterilized the moment -it enters the house. There is no other means of being sure that -it will not be a bearer of disease. Not all such milk contains -disease-producing organisms, but it all may contain them, and there -is no safety in its use until all bacteria have been deprived of -life. - - -DIGESTION - -=Definition.= Digestion is the breaking up, changing, and -liquefying of the food in the various chambers of the alimentary -canal designed for that purpose. The mechanical breaking up is done -principally by the teeth in the mouth, the chemical changes and -liquefying by the various digestive fluids.[19] - -=Digestive Fluids.= The digestive fluids are true secretions. Each -is formed from the blood by a special gland for the purpose which -never does anything else; they do not exist in the blood as such. -Their flow is intermittent, taking place only when they are needed. -The liver, however, is an exception to all the others. It is both -secretory and excretory, and bile is formed all the time, but is -most abundant during digestion.[20] - -=Saliva.= The fluid which is mixed with the food in the mouth -is secreted by a considerable number and variety of glands, the -principal of which are the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual. -Smaller glands in the roof and sides of the mouth, in the tongue, -and in the mucous membrane of the pharynx contribute to the -production of saliva, the digestive fluid of the mouth. The flow -from the parotid gland is greatest. The flow from all the glands is -greatly increased when food is taken, especially if it be of good -flavor. Sometimes the amount is increased by smell alone, as when a -nice steak is cooking, or a savory soup, and sometimes the saliva -is made copious by thought, as when we remember the taste of dishes -eaten in the past, and we say, "It makes the mouth water just to -think of them." - -=Amount of Saliva.= According to Dalton the amount of saliva -secreted every twenty-four hours is 42½ oz. Its reaction is almost -constantly alkaline. It is composed of water, organic matter, and -various mineral salts. Ptyalin is its active principle, and is -called by some authors _animal diastase_, or starch converter. - -=Gastric Juice.= Gastric juice is the digestive fluid of the -stomach. It is acid. Its flow is intermittent, occurring only at -times of digestion. Its active principle is pepsin. - -It is worthy of notice here that the character of the digestive -fluids when food is taken is different from what it is when the -organs are at rest. For instance, the gastric juice which flows -in abundance under the stimulus of food, is not like the fluid -secreted when the stomach is collapsed and empty. - -=Pancreatic Juice.= Pancreatic juice is the digestive juice of the -pancreas, and is poured into the small intestine a short distance -below the pyloric opening. Its reaction is alkaline. Its flow is -entirely suspended during the intervals of digestion. - -=Bile.= Bile, the fourth in order of the digestive liquids, is the -secretion of the largest gland of the body--the liver. It is poured -into the small intestine by a duct which empties side by side with -the duct from the pancreas. The flow of bile is constant, but is -greatest during digestion. - -=Intestinal Juice.= Intestinal juice has been to physiologists a -difficult subject of study. It is mingled with the salivary and -gastric juices at the times of digestion, when it is most desirable -to notice its action. Nearly all authorities agree that it is -alkaline, and that its function is to complete the digestion of -substances which may reach it in an undigested condition. - -=Mucus of Large Intestine.= The mucus secreted by the large -intestine is for lubricating only. - -=Digestion in Different Parts of the Alimentary Tract.= -Different substances in food are digested in different portions -of the alimentary canal, and by different means. Let us begin -in the mouth. Taking the classes of foods, starch, one of the -carbohydrates, is the one most affected by the ptyalin, or animal -diastase, of the saliva. So energetic is the action of ptyalin on -starch that 1 part is sufficient to change 1000 parts. Starch is -not acted upon by the gastric juice of the stomach at all; however, -the continued action of the saliva is not probably interrupted in -the stomach. The digestion of starch is completed by the action -of the pancreatic and intestinal juices, and consists in its being -changed into soluble glucose, which is absorbed in solution. - -=Sugar.= Cane-sugar, or common sugar (also called _sucrose_), -passes through the mouth, unchanged, to the stomach, where -it is converted into glucose by the slow action of the acid -(hydrochloric) of the gastric juice. Dilute hydrochloric acid has -the same action on sugar outside of the stomach. - -The action of pancreatic juice on sugar is very marked; it -immediately changes cane-sugar into glucose. The effect of -intestinal fluid is not well understood, but there is the -general agreement that it does not change cane-sugar, neither is -cane-sugar, as such, absorbed in the intestine. Bile does not -affect it, therefore cane-sugar is digested or converted into -glucose either by the stomach or pancreas, or both. It will now be -seen that ultimately the same substance, glucose, is obtained from -both starch and sugar. - -=Protein.= We now come to the consideration of the digestion of -the protein compounds, of which albumen may be taken as a type. -Possibly no action except breaking up and moistening takes place -in the mouth.[21] Its digestion begins in the stomach, where its -structure is broken up and a separation and dissolution of the -little sacs which hold it take place. The same thing is partially -accomplished outside of the stomach when white of egg is slightly -beaten and strained through a cloth. Gastric juice further acts on -the albumen itself, forming it into what is called albumen peptone. -The digestion of raw and carefully cooked albumen has been found -to be carried on very rapidly in the stomach, and the change is -essentially the same in both cases, but in favor of the slightly -coagulated. When the albumen is rendered hard, fine, and close in -consistency by over-cooking, then it is less easy of digestion than -when raw. - -=Absorption.= It is probable that the greater portion of the -process of digestion and absorption of albumen takes place in the -stomach. - -=Fibrin.= Fibrin is also digested in the stomach, and made into -fibrin peptone. - -=Casein.= Liquid casein is immediately coagulated by gastric juice, -both by the action of free acid and organic matter. - -=Gelatin.= Gelatin is quickly dissolved by gastric juice, and -afterward no longer has the property of forming jelly on cooling. -Gelatin is more rapidly disposed of than the tissue from which it -is produced. - -=Vegetable Protein.= The digestion of the vegetable protein -compounds, such as the gluten of wheat and the protein of the -various grains, such as corn, oatmeal, etc., is undoubtedly carried -on in the stomach, but they must be well softened and prepared -by the action of heat and water, or they will not be digested -anywhere; and often corn, beans, and grains of oatmeal are rejected -entirely unchanged. Partially or imperfectly digested proteins are -affected by intestinal juice. It is probable that the function of -this fluid is to complete digestive changes in food which have -already begun in the stomach. - -To summarize: The digestion and absorption of nitrogenous compounds -take place in both the stomach and the intestines. - - -NUTRITION - -One of the important points to bring to the notice of pupils in the -study of cookery is the phenomenon of nutrition. It is astonishing -how vague are the ideas that many people have of why they eat food, -and vaguer still are their notions of the necessity of air, pure -and plenty. Once instruct the mind that it is the air we breathe -and the food we eat which nourish the body, giving material for -its various processes, for nervous and muscular energy, and for -maintaining the constant temperature which the body must always -possess in order to be in a state of health, and there is much more -likelihood that the dignity and importance of proper cooking and -proper food will not be overlooked. - -A knowledge that the health and strength of a person depend largely -upon what passes through his mouth, that even the turn of his -thinking is modified by what he eats, should lead all intelligent -women to make food a conscientious subject of study. - -In general, by the term "nutrition" is meant the building up and -maintaining of the physical framework of the body with all its -various functions, and ultimately the mental and moral faculties -which are dependent upon it, by means of nutriment or food. - -The word is derived from the Latin _nutrire_, to nourish. The word -"nurse" is from the same root, and in its original sense means one -who nourishes, a person who supplies food, tends, or brings up. - -Anything which aids in sustaining the body is food; therefore, air -and water, the two most immediate necessities of life, may be, and -often are, so classed. - -Nutriment exclusive of air is received into the body by means of -the alimentary canal. The great receiver of air is the lungs, but -it also penetrates the body through the pores of the skin, and at -these points carbonic acid is given off as in the lungs. The body -is often compared to a steam-engine, which takes in raw material in -the form of fuel and converts it into force or power. Food, drink, -and air are the fuel of the body,--the things consumed; heat, -muscular and intellectual energy, and other forms of power are the -products. - -Food, during the various digestive processes, becomes reduced to a -liquid, and is then absorbed and conveyed, by different channels -constructed for the purpose, into the blood, which contains, after -being acted upon by the oxygen of the air in the lungs, all those -substances which are required to maintain the various tissues, -secretions, and, in fact, the life of the system. - -Some of the ways in which the different kinds of food nourish the -body have been found out by chemists and physiologists from actual -experiments on living animals, such as rabbits, dogs, pigs, sheep, -goats, and horses, and also on man. Often a scientist becomes so -enthusiastic in his search for knowledge about a certain food that -he gives his own body for trial. Much valuable work has been done -in this direction during the last decade by Voit, Pettenkofer, -Moleschott, Ranke, Payen, and in this country by Atwater. - -No one can explain all the different intricate changes which a -particle of food undergoes from the moment it enters the mouth -until its final transformation into tissue or some form of -energy; but by comparing the income with the outgo, ideas may be -gained of what goes on in the economy of the body, and of the -proportion of nutrients used, and some of the intricate and complex -chemical changes which the different food principles undergo in -the various processes of digestion, assimilation, and use.[22] -Probably hundreds of changes take place in the body, in its -various nutritive functions, of which nothing is known, or they are -entirely unsuspected, so that if we do our utmost with the present -lights which we possess for guidance to health, we shall still -fall far short of completeness. The subject of food and nutrition, -viewed in the light of bacteriology and chemistry, is one of the -most inviting subjects of study of the day, and is worthy of the -wisest thought of the nation. - -The body creates nothing of itself, either of material or of -energy; all must come to it from without. Every atom of carbon, -hydrogen, phosphorus, or other elements, every molecule of protein, -carbohydrate, or other compounds of these elements, is brought -to the body with the food and drink it consumes, and the air it -breathes. Like the steam-engine, it uses the material supplied to -it. Its chemical compounds and energy are the compounds and energy -of the food transformed (Atwater). A proof of this is seen in the -fact that when the supply from without is cut off, the body dies. -The raw material which the body uses is the air and food which it -consumes, the greater portion of which is digested and distributed, -through the medium of the blood, to all parts of the body, to renew -and nourish the various tissues and to supply the material for the -different activities of life. - -=Ways in which Food Supplies the Wants of the Body.= Food supplies -the wants of the body in several ways--(1) it is used to form the -tissues of the body--bones, flesh, tendons, skin, and nerves; (2) -it is used to repair the waste of the tissues; (3) it is stored in -the body for future use; (4) it is consumed as fuel to maintain the -constant temperature which the body must always possess to be in a -state of health; (5) it produces muscular and nervous energy.[23] -The amount of energy of the body depends upon two things--the -amount in the food eaten, and the ability of the body to use it, or -free it for use. - -With every motion, and every thought and feeling, material is -consumed, hence the more rapid wearing out of persons who do severe -work, and of the nervous--those who are keenly susceptible to every -change in their surroundings, to change of weather, even to the -thoughts and feelings of those about them. - -We easily realize that muscular force or energy cannot be -maintained without nutriment in proper quality and amount. An -underfed or starving man has not the strength of a well-fed person. -He cannot lift the same weight, cannot walk as far, cannot work -as hard. We do not as easily comprehend the nervous organism, and -generally have less sympathy with worn-out or ill-nourished nerves -than muscles, but the sensibilities and the intellectual faculties, -of which the nerves and brain are but the instruments, depend -upon the right nutrition of the whole system for their proper and -healthful exercise. - -So many factors enter into the make-up of a thought that it cannot -be said that any particular kind of food will ultimately produce a -poem; but of this we may be sure, that the best work, the noblest -thoughts, the most original ideas, will not come from a dyspeptic, -underfed, or in any way ill-nourished individual. - -The classification of foods has been usually based upon the -deductions of Prout that milk contains all the necessary nutrients -in the best form and proportions, viz., the nitrogenous matters, -fat, sugar, water, and salts; the latter being combinations of -magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron, with chlorin, -phosphoric acid, and, in smaller quantities, sulphuric acid. - -These different classes seem to serve different purposes in the -body, and are all necessary for perfect nutrition. Some of them -closely resemble each other in composition, but are quite different -in their physiological properties, and in the ends which they -serve. For instance, starch (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}) has almost the same -chemical formula as sugar (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}), and yet the one -cannot replace the other to its entire exclusion. - -=The Protein Compounds.= In general it may be said that the -carbohydrates are changed into fats, and are used for the -production of force, and that the fats are stored in the body as -fat and used as fuel. The protein compounds do all that can be done -by the fats and carbohydrates, and in addition something more; that -is, they form the basis of blood, muscle, sinew, skin, and bone. -They are, therefore, the most important of all the food compounds. -The terms "power-givers" and "energy-formers" are sometimes applied -to them, because wherever power and energy are developed they are -present, though not by any means the only substances involved in -the evolution of energy. Probably the fats and carbohydrates give -most of the material for heat and the various other forces of the -body. In case of emergency, where these are deficient, the proteins -are used; but protein alone forms the basis of muscle, tendons, -skin, and other tissues. This the fats and carbohydrates cannot -do (Atwater). The different tissues are known from analysis to -contain this complex nitrogenous compound, protein. Now, since the -body cannot construct this substance out of the simpler chemical -compounds which come to it, it becomes perfectly evident that the -diet must have a due proportion of protein in order to maintain the -strength of the body. We get most of our proteins from the flesh of -animals, and they in turn get it from plants, which construct it -from the crude materials of earth and air. - -=The Extractives=, usually classed with the protein compounds, -such as meat extract, beef tea, etc., are not generally regarded -as direct nutrients, but, like tea and coffee, are valuable as -accessory foods, lending savor to other foods and aiding their -digestion by pleasantly exciting the flow of the digestive fluids. -They also act as brain and nerve stimulants, and perhaps also in -some slight degree as nutrients. - -The principal proteins or nitrogenous substances are _albumen_ in -various forms, casein both animal and vegetable, _blood fibrin_, -_muscle fibrin_, and _gelatin_. All except the last are very much -alike, and probably can replace one another in nutrition. - -Modern chemists agree that nitrogen is a necessary element in the -various chemical and physiological actions which take place in the -body to produce heat, muscular energy, and the other powers. Every -structure in the body in which any form of energy is manifested -is nitrogenous. The nerves, muscles, glands, and the floating -cells[24] in the various liquids are nitrogenous. That nitrogen is -necessary to the different processes of the system, is shown by -the fact that if it be cut off, these processes languish. This may -not occur immediately, for the body always has a store of nitrogen -laid by for emergencies which will be consumed first, but it will -occur as soon as these have been consumed. The energy of the body -is measured by its consumption of oxygen. Motion and heat may be -owing to the oxidation of fat, or of starch, or of nitrogenous -substances; but whatever the source, the direction is given by the -nitrogenous structure--in other words, nitrogen is necessary to all -energy generated in the body. - -Protein matter nourishes the organic framework, takes part in the -generation of energy, and may be converted into non-nitrogenous -substances.[25] The necessity of the protein compounds is -emphasized when we realize that about _one half_ of the body is -composed of muscle, _one fifth_ of which is protein, and the -nitrogen in this protein can be furnished only by protein, since -neither fats nor carbohydrates contain it. It is therefore evident -that the protein-containing foods, such as beef, mutton, fish, -eggs, milk, and others, are our most valued nutrients. Our daily -diet must contain a due proportion. - -The proteins are all complex chemical compounds, which in nutrition -become reduced to simple forms, and are then built up again into -flesh. The animal foods are in the main the best of the protein -compounds, for they are rich in nitrogenous matter, are easily -digested, and from their composition and adaptability are most -valuable in maintaining the life of the body. - -A diet of lean meat alone serves to build up tissue. If nothing -else be taken, the stored-up fat of the body will be consumed, and -the person will become thin.[26] Athletes while in training take -advantage of this fact, and are allowed to eat only such food as -shall furnish the greatest amount of strength and muscular energy -with a minimum of fat. The lean of beef and mutton, with a certain -amount of bread, constitute the foundation of the diet. - -=Fats.= Most of the fatty substances of food are liquefied at the -temperature of the body. When eaten in the form of adipose tissue, -as the fat of beef and mutton, the vesicles or cells in which the -fat is held are dissociated or dissolved, the fat is set free, and -mingles with the digesting mass. This is done in the stomach, and -is a preparation for its further change in the intestines. - -Fats are not dissolved--that is, in the sense in which meats -and other foods are dissolved--in the process of digestion; the -only change which they undergo is a minute subdivision caused -principally by the action of the pancreatic juice. In this -condition of fine emulsion they are taken up by the lacteals; they -may also be absorbed by the blood-vessels. - -It has been found that fat emulsions pass more easily through -membranes which have been moistened with bile, and it is probable -that the function of bile is partly to facilitate the absorption of -fat. That the pancreatic juice is the chief agent in forming fats -into emulsion was discovered in 1848. Bile is, however, essential -to their perfect digestion, and we may therefore say that they -are digested by the united action of the pancreatic juice and the -bile.[27] - -Fat forms in the body fatty tissues, and serves for muscular -force and heat; it is also necessary to nourish nerves and other -tissues,--in fact, without it healthy tissues cannot be formed. A -proper amount of fat is also a sort of albumen sparer. - -It is probable that the fat which is used in the body either to -be stored away or for energy, is derived from other sources than -directly from the fat eaten. From experiments made by Lawes and -Gilbert on pigs, it is evident that the excess of fat stored in -their bodies must be derived from some other source than the -fat contained in their food, and must be produced partly from -nitrogenous matter and partly from carbohydrates, or, at least, -that the latter play a part in its formation. It would appear -from this that life might be maintained on starch, water, salts, -and meat free from fat; but although the theory seems a good one, -practically it is found in actual experiment[28] that nutrition -is impaired by a lack of fat in the diet. The ill effects were -soon seen, and immediate relief was given when fat was added to -the food. Besides, in the food of all nations starch is constantly -associated with some form of fat; bread with butter; potatoes -with butter, cream, or gravy; macaroni and polenta with oil, -and so forth. A man may live for a time and be healthy with a -diet of albuminoids, fats, salts, and water, but it has not yet -been proved that a similar result will be produced by a diet of -albuminoids, carbohydrates, salts, and water without fat. Fat is -necessary to perfect nutrition. Health cannot be maintained on -albuminoids, salts, and water alone; but, on the other hand, cannot -be maintained without them. - -Probably the value of fats, as such, is dependent upon the ease -with which they are digested. The fats eaten are not stored in the -body directly, but the body constructs its fats from those eaten, -and from other substances in food,--according to some authorities -from the carbohydrates and proteids, and according to others from -proteids alone. - -Fats are _stored away_ as fat, _furnish heat_, and are _used for -energy_; at least, it is probable that at times they are put to the -latter use. The fats laid by in the body for future use last in -cases of starvation quite a long time, depending, of course, upon -the amount. At such times a fat animal will live longer than a lean -one. - -Doubtless in the fat of food the body finds material for its -fats in the most easily convertible form. Of the various fatty -substances taken, some are more easily assimilated than others. -Dr. Fothergill, in "The Town Dweller," says that the reason that -cod-liver oil is given to delicate children and invalids is, -that it is more easily digested than ordinary fats, but it is an -inferior form of fat; the next most easily digested is the fat of -bacon. When a child can take bread crumbled in a little of this -fat, it will not be necessary to give him cod-liver oil. Bacon fat -is the much better fat for building tissues. Then comes cream, a -natural emulsion, and butter. He further says there is one form of -fat not commonly looked at in its proper dietetic value, and that -is "toffee." It is made of butter, sugar, and sometimes a portion -of molasses. A quantity of this, added to the ordinary meals, -will enable a child in winter to keep up the bodily heat. The way -in which butter in the form of toffee goes into the stomach is -particularly agreeable. - -=Carbohydrates.= The principal carbohydrates are _starch_, -_dextrine_, _cane-sugar_ or common table sugar, _grape-sugar_, the -principal sugar in fruits, and _milk-sugar_, the natural sugar in -milk. They are substances made up, as before stated, of carbon, -hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen. They are important food -substances, but are of themselves incapable of sustaining life. - -The carbohydrates, both starch and sugar, in the process of -digestion are converted into glucose. This is stored in the -liver in the form of _glycogen_, which the liver has the power -of manufacturing; it then passes into the circulation, and is -distributed to the different parts of the body as it is needed. -(The liver also has the power of forming glycogen out of other -substances than sugar, and it is pretty conclusively proved that -it is from proteids, and not from fats. Carnivorous animals, living -upon flesh alone, are found to have glycogen in their bodies.) - -It is impossible to assign any especial office to the different -food principles; that is, it cannot be said that the carbohydrates -perform a certain kind of work in the body and nothing else, or -that the proteids or fats do. The human body is a highly complex -and intricate organism, and its maintenance is carried on by -complex and mysterious processes that cannot be followed, except -imperfectly; consequently, we must regard the uses of foods in -the body as more or less involved in obscurity. It is, however, -generally understood that the proteids, fats, and carbohydrates -each do an individual work of their own better than either of -the others can do it. They are all necessary in due amount to -the nutrition of the body, and doubtless work together as well -as in their separate functions. They are, however, sometimes -interchangeable, as, for instance, in the absence of the -carbohydrates, proteids will do their work. The carbohydrates are -eminently heat and energy formers, and they also act as albumen -sparers. - -The body always has a store of material laid by for future use. -If it were not for this a person deprived of food would die -immediately, as is the case when he is deprived of oxygen. (Air -being ever about us, and obtainable without effort or price, there -is no need for the body to lay by an amount of oxygen; consequently -only a very little is stored, and that in the blood.) - -The great reserve forces of the body are in the form of fatty -tissues, and glycogen, or the stored-away carbohydrates of the -liver; the latter is given out to the body as it is needed during -the intervals of eating to supply material for the heat and energy -of daily consumption, and in case of starvation. That they are -true reserves is shown by the fact that they disappear during -deprivation of food. The glycogen, or liver-supply, disappears -first; then the fat (Martin). The heat of the body can be -maintained on these substances, and a certain amount of work done, -although no food except water be taken. - -The principal function of the liver is to form glycogen to be -stored away. It constantly manufactures it, and as constantly loses -it to the circulation. Glycogen is chemically allied to starch, -having the same formula (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}), but differing in other -ways. Its quantity is greatest about two hours after a full meal; -then it gradually falls, but increases again when food is again -taken. Its amount also varies with the _kind_ of food eaten: fats -and proteids by themselves give little, but starch and sugars give -much, for it is found in greatest quantity when these form a part -of the diet. - -=Inorganic Matter and Vegetable Acids.= Water and other inorganic -matter, as the salts of different kinds, and vegetable acids, as -vinegar and lemon-juice, can scarcely be said to be digested. Water -is absorbed, and salts are generally in solution in liquids and are -absorbed with them. - -_Water_ is found in all parts of the body, even in the very solid -portions, as the bones and the enamel of the teeth; it also -constitutes a large proportion of its semisolids and fluids, some -of which are nearly all water, as the perspiration and the tears. - -Water usually is found combined with some of the salts, which seem -to act as regulators of the amount which shall be incorporated -into a tissue. Water is a necessary constituent of all tissues, -giving them a proper consistency and elasticity. The power of -resistance of the bones could not be maintained without it. It is -also valuable as a food solvent, assisting in the liquefying of -different substances, which are taken up by the various absorbent -tubes, conveyed into the blood, and so circulated through the body. -Most of the water of the body is taken into it from without, but it -is also formed in the body by the union of hydrogen and oxygen.[29] - -_Sodium chlorid_, or common salt, is found in the blood and other -fluids, and in the solids of the body, except the enamel of the -teeth; it occurs in greatest proportion in the fluids. The part -that this salt plays in nutrition is not altogether understood. -"Common salt is intermediate in certain general processes, and -does not participate by its elements in the formation of organs" -(Liebig). Salt is intimately associated with water, which plays an -intermediate part also in nutrition, being a bearer or carrier of -nutritious matters through the body. - -Salt seems to regulate the absorption and use of nutrients. It is -found in the greatest quantity in the blood and chyle. It doubtless -facilitates digestion by rendering foods more savory, and thus -causing the digestive juices to flow more freely. Sodium chlorid is -contained in most if not all kinds of food, but not in sufficient -quantity to supply the wants of the body; it therefore becomes a -necessary part of a diet. - -_Potassium chlorid_ has similar uses to sodium chlorid, although -not so generally distributed through the body. It is found in -muscle, liver, milk, chyle, blood, mucus, saliva, bile, gastric -juice, and one or two other fluids. - -_Calcium phosphate_ is found in all the fluids and solids of the -body, held in solution in them by the presence of CO_{2}; both it -and calcium carbonate enter largely into the structure of the bones. - -_Sodium carbonate_, _magnesium phosphate_, and other salts play -important parts in nutrition. - -The various salts influence chemical change as well as act in -rendering food soluble. For example, serum albumen, the chief -proteid of the blood, is insoluble in pure water, but dissolves -easily in water which has a little neutral salts in it.[30] Salts -also help to give firmness to the teeth and bones. - -To recapitulate, food is eaten, digested, assimilated, and consumed -or transformed in the body by a series of highly intricate and -complex processes. It is for the most part used for the different -powers and activities of the system; there is, however, always -a small portion which is rejected as waste. The first change is -in the mouth, where the food is broken up and moistened and the -digestion of starch begins; these changes continue in the stomach -until the whole is reduced to a more or less liquid mass. As the -contents of the stomach pass little by little into the duodenum, -the mass becomes more fluid by the admixture of bile, pancreatic -juice, and intestinal juice, and, as it passes along, absorption -takes place; the mass grows darker in color and less fluid, until -all good material is taken up and only waste left, which is -rejected from the body. - -That portion of the food which is not affected by the single or -united action of the digestive fluids is chiefly of vegetable -origin. Hard seeds, such as corn, and the outer coverings of -grains, such as the husk of oatmeal and those parts which are -composed largely of cellulose, pass through the intestinal canal -without change. - -It may be remarked here that since the digestive mechanism is -so perfect a structure, and will try to dissolve anything given -it, and select only that which is good, why should there be the -necessity of giving any special attention to preparing food before -it is eaten? The answer is that the absorptive vessels cannot take -up what is not there, neither can the digestive organs _supply_ -what the food lacks; therefore, the food must contain in suitable -proportions all substances needed by the body. Also, food which -contains a large proportion of waste, or is difficult of digestion -from over or under cooking, or is unattractive by insipidity or -unsavoriness, overworks these long-suffering organs (the extra -power or force needed being drawn from the blood), and causes the -whole system to suffer. Mal-nutrition, with the long line of evils -which it entails, is the cause, direct or indirect, of most of the -sickness in the world, for it reduces the powers of the system, and -thus enfeebles its resistance to disease. - -=Ideal Diet.= "The ideal diet is that combination of food which, -while imposing the least burden upon the body, supplies it with -exactly sufficient material to meet its wants" (Schuster). - -In general the digestibility of foods may be summarized as follows: - - 1. The protein of ordinary animal foods is very readily and - completely digestible. - - 2. The protein of vegetable foods is much less easily digested - than that of animal foods. - - 3. The fat of animal foods may at times fail of digestion. - - 4. Sugar and starch are easy of digestion. - - 5. Animal foods have the advantage of vegetable foods in that - they contain more protein, and that their protein is more easily - digested. (Atwater.) - -A diet largely of animal food leaves very little undigested matter. -The albuminoids in all cases are completely transformed into -nutriment. Fat enters the blood as a fine emulsion. - -=Absorption.= The general rule of absorption is that food is taken -into the circulation through the porous walls of the alimentary -tract as rapidly as it is completely digested. A large portion of -liquid is immediately absorbed by the blood-vessels of the stomach. - -=Adaptation of Foods to Particular Needs and Conditions.= The -demands of different individuals for nutrients in the daily food -vary with age, occupation, and other conditions of life, including -especially the peculiar characteristics of people. No two persons -are exactly alike in their expenditure of muscular and nervous -energy, so no two will need the same amount or kind of nutriment to -repair the waste. - -A man who digs in a field day after day expends a certain amount -of muscular energy. A lawyer, statesman, or author who works with -his brain instead of his hands uses nervous force, but very little -muscular. Brain and muscle are not nourished exactly by the same -materials; therefore, the demand in the way of nutriment of these -two classes will not be the same. - -The lawyer might find a feast in a box of sardines and some -biscuit, while the field laborer would look with contempt upon -such food, and turn from it to fat pork and cabbage. This is no -mere difference in refinement of taste, but a real and instinctive -difference in the demands of the two constitutions. Sardines supply -to the brain-worker the material he needs, and the pork and cabbage -to the laborer the heat and energy he expends. - -In health the sense of taste is the best guide to what is demanded -by the system, and may as a general rule be followed; but in -sickness that will not do, as the sense of taste in particular is -disturbed by most forms of disease. - -When a patient is very ill only the simplest foods will be used, -and those will be prescribed by the physician; but when a patient -is out of danger, and the necessity for variety comes, then the -nurse, by preparing or suggesting dishes, may do much toward -restoring the person to health and strength. - -As a very large percentage of diseases arise from imperfect -nutrition (as large as eighty per cent. being given by some -writers), the sense of taste is usually very much disturbed and -dulled in illness; therefore those kinds of food which are savory, -and at the same time easy of digestion and nutritious, should -be selected. The savory quality is very important. A person in -health may endure badly cooked food and monotony in diet; a person -recovering from an illness cannot but suffer by it. - -A nurse will find a pleasant field for the exercise of ingenuity -in selecting and preparing such dishes as shall (1) be suited to -the digestive powers of the patient; (2) shall be savory; (3) -shall be sufficiently varied to supply all those materials which -the depleted and exhausted body needs; and (4) shall be in such -judicious quantity as shall increase nutrition, but never overtax -the digestive powers. - -The decision of No. 1 (food suited to the digestive powers) is -the most difficult, and here again the doctor will advise for -particular or peculiar diseases. - -There are certain things which from their natural composition are -more easy of digestion than others, such, for instance, as milk, -eggs slightly coagulated and raw, beef tea with the _juices in -solution_, cocoa milk, and cocoa, coffee, jellies, gruels, porridge -from prepared grains (except oatmeal) when _thoroughly_ cooked, -oysters alive, rice, venison, and tripe. - -No. 2, the _savory_ quality, depends largely upon preparation, and -is under the control of the nurse. A baked potato done in a _hot_ -oven, just to the point, and served immediately, is a delicious -dish; overdone, or done in an oven of low temperature, and served -lukewarm, it is very far from appetizing. A steak, if cut thin, -salted, and broiled slowly, will be hard, dry, and lacking in -flavor, but if it is cut thick, at least an inch and a half, better -two inches, broiled for the first minute over very hot coals, -and then slowly, that the heat may have time to penetrate to the -center, and raise the whole to a temperature sufficiently high to -cook it (about 160° Fahr.) without charring the outside, it will -make a dish both wholesome and savory. - -No. 3, the next consideration, is that of _variety_, and here the -resources and judgment of the person in charge must come to the -front. Only general hints can be given. Endeavor to supply some -protein, some fat, some of the carbohydrates, and some mineral -matter in each meal. Bread, grains, or potatoes will give the -necessary starch. Sugar is usually supplied with drinks. Milk, -eggs, meat, fish, and oysters will give protein; cream, butter, -bacon, and the fat of other meats will furnish fat, and fruits -and green salads give acids and mineral salts. For the latter, -grapes, apples, carrots, onions, dandelions, and lettuce are very -valuable. Grapes are composed of water with salts in solution, and -glucose; both are absorbed with very little outlay from the system. -The others are every-day foods, but science has taught that their -instinctive use in the past has been a wise one. - -No. 4, the _quantity_ of food to offer to a sick person, will -depend upon the individual. Give enough, but rather give to an -invalid _too little_ than too much, especially in the first days -of using solid food; for after some forms of sickness there is -great hunger, and one may injure himself by overeating at such a -time. Furnish a little of each kind of food, but let that little be -of _good quality_ and _perfectly prepared_, so that every morsel -is eatable. It is discouraging to any one to have set before him -food such that much of it must be rejected uneaten. It is very -encouraging, especially to an invalid, to be able to eat all that -is brought him, and for this end cooking and serving are of great -importance. It is necessary to adjust the _proportions_ of the -different kinds of foods to the needs of the consumer, otherwise -all unnecessary material will be rejected from the body as waste, -or will be accumulated in it to interfere with the workings of the -different organs. - -In general it may be said that the needs of no two individuals -can be satisfied with exactly the same diet. In sickness it is -the province of the physician to adjust the food to the condition -of the patient. In convalescence the taste of the individual and -the judgment of the nurse or attendant combined will usually not -fail of good results. If an individual craves a certain dish, and -there is no good reason why he should not have it, by all means -procure it. Let only your judgment act. It may be something that -you personally do not like. That should not influence a decision, -provided, of course, that the food is not unwholesome. - -We should bear in mind that a sick person is not in the same -condition as ourselves, and that no matter how absurd his cravings -may seem, they may be but perfectly natural longings for those -substances which his depleted and exhausted system needs in order -to be restored to health. - - - - -PART II - -RECIPES - - - - -PART II - -RECIPES - - -BEEF-JUICE, BEEF-TEA, AND BROTHS - -=Beef-Juice.= The clear juice of beef, slightly diluted with -water, is always excellent, being especially useful for its strong -flavors. It is like concentrated beef-tea, and is often valuable -in pleasantly exciting the action of the mouth and stomach after a -long illness in which milk has been the chief article of diet. - -Beef-juice is best made by broiling the beef. Prepared in this way, -the flavor is superior, and it is a quick and easy method; but when -a proper broiling fire cannot be had, then it may be made in a -glass jar like beef-tea, except without the water. - -=Beef-Tea= is valuable for its stimulating properties and for the -warmth that it gives; it is also somewhat nutritious, containing as -it does the albuminous juices of the meat, some salts, and the very -important flavors. Beef-tea should be prepared in such a manner -that the juices are held in solution in the water, not coagulated, -to secure which the cooking temperature should never be allowed to -exceed that of 160° Fahr. - -=Broths.= Beef, mutton, and chicken broths are the most desirable -forms of meat drinks for convalescents and those no longer -dangerously ill. By slow cooking at a low temperature at first (the -temperature should not exceed 150° Fahr. for the first hour), the -extractives and albuminous juices are drawn out; then, by boiling, -the gelatin of the bones, flesh, and tissues is dissolved. The -nutritive qualities of these broths may be much increased by the -addition of bread, rice, tapioca, barley, and sago, cooked during -the whole time so that they may be completely dissolved in the -liquid. - - -BEEF-JUICE - -=Bottled.= Select a half pound of well-flavored beef, cut away -everything except the lean fiber, divide it into small pieces, -put them into a glass jar, cover, and place in a deep saucepan -of cold water; heat gradually for one hour, but do not allow the -temperature at any time to exceed 160° Fahr.; then strain out the -juice and press the meat. The liquid should be clear red, not brown -and flaky. Add a little salt, and it is ready to serve. A half -pound will make three or four tablespoons of juice. If it is to be -used constantly, a larger quantity may be made at once, as it will -keep eighteen hours in a refrigerator. Beef-juice may be made into -tea by diluting it with warm water. - -=Broiled.= Prepare a fire of clear glowing coals from which all -blue flames have disappeared. Cut a piece of lean beef (one half -pound from the round or any good lean portion) one and one half -inches thick, and remove from it all membranous tissues and fat. -Put it into a wire broiler, and broil from six to eight minutes -according to the intensity of the fire (see rules for broiling). -The piece when done should be pink and full of juice, not dry and -hard, nor, on the other hand, bluish-red in the middle. More juice -will be obtained if the heat has penetrated to the center than if -the meat is raw. When done, cut it into small pieces and squeeze -out the juice with a meat-press or a lemon-squeezer. Add a little -salt, and it is ready to serve. It should be given in spoonfuls, -either warm or cold. If it is necessary to warm it, put a little -into a cup and place it in a dish of warm water on the fire. Care -should be taken that the water does not become hotter than 160° -Fahr., for beyond that temperature the albuminous juices become -coagulated and appear as brown flakes. - - -BEEF-TEA - -=Bottled.= Select and prepare the meat in the same manner as for -bottled beef-juice, except that for every half pound a cup of water -should be used, poured over after it has been put into the jar. -The liquid thus obtained will resemble beef-juice in every respect -except in strength. Serve as a drink in a red wine-glass or a china -cup. - -=With Hydrochloric Acid.= Hydrochloric acid acts upon the fibers of -meat in such a way that they become more easy of digestion. From -a given portion of meat much more nutriment is extracted by the -use of hydrochloric acid than without it; beef-tea made with it -is recommended by physicians as the most easily absorbed form of -beef drink, and for feeble children and patients much weakened by -sickness it is especially useful. - -=To Prepare.= Select a half pound of good beef; remove from it -everything that is not clear meat,--that is, bone, gristle, -connective tissue, and fat; chop it fine on a meat-board or in a -chopping-tray. Put into a bowl one cup of water and five drops of -dilute hydrochloric acid; stir into this the chopped meat, and set -it in a refrigerator or any cool place for two hours to digest. -Then strain, flavor with salt, and serve cold in a red wine-glass. - -Should there be any objection to the taste or color, heat the tea -until it steams and changes to a brownish hue; do not strain out -the flakes of coagulated albumen and fibrin which appear, for they -are the most nutritious portion of the tea. - -Chemically pure hydrochloric acid may be obtained of a druggist (it -is usually marked C. P.); from it a diluted solution may be made by -mixing it in the proportion of five and one half fluid ounces to -fourteen ounces of water. - - -BEEF BROTH - -Beef broth is the juice of beef extracted by the long application -of heat in connection with some solvent, usually water. - -To make beef broth, allow one pound of meat, or meat and bone, to -every quart of water. Wash the meat with a cloth in cold water -until it is clean, or wipe it with a wet cloth if it is apparently -fresh cut; divide it into small pieces (half-inch cubes) in -order to expose as great an extent of surface as possible to the -dissolving action of the water. Put it into a granite-ware kettle -with _cold_ water, and cook it at a low temperature for two hours, -then boil it for two hours to dissolve the gelatin. Remove it from -the fire, and strain it, using a strainer so coarse that the flakes -of albumen may go through (an ordinary wire strainer will do). Skim -as much fat as possible from the surface with a spoon, and then -remove the remaining small particles with a sheet of clean paper -(unsized is best) drawn over the surface. Season the broth with -salt and pepper, and serve it very hot. If not needed at once, it -may be set away to cool, when the fat will rise to the top, and -form into a cake which may be lifted off. - -=With Herbs.= Make a broth according to the above rule, and flavor -it with bay-leaves, mint, or with a bouquet of sweet herbs in the -proportion of one teaspoon to a quart of liquid. - -=With Grains.= One tablespoon of any of the following grains--rice, -barley, oatmeal, or wheat--to one quart of liquid, gives a pleasant -consistency and flavor to beef broth. Tapioca, sago, cold dry -toast, or cuttings of bread may also be used. They should be put in -when the broth is first set on the fire to cook, that they may be -completely dissolved in the liquid. - -=With Vegetables.= Celery, onion, carrot, turnip, or shredded -cabbage may be used in broth in the proportion of one tablespoon to -a quart. Cabbage is better in combination with onion than alone. - - -BROTH MADE FROM BEEFSTEAK - -(A QUICK METHOD) - -Scrape the pulp from a pound of round or of sirloin steak, or -mince the meat in a chopping-tray until it is fine; put it into a -saucepan with just enough cold water to cover it, and let it come -to the boiling-point slowly; then simmer it for fifteen minutes -(better half an hour if there is time). Strain it, take off the fat -with a sheet of paper, and season it with salt. This is a somewhat -expensive but savory broth, and may easily be made on a gas or -alcohol stove. - -A beef panada may be made by leaving the pulp in the broth and -adding a little rolled cracker-crumbs or some bread softened and -squeezed through a strainer. - - -SCOTCH BEEF BROTH - -Put into a granite stew-pan a pint of prepared beef broth,--that -is, broth which has been strained, cleared of fat, and seasoned. -Add to it one tablespoon of rolled oats, or of ordinary oatmeal, -and simmer it gently until the oatmeal is soft and jelly-like. The -time required will be about two hours. Then strain it, and serve -very hot. This makes a good dish for an invalid for whom oatmeal -has not been forbidden. If the broth is reduced by the boiling, add -enough water to restore the pint. - - -CHICKEN BROTH - -Chicken broth should be made with fowl, not with young chicken; a -good one weighing three pounds will make three pints of broth. - -=To Prepare.= Singe the chicken with a piece of blazing newspaper -to burn off the long hairs; remove all refuse or that which is not -clear flesh, viz., pin-feathers, oil-bag, crop, lungs, kidneys, -and, of course, the entrails if the fowl is not already drawn. If -the pipes in the neck are not all drawn out with the crop, they -may be easily taken away when the fowl is cut up. Scrub it well in -cold water, and then disjoint and cut it into small pieces; wash -each piece thoroughly, retaining the skin if it is clear and free -from pin-feathers, otherwise removing it. Put the chicken into cold -water and simmer it for two hours, then boil it for two hours. -Finally strain it and remove the fat, season it with salt and a bit -of white pepper, and serve very hot in pretty china cups, with or -without a lunch-cracker or a bit of dry toast. - -=With Herbs.