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+ right: 1%; + font-size: x-small; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + font-style: normal; + letter-spacing: normal; + text-indent: 0em; + text-align: right; + color: #999999; + background-color: #ffffff; +} + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.lock {white-space: nowrap;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.lowercase { text-transform:lowercase; } + +em.doubleu { /* -- double underline, no italics -- */ + text-decoration: underline; + border-bottom: 1px solid; + font-style:normal; +} + +em.overline { /* -- single overline, no italics -- */ + border-top: 1px solid; + font-style:normal; +} + +/* Images */ +img { /* the default inline image has */ + border: 2px solid #D3D3D3; + border-style: ridge; +} + +img.noborder { /* image with no border or padding, see float */ + border: none; +} + +img.hires { /* image with no border or padding, see float */ + border: 2px solid #4682B4; + border-style: ridge; +} + +.caption p { /* caption para is.. */ + margin-top: 0; /* ..snuggled up to its image */ + text-align: center; +} + +.caption { /* caption para is.. */ + margin-top: 0; /* ..snuggled up to its image */ + font-size: smaller; + text-align: center; +} + +.center { text-align: center; text-indent:0; } +.center table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; } +.center img { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + +.figcenter { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;} /* guiguts */ + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: + 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.sigfig { + display: block; + clear: both; + padding-left: 8em; + margin-top: 1em; +} + +.inline_image + +{ +text-align: left; +display: inline; +vertical-align: middle; +border: 0; +} + + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +.poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + +.container +{ + text-align: center; + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.centred +{ +text-align: left; +display: inline-block; +} + +@media handheld { + +body { + margin-left: 0%; + margin-right: 0%; +} + +.figright p {text-align: center;} + +img { /* no border in epub */ + border: none; +} + +} + + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 54653 ***</div> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p>In the html version of this eBook, larger images (indicated with a blue border) are linked to higher-resolution versions of the illustrations.</p> +</div> + +<div class="break small"> + +<h2 class="nobreak">LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS.</h2> + + +<h3>Series title.</h3> + +<p>Smithsonian institution. <i>Bureau of ethnology.</i></p> + +<p>Tenth annual report | of the | Bureau of ethnology | to the | +secretary of the Smithsonian institution | 1888-’89 | by | J. W. +Powell | director | [Vignette] |</p> + +<p>Washington | government printing office | 1893</p> + +<p>8<sup>o</sup>. xxx, 742 pp. 54 pl.</p> + + +<h3>Author title.</h3> + +<p>Powell (John Wesley).</p> + +<p>Tenth annual report | of the | Bureau of ethnology | to the | +secretary of the Smithsonian institution | 1888-’89 | by | J. W. +Powell | director | [Vignette] |</p> + +<p>Washington | government printing office | 1893</p> + +<p>8<sup>o</sup>. xxx, 742 pp. 54 pl.</p> + +<p>[<span class="smcap">Smithsonian institution.</span> <i>Bureau of ethnology.</i>]</p> + + +<h3>Title for subject entry.</h3> + +<p>Tenth annual report | of the | Bureau of ethnology | to the | +secretary of the Smithsonian institution | 1888-’89 | by | J. W. +Powell | director | [Vignette] |</p> + +<p>Washington | government printing office | 1893</p> + +<p>8<sup>o</sup>. xxx, 742 pp. 54 pl.</p> + +<p>[<span class="smcap">Smithsonian institution.</span> <i>Bureau of ethnology.</i>]</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagei" id="pagei">[i]</a></span></p> + + + +<p class="p4 break center"> +TENTH ANNUAL REPORT<br /> + +<span class="small">OF THE</span><br /> + +<span class="large">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY</span><br /> + +<span class="small">TO THE</span><br /> + +SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION<br /> + +1888-’89</p> + +<p class="p2 center"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> + +<span class="large">J. W. POWELL</span><br /> +DIRECTOR</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/colophon.png" class="noborder" width="113" height="150" alt="colophon" /> +</div> + +<p class="p2 center">WASHINGTON<br /> +<span class="small">GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> +1893</span> +</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageii" id="pageii">[ii]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiii" id="pageiii">[iii]</a></span><br /></p> + + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiv" id="pageiv">[iv]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev" id="pagev">[v]</a></span><br /></p> +<h2>REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.</h2> + + + + +<h3 class="break">CONTENTS.</h3> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td class="right">Page.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Letter of transmittal </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagevii">VII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Introduction </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pageix">IX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Publications </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagex">X</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Field work </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagex">X</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1"> Mound explorations </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagex">X</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Cyrus Thomas </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagex">X</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Gerard Fowke </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexi">XI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. D. Middleton </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexi">XI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. H. L. Reynolds </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexi">XI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. W. Emmert </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexii">XII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1"> General field studies </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexii">XII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Col. Garrick Mallery </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexii">XII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. W. J. Hoffman </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. H. W. Henshaw </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. James Mooney </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexv">XV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Jeremiah Curtin </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexvi">XVI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. A. S. Gatschet </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Victor Mindeleff </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. A. M. Stephen </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Office work </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Major J. W. Powell </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. H. W. Henshaw </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Col. Garrick Mallery </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. Owen Dorsey </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. A. S. Gatschet </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Jeremiah Curtin </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. James Mooney </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexx">XX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. C. Pilling </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexx">XX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. W. H. Holmes </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Cyrus Thomas </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. H. L. Reynolds </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Victor Mindeleff </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. J. K. Hillers </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Franz Boas </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"> Work of Mr. Lucien M. Turner </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxiv">XXIV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Necrology </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxiv">XXIV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1"> Mr. James Stevenson </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxiv">XXIV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Accompanying paper </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxv">XXV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1"> Picture-writing of the American Indians, by Garrick Mallery </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxvi">XXVI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Financial statement </td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#pagexxx">XXX</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi" id="pagevi">[vi]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" id="pagevii">[vii]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h3 class="break">LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.</h3> + + +<p class="center p2"> +<span class="smcap">Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology,</span></p> +<p class="dateline"><i>Washington, D. C., October 1, 1889</i>.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to submit my Tenth Annual Report +as Director of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<p>The first part of it presents an exposition of the operations +of the Bureau during the fiscal year 1888-’89; the second +part consists of a work on the Picture-writing of the American +Indians, which has been in preparation for several years.</p> + +<p>I desire to express my thanks for your earnest support and +your valuable counsel relating to the work under my charge.</p> + +<p>I am, with respect, your obedient servant,</p> + +<div class="sigfig" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/sig.png" class="noborder" width="350" height="113" alt="signature" /><br /> +<div class="sig"> +<i>Director</i>. +</div> +</div> + +<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">S. P. Langley</span>,<br /> +<span class="sigindent"><i>Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution</i>.</span> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii" id="pageviii">[viii]</a></span><br /></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix" id="pageix">[ix]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="p4 break center"> +TENTH ANNUAL REPORT<br /> +<span class="small">OF THE</span><br /> +<span class="large">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</span> +</p> + +<p class="p2 center"><span class="smcap">By J. W. Powell, Director.