= Parsley, bay-leaves, sage, thyme, or a bouquet -of sweet herbs will give a pleasant flavor to chicken broth. A -teaspoon to a pint is the right proportion. - -=With Grains or Vegetables.= Rice may be used to advantage in -chicken broth, and also pearl-barley, sago, tapioca, and bread. -These are among the best additions of the kind that can be made, -for with them one is able to preserve the light color so desirable -in chicken broth. Onion, celery, and parsley in the proportion -of one teaspoon to a pint are suitable vegetables. Celery is -especially nice. - - -MUTTON BROTH - -One pound of mutton from the neck, or, better, the loin, one quart -of cold water, and one teaspoon of chopped onion will be needed for -this broth. Remove from the mutton the tough skin, the fat, and all -membranes, and cut the meat into small pieces; break the bone, and -if it be a part of the spinal column, take out the spinal cord. Put -the pieces of meat, the onion, and the water into a saucepan, and -simmer them together for three hours; then strain out the meat, dip -off the fat from the broth with a spoon, and remove the remaining -small particles with paper; season it with salt and white pepper. -Serve hot in a pretty cup, with a toasted cracker. - -A little bunch of mint, a bouquet of herbs, a few bay-leaves, or -a sprinkle of Cayenne pepper or curry-powder will vary the broth -agreeably. Pearl-barley is a particularly good addition to make, or -rice may be used in the proportion of one teaspoon to a pint. - - -OYSTER-TEA. No. 1 - -Select eight fresh oysters, chop them fine in a chopping-tray, -and turn them into a saucepan with a cup of cold water; set -the saucepan on the fire, and let the water come slowly to the -boiling-point, then simmer for five minutes; strain the liquid into -a bowl, flavor it with half a saltspoon of salt, and serve hot with -or without a small piece of dry toast, or a toasted cream-cracker. - - -OYSTER-TEA. No. 2 - -Put a dozen large oysters with their liquor into a stew-pan; simmer -for five minutes. Then strain the liquor, leaving out the oysters, -and add to it one half cup of milk; set it back on the stove and -heat it just to the boiling-point. Flavor with a sprinkle of white -pepper and half a saltspoon of salt. Or make it according to rule -No. 1, using milk instead of water. - - -CLAM BROTH - -Six large clams in their shells and a cup of water will be needed -for this broth. Wash the clams thoroughly with a brush, and place -them with the water in a kettle over the fire. The broth is simply -the juice of the clams with the water boiled for a minute. It does -not require seasoning, as clam-juice is usually salt enough. As -soon as the shells open, the broth is done. - -This broth and oyster-tea No. 1 are good in cases of nausea, and -will be retained on the stomach when almost everything else is -rejected. - - - - -GRUELS - - -Gruels are cooked mixtures of grain or flour, with water, or -with water and milk. They are best made with milk as a part of -the liquid, but care must be taken not to put it into the gruel -until the grain has been thoroughly cooked in water, and after -that the mixture should not be allowed to boil, as so high a -temperature changes the flavor and composition of the milk, and -renders it a less desirable food than if it were cooked at a lower -temperature,--for instance, 190° or 200° Fahr. - -The largest ingredient of grains is starch, which is not easily -digested unless well cooked; therefore the time for boiling gruels -should be conscientiously kept by the clock. Should the water -evaporate, restore to the original quantity before putting in the -milk, which should be hot, though not _boiling_. It may, however, -come just to the boiling-point without any special injury. - -Gruels served with a cream- or a banquet-cracker or a square of -toasted bread are excellent for a convalescent's lunch. They -may be varied with flavorings of cinnamon, nutmeg, almond, or a -little grated lemon-peel, and sugar. Sugar is mentioned with great -hesitancy, for a sweet gruel is an abomination, and yet a gruel -with a _very little_ sugar has a pleasanter flavor than one without -any. - -Lacking color, gruels may be made attractive by serving them -in dainty-hued china. Gruels should be drunk slowly, that the -starch, which is partially digested by the action of saliva, may be -thoroughly mixed with it before it is swallowed. - - -BARLEY GRUEL - - 1 Tablespoon of Robinson's barley-flour. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the flour, salt, and sugar together with a little cold water, -pour on the boiling water, and boil ten minutes; then add the milk, -bring just to the boiling-point, strain, and serve very hot. This -gruel may be made without the milk, but with a pint instead of a -cup of water. Barley is a nutritious grain, rich in phosphates and -protein. - - -ARROWROOT GRUEL - - 1 Tablespoon of arrowroot. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of hot water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Wet the arrowroot with the sugar and salt in two tablespoons of -cold water, then pour on the _hot_ water, stirring constantly. Boil -it for twenty minutes, then add the milk and bring just to the -boiling-point. Strain it, and immediately serve. - -Arrowroot is almost pure starch. Its grains burst at 140° Fahr.; -therefore, if _boiling_ water be poured upon it, it will form into -lumps which will have to be strained out, and thus a part of the -material will be lost; hence the necessity of wetting it in cold -water to reduce the temperature so that it may be stirred smooth -before the lumps form. - -Milk is changed by long boiling, and loses some of its agreeable -taste; it is better, therefore, not to put the milk into the gruel -until after the flour has been thoroughly cooked in the water, thus -preserving its natural flavor. - -Arrowroot gruel may be flavored with cinnamon by boiling a half -square inch of cinnamon bark in the water with which the gruel is -made. Nutmeg, lemon juice or peel, and sherry wine may also be -used; but the sherry should be avoided unless the gruel is to be -served cold. - - -OATMEAL GRUEL FROM POUNDED GRAIN - -Pound in a mortar or roll on a bread-board one cup of oatmeal -until it is floury. Put it into a bowl, and fill the bowl with -cold water; stir well and let it settle for a few seconds; then -pour off the milky-looking water into a saucepan, fill again, mix -and pour off the water, and so continue until the water no longer -appears white, being careful at each pouring not to allow the brown -cortex of the grain or any of the coarse portions to get out of the -bowl; then boil the water for half an hour. For every pint put in a -saltspoon of salt and half a cup of sweet cream, or, if that is not -at hand, the same quantity of milk. Beef broth or wine may be used -instead of cream. This is the best way to make oatmeal gruel, for -by this method the coarse and irritating hulls are excluded, while -the good flavor and nutritious properties are preserved. - - -OATMEAL GRUEL (Plain) - - 2 Tablespoons of oatmeal (rolled oats). - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cupful of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the oatmeal, salt, and sugar together, and pour on the boiling -water. Cook it in a saucepan for thirty minutes, or in a double -boiler two hours; then strain it through a fine wire strainer to -remove the hulls, put it again on the stove, add the milk, and -allow it to heat just to the boiling-point. Serve it hot. Good -oatmeal gruel may be made from cold porridge, by adding water, -milk, and a little sugar and straining it, or it may be served -unstrained. Many like it so, and it makes an excellent lunch. - - -FLOUR GRUEL - - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon. - -Mix the flour, salt, and sugar, as for other gruels, into a paste -with a little cold water; add the piece of cinnamon and the hot -water; boil it for twenty minutes, slowly, so that it may not -stick to the bottom of the pan and burn; then put in the milk -and bring to the boiling-point. Strain it, and serve it very -hot. If the gruel is intended for a patient with fever, a little -lemon-juice is good in place of the cinnamon. Other flavors may -also be used, such as nutmeg, almond, and vanilla. - - -CRACKER GRUEL - - 2 Tablespoons of cracker-crumbs. - 1 Scant saltspoon of salt. - 1 Scant teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -To make the cracker-crumbs, roll some crackers on a board until -they are fine. Bent's water-crackers are good, cream-crackers -better; mix the salt and sugar with the crumbs, pour on the boiling -water, put in the milk, and simmer it for two minutes. The gruel -does not need long cooking, for the cracker-crumbs are already -thoroughly cooked. Do not strain it. - - -FARINA GRUEL - -Farina is a grain which is carefully prepared from the nitrogenous -part of selected wheat, and is therefore a better nutrient than -rice-flour or arrowroot. - - 1 Tablespoon of Hecker's farina. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the grain, salt, and sugar; pour on the boiling water, and -cook ten minutes; then put in the milk, boil for a minute, and it -is ready to serve. Farina, being partially prepared, does not need -long cooking. - - -IMPERIAL GRANUM - -Imperial Granum is a dainty, highly nutritious preparation of -wheat, very useful for invalids and children. - - 1 Tablespoon of Granum. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the meal, salt, and sugar in a saucepan, pour on the boiling -water, and cook ten minutes; then add the milk, and let it again -reach the boiling-point, when it is ready to serve. - -Mush and porridge may also be made from this grain for the use -of children, for whom it is an excellent food, being similar to -farina, but more delicate and easier of digestion. Imperial Granum -may be obtained at any pharmacy. - - -RACAHOUT DES ARABES - - 1 Tablespoon of Racahout. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Cup of hot water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Put the Racahout and salt into a saucepan, mix it into a paste with -a little cold water, and then pour on the hot water; simmer for -ten minutes. Have the milk scalding hot in another pan, and when -the gruel has cooked the full time pour it in. Strain and serve. - -Racahout is a compound consisting principally of sugar, arrowroot, -rice-flour, and French chocolate. It makes a most appetizing gruel, -and is quite nutritious. _Racahout des Arabes_ is imported largely -from France. It may be obtained at any first-class grocery store. - - -INDIAN-MEAL GRUEL - - 2 Tablespoons of corn-meal. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Quart of boiling water. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Mix the corn-meal, flour, salt, and sugar into a thin paste with -cold water, and pour into it the boiling water. Cook it in a double -boiler for three hours. No less time than that will cook the -corn-meal thoroughly. Then add the milk, and it is ready to serve. - -Use the fine granulated meal which comes in paste-board packages, -prepared for the table, and may be bought of almost any grocer. - - - - -MUSH AND PORRIDGE - - -_Mush_ is meal or grain cooked in water to the consistency of -rather thin pudding. _Porridge_ is like mush, only thinner. The -most important point connected with the preparation of these is -thoroughness in the cooking. Made as they generally are of coarsely -ground or of rolled grains, they need long boiling to soften the -cellulose and to cook the starch properly. - -=Oatmeal.= Oatmeal should be cooked for at least three hours in -a double boiler. It is at its best prepared the day before it is -needed, and then reheated as it is wanted. If it is done in this -way, the flavor is fine, and there is no danger that the grains -will be hard. When taken from the kettle, the oatmeal should be of -the consistency to pour, and on cooling it ought to form into a -tender, jelly-like pudding. Sometimes oatmeal is cooked so that the -grains are whole and separate, but it is not easily digested so, -and lacks the delicious flavor which long cooking gives. - -Oatmeal for those for whom there is no objection to its use is a -valuable nutrient, furnishing more for the money than almost any -other food.[31] - -=Indian Meal.= Indian meal also requires many hours' cooking. Even -if it be in a single vessel and actually boiled, not less than an -hour and a half of exposure to heat is safe. - -=Farina.= Farina having been already subjected to a high degree of -heat in its preparation, is thereby partially cooked, and does not -require as long a time as the raw grains. - -Mushes and porridges made from oatmeal, cracked wheat, or any grain -on which the tough outside covering remains, are to be avoided -in all cases of irritation or disease of the alimentary canal, -particularly in diseases of the intestines, for the hard hulls are -very irritating to the delicate lining membranes. Young children -have exceedingly delicate digestive powers, and are often made ill -by coarse, starchy food. For them it is always safest to use the -prepared grains, such as farina, granula, and Imperial Granum. - -All of the grains given in these recipes may be made into -_porridges_ by following the rules given for mushes, except that -a larger proportion of water should be used. Porridges are like -mushes, only thinner. - - -OATMEAL MUSH - - ½ Cup of rolled oats, or ½ cup of granulated oatmeal. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of boiling water. - -Pick over the oatmeal, and put it into a double boiler with the -salt. Pour on the boiling water, place the upper vessel of the -boiler on the stove, and boil two minutes. This effectually starts -the cooking. Then put the upper vessel into the lower, and cook for -five hours. The water in the under boiler should _boil_ during -this time, and will occasionally need replenishing. Serve the mush -steaming hot with sugar and cream, and baked apples, apple sauce, -or tart jelly if one is fond of something acid. - -If rolled oats be used, three hours are sufficient to cook it, but -both kinds are best cooked the day before they are needed, as long -cooking improves rather than injures the grain. - - -FARINA - -Farina being a prepared grain and free from hulls and waste, so -large a proportion will not be required to make a mush as of the -raw grains. - - 3 Tablespoons of farina. - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of boiling water. - -Cook the mixture in a saucepan for twenty minutes after it actually -boils, or in a double boiler for one hour. This is a delicious food -for children, served with cream, or milk, and sugar. - - -WHEAT GERM - -Wheat germ is a delicate and nutritious preparation of wheat. It is -made so that by boiling for a short time it is ready for the table, -and makes a delicious breakfast dish. - - ½ Cup of germ. - ½ Teaspoonful of salt. - 1½ Cups of boiling water. - -Boil in a saucepan without a cover for half an hour, or cook in a -double boiler twice as long. The directions on the packages give a -shorter time, but it is extremely doubtful whether this grain can -be wholesome with the few minutes' cooking usually advised. - - -IMPERIAL GRANUM - -Imperial Granum, cooked according to the above rule, is always a -wholesome and safe dish for children; or it may be made into a very -thin gruel, and used as a drink instead of water. - - -GRANULA - -Granula is a breakfast grain which has been partially prepared -by dry heat, and is almost cooked enough to use. It is sometimes -recommended that it be prepared by simply boiling a minute in milk. -It is, however, both softened and improved in flavor by boiling -from ten to fifteen minutes in one and one half times its bulk of -water, with salt in the proportion of a teaspoon to a cup of grain. - - -CRACKED OR ROLLED WHEAT - - 1 Cup of cracked wheat. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 3 Cups of water. - -Pick over the wheat, to remove any foreign substance that may be -in it. Put it with the salt and the water (boiling) into a double -boiler, and cook for two hours. Serve with cream and sugar, either -hot or cold. If it is desirable to have it cold, it may be molded -in cups or small round jelly-molds. - - -INDIAN-MEAL MUSH - - 1 Cup of corn-meal. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Quart of boiling water. - -No. 1. Make the corn-meal and salt into a paste with a little cold -water, then pour in the boiling water and cook it in a double -boiler for five hours. - -No. 2. Put the salt into the water, and when the water reaches -the boiling-point stir in the dry meal by taking a handful and -sprinkling it slowly through the fingers. Use a wooden spoon -for stirring. Boil an hour and a half. Or, wet the meal in a -little cold water, and pour over it the boiling water. The most -important point is thoroughness in the cooking, which should be -done carefully so that the pudding may not burn on the bottom of -the dish. If the temperature be regulated so that it just simmers, -there will be little danger of this. Serve with maple syrup, or -with cream. - - -HOMINY MUSH - - 1 Cup of hominy. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1¼ Quarts of water. - -Put all together in a double boiler, and cook for three hours. Add -more water if the mush seems stiff and thick; all preparations -of corn absorb a great deal in cooking, and hominy usually needs -a little more than four times its bulk. Hominy is exceedingly -indigestible unless well cooked, but sweet and nutritious when -subjected to a high temperature for a long time. - - - - -DRINKS - - -EGG-NOG - -Break into a bowl one egg, add to it a saltspoon of salt and two -teaspoons of sugar; beat it until it is light but not foamy; then -add one cup of _slightly warm_ milk--that is, milk from which the -chill has been taken (for it is not well to use that which is -ice-cold)--and one or two tablespoons of French brandy; mix and -strain it into a tall slender glass, and serve at once. Egg-nog -should not be allowed to stand after it is made, for both the egg -and the milk lose some of their freshness by exposure to the air. - - -MILK-PUNCH - - 1 Cup of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of brandy. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - A little grated nutmeg. - -Sweeten the milk with the sugar, stir into it the brandy, and mix -thoroughly by pouring from one glass to another. Then grate a bit -of nutmeg over the top. - -Milk-punch is conveniently made with two tin cups; the mouth of one -should be smaller than the mouth of the other, so that the one will -fit into the other. In these the milk should be shaken back and -forth until a froth is formed. This does not add materially to the -taste, but rather to the appearance, and thoroughly mixes in the -sugar and brandy. - - -WINE WHEY - -Warm one cup of milk to a little more than blood-heat, or 100° -Fahr., then pour into it one half cup of sherry wine. The acid and -alcohol of the wine will in a few minutes coagulate the albumen, -which may be separated from the whey by straining. Do not squeeze -the curd through the strainer, but let the liquid drip until it is -all out. If it is necessary to make the whey quickly, heat the milk -to the boiling-point before adding the wine. - - -WINE WHEY WITH RENNET - -(SWEET WHEY) - - 1 Pint of milk heated to 100° Fahr. - 1 Teaspoon of prepared rennet. - 2 Tablespoons of wine. - -Stir the rennet and wine into the milk quickly, so that the wine -may not curdle the milk in blotches. Let it stand in a warm -place (on the stove-hearth, for instance) for half an hour, and -then separate the curd from the whey by straining. This whey is -excellent for children with delicate digestion who need a little -stimulant. It is very good also as a drink for invalids at any time. - -Whey is the water of milk with the sugar and various salts of the -milk in solution in it. The sugar furnishes some nutriment, and -the salts supply some of the mineral matter needed in the body. - -Whey may also be made with vinegar or lemon-juice. These acids will -act more quickly when the milk is warmed before they are added. - - -LEMONADE - - 1 Lemon. - 1½ Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - -Wash and wipe a lemon, cut a very thin slice from the middle, and -squeeze the rest into a bowl; then put in the sugar, pour on the -boiling water, and strain it. When it has become cold, serve it in -a tumbler with the slice of lemon floating on the top. - -Lemonade has a better flavor when made with boiling water, though -it may be made with cold water. A few strawberries or raspberries -may be put in, instead of the slice of lemon; or it may be colored -pink with a little grape-jelly or carmine, and served with a straw. - - -MILK LEMONADE - - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice. - ¼ Cup of sherry. - 1¼ Cups of cold milk. - -Pour the boiling water over the sugar, and then put in the -lemon-juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar dissolves, add the -cold milk, and stir again until the milk curdles, then strain -through a jelly-bag or napkin. - -This is a cool and refreshing drink, especially for children. - - -BRANDY-MILK WITH EGG - -Heat some milk in a granite saucepan for half an hour to sterilize -it, but do not let it boil; then pour it into a pitcher, and set -it aside to cool. When the milk is cold, beat one egg with one -tablespoon of sugar until the sugar is well mixed; add to it two -tablespoons of brandy and a cup of the cold milk. Strain it into a -tall slender glass, and serve at once. - -Heating the milk renders it perfectly wholesome and much safer for -an invalid than raw milk, and also improves the flavor of the drink. - - -SHERRY AND EGG - -Break an egg into a bowl, and put in a teaspoon of sugar; beat the -two together until the sugar is thoroughly mixed with the egg, -but not enough to make the egg froth; to this add two tablespoons -of sherry wine, and a fourth of a cup of cold water, mixing them -thoroughly. Strain all into a tumbler, and serve immediately. - - -STERILIZED MILK - -The change which takes place in milk known as "souring" is caused -by the growth of micro-organisms in it, which are killed by -heat; therefore, to prevent souring, milk must be subjected to a -temperature sufficiently high to insure their destruction. Some -micro-organisms are killed at 136° Fahr., but this temperature -cannot be said to destroy, or to inhibit the growth of all bacteria -commonly found in milk. We must endeavor then to use such a degree -of heat as shall accomplish this without seriously injuring the -natural properties and flavors of the liquid. Authorities vary on -this point, some putting the temperature as high as 212° Fahr., and -others as low as 167° Fahr. The author has found, in an experience -of two years in sterilizing milk every day, that 190° Fahr. is, -under ordinary circumstances, a safe and easily practicable -temperature to employ. With this degree of heat the flavor of the -milk is excellent. - -The process is as follows: The milk is put into clean glass flasks -or bottles with small mouths which are stoppered with plugs of -cotton batting, or, as it is sometimes called, "cotton-wool." These -are placed in a wire basket, and the basket immersed in a kettle -of warm water, the temperature of which is not allowed to exceed -190° Fahr. As soon as the heat is at or near that point the time -is marked, and the milk is kept at that temperature for one hour. -Then the bottles are removed, cooled quickly, and placed in the -refrigerator. If it is desirable to keep the milk an indefinite -time, the process should be repeated the second day, and again the -third day, a third sterilization being necessary to insure success, -since _spores_ of organisms may escape the first and even the -second heating. - -For all ordinary household purposes, however, and as a safe -food for the sick, heating once is all that is necessary. Milk -thus treated will keep in the temperature of an ordinary room, -even in warm weather, from twenty to thirty hours. By using the -small-mouthed flasks very little scum is formed, and thus the -valuable albuminous portion is preserved in the milk. Also, a -small quantity at a time may be used without disturbing the rest. - -=To Sterilize for Family Use.= Milk may also be preserved by open -sterilization in a saucepan or kettle by the following simple -process: Heat the milk until a scum forms over it; keep it at, -or near, the temperature it then has for one hour, then pour it -into a thoroughly washed and scalded pitcher, cool it, and put it -into a refrigerator or some cool place. It will remain sweet for -twenty-four hours, and, unless the weather be very warm, it will -be good at the end of thirty-six hours. Should it sour before the -end of twenty-four hours, it indicates that the temperature was too -low, or the time of exposure to the heat too short. A chemist's -thermometer costs but little, and will be found very useful for -testing milk. It should be borne in mind, in this connection, that -milk is not rendered _absolutely_ sterile,--that is, free from all -possible organisms and spores which may occur in it,--except at a -temperature of at least 212° Fahr., or even higher. - -Sterilized milk diluted with water is a nutritious and wholesome -drink for the sick. Of course the water with which it is diluted -should be boiled.[32] - -In hospital practice nurses have told me that patients suffering -from sleeplessness will often fall into quiet slumber after -drinking hot milk, and that not infrequently the ordered hypodermic -of morphine is not needed when hot milk is used. - - -MILK AND SELTZER - -Mix equal quantities of sterilized milk and seltzer-water. Drink -immediately. - - -MILK AND SODA-WATER - -Into a glass half full of fresh milk put an equal quantity of -soda-water. Use at once. This is an agreeable way to take milk, and -is a nutritious and refreshing drink. - - -TOAST-WATER - -Cut three slices of bread each a third of an inch thick, and toast -them slowly until very brown and dry throughout; break them into -small pieces, put them into a bowl with a pint of cold water, and -set aside to soak for an hour; at the end of that time turn it into -a strainer or napkin, and squeeze out the liquid with the back of a -spoon. To the water thus obtained add a little cream and sugar, and -serve it cold in a tumbler. It may also be served without the cream. - - -BARLEY-WATER - - 1 Tablespoon of barley flour. - 1 Teaspoon of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice. - 1 Quart of water. - -Boil the flour, water, and sugar together fifteen minutes, then add -the lemon-juice, and strain. - -Tamarinds may be used instead of lemon-juice for flavor--two or -three boiled with the water. Barley-water may also be made by -boiling two tablespoons of barley (the grain) in a quart of water -for one hour. - - -RICE-WATER - -Pick over and wash two tablespoons of rice; put it into a granite -saucepan with a quart of boiling water; simmer it for two hours, -when the rice should be softened and partially dissolved; then -strain the liquid through a fine wire strainer into a bowl or -pitcher, add to it a saltspoon of salt, and serve it either warm or -cold. - -If a patient may take or needs stimulants, two tablespoons of -sherry or of port wine is an agreeable addition, especially if the -drink be taken cold. - - -FRUIT-SODA. No. 1 - -=From Strawberries.= Remove the stems from one quart of -strawberries, and pick them over carefully. Wash them under a -stream of water in a colander, gently, so that they may not be -crushed; then put them into a double boiler with half their bulk -of sugar, and heat for an hour or more until the berries are soft. -When this is accomplished, turn them into a jelly-bag and drain -until the juice has completely oozed out, which will require two or -more hours. Do not squeeze them. Then put the juice into a saucepan -and, returning to the fire, heat it to a temperature of 200° Fahr., -and keep it at that temperature for one hour. If a thermometer is -not at hand, heat the juice until it steams a little, but do not -let it boil, for the flavor is not nearly so delicate with the high -temperature. Then it may be canned or bottled for future use. If -the bottle be scalded and carefully sealed as in preserving fruits, -the juice will keep indefinitely. - -The length of time that it remains at 200° is important, as it is -a process of sterilization which takes place, and the temperature -must be maintained for a given time or the desired result will not -be accomplished. The condition of the bottle also must be carefully -considered, as the thorough cleaning and scalding is for the -purpose of rendering it sterile. This is most easily and thoroughly -done by filling the bottle with hot water and placing it in a -kettle of boiling water for half an hour. - -=To Use.= Dilute the juice with _cool_ water (not iced water) or -soda-water in the proportion of one half juice to one half water. - -=From Oranges.= The oranges should be peeled and the seeds removed, -and then treated in the same way as the strawberries in the -preceding rule, except that to every quart of fruit the juice of -two lemons should be added. - -=From Raspberries.= Employ the same method as for strawberries. - -=From Currants.= The same as for strawberries, except that three -fourths of the bulk of the fruit of sugar should be used instead of -one half. - -=With Other Fruits.= Other fruits, such as apricots, peaches, -cranberries, apples, etc., may be used for syrups, varying the -water and sugar according to the kind of fruit used. Apples, -apricots, and peaches will require half their bulk of water. - - -FRUIT-SODA. No. 2 - -Sprinkle two cups of sugar over one box of ripe strawberries, -which, of course, have been hulled and washed, and set them away -for three hours, or until the juice has oozed out of the fruit and -made a thick syrup with the sugar. Strain the juice, bottle it, and -put it in a cool place. It will keep for three days. - -=To Use.= Pour one third of a cup into a tumbler, add two -tablespoons of cream, and fill the tumbler with soda-water from a -siphon. This makes a delicious and cooling drink. - -Oranges, raspberries, currants, or any other juicy fruit may be -used for syrup, which is very palatable when made from fresh -uncooked fruits. These syrups are useful not only for drinks, but -for flavoring ice-creams and pudding sauces. - - -COFFEE SYRUP - -Make some strong coffee with two tablespoons of the ground berry -(Mocha and Java mixed), a little white of egg, and one cup of -boiling water. Simmer together one cup of sugar and one third of a -cup of water for five minutes, then add to it one half of a cup of -the coffee. Strain and bottle it for use. This is delicious with -soda-water and cream. - - -VANILLA SYRUP - -Make a sugar syrup by boiling together one cup of sugar and one -half of a cup of water for five minutes. Add to it two or three -tablespoons of vanilla extract. It is to be used, like coffee -syrup, with soda-water and sweet cream. - - -OTHER SYRUPS - -A variety of syrups may be made, besides those mentioned, by using -a sugar syrup like that in the above recipe, and flavoring it with -cinnamon, lemon, almond, rose-water, chocolate, etc. All of the -cooked syrups will keep indefinitely. - - -GRAPE JUICE - -Grape juice mixed with cold water or with soda-water makes a -pleasant and invigorating drink for a sick person. The best -grapes for the purpose are the blue varieties, such as Isabellas, -Concords, or Black Hamburgs. - -=To Make a Bottle of Juice.= Pick over (and wash if they need it) -one quart of grapes. Remove them from the stems, and put them into -a double boiler with just enough cold water to cover them. Heat -them slowly until the juice oozes out and the fruit becomes soft, -which will take two or three hours. Then turn the fruit into a -jelly-bag made like a long pointed pocket, draw the string at the -top and hang it to drain. Do not squeeze or press the bag, and -use only the juice which drips out, which will practically be all -that the grapes contain. To this add one fourth of the quantity of -sugar--that is, if there is a quart of juice, put in one cup of -sugar--and heat it until it is quite hot, or to a temperature of -200° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature for one hour, but do -not let it boil. Then pour it into thoroughly cleaned and scalded -hot bottles,--in other words, those which are sterile. Seal the -bottles with wax, and set them away in a cool place. - -=To Use.= Mix equal quantities of juice and cold water, and serve -at once. - - -FLAXSEED TEA WITH LEMON - - 1 Tablespoon of flaxseed. - 1 Pint of water. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - Juice of one lemon. - -Boil the flaxseed one hour in the water; strain it, and add the -lemon-juice and sugar. The flaxseed should be examined for little -black grains which often occur in it, and which injure the delicate -flavor of the drink. Serve this tea either cold or warm. It is -excellent for croup, or for any irritated condition of the throat -or lungs. - - -APPLE TEA - -Wash and wipe a good sour apple, cut it into small pieces, and boil -it in a cup of water until it is soft. Then strain the water into a -bowl, add a bit of sugar, and serve when cold. - -If the apple is of good flavor this is a pleasant drink, and may be -given to fever patients, children with measles, or whenever there -is much thirst. - - -KUMISS - - 1 Quart of perfectly fresh milk. - ⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - -Dissolve the yeast in a little water and mix it with the sugar -and milk. Put the mixture into strong bottles,--beer-bottles -are good,--cork them with tightly fitting stoppers, and tie -down securely with stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full -minute to mix thoroughly the ingredients, then place them on -end in a refrigerator, or some equally cool place, to ferment -slowly. At the end of three days lay the bottles on their sides; -turn them occasionally. Five days will be required to perfect -the fermentation, and then kumiss is at its best. It will keep -indefinitely in a refrigerator. - -=To Make Sweet Kumiss.= Ferment the kumiss mixture for twelve hours -in a temperature of 70° Fahr.,--that is, the same degree of heat -that is required for raising bread. - -Do not attempt to open a bottle of kumiss without a champagne-tap, -for the carbonic acid generated in the fermenting liquid has -enormous expansive force, and will throw the contents all over the -room if the bottle be opened in the ordinary way. - -In an emergency, however, the cork may be punctured with a stout -needle to let the gas escape. The mouth of the bottle may then be -held in a large bowl or dish and the cords cut, when the kumiss -will rush out, usually, however, without so much force but that it -may nearly all be caught. It should look like thick, foamy cream. - -Kumiss is highly recommended as an article of sick diet, being -especially valuable for many forms of indigestion and for nausea. -Often it will be retained in the stomach when almost anything else -would be rejected. It is partially predigested milk, containing -carbonic acid and a little alcohol, both of which have a tonic -effect. - -True kumiss is an Eastern product made from mare's milk, but in -this country cow's milk is always employed. Sometimes the term -_kefer_ is given to it, to distinguish it from that made from -mare's milk. It may be obtained in nearly all pharmacies, but a -better quality can be made at home at slight expense. - -Sometimes patients will object to taking kumiss, on account of -the odor, which is not pleasant to every one, but it leaves a -peculiarly agreeable after-taste in the mouth, and one who has once -taken a glass of it will seldom refuse a second offer. The kumiss -of commerce sold under the name of "Cream Koumyss" is an excellent -preparation. - - -THE COCOA-BEAN - -The cocoa-bean is a product of the tropics. It is dried, roasted -like coffee, and cracked, or ground into powder, for use. It is one -of our best foods, containing in good proportions nearly all the -elements necessary to nourish the body. - -There are many preparations of the bean. The most common, and -those usually found in our markets, are _shells_, _cracked cocoa_, -_chocolate_, and _various forms of powder_. - -_Shells_ are the outer husk or covering of the bean, and from them -a delicate drink may be made with long, slow boiling. - -_Cracked cocoa_, or _cocoa-nibs_ as it is sometimes called, is made -by breaking the beans into small pieces. - -_Chocolate_ is prepared by grinding the cocoa-bean into powder, -mixing it with sugar, and molding it into blocks. There is some -temptation on the part of manufacturers to substitute foreign fats, -corn-starch, and other cheap materials for the natural ingredients -of the bean in the making of chocolate. - -The powdered forms of cocoa generally contain a good percentage -of the bean except the fat, which is always extracted. All Dutch -brands are excellent. Weight for weight, they cost more than some -other kinds, but so much less is needed to make a cup of drink that -they are really the least expensive. - - -COCOA - - ½ Teaspoon of any Dutch cocoa. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of boiling milk. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - -Put the cocoa and sugar into a saucepan, and pour in the boiling -water; cook for two minutes, then add the milk, and let it heat -just to the boiling-point. When most other brands are used, as a -general thing a larger proportion of powder will be necessary. It -is therefore important to experiment with each until it is found -what amount will make a drink equal in strength to the above. This -valuable food is often made so strong that ill persons cannot -digest it. - - -COCOA-SHELLS - -Put a tablespoon of shells into a pint of water, and simmer for -two hours; add one tablespoon of sugar and a cup of milk, then -strain out the shells, and it is ready to serve. This is a mild and -delicately flavored drink, and may be used freely in cases of great -thirst. - - -COCOA-NIBS - -Boil one teaspoon of cracked cocoa in a pint of water one hour; -then add a cup of milk and a tablespoon of sugar, let it heat to -the boiling-point again, strain out the nibs, and it is ready to -serve. - -It is necessary to _boil_ cracked cocoa, otherwise you will have a -bitter infusion, lacking the good flavor which is extracted by the -higher degree of heat. This is an instance in which a few degrees -more or less of heat make a great difference in the result. - - -CHOCOLATE - -Put _one third_ of a square (one ounce) of Baker's chocolate, -with one cup of boiling water and a tablespoon of sugar, into -a saucepan. Set the saucepan on the fire, and stir for a while, -moving the piece of chocolate through the water occasionally until -it is melted. _As soon as it boils_ add a cup of milk, and when -it again reaches the boiling-point it will be ready to serve. If -chocolate is allowed to boil for a length of time, separation -of the fat from the other ingredients takes place, rendering it -indigestible. Chocolate, if delicately and carefully made, is as -nice as cocoa, much more nutritious, on account of the fat which it -contains, and less expensive. - - -TEA - -Tea has refreshing and invigorating properties very comforting to -one spent with toil. Its active principle is theine, a crystalline -alkaloid found in both tea and coffee. Theine and caffeine were -once supposed to be different substances, but have recently been -found to be identical. - -Tea is a valuable article of diet, though not a direct nutrient. -It is classed with the so-called "accessory" foods, and, although -not itself nutritious, aids, by its good flavor and stimulating -properties, the digestion of other things. It is a nerve tonic, and -is quite valuable as a curative agent for headache and some forms -of indigestion. The slight stimulation resulting from its use is -unattended by any after ill effects. - -It is good for soldiers, hard-working people, travelers, and others -who are much exposed to the rigors of climate.[33] - - -COMPOSITION OF TEA - - _Black._ _Green._ - Essential oil .60 .79 - Chlorophyl 1.84 2.22 - Wax .28 - Resin 3.64 2.22 - Gum 7.28 8.56 - Tannin 12.88 17.80 - Theine .46 .43 - Extractive matter 21.36 22.80 - Coloring substances 19.19 23.60 - Albumen 2.80 3.00 - Fiber 28.33 17.80 - Ash[34] 5.24 5.56 - - MULDEN. - - From Prof. Mott's Chart on the Composition, Digestibility, and - Nutritive Value of Food. - -Two of the most important points suggested by a study of tea are -the few adulterations and the great difference between different -varieties, comparing weight and bulk. Some kinds of very cheap tea -are adulterated with sage and raspberry leaves, and leaves of other -plants dried to simulate tea, and often flavored with essences to -give an agreeable taste, but a vast amount of the tea which is sold -is pure. Adulterations with chemicals are now rare, on account of -the extensive cultivation of tea and the large quantities sold. - -Teas vary greatly in weight,--that is, a given bulk of one tea -weighs very differently from the same bulk of another. This is -especially marked in the comparison of Oolong and Gunpowder. - -Below are given the weights of a moderate-sized caddy-spoon of each -of these teas. - - _No. of spoons - KINDS OF TEA. _Grains._ to the pound._ - Oolong 39 179 - Hyson 66 106 - Gunpowder 123 57 - -From this it appears that Gunpowder tea, bulk for bulk, is more than -three times as heavy as Oolong; consequently in using it only about -one third as much should be taken for a given amount of water. In -making the infusion teas should be weighed, not measured, but it -is not easily practicable in all households to do so; however, it -can always be borne in mind that the closely rolled teas, such -as Gunpowder, Young Hyson, and Japan, should be used in smaller -proportion than those which are loosely rolled, like Oolong, -English Breakfast, and other black teas. - -There is a popular notion that green teas are dried on copper, -but according to unquestionable authorities it is an erroneous -one. Green teas are dried quickly so that the natural color of the -leaves is preserved. Black teas are dried slowly for many hours -until a sort of fermentation sets in, which causes the difference -in color, as pickings from the same plant may, in the process of -curing, become either green or black tea, according to the method -employed. Also, different varieties of tea may be made from the -same branch by difference of treatment in curing, the aromatic -flavors, which did not exist in the leaves before, being produced -by the drying. Different varieties or kinds of tea are also made -from the same plant by gathering the leaves at different ages. - -Black tea should be black, but not dead black,--rather of a grayish -hue. No red leaves should be mixed with it. It should be regular in -appearance, each leaf with a uniform twist, that is, in all except -the "broken" teas. The leaves of tea are gathered four times a year -by hand, and the finest kind is made from the tender young buds. -Young Hyson is made from the early buds of April, and is noted for -its mild, delicate flavor. - -The principle most to be avoided in tea is the tannin, which in any -considerable quantity is injurious to health. It dissolves easily -when tea is either _steeped for a length of time_, or _boiled_. -The important point, therefore, is not to make tea more than a few -minutes before it is to be drunk, and not to boil it. - -The principal kinds of tea in common use are Oolong, Japan, English -Breakfast, Imperial, Gunpowder, and Young Hyson. Gunpowder, Japan, -Young Hyson, and Imperial are green teas; the others are black. - -=To Prepare Tea.= - - 1 Teaspoon of tea. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - -Fill a cup with boiling water, and let it stand a minute, or until -the cup is heated through. Then empty it, put the teaspoon of tea -into a tea-ball, place it in the hot cup, and pour on the boiling -water slowly until it is full, leaving the tea-ball in for three -minutes. This will give you a delicious and fragrant drink. If -there is not a tea-ball at hand, use a small strainer, holding it -so that the tea is under water for the required time. - -The same principle is to be followed in making a pot of tea, except -that the time of steeping should be somewhat longer. Scald the pot, -which should be either of silver, granite-ware, or earthenware, not -tin. Put into it the tea, in the proportion of one teaspoon to a -cup of water (one half pint), and let it infuse for five minutes, -but by no means allow it to boil, for boiling dissipates the aroma, -and extracts the tannin, which is the injurious principle. Serve it -in hot teacups with loaf-sugar and cold cream or milk. I think it -is Miss Lincoln who says: "Never disgrace yourself by serving that -abomination, boiled lukewarm tea in a cold cup." - -Water for tea should be fresh, and soft water--that is, water which -is free from lime--is to be preferred; by taking _one teaspoon of -tea_ and _a cup of water_ as the unit, any amount may be made; for -instance, for a pot of tea for five or six persons, six teaspoons -of tea and a quart and a half (6 cups) of water will be required. -The time of exposure to the heat is, of course, not multiplied, -the same number of minutes being enough for a greater or a lesser -amount. - -In connection with the study of tea, it is a very interesting fact -that most authorities agree as to the time of steeping. There seems -to be the unanimous opinion that _it should not exceed fifteen_ -minutes. Five minutes is the usual time given for the average kinds -of tea, but for the fine, pure teas from eight to ten is a wise -rule to follow. - - -COFFEE - -Coffee is a product of the East, where it has been used since -very ancient times. It grows on trees, the fruit in clusters -which singly look somewhat like cherries, each containing two -beans. Unroasted coffee-beans are tough, and a drink made from -them is bitter, acrid, and very unpleasant. Coffee was brought -to western Europe in the seventeenth century, where it seems to -have immediately become a popular drink. When coffee-houses were -first opened in England, they were opposed by the liquor-dealers, -who claimed that their trade would be spoiled. Its introduction -was also bitterly opposed by others, and even denounced from the -pulpit. It was regarded somewhat in the light of a dangerous -Eastern drug. From western Europe it was brought to America, and at -the present time is the most extensively used food beverage in the -world. - -The kinds in common use in this country are Java and Mocha from the -East, and the South American coffees Rio, Santos, and Maracaibo. -The soil and method of cultivation influence the quality of coffee, -as does also the age of the beans. The longer the beans are kept -(unbrowned) the finer the flavor. - -Coffee is adulterated with grains of different kinds, chicory, -caramel, carrots and some other roots, and with pastes made to -resemble the coffee-bean. The use of chicory is prohibited by law, -unless the mixture be labeled "Mixture of coffee and chicory." -Nevertheless, its use is common, and in nearly all hotels and -restaurants coffee is flavored with it. - -"The detection of the presence of chicory, caramel, and some sweet -roots, as turnips, carrots, and parsnips, is quite easy. If a few -grains of the suspected sample are placed on the surface of water -in a glass vessel, beaker, or tumbler, each particle of chicory, -etc., will become surrounded by a yellow-brown cloud which rapidly -diffuses through the water until the whole becomes colored. Pure -coffee under the same conditions gives no sensible color until -after the lapse of about fifteen minutes. Caramel (burnt sugar) of -course colors the water very deeply. Dandelion root gives a deeper -color than coffee, but not as deep as chicory. The same is true of -bread raspings. Beans and pease give much less color to the water -than pure coffee. They can be readily detected by the microscope, -as can roasted figs and dates or date-stones." (Mrs. Richards, in -"Food Materials and Their Adulterations.") - -Coffee is said to owe its refreshing properties to (_a_) caffeine, -(_b_) a volatile oil developed by heat, not contained in the -unroasted bean, and to (_c_) astringent acids. - -Coffee diminishes the sensation of hunger, exhilarates and -refreshes, and decreases the amount of wear and tear of the system. - -Its composition, according to Payen, is as follows: - - Cellulose 34.000 - Water 12.000 - Fatty matter 13.000 - Glucose, dextrine, and undetermined vegetable acids 15.500 - Legumin, casein, etc. 10.000 - Chlorogenate of potash and caffeine 3 to 5.000 - Nitrogenized structure 3.000 - Caffeine .800 - Essential oil .001 - Aromatic essence .002 - Mineral substances 6.970 - -It is difficult to determine whether coffee may be classed as a -food, but that it has value as an adjunct to true nutrients there -can be no doubt. There is a general agreement among physiologists -that coffee is invigorating, that it aids digestion both in the -sick and the well, that it is capable of allaying or retarding -waste and thereby acting indirectly as a food. But the mistake -should not be made that coffee will _replace_ food. Coffee may be -compared in its effects on the system to beef-tea--it is valuable -for its flavors rather than for actual nutritious principles. - -It is a curious fact that coffee is most frequently made in such a -way that its valuable flavors are undeveloped or destroyed. Care -must be taken that the roasting be not carried so far as to char -the coffee-beans, yet far enough to convert the sugar into caramel, -and to change the nature of the volatile oil, so that the highest -point of flavor will be reached. This can be best accomplished in -regular roasting-houses, where the temperature and time may be -accurately measured. - -It is best to get a supply of fresh roasted coffee every day, but -when this is not practicable, once in three days, or once a week, -will do. Although theoretically the roasting of coffee should be a -part of its preparation--that is, it should be roasted, immediately -ground, and made into drink--practically it is very seldom done. - - -COFFEE. No. 1 - -A favorite mixed coffee is made with two thirds Java and one third -Mocha. It should be ground just before it is needed. For a pot of -coffee use the proportions of one heaped tablespoon to a cup of -water. It is well to calculate the number of persons there are to -be served, and allow one cup (one half pint) for each; this amount, -with the milk or cream used, will make two ordinary china cups of -coffee. To the ground coffee add a little yolk or white of egg, -with a spoonful of water to dilute it; mix thoroughly until all -the grains are coated over with albumen, then pour on the boiling -water, simmer for five minutes, and steep at a temperature just -short of simmering for ten minutes more. The coffee is then done. -It should be served at once with _loaf-sugar_, and either hot or -cold cream, or hot milk. The coffee should be perfectly clear and -of fine color and flavor. - -There are many methods of making coffee, but the above, everything -considered, seems the most desirable for family use. One egg is -enough to clear three quarts of coffee, and both yolk and white are -of equal value for the purpose. - - -COFFEE. No. 2 - -For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoon of coffee; soak the -coffee overnight or for several hours in cold water, then bring -it to the boiling-point, and let it simmer for a few minutes just -before using. This is said to be the most economical method of -making, as more is obtained from the coffee by this treatment. The -flavor is certainly fine. - -Long boiling dissipates the delicious aromatic oils, and as -probably these are the most valuable properties of the coffee, the -necessity of preserving them is easily seen. Care should be taken -not to boil coffee for more than from three to five minutes, and -simmer rather than boil, so as to preserve as much as possible the -fine flavors which are so quickly dissipated by boiling; yet the -high temperature seems to be necessary to extract the desirable -properties of the bean. One must therefore ever bear in mind the -seeming paradox that coffee should reach the boiling-point, and yet -not boil. - -We do not estimate highly enough the value of flavors. It is -a well-demonstrated fact among a few persons that many dishes -containing actual nutritious principles are but partially or -imperfectly digested, because of their lack of good flavor, either -from want of proper preparation, lack of seasoning, or poor -cooking. There is no doubt that many people suffer from indigestion -after eating such food. - -Use in coffee-making either silver, granite-ware, or earthenware -urns or pots, never tin. They should be made _perfectly clean_ -before using, especial attention being necessary for the spout. - - -MULLED WINE - - 1 Egg. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Clove. - ¼ Square inch of cinnamon. - ½ Cup of wine. - ½ Cup of water. - -Put the water and spice together in a saucepan, and boil for ten -minutes; then add the wine, and let the liquid just reach the -boiling-point; meanwhile beat the egg and sugar in a bowl, and just -at the moment when the wine begins to boil, pour it slowly into -the egg, stirring constantly to distribute the heat throughout the -whole. Unless the weather is very cold, there is usually enough -heat in the boiling liquid to coagulate the albumen of the egg -slightly, but should this not be accomplished, set it on the fire -for a minute to finish. When done it should be of the consistency -of cream. Do not let the wine and water boil for any appreciable -time, for boiling dissipates some of the pleasant flavor of the -wine. - -Beer, ale, and porter are excellent, mulled in the same way. - - -COCOA CORDIAL - - ½ Teaspoon of Dutch cocoa. - Some boiling water. - 2 Blocks of loaf-sugar. - 2 Tablespoons of port wine. - -Put the cocoa and sugar into a china cup, and pour directly upon -them some boiling water, then add the wine, making in all the usual -amount called a cupful. Serve at once. This is an excellent drink -for those who are chilled or exhausted, or to take after a bath. - - - - -JELLIES - -(FROM GELATINE) - - -Gelatin is always of animal origin. The gelatinous substance -obtained from apples, grapes, cranberries, and other fruits is not -gelatin; it is a different material, derived by the action of heat -from pectose, a substance which occurs in plants and is closely -associated with cellulose. Unprepared _gelatin_ is sometimes -distinguished in writing from the _gelatine_ of commerce by the -difference of an _e_ in spelling. - -Gelatin enters into the composition of all, or nearly all, the -tissues of the body. The walls of the microscopic cells of flesh -are composed of it. It is found also in cartilage, tendons, -connective tissue, bone, and in the larynx and joints. Spiders' -webs and the thread of silkworms are gelatin in a liquid state, -which solidifies upon exposure to the air. Another kind of gelatin -forms the framework of insects, such as the locusts on which John -the Baptist fed. It also forms the true skeleton of lobsters, -crabs, and shrimps. The edible birds' nests of the Chinese are a -delicate kind of gelatin more digestible than some other kinds, -for it is made from the saliva of a swallow, and probably contains -pepsin. (M. Williams.) - -The part which gelatin plays as a food is not well understood. -Many experiments have recently been made by scientists on dogs and -other animals, to test the value of gelatin in this respect. From -these experiments the following conclusions have been drawn: 1. -That gelatin alone is not sufficient as a food. 2. That although -insufficient it is not worthless. 3. That gelatin is sufficient -to sustain life when combined with other substances which would -themselves be wholly insufficient if given alone. 4. That gelatin -must always be flavored to render it digestible and nutritious. - -Mattieu Williams says: "It would seem that gelatin alone, although -containing the elements required for nutrition, needs something -more to render it digestible. We shall probably not be far from the -truth if we picture it to the mind as something too smooth, too -neutral, too inert, to set the digestive organs at work, and that -therefore it requires the addition of a decidedly sapid something -that shall make these organs act." - -Gelatin dissolves easily in warm liquid. Albumen coagulates under -similar circumstances. - -The gelatine of commerce is made from the tissues of animals, -particularly from the thick skin of certain portions of the body -and from the head and feet. When well flavored and in a liquid -state as in broths, or of a tender consistency as in well-made -jelly, it is a most desirable food for the sick. Lemon and orange -juice, strawberry, raspberry, grape, and indeed any fruit syrup, -coffee, cocoa, vanilla, wine, brandy, and Jamaica rum, and strong -meat broths which have been cleared, may be used for flavoring. -The jelly should not be made hard and tenacious, but tender and -jelly-like, though firm. - -The phosphated gelatine which may be bought of any grocer is -delicious for wine jelly made according to the usual rule for -jelly, with the exception of omitting the lemon. Chalmer's and -Nelson's are other well-known brands. All jellies made with -gelatine are excellent for invalids. They are especially valuable -in cases of disease of the intestines, such as typhoid fever and -inflammation of the bowels, because, being digested and absorbed, -for the most part or entirely, in the stomach, those organs are -relieved of effort, at the same time that the system is supplied -with a nutritious form of solid food. - - -WINE JELLY. No. 1 - - ¼ Box of Nelson's gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1¼ Cups of boiling water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon. - 1 Clove. - ½ Cup of sherry wine. - -Put the gelatine and cold water together in a dish large enough to -hold the whole mixture; let it soak for half an hour; then pour the -boiling water, in which the clove and cinnamon have been simmering, -over the softened gelatine, add the sugar and wine, and stir until -the sugar and gelatine are perfectly dissolved; then strain through -a fine napkin into a granite-ware or earthenware pan or mold, and -cool it in a refrigerator or in a pan of iced water. Wine jelly -made from phosphated gelatine, omitting the spice, is delicious. - - -WINE JELLY (No. 2) WITH LEMON - -The same proportions and ingredients are to be used as in the above -recipe, except that the juice of half a lemon should be substituted -for the spice. - - -LEMON JELLY - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1¼ Cups of boiling water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - -Put the gelatine and water together in a dish, and let them soak -half an hour; then pour on the boiling water, and stir until the -gelatine is dissolved. Do not put in the sugar and then pour on -the boiling water, as there may not be heat enough in making a -small quantity of jelly to dissolve both, but add the sugar after -the water, then the lemon-juice and brandy. Strain it through a -napkin and cool it in a refrigerator or in a pan of iced water. Use -china or granite-ware molds, never tin, for the acid of lemon acts -chemically upon it, forming compounds that are injurious to health. - - -ORANGE JELLY - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ½ Cup of boiling water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - 1 Cup of orange-juice. - Juice of half a lemon. - -Soften the gelatine in the cold water by soaking it for half an -hour; then pour in the boiling water, stirring as previously -directed until the gelatine is dissolved; add the sugar, -orange-juice, and lemon-juice, in the order in which they are -given, stir for a moment, and then strain the liquid through -a napkin into molds, and set it to cool. Use earthenware or -granite-ware molds, not tin. The point most to be observed in -making this jelly is getting the juice from the oranges. The most -natural way for one to do would be to cut the oranges in halves, -and squeeze them in a lemon-squeezer, but that will not do, for the -orange-oil of the rind is extracted in such large quantities as to -destroy the delicate flavor of the jelly. The proper way to do is -to peel the fruit, cut it in pieces, put them in a jelly-bag, and -squeeze out the juice with the hand. - - -COFFEE JELLY - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - ½ Cup of strong coffee. - ½ Teaspoon of vanilla. - ½ Cup of sugar. - -Soak the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour; then pour -on the boiling water, and put in the sugar, coffee, and vanilla. -Strain it through a napkin into a glass dish in which it may be -served, and cool it as jellies are usually cooled, either in a -refrigerator or in cold water, unless of course it is winter, when -the jelly quickly becomes firm in any cool place, or it may be -molded. Serve it with sweet cream and sugar, or, if it be molded, -with whipped cream arranged around the form. The coffee should be -strong, made with the proportion of two tablespoons of coffee to a -cup of water. - -This delicious jelly is acceptable to most invalids. - - -FRENCH JELLY WITH FRESH FRUITS - -Make a wine jelly according to the recipe on page 122. When it has -lost some of its heat, but before it begins to thicken, pour into -it a pint of carefully picked and cleaned raspberries, distributing -them evenly through the liquid; then set it away in a cool place, -or in a refrigerator, to harden. This makes a nice dessert when -served with sugar and cream. Other fruits and other jellies may be -combined at the discretion of the maker. Orange jelly with oranges -and bananas is very good. - - -RESTORATIVE JELLY - - ½ Box of gelatine. - 1 Cup of port wine. - 1 Tablespoon of powdered gum arabic. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - 3 Tablespoons of sugar. - 2 Cloves. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon. - -Put the gelatine, wine, and spice into a double boiler, or if one -is not at hand, improvise one by placing a bowl in a pan of water. -Set the boiler on the fire, and when the gelatine is dissolved, -put in the gum arabic, lemon, and sugar. Stir thoroughly; strain -it quickly through a fine napkin, and cool it in a shallow dish, -so that the layer of jelly shall be an inch thick. It is to be cut -into cubes, which may be served two or three at a time, to be held -in the mouth until melted. - - -CHICKEN JELLY - -Clean a small chicken, disjoint it, and cut the meat into small -pieces; remove the fat, break or pound the bones, and put all into -cold water, using the following proportion: _A pint for every -pound of chicken_. Heat the water very slowly at first, and then -simmer it until the meat is tender; it will require three or four -hours. Boil down to one half the quantity. Strain it and remove the -fat; then clear it with an egg, and season it with salt, pepper, -and lemon. Strain it through a fine napkin, pour into small cups, -and cool. Parsley, celery, and bay-leaves give a good flavor. A -suspicion of red pepper is also an addition. - - -PUNCHEON JELLY - - ¼ Box of phosphated gelatine. - 1 Cup of cold water. - ½ Cup of hot tea. - ½ Cup of sugar. - ¼ Cup of Jamaica rum. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - 5 Drops of almond extract. - -Put the gelatine to soak in the cold water, and at the end of -thirty minutes pour on the hot tea; then add the sugar, rum, -brandy, and almond; strain it through a fine napkin, and set it in -a cool place to become firm. - -Phosphated gelatine is a delicate acidulated preparation, very -nice for wine, lemon, or puncheon jelly, but it cannot be used -for creams on account of the acid, which curdles them. Some of the -directions indicate that it may be neutralized with soda; that, -however, should not be done, since there is no accurate means of -ascertaining how much acid there is in a given amount, or how -strong it is; consequently there is no guide to the amount of soda -required. - - - - -TOAST - - -The principal constituent of ordinary wheaten bread is starch. - -When starch is subjected to a high temperature, it is changed into -the easily digested substance dextrine. In the ordinary cooking of -a loaf of bread, the starch in the outer layers is changed into -dextrine, which helps to give the crust of bread that peculiar, -agreeable flavor which we call "sweet." Slices of bread undergo a -similar change when toast is made. - -To make toast successfully, one should endeavor to convert as much -as possible of the starch into dextrine. To do this, cut the bread -one third of an inch thick, place the slices in a toaster, or wire -broiler, and dry them slowly, either in a moderate oven, or by -holding the broiler some distance from the fire. The object is to -give the heat time to penetrate to the center of the slice before -the outside has begun to change color. If a sheath be formed over -the outside at once, the moisture will be shut in, and the middle -of the slice will be prevented from becoming sufficiently heated -to change its starch, for the temperature will not rise much above -212° Fahr. until the water is dried out. (Starch is changed into -dextrine at 401° Fahr.) - -Toast that is clammy in the middle and blackened on the outside is -less wholesome than untoasted bread. Great care should therefore -be taken with the drying. When this has been accomplished, lower -the broiler a little nearer the coals, when the toast will quickly -turn a golden brown. An ideal piece of toast is crisp and golden -throughout. But many will say that they prefer toast that is soft -inside, and that they cannot eat hard, dry toast. The ideal piece -of toast is not really so hard as it seems. It breaks and crumbles -very easily, and is quickly moistened by the saliva. If one would -persevere with a slice, he would soon learn to prefer it to any -other kind; at all events, that which is soft inside should not be -given to the sick. It is better to make the toast dry, and then -moisten it, if need be, by dipping the slices into hot water for an -instant, but _do not soak them_. - -Dry toast should be served directly from the fire, if possible. -When this is not practicable, pile it on a platter, cover it with a -napkin, and put it on the hearth or in the oven. - -Toast is given in all slight cases of illness, because it is so -easily digested. The more thorough the conversion of the starch, -the more easily and perfectly the system will manage it, for the -change of starch into dextrine, by the action of heat, is simply -doing outside of the body that which takes place in it in the -ordinary course of digestion, by the action of the digestive -fluids. Therefore, when this is accomplished by artificial means, -nature is spared so much energy. - - -BUTTERED WATER TOAST - -Toast four thin slices of bread. Put into a shallow pan a pint of -water with half a teaspoon of salt. Dip each slice quickly into -the water, place it in a covered dish, and spread it with butter, -piling one slice above another. - -Do not let the bread _soak_ in the water. Endeavor to keep a -suggestion of crispness in it, for sloppy, sodden toast is not -nice. Serve it _very_ hot, with apple sauce, sweet baked apples, -or tart jelly. Water toast is really delicious if care is taken to -have it hot. It will be eaten with relish much longer than that -made with milk. - - -MILK TOAST - -Put a cup of rich milk into a saucepan, and place it on the stove. -While it is heating, toast three slices of bread a delicate brown. -Put them one at a time into a covered dish, and when the milk is -boiling hot season it with a saltspoon of salt and pour it over the -bread. A little butter may be spread upon each slice before the -milk is poured over, but it is a more delicate dish without it. - - -CREAM TOAST - - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 4 Large or 6 small slices of bread. - -Make a white sauce with the milk, flour, and butter according to -the following directions. Pour the milk into a saucepan, and set it -on the fire to heat. Put the butter and flour together in another -saucepan, place it on the fire, and stir gently until the butter -melts; let them bubble together two or three minutes. The high -temperature which the butter quickly attains will thoroughly cook -the flour in a short time. Then pour in a little of the milk, and -stir until the two are mixed; add a little more milk, and stir -again until it bubbles; if at this point the mixture does not seem -smooth, lift it from the fire, and beat it until it is waxy and -perfectly free from lumps. Then add more milk, stir again, and so -continue until all the milk is in. Let it simmer slowly until the -toast is ready, which should be made according to the rule for dry -toast. Then soak the slices in boiling salted milk (four if from a -large, and six if from a small loaf of bread), arrange them in a -covered dish, and pour the cream, salted, between and over them. -Irregular pieces and odds and ends of bread may be used instead of -whole slices, and are very nice toasted in a tin pan in the oven. - -One precaution is necessary in making this dish; that is, to soak -the bread _thoroughly_ in the boiling milk, for the sauce or cream -is too thick to soften it. On account of the high temperature to -which the butter rises, the starch is more perfectly cooked in it -than if the flour were mixed with cold water and poured into the -boiling milk, as is sometimes done. - - -FRENCH OR EGG TOAST - - 1 Egg. - 1 Cup of milk or cream. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 3 Slices of bread. - -Break the egg on a plate, and beat it with a fork for a minute, -or until the viscousness is destroyed. Then mix in the milk and -salt. In this mixture soak the slices of bread until they are soft, -lay them in a buttered omelet-pan, and fry them slowly until a -golden brown. Then place a bit of butter on the upper side of each -slice, turn and brown that side. Spread a little butter, powdered -cinnamon, and sugar on each slice and arrange them one above -another in a covered dish. Serve very hot. - - -CROUTONS - -_Crouton_ is a French word which in English means _crust_. The -term was first applied to the paste of sawdust, flour, and water -in which the peasants of southern France used long ago to inclose -their pieces of meat before roasting. After the meat was done the -crust was broken open and thrown away. The word with us is applied -to little cubes of buttered bread which have been browned in the -oven. They are used in soups and stews, sprinkled in just before -serving. - -=To Make Croutons.= Butter a slice of evenly cut bread. Divide -it into cubes that will be one third of an inch on a side. This -will necessitate cutting the slice of bread exactly a third of an -inch thick. Place these little cubes on a tin plate, or shallow -dish, and put the dish on the grate in a moderate oven for fifteen -minutes. When done they should be light golden brown throughout, -crisp and brittle. Sometimes cubes of bread are fried in fat to -resemble croutons, but unless done by a skilful hand they are -usually soaked with fat. Even at the best they lack the delicate -flavor of those which are buttered, and browned in an oven. - - -SIPPETS - -Sippets are evenly cut oblongs of bread delicately toasted. They -may be served as dry toast, or with broiled birds or broiled -oysters. They are also nice for a lunch with a cup of tea or cocoa. - -=To Make Sippets.= Cut thin slices of bread, and from them make -oblongs one inch wide by four inches long. Toast carefully so that -they will not break, and pile on a small bread-plate if they are to -be served dry. - - -VERMICELLI TOAST - -Prepare a cream toast according to the rule on page 130, except -arrange the slices on a platter and pour the sauce evenly over -them. Press through a coarse wire strainer enough hard-boiled yolk -of egg to lightly cover it. It will fall in irregular, broken, -crinkled threads, somewhat resembling vermicelli, hence the name. - - - - -SOUPS - - -OYSTER SOUP - - 1 Cup of fresh oysters. - 1 Cup of milk. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of rolled cracker-crumbs. - A sprinkle of pepper. - ¼ Teaspoon of butter. - -Put the milk with the cracker-crumbs into a saucepan on the stove; -while it is heating pick over the oysters on a plate, and remove -any bits of shell that may be among them. Have a hot omelet-pan -ready to receive them, and when the milk reaches the boiling-point, -put the oysters into the omelet-pan. Stir and turn them until they -become plump, or while about sixty can be _slowly counted_; then -drop the oysters into the boiling milk, take it immediately from -the fire, add the salt, pepper, and butter, and serve at once. -The point which requires the most attention is the cooking of the -oysters in the omelet-pan. Do not let them cook _quite enough_, as -the milk has sufficient heat to finish them. If too long exposed -to the heat, the albuminous juice becomes over-cooked, and the -oysters consequently tough and leathery. For thickening oyster -soup, two tablespoons of white sauce may be substituted for the -cracker-crumbs. - - -CHICKEN SOUP - -Thoroughly clean a good fowl. Separate it at the joints and cut -it into small pieces. Put the meat into a saucepan with three -pints of water, and stew it for two and one half or three hours, -or until it becomes very tender. Then take out the meat, let the -liquor continue to boil, and to it add one tablespoon of rice, one -tablespoon of finely cut onion which has been fried with a bit of -butter until soft, but not brown, and three peppercorns. Cut the -nicer portions of the meat into small pieces, after removing all -the skin, gristle, and bone. Put these pieces, with one teaspoon -of salt, into the soup, and let all simmer until the rice is very -soft. Then take out the peppercorns. A very little white pepper and -a little celery-salt or curry-powder may be added. Serve hot with -croutons. If the water boils away during the cooking, which it will -do unless the simmering is very gentle, restore the quantity. - - -MOCK-BISQUE SOUP - - 1 Pint of tomatoes, measured after they have been stewed and strained. - 1 Pint of white sauce. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ¼ Saltspoon of pepper. - ½ Saltspoon of soda. - -Although mock-bisque soup is better made with fresh tomatoes, the -canned fruit may be used, with the precaution that it be allowed to -stew only just long enough to soften it through, for long boiling -develops in it a very strong acid. When the tomatoes are soft, -strain them through a soup-strainer, or other coarse wire strainer, -until there is nothing left but the seeds. Measure a pint of the -liquid, add the soda, salt, and pepper, and set it on the stove -to heat slowly. Meanwhile make a white sauce with one tablespoon -of butter, one of flour, and a pint of milk, according to the -rule on page 130. Add this sauce to the tomato, strain all into a -double boiler, return to the fire, and serve as soon as it becomes -steaming hot. - -If fresh tomatoes can be obtained, wash and wipe them, cut out the -green part near the stem, divide them into small pieces without -taking off the skins, and stew without water until the fruit is -just soft enough to mash. If the tomatoes are fully ripe and -carefully cooked, they will not require the soda, but when soda is -necessary, fresh tomatoes need only half the amount used for canned -fruit. - -This is an appetizing and delicate soup, and may be freely used by -most invalids. - - -POTATO SOUP - - 3 Medium-sized potatoes. - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion. - 2 Saltspoons of celery-salt, or 3 stalks of celery. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - A little white pepper. - A speck of cayenne. - 1 Teaspoon of flour. - 2 Teaspoons of butter. - 1 Pint of milk. - -Pare and boil the potatoes. Cook the onion and celery in the milk, -with which make a white sauce with the flour and butter. When the -potatoes are done, drain off the water and dry them over the fire -by moving the pan back and forth on the stove to keep them from -sticking. Then, without removing the pan from the fire, mash them -thoroughly with a potato-masher, and put in the sauce, pepper, -cayenne, and salt; strain all through a soup-strainer, and if the -consistency be not perfectly smooth and even, strain it again. -Put it into a double boiler, set back on the stove, and when hot -it is ready to serve. If the soup seems very thick, add a little -more milk, for some potatoes are drier than others, and will -consequently absorb more moisture. It should be like a _thin purée_. - -This soup may be varied by using a quart instead of a pint of milk, -and the whites of two eggs well beaten, the latter to be added -just two minutes before it is removed from the fire, which will be -sufficient time for the egg to cook. Care should be taken not to -allow the egg to harden, or the soup will have a curdled appearance. - - -CREAM-OF-CELERY SOUP - - 1 Head of celery. - 1 Pint of water. - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of white pepper. - -Wash and scrape the celery, cut it into half-inch pieces, put it -into the pint of boiling water, and cook until it is very soft. -When done mash it in the water in which it was boiled, and add the -salt and pepper. Cook the onion in the milk, and with it make a -white sauce with the butter and flour; add this to the celery, and -strain it through a soup-strainer, pressing and mashing with the -back of a spoon until all but a few tough fibers of the celery are -squeezed through. Return the soup, in a double boiler, to the fire, -and heat it until it is steaming, when it is ready to serve. - -By substituting chicken broth for water, and using celery-salt -instead of fresh celery when it is not in season, a very acceptable -variation of this soup may be made. - - -CREAM-OF-RICE SOUP - - ¼ Cup of rice. - 1 Pint of chicken broth or stock. - 1 Pint of sweet cream. - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion. - 1 Stalk of celery. - 3 Saltspoons of salt. - A little white pepper. - ½ Saltspoon of curry-powder. - -Pick over and wash the rice, and put it into the chicken broth in -a saucepan to cook. Simmer it slowly until the rice is very soft. -It will require two hours' cooking to accomplish this. Half an -hour before the rice is done put the cream into a saucepan with -the onion, celery, pepper, and curry, and let them simmer slowly -for twenty minutes; then pour the mixture into the rice; press all -through a soup-strainer; add the salt, and set it back on the stove -to heat to the boiling-point. It should be a rather thin soup, not -a _purée_. Should the broth boil away while the rice is cooking, or -should the soup be too thick, add more broth, or some water. - - -QUEEN VICTORIA'S FAVORITE SOUP - - 1 Cup of chopped chicken meat. - 1 Pint of strong chicken broth. - 1 Pint of sweet cream. - ½ Cup of cracker- or bread-crumbs. - 3 Yolks of eggs. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of pepper. - -The chicken may be obtained from what remains of a roast, in which -case the bones, skin, tendons, and all the scraps left should be -boiled for the broth. It is better, however, to use a fowl which -has been cooked on purpose, as the broth from such a one is of -finer flavor. Soak the cracker-crumbs in a little of the cream. -Break three eggs, separate the whites from the yolks, and carefully -drop the yolks into hot water; boil them until they are hard. -Chop the chicken in a chopping-tray until it is as fine as meal, -previously having removed everything except the clear meat; mix the -soaked cracker with it; press the hard egg-yolks through a coarse -wire strainer and put them in, and also the salt, pepper, and -broth. Then strain the whole through a colander, adding the cream a -little at a time, and pressing through all of the meat. Boil it for -five minutes in a saucepan, or cook it in a double boiler for half -an hour. This makes a delicious soup. - - -CHICKEN-TAPIOCA SOUP - - 2 Tablespoons of tapioca. - ½ Cup of cold water. - 1 Pint of strong chicken broth or white stock. - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Stalk of celery, or some celery-salt. - 1 Tablespoon of chopped onion. - ½ Square inch of mace. - 1 Scant teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of white pepper. - ½ Teaspoon of butter. - -The broth for this dish may be made by boiling the bones of a roast -with the left-over pieces of meat, and then reducing the liquor -until it is strong enough. Put the tapioca to soak in the cold -water, overnight if it be the common, coarse kind, but if pearl -or granulated tapioca is used, twenty minutes will do. Then add -the chicken stock, and simmer it until the tapioca is completely -softened. It will require two or three hours. About half an hour -before the tapioca will be done, put the milk, celery, onion, and -mace into a saucepan to cook, and as soon as the tapioca becomes -soft pour it in; remove from the fire, and strain the whole through -a wire strainer, forcing through with a spoon all the grains of -tapioca. Then add the salt, pepper, and butter; set it back on the -stove, and heat it just to the boiling-point, when it is ready to -serve. - - -BEEF-TAPIOCA SOUP - - ¼ Cup of granulated tapioca. - 1½ Cups of water. - 1 Pint of strong beef broth. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Teaspoon of mixed sweet herbs. - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion. - A little black pepper. - -Soak the tapioca for twenty minutes in a half cup of cold water, -then set it to cook in a double boiler with the rest of the water -(one cupful). When the grains become soft and begin to look -transparent, put in all the other ingredients and cook until the -tapioca is completely dissolved. This will require two or three -hours. Strain it, and return it to the fire to boil for five -minutes, when it is ready to serve. This soup may be made with the -ordinary stock from a stock-kettle. A little chicken broth is an -improving addition, and really makes a most savory soup. - - -CHICKEN PANADA - -A panada is a dish the foundation of which is bread. For chicken -panada there will be needed: - - 1 Cup of chicken meat. - ½ Cup of bread soaked in milk. - 1 Pint of chicken liquor or broth. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ¼ Saltspoon of pepper. - -The chicken may be obtained from a cold roast, the bones, gristle, -and tendons of which should be boiled for the broth, or a fowl may -be used on purpose for it. - -Put the bread-crumbs to soak in enough milk to cover them. Cut the -chicken into small pieces, leaving out everything which is not -clear meat, and chop it in a chopping-tray until it is very fine. -Press the bread-crumbs through a coarse wire strainer into it, pour -in the broth (from which the fat has been removed by skimming with -a spoon), and add the pepper and salt. Boil for one minute. The -panada should be about the consistency of thick gruel. It may be -varied by seasoning it with either celery-salt or curry-powder. Two -tablespoons of sweet cream is also a desirable addition. - - -CONSOMMÉ - - 3 Quarts of cold water. - ½ of a good fowl. - 2 Pounds of lean beef, or 2½ pounds of beef and bone. - ¼ Pound of lean ham. - 1 Tablespoon of chopped carrot. - 1 Tablespoon of chopped turnip. - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion. - 1 Tablespoon of celery. - 3 Cloves. - 3 Peppercorns. - 1 Tablespoon of mixed sweet herbs. - -Wipe but do not wash the beef, unless, of course, it is very dirty. -Cut it into small slices, and fry it in a hot frying-pan to brown -it and to develop the flavor of the meat. Then divide the slices -into small pieces, so as to expose as large a surface as possible -to the action of the water. Put it, with the chicken (after it has -been cleaned and cut into small pieces), into a porcelain-lined or -granite-ware soup-digester, with the piece of ham and three quarts -of cold water. Let it slowly reach the boiling-point, and simmer -it gently for six hours. Boiling briskly dissipates the flavors by -separating certain subtle substances which are perceptible to the -sense of smell, and if they are in the air they cannot also be in -the broth. - -When it has been cooking for three hours, fry the carrot, turnip, -and onion together in a little butter until they are brown, and put -them with the cloves, sweet herbs, peppercorns, and celery into the -soup. If these are cooked with the meat from the beginning, the -flavor is not so good. - -At the end of the six hours, when the meat is in rags, strain the -liquid into a china bowl, and set it away to cool until all the fat -rises and forms in a cake on the top. It is a good plan to cool it -overnight when there is plenty of time. Every particle of fat must -be removed, and it is not possible to do this unless the soup is -cooled. _To clear consommé_ return it to the fire, and as soon as -it becomes liquid break into it two eggs, and stir slowly until the -soup begins to steam and the albumen of the eggs is coagulated. -The coagulum will entangle all the insoluble matter; then strain -the liquid through a napkin, salt it, and heat it just to the -boiling-point, when it is ready to serve. - -It should be perfectly clear, and of a golden-brown color like -sherry wine. If the color is not dark enough, a little caramel -(burnt sugar) may be added. - -The above quantity of meats and flavoring should give a quart of -consommé. - - -BOUILLON - -Make a plain beef broth according to the rule on page 78. To a -quart of this add a pinch each of thyme, sage, sweet marjoram, and -mint (or enough to make in all what will fill a teaspoon), and a -teaspoon each of chopped onion and carrot. Boil all together until -the broth is reduced to one pint. Strain, season with salt and -pepper, and serve very hot in covered cups. - - -APPLE SOUP - - 2 Cups of apple. - 2 Cups of water. - 2 Teaspoons of corn-starch. - 1½ Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of cinnamon. - A bit of salt. - -Stew the apple in the water until it is very soft. Then mix -together into a smooth paste the corn-starch, sugar, salt, and -cinnamon with a little cold water. Pour this into the apple, and -boil for five minutes. Strain it into a soup-tureen, and keep hot -until ready to serve. This is very good eaten with hot buttered -sippets. - - - - -OYSTERS - - -Oysters are a highly prized food, though why it is difficult -to say, as they are neither very easy of digestion nor very -nutritious. But they possess a delicate insinuating flavor that -is generally acceptable to most palates, and probably are really -valuable for the salts which they contain. - -The composition of oysters (Payen's analysis) is as follows: - - Nitrogenous matter 14.010% - Fat 1.515% - Saline substances 2.695% - Water 80.385% - Non-nitrogenous matter and waste 1.395% - -------- - Total 100.000 - -According to Professor Mott's Chart of the Composition, -Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Foods, from actual experiment -the time required for the digestion of oysters is as follows: - - Hours. Minutes. - Raw oysters 2 55 - Roasted oysters 3 15 - Stewed oysters 3 30 - -This shows that they require a longer time than do most kinds of -fish, venison, beefsteak, tripe, soused pig's feet, eggs, and -roast beef, all of which are digested in varying times less than -those mentioned. - -Oysters are found in greatest perfection in the Eastern States, -and in the cooler waters of the western Atlantic. The choicest -varieties in the world come from the shores of Long Island, -and from the Providence River. Chesapeake Bay is noted for the -abundance of its oysters. - -Oysters are in season from September to May; during the rest of -the year they are insipid and unfit for food, although they are -sometimes used. - -Convalescents often begin with fresh, sound oysters, before they -venture to try other kinds of solid animal food. - -Oysters may be used in a variety of ways, but served raw and -broiled slightly in the shells are perhaps the two most desirable -ways with which to begin. Afterward stews and soups are recommended -on account of their liquid form and warmth, warm foods being always -so much more desirable than cold. - -There are some points to be carefully observed in preparing oysters -for the sick. (1) Make every effort to have the oysters alive -when used. If this is impossible, buy salt-water oysters as fresh -as they can be obtained of a reliable dealer. Many serious cases -of illness, and even death, have been caused by eating oysters -so long dead that poisonous substances had formed in them. (2) -Remember that oysters contain an albuminous juice which increases -in hardness with an increase of temperature, just as the albumen -of an egg does. When oysters are cooked with reference to this -juice alone, they are also cooked in the best possible manner with -reference to their other ingredients; therefore subject them to a -low temperature, and for a short time, bearing in mind that 160° -Fahr. is the cooking temperature of albumen. - - -RAW OYSTERS - -Wash and scrub the shells well under a stream of water, with a -vegetable brush. With a hammer break the thin edges of the shell so -that a knife may be inserted to sever the muscle which holds the -two parts of the shell together; when this is cut remove the upper -half, and wipe the edges free from any grains of sand. Then sever -the muscle which joins the oyster to the other half, so that it may -be easily lifted out, without the necessity of cutting. Arrange -them on an oyster-plate, and serve with salt, black pepper, and -lemon-juice. A half or a quarter of a lemon may be placed in the -center of the plate, which usually has a groove on purpose for it. - - -OYSTERS ROASTED IN THE SHELL - -Wash the shells very carefully with a brush. Put them in a wire -broiler over glowing coals, the round side of the shell down so -as to hold the juice. Cook them quickly, turning once or twice -until the shells open. They may also be done in a hot oven. When -done, remove the upper half of the shell; season them quickly with -salt, pepper, and a tiny bit of butter, and vinegar, if liked, -and serve them while they are very hot. The true oyster flavor is -delightfully developed by preparing in this way. They may also -be served with melted butter, seasoned with salt, pepper, and -lemon-juice. - - -OYSTER SOUP - -See recipe under =Soups=, on page 134. - - -OYSTER STEW - - 1 Cup of oysters. - 1 Cup of rich milk. - 2 Saltspoons of salt. - A little white pepper. - ¼ Teaspoon of butter. - -Set the milk in a saucepan on the fire to heat. Prepare the oysters -by pouring over them a cup of cold water to wash them, from which -lift them out with a fork, and search for bits of shell which -sometimes adhere when they are opened. Then lay them on a napkin -or a piece of clean cloth, to drain off as much as possible of the -water. Unless oysters are just taken from the shells, the liquor is -not of much value. Just as the milk reaches the boiling-point, put -the oysters into an omelet-pan, which has been previously set on -the stove to heat, and cook them for a minute, or until they become -plump, turning them every ten seconds with a fork. The moment the -edges or frills begin to curl, drop them into the milk and remove -it immediately from the fire. Now add the seasoning and butter, -and the stew is ready to serve--which should be done as soon as -possible. - -Oyster stew may also be made by preparing the oysters as above and -then dropping them into boiling-hot milk, which should remain for -one or two minutes on the fire before removal. - - -CREAMED OYSTERS - -Clean a pint of oysters according to the directions in the previous -rule. After drying them on a napkin, spread them on a plate and -season them with salt, pepper, and a suspicion of cayenne. - -Make a rich cream sauce with _one pint_ of cream, _one tablespoon_ -of butter, and _two tablespoons_ of flour. - -When the sauce is cooked, roll into it the seasoned oysters, put -them in individual scallop-dishes, or a dish such as might be used -for scalloped oysters, or any shallow baking-dish that is good -enough to serve; then bake them in a hot oven, on the grate, for -ten minutes if in small dishes, or for fifteen if in a single large -one. This gives time enough for the oysters to become cooked but -not hardened. The mixing of the oysters and sauce should be done -quickly, so that the sauce may not become cold before they are put -into the oven; for if there is much delay, it will take longer to -cook them than the time given. - -This is a good way to cook oysters for the sick, for the sauce -made according to the rule for such sauces (page 130) is easily -digested, nutritious, and of good flavor. - - -BROILED OYSTERS - -Select large oysters. Drain them on a cloth or napkin, turning -them from one side to the other, to make them as dry as possible. -Meanwhile soften some butter, and season some cracker-crumbs with -salt and pepper. Then, holding each oyster on a fork, dip it into -the crumbs, then into the melted butter, and again into the crumbs. -Arrange them in an oyster-broiler (which differs from ordinary -broilers by having the wires closer together), and broil over a hot -fire for about two minutes, turning the broiler every few seconds. -They should not be shriveled, but plump, soft, tender, and juicy. -The salt and pepper in the crumbs will sufficiently season them. - - -FANCY ROAST OR PAN-BROILED OYSTERS - -Eight oysters will be enough for one person. Drain the oysters on -a cloth or napkin, making them as free from moisture as possible. -Heat an omelet-pan, with a small piece of butter in it, very hot; -then drop the oysters one by one into the pan, turning each before -the next is put in. One should work quickly, otherwise the first -will be overdone before the last is put in. When the pan is full, -shake it a moment, lift it from the fire, and turn the oysters -quickly into a square covered dish, with toast-points in the -corners. Season them with salt, pepper, and a bit of butter, and -serve them as quickly as convenient. - -Each oyster should be cooked so quickly that its juices are shut -into itself and do not ooze out into the pan. There is usually a -very little juice with the butter, but if it is considerable, one -may know that the oysters have not been cooked in a sufficiently -high temperature. Oysters are very nice done in this way, but it -takes a skilful worker to do them without letting the juice ooze -out, or, on the other hand, over-cooking them. The toast-points are -made by cutting small squares of bread diagonally across. - - -OYSTER BROTH - -Chop a dozen oysters in a chopping-tray until they are quite fine. -Turn them into a small saucepan with a cup of cold water, and let -them slowly approach the boiling-point, and then simmer them for -five minutes, the object being to get as much as possible of the -flavor of the oysters into the water. Then strain out the oysters, -season the liquor with a bit of salt, and serve. - -A broth with milk may be made by putting in less water, and adding -milk three or four minutes before the broth is taken from the fire. - - -OYSTERS COOKED IN A CHAFING-DISH - -Chafing-dishes are generally made of silver, and are much used -just at present for cooking oysters at the table. A chafing-dish -consists of a covered dish resting in a frame, and heated from -below with an alcohol lamp. It is brought to the table with the -lamp lighted and the raw oysters ready to be cooked. Some member -of the family takes it in charge, and the result is a much more -satisfactory dish than could be otherwise obtained, for it requires -intelligence and a cultivated taste to cook and season these -delicious bivalves. - -=Uses of the Chafing-dish.= It may be used for broth, stew, soup, -and fancy roast, the treatment being exactly the same as with a -saucepan or an omelet-pan on a stove. - - - - -EGGS - - -Eggs, next to milk, are the most valuable form of food for those -who are very ill. They contain in excellent proportion most of the -elements necessary to nourish the body; but being a concentrated -form of food, it is well to associate with them milk or some other -liquid, and such starchy foods as bread, potatoes, etc. - -According to Lawes and Gilbert the composition of egg is as follows: - - SHELL Carbonate of lime 10.00% - - { Nitrogenous matter 16.00% - { Fatty matter 30.70% - YOLK { Saline matter 1.30% - { Water 52.00% - ------- - Total 100.00% - - { Nitrogenous matter 20.40% - WHITE { Saline matter 1.60% - { Water 78.00% - ------- - Total 100.00% - -A large proportion of both yolk and white is _albumen_.[35] It -has been found by experiment (page 25) that when white of egg -is subjected to a temperature of 134°-140° Fahr. little white -threads appear in it; that if the temperature be increased to 160° -Fahr., the whole mass becomes a white, but tender, easily divided -substance; that if the heat be raised to 200° Fahr. it loses its -tender, jelly-like consistency, and becomes firm and tenacious; and -that with continued rise of temperature the toughness increases -until at from 300°-350° Fahr. it becomes so hard that it is used as -a cement for marble. - -From these statements it will at once be inferred that the proper -cooking temperature of eggs is not that of boiling water, but 52° -lower. Eggs cooked the customary three minutes in boiling water -will be overdone in the part nearest the shell, and not cooked -at all in the center of the yolk, as three minutes is not long -enough for the heat to penetrate to that point. The yolk, though -not injurious in this condition, is not as palatable as when -it is cooked. The condition of the white, however, is of grave -importance, as even well persons are sometimes made ill by eating -it. - -It is generally agreed that although albumen will coagulate at a -temperature somewhat lower than 160° Fahr., the degree of firmness -obtained by exposing it to this temperature is the most desirable -for food. Therefore we speak of 160° Fahr. as its _cooking -temperature_. An egg cooked ideally would be subjected to that -temperature for a sufficient time to allow the heat to penetrate -and act upon all portions of it. The time required is half an hour. -Cooked according to this method, the white would be opaque and -firm, but tender and delicate, the yolk not liquid and lukewarm, -but thick and almost firm. The flavor of both is delicious. - -A knowledge of the proper temperature necessary to bring about this -change is absolutely essential to any one who would cook eggs, -and dishes which contain them, such as creams, puddings, etc., as -they should be cooked. A great deal of the philosophy of cooking -depends upon this knowledge, for nearly all kinds of meat, fish, -oysters, milk, and other albuminous foods contain as one of their -most valuable nutrients the substance known as albumen. When they -are cooked with reference to this _alone_, we find that they are -also done in the best-known way with reference to their other -ingredients. - -Practically with our present kitchen appliances it is exceedingly -difficult to maintain for half an hour a steady temperature of -160°, but excellent results may be obtained by the following method. - - -SOFT-COOKED EGGS - -Pour enough boiling water into a saucepan to more than cover -whatever number of eggs are to be cooked; then put in the eggs, and -let them stand for ten minutes on the hearth or any place where the -water will not lose its warmth too quickly. Remember that it is the -heat in the water which is to do the cooking. The saucepan should -remain uncovered. Practically this is an excellent way to do, for -the amount of heat in the water will not fall below 160° Fahr. in -the ten minutes, and that time is sufficient for it to penetrate -to the center of the egg. Moreover, if the egg be forgotten, and -remains in the water for a longer time, it will not become hard -unless the temperature of the water be raised. - -Theoretically an egg should be cooked at 160° Fahr., but -practically this would involve a considerable waste of time and -necessitate the use of a thermometer. Almost the same result is -obtained in an easy and convenient way by the above method, -although it is not an exact one. The proportion of boiling water -for each egg which will insure cooking in the time given is one -pint, but somewhat less will do if many are to be cooked; for -instance, eight eggs will do in six pints, as comparatively less -heat is lost in warming the pan. - - -POACHED OR DROPPED EGGS - -From a thin, even slice of home-made bread cut out a round piece -with a biscuit-cutter; toast it a delicate brown. - -Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan and salt it, using -a saltspoon of salt to a cup of water; place it on the stove to -boil. Break a fresh egg into a cup, and when the water is boiling -slip it gently into the pan. At first the egg will cool the water -below the boiling-point, but should the water again begin to boil, -withdraw the pan to a cooler part of the stove. When the white is -firm, or at the end of about two minutes, lift out the egg by means -of two spoons or a skimmer (being careful not to break the yolk), -and place it on the round of toast. The egg should not be trimmed. -Season it with a speck of salt, a little pepper, and a bit of -butter placed on the middle of the yolk. This is a dainty and easy -way of preparing eggs for the sick, and one is always sure of the -condition of the eggs, which is not the case when they are cooked -in the shell. - -A layer of minced ham or of minced chicken laid on the toast makes -a palatable variation. - -Egg-poachers, or little tin cups with perforated bottoms set in -a frame, may be bought for poaching eggs, but in those that the -author has seen the raw albumen runs into the little holes and -makes it difficult to remove the egg after it is done without -breaking it. Muffin-rings may also be used. - - -SCRAMBLED EGGS. No. 1 - -Break two eggs into a plate, and sprinkle on a little pepper and a -saltspoon of salt; beat them with a fork for one minute, add two -tablespoons of milk or, better, thin sweet cream; beat again and -pour the mixture into a buttered pan; stir it gently, letting it -cook slowly for about two minutes, or until the albumen of the egg -is coagulated. It should be soft and tender, not hardened. Serve it -on toast, or in a small, square covered dish. - - -SCRAMBLED EGGS. No. 2 - -Beat two eggs, a saltspoon of salt, and a sprinkle of white pepper -in a bowl with a Dover egg-beater until quite light; add two -tablespoons of sweet cream or of milk, and turn the mixture into -a double boiler to cook, stirring it constantly until the albumen -is just coagulated. A delicate and easily digested dish is the -result. It is a safer way to use the double boiler rather than an -omelet-pan. If no double boiler is at hand, one may be improvised -with a bowl or dish set into a kettle of hot water. - - -OMELETS - -Omelets may be made in a great variety of ways, the kind depending -not upon a difference in mixing the eggs, but upon the ingredients -which are added. _Spanish_ omelet is ordinary omelet with onion. -_Truffles_, _mushrooms_, _chopped oysters_, _rum_, and _tomato_ -make other varieties. Flour should never be used in them, as it -cannot be properly cooked in the short time that should be given -to the eggs. If it should happen that an omelet is to be made, and -there is no milk at hand, water may be substituted, but an omelet -should never be made without one or the other. - - -CREAMY OMELET - -Beat four eggs slightly with a fork until you can take up a -spoonful; add two saltspoons of salt, half a saltspoon of pepper, -four tablespoons of milk or cream, and mix well. Butter an -omelet-pan, and before the butter browns turn in the mixture. Then -with the point of a fork pick or lift up the cooked egg from the -center, and let the uncooked egg run under. This leaves the butter -on the pan, and is better than stirring. Continue the lifting until -the whole is of a soft creamy consistency, then place it over a -hotter part of the fire and brown slightly, fold and turn out as -usual. (Adapted from Mrs. D. A. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book.") - -For an invalid's use take half the quantities mentioned above--that -is, use two eggs, two tablespoons of milk or cream, a saltspoon of -salt, and a bit of pepper; and instead of having the omelet-pan -hot, have it just warm enough to melt the butter; otherwise the -first layer of egg which is cooked may be overdone and hardened. - - -FOAMY OMELET - -Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs, and put them into -bowls. To the yolks add a saltspoon of salt and one fourth of a -saltspoon of pepper. Beat with a Dover egg-beater until light. -Then add two tablespoons of milk. Beat the whites until stiff, -but not as stiff as possible, and _fold_, not _beat_ them into -the yolks, so that the whole shall be very light and puffy. Pour -the mixture into a buttered omelet-pan, and cook slowly until the -under side begins to change color and become brown, or for about -_two minutes_. Then put the pan on the grate in the oven for -about _one minute_, to cook the upper surface. One must endeavor -to avoid both over and under cooking. If the omelet is not done -enough, the raw egg will ooze out after it is folded; on the other -hand, if it is cooked too much, it will be dry and tough. When -it seems to be coagulated on the upper surface, run a case-knife -under it to separate it from the pan, and fold one half over the -other. Take the platter which is to receive it in the right hand, -lay it against the edge of the pan, and tip the omelet out. Serve -immediately. - -An omelet is a dainty and delicate way of serving eggs, and may -be well made by any one who will bear in mind that the cooking -temperature of albumen is 160° Fahr., and that if exposed to a -very much higher degree of heat for many minutes, it will be -spoiled,--rendered both unpalatable and indigestible. - - -OMELET WITH HAM. No. 1 - -Broil a thin, small slice of ham until thoroughly well done. Lay -it between the folds of an omelet. Either creamy or foamy omelets -may be used. - - -OMELET WITH HAM. No. 2 - -Mince a piece of cooked ham until it is fine. Stir it into an -omelet in the proportion of one teaspoon to an egg, or it may be -sprinkled over the surface just before folding. When seasoned with -a little mustard, it makes a very piquant addition. Either creamy -or foamy omelets may be used. - - -OMELET WITH JELLY - -Spread a tablespoon of grape or currant jelly over the middle of -the upper surface of a two-egg omelet just before folding it. - - -OMELET WITH CHICKEN - -Chop fine the cooked white meat of a piece of chicken. Season it -with salt and pepper, and sprinkle it over an omelet, or stir it -into the egg before cooking, in the proportion of one teaspoon to -an egg, as is done with ham. - - -OMELET WITH TOMATO - -Prepare thin slices of very ripe tomatoes, by removing the skin -and seasoning slightly with salt. Lay them on that part of the -omelet which is to be the lower half, and fold; or the tomato may -be tucked into the omelet after folding. - - -OMELET WITH PARSLEY - -Wash some parsley. Break off the stems and roll the rest into a -little ball; then, holding it firmly in the left hand, cut slices -from it, or chop it on a board. Stir it into the omelet mixture -before it is cooked, in the proportion of one teaspoon for each egg. - - -SPANISH OMELET - -To an omelet mixture add two drops of onion-juice for each egg, or -half a teaspoon of very finely minced onion. - - -ORANGE OMELET - -"The thinly grated rind of one orange and three tablespoons of the -juice, three eggs, and three teaspoons of powdered sugar. Beat the -yolks, add the sugar, rind, and juice, fold in the beaten whites, -and cook. Fold, turn out, sprinkle thickly with powdered sugar, and -score in diagonal lines with a clean red-hot poker. The burnt sugar -gives to the omelet a delicious flavor. - -"This is a convenient dessert for an emergency, and may be prepared -in ten minutes if one has the oranges." (From Mrs. D. A. Lincoln's -"Boston Cook Book.") - - - - -POTATOES - - -Next to wheat flour, potatoes are our most common form of starch -food. The potato is a tuber, a native of America, and may be said -to have been discovered to the civilized world by the Spaniards, -who found it growing in Chili and Peru. Thence it was carried to -Spain, and from there to other parts of Europe, some time in the -sixteenth century. Potatoes were at first used as luxuries, but are -now almost ranked among the necessities of life. - -The composition of potatoes (Letherby) is as follows: - - Water 75.00% - Starch 18.80% - Nitrogenous matter 2.00% - Sugar 3.00% - Fat .20% - Salts 1.00%[36] - -From this we see that starch is the principal nutrient, therefore -potatoes in use for food should be associated with nitrogenous -substances, such as eggs, meat, fish, and milk. The potash salts -which potatoes contain are very valuable. According to Letherby, -an average of thirty-one analyses of the ash of potatoes gave 59.8 -per cent. of potash, 19.1 per cent. of phosphoric acid, the other -ingredients being in exceedingly small proportions. These salts -are necessary to a healthy condition of the blood. Potatoes are a -valuable antiscorbutic. - -According to Mattieu Williams, scurvy prevailed in Norway to a very -serious extent until the introduction of the potato; and Lang, with -other good authorities, testifies that its disappearance is due to -the use of potatoes by a people who formerly were insufficiently -supplied with salts-giving vegetable food. - -The salts of the potato are most abundant in or near the skin, and -the decision of the question as to whether potatoes shall be pared -or not before cooking is somewhat aided by this fact. For persons -who eat but few other fresh vegetables by all means leave the -skins on, but for those who have access to a good kitchen garden -and have plenty of other vegetables and fruits from which to get -their salts, it makes no important difference whether the skins are -removed. - -The potato is eminently a starch food, and this knowledge indicates -the method of treatment in cooking. Since starch is its principal -ingredient (the amount of nitrogenous matter being very small), if -it is cooked with reference to that alone, it will be done in the -best possible manner. - -Starch, in order to be rendered most digestible and acceptable to -the human system, must be subjected to a high temperature in the -presence of some liquid. At 401° Fahr. (see pages 33 and 34) it is -converted into dextrine. This change, if not performed outside the -body, will be done in the ordinary processes of digestion after the -starch is eaten; therefore the nearer we approach to it in cooking, -the more perfectly is the food prepared which contains it. - -Usually the first vegetable prescribed by the physician for a sick -person who is beginning to use solids, is a baked potato. A baked -potato, however, may be no better than a boiled potato unless it is -cooked in so high a temperature that the starch is affected. Boiled -potatoes cannot be subjected to a higher temperature than 212° -Fahr. Baked potatoes may be done in such a way that they are but -little better than boiled--for instance, done in a slow oven. On -the other hand, if they are put into a temperature of 380° or 400° -Fahr., or a hot oven, they will be done in such a manner that the -conversion of starch will in a degree take place, and they will be -consequently both palatable and easily digested. - -Potatoes roasted in hot ashes or embers are delicious, and for the -same reason. But it must not be understood that by cooking potatoes -in a high temperature the starch which they contain is _all_ -changed into dextrine. This does not usually take place except in -slight degree, but by the high temperature it is better prepared -for this change in the processes of digestion. Probably what does -take place is a sort of hydration of the starch, resulting in the -complete swelling and final bursting of the granules, with possibly -an intermediate change between this and dextrine. Just at the -moment when potatoes are done they should be immediately taken from -the fire and served at once. The potato is capable of being made -into a variety of dishes, and when properly prepared has a delicate -flavor which is very acceptable to most people. _It is one of the -most easily digested forms of starch-containing food._ - - -BOILED POTATOES - -For boiled potatoes, if they are to be served whole, select those -of the same shape and size. Wash them under a stream of water with -a vegetable brush. Pare carefully so as not to waste the potato, -and evenly, that they may look smooth and shapely. Cook them in a -granite-ware kettle or covered saucepan, in enough salted boiling -water to just cover them. If cold water is used, there is a greater -loss of potash salts by solution, because of the longer time of -exposure to the action of the liquid. The proportion of salt should -be one teaspoon to a quart of water. - -Potatoes being already hydrated, it makes no great difference -whether they are put into hot or cold water, except in the time -which will be required to boil them and the slight loss of salts. -For medium-sized potatoes from thirty to forty minutes will be -necessary after they begin to boil. The moment they feel soft when -pierced with a fork they are done. Take them at once from the fire, -drain off all the water, and dry them by gently moving the pan back -and forth over the top of the stove for a minute. Serve as quickly -as possible. Unless they are to be eaten at once, it is better to -mash them, and keep them in the oven until needed. - - -MASHED POTATOES - -For mashed potatoes the uneven sizes may be used; the large ones -should be cut into small pieces. Prepare according to the foregoing -rule, and when they are cooked and dried, add salt, butter, pepper, -and cream, in the following proportions: - - 1 Pint of potatoes. - 1 Teaspoon of butter. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Saltspoon of pepper (white). - 2 Tablespoons of sweet cream or of milk. - -Put into the potatoes the butter, salt, and pepper, and mash them -on the stove, in the dish in which they were boiled, to keep them -hot. Use an open wire potato-masher, and mash quickly so that they -may be light and dry, not "gummy." Last put in the cream, mix for -a moment, and serve immediately in a covered vegetable-dish. If -it is necessary to keep them for a time, arrange them like a cake -in the dish in which they are to be served, smooth over the top, -dot it with little bits of butter, or brush it over with milk or -the beaten white of egg, and brown them a delicate golden color by -placing the dish on the grate in the oven. - - -BAKED POTATOES - -For baked potatoes, select those which are of uniform size and -not very large. Scrub them thoroughly in a stream of water from -the faucet, to wash off every particle of sand, for many like to -eat the outside. Bake them in a hot oven for from forty-five to -fifty minutes. If the potatoes are of _medium_ size, and do not -cook in that time, it indicates that the oven is not of the proper -temperature. - -Baked potatoes, not being exposed to the solvent action of a -liquid, lose none of their potash salts in cooking, as boiled -potatoes do. The same is true of those roasted, and of those fried -raw in deep fat. - - -ROASTED POTATOES - -Bury medium-sized potatoes in the embers or ashes of an open fire -for a half hour or more, according to their size. At the end of -that time dust off the ashes with a brush. Burst the shells by -squeezing them in the hand, and serve at once with salt, and -butter or cream. Either baked or roasted potatoes are delicious -eaten with sweet cream, salt, and pepper. - - -CREAMED POTATOES - -Left-over potatoes may be used for this dish, or potatoes may -be boiled on purpose for it. Whichever is used, cut them into -half-inch dice, put them in an omelet-pan, season them with salt -and pepper, and pour in milk until it is even with the surface of -the potato; then simmer gently until all the milk is absorbed, or -for about half an hour. For every pint of potatoes make a pint of -white sauce, season it with a saltspoon of salt and a teaspoon of -chopped parsley, and pour it over. Potatoes are very nice done in -this way, if care is taken in simmering them in the milk. Unless -this is done according to the rule, they will have the cold-potato -taste, which is not at all palatable. - -A little chopped onion may replace the parsley with good effect. - - -DUCHESS POTATOES - - 1 Pint of potatoes. - 1 Teaspoon of butter. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Egg. - ¼ Teaspoon of white pepper. - -Wash, pare, and boil the potatoes. Drain out every drop of water, -and dry them in the usual way. When dry and mealy, put in the -butter, salt, and pepper, and mash them thoroughly and quickly. -If potatoes are mashed for a long time slowly, they become waxy, -so endeavor to do it quickly and as lightly as possible. Then add -the egg, well beaten, and the cream; mix, and form it into a flat -cake (on a board) about half an inch thick. Cut it into oblongs -or squares, or shape it into rounds or balls, brush over with -the beaten white of egg, or milk, and bake in a hot oven until a -delicate brown. Serve the cakes on a platter as soon as they are -done. - - - - -MEATS - -(BROILED) - - -Of the different ways of cooking the flesh of animals, especially -for the sick, broiling is at once the most delicious and the most -difficult. - -The difference between broiled meat and meat cooked in water is -that the broiled meat is cooked in its own juices, while the other -is not. The albumen is coagulated in both cases, and the gelatinous -and fibrinous tissues are softened by being heated in a liquid. -In broiling or roasting meat the juices are retained, while in -stewing they go more or less into the water, and the loosening of -the fibers and solution of the gelatin and fibrin may be carried -further, on account of the longer exposure to heat and the larger -amount of solvent. In broiling, as the meat is to be cooked in its -own juices, it is evident that these must be retained as completely -as possible; and in order to succeed in this, we have to struggle -with a dry heat, which may not only cause rapid evaporation, but -may volatilize or decompose some of the flavoring principles.[37] - -We should, therefore, endeavor to have such a temperature as shall -at first be sufficiently high to quickly coagulate, even harden, -the albumen in the outside surface, and thus form a layer or -protecting coat over the whole, and then to so modify and regulate -the heat afterward that the interior shall be raised to such a -temperature as shall properly cook it without loss of its nutritive -properties. - -The time of exposure will be different for different kinds of -meat--beef and mutton requiring a shorter time than lamb, chicken, -or game. Beef and mutton are best when cooked rare; lamb, chicken, -and some kinds of game are best when well done. Game with _white -flesh_ should be _well done_; _all other kinds_, generally -speaking, may be _rare_. - -Much of the science of cooking depends upon a knowledge of the -effects of heat; and as many changes in food are due to the -dissociation caused by heat, the degree of change depending upon -the temperature, the value of a sound knowledge of the subject -cannot fail to be seen. - -To illustrate: aside from the evaporation of juices and coagulation -of albumen in a piece of steak, the chemical separation of its -constituents, especially of the outside shell or sheath, will vary -with the degree of heat in which it is cooked. - -Not only for meats, but for most animal foods, a cooking -temperature less than 212° but above 160° is most advisable. This -applies particularly to milk, eggs, oysters, meats, and fish. Of -course in broiling we partially sacrifice the outside by cooking in -a high temperature for the sake of preserving the inner portions. - - -BEEF - -Beef is, without doubt, our most valuable kind of meat. It is -nutritious, of excellent flavor, and comparatively easy of -digestion. It contains many of the substances necessary to nourish -the body--water, fat, albumen, gelatin, fibrin, salts, and -flavoring properties. The direct nutrients which it contains are -fat and protein. - -The quality of beef varies with the age of the animal and the -manner in which it has been fattened. It requires a considerable -amount of study to be able to select a good roast or steak. If -the fat be of light, golden color, firm and thick, and the lean -be streaked with fine lines of fat, it is one indication of a -well-nourished animal. A reliable dealer may be of great service in -aiding one to distinguish between good and poor qualities. - -The best portions for steak are from the loin, top of the round, -and rump. The cut called "porterhouse" is from near the middle of -the loin, and is the best portion of the animal. It has a rich, -fine flavor, and contains a section of tenderloin. Sirloin steak -is from the loin, and is also very nice. The first and second -cuts from the top of the round are excellent, containing much -well-flavored juice. The composition of a round steak free from -bones is as follows (in 100 parts): - - { Protein, gelatin, fibrin, etc. 23.00% - NUTRIENTS { Fats 9.00% - { Mineral matters 1.30% - WATER 66.70% - ------- - Total 100.00% - - ATWATER. - -The time given below for the digestion of beef is taken from -calculations by Dr. Beaumont: - - Hours. Minutes. - Beefsteak broiled 3 - Beef, fresh, lean, roasted 3 30 - Beef fried 4 - -VALUE OF BEEF - - As material for muscle 19 - As heat-giver 14 - As food for brain and nervous system 2 - Water 65 - - ATWATER. - -=To Broil Steak.= Select a steak from the loin, top of the round, -or rump. Have it cut an inch and a half (or, better, two inches) -thick. If there is a great deal of fat, trim off part of it, and -wipe the steak with a clean, wet cloth. A fire of glowing red -coals is necessary to do broiling well. Place the steak in a wire -broiler, and put it as near the coals as possible (one writer -says plunge it into the hottest part of the fire), _count ten_ -and turn it, count again and turn again until it has been turned -_five_ or _six times_ so as to quickly cook a thin layer all over -the outside, to shut in the juices of the meat, and to form a -protecting sheath of coagulated albumen over the whole. Then lift -the broiler away from the coals and do the rest of the process -_slowly_,--that is, in a lower temperature, that the heat may have -time to penetrate to the center of the piece and raise the juices -to a sufficiently high temperature to soften the fibers, but not so -high as to hornify the albumen or char the outside. Turn it every -half minute until done. - -If the fat melts and flames, do not lift up the broiler; it will do -no harm, and the black deposit which results is only carbon. This -carbon is not injurious; the color is not especially attractive, -but the taste will be good. The cautious cook who does not -appreciate this will lift up the broiler, thus cooling the meat, -and will perhaps blow out the flame, a proceeding which is open to -question as a point of neatness. - -As coal fires are never twice alike, and the amount of heat sent -out is variable, it is constantly necessary to judge anew as to -where the broiler shall be placed. A certain amount of practice -is required to be able to broil with even fair success. When done -a steak should be brown on the outside, pink and juicy inside, -and plump, not shriveled. Steak should be at least an inch thick, -otherwise the proportion of surface exposed to the heat will be so -great in proportion to the amount of meat as to cause the loss by -evaporation of most of the juice, thus making the steak tough and -dry. - -From _five_ to _seven_ minutes will be required to cook a steak -an inch thick; if an inch and a half thick, from _eight_ to _ten_ -minutes. Serve the steak on a hot platter after having seasoned -_both_ sides of it with salt and pepper, but no butter. If it is -desirable to use butter, serve it with the steak rather than on it. - - -HAMBURG STEAK. No. 1 - -(SCRAPED BEEF) - -Cut a piece of tender steak half an inch thick. Lay it on a -meat-board, and with a sharp knife scrape off the soft part until -there is nothing left but the tough, stringy fibers. Season this -pulp with salt and pepper, make it into little flat, round cakes -half an inch thick, and broil them two minutes. Serve on rounds of -buttered toast. This is a safe and dainty way to prepare steak for -one who is just beginning to eat meat. When it is not convenient to -have glowing coals, these meat-cakes may be broiled in a very hot -omelet-pan. - - -HAMBURG STEAK. No. 2 - -Pound a thin piece of beefsteak until the fibers are broken; season -it with salt and pepper, fold and pound again; then broil it three -or four minutes over a clear hot fire. Serve at once. - - -TENDERLOIN STEAK - -Broil a tenderloin steak, and at the same time a small piece of -round steak, which usually contains a great deal of well-flavored -juice. Cut the round steak into small pieces, and squeeze the -juice from it over the tenderloin. Tenderloin steak is tender, -but usually neither juicy nor particularly well flavored. By this -method one gets a delicious steak. - - -BEEFSTEAK À LA MAÎTRE D'HÔTEL - -Broil a steak, place it on a platter, and season it with salt -and pepper; sprinkle it with finely chopped parsley, drops of -lemon-juice, and some little bits of butter. Set it in the oven -long enough to soften the butter. A steak done in this way may be -made quite attractive by garnishing it with hot mashed and seasoned -potatoes which have been squeezed through a potato-strainer. A -colander may be used in lieu of a strainer. The potato loses some -of its heat in the process, so care must be taken to have the dish -very hot or to place it in the oven until it becomes so. - -A steak may always be garnished with parsley, water-cress, or -slices of lemon. - - -CHICKEN - -(BROILED) - -For broiling, select a young chicken--one from three to eight -months old. Singe it. Split it down the back, and free it from all -refuse, such as pin-feathers, lungs, kidneys, oil-bag, windpipe, -and crop (the latter is sometimes left in when the chicken is -drawn). Wash it quickly in cold water, fold it in a clean cloth -kept for the purpose, and clap gently between the hands until all -the water is absorbed. Separate the joints--the _lower joint of the -leg_ and the _upper joint of the wing_--by cutting the flesh on the -under side and severing the white tough tendons. Soften some butter -until it runs, then dip the chicken into it, season it with salt -and pepper, dredge with flour, and broil it in a wire broiler for -from fifteen to twenty minutes, according to the size. - -The same principle holds in broiling chicken as in steak. The -first part of the process should be done in a high temperature to -coagulate the juices of the outer layers, and the last part very -slowly. Care must be taken that it is thoroughly done at the thick -joints of the wing and leg. Serve hot. - -=To Buy a Chicken.= The best chickens have yellow skin, but one may -be deceived if guided by this alone, for _fowls_ often have yellow -skin also. The flexibility of the end of the breast-bone is always -a sure means of deciding as to the age of the bird. If it be soft, -easily bent, and if it feels like cartilage, the chicken is young. -Sometimes dealers break the bone for the purpose of deceiving -buyers, but it does not take a great deal of intelligence to decide -between a broken bone and one that is easily bent. If the bone -be hard and firm, it is an indication of age. For broiling, of -course, the chicken should be young, the flesh of good color and -well nourished, and, as in the buying of beef, one may rely upon -the judgment of a good dealer. The way in which chickens are fed -has much to do with the flavor of the meat. - - -BIRDS - -Various kinds of birds, such as squab, partridge, plover, snipe, -pheasant, etc., are particularly appropriate food for the sick, -partly because we associate them with the dainty things of life, -but more on account of the valuable nutrient properties which -they contain. They are especially rich in salts (particularly the -phosphates), which are so much needed by a system exhausted by -disease. - -Birds which feed mostly on grains, such as the partridge and the -pheasant, will bear transportation, and will keep, in cold weather, -a long time. Birds with dark flesh, which live mostly on animal -food, decay quickly. - -A general rule for the cooking of game is this: that with white -flesh should be well done, that with dark should be rare, and -usually is only properly cooked when served so, as in the case of -woodcock, duck, and snipe. - -=When in Season.= Some birds, such as reed-birds, partridge, and -plover, have a season which varies slightly in different parts of -the country, according to the game laws of different States. In -Maryland, the following birds may be found in market according to -the time stated: - - Squabs All the year. - Partridge November 1--December 25. - Snipe September--December. - Plover September--November. - Pheasants October--January. - Woodcock August--February. - Rice- or reed-birds September--Middle October. - Field-larks Summer and early autumn. - Grouse (prairie-hen) All the year. - Pigeons All the year. - -The cleansing and preparation of birds is in general carried out in -the same manner as with chickens. When there is any variation from -this, it will be mentioned under the rule for each. - - -SQUABS - -Squabs are young domestic pigeons. The Philadelphia market supplies -nearly all of those used in the eastern part of the United States. - -Remove the feathers, and all pin-feathers; cut off the head and -legs, and split the bird down the back carefully with a sharp -knife. Lift out carefully the contents of the body, which are -contained in a little sac or delicate membrane; they should be -taken out without breaking. Do not forget the windpipe, crop, -lungs, and kidneys. Wash, and prepare the squab in the same manner -that chicken is done, except the dipping in butter and dredging -with flour; this may be omitted, as squabs are generally fat and do -not require it. Broil from twelve to fifteen minutes, according to -the size of the bird and the intensity of the fire. It should be -well done. Serve on hot buttered toast. - - -PARTRIDGE - -The partridge is a white-fleshed bird. It may be broiled or -roasted. - -=To Broil.= Follow the same rule as that given for squab, except -dip in melted butter and dredge with flour. - -=To Roast.= Prepare in the same manner as for broiling, except dip -in butter and dredge twice. Do not forget the salt and pepper. Then -skewer the body so that it will resemble a whole bird, and look as -if it had not been split down the back. Spread a teaspoon of butter -on the breast, and bake it in a hot oven for twenty to thirty -minutes. Partridge done in this way is delicious, for the butter -enriches the meat, which is naturally dry. It should be served well -done, not rare, on hot buttered toast, with currant jelly. - -The season for partridges is in most States during the last part -of the autumn, and generally the laws in regard to them are rigid. -Nevertheless, they can be bought from the middle of October until -May, or the beginning of warm weather. The partridge is a bird that -keeps well, bears transportation, and is sent from one part of the -country to another, many coming from the West when the season is -over in the Eastern States. It is a medium-sized bird, with mottled -brown feathers, which are black at the ends, especially those on -the back, and mottled brown and silver-gray on the breast. - - -SNIPE - -Snipe may be both prepared and cooked as partridges are--that is, -broiled and roasted. The snipe has rich, dark meat, and therefore -will not need to be dipped in butter for either broiling or -roasting. It is about the same size as a squab, but as it is to be -cooked rare (it is more tender and of nicer flavor so), ten minutes -is sufficient time for broiling, and from twelve to fifteen -minutes for roasting in a hot oven. Serve it with currant jelly on -hot buttered toast. - -The snipe has a long bill, from two to two and a half inches in -length. It is about the size of a squab, with dark, almost black, -wing-feathers tipped with white, and the feathers of the back are -intermingled with flecks of golden brown. The under sides of the -wings are pearl-gray, and the breast is white. - - -PHEASANTS - -Pheasants may be broiled or roasted. As the meat is dry, they -should be well rubbed with soft butter and dredged with flour. It -is a good way, after putting on the salt and pepper, to dip the -bird into melted butter, then dredge it with flour, then lay on -soft butter and dredge a second time; or, when it is skewered and -ready for the oven, it may be spread thickly over the breast with -softened butter. Care must be taken that the very thick portion of -the breast be cooked through, as pheasant should be well done, and -from one half to three quarters of an hour will be necessary for -this. - - -WOODCOCK - -The woodcock is about the size of a partridge, with mottled dark -brown and gray feathers, except on the breast, where they are a -sort of light salmon brown. It has a long slender beak, somewhat -like that of a snipe. - -Prepare woodcock like squab, only do not cut off the head, as the -brain is considered a dainty by epicures. Remove the skin from the -head, and tie or skewer it back against the body. Use salt and -pepper for seasoning, but neither flour nor butter, as the woodcock -has dark, rich flesh. Broil from eight to ten minutes. Serve rare -on toast. - - -REED-BIRDS - -Reed-birds are to be prepared after the general rule for dressing -birds. Although they are sometimes cooked whole, it is better to -draw them. Split them down the back, remove the contents of the -body, and after washing and wiping them, string three or four on a -skewer, pulling it through their sides, so that they shall appear -whole. Roast in a shallow pan in a hot oven, from _eight_ to _ten_ -minutes; or, before roasting, wrap each one in a very thin slice of -fat pork and pin it on with a skewer (wire). - -=Broiled.= Prepare as for roasting, except peel off the skin, -taking the feathers with it. Broil from two to four minutes. Serve -on toast. - -It is a good plan to skin all small birds. - -The reed-bird is the bobolink of New England, the reed-bird of -Pennsylvania, and the rice-bird of the Carolinas. - - -GROUSE - -The grouse or prairie-hen is in season all the year, but is at its -best during the fall and winter. - -=To Prepare.= Clean, wash, and wipe it. Lard the breast, or fasten -to it with slender skewers a thin slice of salt pork. Grouse has -dry flesh, consequently it will be improved by rubbing softened -butter over it, as well as by using pork. Sprinkle on a little -salt, dredge it with flour, and cook in a quick oven for thirty -minutes. - -Grouse are also very nice potted. After they are made ready for -cooking, fry a little fat pork and some chopped onion together in a -large deep spider for a few minutes, then lay in the grouse, cover -the spider, and fry until the outside of each bird is somewhat -browned, or for twenty minutes, slowly. Then put them into a -granite-ware kettle and stew until tender, which will take from -one to two hours. When they are done, lift them out, thicken the -liquid slightly with flour, and season it with salt and pepper for -a gravy. Serve the grouse on a deep platter with the gravy poured -around, or simply season the liquid and cook tiny dumplings in it, -which may be served around the birds. Then thicken the liquid and -pour over. The amount of onion to be fried with the pork should not -exceed half a teaspoon for each bird, and of pork the proportion of -a cubic inch to a bird is enough. - -_Pigeons_ potted according to these directions for grouse are -excellent. - - -FIELD-LARKS - -Field-larks and robins may be prepared and cooked in exactly the -same way that reed-birds are done. Robins are good in autumn. - - -VENISON - -Venison is in season during the late autumn and winter. When "hung" -for a proper length of time, it is the most easily digested of all -meats. For this reason it is a favorite with epicures who eat late -suppers. According to Dr. Beaumont it is digested in _one hour and -thirty-five minutes_.[38] - -Steaks may be taken either from the loin or the round. Broil them -according to the rule for beefsteak, and serve very hot with a -slice of lemon or a little claret poured over. - -Venison will not please an epicure unless it is hot and rare when -served. To accomplish this in a perfectly satisfactory manner, it -has become the fashion in families to have the broiling done on the -table, in a chafing-dish, each person attending to his own steak, -and cooking it according to his particular fancy. - - -MUTTON - -A good piece of meat freed from refuse,--that is, indigestible -portions such as bone, etc.,--if neatly prepared and _properly -cooked_, is practically entirely digested. If carelessly handled -and cooked so that its juices are evaporated, and its natural -flavors undeveloped or destroyed, there will be more or less waste -in the process of digestion. - -Mutton requires more care in cooking than beef, or, in other -words, it is more easily spoiled in that process; but when done -with due consideration, it is a most acceptable meat. A thick, -carefully broiled, hot, juicy mutton chop just from the coals -is a very delicious morsel. The same piece with the adjectives -reversed,--that is, done without thought, perhaps raw in the -middle, charred on the outside, and cold,--is far from being -acceptable to even a healthy person. - -Just inside of the outer skin of the sheep there is a thick, tough -membrane enveloping the whole animal; the peculiar flavor called -"woolly," which makes mutton disagreeable to many, is given to the -meat largely by this covering. It is supposed that the oil from -the wool strikes through. An important point in the preparation of -the meat for cooking is the removal of this skin, for otherwise -the unpleasant taste will be very strong, and the chop or roast -consequently far from as delicate as it might be. - -The value of mutton as a nutrient is practically the same as that -of beef, as may be seen by comparing the following table with that -of beef previously given. - - As material for muscle 21 - As heat-giver 14 - As food for brain and nervous system 2 - Water 63 - -DIGESTIBILITY OF MUTTON - - Hours. Minutes. - Broiled 3 - Boiled 3 - Roasted 3 15 - - -MUTTON CHOPS - -For the same reason that is given in the rule for beefsteak, mutton -chops should be thick. When the fat is abundant and little lines of -fat run through the flesh, it is an indication of a good quality of -meat. - -To prepare the chops for broiling, cut away the tough outside skin, -trim off a part of the fat, but not all, and any portion of the -spinal cord which may be attached. Broil in the same manner that -steak is done--that is, close to the glowing coals--for about one -minute, turning often, and at a distance from them for the rest of -the time, which should be from _four_ to _six_ minutes for a chop -an _inch thick_. - -Mutton, like beef, should be served rare. Season chops with salt -and pepper, but no butter, as the meat is rich in fat and does not -require it. Tomato-sauce is an old-fashioned accompaniment of a -chop, and may or may not be served with it. For breakfast it is -better omitted. - - -CHOPS, PAN-BROILED - -Chops are fairly good pan-broiled. The same principle is to be -followed as in cooking over coals--that is, a high degree of heat -at first, to sear over the outside before the juices escape, and -a low temperature afterward; therefore heat the pan or spider -_exceedingly_ hot (use no fat), drop in the chop, count ten and -turn, count again and turn again for about one minute, then draw -the pan to the side or back of the stove and finish slowly. A chop -one inch thick will be perfectly done in from _five_ to _seven_ -minutes. If the pan is hot enough at first, there will be no loss -of juice or flavor. Season and serve in the same manner as broiled -chops. - - -FRENCH CHOPS - -Trim a chop until there is nothing left but the round muscle at the -thick end, with a little fat about it. Cut away all the meat from -the bone, which will then look like a handle with a neat morsel at -one end. Broil. - - -CHOPS IN PAPER - -Spread a piece of paper evenly and thickly with butter. Lay upon -it a nicely trimmed chop, and double the paper with the edges -together. Fold and crease these edges on the three sides; then -fold and crease again, so that the butter cannot run out. These -folds should be _half an inch_ wide. It will be necessary to have -the sheet of paper (note-paper or thick brown paper will do) -considerably more than twice as large as the chop. Broil over -coals, not too near, turning often so that the temperature shall -not get so high as to ignite the paper. A chop broiled in this way -is basted in the butter and its own juices, and is very delicate. -Be careful not to let the paper ignite, and yet do not have it -so far from the coals that the meat will not cook. This is best -accomplished by holding the broiler near the coals and turning -often: that is, about once in twenty seconds. There is no danger -that the paper will catch fire if the broiler is turned often -enough. A chop three quarters of an inch thick will cook in _five_ -minutes, one an inch thick in _eight_. Should the paper catch fire, -it need not destroy the chop. Take it out, put it into a fresh -paper, and try again. The chop should be served very hot, seasoned -with salt and pepper. - - -LAMB CHOPS - -Lamb chops are very delicate and tender. They may be known by the -lighter color of the flesh as compared with mutton chops, and by -the whiteness of the fat. Prepare and broil them in the same way -that mutton chops are broiled, except that they are to be _well -done_ instead of rare, and to accomplish this longer cooking by -about three minutes will be required: for a chop an inch thick, -from _eight_ to _ten_ minutes, instead of from four to six as for -mutton. - - - - -STEWS - - -CHICKEN STEW - - 1 Cup of chicken meat. - 1 Teaspoon of chopped onion. - 2 Tablespoons of white turnip. - 1 Saltspoon of curry-powder. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - A little white pepper. - 1 Tablespoon of rice. - -Left-over broiled chicken or the cuttings from a cold roast will -do for this dish. Divide the meat into small pieces, excluding all -skin, gristle, tendons, and bone. Boil the bones and scraps, in -water enough to cover them, for an hour. Then strain the liquor, -skim off the fat, and put into it the chicken, onion, turnip (which -should be cut in small cubes), curry-powder, salt, pepper, and -rice. Simmer all together for an hour. Serve. The vegetables and -curry flavor the meat, and a most easily digested and palatable -dish is the result. - -Potatoes may be substituted for the rice, and celery-salt, -bay-leaves, or sweet marjoram for the curry. If herbs be used, tie -them in a bag and drop it into the stew, of course removing it -before carrying the dish to the table. - -The above rule will make enough stew for two persons. By -multiplying each item in it, any amount may be made. - - -BEEF STEW - -Use for beef stew either cold beefsteak, the portions left from a -roast, or uncooked meat. - - 1 Cup of beef cut into small pieces. - 1 Teaspoon of minced onion. - 2 Tablespoons of turnip. - 2 Tablespoons of carrot. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Cup of cut potatoes. - A little black pepper. - -If beefsteak is selected, free it from fat, gristle, and bone, and -cut it into small pieces. Fry the onion, carrot, and turnip (which -should be cut into small cubes) in a little butter, slowly, until -they are brown. Add them to the meat, cover it with water, and -simmer for one hour. Then skim off the fat, put in the potatoes -(cut in half-inch cubes) and the salt and pepper. Boil for half an -hour more. Serve in a covered dish with croutons. - -The vegetables are fried partly to give the desirable brown color -to the stew, and partly because their flavor is finer done that -way. A beefsteak stew is a very savory and satisfactory dish. If -fresh, uncooked meat is used, cut it into small pieces and fry it -in a hot buttered pan for a few minutes, to brown the outside and -thus obtain the agreeable flavor that is developed in all meats by -a high temperature. Simmer two and a half hours before putting in -the potatoes. - -When the left-over portions of a roast are used, the meat should -be freed from all gristle, bone, and fat; these may be boiled -separately for additional broth. - - -MUTTON STEW - -Exactly the same rule may be followed for mutton stew as for beef. -Do not forget to trim the meat carefully. Use only clear pieces -of the lean. If a roast is used and there are bones, boil them in -water with the scraps for additional broth. Mutton stew is good -made with pearl-barley instead of potatoes, in the proportion of -one teaspoon of grain to a cup of meat; it should be put in at the -beginning of the cooking. A half teaspoon of chopped parsley is a -nice addition, or a few tablespoons of stewed and strained tomato. - - - - -SWEETBREADS - - -Sweetbreads are the pancreatic glands of the calf. They are good -while the animal lives on milk, but change their nature when it -begins to eat grass and hay, and are then no longer useful for -food. The gland consists of two parts, the long, slender portion -called the "neck" sweetbread, and the round, thick part known as -the "heart" sweetbread. These are sometimes sold separately, but -they should be together. Among epicures sweetbreads are considered -a dainty, and are certainly a most acceptable form of food for the -sick. - -=To Prepare.= As soon as sweetbreads come from market, they should -be cleaned and parboiled. Cut off any refuse,--such as pipes, fat, -and all bruised portions,--and wash them quickly in cold water. -Pour into a saucepan some boiling water, salt it, and add a little -lemon-juice or vinegar (not more than a teaspoon to a pint of -water); boil the sweetbreads in this for fifteen minutes if they -are to be creamed, broiled, or baked, or again cooked in any way; -but if they are to be served plain with peas, they should remain -on twenty-five or thirty minutes. When done, drain off the water -and set them aside to cool. Sweetbreads must always be parboiled as -soon as possible after being taken from the animal, as they decay -quickly. Sweetbreads may be made white by soaking them in cold -water for half an hour; the flavor, however, is said to be injured -by so doing. - - -CREAMED SWEETBREADS - -Make a _cream sauce_ with a cup of sweet cream, a tablespoon of -flour, and half a tablespoon of butter. Then cut a sweetbread -into half-inch cubes, salt it slightly, and sprinkle on a little -white pepper. Mix equal quantities of it and the cream sauce -together, put the mixture into individual porcelain patty-dishes or -scallop-dishes, sprinkle the top with buttered crumbs, and bake on -the grate in a hot oven for ten minutes. This will give sufficient -time to finish the cooking of the parboiled sweetbread without -hardening it. - -The sauce may be made quite acceptably with milk, by using a -tablespoon of butter instead of half that quantity. This is a good -way to prepare sweetbreads, and one particularly desirable for the -sick. They will be tender and delicate if care is taken not to -overcook them in either the boiling or the baking. - - -FRICASSEED SWEETBREADS - -Cut a parboiled sweetbread into half-inch cubes. Then make a sauce -with half a teaspoon of flour, a teaspoon of butter, three fourths -of a cup of strong chicken broth, and one fourth of a cup of sweet -cream. Heat the broth. Cook the flour in the butter, letting -the two simmer together until brown, then add the hot broth, a -little at a time, stirring constantly, and last put in the cream. -Season the sauce with a bit of salt, a little black pepper, half a -teaspoon of lemon-juice, and a speck of curry-powder. Roll the cut -sweetbread into it, simmer for five minutes, and serve on sippets, -or on squares of dry toast in a covered dish. The chicken broth -may be made by boiling the bones and cuttings of a roast, and milk -may be substituted for the cream. - - -SWEETBREADS WITH PEAS - -A favorite way of serving sweetbreads is with fresh peas. They -should be boiled in salted water and arranged in the middle of a -platter with the peas (cooked and seasoned) around them. Serve them -with a cream sauce. Or the peas may be piled in the middle of a -platter, the sweetbreads arranged as a border, and the sauce poured -around the whole. Sweetbreads larded and baked may also be served -in this way. - - - - -FISH - - -Fish fresh from the lakes or sea is excellent food. The point of -freshness is a very important one, for all kinds spoil quickly, -and, unless you can be quite sure how long they have been out of -the water, it is better to find some other food for your invalid. -Some shell-fish, such as crabs and lobsters, are especially -dangerous, and should not be eaten by either sick or well, unless -they are _known_ to be in perfect condition. For the sick they had -better not be used at all. - -"The flesh of good fresh fish is _firm_ and _hard_, and will rise -at once when pressed with the finger. If the eyes be dull or -sunken, the gills pale, and the flesh soft and flabby, the fish is -not fresh." (Mrs. Lincoln.) - -Fish with red blood, such for instance as _salmon_, are highly -nutritious but not easily digested, partly because of the amount of -fat distributed through the flesh. _Herring_ and _mackerel_ belong -to this class. White fish, such as _cod_, _haddock_, _turbot_, -_halibut_, and _flounder_, contain comparatively little fat, and -that mostly in the liver. They are easy of digestion, and possess a -delicate flavor. When in season and just from their native element, -these fish are delicious, and make excellent food for the sick, on -account of the ease with which they are digested. - -=To Prepare.= If fish be brought from market with the scales on, -as is usually the case, it is a very easy matter to remove them. -A large sheet of brown paper, or a newspaper, and a knife not very -sharp, are all that are necessary. Spread the paper on the table, -lay the fish upon it, and then with the blade of the knife held -_parallel_ with the body of the fish, or nearly so, not at right -angles to it, push off the scales. They will come off easily, and -will not fly unless you turn the edge of the knife too much. Should -this happen, the paper will catch the scales, and when the fish is -finished all the refuse can be rolled up in the paper and burned. -After removing the scales, cut off the head, fins, and tail. Make -a slit on the under side, and take out the contents of the cavity, -clearing out everything that is not flesh. Then wash the fish -quickly in a stream of cold water, wipe it, and set it in a cool -place (a refrigerator if you have it) until it is required for -cooking. Do not lay it directly on ice, for the juices of the fish -are dissolved by the water which is formed as the ice melts, and -its delicate flavor is thus impaired. - - -WHEN IN SEASON - - Cod All the year. - Haddock All the year. - Cusk Winter. - Halibut All the year. - Flounders All the year. - Salmon May to September. - Shad Spring. - Bluefish June to October. - Whitefish Winter. - Swordfish July to September. - Smelts September to March. - Perch Spring and summer. - Mackerel April to October. - Oysters September to May. - Clams All the year. - - -BROILED FISH - -Small fish, such as perch, scrod (young cod), etc., are excellent -broiled. After the fish is cleaned, washed out, and wiped, split -it lengthwise if it be thick, sprinkle on salt and pepper, squeeze -over it some drops of lemon-juice, dip it in melted butter, and -broil over clear coals, quickly at first and then very slowly, -allowing ten minutes for each inch of thickness. Serve with butter -cream. - -=To Make Butter Cream.= Cream some butter in a cup or bowl, season -it with salt, Cayenne pepper, lemon-juice, and vinegar. A teaspoon -of butter is enough for an ordinary small fish such as a perch, and -to season it a speck of cayenne, a speck of salt, and a teaspoon of -vinegar and lemon-juice (half of each), will be good proportions. -Spread it on the fish, and let it melt and run over it, or serve -it separately in a little ball on a glass butter-plate. A nice -addition to the butter is a little finely minced parsley, or -chopped pickle, such as cucumbers or olives, or the three mixed, if -they are at hand. - - -CREAMED FISH - -To make creamed fish, any white fish which flakes easily may be -used. Cusk, cod, and haddock are especially recommended. Cook the -fish fifteen or twenty minutes by gentle boiling. Then remove the -flesh carefully from the bones, letting it separate into flakes; -season it with pepper and salt, and a few drops of lemon-juice -sprinkled over. For every pint of prepared fish make a rich cream -sauce with four tablespoons of butter, two of flour, and a pint -of milk in which a small slice of onion has been boiled. Pour -the sauce over the seasoned fish, rolling them together gently so -that the flakes may not be broken, arrange on a platter, sprinkle -the top with buttered crumbs, and bake in a hot oven from twenty -minutes to half an hour. A speck of cayenne is a good addition to -make to the sauce. This is a delicious and wholesome dish. The -butter is so thoroughly incorporated with the flour of the sauce -that it becomes one of the few very easily digested forms of cooked -fat. - - -BOILED FISH - -Select any white fish--fresh cod for instance. Prepare it according -to the directions given for cleaning fish, put it into a wire -vegetable-basket, drop the basket into a dish of boiling salted -water, and let it simmer for from fifteen minutes to three quarters -of an hour according to the size of the fish (a cod weighing three -pounds will require cooking a half hour). Do not allow it to boil -rapidly at any time, or it will break. When it is done lift it out -of the basket and serve it at once with drawn butter made in the -following manner: - -Put two tablespoons of butter and one of flour into a saucepan; let -them simmer together for two minutes (count the time); then add, -a little at a time, a pint of boiling water or of chicken broth, -stirring constantly. This will give a smooth cream-like sauce which -will be enough for two pounds of fish. Season it with parsley, -grated yolks of hard-boiled eggs, a few drops of lemon-juice, a bit -each of cayenne and mustard, and a few drops of onion-juice. - - - - -CUSTARDS, CREAMS, PUDDINGS, AND BLANC-MANGE - - -SOFT CUSTARD - -(BOILED) - -Soft custard is a nutritious dish made of yolk of egg and milk. It -is frequently used as a sauce for puddings, but is very good, eaten -by itself, for one who is confined to light or liquid diet. - - 1 Pint of milk. - Yolks of two eggs. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - -Put the milk into a saucepan, and set it on the stove to boil. -Beat together the yolks of the eggs, the salt, and the sugar, in -a bowl, and when the milk just reaches the boiling-point, pour it -in slowly, stirring until all is mixed. Return it to the saucepan -without delay, and cook for _three minutes_, meanwhile stirring -it slowly. Carefully endeavor not to either overcook or undercook -the custard, for if it is not cooked enough, it will have a raw, -unpleasant, "eggy" taste, and if it is cooked too much, it will -have the appearance of being curdled. If there is no unnecessary -delay in pouring the milk into the egg so that not much of its -heat is lost, and if it is returned immediately to the fire, three -minutes' exposure to the heat will usually be long enough, but of -course the time will vary according to the condition of the fire -and the kind of pan used. When done, strain it at once into a cool -dish, and flavor it with a teaspoon of vanilla. Soft custard may -also be flavored with sherry wine, almond extract, cinnamon-bark, -caramel, and nutmeg. It should be of a smooth and even consistency, -and as thick as rich cream. - - -BAKED CUSTARD - -(IN CUPS) - - 1 Pint of milk. - 2 Eggs. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - ½ Square inch of cinnamon-bark. - -Put the cinnamon and milk together in a saucepan, and set on the -stove to heat. Break the eggs into a bowl, add the salt and sugar, -and beat them until well mixed, but not light. When the milk boils, -pour it on the beaten egg, stir slowly for a minute to dissolve -the sugar, and then strain it into custard-cups. Place the cups in -a deep iron baking-pan, and pour _boiling_ water around, until it -reaches almost to their tops. Bake in a hot oven twenty minutes. - -The blue baking-cups which are small at the bottom and widen toward -the top are good ones to use. They bear the fire well, and are -pretty enough to serve. - -By baking the custards in a dish of boiling water, the temperature -cannot rise higher than 212° Fahr., and there is less danger of -hardening the albumen in the more exposed portions before the -middle is cooked enough, than if water is not used. The top is -sacrificed--somewhat overcooked--for the sake of the pretty brown -color which they should always have. Custards, when done, should be -of a perfectly smooth, even, velvety consistence throughout, not -curdled or wheyey. - -To test them after they have been cooking twenty minutes, dip a -pointed knife into water, and plunge it into the middle of the -custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is done; if milky, -it is not cooked enough, and should be put into the oven for -five minutes longer. Do not try every one unless the cups are of -different sizes, and make a small, narrow slit, so that their -appearance will not be too much injured. This mixture may also be -baked in a pudding-dish. Baked custards may be flavored with a -variety of substances, among the best of which are grated nutmeg, -almond extract, vanilla, and caramel. - -=To Make Caramel.= Boil together one cup of sugar and one third of -a cup of water until the color is a rich reddish brown, then add -one cup of water, and bottle for use. Two tablespoons of this syrup -will be required to flavor a pint of custard. - - -FRENCH CUSTARD - -Make a custard mixture according to the above rule, omitting the -cinnamon. Put into the bottom of the custard-cups in which it is to -be baked, a teaspoon of raspberry jam. Then with a tunnel pour the -custard in slowly. Bake twenty minutes. The jam, if firm, will not -mix with the custard. It imparts a nice flavor to the whole, and -is an interesting dish to many, who wonder how the jam can be kept -from dissolving. - - -RENNET CUSTARD OR SLIP - -Put into a glass pudding-dish a pint of milk, a tablespoon of -sugar, and a teaspoon of rennet. Stir to dissolve the sugar, -cover it and place it on the stove-hearth, or any warm place, -to heat sufficiently for the rennet to act upon the casein of -the milk--that is, to about 98° Fahr. As soon as it is "set," or -becomes solid, remove to a cool place, so that the separation of -the casein shall not go too far and whey appear. When it is cool, -serve it in glass dishes. Rennet custard may be flavored with -nutmeg grated over the surface, or by stirring in with the rennet -a teaspoon of vanilla, or of rose-water, or a tablespoon of wine. -When brandy is added, it is called _junket_. - -Liquid rennet is an extract of the inner lining of the stomach -of the calf. It has the power of freeing the albuminous part -of milk from its solution,--in other words, of coagulating -it. Rennet custard is not of course strictly a custard; it is -also called slip, and in Cape Cod it bears the graphic name of -"Gap-and-swallow." - - -EGG CREAM - - 2 Eggs. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - Juice and grated rind of half a lemon. - -Separate the yolks of the eggs from the whites, and beat them with -the sugar in a bowl until both are well mixed. Then put in the -lemon-juice and rind, and place the bowl in a dish of boiling water -on the fire. Stir slowly until the mixture begins to thicken; then -add the beaten whites of the eggs and stir for two minutes, or -until the whole resembles _very thick_ cream; then remove it from -the fire, pour into a small pudding-dish, and set it away to cool. -Serve in small pretty china cups, or small glass dishes, for a -mid-afternoon lunch or for tea. - - -VELVET CREAM - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ¼ Cup of sherry wine. - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice. - ½ Cup of sugar. - 1¼ Cups of creamy milk, or - 1½ Cups of sweet cream. - -Soak the gelatine in the cold water in a bowl for half an hour; -then pour in the wine, and set the bowl in a dish of boiling water -on the fire. When the gelatine is dissolved, put in the lemon-juice -and sugar, stir for a minute to dissolve the sugar, and then strain -it through a fine wire strainer into a granite or other metal -pan. Set the pan in a dish of ice and water to cool. As soon as -it begins to thicken, or is about the consistency of molasses on -a warm day, turn in the cream and stir regularly and constantly -until it begins to thicken. Before it is quite as hard as it will -become, turn it into a glass or pretty china dish, in which it may -be served, and set it away in the refrigerator or back in the dish -of ice and water until perfectly firm. Serve it in small glass or -china dishes, with sweet cream poured over. This cream should be of -a perfectly smooth, even consistency, hence the name "velvet cream." - - -COFFEE CREAM - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ½ Cup of strong coffee. - ½ Cup of sugar. - 1½ Cups of sweet cream, or - 1¼ Cups of creamy milk. - -Soak the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour. Then pour on -the coffee, boiling hot, to dissolve it; add the sugar, stir until -it is dissolved, and strain the liquid into a granite pan. Set it -in iced water to cool; when it has become so, and is beginning to -thicken, or is about the consistency of syrup or a little thinner, -pour in the cream; stir regularly and evenly for about ten minutes, -or until it is thick, but not hard; then turn it into a glass dish -while it is still slightly soft, and it will settle into a smooth, -even mass. It may be returned to the iced water, or put into a -refrigerator, to stiffen. - -Coffee cream is similar to velvet cream and the process is exactly -the same for both. They are delicious creams, very nutritious, and -to be recommended for their excellent nourishing properties and -flavors. - -=To Make the Coffee.= Mix two tablespoons of ground fresh Java, or -Java and Mocha coffee mixed, with a little cold water and raw egg -(either white or yolk) in a coffee-pot. Stir it to thoroughly mix -the egg and coffee. Pour in a cup of boiling water, and set it to -boil for five minutes. Then move the pot to a less hot part of the -stove, where the coffee will barely simmer, for ten minutes, when -it will be ready for use. - - -CHOCOLATE CREAM - - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - ½ Ounce (½ square) of Baker's chocolate. - 1 Pint of cream. - Whites of four eggs. - -Cook the sugar, chocolate, and cream (sweet cream or, if that -cannot be had, rich milk) together in a double boiler until the -chocolate is perfectly dissolved. It will require occasional -stirring, and should be, when done, entirely free from specks or -flakes of chocolate. Then stir in, pouring slowly, the well-beaten -whites of the eggs while the cream is still on the stove. Cook -for three minutes, or until the albumen is coagulated, but not -hardened. It should look creamy and smooth, not curdled. Turn into -a pudding-dish and cool. - - -TAPIOCA CREAM - - ¼ Cup of granulated tapioca. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1 Pint of milk. - 3 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Eggs. - -After the tapioca is picked over and washed, put it into a double -boiler with the cold water, and let it stand until the water is -absorbed. Then pour in the pint of milk, and cook until each grain -is transparent and soft. It will take an hour. At this point, beat -the eggs, sugar, and salt together until very light, and pour them -slowly into the hot pudding, at the same time stirring rapidly, so -that the two will be perfectly mixed. After the egg is in, continue -to stir for about three minutes, or long enough to cook the egg as -it is done in soft custard. The pudding should have the appearance -of cream, as the name indicates, with flecks of tapioca all through -it. Turn it into a china dish. Serve either hot or cold. - - -RICE CREAM - - 2 Tablespoons of rice. - 2 Cups of milk. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 2 Eggs. - -Cleanse the rice by washing it several times in cold water; cook -it in a double boiler with the milk until the grains will mash. -Three hours will generally be required to do this. Should the milk -evaporate, restore the amount lost. When the rice is perfectly -soft, press it through a coarse soup-strainer or colander into a -saucepan, return it to the fire, and while it is heating beat the -eggs, sugar, and salt together until very light. When the rice -boils, pour the egg in rather slowly, stirring lightly with a spoon -for three or four minutes, or until it coagulates and the whole is -like a thick, soft pudding; then remove from the fire, and pour it -into a pretty dish. By omitting the yolks and using the whites of -the eggs only, a delicate white cream is obtained. - - -PEACH FOAM - -(DELICIOUS) - -Peel and cut into small pieces three or four choice and very ripe -peaches (White Heaths are good), so that when done there will be a -cupful. Put them into a bowl, with half a cup of powdered sugar, -and the white of one egg. Beat with a fork for _half an hour_, -when it will be a thick, perfectly smooth, velvety cream, with -a delightful peach flavor, and may be eaten _ad libitum_ by an -invalid. - - -SNOW PUDDING - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ¼ Cup of lemon-juice. - Whites of three eggs.[39] - -_For the sauce_: - - Yolks of two eggs. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of milk. - ½ Teaspoon of vanilla. - -Divide a box of gelatine into fourths by notching one of the -upright edges. Cut off one fourth of the box for a measure, which -can afterward be used as a cover. When taking out a fourth, be sure -to pack the measure as closely as it was packed in the box. Soak -the gelatine in the cold water for half an hour. Then pour on the -boiling water, add the sugar and lemon-juice, stir for a minute, -and strain through a fine wire strainer into a granite pan; place -the pan in iced water to cool. Meanwhile beat the eggs as light as -possible, and as soon as the gelatine mixture begins to thicken, -or is about as thick as honey, turn in the eggs, and stir slowly -and regularly, with the back of the bowl of the spoon against the -bottom of the pan, until the egg is mixed completely with the -gelatine and the whole nearly stiff. Just before it becomes firm -turn it into a melon-mold, and return it to the iced water to -harden. It should be perfectly white, _literally_, like snow. - -With the materials for the sauce make a soft custard, cool it, and -serve with the pudding either in a pitcher, or poured around it in -an ice-cream dish, or other shallow pudding-dish. - - -PRINCESS PUDDING - - ¼ Box of gelatine. - ¼ Cup of cold water. - ¾ Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ½ Cup of white wine (sherry). - Juice of one lemon. - Whites of three eggs. - -_For the sauce_: - - 1 Pint of milk. - Yolks of two eggs. - 3 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water. - -The process is exactly the same as for _snow pudding_, and it is -served in the same manner, with the soft custard for a sauce. -Ordinary sherry wine may be used, although white sherry is better. - - -CORN-STARCH PUDDING - - 1½ Tablespoons of corn-starch. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of cold water. - 1 Pint of milk. - -Put the milk on the stove to heat. Mix in a saucepan the -corn-starch, sugar, and salt with the cold water, and when the milk -has just begun to boil pour it in, slowly at first, stirring all -the while. The corn-starch should become thick at once, when it may -be poured into a clean double boiler and cooked thirty minutes. The -time should be faithfully kept, as corn-starch is an unpalatable -and indigestible substance unless thoroughly cooked. See to it that -the water in the under boiler _actually boils_ during the thirty -minutes. At the end of that time beat one egg very light, and stir -it in, pouring slowly, so that it may be mixed all through the hot -pudding and puff it up. Then cook for one minute, turn it into a -china pudding-dish, or into individual molds, and cool. Serve with -cream. - -Corn-starch pudding should have a tender consistency and a sweet -and wholesome taste. The difficulty with many is that they are not -thoroughly cooked, and are too stiff and hard when cool. When you -find this to be the case, lessen the amount of corn-starch used. -The proportion in this recipe may always be relied upon. - -Other similar puddings may be made by substituting in the above -recipe arrowroot, flour, or farina for the corn-starch. - - -BARLEY PUDDING - - 2 Tablespoons of Robinson's barley flour. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Cup of water (boiling). - ½ Cup of rich milk. - Whites of three eggs. - -Mix the flour, sugar, and salt in a saucepan with a little cold -water. When smooth and free from lumps pour in the boiling water, -slowly stirring meanwhile to keep it smooth; then set it on the -fire to simmer for ten minutes, continuing the stirring until it is -thick. To prevent burning, draw the pan to the side of the stove, -unless the fire is very slow, for barley is a grain which sticks -and burns easily. At the end of the ten minutes put in the milk, -and strain all into a clean saucepan, through a coarse strainer, to -make the consistency even. Beat the whites of the eggs until light -but not stiff, and stir, not beat, them into the pudding, making it -thoroughly smooth before returning it to the fire. Cook for five -minutes, stirring and folding the pudding lightly until the egg -is coagulated. Then pour it into a china pudding-dish. Serve cold -with sweet cream. This is good for one who is just beginning to eat -solid food. - - -CREAM-OF-RICE PUDDING - - 1 Quart of milk. - ½ Cup of rice. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - -Put the milk, rice, sugar, and salt together in a pudding-dish, -stir until the sugar is dissolved, then place the dish in a pan -of water, and bake in a slow oven for three hours, cutting in the -crust which forms on the top once during the time. Should the -pudding become dry, pour over it a little more milk, but this will -not happen unless the fire is too hot. When done it ought to be -creamy inside, with the grains of rice almost dissolved in the -milk. The long exposure to heat changes both the sugar and the -starch, and gives them an agreeable flavor. - - -FRUIT TAPIOCA - -Wash half a cup of tapioca, put it into a double boiler with a pint -of water, and cook until the grains are soft and transparent. If -granulated tapioca is used, one hour is sufficient time. Then add -to it half a cup of grape or currant jelly, and mix until the jelly -is dissolved; turn it into a pudding-dish. Serve cold, with sugar -and cream. Any well-flavored fruit jelly may be used instead of the -grape or currant. - - -TAPIOCA JELLY - - ½ Cup of tapioca. - 2 Cups of water. - ½ Cup of sugar. - Juice and grated rind of half a lemon. - ¼ Cup of sherry wine, or - ¼ Cup of brandy (French). - -Pick over and wash the tapioca. Put it into a double boiler -with the water, and cook it for one hour, or until the grains -are transparent and soft. Then add to it the sugar, juice and -grated rind of the lemon, the sherry and the brandy, mixing -them thoroughly. Press all through a wire strainer into a glass -pudding-dish, and set it in a cool place to become a jelly. It -should be served cold, and with cream. - - -ORANGE LAYERS - - 4 Oranges. - 3 Bananas. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ⅓ Cup of water. - 1 Cup of claret wine. - -Peel the oranges, slice them in thin slices, and remove the seeds. -Peel and slice the bananas. Arrange both in alternate layers in a -glass dish. Make a syrup of the sugar and water by boiling them -together, without stirring, for ten minutes; then add the wine, and -remove at once from the fire; cool it, and pour it over the fruit. -In half an hour it will be ready to serve. - -It will not do to keep this dish long, as the fruit shrinks and -loses its freshness. One fourth of an inch is the proper thickness -for the slices of orange, and one sixth or one eighth for the -bananas. - - -ORANGE BASKETS - -From the end opposite the stem end of an orange cut out sections in -such a way as to form a basket with a handle. - -The body of the basket should be _more_ than _half_ the orange. -With a knife and spoon cut and scrape out all the pulp from the -inside. Fill the baskets with blocks of orange jelly, or with -raspberries, strawberries, or other fruits. They are pleasing to -children, and are pretty for luncheon or tea. The edges may be -scalloped, and diamonds or rounds cut out of the sides, if one has -time. - - -IRISH MOSS BLANC-MANGE - -Irish moss, or carrageen, is a sea moss which grows abundantly -along the shores of Europe and America. After gathering, it is -dried and bleached in the sun, and then packed for market. It is -exceedingly rich in an easily digested vegetable jelly, and is also -valuable for food because of its mineral constituents. - -=To Prepare.= - - ⅓ Cup of dry moss. - 1 Quart of milk. - ¼ Cup of sugar. - -Soak the moss for half an hour in warm water, to soften it and -to loosen the sand which is dried and entangled in it. Wash each -piece separately under a stream of cold water. Its weight (that -of the water) will carry down the sand. Then put the moss in a -pudding-bag, and cook it in a double boiler in the quart of milk -for one hour. At the end of that time lift out the bag, squeeze -it a little, throw away the moss, and put the bag to soak in cold -water. Add the sugar to the mixture, strain it into molds, and -set in a cool place to harden. It will form a tender jelly-like -pudding, which has an agreeable taste, resembling the odor of the -sea, which many like. Serve it with cream, and with or without pink -sugar.[40] - -This blanc-mange may also be made without sugar if it is desirable -to have an unsweetened dessert. - - -PINK BLANC-MANGE - -Make a pudding according to the above rule. Color it, just before -straining, with three or four drops of carmine, barely enough -to give a delicate shell pink, for if it is very dark it is not -attractive. - -Carmine for use in cooking is made by mixing one ounce of No. 40 -carmine (which may be obtained of a druggist) with three ounces of -boiling water and one ounce of ammonia. It should be bottled, and -will keep indefinitely. It is useful for coloring ice-cream, cake, -and puddings. - - - - -SALADS - - -Salads are of two classes: the plain salads, consisting of green -herbs or vegetables, such as lettuce, endive, water-cress, -cucumber, etc., dressed or seasoned with salt, pepper, oil and -vinegar, or oil and lemon-juice; and the so-called meat salads, -which consist of one or more green vegetables, with an admixture -of fish, lobster, crab, fowl, or game. A salad of whichever kind -should be cool, delicate, and prepared by a gentle hand. Ordinary -servants do not enough appreciate the "niceties" to make acceptable -salads. The lettuce, cress, or whatever green is used, should be -thoroughly washed, but not crushed, broken, or roughly handled, -drained in a wire basket, dried in a napkin, and then torn with the -fingers, _not cut_. Of course, cucumbers, beet-root, olives, etc., -are exceptions. - -The dressing for salads, whether simply oil and vinegar, or a -mayonnaise, should be mixed with a wooden spoon, and an intelligent -mind. As for the seasonings, the Spanish maxim which reads as -follows is a good guide: "Be a miser with vinegar, a counselor -with salt, and a spendthrift with oil." Let the oil be of the -first quality of genuine olive-oil. In nearly all the large cities -one may get fine oil by searching for it. Once found, there is no -longer any difficulty, so long as the brand does not deteriorate. - -To vary and flavor the salads of vegetables _only_, use the fine -herbs when in season, for instance balm, mint, parsley, cress, -and sorrel, chopped or minced, and scattered through the salad. -Unless the vinegar is known to be pure cider or wine vinegar, -use lemon-juice. Theodore Child says: "Lemon-juice is the most -delicate and deliciously perfumed acid that nature has given the -cook." - - -FRENCH DRESSING - -French dressing is a mixture of fine olive-oil, vinegar or -lemon-juice, or both, salt, Cayenne pepper, and onion-juice. The -following proportions will make enough for one head of lettuce: - - 1 Tablespoon of oil. - A bit of cayenne. - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 4 Drops of onion-juice. - 1 Teaspoon of lemon-juice. - 1 Teaspoon of vinegar. - -Mix all together well. This dressing may be used with lettuce, -tomatoes, cold meat, potato salad, and to marinate chicken, -lobster, and crab when they are to be used for salads. - - -MAYONNAISE DRESSING - - ½ Saltspoon of salt. - 2 Saltspoons of mustard. - 2 Saltspoons of sugar. - ¼ Saltspoon of cayenne. - Yolk of one egg. - ½ Cup of olive-oil. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - 1 Tablespoon of vinegar. - 1 Tablespoon of thick sweet cream. - -These proportions may be multiplied or divided to make larger or -smaller quantities. Put the first five ingredients together in -a bowl, and mix them well; then add the oil one drop at a time, -stirring constantly with a wooden paddle or spoon "round and -round," not back and forth. After dropping and stirring for ten -minutes, the mixture will become stiff and difficult to turn. At -this point stir in a little of the vinegar or lemon-juice. Then -drop in more oil, and stir until it again becomes stiff. Continue -putting in oil and the acids until all are used, when you should -have a thick, smooth cream which, when taken up on the end of the -spoon, will keep its shape and not "run." It will take from twenty -minutes to half an hour to make it. Last stir in the cream. - -Should the dressing "break," or appear as if curdled, it may -sometimes be restored to smoothness by beating with a Dover -egg-beater, or by adding more egg and stirring for a while without -adding oil. If these expedients fail, begin all over again, adding -the spoiled dressing to a new one. However, a mayonnaise dressing -will not go wrong except in the hands of a careless worker. The -only points to be observed are to put the oil in _slowly_, and to -stir _constantly_ and _rapidly_. The sweet cream is a valuable -addition, giving the mayonnaise a delicate, satisfying flavor. - - -LETTUCE SALAD - -Prepare a head of lettuce by washing each leaf separately in a -stream of water, tearing off any portion that is bruised or brown, -and looking carefully for little green creatures that may be lodged -in the creases; they are not easily seen. Then drain the lettuce -on a fresh towel or napkin, for if the leaves are very wet the -dressing will not cling to them. Next tear it to pieces with the -fingers, rejecting the large part of the midrib, put it into a -deep bowl, pour on a French dressing, and toss it with a wooden -salad-spoon and fork until all the lettuce seems oiled. Serve -immediately. - -Mayonnaise dressing may be used instead of the French dressing in -this salad. - - -TOMATO SALAD - -Wash in cold water and wipe some fair, ripe tomatoes. Cut them in -slices one third of an inch thick. Do not peel them. Arrange some -clean white lettuce leaves on a silver or china platter, with two -large leaves at either end, their stems toward the middle, and two -small ones at the sides. Lay on them the slices of tomato, with -their edges overlapping each other. Serve with this salad French -dressing. - - -CHICKEN SALAD - -Prepare a nice chicken (one not too young) by boiling it until -tender. Then set it away in its own broth to cool. (It is a good -plan to boil the chicken the day before it is intended for use.) -Meanwhile make a mayonnaise dressing. When the chicken has become -cold, take it from the broth, and cut it as nearly as possible -into half-inch cubes, rejecting all skin, tendons, cords, and -bones. Season it with salt and pepper. Tear into small pieces with -the fingers some tender, well-cleaned lettuce, and then mix equal -quantities of chicken and lettuce with a part of the dressing; -arrange it in a shallow salad-bowl, and spread the remainder of the -mayonnaise over the top. The yolk of egg hard-boiled and pressed -through a wire strainer with the back of a spoon, so that it falls -in little crinkled pieces all over the top, makes a pretty garnish. -Celery tops, the tiny inside leaves of lettuce, and parsley may be -used singly or together for a border. - -Chicken salad is usually made with celery instead of lettuce, but -the latter is better for an invalid, although tender, delicate -celery may be used. Serve a very small quantity, for chicken salad -is a concentrated food, and should not be eaten in large amounts -by either the convalescent or the well. The chicken, lettuce, and -dressing may all be prepared beforehand, but on no account should -they be mixed together until just before serving. - - -POTATO SALAD - -For this salad fresh boiled potatoes, red sugar-beets, and French -dressing are needed. The potatoes and beets should be cooked in -salted water purposely for the salad, and allowed to become just -cool. Cold potatoes left over from the last meal may be used, -but they are not nice. When the potatoes are cool, cut them into -thin slices, season with a little more salt and a bit of white -pepper; cut the beets also in thin slices, and mix the two in the -proportions of one third beets to two thirds potatoes, with the -dressing, or arrange them in alternate layers in a salad-bowl, with -the dressing poured over each layer as it is made. - -A more dainty way, and one which a person of cultivated taste will -appreciate (as it really makes a perceptible difference in the -flavor of the salad), is to mix the lemon-juice, vinegar, salt, and -pepper together without the oil, and pour it over the different -layers as they are laid, and then add the oil by itself. The acids -penetrate and season the vegetables, and the oil is left on the -outside of each piece. - - -POTATO SALAD WITH OLIVES - -Make a potato salad according to the foregoing rule, except -substitute chopped olives for the beets, in the proportion of one -eighth olives by measure to seven eighths potato. - - -CELERY SALAD - -"One of the finest salads to be eaten, either alone or with game, -especially partridges or wild duck, is a mixture of celery, -beet-root, and corn-salad. Water-cresses will make a poor -substitute when broken into small tufts. - -"The beets are cut into slices one sixteenth of an inch thick; the -celery, which must be young and tender and thoroughly white, should -be cut into pieces an inch long, and then sliced lengthwise into -two or three pieces. (N. B.--Select only the tender inside branches -of celery.) This salad will require plenty of oil, and more acid -than a lettuce salad, because of the sweetness and absorbent nature -of the beet-root. The general seasoning, too, must be rather high, -because the flavors of the celery and the beet are pronounced." -("Delicate Feasting," by Theodore Child.) - -There are many kinds of salads, but they are all based upon the -principles stated in these rules. Green herbs or vegetables treated -with French or mayonnaise dressing, either by themselves or with -meats, form the foundations of all salads. - - - - -ICE-CREAM, SHERBETS, AND ICES - - -For patients suffering with fevers, and for use in very warm -weather, good ice-cream and sherbet are most acceptable. They -should, however, be used with great care, particularly if the -illness be due to disturbance of digestion, for they lower the -temperature of the stomach and often cause such disorders as lead -to severe illness. Even if this does not happen, they, in order -to be raised to a temperature at which digestion will take place, -absorb heat from the body, and a person reduced by illness cannot -afford to needlessly part with any form of energy. - -Sherbet in its literal sense means a _cool drink_. It is of -oriental origin, but in this country it has come to mean a frozen -mixture of fruit, or fruit-juice, water and sugar. There is a -distinction made, however, between water-ice and sherbet. Sherbet -has, in addition to the fruit-juice and water, either sugar-syrup, -white of egg, or gelatine, to give it sufficient viscousness to -entangle and hold air when beaten in a freezer, so that sherbets -(unless colored by the fruit used) will be white and opaque like -snow. Water-ices, on the contrary, are made without the white of -egg, syrup, or gelatine, do not entangle air, and are translucent -and what might be called "watery." Both are delicious when made -with fresh, ripe fruit, and both may be enriched by the addition of -sweet cream if desired. - -=Freezers.= Of the various kinds of freezers perhaps the "Improved -White Mountain Freezer" is, everything considered, as good as any. -It is strong and freezes quickly when the salt and ice are properly -proportioned. - -It is well to study the gearing before attempting to use a freezer. -The different parts should be taken apart and put together until -it is understood how the machine works. See that the paddles in -the can do not interfere with each other, and that the crank turns -easily. Then put all together again, fasten down the crank-bar -across the top of the can, and have everything in readiness before -packing the freezer with salt and ice. The object in using the salt -is to get a greater degree of cold than could be obtained with the -ice alone. The affinity of salt for water is very great--so great, -that it will break down the structure of ice in its eagerness for -it. Heat is involved in this process of melting, and will be drawn -from surrounding objects, from the can, the bucket, the cream, and -even the ice itself. The more rapid the union of salt and ice, the -more heat is absorbed, consequently the greater is the degree of -cold and the quicker the mixture to be frozen will become solid. - -_Water_ is converted into steam by a certain amount of heat. _Ice_ -is transformed into _water_ by the same agency, and in the case of -the ice-cream freezer heat is drawn from whatever comes in contact -with the ice that is warmer than itself. If the melting of the -ice can be hastened in any way, the abstraction of heat will be -correspondingly greater; hence the use of salt, which is so eager -for water that it takes it even in the form of ice. Now it will be -easily seen that if the ice is in small pieces, and there is the -proper amount of salt for each piece, union between the two will be -immediate, the amount of heat used will be very great, consequently -the degree of cold will be great. Cold is only a less degree of -heat. - -Ordinary liquid mixtures that contain a large percentage of water -become solid when reduced to a temperature of 32° Fahr. - -=To Pack an Ice-Cream Freezer.= Break a quantity of ice into small -pieces by pounding it in an ice-bag (a bag made of canvas or very -strong cloth) with a wooden mallet. The ice should be about as -fine as small rock-salt. Put into the bucket, around the tin can -which is to hold the cream, alternate layers of the pounded ice -and salt in the proportions of two thirds ice to one third salt (a -quart cup may be used for measuring). Should it happen that you -have "coarse-fine" salt, put all the ice into the freezer first, -and then the salt on top of it, as it will quickly work down to -the bottom. When the packing is complete unfasten the cross-bar -and lift off the cover of the can carefully, so that no salt -shall get inside; then put in the mixture to be frozen, replace -the cover, and fasten the bar. Let it stand till the mixture is -thoroughly chilled, then turn _steadily_ but not _very_ fast for -about ten minutes, or until the turning becomes difficult; that is -an indication that the contents of the can are freezing. Continue -turning for a few minutes longer, to give the cream a fine and even -consistency; then take out the paddle, drain off the water through -the hole in the side of the bucket, fill in all about the can with -coarse ice, and cover it with a thick wet cloth or towel. Let it -stand for half an hour to become firm, when it is ready to serve. -If it is desirable to keep the ice-cream for a length of time, it -may be done by packing the freezer closely with ice and salt, and -covering it with wet cloths. Or, the ice-cream may be taken from -the can, packed in molds of fanciful shapes, sealed at the edges -with melted tallow, and repacked in ice and salt. - - -PHILADELPHIA ICE-CREAM - -The so-called Philadelphia ice-cream is pure, sweet cream, -sweetened with sugar, and flavored. For a small quantity use the -following: - - ¾ Cup of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - 1 pint of scalded sweet cream. - -Mix and freeze. The whites of two eggs beaten stiff is a valuable -addition to this cream. - - -ROYAL ICE-CREAM - - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1½ Cups of sugar. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1 Pint of milk. - 2 Eggs. - 1 Pint of sweet cream. - 1 Tablespoon of vanilla. - ½ Teaspoon of almond. - ½ Cup of sherry wine, or - ¼ Cup of brandy. - -Heat the milk until it boils; meanwhile mix the flour, sugar, -and salt in a little cold water, and when the milk reaches the -boiling-point pour it in; stir it for a minute over the fire in -a saucepan, and then turn it into a double boiler and cook it -for twenty minutes. At the end of this time beat the eggs very -light, and pour them into the boiling mixture slowly, stirring -it rapidly; continue stirring, after all the egg is in, for from -one to two minutes; then strain the mixture into a dish and set it -aside to cool. Last, add the cream and flavorings, and freeze. This -makes a rich and delicious cream. It may be colored with carmine a -pretty pink, or with spinach a delicate green. - - -ICE-CREAM WITH AN IMPROVISED FREEZER - -Make the Philadelphia ice-cream mixture, or half of it, dividing -each ingredient exactly. Put it into a small tin can (the Dutch -cocoa-cans are convenient) with a closely fitting cover. Place it -in the middle of a deep dish, and surround it with alternate layers -of ice and salt, in the same manner as for ordinary freezing, -and cover it closely; then lay wet cloths on the top and set it -in a cool place. It will become solid in from one to two hours, -according to the amount of mixture to be frozen. It is well to cut -in the thick layer on the sides of the can once or twice during the -freezing. If the cream which you have to use is thick enough to -whip, do so; the result, when frozen, will be a very dainty dish. - -This is a convenient way of making a little ice-cream for one -person. - - -FROZEN CUSTARD - - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1¼ Cups of sugar. - Yolks of three eggs. - 1 Pint of milk or cream. - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water. - 2 Tablespoons of wine or brandy. - -Make a soft custard with the first four ingredients, according to -the rule on page 195. When done, strain it into a granite-ware pan -and let it cool. Then add the flavoring and the remaining pint of -milk or cream, and freeze. - - -LEMON SHERBET WITH GELATINE - - 1 Tablespoon of gelatine. - 1 Pint of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar - ⅓ Cup of lemon-juice. - 1 Tablespoon of brandy. - -Soak the gelatine (Plymouth Rock or Nelson's) in a little -cold water for _half an hour_. Then pour over it the boiling -water, stirring until the gelatine is dissolved; add the sugar, -lemon-juice, and brandy, and strain all through a fine wire -strainer. Freeze. - -Nelson's gelatine and the Plymouth Rock or phosphated gelatine -are the best to use for sherbets and water-ices, because they -have a delicate flavor, and lack the strong, fishy taste which -characterizes some kinds. The phosphated gelatine should, however, -never be used except when a slight acidity will do no harm. Avoid -it for all dishes made with cream or milk, as it will curdle them. -The directions on the packages advise neutralizing the acid with -soda; but, as there is no means of determining the amount of acid -in a given quantity, it is not a process that recommends itself to -an intelligent person. - -Phosphated gelatine may, however, be used in sherbets even when -milk or cream forms a part of them, for when it is added to a -slightly acid mixture which has a low temperature, or is partially -frozen, curdling does not take place. - - -LEMON SHERBET WITH SUGAR SYRUP - - 1 Pint of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - ⅓ Cup of lemon-juice. - -Boil the water and sugar together without stirring for twenty -minutes. You will thus obtain a thin sugar syrup, which, however, -has enough viscousness to entangle and hold air when beaten. As -soon as it is cool, add the lemon-juice, strain, and freeze it. -This makes a snow-white sherbet of very delicate flavor. Lemon -sherbet may also be made with water, sugar, lemon-juice, and the -whites of eggs well beaten, instead of with gelatine or syrup. - - -ORANGE SHERBET - - 1 Tablespoon of gelatine. - 1 Cup of boiling water. - 1 Cup of sugar. - 1 Cup of orange-juice. - Juice of one lemon. - 2 Tablespoons of brandy. - -Soak the gelatine in just enough cold water to moisten it, for half -an hour. Then pour over it the cup of boiling water, and put in the -other ingredients in the order in which they are written; when the -sugar is dissolved, strain all through a fine wire strainer, and -freeze it. - -=To get Orange-juice.= Peel the oranges, cut them in small pieces, -quarters or eighths, put them into a jelly-bag or napkin, and press -out the juice with the hand. By this means the oil of the rind, -which has a disagreeable flavor, is excluded. - - -APRICOT ICE - - 1 Quart of apricots. - 1 Quart of water. - ½ Quart of sugar. - 3 Tablespoons of brandy. - -Either fresh or canned apricots may be used for this ice. If fresh -ones are chosen, wash and wipe them carefully, cut them into small -pieces, mash them with a potato-masher until broken and soft, and -add the water, sugar, and brandy; then freeze. The treatment is -the same if canned fruit be used. This ice may be made without the -brandy, but it is a valuable addition, especially for the sick. - -Peaches, strawberries, raspberries, pineapple, and in fact any -soft, well-flavored fruit may be made into water-ice by following -exactly the above rule, except, of course, substituting the -different kinds of fruits for the apricots, and possibly varying -the sugar. If pineapple is selected, it should be chopped quite -fine, and quickly, so that the knife will not discolor it. Peaches -should be pared, and strawberries and raspberries carefully washed. -All of these ices are delicious, and most wholesome and grateful -in very warm weather, or for feverish conditions when fruit is -allowed. If there is a question about seeds, as might be the case -in using strawberries, strain the fruit through a coarse wire -strainer after it is mashed; it is advisable to do this always in -making strawberry, raspberry, or pineapple ice. - - - - -COOKED FRUITS - - -BAKED TART APPLES - -Select fair, sound, tart apples. Wash and wipe them, and cut out -the cores with an apple-corer, being careful to remove everything -that is not clear pulp. Sometimes the tough husk which surrounds -the seeds extends farther than the instrument will reach with -once cutting; this can be detected by looking into the apple, and -removing with the point of the corer anything that remains. If -there are dark blotches or battered places on the outside of the -apple, cut them off. Everything of that kind is valueless as food, -and injures the flavor of that which is good. - -When they are prepared place the apples in an earthen baking dish -(granite-ware will do), put a teaspoon of sugar and half an inch of -dried lemon-peel, or fresh peel cut very thin, into each hole, pour -boiling water into the dish until it is an inch deep, and bake in a -moderately hot oven; when the skins begin to shrink and the apples -are perfectly soft all the way through, they are done; then take -them from the oven, arrange them in a glass dish, and pour around -them the syrupy juice that is left. - -The time for baking varies, according to the species of apple, from -half an hour to two hours. They should be basted once or twice -during the time with the water which is around them. It will nearly -all evaporate while they are baking. If the apples are Baldwins, -or Greenings, or any others of fine flavor, the lemon-peel may -be omitted. Stick cinnamon may be used instead of lemon-peel for -apples which are not quite sour. - - -BAKED SWEET APPLES - -Prepare sweet apples according to the foregoing rule, except use -a fourth of a square inch of cinnamon instead of the lemon-peel, -and half a teaspoon of sugar for each apple. Sweet apples require -two or three hours' baking. They should be cooked until perfectly -soft, and until the juice which oozes out becomes gelatinous. Serve -cold with sweet cream. Cooked apples are an excellent addition to a -diet. They contain acids and salts of great value. - - -STEWED APPLES - -Pare and quarter three slightly sour apples. Put them into a -saucepan with a cup of water and two tablespoons of sugar, and stew -gently until they are soft, but not broken. Each piece should be -whole, but soft and tender. A tablespoon of lemon-juice put in just -before they are taken from the fire is a good addition to make if -the apples are poor in flavor; or, lemon-peel may be used, and also -cinnamon and cloves. - - -APPLE COMPOTE - -Wash and wipe some fair, well-flavored apples (not sweet). Core -them with an apple-corer (not a knife), being careful not to leave -in any of the hulls, which sometimes penetrate far into the fruit; -pare them evenly, so that they will be smooth and of good shape. -Then boil them gently, in water enough to just reach their tops, -with a square inch or two of thin lemon-peel, and a teaspoon of -sugar for each apple, until they are soft, but not broken, watching -them carefully toward the last part of the cooking, lest they go to -pieces. When done lift them out into a glass dish, reduce the water -by further boiling until it is somewhat syrupy, and set it aside -to cool. Fill the holes with apple, grape, or any bright-colored -jelly, and when the syrup is cold pour it over and around the -apples. - - -STEWED PRUNES - - 1 Pint of prunes. - 1½ Pints of water. - ¼ Cup of sugar. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - -Soak the prunes in warm water for fifteen minutes, to soften the -dust and dirt on the outside. Then wash them carefully with the -fingers, rejecting those that feel granular (they are worm-eaten); -stew them gently in the sugar and water in a covered saucepan -for two hours. Just before taking them from the fire put in -the lemon-juice. They should be plump, soft, and tender to the -stone. As the water evaporates the amount should be restored, so -that there will be as much at the end as at the beginning of the -cooking. French prunes may not require quite so long time for -cooking as most ordinary kinds. - - -CRANBERRY SAUCE AND JELLY - -Pick out the soft and decayed ones from a quantity of Cape -cranberries; measure a pint, and put with it _half_ the bulk of -sugar, and _one fourth_ the bulk of water. Stew the berries ten -minutes without stirring, counting the time from the moment when -they are actually bubbling. Done in this way, the skins will be -tender, and the juice on cooling will form a delicate jelly. Or, -the fruit may be pressed through a soup-strainer and the whole made -into jelly. - - -GRAPE SAUCE - -Take any small quantity of grapes. Wash them by dipping each -bunch several times in water, unless you know that they have been -gathered and handled by clean hands. Separate the skins from the -pulps by squeezing each grape between the fingers and thumb. Cook -the pulps about five minutes, or until soft and broken. Cook the -skins for the same length of time in a separate saucepan, then -press the pulps through a strainer into them, until there is -nothing left but the seeds. Measure the mixture, and for each -measure, pint or cup, as the case may be, add half a measure of -sugar, and simmer for five minutes. Many invalids who cannot eat -grapes uncooked, on account of the seeds, may take them stewed in -this way. More or less than the above amount of sugar may be used, -according to the requirements of the individual. - - -GRAPE JELLY - -Separate the pulps from the skins of a quantity of washed grapes. -Cook each separately for a few minutes, and slowly, so as not to -evaporate the juice. Press the pulps through a soup-strainer, -mashing them if they are not broken, until there is nothing left -but the seeds; strain into this the juice from the skins, mashing -and squeezing out all that is possible. Measure the mixture, and -for every cup add a cup of sugar. Put all into a granite-ware -saucepan and boil slowly for ten or twelve minutes. - -The time required for cooking depends upon the condition of the -grapes. If they are very ripe, and it is late in the season, ten -minutes is sufficient time to obtain a fine, delicate jelly; but if -it is early in the autumn, and the fruit has not been as thoroughly -changed by nature as late in the season, twelve or fifteen minutes -will be required to obtain the same result. Even less than ten -minutes' cooking will sometimes cause the pectin of the fruit to -dissolve, which, on cooling, forms the jelly. The time required -will always be variable, according to the condition of the fruit, -so it is well to ascertain by experiment what number of minutes -gives the desired result. - -Another and important point to notice in making fruit jellies is, -that if the fruit be cooked longer than is necessary to dissolve -the jelly-forming substance, that is the pectin, the natural flavor -of the fruit is more or less injured; consequently, if grapes which -require only ten minutes' boiling are boiled for fifteen, the -flavor is inferior to what it would be if they were exposed for the -lesser time. - -It is impossible to give a rule which shall at all times apply to -the making of fruit jellies, on account of the always variable -condition of the fruit. But in general, grapes, cranberries, -currants, and similar fruits require a short time, while apples, -crab-apples, lemons, and oranges will take from one and a half -to three hours. One is therefore obliged to test the jelly at -intervals by taking out a little on a saucer to cool. If it becomes -firm quickly, the mixture is cooked enough; if not, one may get an -idea, from the consistency which it has, what further cooking will -be necessary. - - -APPLE JELLY - -Wash and wipe good tart apples. Cut them in quarters or, better, -eighths, but do not pare them. Stew them in half their bulk of -water,--that is, if you have four quarts of cut apples, put in two -quarts of water,--until the skins as well as the pulp are perfectly -soft. No definite time can be given, because that depends upon -the kind and ripeness of the fruit. When done, turn them into a -jelly-bag and drain until the juice is all out. Measure it, and -for each cup add a cup of sugar, one clove, and one square inch -of thin lemon-peel. Simmer gently for half an hour, then test it, -to see how near the jellying-point it is, by taking out a little -into a cool saucer. With some kinds of apples it will be done in -that time, with others it will take an hour or more longer. When a -little becomes firm on cooling, remove the whole immediately from -the fire, skim it, and strain it into jars or tumblers which have -been thoroughly washed in soap and water, and have been standing in -boiling water for some minutes. - -When the jelly is cool, pour over the surface a thin coating of -melted paraffin, let it harden, then pour in another; for, as the -first hardens, it may crack or shrink from the sides and leave -spaces where ferments may enter; in other words, the jars need to -be made air-tight--not that the air does mischief, but because it -contains the organisms which, on entering the jelly, cause by their -growth the various fermentative changes known to occur in fruits. -The object then will be to exclude all micro-organisms. - -There are other ways of sealing jelly than by the use of paraffin, -as, for instance, with paper soaked in alcohol, or coated with oil; -but paraffin, if properly used, is a sure, easy, and economical -means. - -A wad of sterilized cotton batting, packed into the mouth of the -jar or tumbler, like a stopper, is sometimes employed, but it is -not as effectual as the paraffin; for that, being poured in hot, -sterilizes the surface of the jelly, thus killing any organisms -that may have lodged upon it during the cooling. Organisms cannot -go through batting; but, though it may be properly sterilized, -it cannot be packed over the jelly until it has become firm, -and during the time ferments may have settled upon it. Paraffin -is a most satisfactory means of preserving jelly, and the only -precaution necessary in using it is to put on two layers, the -second one two or three hours after the first, or when all -contraction has ceased. - - - - -BREAD - - -The two most practicable methods of making bread are with yeast, -and with cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda. - -Yeast is a micro-organism--an exceedingly minute form of plant -life--which by its growth produces carbonic acid and alcohol. When -this growth takes place in a mass of flour dough, the carbonic acid -generated, in its effort to escape, puffs it up, but, owing to the -viscous nature of the gluten, it is entangled and held within. Each -little bubble of gas occupies a certain space. When the bread is -baked, the walls around these spaces harden in the heat, and thus -we get the porous loaf. - -Barley, rye, and some other grains would be very useful for bread -if it were not that they lack sufficient gluten to entangle enough -carbonic acid to render bread made from them light. - -Good bread cannot be made without good flour. There are two kinds -usually to be found in market, namely _bread_ flour, and _pastry_ -flour. The former is prepared in such a way that it contains more -gluten than the latter. In making Pastry, or St. Louis flour, as it -is sometimes called, the grain is crushed in such a manner that the -starch, being most easily broken, becomes finer than the gluten, -and in the process of bolting some of the latter is lost. For -pastry and cake this kind is best. Lacking gluten, bread made from -it is more tender, whiter, but less nutritious than that made from -so-called _bread_ flour. - -New Process, or bread flour may be distinguished by the "feel," -which is slightly granular rather than powdery, by its yellow -color, and by the fact that it does not "cake" when squeezed in the -hand; while St. Louis is white, powdery, and will "cake." - -The best method to pursue in buying flour is, first, to find a good -dealer, upon whose advice you may rely. Next, take a sample of the -flour recommended and, with a recipe which you have _proved_ to be -correct, try some; if the first loaf of bread is not satisfactory, -try another, and then another, until you are confident that the -fault lies in the flour, and not in the method of making. Finally, -having found a brand of flour from which you can make yellow-white -instead of snow-white bread, which has a nutty, sweet flavor, which -in mixing absorbs much liquid, and does not "run" after you think -you have got it stiff enough, and which feels puffy and elastic to -the hand after molding, keep it; it is probably good. - -Often the same flour is sold in different sections of the country -under different names, so that it is impossible to recommend any -special brand. Each buyer must ascertain for herself which brands -in her locality are best. It is just as easy to have good bread as -poor. It only requires a _little_ care and a _little_ intelligence -on the part of the housekeeper. - -Having found a brand of good flour, next give your attention to -yeast. In these days, when excellent compressed yeasts may be found -in all markets, it is well to use them, bearing in mind that they -_are_ compressed, and that a very small quantity contains a great -many yeast cells, and will raise bread as well, if not better, than -a large amount. - -Home-made liquid yeast is exceedingly easy to prepare. It simply -requires a mixture of water and some material in which the plant -cells will rapidly grow. Grated raw potato, cooked by pouring on -boiling water, flour, and sugar form an excellent food for their -propagation. A recipe for yeast will be given later. - -Now we have come to the consideration of what will take place when -the two, flour and yeast, are made into dough. According to some -accounts of the subject, the yeast begins to act first upon the -starch, converting it into sugar (glucose C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}). While -this is taking place there is no _apparent_ change, for nothing -else is formed except the glucose, or sugar. Then this sugar is -changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the latter, owing to its -diffusive nature, endeavors to escape, but becomes entangled in the -viscous mass and swells it to several times its original bulk. - -This has been the accepted explanation; it is now, however, -believed not to be correct. It is thought, and I believe -demonstrated, that the yeast plant lives upon sugar; that it has -not the power to act directly upon starch, but that it is capable -of _producing_ a substance which acts upon starch to convert it -into sugar. - -The production of the carbonic acid is the end of desirable -chemical change, and when it has been carried to a sufficient -degree to fill the dough with bubbles, it should be stopped. - -Kneading bread is for the purpose of distributing the gas and -breaking up the large bubbles into small ones, to give the loaf a -fine grain. One will immediately see that kneading before the bread -is raised is a more or less useless task. Kneading is a process -which should be done gently, by handling the dough with great -tenderness; for if it is pressed hard against the molding-board, -the bubbles will be worked out through the surface, and the loaf -consequently less porous than if all the gas is kept in it. - -The best temperature for the raising of bread (in other words, -for the growing of yeast) during the first part of the process is -from 70° to 75° Fahr. It may touch 80° without harm, but 90° is -the limit. Above that acetic fermentation is liable to occur, and -the bread becomes sour. When the bread is made into loaves, it -may be placed in a very warm temperature, to rise quickly if it -is intended for immediate baking. Besides killing the yeast, the -object sought in baking is to form a sheath of cooked dough all -over the outside, for a skeleton or support for the inside mass -while it is cooking. Baking also expands the carbonic acid, and -volatilizes the alcohol. The latter is lost. - -A good temperature in which to begin the baking of bread is 400° -Fahr. This may gradually decrease to not lower than 250°, and the -time, for a good-sized brick loaf, is one hour. If it is a large -loaf, increase the time by a quarter or a half hour. - -"The expansion of water or ice into 1700 times its volume of steam, -is sometimes taken advantage of in making snow bread, water gems, -etc. It plays a part in the lightening of pastry and crackers. Air -at 70° Fahr. expands to about twice its volume at the temperature -of a hot oven, so that if air is entangled in a mass of dough -it gives a certain lightness when the whole is baked. This is -the cause of the sponginess of cakes made with eggs. The viscous -albumen catches the air and holds it."[41] - -There are other means of obtaining carbonic acid to lighten -bread, besides by the growing of yeast. The most convenient, -perhaps the most valuable, method is by causing cream of tartar -and bicarbonate of soda to unite chemically. (The products of -the union are carbonic acid and Rochelle salts.) The advantage of -using these over everything else yet tried is, that they do not -unite when brought in contact except in the presence of water and -a certain degree of heat. Rochelle salts, taken in such minute -quantities as it occurs in bread made in this way, is not harmful. - -Cream of tartar bread, if _perfectly_ made, is more nutritious than -fermented bread, for none of the constituents of the flour are -lost, as when yeast is used.[42] - -The difficulty of obtaining good cream of tartar is very great. It -is said to be more extensively adulterated than any other substance -used for food. Moreover, in the practice of bread-making the cream -of tartar and soda are generally mixed in the proportion of two to -one--that is, two teaspoons of cream of tartar to every teaspoon -of soda; but this is not the _exact_ proportion in which they -neutralize each other, so that under ordinary circumstances there -is an excess of soda in the bread. - -To be exact they should always be combined by weight, as is done -in making baking-powders, the proportion being 84 parts of soda -to 188 of cream of tartar, or, reducing to lower terms, as 21 to -47--a little less than half as much soda as cream of tartar. For -practical use in cooking there are no scales known to the author -for the purpose of weighing these materials, so the proportion -will have to be approximated with teaspoons, and a fairly accurate -result for bread-making may be obtained most easily by measuring a -teaspoon of each in exactly the same manner, and then taking off a -little from the soda. - -With good materials, care in measuring them, and a hot oven to set -the bread before the gas escapes, cream of tartar biscuits are both -wholesome and palatable. - - -LIQUID YEAST - -(HOME-MADE WITH GRATED POTATO) - - 1 Medium-sized potato. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Tablespoon of flour. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1½ Pints of boiling water. - ⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - -First see that there is a supply of boiling water. Then put the -salt, sugar, and flour together in a mixing-bowl. Wash and peel the -potato, and grate it quickly into the bowl, covering it now and -then with the flour to prevent discoloring. As soon as the potato -is all grated, pour in the boiling water and stir. It will form -into a somewhat thick paste at once. Set it aside to cool. Then -dissolve the yeast in a little cold water, add it, and set the -mixture to rise in a temperature of 70° to 80° Fahr. - -In a short time bubbles will begin to appear; these are carbonic -acid, showing that the alcoholic stage of the fermentation has -begun. In six or eight hours the whole will be a mass of yeast -cells, which have grown in the nutrient liquid. It is then ready -for use. It should be bottled in wide-mouthed glass or earthen -jars, and kept in a cool place. It will remain good for two weeks. -At the end of that time make a fresh supply. - -Yeast is an organism--a microscopic form of plant life--which grows -by a species of budding with great rapidity when it finds lodgment -in material suitable for its food. The dissolved compressed yeast -is like seed, which, when put into a fruitful soil, grows so long -as sustenance lasts. - - -WATER BREAD - - 1 Pint of boiling water. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - ⅓ Cup of liquid yeast, or - ⅕ of a two-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - Enough sifted flour to make a stiff dough. - -Put the sugar, salt, and butter with the boiling water into a -mixing-bowl or bread-pan. Stir until the sugar is dissolved and the -water lukewarm, then add the yeast (if compressed, it should be -dissolved in a little water). Last, stir in the flour until a dough -stiff enough to mold easily is made. Mold it for a minute or two -to give it shape and to more thoroughly mix the ingredients, and -then set it to rise in a room warm enough to be comfortable to live -in--that is, having a temperature of 70° Fahr. It should remain in -this temperature for eight hours. Cover it closely, that the top -may not dry. - -It is often convenient to let bread rise over night. There is no -objection to this, provided the bread is mixed late in the evening, -and baked early the next morning. Care must be taken, however, that -the room in which it is left is warm enough to insure rising in the -time given. On the other hand, if allowed to rise too long, or at -too high a temperature, the fermentation is carried so far that an -acid is produced, and the dough becomes sour. - -Eight hours at 70° Fahr. is a good rule to keep in mind. During the -time of raising the dough should double itself in bulk. If this -does not happen, or it does not appear to have risen at all, either -the yeast was not good, or the temperature was too low. - -When the bread has risen sufficiently, cut it down, and knead it -for five minutes on a bread-board, to distribute the gas and break -the large bubbles, so that the bread may have an even grain; then -shape it into a loaf, put it into an oiled baking-pan, and let it -rise quickly in a warm place, until it again doubles itself. The -amount of dough indicated in the rule will make one large loaf, -or a medium-sized loaf and some biscuit. Multiply the rule by two -if you want two loaves. Bake the bread in an oven which is hot at -first, but gradually decreases in temperature, for an hour and a -quarter. If you have an oven thermometer use it.[43] - - -MILK BREAD - - 1 Pint of _scalded_ milk. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ⅓ Cup of liquid yeast, or - ⅕ Cake of Fleischmann's yeast. - -Measure the milk after scalding, but otherwise proceed exactly as -in the making of water bread. - - -STICKS - - 1 Cup of _scalded_ milk. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - 2 Tablespoons of butter. - ⅕ Cake of yeast, or - ¼ Cup of liquid yeast. - White of one egg. - Flour enough to make a slightly soft dough. - -Dissolve the salt and sugar, and soften the butter in the hot -milk, which must be measured _after_ heating. When it is cooled to -lukewarmness, put in the yeast (which, if compressed, should be -dissolved in a little cold water), the beaten white of the egg, -and flour enough to make a dough _slightly_ softer than that for -ordinary bread. Let it rise overnight, or until light. Then cut -it into small pieces, shape the pieces into balls, and roll and -stretch them into tiny slender sticks, from ten to twelve inches -long, about half an inch thick in the middle, and tapering toward -each end. Place them, two inches apart, in shallow, buttered pans, -and put them in a warm place for an hour to rise; then bake them -in a moderate oven fifteen or twenty minutes, or until they are a -golden brown. Sticks are good at any time; they are especially nice -served with soup, or for lunch, with cocoa or tea. - -This dough may also be made into tiny loaves for tea-rolls. - - -RUSK - - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - 1 Cup of _scalded_ milk. - ¼ Cup of liquid yeast, or - ⅙ Cake of compressed yeast. - Flour enough to make a soft dough. - -Mix the above ingredients together, and let the dough rise -overnight in the usual time given to bread. Then beat one-fourth -of a cup of butter, one-fourth of a cup of sugar, and one egg -together, and work the mixture into the dough, adding a little more -flour to make it stiff enough to mold. Set it to rise a second -time; then shape it into rolls or tiny loaves, allow them to rise -again until quite light, or for an hour in a warm place, and bake -like bread. - - -DRIED RUSK - -Cut the rusk when cold into thin slices, dry them slowly in the -oven, and then brown them a delicate golden color. - -Dried rusk is exceedingly easy of digestion, and makes a delicious -lunch with a glass of warm milk or a cup of tea. - - -GRAHAM BREAD - - 1 Pint of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - ⅕ Cake of compressed yeast. - 2 Cups of white flour. - Enough Graham flour to make a dough. - -Scald some milk, and from it measure a pint; to this add the sugar -and salt. While it is cooling sift some Graham flour, being careful -to exclude the chaff or outside silicious covering of the grain, -but _nothing else_. When the milk has become lukewarm, put in the -yeast, which has previously been dissolved in a little cold water, -and the white flour (sifted), with enough of the Graham to make a -dough which shall be stiff, but yet not stiff enough to mold. Mix -thoroughly, and shape it with a spoon into a round mass in the -dish. After this follow the same directions as for water bread, -letting it rise the same time, and baking it in the same manner. - -After the dough has risen, although it is soft, it can be _shaped -into a loaf_ on the bread-board, but not molded. - - -CREAM-OF-TARTAR BISCUIT - -First, attend to the fire; see that you have a clear, steady one, -such as will give a hot oven by the time the biscuits are ready for -baking. Then sift some flour, and measure a quart. Into it put two -teaspoons of cream of tartar, and one of soda, the latter to be -measured exactly like the teaspoons of cream of tartar, and then -a very little taken off. This is a more accurate way of getting a -scanted teaspoon than by taking some on the spoon and guessing at -it. Add one teaspoon of salt, and sift all together four times, -then with the fingers rub into the flour one spoon of butter. - -At this point, if it has not been already done, get the -baking-pans, rolling-pin, board, dredging-box, and cutter ready for -use. Then with a knife stir into the flour enough milk to make a -soft dough. Do this as quickly as convenient, and without any delay -mold the dough just enough to shape it; roll it out, cut it into -biscuits, and put them immediately into the oven, where they should -bake for thirty minutes. - -=Pocket-Books.= Work or knead together the pieces that are left -after making cream-of-tartar biscuit (or make a dough on purpose), -roll it out very thin, cut it into rounds, brush them over with -milk or melted butter, fold once so as to make a half-moon shape, -and you will have "pocket-books." - -=Twin Biscuit.= Roll out some dough very thin, cut it into very -small rounds, and place one on top of another, with butter between. - -Iced water may be substituted for milk in the above rule. In -baking, however, the oven should be unusually hot, so as to take -advantage of the expansion of the water. Also, baking-powder may be -substituted for the cream of tartar and soda, using a fourth more -of the baking-powder than of the two together. - - -SNOW-CAKES - - ½ Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Tablespoon of sugar. - Whites of two eggs. - 1½ Cups of flour. - 1 Saltspoon of salt. - 1½ Teaspoons of baking-powder. - 1 Cup of milk. - -Measure each of the ingredients carefully, then sift the flour, -salt, and baking-powder together four times. Cream the butter and -sugar with a little of the milk, then add the whites of the eggs -well beaten, the rest of the milk, and last the flour. Bake this -batter in hot buttered gem-pans from twenty minutes to half an -hour. These cakes are delicious eaten hot for lunch or tea. This -mixture may also be baked in small, round earthen cups. - - -GRAHAM GEMS - - 1 Cup of milk. - ½ Teaspoon of salt. - ½ Cup of white flour. - 1 Cup of Graham flour. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - ½ Teaspoon of soda (_slightly_ scanted). - 1 Tablespoon of melted butter. - -Sift and measure the Graham flour, add the cream of tartar, soda, -and white flour, and sift again. Mix the milk, salt, and sugar -together, and stir it into the flour; last, put in the melted -butter, beat for a minute, and then drop a spoonful in each -division of a roll gem-pan, which should be well buttered, and -made very hot on the top of the stove. Bake in a hot oven from -twenty-five minutes to half an hour. Serve hot. - - -OATMEAL MUFFINS - - 2¼ Cups of flour. - 2 Teaspoons of baking-powder. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - 2 Tablespoons of sugar. - 1 Egg. - 1 Cup of milk. - 1 Cup of cooked oatmeal. - 1 Tablespoon of butter melted. - -Sift the flour and baking-powder together twice. Beat the egg very -light, stir into it the salt, sugar, and milk, then add the flour, -and last the oatmeal and butter; beat for half a minute, and bake -immediately in gem-pans or muffin-rings in a hot oven for half an -hour. - -N. B.--The oatmeal should not be cooked to a soft, thin mush, but -should be rather dry; so, in preparing it, use less water than for -porridge. These cakes are to be eaten hot. - - -GLUTEN BREAD - -Gluten flour is prepared in such a way that much of the starch -of the grain is excluded. It is frequently required for persons -suffering with diabetes, who cannot digest either sugar or starch. -It should be made with flour, water, yeast, and salt only. Do not -use milk for mixing, as it contains sugar. - -One pint of water, one half teaspoon of salt, one fifth of a cake -of yeast, one tablespoon of butter, and enough flour to make the -usual bread dough will be required. Otherwise the process is -exactly the same as for ordinary bread. - - -BAKING-POWDER - -Baking-powder is a mixture of cream of tartar, bicarbonate of soda, -and arrowroot. The latter is used to keep the two chemicals dry, -and thus prevent the slow union which would otherwise take place. -Sometimes tartaric acid is used instead of cream of tartar. The -following rule may be relied upon: - - Tartaric acid 2 oz. by weight. - Bicarbonate of soda 3 " " " - Arrowroot 3 " " " - -Mix and sift together thoroughly. Keep in a dry place, in a -wide-mouthed bottle. - - - - -CAKE - - -Cake of the simpler kinds, especially sponge cake, is frequently -given to the sick. Good sponge cake, served with sweet cream or a -glass of milk, is an excellent lunch for an invalid. Some of the -plain kinds of butter cakes--those made with a little butter--such -as white, feather, and similar varieties, are excellent food. - -Consider for a moment what they contain: eggs, milk, butter, sugar, -and flour--five of the most valuable of all our food products. Yet -there are those who pride themselves upon not eating cake, which -idiosyncrasy can only be explained in one of two ways: either the -cake which they have had has not been properly made, or else it has -been so good that, during a lapse of judgment, they have eaten too -much. - -The dark fruit cakes should be avoided by both sick and well, on -account of the indigestible nature of the dried fruits used in -them, and also because they are often compact and close-grained, -not light. - -There is a custom prevalent in many kitchens of using what is -called "cooking" butter--that is, butter which is off taste or -rancid--for cake. It is but poor economy, even if it can merit -that name at all. If you have no other butter for cake, don't make -any. Sweet butter and fresh--not "store"--eggs are _absolutely -necessary_. Also, a dainty worker to mix the ingredients with -accuracy and care, and to oil the pan in which the cake is to -be baked, so that the outside shall not taste of fat. Many an -otherwise nice cake has been spoiled by oiling the pan in which -it was baked with dirty or rancid grease. Use a very little sweet -butter or olive-oil. - - -THE PROCESS OF CAKE MAKING - -All ordinary cakes are made in much the same way as to the order in -which their ingredients are mixed. First the butter and sugar are -creamed together, then the yolks of the eggs are beaten and added, -with the milk, to the butter and sugar; then the flour, into which -the cream of tartar and soda have been well mixed by sifting them -together several times, is put in; and last, the beaten whites of -the eggs. - -=Care in Baking.= For sponge cake made with baking-powder, or -soda and cream of tartar, an oven moderately heated will be -required--that is, one of 300° Fahr., or one which will _slightly_ -brown a loaf in twenty minutes. - -For sponge cake made without raising material, such as the -old-fashioned kind, in which only eggs, sugar, and flour are used, -a slow oven is necessary. - -For butter cakes a temperature somewhere between 350° and 380° will -not fail. - -The baking of cake is the most difficult part of the process, on -account of the constantly variable condition of ovens in common -iron stoves, and because it is more easily spoiled than bread and -other foods usually cooked in an oven. One is obliged to exercise a -new judgment every time cake is made. Even thermometers are only a -partial help, for if an oven has a temperature of 300° Fahr. at a -certain time, there is no means of being sure what the temperature -will be half an hour from then. However, by giving attention and -some practice to it, one may gain considerable skill in managing -fires. Should the cake be cooking too fast, and arranging the stove -dampers does not lessen the heat, a piece of buttered paper laid -over the top will protect it, and will not stick. Layer, or thin -cakes, require a hotter oven than loaves. - -Pans for baking cake should be lined with buttered paper (the -buttered side up), letting it overlap the sides for about an inch -to assist in lifting out the cake. An earthenware bowl and a wooden -spoon should be used for mixing. - -Get everything ready before beginning to mix cake, the oven first -of all. Bake as soon as possible after the flour is in, for -carbonic acid begins to be formed as soon as the soda and cream of -tartar come in contact with the liquid, and some of it will escape -unless the mixture is baked at once. Do not stop to scrape every -bit from the bowl; that can be attended to afterward, and a little -patty-cake made of what is left. - - -INVALID'S SPONGE CAKE - - 2 Cups of pastry flour measured after sifting. - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - ½ Teaspoon of soda (slightly scanted). - 4 Eggs. - 1½ Cups of powdered sugar. - ½ Cup of water. - 2 Tablespoons of lemon-juice. - -Get everything ready before beginning to make the cake; oil the -pan, or oil paper and line the pan with it; measure the flour, -cream of tartar, and soda, and sift them together four times; -measure the sugar, water, and lemon-juice, and separate the yolks -from the whites of the eggs. Beat the whites of the eggs with half -the sugar until they are very light. Then beat the yolks very -light, or until they become lemon-colored, add the remaining half -of the sugar and beat again, and then a little of the water if it -is difficult to turn the egg-beater. When the sugar is well mixed, -add the remainder of the water, the lemon-juice, and the flour. -Beat for a few seconds, but not long, as all mixtures that have -cream of tartar and soda should be baked as quickly as possible. -Last of all _fold_ in (not beat) the whites of the eggs lightly, -so as not to break out the air which has been entangled by the -beating, as it helps to make the cake light. - -Bake in a moderate oven from forty-five to fifty minutes, or until -the cake shrinks a little from the pan. - - -FEATHER CAKE - - ¼ Cup of butter. - 1 Cup of sugar. - 2 Eggs. - 1½ Cups of pastry flour. - ½ Teaspoon of soda (slightly scanted). - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - A little grated nutmeg. - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla. - -See first of all that you have a proper fire. Measure -the ingredients, and get everything ready before -beginning--mixing-bowl, pans, etc. Use a wooden cake spoon, with -slits in the bowl, for mixing. Line the pans with buttered paper. -Then cream the butter, adding to it half the sugar and half the -milk, the latter very slowly; separate the yolks of the eggs from -the whites, and beat them with the remaining sugar; when they are -very light add the rest of the milk. Beat the whites until stiff. -Now mix the creamed butter and yolks together with the flavoring, -then stir in the flour, and last the whites, which are to be cut -and folded in, _not beaten_. Bake it in shallow pans in a moderate -oven forty minutes, or about that time. When the cake begins to -shrink a little from the sides of the pan, there is no doubt that -it is cooked enough. This recipe may be used for a variety of plain -cakes. - -=For Chocolate Cake.= Melt and stir into the above mixture two -ounces of Baker's chocolate, or two teaspoons of cocoa wet in a -little warm water. - -=For Rose Cake.= Color the feather cake mixture with six drops of -carmine. - - -LAYER CAKE - -Oil three layer cake pans, or pie-plates. Make the feather cake -mixture, and divide it into three portions. Bake one white, color -another pink with three or four drops of carmine, and the third -brown with an ounce of melted chocolate. Bake in a hot oven for -fifteen minutes. When cool, join the layers with White Mountain -frosting, and frost the top of the last layer. Any of the fillings -given under the head of "Cake Filling" may also be used. - -When chocolate is used in cake, it is not necessary to grate it or -even to break it into small pieces. It contains a large proportion -of fat which liquefies at a low temperature, consequently it is -necessary only to heat it slowly to reduce it to the liquid state. - - -CARMINE FOR COLORING - -The following rule for making liquid carmine for coloring cake, -ice-cream, blanc-mange, etc., will be found useful: - - 1 Ounce of No. 40 carmine. - 3 Ounces of boiling water. - 1 Ounce of ammonia. - -Bottle for use. It will keep indefinitely. - - -WHITE CAKE - - 1 Tablespoon of butter. - 1 Cup of sugar (powdered). - 1¼ Cups of pastry flour. - ½ Teaspoon of soda. - 1 Teaspoon of cream of tartar. - Whites of four eggs. - ¼ Teaspoon of almond extract, or - 1 Teaspoon of rose-water. - -Proceed, as with all cake mixtures, by getting everything ready -before beginning to mix any of the ingredients, not forgetting the -fire. Then cream the butter with the sugar, and add the milk to it -slowly, so that the cream shall not break. Beat the whites of the -eggs very stiff. Then to the butter, sugar, etc., add the flour, -with which the cream of tartar and soda have been sifted at least -four times, and the flavoring; last, fold in the whites of the -eggs, and bake in a round loaf for an hour and a quarter or an hour -and a half in a _slow_ oven. - - -DREAM CAKE - -Make a white cake mixture. Bake it in shallow layer-cake pans, in -a moderate, not slow, oven. Join them with a caramel filling, and -frost the top with the same, or use White Mountain frosting instead -of the caramel, flavored with rose-water, and left either white, or -colored a delicate shell pink with carmine. - - -CAKE FILLING AND FROSTING - -WHITE MOUNTAIN FROSTING - -Boil together, _without stirring_, one cup of granulated sugar with -one third of a cup of boiling water, for eight or ten minutes. When -the sugar has been boiling five minutes, beat the white of one egg -until it is very light. Then test the sugar mixture by letting -a little run off the side of a spoon. If in falling it forms a -delicate thread, it is just at the point to stop the boiling. When -it has reached this point, pour it at once into the beaten egg in -a small stream, stirring the egg constantly to keep it smooth. -Continue stirring for two or three minutes until it begins to -thicken, then spread it either between layer cakes for filling, or -use it for frosting. - - -CARAMEL FILLING - - 1 Cup of brown sugar. - ¼ Cup of sweet cream. - 1 Teaspoon of butter. - -Boil all together until it threads, stirring it slowly as it boils. -It will take about eight minutes. Use either for frosting or -filling. - - -CHOCOLATE ICING - - ½ Cup of sugar. - 4 Tablespoons of water. - 2 Eggs. - 1 Ounce of chocolate, or - 1 Tablespoon of Dutch cocoa. - 1 Teaspoon of vanilla. - -Boil the sugar, water, and chocolate together, two minutes, to -render the chocolate smooth. Then add the beaten eggs. Cook two -minutes more, stirring slowly and gently. Add the vanilla just as -it is taken from the fire, and use at once, as it becomes firm -quickly. It is good either for icing cakes or for filling. - - -CREAM FILLING - -Make a cream sauce with one cup of milk, a tablespoon of butter, -and a tablespoon of flour. Beat one egg with half a cup of sugar, -and stir it into the sauce slowly. Cook for two minutes, or until -the egg is done. It should look like a thick smooth cream. Flavor -it with a piece of cinnamon bark boiled in the milk, or with -vanilla or almond. Use this cream for filling, for layer cakes, or -split a thin sponge cake in two, and spread it between the halves. - - - - -DIET LISTS OR MENUS FOR THE SICK - - -Diet for the sick may be divided into three kinds: Liquid, Light, -and Convalescent's or Invalid's Diet. - -Liquid diet consists entirely of liquids, of which milk is the -most valuable. The meat broths (those made with beef, chicken, and -mutton), oyster and clam broth, albumen water, eggs in the form -of egg-nog, egg cream, and mulled wine, and tea and coffee are -excellent. To this list may be added, as the patient shows signs of -recovery, soft custards, and jellies made with wine, lemon, coffee, -or orange-juice, which quickly become liquid when eaten. - -A patient is given liquid diet during times of severe and dangerous -illness. Usually the amount of food and intervals at which it is to -be given are prescribed by the physician. - -The following table may be of assistance to those who are without -such aid: - - -LIQUID DIET - -No. 1 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Hot coffee with cream and - a little sugar ½ of a cup - 12 M. Beef-juice 2 tablespoons - 2 P. M. Warm milk ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Wine whey ½ of a cup - 6 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - - -No. 2 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Chicken broth ¾ of a cup - 12 M. Egg-nog ½ tumbler - 2 P. M. Milk ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Hot tea with cream and sugar ¾ of a cup - 6 P. M. Chicken broth ¼ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - - -No. 3 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Beef broth ¾ of a cup - 12 M. Beef-juice 2 tablespoons - 2 P. M. Milk, either warm or cold ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Oyster broth with milk ¾ of a cup - 6 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - - -No. 4 - - 8 A. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 12 M. Beef-juice, warm or cold ¾ of a cup - 2 P. M. Beef broth, hot ¾ of a cup - 4 P. M. Wine jelly 2 tablespoons - 6 P. M. Hot cocoa ¾ of a cup - 8 P. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - - -No. 5 - - 8 A. M. Hot milk ¾ of a cup - 10 A. M. Coffee with cream and sugar ½ of a cup - 12 M. Hot beef broth ¾ of a cup - 2 P. M. Orange jelly 3 tablespoons - 4 P. M. Mulled wine ¾ of a cup - 6 P. M. Warm or cold soft custard ½ of a cup - 8 P. M. Warm cocoa ¾ of a cup - -If nourishment is to be given throughout the night, either hot or -warm milk or cocoa is good. They are soothing and sometimes induce -sleep. Tea and wine whey should be avoided at night, unless, of -course, the patient needs stimulating, in which case use the wine -only, for tea often causes wakefulness. - -The whites of eggs beaten and strained, and mixed with finely -crushed ice, is a valuable form of food for a typhoid fever -patient. Toast-water and cracker tea are good in all feverish -conditions. Milk may be varied by making it into milk-punch, with -a very little sugar (a scanty teaspoon) and a tablespoon of brandy -or sherry to each tumbler, or it may be made with a few drops of -vanilla, instead of the brandy or sherry. - - -LIGHT DIET - -Light diet consists of everything included in liquid diet, and in -addition fruits, such as grapes and oranges; porridge of granum or -farina; soft-cooked or poached eggs; dry, water, milk, and cream -toast; the _maigre_ soups, such as celery and mock-bisque, and -chicken; delicate puddings, coffee and velvet cream, and baked -custards, with perhaps for dinner a meat ball, a small bit of -beefsteak or roast beef, and a baked potato. - -Jellies made with gelatine, especially when flavored with wine, are -a very valuable form of food with which to make the transition from -liquid to light diet. They are palatable, nutritious, and, being in -solid form, are satisfying to the minds of those who think they are -not getting much to eat when fed on liquids alone. - -The change from liquid to light diet should be made gradually, -adding one kind of solid food at a time. Perhaps after the jellies -a bit of water or milk toast, then an egg, then a little soup or -pudding, until, as strength is gained, the person is able to take -anything in the list, and finally is able to eat almost any kind of -nutritious and well-prepared food. - - -FIRST DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - Poached Egg on Toast. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - Milk-punch. - -_Dinner._ - - Raw Oysters. Cream-crackers. Port Wine. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. - -_Supper._ - - Milk Toast. Wine Jelly. Tea. - - -SECOND DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - Soft-cooked Egg. Milk Toast. - Coffee with Sugar and Cream. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Soft Custard. - -_Dinner._ - - Cream-of-celery Soup. Sippets. - A little Barley Pudding, with Cream. Sherry Wine. - -_Lunch._ - - Milk-punch. - -_Supper._ - - Water Toast, Buttered. Wine Jelly. Tea. - - -THIRD DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - Scrambled Egg. Cream Toast. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth. - -_Dinner._ - - Chicken Panada. Bread. Port Wine. - A little Tapioca Cream. - -_Lunch._ - - An Egg-nog. - -_Supper._ - - Buttered Dry Toast. Baked Sweet Apples and Cream. - Tea. - - -FOURTH DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Farina Mush, with Cream and Sugar. - Poached Egg on Toast. Baked Potato. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Soft Custard. - -_Dinner._ - - Potato Soup. Croutons. - A small Piece of Beefsteak. Creamed Potatoes. - Baked Custard. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Chicken Broth, with Rice. - -_Supper._ - - Raw Oysters. Banquet Crackers. - Graham Bread, Toasted. Wine Jelly. Tea. - - -FIFTH DAY. - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Coffee. Mush of Wheat Germ, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Mutton Chop. Toast. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Mulled Wine. - -_Dinner._ - - Chicken Soup. Bread. - Creamed Sweetbreads. Duchess Potato. - Snow Pudding. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - Siphon Soda, with Coffee Syrup and Cream. - -_Supper._ - - Buttered Dry Toast. Orange Jelly. - Sponge Cake and Cream. Tea. - - -CONVALESCENT'S DIET - -Convalescent's diet includes the liquid and light diets, and, in -addition, all easily digested and nutritious food. For meats, -game, especially venison and birds, beef, mutton, and chicken may -be given, but never either pork or veal. They are difficult of -digestion. Eggs in all ways, soft-cooked, scrambled, poached, and -as omelets, well-baked potatoes, creamed potatoes, celery, snow -pudding, cream of rice pudding, and tapioca cream, jellies, both -those made from gelatine and fruits, Graham bread, Graham gems, -rusk, and, in fact, any well-made bread, and good cake. - -A convalescent may use for drinks plenty of good milk, cocoa, -_carefully made_ tea and coffee, occasionally good wine, and the -different mineral and drinking waters. Some foods to be avoided are -pastry, dark or badly made cakes, pork, veal, any highly seasoned -meat dish made with gravy, all kinds of fried food, sausages, heavy -puddings, badly made bread, lobsters and crabs. - - -SPRING - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Porridge of Wheat Flakes, with Cream and Sugar. - Omelet, with Broiled Ham. - Coffee. Hot Graham Gems and Butter. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. A Cream-cracker. - -_Dinner._ - - Chicken Soup. Creamed Fish. - Mashed Potato. Snow Pudding. - White Cake. Tea. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Milk. - -_Supper._ - - Broiled Squab on Toast. Creamed Potatoes. - Bread and Butter. Jelly. - Cocoa. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. - French Chops (Mutton). Baked Potato. - Cream Toast of Graham Bread. - Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Cracker Gruel. - -_Dinner._ - - Mock-bisque Soup. Sticks. - Roast Beef. French Peas. Mashed Potato. - Bread and Butter. - Baked Cup Custard. Coffee or Claret. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Bouillon. - -_Supper._ - - Scrambled Eggs. Creamed Potatoes. - Water Toast, with Apple Compote. - Feather Cake. Tea. - - -SUMMER - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - Blackberries. - Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Steak. Baked Potatoes. - Dry Toast. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Tumbler of Kumiss. - -_Dinner._ - - Potato Soup made with New Potatoes. - Baked Fish. Mashed Potatoes. Peas. - Chicken Salad. Lemon Jelly. - Tea. - -_Lunch._ - - Soda-water, with Vanilla Syrup and Cream. - -_Supper._ - - Cold Broiled Chicken. Bread and Butter. - Blueberries. White Cake. - Cocoa. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - Blueberries. - Broiled Perch. Baked Potatoes. - Hot Snow Cakes, with Butter. - Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - Milk-punch. - -_Dinner._ - - Broiled French Chop. Duchess Potato. - Peas. Tomato Salad. - Tapioca Cream. Wine Jelly. - Lemonade. - -_Lunch._ - - Egg-nog. - -_Supper._ - - Hot Water Toast, Buttered. Berries. - Omelet, with Parsley. - Tea. Soft Custard in Cups. - - -AUTUMN - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - Oatmeal Mush, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Steak. Baked Potatoes. - Oatmeal Muffins, Hot, with Butter. - Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Beef Broth. A Banquet Cracker. - -_Dinner._ - - Celery Soup. Sippets. Roast Pheasant, with Jelly. - Potatoes. Stewed Mushrooms. - Velvet Cream. Cocoa. - -_Lunch._ - - A thin Sandwich of Bread and Butter. Tea. - -_Supper._ - - Raw Oysters. Cream Toast. Baked Apples. - Rusk. Tea. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - Cantaloup. - Farina Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Mutton Chop. Baked Potatoes. - Dry Toast. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth. - -_Dinner._ - - Oyster Soup. Sticks. - Roast Beef. Creamed Potatoes. - Celery Salad. - Coffee Cream. Tea. - -_Lunch._ - - A Cup of Hot Oatmeal Gruel. - -_Supper._ - - Poached Egg on Toast. Cocoa. - Graham Bread and Butter. Sponge Cake. - - -WINTER - -No. 1 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Oatmeal Porridge, with Cream and Sugar. Coffee. - Broiled Steak. Baked Potato. Cream Toast. - -_Lunch._ - - Egg-nog. - -_Dinner._ - - Celery Soup. Croutons. - Roast Chicken. Creamed Onions. Duchess Potato. - Lettuce Salad (plain). Velvet Cream. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - Cocoa Cordial. Sponge Cake. - -_Supper._ - - Fancy Roast of Oysters. Dry Toast. - Chocolate, with Whipped Cream. Orange Jelly. - - -No. 2 - -_Breakfast._ - - An Orange. - Wheat Germ, with Cream and Sugar. - Broiled Partridge. Dry Toast. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Hot Chicken Broth. - -_Dinner._ - - Consommé. Bread. - Roast Beef. Mashed Potatoes. - Tomato Salad. - Cream of Rice Pudding. Coffee. - -_Lunch._ - - 1 Cup of Mulled Wine. - -_Supper._ - - Venison Steak, with Port Wine Sauce. - Toast. Sponge Cake, with Sweet Cream. - Cocoa. - - - - -SERVING - - -If cooking be a science, then serving is an art. It perhaps more -closely resembles painting than any other, for a well-spread -table should be a picture, and each separate dish a choice bit -in the landscape. The invalid's tray should be a dainty Dresden -water-color of delicate hues and harmonious tints. - -It is not easy to give definite directions in regard to serving, -for it involves so much of good taste in so many directions, and -depends so largely upon the individual and the circumstances. It -requires intelligent study, a cultivated habit of thought, and the -appreciation of symmetry, and the harmony of colors; to do it well -one must ever judge anew and arrange again, for no two meals are -exactly alike in all their details. - -Of course, the most important thing in serving is the thing to -be served. A badly prepared or unwholesome dish, no matter how -beautifully it may be presented, is worthless--perhaps even worse, -for it may prove a positive source of evil. An indifferently -done steak, served on a silver platter, is less acceptable than -one perfectly cooked on plain china, or a bit of burned toast on -Dresden ware than a daintily browned piece on a common white plate. -Put the force, therefore, of your efforts on securing that which -is wholesome in itself, adapted to the needs of the patient, and -perfectly cooked; then serve it in the most attractive manner at -your command. - -Good serving is a necessity for the sick. It should never be -regarded as simply ornamental. When a person has the hunger of -health, colors and dishes are not of great account; but when one is -ill, or exhausted with fatigue, sometimes a pretty color, a dainty -cup, or beauty of arrangement makes all the difference, and one is -tempted to eat when otherwise the food would remain untouched. - -Simplicity should rule at all times the arrangement of an invalid's -tray. Anything like display is entirely out of place. Japanned -trays of oval shape are the ones in general use. When one is -fortunate enough to possess a silver tray, the dishes may be placed -directly upon it, or on a doily, which covers the center of it. -All other trays should be completely covered with a dainty snowy -napkin, or tray-cloth. - -After the napkin has been neatly spread upon the tray, place a -plate in the middle of the side nearest to you, and then arrange -the other dishes about it, with the tiny earthen teapot on the -right, and the sugar-bowl and cream-pitcher of silver next to it; -the knife, fork, and spoons should be on the right and left of the -plate, never in front of it. The various dishes to be served should -then be arranged symmetrically in other parts of the tray, not -scattered about without the appearance of order. - -Never crowd a tray. Calculate beforehand how many dishes you will -probably have, and select a size accordingly. Serve a single glass -or a single cup on a small round or oval tray with a doily, never -on a large tray, such as might be selected for a meal. - -When practicable use silver dishes for meats, soups, coffee, hot -milk, or any hot food; when these cannot be had, use hot china. - -Avoid discords in color. Most women have an instinctive -appreciation of color, and by giving some thought to the subject -of harmonies, and observing the methods of others who are known to -have good taste in such matters, bad blunders in the arrangement of -a tray or a table may be avoided. - -_Red_ with _yellow_, _blue_ with _green_, and _yellow_ with _pink_ -are inharmonious combinations of color; but _yellow_ with _white_, -_blue_ with _white_, _dull orange_ with _brown_, _violet_, and -_pale gold_ are exquisite together. - -A cup of chocolate in pale pink or dull red, coffee in buttercup -yellow, especially when served without cream, and green tea in Nile -green, appeal to the eye as well as to the taste, giving double -pleasure--gratifying two senses instead of one. - -Color plays a very important part in serving food. It produces -strong effects in some persons who are deeply moved by harmonies or -discords in it, as others are by harmonies or discords in music. -Color appeals to the esthetic side of some natures much more -forcibly than many of us are aware. - -The story is told of a lady, possessed of unusually keen -color-perception, who had been living for many months in a house -furnished in monotonous hues, and in which the table was always set -in plain white cloth and white china. Being invited to lunch with -a friend in the neighborhood, she was moved to tears at the sight -of a beautiful table, decorated with a scarlet cloth, flowers, and -harmoniously contrasting colored china. - -The effect of the colors upon the emotions was similar to that -which is sometimes produced by an exquisite strain of music. Who -can say how much of subtle refining influence may be exerted by -such things? Regarded as a general thing only in the light of -the ornamental, they are too often looked upon as luxuries, and -therefore dispensable; but whatever ministers to the esthetic side -of the mind must be elevating, and the influence of neatness, -of beautiful surroundings, of harmonious colors, of art in any -form, inevitably produces an effect upon character. In time -such surroundings become necessities, and when the individual -is deprived of them they are missed, and he feels a sense of -dissatisfaction with those of meaner kind--perhaps dissatisfaction -with a poorer or lower life in any way--and imperceptibly these -seeming ornaments of existence may be the means which shall lift -many an one into a higher plane of life, so that, aside from their -practical value, all the niceties of household affairs may have a -lasting effect for good upon character. - -To be progressive, one must be constantly in a frame of mind to -learn, and ever on the alert for information. Fashions change -in serving foods as in other things. However, there are certain -fixed principles which always remain unchanged. Perfect neatness, -orderly and pleasing arrangement, and harmonious coloring are ever -essential. - -For the invalid's tray use the prettiest china obtainable. -In a private house there are always some choice and precious -pieces--teacups, quaint silver pitchers and spoons, pretty plates, -and delicate thin tumblers. These will be gladly placed at the -disposal of the sick one, especially if the nurse will volunteer to -be responsible for them. - -To prepare a meal for an invalid after planning the food, the first -necessary articles are a tray clean on both sides, a neat napkin -to spread over it, and exquisitely clean dishes done by a servant -known to be neat, or by one's self. It not infrequently happens, -especially in houses in which the mistress leaves everything to the -servants, and never goes into the kitchen, that dishes are washed -in such surroundings of dirt, and wiped with such unclean towels, -as to be dangerous for any one to use. It is therefore necessary -for a nurse to understand about such matters, and to see to it that -her patient's dishes are above suspicion. In fact, it is a dainty -attention on her part to care entirely for the tray-dishes of her -charge. - -In some forms of disease it is absolutely necessary, in order to -prevent contagion, that a nurse should attend altogether to the -tray and dishes, for it would almost never occur that any member of -a household would understand an effectual method of sterilization. - -In a contagious disease everything that goes to the -bedside--dishes, knives, forks, spoons, napkin, the tray -itself--should be rendered sterile by boiling in water for half an -hour, or by treatment with steam for a similar time, before any -one, except the nurse, even touches them. - -Nothing should be used in the way of linen or dishes that cannot -be washed without spoiling; therefore fancy silk doilies and other -similar furnishings are to be avoided. - -When it is necessary to taste of food before giving it to a -patient, take some into a separate dish, and use a separate spoon -or fork; or, if it is a liquid, take out a little with a spoon into -another spoon, being careful that the one used for tasting does not -at any time touch the liquid. - -Never touch the bowls of spoons, nor the inside of plates and -cups, with the fingers, unless the hands are prepared by thorough -cleansing for it. A nurse who understands antiseptic surgery, -and knows how easily contagion is carried, will appreciate the -necessity of these precautions. The hands should be washed after -arranging a bed, using a handkerchief, arranging the hair--in fact, -always before handling either food or dishes. - -Food and drink should not be allowed to remain exposed to the air -for any length of time. Most kinds of food are excellent media for -micro-organisms to flourish in, and consequently the food, if it be -such as might be eaten afterward, deteriorates. - -Then, from an esthetic point of view, it is the height of -untidiness to allow a tray to remain in the sick-room any length -of time after the meal has been eaten. It should be immediately -removed with all traces of the meal, as should also fruit, glasses -for water, lemonade, milk, etc., which may be used at different -times during the day. - -If the patient objects and wishes to have what is left for future -use, assure him that it is near at hand, and being kept cool and -clean for him. By punctually fulfilling promises made about such -matters, he will very quickly learn to trust a nurse, not only in -these, but in other things. - -For decoration for a tray nothing should be used besides pretty -china and flowers. A slender glass or silver vase with a blossom -or two, or a delicate fern with a white or pink flower, are always -suitable. It is well to use ferns and other fresh green decorations -liberally, especially in winter. Green is always grateful to the -sight, and sometimes a single spray will give pleasure to an -invalid for hours. - -Violets, roses, orchids, and all flowers that are dainty in -themselves, are always in good taste, but a very few or a single -blossom is all that is allowable. A big bouquet on a tray or an -invalid's table is as out of place as a whole roast or a whole -pudding. Flowers with strong odors or primary colors should be -avoided, such, for instance, as marigolds, fleur de lis, and -dahlias. They are handsome in a garden or a hall, but not at the -bedside. - -Little attentions in the way of ornamentation, and thoughtfulness -as to an invalid's meal, are deeply appreciated. They show that -an effort has been made to please, and to many sick ones the -feeling that they are a constant care to those about them is a very -oppressive one. It should be the pleasure of a good nurse to dispel -such thoughts. It is the duty of every nurse to do so. - -Variety for those who are sick (after they are out of danger, and -waiting for strength to return) is just as necessary as for those -who are well, and for the same reason--that is, to furnish the -body with all those substances required for perfect nutrition. -Many think that because a person is ill, or an invalid, he must be -denied all things that are good, and fed upon such dishes as well -persons generally abhor, like water gruel, thin oyster stews, and -half-cooked corn-starch pudding. - -It is curious how such an idea should have been lodged in the mind, -but it is probably a relic of the old treatment in the days before -antiseptic surgery and the modern practice of medicine. Now, as -soon as a patient is out of danger, careful feeding with a variety -of wholesome, perfectly cooked, nutritious food--of course, wisely -administered as to quantity--is an essential part of the treatment, -and constitutes nearly the whole cure in some forms of disease of -the nervous system. - -The body, depleted and exhausted by long-continued sickness, is -without resources, and must draw from food (and, of course, air) -all those substances needed for repair and the restoration of -bodily vigor. To insure this, different kinds of food are required, -for no single one, not even milk, contains everything needed.[44] -Fruits of various kinds, green salads and vegetables, fish, beef, -and mutton should be used, as well as milk, eggs, chicken, and -toast. - -Ease in serving the sick is an accomplishment in a nurse, and a -certain amount of _seeming_ indifference is an advisable quality -to cultivate. It is a good plan to take every _possible care_ in -preparing a meal for a sick person, and then to appear not to -notice whether he eats; for sometimes sensitive people, in their -desire not to disappoint, or in their endeavors to please, will eat -when they do not care for food. - -Endeavor to remember individual tastes, and try to gratify them; -always do so when it is in your power, for these individual -preferences are often true instincts of the individual nature -striving to secure that which is best for it. If a man asks for the -second joint of a fowl, don't take to him a cut from the breast, -even though _you_ may think it the choicest portion. - -Food should be given at _regular intervals_. If a patient is very -ill, the rule is to administer nourishment in small quantities and -often. Sometimes a patient is too feeble to help himself to food, -and then he must be fed by the nurse. When such is the case, she -should be extremely careful, no matter what the pressure of other -work may be, not to hurry him. Give him plenty of time,--first, -that the food may remain in the mouth long enough to be mixed with -the saliva, for saliva is one of the digestive juices; and second, -so that it may be thoroughly masticated and broken; otherwise it -will be thrown into the stomach in large masses, and may not digest -at all. - -The _quantity_ of food given will always depend upon the condition -of the person, and will consequently vary for each individual. -Give rather _too little_ than too much, with, of course, the -understanding that there is always an abundance to be had. A -little is often a challenge, especially to one of delicate -appetite; a large quantity is always vulgar. It is much better to -carry a second portion to one who needs it than to offer too much -at first. - -No exact and definite directions can be given for the serving of -special dishes, for a nurse's resources in the way of china, etc., -are so uncertain; but a few hints in regard to some principles -that, no matter what the circumstances are, never change may be -found of service. - -For instance, water, lemonade, milk, milk-punch, and all other -cold drinks are most healthful when _cool_, not ice-cold. Ice-cold -water, ice-cold milk, and all chilled drinks are _always forbidden_ -for both sick and well, except in fevers, in extremely hot weather, -and in unusual cases, when only a few spoons of liquid are taken. -Even in these cases it is a question whether _cool_ liquids would -not do as well. We all know the danger of taking a large quantity -of ice-cold drink when overheated. Even death has frequently -resulted from it. - -Serve tea, coffee, cocoa, bouillon, broth, gruel, and all hot -drinks in cups which are _hot_, not lukewarm. Soup as a part of a -meal should be served in a covered silver dish when practicable, -for silver may be made very hot, and no other is so pretty. In lieu -of silver use a covered china dish, or a bouillon-cup made hot in -an oven beforehand. Remember that the _warmth_ of all these foods -is one of their valuable qualities. - -Beef-juice and beef-tea may be offered in a red wine-glass, to -conceal the color, which is sometimes at first unpleasant to those -unaccustomed to the use of rare beef; but the taste of these is -so acceptable and savory that, after taking a few spoons, the -objection vanishes. - -Cups and tumblers ought not to be filled to more than within a half -inch of the top. The best argument for this custom is, that it is -considered good form; but there is a good reason back of it, as is -the case in most other established customs. If a cup be filled to -the brim it cannot be moved without spilling the liquid over the -outside; this occasions wiping, which it is especially difficult to -do, and waste of a certain portion of the contents; then it is not -easy to drink from a cup so filled. - -Fruits, such as oranges, grapes, peaches, and tomatoes, should be -served cool, but not cold or chilled. The ideal way to eat fruits -is without artificial cooling. A peach is never so delicious as at -the moment it is gathered from the tree, just ripe, and tomatoes -have the finest flavor eaten directly off the vines; but it is -seldom that these fruits or others can be so obtained, and we, -knowing that fruits do not keep well except in cool places, are apt -to associate a certain degree of coolness with them. The objection -to serving fruits very cold is that, besides the fact that they are -not as readily digested so, their delicate flavor is lost, for the -cold contracts the sensitive papillæ of the tongue, and thus the -power of tasting is temporarily deadened. - -Oranges, peaches, and plums may be used uncooked, as they are -extremely easy of digestion so, and also grapes, unless there is -objection to the seeds, in which case they should be cooked, and -the seeds strained out. Apples and pears are safer cooked; tomatoes -may be eaten either way. - -Transparent jellies are pretty served in glass dishes, and -ice-cream, sherbets, and ices in china saucers, or ice-cream dishes -of pink, or other delicately warm colors. Ice-cream, uncolored, in -shell pink, is much more attractive than it is in cold mauve or -green. Water-ices, which usually have color of their own, may be -served in dishes to match it. Raspberry or strawberry ice is lovely -in dull rich red; apricot ice in yellow--that is, a certain shade -of écru which harmonizes with the color of the fruit--and pineapple -and lemon ice in Dresden ware are very pretty. - -Eggs should be opened into a hot, though not very hot, egg-glass. -It is the proper thing to do so even when a patient is well enough -to open them for himself, for, although the supply may have been -obtained from the very best sources, there is always the risk that -some of the eggs may be old, too old to be good.[45] - -Oysters in the half-shell are served simply with salt, pepper, and -lemon-juice, or horse-radish. A quarter or a half of a lemon is -placed on the oyster-plate with the oysters, and after the salt and -pepper are sprinkled on a few drops of lemon-juice are squeezed -over each oyster, or a bit of horse-radish is placed on each. - -Broiled oysters may be served with a sauce of melted butter, -seasoned with salt, pepper, and lemon-juice or vinegar. - -Toast is particularly acceptable with nearly all kinds of cooked -oysters, and fancy shapes, such as tiny rounds, squares, and -points, are excellent with stews, soups, and roasts, instead of -crackers. - -Dry toast ought to be eaten directly off the toaster, and, -except in serious illness, butter may be given with it. Orange, -gooseberry, raspberry, and other marmalades, currant, apple, and -grape jellies, and baked sweet apples or apple-sauce, are excellent -with either dry or water toast. Cooked apples in any form are -delicious with milk and cream toasts. - -It is the fashion just now to serve junket, slip, soft custard, -lemon cream, tapioca cream, and similar delicate desserts in cups -and saucers, not glasses. The quainter the pattern of the china, -the prettier the effect. - - * * * * * - -A plan for a breakfast, to consist of a peach, rolled wheat -porridge, beefsteak, baked potato, coffee, and toast: - -(1) Put the porridge, which should have been cooked the day before, -on the fire to heat, and the potato into the oven to bake. - -(2) Set some water to boil for the coffee, and the milk to heat to -serve with it. - -(3) Trim the steak, which should be a small piece an inch thick, -an inch and a half wide, and three or four inches long; cut the -bread, and make a butter-ball by rolling a bit of butter between -two spatters made for the purpose.[46] - -(4) Set a plate, cup and saucer, and dishes for serving the food, -in the warming-oven to heat. - -(5) Arrange the tray with a fresh napkin, knife, fork, spoons, salt -and pepper, fine granulated sugar and cold cream for the porridge, -and some lumps of loaf sugar for the coffee. - -(6) Fifteen minutes before the potato is done make the coffee, and -ten minutes later broil the steak; in the interim pare the peach, -laying it open from the stone, and toast the bread. - -Now, if calculation as to the time has been well made, everything -will be ready--the potato baked, the porridge steaming, the coffee -cooked, and the steak and toast waiting in the oven. - -(7) Serve the fruit on a tiny fruit-plate, the porridge in a hot -saucer, and the coffee, together. When the fruit and porridge are -finished, offer the potato, wrapped in a doily to keep it warm, the -steak in a hot covered silver dish, and the toast on an individual -bread-plate. Or all may be served together when for any reason it -seems best to do so: for instance, if the tray has to be carried a -long distance, or up many flights of stairs. - -The above arrangement is simply beginning with the things which -require the longest time, and then taking each in such order that -all shall be finished at the same moment. - -By understanding the length of time required for each dish, there -need be no hurrying, nor will anything be cooked too soon. - -Dinner should be planned in the same way, and also supper. -Even when there is not much cooking to be done the same idea -prevails--that is, to begin with whatever requires the longest -time, and to do last those dishes which spoil by standing; in -other words, to be systematic, (1) because your meal is in better -condition when so done, and (2) because it is easier for yourself. -There then will be neither hurry nor worry, and work which ends -with a satisfactory result is always a pleasure. - - - - -THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN - - -There are three ways in which a child may be supplied with food -during its infancy: by its mother; by a substitute for its -mother--a wet nurse; and by artificial feeding. This chapter will -treat only of the latter method. - -The child is fortunate whose mother can supply it with a sufficient -quantity of wholesome milk. There is nothing more to be desired for -it during the first ten or twelve months of its life. But often a -mother, for one reason or another, is not able to nurse her child, -and other means of feeding must be sought. In such cases, among -the wealthier classes, a wet nurse is sometimes employed; but with -the majority of people there is no alternative except artificial -feeding. When this has been decided upon, the question naturally -arises as to what shall be the best substitute for the natural -nourishment of the child--mother's milk, which must always be taken -as the perfect type of infants' food.[47] To this subject doctors -and hygienists have given much attention for a long time. Many -kinds of food preparations have been made and tested. The result -has been that, almost without exception, authorities agree that -milk from healthy, well-fed cows, properly prepared, is the most -valuable substitute for human milk that is at present known.[48] - -The following analyses give the comparison between cow's milk and -human milk: - - _Human Milk._ _Cow's Milk._ - Nitrogenous substances 2.35% 4.30% - Fat 3.40% 3.80% - Sugar 4.85% 3.70% - Salts .20% .60% - Water 89.20% 87.60%[49] - -Cow's milk varies considerably in nutritive properties, and for -the growing infant who receives no other food it is extremely -important that it be of the first quality. It should be tested in -every possible way to enable one to form a correct estimate of -its value, and unless unquestionably good should be rejected.[50] -When fresh from the cow, not more than two hours old, and of -superior quality, it need not be sterilized, but should be put into -perfectly cleansed and sterile vessels,[51] and kept in an ice-box, -or refrigerator, at a temperature of 50° to 60° Fahr.[52] - -When obliged to buy the ordinary milk of commerce, select if -possible that which is put up in glass jars. There are farmers -who do this. Each jar is sealed, marked with the owner's name -and address, and the date of sending. Such milk does not become -contaminated with bad air in transit, cannot be tampered with by -middlemen, and must be free from dirt, as it would show through -the glass; each customer gets exactly a quart, with all the cream -that belongs to it; moreover, the owner, having attached his name, -has thus put his reputation at stake, and is not likely to sell -inferior milk. When this is not practicable, search for the best -and cleanest dairy, and see that the milk is delivered as soon as -possible after being received at the dairy. Milk should not be -bought from small stores. - -The best milk comes from cows that have good pasturage, with clean -running water, and that are fed in winter on dry fodder and grain, -and not on ensilage and brewery waste. - -According to the reports of the American Public Health Association, -_one fifth_ of all the deaths among infants may be traced to the -milk supply, and there is no doubt that most of the sickness of -bottle-fed children, during the summer months, is directly due to -the unhealthy condition of their food. - -It then becomes the imperative duty of every mother, nurse, or -other person who has the care of children, to learn, if she does -not already know, the simpler tests for milk, and something of the -philosophy of the feeding of her charge.[53] When such knowledge -is more general, and women are able to determine intelligently the -quality of the milk which is offered them, then will milk-dealers -be forced to cease mixing, adulterating, and otherwise tampering -with the milk, which, as a general thing, is sold at the farms in -excellent condition. - -The first object is to secure a good quality of milk; then comes -the consideration of how it shall be prepared: this must be in such -manner as shall render it as nearly like human milk, in composition -and digestibility, as possible. - -Comparison of the tables just given shows that cow's milk contains -more nitrogenous matter and salts, and less sugar, than human -milk.[54] By diluting with water to reduce the protein and salts, -and adding sugar and a little cream, the proportions of these -different substances may be made to approximate those in mother's -milk. In both the sugar is the same--lactose, or milk-sugar; the -fats are also much alike in each; but the albuminous matter of -cow's milk differs somewhat from that of human milk, particularly -in the way in which it coagulates in the presence of acids. Human -milk forms into small, light, feathery curds; cow's milk into -large, compact, not so easily digested masses. It is necessary, -therefore, to seek the means for preventing the coagulation of milk -in large curds in the stomach of the child--in other words, to so -treat cow's milk that it shall coagulate more like human milk. This -may be done in two ways: - -(1) By mixing into the milk some substance which shall separate the -particles of albumen from each other, and so cause it to form into -smaller masses. - -(2) By partial predigestion. - -To accomplish the first, it is necessary to use some diluting -substance of a harmless nature; if it be nutritious, so much -the better. For this, Mellin's food, barley-water, veal broth, -lime-water, and gelatin are recommended. - -Mellin's food is a partially predigested grain, in such a -condition that it can be assimilated by the infant; barley-water is -valuable for its potash salts, in which cow's milk is deficient, -and which the growing babe needs; veal broth is rich in lime; and -lime-water neutralizes the acid of the gastric juice, so that -milk is not acted upon so strongly, and consequently forms into a -lighter curd. - -The second method is that of partial predigestion, and is -accomplished by the use of peptonizing agents, among which -Fairchild's peptogenic milk-powder is good (directions for its -use will be given later). On account of the expense of these -preparations it is not probable that they will come into general -use, except in cases of sickness. - -It is therefore evident that dependence must be placed almost -entirely upon attenuants to render the casein of cow's milk more -easily digestible. Probably for this Mellin's food is as good, -if not better, than any other of the recommended preparations. -It is not injurious, is nutritious in itself, and is a good -diluting agent, causing milk to form into looser curds than it -would otherwise do, and it contains sufficient sugar to require no -further addition of this substance. - -Now arises the question whether milk shall be sterilized for -infants' feeding. The weight of evidence seems to be as follows: -if it is possible to see the conditions under which the cows live, -and to _know_ that they are unquestionably good, that the animals -are in perfect health, that the milk is drawn from cleansed udders -into cleansed vessels by clean hands, kept in a cool place, and -used fresh, then it is probably wise not to sterilize it. All -milk otherwise obtained should be made sterile before using, and -as soon as possible after milking. Looking to the standard--human -milk--there are no organisms in it. That alone is sufficient -reason why cow's milk should be freed from them.[55] - -Again, most bottle-fed children do well during the cold weather -of autumn and winter; in summer the mortality is very great among -them, especially in the poorer districts of large cities. It is -well known that the chances for life with children nourished by -mother's milk are greater than with those artificially fed. Why -should this be? There is no doubt that it is owing to the presence -in cow's milk of extraneous substances, the products of bacterial -growth--products which are often absolute poisons; and it is highly -probable that cholera infantum, in a vast majority of cases, may be -traced to the action of such poisons. - -Under favorable conditions of temperature, such as prevail in -the warm months of summer and early autumn, micro-organisms grow -with almost incomprehensible rapidity in any substance which is -suitable food for them. Milk is such a substance; and, as bacteria -multiply with wonderful rapidity, millions forming in a few hours -in every thimbleful,[56] it is perfectly evident that they must -produce something. This something may or may not be of a harmful -nature, depending upon what species of organism produces it. I -have no evidence at hand to show what is the nature of the product -of any one organism which finds a home in milk; but there are -instances on record where the nature of the product of certain -bacteria is known: for example, the diphtheria bacillus. This -little rod, growing upon the outside of the tonsils in the human -throat, produces a most virulent poison, which, taken up by the -circulation, pervades the whole body, and often so enfeebles its -functions as to destroy it.[57] - -Reasoning from analogy, it is not impossible to suppose that other -organisms may produce substances of a similar character, poisonous -in their effects, and which, when taken into the alimentary canal, -may produce very grave digestive disorders.[58] - -Further, bacteria, by their multiplication, use some of the -constituents of milk for their food, thus changing its composition. -It is very important to prevent this growth, or, in case it has -begun, to check it before it has rendered the milk unwholesome -food. Hence the necessity of sterilizing _immediately_ all milk -which is not received directly from the cow. Besides, cows are -often infected with tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, splenic -fever, pneumonia, and other dangerous disorders. Their milk may be -a direct cause of infection. When it is sterilized there is less -danger from it; but even then it is not, of course, a wholesome -food, because of the poisons which may be produced in the animal -during the progress of the disease, and because a sick and weakened -cow cannot give wholesome milk.[59] - -In many cities, through the influence of children's hospitals and -sanitariums, the knowledge and methods of sterilizing milk for -infants' food are gradually spreading. - -Circular wire frames, made something like casters, and fitted with -eight bottles, each holding enough milk for one feeding, may be -bought for the purpose of sterilizing at almost any pharmacy. The -frame is to be set in a kettle with water in the bottom, which on -boiling produces steam, the heat of which does the sterilizing.[60] -This is an easy method. Another good way is to sterilize at a lower -temperature for a longer time, as less change is produced in the -constituents of the milk by the lower degree of heat. This may be -easily done by immersing the bottles in water at 190° Fahr., and -maintaining that temperature for an hour.[61] - -=Care of Feeding-bottles.= Great care must be taken in cleansing -feeding-bottles. When they can be washed immediately after -using, it is easy to make them perfectly clean; but when this is -impracticable they should be put to soak in _cold_ water, then -washed with hot soap-suds, and last boiled for ten minutes in clear -water. If flecks dry on the inside, put a teaspoon of rice, or -coarse salt, into the bottle with a little water, and shake well -until all is removed. Never use shot: it might cause lead poisoning. - -Plain rubber nipples alone should be used, never the tube -attachment. The nipples should be washed clean and dried after -each nursing. Before again using the nipple it should be put into -boiling water for ten minutes, and only the rim of it should be -touched in handling. The nipple should never be put into the mouth -of another person to test the milk. - -=Condensed Milk.= When a large percentage of the water of milk is -evaporated, and sugar added, a thick syrup is formed, known as -condensed milk. - -It is made extensively in Switzerland and America. When sealed -air-tight in cans it will keep indefinitely. - -Its average composition--a mean of 41 analyses by Prof. Leeds--is -as follows: - - Water 30.34% - Fat 12.10% - Milk-sugar 16.62% - Cane-sugar 22.26% - Albuminoids 16.07% - Ash 2.61% - ------- - Total, 100.00 - -Owing to the additional sugar it is impossible to dilute it so that -the protein and sugar shall approach the standard of human milk. - -Children fed with it are plump, but have soft flesh; they are -large, but not strong, and lack the power of endurance and -resistance to disease. Their teeth come late, and they are very -likely to have rickets.[62] This is enough to indicate that it is -not a proper food upon which to feed a child exclusively. - -Condensed milk is valuable in emergencies or in traveling, and -may also be used occasionally when for any reason the milk supply -fails. It has the advantage of being free from ferments and easily -kept. - -There are physicians who recommend the use of condensed milk, and -no doubt, compared with the germ-laden, watery fluid called milk, -obtainable in the poorer sections of large cities, it is infinitely -better. It should always be diluted with at least ten times its -bulk of water. - -=Preserved Milk.= Preserved milk is milk which has been condensed -and canned without the addition of sugar. It would be a valuable -food for children were it not that it is expensive, and will keep -but a few hours after the can is opened. By sterilizing it in -flasks with narrow necks, plugged with cotton, it may be kept as -other milk is for an indefinite time. As soon as the can is opened, -the contents should be poured into a glass or earthen vessel, for, -on exposure of the milk to the air, chemical action takes place -with the tin.[63] - -=Farinaceous Foods.= There are many farinaceous forms of food -prepared for the use of infants and children. Probably the most -valuable of them are those made according to the Liebig process. -The starch of the grain from which such foods are prepared is, in -the process of manufacture, changed into soluble dextrine, or sugar -(glucose), by the action of the diastase of malt: the very thing -which an infant cannot do. - -When we consider that the digestion of starch in the alimentary -canal consists of this change into glucose, and that it is -effected principally by the saliva and the pancreatic juice, the -significance of the value of such foods will be seen. - -It is also well to bear in mind that neither of these functions -(the secretion of saliva and pancreatic juice) is developed in an -infant until it enters the third month of its life, and then but -very imperfectly. That alone shows the necessity of _excluding all -starch_ from its food up to that age. - -Mellin's food and malted milk are prepared according to the Liebig -process. In them the starch has been converted into soluble matter -by the action of the ferment of malt. It is really a partial -predigestion. Mellin's food does not contain milk. - -The following analysis of Mellin's food is one made by Professor -Fresenius, of Wiesbaden, Germany: - - Non-nitrogenous substances soluble in water 69.38% - Non-nitrogenous substances insoluble in water 3.18% - ------ - _Total carbohydrates_ 72.56% - - Nitrogenous substances soluble in water 4.69% - Nitrogenous substances insoluble in water 5.06% - ----- - _Total albuminoids_ 9.75% - - _Total salts_, mostly phosphoric acid, carbonic - acid, and potassa 4.37% - ------ - _Total moisture_ 13.32% - - Cane sugar, none. Reaction, alkaline. - -Comparative analysis of Mellin's food, prepared for use, with that -of woman's milk and cow's milk. - - _Mellin's _Woman's _Cow's - _Constituents._ Food._ Milk._ Milk._ - Fat 2.36% 4.00% 3.30% - Albuminoids 2.83% 2.50% 3.50% - Carbohydrates 6.81% 6.50% 5.00% - Salts and inorganic matter .74% .50% .70% - Water 87.26% 86.50% 87.50% - Cellulose A trace. -- -- - Cane-sugar None. -- -- - Starch None. -- -- - - DR. A. STUTZER, Bonn, Germany. - -This analysis shows that Mellin's food bears comparison with milk. -It is easily digested, and as an _attenuant_ for milk may be used -without harm during the early months of life, but it should not be -used to the exclusion of milk for more than a few days at a time, -and then only when milk is not retained by the stomach. - -Later it is doubtless a valuable addition to the regular daily food -of the child. - -Malted milk is made from selected grain and desiccated or dried -milk. To prepare it for the infant it needs only the addition of -water. It is probably one of the best substitutes for milk, but -should not be used for any length of time when it is possible to -get good milk. - -The starch of grains may be converted into dextrine and glucose by -the action of heat as well as by the action of diastase, so that -when flour is subjected to a certain temperature, and for a certain -time, this change is produced. - -Nestlé's food, Imperial Granum, Ridge's food, and some others are -made very carefully from selected wheat by this process. Nestlé's -food contains dried milk. - -These foods are all valuable when made into gruel or porridge, but -should be used very sparingly under the age of twelve months, and -then only as attenuants for milk, _not as substitutes_ for it. - -Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, editor of "Domestic Hygiene of the -Child," by Uffelmann (a translation), in speaking of the value of -the various preparations of infants' food on the market, says: -"There is not the slightest reason to prefer them to milk or its -preparations, except that the latter requires more care; and for -any intelligent and affectionate mother this reason is quite -insufficient.... During the first year the baby is building up -tissues and organs that are to last him throughout life; and these -will work well or ill according to the degree of perfection and -precision of structure which they attain at the beginning. And this -depends to an immense extent upon the suitability of the food, not -only to be digested, but to be absorbed, and then to be assimilated -and organized. - -"So mysterious are the properties of the molecules of albumen and -fat, when once they have been thrown into the whirl of the living -organism, that we must strive to deviate as little as possible -from the exact forms given to us in nature, if only because we do -not know what remote effects might result from the deviations. If -nature provides the albumen of milk and a living fluid, we cannot -expect the same results from any other albumen, or from long dead -organic matter, as condensed milk." - -The farinaceous foods have value, but they cannot replace good -milk, which should be almost the sole food of the child to at least -the age of ten months, and the principal nutrient to the age of two -years. - -When a baby is nursed, and its mother has an abundance of milk, it -takes nothing else during the first ten or twelve months of life. -When a baby is artificially fed, this fact should be borne in mind. -The important thing is to attain as nearly as possible to the -standard that nature has set. - -Biedert's cream mixture and the whey mixture are valuable for young -infants and those which for any reason do not thrive on milk. - -=Amount for Each Meal.= A child is nourished, not by what -it swallows, but by what it digests. Giving too much or too -concentrated milk is very unwise, for the delicate system cannot -manage it, and too frequently the meal becomes a source of pain -rather than of strength. Each individual babe will require a little -different treatment in this respect from every other. - -In general, for the first six weeks from two to four tablespoons -at a feeding may be given; from that age to six months, from four -to eight tablespoons, gradually increasing the amount to twelve -tablespoons at one year. - -=Dilution.= Cow's milk is more easily digested when diluted with -water, and we are more likely to dilute too little than too much. -The amount of water used should vary with the age and strength of -digestion of the child. As a rule the new-born infant should have -two parts water to one of milk; at four months equal parts of milk -and water; at ten months one part water and two parts milk. When -digestion is particularly feeble, it may be necessary to dilute -milk with six or eight times its bulk of water. - -=Manner of Giving.= It is best to give milk from a bottle so -constructed that suction is necessary, for it induces the flow of -the digestive juices. Use the plain rubber nipple; those with tube -attachments which extend into the bottle are to be avoided, on -account of the difficulty of making them perfectly clean inside. -Cultures from these tubes always give large numbers of bacteria, as -do also those made from the nipples, unless they are boiled. - -The _intervals_ of feeding will vary somewhat with the age of the -child. Once in two or two and a half hours during the day for the -first six months, and every three hours from the sixth to the -twelfth month, is the general rule. - -The _temperature_ of the meal should be 100° Fahr. - -A babe needs less variety in its food than older children, and -they in turn require less than grown persons; but both must have a -certain proportion of the five essential food principles. - -There is an impression in the minds of many that children should -not have fat. This has perhaps sprung from the fact that mother's -milk has a watery, thin appearance. It seems not rich; nevertheless -it has a due proportion of fat, and it is extremely important that -this be maintained when cow's milk is diluted, for this cream is -the best addition. - -Fat is needed not only for the growth of brain and nerves, which is -very rapid in children, but also for the perfect formation of other -tissues. - -The following table is that given by Dr. Louis Starr as a guide for -feeding: - - -GENERAL RULES FOR FEEDING. - - _Age._ _Intervals of _Average Am't _Average Am't - Feeding._ each Meal._ in 24 hours._ - First week 2 hours 2 tablespoons 1¼ pints - Second to sixth week 2½ hours 3-4 tablespoons 1½-2 pints - Sixth week to sixth month 3 hours 6-8 tablespoons 2½-3 pints - At six months 3 hours 12 tablespoons 4½ pints - At ten months 3 hours 16 tablespoons 5 pints - - -For the First Week; One Feeding - - 1 Tablespoon of whey.[64] - 1 Tablespoon of water. - ⅔ Tablespoon of cream. - ⅙ Teaspoon of sugar. - -Or Biedert's cream mixture: - - 1 Tablespoon of cream. - ¼ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - -Or, - - 1 Tablespoon of milk. - ¼ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - -If it is desirable to make at once a sufficient quantity of -Biedert's cream mixture for several feedings, the above rule -multiplied by eight will furnish enough for eight bottles, and is -as follows: one cup of cream, three cups of boiling water, and -one tablespoon of milk-sugar. Mix all together; put the mixture -in equal portions into eight feeding-bottles, and plug each with -cotton. Either sterilize it or put it immediately on ice to keep. - - -After the First Week, and Until the Sixth Week - -Use either the cream mixture, the whey mixture, or the following: - - 2 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 4 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Teaspoon of Mellin's food. - ⅓ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - - -From the Sixth Week to the Sixth Month - -Water and milk in equal quantities, with a little cream and -milk-sugar, and some attenuant, such as Mellin's food or barley -jelly.[65] - - 2 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 2 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Tablespoon of cream.[66] - 1 Teaspoon of Mellin's food. - ⅜ Teaspoon of sugar. - -The above proportion to be maintained, but the amount to be varied -according to the age of the babe. - -If at any time this disagrees, use instead Biedert's cream mixture -or the whey mixture. When both of these fail it may be necessary to -peptonize the food. - -_To peptonize milk_: - -No. 1 - - 2 Tablespoons of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Tablespoon of cream. - 1 Small measure of peptogenic milk powder. - -Put all into a clean porcelain-lined saucepan and heat it, stirring -slowly until the mixture boils: this should not require more than -ten minutes. - - -No. 2 - -A special preparation for sick or feeble infants, or those -suffering from indigestion. - - 2 Tablespoons of milk. - 2 Tablespoons of water. - 1 Tablespoon of cream. - 1 Small measure of peptogenic milk powder. - -Put all into a bottle, shake it well, place it in a bath or kettle -of hot water of a temperature of 115° Fahr. (so hot that the hand -cannot be borne in it long without discomfort), and keep it at -that temperature for exactly thirty minutes; then pour it into a -saucepan, and heat quickly to the boiling point. By this method -a very thorough predigestion takes place. The process should be -stopped before the bitter taste is developed. - - -From the Sixth to the Tenth Month - -Increase the proportion of milk and of Mellin's food, or other -attenuant used.[67] - - 4 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - 1½ Teaspoons of cream. - 1 Tablespoon of Mellin's food. - ½ Teaspoon of milk-sugar. - -Boil the water, then add the milk, Mellin's food, cream, and sugar, -or put all together in a feeding-bottle, place in a kettle of water -heated to 190° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature for one -hour.[68] This amount is only a general rule, and may, of course, -be varied according to the age and individual need of the child. -The _proportion_ of the ingredients should, however, not be changed. - - -From the Tenth to the Twelfth Month - - 6 Tablespoons of cow's milk. - 3 Tablespoons of water. - 1½ Tablespoons of cream. - 1 or 2 Tablespoons of Mellin's food. - 1 Teaspoon of milk-sugar.[69] - -_Mellin's Food with Condensed Milk._ Although, as has been -previously stated, condensed milk is not a proper food for -children, there are times when it may be necessary to use it: for -instance, in traveling, or when the daily supply of milk for any -reason fails. - -The usual mixture of condensed milk given to babies is one part of -milk to twelve parts of water, the analysis[70] of which shows the -fat and casein to be in too small proportions. If more condensed -milk be added, the sugar will be increased too much; but by -increasing the water, and using Mellin's food and cream, a very -good mixture may be obtained. The following is recommended: - - 1 Teaspoon condensed milk. - 1 Tablespoon of Mellin's food. - 8 Tablespoons of water (1 cup). - 1 Teaspoon of cream. - -Boil the water, then add the condensed milk, Mellin's food, and -cream in the order in which they are mentioned, stirring until all -is dissolved. - -Nothing should be used during the first twelve months except -liquid food, and that must not be of too great density. - -Avoid any food which contains cellulose, or starch as such.[71] -Cellulose is but imperfectly if at all digested by grown persons; -and starch, not being a natural kind of nourishment for an infant, -is extremely liable to ferment and cause serious digestive -disturbances. - -It should be remembered that, although the chief function of a babe -is to eat, sleep, and grow, its stomach cannot work all the time, -and, consequently, the wise plan is to feed it only at regular -intervals. - -The best proof that a child is doing well is increase of weight, -a healthy appearance, and lack of fretfulness. Sometimes, when -restless, it is only a drink of water that it needs, as children -suffer much from thirst in warm weather. - - -From the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Month - -Continue with milk, _undiluted_ with water, as the principal -food. Use with it Mellin's food as before, Nestlé's food, Ridge's -food, Imperial Granum, oatmeal porridge _strained_, soft custard, -soft-cooked eggs, cocoa[72] cooked in water, with milk added or -cooked in milk, and cracker-crumbs boiled in water, with milk added. - - -After Eighteen Months - -The same diet as for the previous six months, with the addition of -scraped or pounded chicken, mutton, or beef; mashed baked potatoes -with beef-juice poured over; toasted bread or toasted crackers -rolled into crumbs, and soaked in milk or broth; junket, and plain, -simple puddings, such as cream-of-rice, tapioca, and arrowroot. - -A diet similar to this should be the chief food to the seventh -year. It may be varied by farina, wheat-germ, and other grain -mushes, dried rusk and milk, or Zwieback[73] and milk, sponge cake -with cream or milk, snow-pudding, and other wholesome and delicate -desserts, and cooked fruits. - -=Foods to be Carefully Avoided.= Veal, pork in any form except -bacon,[74] highly seasoned stews, curries, canned meats or dried -meats in any form, baked beans, fruit cake, also all cakes or -gingerbread made with so-called "cooking-butter" or with common -lard, raw fruits, lobsters and crabs, new potatoes, berries, and -cabbage. - - - - -DISTRICT NURSING - - -In England and in some parts of America district nursing, or -nursing among the very poor of certain sections of a city, is an -established part of a nurse's work. Her duties are to go from house -to house among the sick, to administer medicine and food, and to -make the surroundings of her patient comfortable. - -There is no way in which one may reach the hearts and sympathies of -the poor so quickly as by helping them to, or showing them how to -do for themselves, those things which they think they need. - -Their first consideration is for the immediate necessities of -life--food, clothing, and shelter. Their days are spent in a -struggle with the world for these--too often an unequal struggle, -in which the world conquers. A nurse, or any other person who can -gain admission to their homes and sympathies, may help them in -many ways as no other can. Great good may be done by teaching them -economical and simple methods of preparing their food, which as a -general thing is cooked both badly and wastefully. - -A nurse doing district nursing, besides administering medicine -and making her patient generally comfortable, will inevitably and -naturally turn to the preparation of some form of nourishment for -him. If she can make it acceptably with the materials and cooking -utensils at hand, or is able to ask for that which is within the -means of the family, or to direct the buying of it, she will add -greatly to the comfort of the household. - -The object of this chapter is not, however, to deal with cooking -for the sick. That will be left entirely to the judgment of the -nurse, who is supposed to have studied the subject as a part of -her training. But it has occurred to the author that a nurse doing -district nursing would often find the opportunity to help the -_families_ of her patients, and that often such help would need to -be given in order to prevent actual suffering. Especially would -this be true if it were the mother of a family who was ill, and -there was no one to prepare food for the father and children, who -must be fed. Usually there is a child, either boy or girl, who is -old enough to learn if there is some one to teach. - -The following pages have been written for the purpose of -suggesting, to such nurses as are disposed to do good in this -way, some easily made and economical dishes which are really both -palatable and nutritious. A few directions about building a fire, -washing dishes, sweeping, etc., will be given, and then some bills -of fare with recipes adapted for the use of people of small means, -and taken for the most part from the Lomb Prize Essay by Mary H. -Abel, entitled "Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking," and -published by the American Public Health Association, 1890. - -Permission to use these recipes has been graciously granted by Mrs. -Abel, and the American Public Health Association, through Mr. Lomb. - -=To Make a Fire.= First, clear the stove of ashes and cinders, then -put in wood-shavings, or twisted newspaper; over this foundation -lay small pieces of wood, crossed, so as to leave air-spaces -for draft, then larger pieces of wood, and lastly two or three -fire-shovels of coal. Light the kindling from the bottom of the -grate, and let it burn for a while before putting on more coal; -remember that it is the heat from the burning wood which ignites -the coal, and if it does not burn it is because there is not wood -enough to produce sufficient heat to start the union between the -combustible part of the coal--carbon chiefly--and the oxygen of the -air. Add coal a little at a time, thus keeping a fresh fire. - -After the fire is well started regulate the dampers often, to -economize as much as possible the consumption of coal. Keep them -partially or wholly closed, unless a hot fire is needed for some -purpose. The cinders left from an old fire should be sifted and -re-burned. Many dollars' worth of coal may be saved in a year by -giving attention to the drafts of a stove. - -=To Wash Dishes.= Mixing-bowls, double boilers, and all dishes -which for any reason have food clinging to them, should be put to -soak in cold water as soon as used. If this has not been done, -attend to it before making other arrangements for washing the -dishes. See then that the dish-pan or tub, dish-cloths, and sink -are perfectly clean; if not, make them so with hot water and -soap. Wash the dishes in hot soapy water, not hot water alone, -even if they are not greasy, and rinse them in a pan of clear hot -water. Take glassware, silver, and china first, then steel knives -and forks, granite-ware, kettles, tins, etc. When the dishes -are finished, wash thoroughly and dry, or put to dry, both the -wiping-towels and the dish-cloths; unless they are white, clean, -and sweet when done, boil them in clear soapy water until they -become so, changing it frequently if it looks dark. - -=Sweeping and Dusting.