</span></p> + + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<p>Research among the North American Indians, in obedience +to acts of Congress, was continued during the fiscal year +1888-’89.</p> + +<p>The explanation presented in several former annual reports +of the general plan upon which the work of the Bureau has +been performed renders a detailed repetition superfluous. The +lines of investigation which from time to time have appeared +to be the most useful or the most pressing have been confided +to persons trained in or known to be specially adapted to their +pursuit. The results of their labors are presented in the three +series of publications of the Bureau which are provided for +by law. A brief statement of the work upon which each one +of the special students was actively engaged during the fiscal +year is furnished below; but it should be noted that this statement +does not specify all the studies made or services rendered +by them.</p> + +<p>The assistance of explorers, writers, and students who are +not and may not desire to be officially connected with the Bureau +is again invited. Their contributions, whether in suggestions +or extended communications, will always be gratefully +acknowledged and will receive proper credit. They may be +published as Congress will allow, either in the series of annual +reports or in monographs or bulletins. Several valuable papers +of this class have already been contributed and published.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagex" id="pagex">[x]</a></span></p> + +<p>The report now submitted consists of three principal divisions. +The first relates to the publications made during the +fiscal year; the second, to the work prosecuted in the field; +the third, to the office work, which chiefly consists of the preparation +for publication of the results of field work, with the +corrections and additions obtained from exhaustive researches +into the literature of the subjects discussed and by correspondence +relative to them.</p> + + +<h3>PUBLICATIONS.</h3> + +<p>The publications actually issued and distributed during the +year were as follows, all octavo:</p> + +<p>Bibliography of the Iroquoian Languages, by James C. Pilling; +pages i-vi + 1-208. Facsimile reproductions, at pages +44 and 56, of title pages of early publications relating to Indian +languages, and, at page 72, of the Cherokee alphabet.</p> + +<p>Textile Fabrics of Ancient Peru, by William H. Holmes; +pages 1-17, Figs. 1-11.</p> + +<p>The Problem of the Ohio Mounds, by Cyrus Thomas; pages +1-54, Figs. 1-8.</p> + + +<h3>FIELD WORK.</h3> + +<p>The field work of the year is divided into (1) mound explorations +and (2) general field studies, the latter being directed +chiefly to archeology, linguistics, and pictography.</p> + + +<h4>MOUND EXPLORATIONS.</h4> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. CYRUS THOMAS.</h5> + +<p>The work of exploring the mounds of the eastern United +States was, as in former years, under the superintendence of +Mr. Cyrus Thomas. The efforts of the division were chiefly +confined to the examination of material already collected and +to the arrangement and preparation for publication of the data +on hand. Field work received less attention, therefore, than +in previous years, and was mainly directed to such investigations +as were necessary to elucidate doubtful points and to +the examination and surveys of important works which had +not before received adequate attention.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi" id="pagexi">[xi]</a></span></p> + +<p>The only assistants to Mr. Thomas whose engagements +embraced the entire year were Mr. James D. Middleton and +Mr. Henry L. Reynolds. Mr. Gerard Fowke, one of the assistants, +ceased his connection with the Bureau at the end of +the second month. Mr. John W. Emmert was engaged as a +temporary assistant for a few months.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. GERARD FOWKE.</h5> + +<p>During the short time in which he remained with the division, +Mr. Fowke was engaged in exploring certain mounds in the +Sciota valley, Ohio, a field to which Messrs. Squier and Davis +had devoted much attention. Its reexamination was for the +purpose of investigating certain typical mounds which had not +been thoroughly examined by those explorers.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. J. D. MIDDLETON.</h5> + +<p>Mr. Middleton was employed from July to the latter part of +October in the exploration of mounds and other ancient works +in Calhoun county, Illinois, a territory to which special interest +attaches because it seems to be on the border line of different +archeologic districts. From October until December he +was engaged at Washington in preparing plats of Ohio earthworks. +During the next month he made resurveys of some of +the more important inclosures in Ohio, after which he resumed +work in the office at Washington until the latter part of March, +when he was sent to Tennessee to examine several mound +groups and to determine, so far as possible, the exact locations +of the old Cherokee “over-hill towns.” The result of the last-mentioned +investigation was valuable, as it indicated that each +of these “over-hill towns” was, with possibly one unimportant +exception, in the locality of a mound group.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. H. L. REYNOLDS.</h5> + +<p>Near the close of October Mr. Reynolds, having already examined +the inclosures of the northern, eastern, and western +sections of the mound region, went to Ohio and West Virginia +to study the different types found there, with reference to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii" id="pagexii">[xii]</a></span> +chapters he was preparing on the various forms of ancient inclosures +in the United States. While thus engaged he explored +a large mound connected with one of the typical works +in Paint creek valley, obtaining unexpected and important results. +The construction of this tumulus was found to be quite +different from most of those in the same section examined by +Messrs. Squier and Davis.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. J. W. EMMERT.</h5> + +<p>Mr. Emmert devoted the few months in which he was employed +to the successful exploration of mounds in eastern +Tennessee. Some important discoveries were made and additional +interesting facts were ascertained in regard to the mounds +of that section.</p> + + +<h4>GENERAL FIELD STUDIES.</h4> + + +<h5>WORK OF COL. GARRICK MALLERY.</h5> + +<p>Early in the month of July Col. Garrick Mallery proceeded +to Maine, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to continue investigation +into the pictographs of the Abnaki and Micmac Indians, +which had been commenced in 1887. He first visited rocks in +Maine, on the shore near Machiasport, and on Hog island, in +Holmes bay, a part of Machias bay. In both localities pecked +petroglyphs were found, accurate copies of which were taken. +Some of them had not before been reported. They are probably +of Abnaki origin, of either the Penobscot or the Passamaquoddy +division, the rocks lying on the line of water communication +between the territories of those divisions. From Maine +he proceeded to Kejemkoojik lake, on the border of Queens +and Annapolis counties, Nova Scotia, and resumed the work +of drawing and tracing the large number of petroglyphs found +during the previous summer. Perfect copies were obtained of +so many of them as to be amply sufficient for study and comparison. +These are incised petroglyphs, and were made by +Micmacs. The country of the Malecites, on the St. Johns river, +New Brunswick, was next visited. No petroglyphs were discovered, +but a considerable amount of information was obtained<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii">[xiii]</a></span> +upon the old system of pictographs on birch bark and +its use. Illustrative specimens were gathered, together with +myths and legends, which assisted in the elucidation of some +of the pictographs observed elsewhere.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. W. J. HOFFMAN.</h5> + +<p>Mr. W. J. Hoffman proceeded in July to visit the Red Lake +and White Earth Indian reservations in Minnesota. At Red +lake he obtained copies of birch bark records pertaining to the +Midē'wiwin or Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa, an order +of shamans professing the power to prophesy, to cure disease, +and to confer success in the chase. The introductory portion +of the ritual of this society pertains particularly to the Ojibwa +cosmogony. At the same place he secured several birch bark +records of hunting expeditions, battles with neighboring tribes +of Indians, maps, and songs. He also investigated the former +and present practice of tattooing, and the Ojibwa works of art +in colors, beads, and quills.</p> + +<p>At White Earth Reservation two distinct charts of the Grand +Medicine Society were obtained, together with full explanations +by two of the chief midé or shamans, one of whom was the +only fourth-degree priest in either of the reservations. Although +a considerable difference between these three charts is apparent, +their principles and the general course of the initiation +of the candidates are similar. The survival of archaic forms +in the charts and ritual indicates a considerable antiquity. +Some mnemonic songs were also obtained at this reservation. +In addition to the ritual, secured directly from the +priests, in the Ojibwa language, translations of the songs +were also recorded, with musical notation. On leaving the +above reservations, Mr. Hoffman proceeded to Pipestone, Minnesota, +to copy the petroglyphs upon the cliffs of that historic +quarry.</p> + +<p>He then returned to St. Paul, Minnesota, to search the +records of the library of the Minnesota Historical Society for +copies of pictographs reported to have been made near La +Pointe, Wisconsin. Little information was obtained, although +it is known that such pictographs, now nearly obliterated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv">[xiv]</a></span> +existed upon conspicuous cliffs and rocks near Lake Superior, +at and in the vicinity of Bayfield and Ashland.</p> + +<p>Mr. Hoffman afterward made an examination of the “pictured +cave,” eight miles northeast of La Crosse, Wisconsin, to +obtain copies of the characters appearing there. These are rapidly +being destroyed by the disintegration of the rock. The +colors employed in delineating the various figures were dark +red and black. The figures represent human beings, deer, and +other forms not now distinguishable.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. H. W. HENSHAW.</h5> + +<p>Mr. H. W. Henshaw spent the months of August, September, +and October on the Pacific coast, engaged in the collection +of vocabularies of several Indian languages, with a view +to their study and classification. The Umatilla Reservation +in Oregon was first visited with the object of obtaining a comprehensive +vocabulary of the Cayuse. Though there are +about four hundred of these Indians on the reservation, probably +not more than six speak the Cayuse tongue. The Cayuse +have extensively intermarried with the Umatilla, and now +speak the language of the latter, or that of the Nez Percé. An +excellent Cayuse vocabulary was obtained, and at the same +time the opportunity was embraced to secure vocabularies of +the Umatilla and the Nez Percé languages. His next objective +point was the neighborhood of the San Rafael Mission, +Marin county, California, the hope being entertained that some +of the Indians formerly gathered at the mission would be found +there. He learned that there were no Indians at or near +San Rafael, but subsequently found a few on the shores of +Tomales bay, to the north. A good vocabulary was collected +from one of these, which, as was expected, was subsequently +found to be related to the Moquelumnan family of the interior, +to the southeast of San Francisco bay. Later the missions of +Santa Cruz and Monterey were visited. At these points there +still remain a few old Indians who retain a certain command +of their own language, though Spanish forms their ordinary +means of intercourse. The vocabularies obtained are sufficient +to prove, beyond any reasonable doubt, that there are two<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexv" id="pagexv">[xv]</a></span> +linguistic families instead of one, as had been formerly supposed, +in the country above referred to. A still more important +discovery was made by Mr. Henshaw at Monterey, where +an old woman was found who succeeded in calling to mind +more than one hundred words and short phrases of the Esselen +language, formerly spoken near Monterey, but less than forty +words of which had been previously known. Near the town +of Cayucas, to the south, an aged and blind Indian was visited +who was able to add somewhat to the stock of Esselen words +obtained at Monterey, and to give valuable information concerning +the original home of that tribe. As a result of the +study of this material Mr. Henshaw determines the Esselen to +be a distinct linguistic family, a conclusion first drawn by Mr. +Curtin from a study of the vocabularies collected by Galiano +and Lamanon in the eighteenth century. The territory occupied +by the tribe and linguistic family lies coastwise, south of +Monterey bay, as far as the Santa Lucia mountains.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. JAMES MOONEY.</h5> + +<p>On July 5 Mr. James Mooney started on a second trip to the +territory of the Cherokee in North Carolina, returning after an +absence of about four months. During this time he made considerable +additions to the linguistic material already obtained +by him, and was able to demonstrate the former existence of +a fourth, and perhaps even of a fifth, well-marked Cherokee dialect +in addition to the upper, lower, and middle dialects already +known. The invention of a Cherokee syllabary which was +adapted to the sounds of the upper dialect has tended to make +that dialect universal. A number of myths were collected, +together with a large amount of miscellaneous material relating +to the Cherokee tribe, and the great tribal game of ball +play, with its attendant ceremonies of dancing, conjuring, +scratching the bodies of the players, and going to water, was +witnessed. A camera was utilized to secure characteristic +pictures of the players. Special attention was given to the +subject of Indian medicine, theoretic, ceremonial, and therapeutic. +The most noted doctors of the tribe were employed +as informants, and nearly five hundred specimens of medicinal<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi">[xvi]</a></span> +and food plants were collected and their Indian names and +uses ascertained. The general result of this investigation +shows that the medical and botanical knowledge of the Indians +has been greatly overrated. A study was made of Cherokee +personal names, about five hundred of which were translated, +being all the names of Indian origin now remaining in that +region. The most important results of Mr. Mooney’s investigations +were the discovery of a large number of manuscripts +containing the sacred formulas of the tribe, written in Cherokee +characters by the shamans for their own secret use, and jealously +guarded from the knowledge of all but the initiated. +The existence of such manuscripts had been ascertained during +a visit in 1887, and several of them had been procured. This +discovery of genuine aboriginal material, written in an Indian +language by shamans for their own use, is believed to be unique +in the history of aboriginal investigation, and was only made +possible through the invention of the Cherokee syllabary by +Sequoia in 1821. Every effort was made by Mr. Mooney to +obtain all the existing manuscripts, with the result of securing +all of that material which was in the possession of the tribe. +The whole number of formulas obtained is about six hundred. +They consist of prayers and sacred songs, explanations of ceremonies, +directions for medical treatment, and underlying theories. +They relate to medicine, love, war, hunting, fishing, self-protection, +witchcraft, agriculture, the ball play, and other +similar subjects, thus forming a complete exposition of an aboriginal +religion as set forth by its priests in their own language.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. JEREMIAH CURTIN.</h5> + +<p>Early in October Mr. Jeremiah Curtin left Washington for +the Pacific coast. During the remainder of the year he was +occupied in Shasta and Humboldt counties, California, in collecting +vocabularies and data connected with the Indian system +of medicine. This work was continued in different parts of +Humboldt and Siskiyou counties until June 30, 1889. Large +collections of linguistic and other data were gathered and +myths were secured which show that the whole system of<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii">[xvii]</a></span> +medicine of these Indians and the ministration of remedies +originated in and are limited to sorcery practices.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. A. S. GATSCHET.</h5> + +<p>The field work of Mr. Albert S. Gatschet during the year +was short. It had been ascertained that Mrs. Alice M. Oliver, +now in Lynn, Massachusetts, formerly lived on Trespalacios +bay, Texas, near the homes of the Karánkawa, and Mr. +Gatschet visited Lynn with a view of securing as complete a +vocabulary as possible of their extinct language. Mrs. Oliver +was able to recall about one hundred and sixty terms of the +language, together with some phrases and sentences. She also +furnished many valuable details regarding the ethnography +of the tribe. Ten days were spent in this work.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. J. N. B. HEWITT.</h5> + +<p>Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied in field work from August +1 to November 8, as follows: From the first of August to +September 20 he was on the Tuscarora reserve, in Niagara +county, New York, in which locality fifty-five legends and +myths were collected. A Penobscot vocabulary was also obtained +here, together with other linguistic material. From +September 20 to November 8 Mr. Hewitt visited the Grand +River reserve, Canada, where a large amount of text was obtained, +together with notes and other linguistic material.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. VICTOR MINDELEFF.</h5> + +<p>Mr. Victor Mindeleff left Washington on October 23 for St. +John’s, Arizona, where he examined the Hubbell collection of +ancient pottery and secured a series of photographs and colored +drawings of the more important specimens. Thence he +went to Zuñi and obtained drawings of interior details of +dwellings and other data necessary for the completion of his +studies of the architecture of this pueblo. He returned to +Washington December 7.</p> + + +<h5>WORK OF MR. A. M. STEPHEN.</h5> + +<p>Mr. A. M. Stephen continued work among the Tusayan pueblos +under the direction of Mr. Victor Mindeleff. He added<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexviii" id="pagexviii">[xviii]</a></span> +much to the knowledge of the traditionary history of Tusayan, +and made an extensive study of the house lore and records of +house-building ceremonials. He also reported a full nomenclature +of Tusayan architectural terms as applied to the various +details of terraced-house construction, with etymologies. +He secured from the Navajo much useful information of the +ceremonial connected with the construction of their conical +lodges or “hogans,” supplementing the more purely architectural +records of their construction previously collected by Mr. +Mindeleff. As opportunity occurred he gathered typical collections +of baskets and other textile fabrics illustrative of the +successive stages of their manufacture, including specimens of +raw materials and detailed descriptions of the dyes used. +These collections are intended to include also the principal +patterns in use at the present time, with the Indian explanations +of their significance.</p> + + +<h3>OFFICE WORK.</h3> + +<p>Major <span class="smcap">J. W. Powell</span>, the Director, devoted much time during +the year to the preparation of the paper to accompany a +map of the linguistic families of America north of Mexico, the +scope of which has been alluded to in previous reports. This +report and map appear in the Seventh Annual Report of the +Bureau.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Henshaw</span> was chiefly occupied with the administrative +duties of the office, which have been placed in his charge by +the Director, and with the completion of the linguistic map.</p> + +<p>Col. <span class="smcap">Mallery</span>, after his return from the field work elsewhere +mentioned, was engaged in the elaboration of the new information +obtained and in further continued study of and correspondence +relating to sign language and pictography. In this +work he was assisted by Mr. <span class="smcap">Hoffman</span>, particularly in the +sketches made by the latter during previous field seasons, and +in preparing a large number of the illustrations for the paper +on Picture-writing of the American Indians which appears in +the present volume.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">J. Owen Dorsey</span> did no field work during the year, but +devoted much of the time to original investigations. Samuel<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexix" id="pagexix">[xix]</a></span> +Fremont, an Omaha Indian, came to Washington in October, +1888, and until February, 1889, assisted Mr. Dorsey in the revision +of the entries for the Ȼegiha-English Dictionary. Similar +assistance was rendered by Little Standing Buffalo, a Ponka +Indian from the Indian Territory, in April and May, 1889. +Mr. Dorsey also completed the entries for the Ȼegiha-English +Dictionary, and a list of Ponka, Omaha, and Winnebago personal +names. He translated from the Teton dialect of the +Dakota all the material of the Bushotter collection in the Bureau +of Ethnology, and prepared therefrom a paper on Teton +folklore. He also prepared a brief paper on the camping +circles of Siouan tribes, and in addition furnished an article on +the modes of predication in the Athapascan dialects of Oregon +and in several dialects of the Siouan family. He also edited +the manuscript of the Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography, +written by the late Rev. Dr. S. R. Riggs, which has been published +as Volume <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>, Contributions to North American Ethnology. +In May, 1889, he began an extensive paper on Indian +personal names, based on material obtained by himself in the +field, to contain names of the following tribes, viz: Omaha and +Ponka, Kansa, Osage, Kwapa, Iowa, Oto and Missouri, and +Winnebago.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Albert S. Gatschet’s</span> office work was almost entirely +restricted to the composition and completion of his Ethnographic +Sketch, Grammar, and Dictionary of the Klamath +Language of Oregon, with the necessary appendices. These +works have been published as Parts 1 and 2, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, of Contributions +to North American Ethnology.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Jeremiah Curtin</span> during the year arranged and copied +myths of various Indian families, and also transcribed Wasco, +Sahaptin, and Yanan vocabularies previously collected.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">James Mooney</span>, on his return from the Cherokee reservation +in 1888, began at once to translate a number of the prayers +and sacred songs obtained from the shamans during his visit. +The result of this work has appeared in a paper in the Seventh +Annual Report of the Bureau entitled “Sacred formulas of the +Cherokees.” Considerable time was devoted also to the elaboration +of the botanic and linguistic notes obtained in the field. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexx" id="pagexx">[xx]</a></span> +the spring of 1889 he began the collection of material for a +monograph on the aborigines of the Middle Atlantic slope, with +special reference to the Powhatan tribes of Virginia. As a +preliminary, about one thousand circulars, requesting information +in regard to local names, antiquities, and surviving +Indians, were distributed throughout Maryland, Delaware, +Virginia, and northeastern Carolina. Sufficient information +was obtained in responses to afford an excellent basis for future +work in this direction.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">John N. B. Hewitt</span>, from July 1 to August 1, was engaged +in arranging alphabetically the recorded words of the +Tuscarora-English dictionary mentioned in former reports, and +in the study of adjective word forms to determine the variety +and kind of the Tuscarora moods and tenses. After his return +from the field Mr. Hewitt classified and tabulated all the forms +of the personal pronouns employed in the Tuscarora language. +Studies were also prosecuted to develop the predicative function +in the Tuscarora speech. All the terms of consanguinity +and affinity as now used among the Tuscarora were recorded +and tabulated. Literal translations of many myths collected +in the field were made, and free translations added to four of +them. In all appropriate instances linguistic notes were added +relating to etymology, phonesis, and verbal change.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">James C. Pilling</span> gave much time to bibliographies of +North American languages. The bibliography of the Iroquoian +languages was completed early in the fiscal year, and +the edition was issued in February. In the meantime a bibliography +of the Muskhogean languages was compiled, the +manuscript of which was sent to the Public Printer in January, +1889, though the edition was not delivered during the +fiscal year. Early in March, 1889, Mr. Pilling went to Philadelphia +to inspect the manuscripts belonging to the American +Philosophical Society, the authorities of which gave him every +facility, and much new material was secured. In June he +visited the Astor, Lenox, and Historical Society libraries in +New York; the libraries of the Boston Athenæum, Massachusetts +Historical Society, American Board of Commissioners for +Foreign Missions, and the Boston Public Library, in Boston;<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxi" id="pagexxi">[xxi]</a></span> +that of Harvard University, in Cambridge; of the American +Antiquarian Society, in Worcester; and the private library of +Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, in Hartford. In Canada he visited +the library of Laval University, and the private library of Mr. +P. Gagnon, in Quebec, of St. Mary’s College and Jacques +Cartier School in Montreal, and various missions along the St. +Lawrence river, to inspect the manuscripts left by the early +missionaries. The result was the accumulation of much new +material for insertion in the Algonquian bibliography.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">William H. Holmes</span> continued to edit the illustrations +for the publications of the Bureau, and besides was engaged +actively in his studies of aboriginal archeology. He completed +papers upon the pottery of the Potomac valley, and +upon the objects of shell