= Sweep slowly and carefully, holding the -broom close to the floor, so that the dust shall not be thrown into -the air. _Burn the dirt_; never allow it to be thrown into a box or -into the coal-hod. - -Dusting should be done with a damp cloth, wiping up the dust, not -brushing it into the air, from which it will settle upon some other -object. When you have finished, wash the duster and hang it to dry. -Never use a feather duster. With it one simply brushes the dust -from one place only to have it settle in another. - - -BILLS OF FARE - -Mrs. Abel says, in her chapter headed "Bills of Fare": "The -following bills of fare are made out for a family of six persons, -consisting of a workingman, two women, and three children between -the ages of six and fifteen. - -"The amount of food, and the proportion in which the great food -principles are represented, approximate to that which is demanded -by standard dietaries for such a family.... - -"To keep us in health and in working order, we ought to have a -certain amount of what is best furnished by meat, eggs, milk, and -other animal products, and we must also have fats, as well as what -is given us in grains and vegetables." The following bills of fare -are made up with this object in view: - -For a family of six; average price, seventy-eight cents per day, or -thirteen cents per person. - - -SATURDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Soda-biscuit. Bread Soup. Browned Flour Soup - Sugar-syrup. Beef-neck Stew. with Fried Bread. - Coffee. Noodles. Toast and Cheese. - Cream-of-rice Pudding. - -The recipe for =Soda-biscuit= will be found on page 242. - -=Bread Soup.= _Ingredients_, dry bread broken in small bits, water, -salt, pepper, onion, and a little fat. Soak the bread in the water -for a few minutes. Fry the onion, sliced, in the fat, and add it to -the soup, with the salt and pepper. - -Or, use milk instead of water, and toasted or fried bread. Boil -slowly for five minutes to perfectly soften the bread. - -=Beef-neck stew=, page 186. - -=Noodles.= _Ingredients_, three eggs, three tablespoons of milk or -water, one teaspoon of salt, and flour. - -Make a hole in the middle of the flour, put in the other -ingredients, and work to a stiff dough, then cut it into four -strips. Knead each till fine grained, roll out as thin as possible, -and lay the sheet aside to dry. When all are rolled, begin with the -first, cut it into four equal pieces, lay the pieces together, one -on top of another, and shave off very fine, as you would cabbage; -pick the shavings apart with floured hands and let them dry a -little. - -_To use._ Boil the strips a few at a time in salted water, taking -them out with a skimmer, and keeping them warm. Strew over them -bread crumbs fried in butter, or use like macaroni. - -These noodles will keep indefinitely when dried hard. Therefore, -when eggs are cheap, they may be made and laid up for the winter. -The water in which they are boiled is the basis of noodle soup. It -needs only the addition of a little butter, a teaspoon of chopped -parsley, and a few of the cooked noodles. - -=Cream-of-rice Pudding=, page 206. - -=Browned Flour Soup.= - - 2 Tablespoons of butter or fat. - ½ Cup of flour. - 2 Pints of water. - 1 Pint of milk. - 1 Teaspoon of salt. - -Cook the flour brown, in the fat over a slow fire, or in an oven. -Add slowly the water and other ingredients. Serve with fried bread. - -=Toast and Cheese.= Toast some slices of white or Graham bread, -arrange them in a platter, and pour over sufficient salted water -to soften them. Grate over enough old cheese to cover the toast. -Set it in the oven to melt, and place the slices together as -sandwiches. This is the simplest form of "Welsh Rarebit." - - -SUNDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Milk Toast. Beef Stew. Noodle Soup. - Coffee. Creamed Potatoes. Broiled Herring. - Dried Apple Pie. Bread. - Bread and Cheese. Tea. - Corn Coffee. - -=Milk Toast=, page 130. =Beef Stew=, page 186. =Creamed Potatoes=, -page 166. - -=Dried Apple Pie.= Make a crust in the following manner: One quart -of flour, one teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of butter or lard, -or butter and suet, one scant pint of sweet milk, or water, with -one teaspoon of soda and two of cream of tartar, or three teaspoons -of baking powder. - -Sift the flour, salt, cream of tartar, and soda together twice, put -it into a chopping-tray, and chop in the shortening, which should -be cold and hard, till all is fine and well mixed. Now add the milk -a little at a time, still mixing with the chopping-knife. Turn the -dough on to a molding-board, and roll it out quickly. When half -an inch thick, bake in a sheet or cut it into rounds, and bake in -layer cake tins. - -When done, split it in two, and spread each half with dried apples, -stewed with a little lemon-peel and sugar. Lay the two pieces -together, and eat while warm. - -Any other fruit may be used in the same way, and if a richer crust -is wanted, two tablespoons of fat instead of one may be used. - -=Corn Coffee.= Roast common field corn as brown as possible without -burning. Grind coarsely, and steep like coffee. Add milk and sugar, -and you will find it a delicious drink. - -=Noodle Soup=, page 305. - - -MONDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Oatmeal Mush, with Pea Soup. Bread Pancakes. - Milk and Sugar. Mutton Stew. Fried Bacon. - Bread. Broiled Potatoes. Tea. - Coffee. Bread. - -=Oatmeal Mush=, page 91. - -=Pea Soup.= _Ingredients_, one pound of peas, one onion, two -tablespoons of beef fat, salt and pepper. Additions to be made -according to taste. One fourth of a pound of pork, or a ham-bone, -a pinch of red pepper, or, an hour before serving, different -vegetables, as carrots and turnips, chopped and fried. - -Soak the peas over night in two quarts of water. In the morning -pour it off, put on fresh water, and cook with the onion and fat -until very soft. Then mash or press the peas through a colander or -soup-strainer to remove the skins, and add enough water to make two -quarts of somewhat thick soup. Season. - -=Mutton Stew=, page 187. - -=Bread Pancakes.= Make in the following manner: One quart of milk, -three eggs, one tablespoon of butter, one teaspoon of salt. Add to -this one cup of flour, and two cups of bread crumbs that have been -soaked soft in milk or water and mashed smooth. The batter should -be rather thick. Bake in small cakes, adding more flour if they -stick. - - -TUESDAY, MAY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Oatmeal Mush and Fried Fish, with Fried Farina Pudding. - Milk. Mint Sauce. Broiled Salt Pork. - Buttered Toast. Fried Potatoes. Bread. Tea. - Coffee. Bread. - -=Mint Sauce.= Two tablespoons of chopped green mint, one tablespoon -of sugar, one half cup of vinegar. Mix and let stand an hour or two. - -=Fried Farina Pudding.= One pint of water, one pint of milk, one -teaspoon of salt, one half pint of farina, two eggs. Mix the flour -and eggs smooth with a part of the milk. Heat the remainder to -boiling, and stir in the egg and flour. Continue stirring until it -thickens, then cook for fifteen minutes in a double boiler. When -cold, cut it in slices and fry them brown on a griddle. - - -SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Soda-biscuit. Pea Soup. Corn Mush and - Baked Potatoes, with Irish Stew. Molasses. - Drawn Butter Sauce. Bread. Bread and Grated - Cocoa. Cheese. Tea. - -=Drawn Butter Sauce.= Make according to the rule for White Sauce -(page 130), except use water instead of milk, and part beef fat -instead of all butter. - -=Irish Stew= (page 186). - - -SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Oatmeal and Milk. Broiled Beef Liver. Lentil Soup, with - Bread and Butter. Boiled Potatoes Fried Bread. - Cocoa. and Carrots, with Smoked Herring. - Fried Onions. Bread. - Bread and Cheese. Barley Porridge. - -=Boiled Potatoes, and Carrots with Fried Onions.= Slice hot boiled -potatoes and boiled carrots together. Season them with salt and -pepper, and pour over them hot fried onions. - -=Lentil Soup.= Made like Pea Soup, page 307. - -=Fried Bread.= Cut bread into small cubes and fry it in hot fat -until light brown. - -=Barley Porridge.= Made with pearl barley soaked over night in -water, and then cooked for two hours, or until it is soft. During -the last hour add milk instead of water. Flavor with salt and -butter. - - -MONDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Buckwheat Cakes. Giblet Soup. Codfish Balls. - Fried Bacon. Baked Potatoes, with Cheese. - Coffee. Drawn Butter Sauce. Bread. - Bread. Tea. - -=Giblet Soup.= Giblet soup is made from the heart, liver, and -neck of chicken and other fowls, which in city markets are sold -separately and very cheap. Clean them very carefully, wash in cold -water, cut into small pieces, and boil for two hours with onions -and herbs. Then add a little butter, thickening, salt, and pepper. - -=Codfish Balls= (_Salt Cod_). Codfish is one of the cheap foods -that seems to be thoroughly appreciated among us, and good ways -of cooking it are generally understood. It must be freshened by -laying it in water over night. When soaked, put it into cold water, -and bring gradually to the boiling point; then set the kettle back -where it will keep hot for half an hour; at the end of that time -separate it into fine shreds, add an equal amount of fresh mashed -potato, make into balls, and fry on a griddle. - - -TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Bacon. Boiled Corned Beef, Pea Soup. - Boiled Potatoes. with Yeast Biscuit and - Bread. Horse-radish Sauce. Butter. - Coffee. Stewed Cabbage. Stewed Fruit. - Bread. - Barley Porridge. - -=Boiled Corned Beef.= Boil the beef for three hours, very slowly at -first, changing the water once if it is very salt. - -=Horse-radish Sauce.= Add grated horse-radish to drawn batter -sauce. Simmer a few minutes. - -Barley Porridge, page 309. - - -SATURDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Bacon. Browned Flour Soup. Baked Beans. - Corn Bread. Stewed Mutton. Bread. - Coffee. Mashed Potatoes. Apple Dumplings, with - Bread. Pudding Sauce. Tea. - -=Corn Bread.= (1) Plain. One cup of sweet milk, one cup of sour -or buttermilk, or both of sour milk, one teaspoon of salt, one -teaspoon of soda, one tablespoon of butter or suet or lard, three -cups of Indian meal, and one cup of wheat flour, or all of Indian -meal. Mix, pour into a tin, and bake forty minutes. - -(2) Richer. The same, with an egg and one half cup of sugar added. - -(3) Very nice. No. 1, with the addition of three eggs, one half cup -of sugar, and one third of a cup of butter, one cup of meal being -omitted. - -=Browned Flour Soup=, page 305. - -=Apple Dumplings, with Pudding Sauce.= _The Dumplings._ Make a -crust like that used in dried apple pie. Cut it in squares; place -sliced apples in the middle, and gather up or pinch the corners. -Bake or steam. - -_Sauce._ One pint of water made into a smooth paste with a heaping -tablespoon of flour. Cook ten minutes. Strain if necessary, sweeten -to taste, and pour it over one tablespoon of butter, and the juice -of a lemon, or other flavoring. If lemon is not used, add one -tablespoon of vinegar. This can be made richer by using more butter -and sugar. Stir them to a cream with the flavoring, and then add -the paste. - - -SUNDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Codfish. Sheep's-head Stew, Potato and Onion - Bread and Butter. with Soda-biscuit Salad. - Coffee. Dumplings. Broiled Salt Pork. - Baked Potatoes. Bread. - Bread and Grated Corn Mush, with - Cheese. Cocoa. Pudding Sauce. - -=Sheep's-head Stew= (see Mutton Stew, page 187). - -=Potato and Onion Salad.= Slice some potatoes (fresh boiled and -slightly warm are best). Sprinkle them with minced onion, salt, and -pepper. Dress with a little melted butter and vinegar. - -=Pudding Sauce=, the same as that for Apple Dumplings. - - -MONDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Mush and Soup from Boiled Boiled Potatoes, with - Molasses. Beef, with Macaroni. Butter Gravy. - Bread. Broiled Beef Flank, Dried Apple Roly- - Coffee. with Mustard Sauce. poly Pudding. - Bean Purée. Bread. Bread. Tea. - -=Mustard Sauce.= Make some drawn butter in the following manner: - -A heaping tablespoon of butter, or beef fat, is put into a -saucepan. When it boils, one heaping tablespoon of flour is added, -and stirred as it cooks. To this add gradually one pint of water, -one teaspoon of salt, and one fourth of a teaspoon of pepper. If -you wish to unite economy and good flavor, use one half teaspoon of -beef fat in making the sauce, and add one half teaspoon of butter -cut in small pieces just before serving. Add a little mustard, and -you have mustard sauce. - -=Bean Purée.= Make like Pea Soup, page 307. - -=Dried Apple Roly-poly Pudding.= Make the soda-biscuit dough which -is used in dried apple pie. Roll it out into a thin sheet, and -spread with stewed and flavored dried apples. Roll it into a round -or loaf, and bake in a pan containing a little water. - - -TUESDAY, JANUARY - - _Breakfast._ _Dinner._ _Supper._ - Fried Potatoes. Browned Farina Bean Soup. - Bread. Soup, with Toast. Milk Toast. - Coffee. Stewed Mutton, with Tea. - Yeast Dumplings. - -=Browned Farina Soup.= Make like Browned Flour Soup, except use -farina. - -For other similar bills of fare and recipes, see the Lomb Prize -Essay, entitled "Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking," which -is published and sold at a low price by the American Public Health -Association, and may be bought at any book-store. It is most -heartily recommended to nurses who do district nursing as a book -which will be found useful among the poor and those possessed of -moderate means. - - - - -LITERATURE - -In preparing the preceding pages the following authorities have -been consulted. Their works will be found useful for reference -on subjects connected with the chemistry of food, bacteriology, -nutrition, health, practical cooking, and allied topics. - - "The Chemistry of Cookery." W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS. 1885. - - "Food Materials and their Adulterations." ELLEN H. RICHARDS. 1886. - - "The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning." ELLEN H. RICHARDS. 1882. - - Various Articles on Food in "The Century Magazine." W. O. - ATWATER. 1887-88. - - "Elementary Manual of Chemistry." ELIOT AND STORER. Compiled by - W. RIPLEY NICHOLS. 1880. - - "A Manual of Practical Hygiene." EDMUND A. PARKES. Edited by - FRANÇOIS DE CHAUMONT. 1887. - - "A Simple Treatise on Heat." W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS. 1880. - - "Food for the Invalid." J. MILNER FOTHERGILL. 1880. - - "Food and Feeding." SIR HENRY THOMSON. 1880. - - "The Boston Cook Book." D. A. LINCOLN. 1884. - - "New England Breakfast Breads." LUCIA GRAY SWETT. 1890. - - "Miss Parloa's New Cook Book." MARIA PARLOA. 1880. - - "Diet for the Sick." MARY E. HENDERSON. 1885. - - "Food in Health and Disease." I. BURNEY YEO. - - "Delicate Feasting." THEODORE CHILD. 1890. - - "The Story of the Bacteria." T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN. 1890. - - "Dust and its Dangers." T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN. 1890. - - "Bacteria and their Products." GERMAN SIMS WOODHEAD. 1892. - - "The Methods of Bacteriological Investigation." FERDINAND HEUPPE, - M. D. 1886. - - "Microbes, Ferments, and Molds." E. L. TROUESSART. 1886. - - "Principles of Bacteriology." ALEXANDER C. ABBOTT, M. D. 1892. - - "The Human Body." H. NEWELL MARTIN. 1890. - - "A Text-book of Human Physiology." AUSTIN FLINT, M. D., LL. D. - 1888. - - "Domestic Hygiene of the Child." JULIUS UFFELMANN, M. D. (A - Translation.) Edited by MARY PUTNAM JACOBI, M. D. 1891. - - "A Treatise on the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood." J. LEWIS - SMITH, M. D. 1886. - - Article in the "Medical News" on "Diseases of Children Incident - to Summer." VICTOR C. VAUGHAN. June 9, 1888. - - "Practical, Sanitary, and Economic Cooking." MARY H. ABEL. 1890. - (The Lomb Prize Essay.) - - "The Town Dweller." DR. FOTHERGILL. - - "A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection." W. PAUL GERHARD. 1890. - - "Papers of the American Public Health Association." 1892. - - "Foods." EDWARD SMITH. 1883. - - -CHARTS - -Charts of the composition of various foods may be made like the -following, for use in a cooking school. They are valuable and -convenient for reference. - - -CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF AN EGG - - _Shell._ - Carbonate of lime. - - _Yolk._ - Nitrogenous matter 16.00% - Fat 30.70% - Salts 1.30% - Water 52.00% - - _White._ - Nitrogenous matter 20.40% - Salts 1.60% - Water 78.00% - - -COMPOSITION OF COW'S MILK - - Water 87.4% - Fat 4.0% - Sugar and soluble salts 5.0% - Nitrogenous matter and insoluble salts 3.6% - - DR. MILLER. - - -COMPOSITION OF COCOA - - Cocoa butter 48.00% - Nitrogenous matter, albumen, etc. 21.00% - Theobromine 4.00% - Starch and traces of sugar 11.00% - Cellulose 3.00% - Coloring matter and aromatic essences Traces - Mineral matter 3.00% - Water 10.00% - - PAYEN. - - -COMPOSITION OF BREAD - - Nitrogenous matter 8.10% - Carbohydrates, starch, sugar, etc. 51.00% - Fatty matter 1.60% - Mineral matter 2.30% - Water 37.00% - Cellulose 0.00% - - -COMPOSITION OF POTATO - - Water 75.00% - Starch 18.80% - Nitrogenous matter 2.00% - Sugar 3.00% - Fat 0.20% - Salts, principally potash 1.00% - - -APPARATUS - -The following is a list of the necessary furniture, utensils, -china, and miscellaneous articles for furnishing a cooking school: - - -CHINA FOR SERVING - - 3 Glass cream pitchers. - 6 Small china cream pitchers. - 6 Coffee-cups and saucers. - 6 Tea-cups and saucers. - 3 Cocoa-cups and saucers. - 2 Bouillon-cups and saucers. - 3 Egg-cups. - 3 Egg-glasses. - 6 Tall, slender glasses for milk-punch, egg-nog, etc. - 1 Small red goblet for serving beef-juice. - 6 Tumblers. - 1 Spoon-holder. - 3 Glass sugar bowls. - 2 Soup bowls. - 2 Salad bowls. - 2 Finger bowls. - 3 Small teapots. - 1 Cocoa-pot. - 1 Tête-à-tête set. - 1 Oatmeal set. - 1 Cracker jar. - 6 Dinner plates. - 6 Tea plates. - 6 Individual bread plates. - 6 Individual Butter plates. - 6 Glass sauce dishes. - 6 Bone dishes. - 1 Vinegar cruet. - 2 Individual salt-cellars. - 2 Individual pepper-bottles. - 3 Small oval platters. - 3 Medium-size oval platters. - 3 Silver or planished tin covers, for platters or vegetable, dishes. - 6 Silver knives. - 6 Silver forks. - 6 Silver spoons. - 1 Pair of silver sugar-tongs. - 1 Champagne tap. - - -COMMON KITCHEN CHINA - - 3 Large pitchers. - 3 Small pitchers. - 6 Half-pint cups. - 6 Saucers. - 12 Custard cups. - 6 Individual scallop dishes. - 3 Mixing bowls. - 6 Quart bowls. - 6 Pint bowls. - 3 Large vegetable dishes. - 3 Small vegetable dishes. - 3 Pudding dishes. - 1 Large jelly-mold. - 6 Small jelly-molds. - - -GRANITE-WARE - - 2 Six-quart covered kettles. - 1 Six-pint double boiler. - 2 Three-pint double boilers. - 1 Quart double boiler. - 1 Coffee-pot. - 3 Stew-pans. - 6 Saucepans. - 2 Omelet-pans. - 2 Hand-basins. - - -IRON AND TIN WARE - - 1 Tin tea-kettle. - 6 Half-pint measure cups in thirds. - 6 Half-pint measure cups in fourths. - 2 Tin jelly-molds. - 1 Large-mouthed tunnel. - 3 Small tunnels. - 1 Colander. - 1 Taper soup-strainer. - 3 Coarse wire strainers. - 3 Fine wire strainers. - 2 Tea-strainers. - 1 Flour sieve. - 1 Dredging box. - 1 Egg-poacher. - 1 Grater. - 1 Whip-churn. - 2 Dover egg-beaters. - 1 Lemon-squeezer. - 1 Meat-press. - 1 Potato-masher. - 2 Large wire broilers. - 2 Small wire broilers. - 1 Oyster-broiler. - 1 Wire cake-rest. - 2 Large tin pans. - 3 Frying-pans. - 2 Iron baking-pans for bread. - 2 Sponge-cake pans. - 1 Iron gem pan. - 2 Muffin tins. - 1 Chafing-dish. - 3 Lacquered trays. - 3 Small trays. - 12 Japanned boxes of different sizes, - for flour, etc. - 6 Tea-caddies. - 1 Biscuit-cutter. - 4 Cutting-knives. - 3 Vegetable knives. - 1 Chopping-knife. - 1 Meat-cleaver. - 6 Forks. - 1 Set of steel skewers. - 1 Corkscrew. - 1 Can-opener. - 1 Ice-pick. - 1 Sugar-scoop. - 1 Basting-spoon. - 6 Mixing-spoons. - 12 Tablespoons. - 12 Teaspoons. - - -WOODEN WARE - - 1 Coffee-mill. - 1 Ice-cream freezer. - 1 Salt-box. - 1 Spice-box. - 1 Dish-tub. - 1 Large oval chopping-tray. - 2 Meat-boards. - 1 Bread-board. - 1 Molding-board. - 1 Rolling-pin. - 2 Butter-spatters for butter-balls. - 2 Cake-spoons. - 2 Salt-spoons. - 2 Vegetable brushes. - 2 Scrubbing brushes. - -LINEN - - Table-cloths. - Napkins. - Hand-towels. - Tea-towels. - Dish-cloths. - Mops. - Ice-bag. - Jelly-bags. - Cleaning-cloths. - - -MISCELLANEOUS - - 1 Chemists' thermometer. - 1 Oven thermometer. - 1 Arnold sterilizer. - 1 Feser's lactoscope. - 1 Quevenne's lactometer. - 1 Hamper for soiled linen. - 6 Quart Mason jars. - 6 Pint Mason jars. - - -FURNITURE - - 1 Cooking stove, with appurtenances. - 1 Coal-hod. - 1 Coal-shovel. - 1 Galvanized iron covered waste-pail. - 1 Galvanized iron sink. - 2 Towel-racks. - 2 Tables. - 1 Refrigerator. - 1 China-closet. - 1 Open dresser. - 6 Chairs. - 1 Broom. - 1 Dust-pan. - 1 Dust-brush. - - - - -INDEX - - - Absorption, 68. - - Adaptation of food to particular needs, 69. - - Air, 14, 15, 18, 20, 38-44, 54, 56, 64. - - Albumen, 17, 25, 27, 52, 59, 61, 76, 146, 152, 168, 169, 283, 292. - - Albuminoids, 17, 25, 62. - - Ale, 119. - - Apparatus for furnishing a cooking-school, 315. - - Apple dumplings, 311. - - Apple (dried) pie, 306. - - Apple soup, 144. - - Apples, 130. - Baked, 225, 226. - Stewed, 226. - - Apple-tea, 106. - - Arrowroot, 32, 34, 85. - - Atmospheric pressure, 38. - - - Bacon, 300. - - Bacteria, 23, 49, 99, 285. - - Bacterial poisons in milk, 285, 286. - - Bacteriology, 5, 313. - - Baking-powder, 236, 245. - - Barley jelly, 296. - - Barley porridge, 309. - - Barley pudding, 205. - - Barley-water, 101, 284. - - Beef, 169, 170, 310. - - Beef-juice, 75. - Bottled, 76. - Broiled, 76. - - Beefsteak, 27, 170, 171. - - Beef-tapioca soup, 140. - - Beef-tea, 75, 116. - Bottled, 77. - With hydrochloric acid, 77. - - Beer, 119. - - Biedert's Cream Mixture, 293, 295. - - Bile, 51, 61. - - Bills of fare, 304. - - Birds, 175. - Field-larks, 180. - Grouse, 179. - Partridge, 176. - Pheasants, 178. - Reed-birds, 179. - Squabs, 176. - Snipe, 177. - Woodcock, 178. - - Biscuits, cream-of-tartar, 242. - - Biscuits, twin, 243. - - Blanc-mange, 209, 210. - - Boiled corned beef, 310. - - Boiled potatoes and carrots, with fried onions, 309. - - Bouillon, 143. - - Brandy-milk, 98. - - Bread, 34, 76, 232. - Composition of, 315. - Cream-of-tartar biscuit, 242. - Gluten, 245. - Graham, 241. - Graham gems, 244. - Milk, 239. - Oatmeal muffins, 244. - Rusk, 240, 241. - Snow-cakes, 243. - Sticks, 240. - Water, 238. - - Bread pancakes, 307. - - Bread soup, 304. - - Broths, 27, 75. - Beef, 78. - Beefsteak, 79. - Chicken, 80. - Clam, 82. - Mutton, 81. - Oyster, 82. - Scotch, 80. - Serving of, 275. - - Browned farina soup, 312. - - Browned flour soup, 305. - - Butter-cream, 193. - - Buttered water toast, 129. - - - Cake, 246. - Care in baking, 247. - Chocolate, 250. - Dream, 252. - Feather, 249. - Invalid's sponge, 248. - Layer, 250. - Process of making, 247. - Rose, 250. - White, 251. - - Cake filling and frosting, 252. - - Caramel, 252. - - Chocolate, 253. - - Cream, 253. - - White mountain, 252. - - Calf's-foot jelly, 28. - - Caramel, 37, 38, 115. - To make, 197. - - Carbohydrates, 18, 19, 31, 62, 63, 64, 65, 58, 71. - - Carbon, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 29, 36, 37, 171. - - Carbonic acid, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 40, 42, 54, 107, 234, 235. - - Carmine for coloring, 210. - - Carrageen, 209. - - Cellulose, 299. - - Charts, 314. - - Chemical changes, 10, 11, 15. - - Chemistry of foods, 313. - - Chicken, broiled, 174. - - Chicken jelly, 126. - - Chicken panada, 141. - - Chicken soup, 135. - - Chicken-tapioca soup, 139. - - China for serving, 316. - - Chocolate, 108, 110, 200. - Serving of, 269. - To make, 109. - - Clam broth, 82. - - Cocoa, 108, 299, 315. - - Cocoa cordial, 119. - - Cocoa-nibs, 109. - - Cocoa-shells, 109. - - Codfish balls, 309. - - Coffee, 9, 22, 23, 114, 307. - Composition of, 116. - Serving of, 269, 275. - To make, 117, 118. - - Coffee jelly, 124. - - Coffee-syrup, 104. - - Composition of the body, 16, 17, 18, 24. - - Condensed milk, 288, 298. - - Consommé, 142. - - Contagious diseases, care of dishes in, 271. - - Convalescent's diet, 260. - - Corn bread, 310. - - Corn coffee, 307. - - Cream, 30, 63, 104. - - Cream, condensed, 296. - - Cream-of-celery soup, 137. - - Cream-of-rice soup, 138. - - Cream of tartar, 10, 236. - - Cream-of-tartar biscuit, 242. - - Creams, 127, 195. - Chocolate, 200. - Coffee, 199. - Egg, 198. - Peach foam, 202. - Rice, 202. - Tapioca, 201. - Velvet, 199. - - Cream sauce, 149. - - Cream toast, 130. - - Croutons, 132, 135. - - Custards, 195. - Soft, 195, 278. - Baked, 196. - French, 197. - Rennet, 197. - - - Dextrine, 33, 63, 128, 163, 290. - - Diastase, 34, 50. - - Diet, 72. - - Diet lists or menus for the sick, 254. - - Digestibility of foods, 9. - - Digestion, 9, 49, 66, 110, 116. - - Digestive fluids, 50, 51. - - District nursing, 301. - - Drawn butter, 194. - - Drawn butter sauce, 308. - - Dried apple pie, 306. - - Drinks, 95. - - - Egg-nog, 95. - - Eggs, 25, 26, 52, 152, 314. - Composition, 152. - Omelets, 156. - Creamy, 157. - Foamy, 158. - Orange, 160. - Spanish, 160. - To serve, 277. - With chicken, 159. - With ham, No. 1, 158. - With ham, No. 2, 159. - With jelly, 159. - With parsley, 160. - With tomatoes, 159. - Poached, 155. - Scrambled, No. 1, 156. - Scrambled, No. 2, 156. - Soft-cooked, 154. - - Egg toast, 131. - - Elements, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 56, 57, 59. - - Ether, boiling-point of, 30. - - Extractives, 24, 25, 26, 28, 59. - - - Farina, 87, 91, 92. - - Farinaceous foods, 289, 291, 292. - - Fats, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 31, 58, 60-65, 68, 71, 169, 292, 294. - - Feeding of children, 280. - Analysis of Mellin's food prepared for use, 291. - Care of feeding-bottles, 287. - Condensed milk, 288. - Farinaceous foods, 289. - Food. - Amount at each meal, 293. - Dilution, 293. - First week, 295. - From the first to the sixth week, 295. - From the sixth week to the sixth month, 296. - From the sixth month to the tenth, 297. - From the tenth to the twelfth month, 298. - From the twelfth to the eighteenth month, 299. - Food after eighteen months, 299. - Foods to be carefully avoided, 300. - - Field-larks, 180. - - Fire, 14, 302. - - Fish, 5, 191. - Boiled, 194. - Broiled, 193. - Creamed, 193. - To prepare, 191. - When in season, 192. - - Flavors, 9, 59, 79. - - Flaxseed tea, 105. - - Food, 9, 14, 18, 25, 49, 53. - - French toast, 131. - - Fried bread, 309. - - Fried farina pudding, 308. - - Fruits, 224, 71, 208, 225, 229. - Apple compote, 220. - Apple jelly, 230. - Apples, baked, 225, 226. - Apples, stewed, 226. - Cranberry jelly and sauce, 227. - Grape jelly and sauce, 228. - Prunes, stewed, 227. - Serving of, 276. - - Fuel and kindlings, 16. - - - Gastric juice, 50. - - Gelatin, 28, 53, 59, 76, 120, 122, 168, 169. - - Gelatine, 120, 121, 222. - - Gelatinoids, 17, 25, 28. - - General rules for the feeding of children, 294. - - Giblet soup, 309. - - Glucose, 35, 37, 52, 63. - - Graham bread, 241. - - Graham gems, 244. - - Granite-ware, 316. - - Grape jelly, 228. - - Grape juice, 105. - - Grouse, 179, 180. - - Gruels, 83. - Arrowroot, 84. - Barley, 84. - Cracker, 87. - Farina, 87. - Flour, 86. - Imperial Granum, 88. - Indian meal, 89. - Oatmeal, 85, 86. - Racahout des Arabes, 88. - Serving of, 83, 275. - - Glycerin, 30. - - Glycogen, 63, 64, 65. - - - Hamburg steak, No. 1 (scraped beef), 172. - - Hamburg steak, No. 2, 173. - - Heat, 2, 10, 13, 14, 15, 20, 56, 54, 61, 169, 218. - - Hemoglobin, 17, 59. - - Horse-radish sauce, 310. - - Human milk, 281. - - Hydrochloric acid, 10, 11, 28, 52, 77, 78. - - Hydrogen, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 24, 29. - - - Ice-cream, 217. - Frozen custard, 221. - Philadelphia, 220. - Royal, 220. - With an improvised freezer, 221. - - Ice-cream freezers, 217. - - Ices, 217. - Apricot, 224. - - Ideal diet, 68. - - Imperial Granum, 291, 297. - - Inorganic matter of the body and of food, 18, 65, 66. - - - Jellies, 120. - From fruits: - Apple, 230. - Cranberry, 227. - Grape, 228. - Serving of, 276. - To preserve, 230. - From gelatine, 120. - Chicken, 126. - Coffee, 124. - French, 125. - Lemon, 123. - Orange, 123. - Puncheon, 126. - Wine, No. 1, 122. - Wine, No. 2, 122. - Restorative, 125. - - Junket, 198, 278. - - - Kitchen china, 316. - - Kumiss, 106, 107. - - - Lactometer, 46. - - Lactoscope, 46. - - Lactose, 18, 37. - - Lamb chops, 184. - - Lead, 12. - - Lemonade, 97, 275. - - Lemon jelly, 123. - - Lentil soup, 309. - - Lettuce salad, 213. - - Light diet, 256. - - Lime-water (experiment with), 21. - - Linen, 318. - - Liquid diet, 254. - - Literature, 313. - - Liver, 63. - - Lobsters, 300. - - Lomb prize essay, 302. - - - Malted milk, 290, 291. - - Meats, 5, 168. - - Mellin's food, 283, 284, 290, 297, 298, 299. - - Menus for the sick, 254. - - Micro-organisms, 1, 2, 22, 23, 40, 46, 47, 49, 98, 230, 281, 284, 285. - - Milk, 30, 44-49, 57, 273. - Composition of cow's, 45, 281, 315. - Condensed, 298. - Malted, 290. - Pasteurized, 288. - Preserved, 289. - Serving of, 275. - Sterilization of, 47, 48, 49, 99, 100, 281, 284, 287. - Supplies, 49, 281, 282. - - Milk and seltzer, 100. - - Milk and soda-water, 101. - - Milk lemonade, 97. - - Milk-punch, 95, 275. - - Milk toast, 130. - - Milk-sugar, 298. - - Mineral matter in milk, 283. - - Mineral salts, 18, 57, 65, 66, 71, 111, 162, 175, 226. - - Mint sauce, 308. - - Mock-bisque soup, 135. - - Mulled wine, 118. - - Mush and porridge, 90. - Cracked wheat, 93. - Farina, 92. - Granula, 93. - Hominy, 94. - Imperial Granum, 93. - Indian meal, 94. - Oatmeal, 91. - Wheat germ, 92. - - Mustard sauce, 312. - - Mutton, 181, 182. - - - Nestlé's food, 291, 297. - - Nitrogen, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 24, 42, 59. - - Nitrogenous compounds, 53, 58, 62. - - Noodles, 305. - - Noodle soup, 305. - - Nutrition, 53, 57, 313. - Absorption, 68. - Adaptation of foods to particular needs, 69. - Definition, 54. - Ideal diet, 68. - Imperfect, 70. - Inorganic matters and vegetable acids, 65. - Summary of the digestibility of foods, 68. - Value of protein, fats, carbohydrates, and extractives, 58-65. - Ways in which food supplies the wants of the body, 56. - - - Oatmeal, 80, 85, 86, 90, 91. - - Oatmeal muffins, 244. - - Oil, 10, 30. - Cod-liver, 63. - Fixed and volatile, 28. - Olive, 30, 31, 211. - - Omelets, 156. - - Orange jelly, 123. - - Oxygen, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 29, 40, 42, 59, 64. - - Oysters, 145. - Broiled, 149. - Broth, 150. - Chafing-dish, 151. - Composition, 145. - Creamed, 148. - Fancy roast, 150. - Pan-broiled, 150. - Raw, 147. - Roasted in the shell, 147. - Serving, 277. - Soup, 134. - Stew, 148. - Tea No. 1, 82. - Tea No. 2, 82. - - - Panada, 79, 141. - - Pancreatic juice, 51, 61, 290. - - Paraffin, 230. - - Partridges, 176. - - Pasteurized milk, 288. - - Peach foam, 202. - - Peas, 190. - - Pea soup, 307. - - Peptogenic milk powder, 284. - - Peptonized milk, 296. - - Pheasants, 178. - - Phosphated gelatine, 121. - - Physical changes, 10, 11, 12. - - Pigeons, 180. - - Pink blanc-mange, 210. - - Pink sugar, 209. - - Poisons in milk (bacterial), 22, 285, 286. - - Porridge, 90, 91. - - Porter, 119. - - Potato and onion salad, 311. - - Potatoes, 32, 34, 70, 161. - Baked, 165. - Boiled, 163. - Composition, 161. - Creamed, 166. - Duchess, 166. - Mashed, 164. - Roasted, 165. - - Potato soup, 136. - - Preserved milk, 289. - - Protein, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 52, 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 68, 71. - - Puddings, 195. - Baked custards, 196. - Barley, 205. - Chocolate cream, 200. - Coffee cream, 199. - Corn-starch, 204. - Cream-of-rice, 206. - Egg cream, 198. - French custard, 197. - Fruit tapioca, 207. - Irish moss blanc-mange, 209. - Orange baskets, 208. - Orange layers, 208. - Orange omelet, 160. - Peach foam, 202. - Pink blanc-mange, 210. - Princess, 204. - Rennet custard, 197. - Rice cream, 202. - Slip, 197. - Soft custard, 195. - Snow pudding, 203. - Tapioca cream, 201. - Tapioca jelly, 207. - Velvet cream, 199. - - Puncheon jelly, 126. - - - Racahout des Arabes, 88, 89. - - Reed-birds, 179. - - Rennet, 198. - - Restorative jelly, 125. - - Rice, 76, 79, 81. - - Rice-water, 102. - - Ridge's food, 291, 297. - - Roly-poly pudding, 312. - - Rules for the feeding of children, 294. - - Salads, 10, 71, 211. - Celery, 216. - Chicken, 214. - Lettuce, 213. - Potato, 215. - " with olives, 216. - - Salad Dressing, 211. - French, 212. - Mayonnaise, 212. - - Saliva, 50, 290, 51. - - Salt (sodium chlorid), 11, 18, 66. - - Scotch broth, 80. - - Scraped beef, 172. - - Serving, 267. - - Sherbets, 217, 277. - Lemon, 222. - Orange, 223. - - Sherry and egg, 98. - - Sippets, 132. - - Snipe, 177. - - Soda-water, 101. - - Sodium chlorid, 11, 18. - - Soups, 4, 27, 134. - Apple, 144. - Beef-tapioca, 140. - Bouillon, 143. - Bread, 304. - Browned farina, 312. - " flour, 305. - Chicken, 135. - Chicken panada, 141. - Chicken-tapioca, 139. - Consommé, 142. - Cream-of-celery, 137. - Cream-of-rice, 138. - Giblet, 309. - Lentil, 309. - Mock-bisque, 135. - Noodle, 305. - Oyster, 134. - Pea, 307. - Potato, 136. - Queen Victoria's favorite, 139. - - Spores, 23, 24, 48, 99. - - Squabs, 176. - - Starch, 31, 33, 34, 35, 62, 63, 65, 68, 51, 18, 58, 83, 85, 128, 161. - Digestion of, 51, 52, 84, 290. - Composition, 32, 58. - Tests for, 32. - - Steak (beef), 27, 70, 171. - A la Maître d'Hôtel, 173. - Hamburg. No. 1 (scraped beef), 172. - " " 2, 173. - Tenderloin, 173. - - Steam, 12, 20, 29. - - Sterilization, - of Milk, 47, 48, 98, 99, 100, 287, 284. - of Vessels for holding milk, 281. - of Water, 19, 23, 24. - - Stews, 185. - Chicken, 185. - Beef, 186. - Mutton, 187. - - Strawberries, 102, 103, 105, 121, 224. - - Sucrose, 36, 52. - - Sugar, 18, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 62, 58, 63, 65, 68, 283. - - Sweeping and dusting, 303. - - Sweetbreads, 188. - Creamed, 189. - Fricasseed, 189. - With peas, 190. - - Syrups, Apple, 103. - Apricot, 103. - Chocolate, 104. - Coffee, 104. - Currant, 103. - Orange, 103. - Peach, 103. - Raspberry, 103. - Strawberry, 102. - Vanilla, 104. - - - Tapioca, 34, 76, 79, 81, 201, 207. - - Tea, 22, 110, 269. - Composition, 111. - Kinds, 112, 113. - Serving of, 275. - To prepare, 113, 114. - Value as food, 110, 23. - - Tenderloin (steak), 173. - - Thermometers (oven), 239. - - Toast, 128. - Cream, 130. - Croutons, 132. - French, 131. - Milk, 130. - Sippets, 132. - Vermicelli, 133. - Water (buttered), 129. - - Toast and cheese, 306. - - Tomatoes, 135. - - - Vanilla syrup, 104. - - Veal broth, 284. - - Venison, 70, 180. - - Ventilation, 42. - - Volatile oils, 28. - - - Washing of dishes, 303. - - Waste, 19, 67. - - Waste-pails, 5. - - Water, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 54, 65, 218. - - Water-ice, 217, 224. - - Wheat-flour, 232. - - Whey, 295. - Wine, 96. - With rennet, 96. - - White-sauce, 130. - - Wine jelly. No. 1, 122. - - Wine jelly. No. 2, 122. - - Wine, mulled, 118. - - Wine whey, 96. - - Woodcock, 178. - - Wooden ware, 317. - - - Yeast, 232, 233. - Liquid, 237. - - - Zwieback, 300. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] A notable exception is the "Boston Cook Book." - -[2] Although in some hospitals it is not practicable for a nurse -to do much cooking for her patients, she has the control and -distribution of the food which is prepared. - -[3] Carbonic acid is composed of one part of carbon and two parts -of oxygen. Its symbol is CO_{2}. One volume of hydrogen united with -one volume of chlorin forms hydrochloric acid, HCl. Common salt, -or sodium chlorid, is composed of one part sodium and one part -chlorin. Symbol, NaCl. - -[4] Oxygen is often called the _supporter_ of combustion, but it is -no more so than the carbon and hydrogen of fuels, since they are -necessary for a fire. - -[5] Hydrogen is 14.44 times lighter than air. - -[6] See Eliot and Storer's "Chemistry," the revised edition, edited -by Nichols, and the "Elementary Text-book of Chemistry," by Mixter. - -[7] Mattieu Williams, in "Chemistry of Cookery." - -[8] The carbonic acid breathed in has united with the lime, thus -leaving the water without excess of it. - -[9] As a general thing water does not contain organisms that form -spores. - -[10] Atwater. - -[11] The decline in the sardine trade during the last few years -is accounted for by the fact that cotton-seed oil has so largely -replaced olive-oil in the packing of these fish. People who once -regarded them as a great delicacy no longer find them satisfying. - -[12] This is not the first instance of the discovery of organisms -in hail; but Dr. Abbott, if not the first, is one of the first -bacteriologists to demonstrate the fact in this country. - -[13] Parkes's "Practical Hygiene." - -[14] For a detailed description of this method of heating and -ventilation, see the report of the Johns Hopkins Hospital for the -year 1891. - -[15] Variations in the composition of cow's milk (300 analyses): - - _Minimum._ _Maximum._ - Albuminoids or Protein 2.04% 6.18% - Fat 1.82% 7.09% - Sugar 3.20% 5.67% - Salts .50% .87% - - --KÖNIG. - - -[16] The following is the police order for milk, published in -Darmstadt, 1879: (1) All milk must have a specific gravity of -1.029-1.033. (2) When skimmed it must have a specific gravity of -1.033. (3) All milk with a specific gravity under 1.027 is to be -considered as watered and immediately confiscated. (4) All milk -with specific gravity over 1.027, if after twenty-four hours -standing and skimming the specific gravity is under 1.033, must -also be confiscated, also all skimmed milk with a specific gravity -under 1.033. (5) All milk must be considered skimmed which has less -than 2.8 per cent. of fat. - -[17] See article on the Feeding of Children. - -[18] Spores may be further described as resistant forms which some -organisms assume in times of danger, or lack of nourishment for the -purpose of preserving their lives. Not all organisms form spores. - -[19] It is supposed, but I think not yet demonstrated, that -bacteria are among the transforming agents of our food, in the -alimentary canal. Organisms in the saliva have been isolated and -found to produce substances which will partially digest starch. - -[20] Flint's "Physiology." - -[21] It is possible that albumen and fibrin are acted upon by some -of the juices secreted in the mouth. - -[22] The body loses each day, in the performance of its ordinary -and usual functions, about nine pounds of matter (Martin); -therefore, that amount of income of food, water, and air will be -needed in every twenty-four hours. - -[23] Prof. Atwater, in "The Century Magazine," 1887-88. - -[24] Hemoglobin, the red coloring matter of the blood, contains -albumen. - -[25] Protein may be converted into fat; but although this will -happen, it will not do to depend upon it for the supply in the -nutrition of the body; for either it cannot be formed in sufficient -quantity, or the excess of nitrogen acts as a poison. The body -suffers unless a due amount of fat _as such_ be taken. (Martin.) - -[26] By regulating the amount of fat taken each day with food, so -that a little less than is needed is consumed, one may reduce the -amount of fat of the body and become thin, or reduce an excess of -fat without injury to health. The process must be gradual, and -continued for a number of months. Bismarck, by the advice of his -physician, reduced himself in this way without loss of energy or -any ill feeling. - -[27] Flint's "Physiology." - -[28] Parkes. - -[29] Martin. - -[30] Martin. - -[31] Composition of oatmeal: - - Nitrogenous matter 12.6% - Carbohydrates, starch, etc. 63.8% - Fatty matter 5.6% - Mineral matter 3.0% - Water 15.0% - ------- - Total 100.00% - - LETHERBY. - -From Prof. Mott's Chart of the Composition, Digestibility, and -Nutritive Value of Food. - -[32] For a further account of micro-organisms in milk, see the -chapter on Milk. - -[33] George Kennan, in his accounts of his perilous journeyings -through Siberia, bears ample testimony to the comforting effects of -hot tea. Often when he and his companion were chilled through, and -almost dead with cold and fatigue, after many hours' travel over -the frozen snows, they were revived by draughts of hot tea provided -at the stations. - -[34] The ash of tea contains potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric -acid, chlorin, carbonic acid, iron, silica, and traces of manganese. - -[35] - - { Water 74.00% - Egg Whole { Nitrogenous matter 14.00% - { Fat 10.50% - { Inorganic matter 1.50% - - PAVY. - - -[36] Another analysis is that of Payen, the distinguished French -chemist. - - Water 74.4% - Starch, sugar, pectose 21.2% - Nitrogenous matter 1.7% - Fat .1% - Cellulose and epidermis 1.5% - Inorganic matter 1.1% - ------- - Total 100.00% - -Pohl found the proportion of starch, judging by specific gravity -in different varieties, to be as follows: 16.38%, 17.11%, 18.43%, -18.95%, 20.45%, 21.32%, 24.14%. - - DR. SMITH'S "Food." - - -[37] Mattieu Williams. - -[38] From actual experiment. - -[39] From Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook Book." - -[40] Pink sugar may be made by putting a few drops of carmine into -a cup of powdered sugar, and sifting it several times until the -carmine is entirely distributed through it. - -[41] Mrs. Richards. - -[42] A portion of the starch and sugar is consumed to feed the -growing yeast. It has been estimated that about 1/7 of a barrel of -flour is lost in raising bread--that is, that amount is consumed by -the yeast used. - -[43] Oven thermometers may be obtained of Joseph Davis & Co., -Fitzroy Works, London, S. E., England. 400° Fahr. is a good -temperature for the first fifteen minutes. Some writers give 380°, -but the higher temperature is better, provided it can be gradually -decreased; it should not fall below 250° until the loaf is done. - -[44] There is, of course, an exception in the case of the use of -milk for young children, it being a perfect food for them during -the first year or year and a half of life. - -[45] In England it is the custom to serve eggs in the shell, and it -is considered bad form to open them, but in America the latter way -is general; for an invalid there is no question but that it is the -most convenient way to do. - -[46] The spatters should be soaked in boiling water for a few -minutes, and then in cold water, to prevent the sticking of the -butter. - -[47] It should not be inferred from this that mother's milk is -the best under _all_ circumstances. It not infrequently happens -that a mother, disregarding all indications to the contrary, will -continue to nurse her baby after it has become disastrous both to -herself and the infant to do so. If a baby remains puny, and the -mother is exhausted and languid without any known cause, it is the -part of wisdom to call in the aid of a physician, and have the -milk analyzed. Good and careful feeding is infinitely better than -nursing a baby upon impoverished milk, even if the quantity seems -sufficient. A mother, in nursing her child, should do so at stated -regular intervals. If it is injurious for a grown person to eat at -odd times all day long, it is far more injurious for an infant. It -will not hurt a child to be occasionally hungry, or even to cry, -whereas it _will_ hurt it seriously and perhaps induce life-long -dyspepsia if food is introduced into the stomach while there yet -remains in it that previously taken in an undigested, or partly -digested, condition. The cry which a young mother thinks indicates -hunger, and hopes to allay by feeding, is often only a dyspeptic -pain, which is increased by the very means she takes to lessen it. - -[48] The milk of goats and asses is said to be more easily digested -than cow's milk, but is procurable only in exceptional cases. - -[49] From Uffelmann's "Hygiene of the Child." - -[50] See chapter on Milk. - -[51] Vessels for holding milk may be made sterile by boiling them -in water for fifteen minutes. Glass is best. - -[52] A low temperature retards the growth of micro-organisms. - -[53] Test for reaction, fat, and specific gravity. See article on -Milk. - -[54] The following mineral substances occur in both cow's and -woman's milk: potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, iron, phosphoric acid, -sulphuric acid, and chlorin. - -[55] It is worthy of notice, in this connection, that children have -been known to be made ill by drinking water which has stood for a -length of time--such water containing great numbers of bacteria, -but none of the so-called _disease-producing_ organisms. The same -water, when boiled, produced no ill effects. - -[56] Stated by Sedgwick. - -[57] Welsh. - -[58] Since writing the above I have learned that Prof. Vaughan has -isolated a poisonous matter--the product of the growth of certain -organisms which multiply readily in milk--which caused active -vomiting, purging, collapse, and death when injected into the lower -animals. - -[59] In England and America many cases of scarlatina, typhoid -fever, and diphtheria have been traced to the milk supply. But -there is no satisfactory evidence that those diseases were -transmitted from the cow; more probably the milk, which is an -especially good nutritive medium for bacteria, became infected -after leaving the cow. In October, 1891, an epidemic of diphtheria -prevailed in Melrose, Mass. Thirty-three cases were reported. On -investigation it was found that every case could be traced to -the milk supply. The farm from which it came was situated in an -adjoining town, and the family of the dealer had been afflicted -with diphtheria, two of the children having died. The use of the -milk was, of course, promptly stopped. - -[60] A simple and inexpensive apparatus for sterilizing milk -consists of a covered tin kettle ten inches in height by eight -inches in diameter, a wire basket, which fits easily into the -kettle, supplied with supports or legs projecting one and a half -inches from the bottom, one dozen eight-ounce nursing-bottles, and -a bundle of fresh cotton wadding. The whole apparatus, costing -about $1.25, is kept in most drug stores. - -Milk for twenty-four hours' use is properly sweetened and diluted -with water in a clean pitcher, and as much of this as the child -will take at one feeding is poured into each bottle, and the bottle -stopped with cotton wadding, which should fit only moderately tight -in the neck of the bottle. The kettle is filled to the depth of -one half to one inch with water, the basket containing the bottles -placed in it, the kettle covered and placed over a fire until the -steam comes out from the sides of the top for half an hour, when -the basket containing the bottles should be removed and put in a -cool place. When the milk is to be used, it should be heated by -placing a bottle in warm water for a few minutes. The cotton is -then removed, and a sterilized nipple attached. After the feeding -the bottle is cleansed and kept in an inverted position until used -again. The above directions are those of Dr. Booker, specialist of -children's diseases, Johns Hopkins Hospital. - -[61] In the Walker-Gordon Milk Laboratory, in Boston, milk is -sterilized at 175° to 180° Fahr. for fifteen minutes, and it is -claimed that this temperature gives the best results for milk to be -used within twenty-four hours. If the milk has to be kept a longer -time, a higher temperature is necessary, as only the bacteria and -not the spores are destroyed by 175° Fahr. - -Machines are in use in France which will heat great quantities -of milk to about 155° Fahr. and then rapidly cool it. Not all, -but nearly all, forms of bacteria likely to be found in milk are -destroyed at the temperature of 155°, and the good flavor of the -milk is not injured. Such milk is known as _Pasteurized milk_. - -[62] See the works of Drs. Louis Starr, Uffelmann, and Jacobi. - -[63] The amount of condensation in preserved milk may be easily -ascertained by noting the amount of water which it is necessary to -add in order to make its specific gravity equal to that of ordinary -milk. - -[64] To prepare whey: 1 pint of milk mixed with 1 teaspoon of -liquid rennet. Set in a warm place until the curd is formed; then -break the curd and put it into a cloth or a wire strainer to drain. - -[65] To make barley jelly: Boil two tablespoons of pearl barley in -a pint of water for two hours. Strain. It will form a tender jelly. - -[66] The condensed cream of the Highland Co. may be used when other -cream cannot be obtained. - -[67] Malted milk, Nestlé's food, Ridge's food, Imperial Granum, or -barley-flour, may be used as attenuants. - -[68] Enough for the whole day may be made by multiplying the rule -by eight, dividing the quantity into eight bottles, and sterilizing -all at once. Keep in a cool place until needed. - -[69] Milk-sugar may be obtained without difficulty, and always, at -a pharmacy. It is better for infants than cane-sugar, because it is -a little easier of digestion. - -[70] - - Water 92.60% - Fat 1.00% - Casein .84% - Sugar 5.40% - Ash .16% - - DR. MEIGS. - - -[71] Although Mellin's food is made from grain, the starch in -it has been changed in the process of manufacture into easily -assimilated dextrine and sugar. - -[72] The ordinary powdered cocoa, which has been deprived of oil. -Dutch brands are good. - -[73] Zwieback is a slightly sweetened and dried bread, which may be -bought at any grocer's. It is like dried rusk. - -[74] Bacon is very easy of digestion, and is a valuable form of fat -for children four or five years old. Given with bread or potatoes, -it will often be eaten when butter is refused. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, - milk-supply, milk supply; beef-tea, beef tea; over night, overnight; - to-day; oxid; inclosing; peptonizing. - - Table of Contents: - Pg vi, insert missing entry: 'EGGS 153'. - - Main text: - Pg 152, 'Laws and Gilbert' replaced by 'Lawes and Gilbert'. - Pg 264, 'Potato. Stewed Mushrooms.' replaced by - 'Potatoes. Stewed Mushrooms.'. - - Index: - Format of the entry for 'Apples' changed to make its subheadings - consistent with all other subheadings. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Handbook of Invalid Cooking, by Mary A. Boland - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF INVALID COOKING *** - -***** This file should be named 54568-0.txt or 54568-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/5/6/54568/ - -Produced by Emmy, MWS, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |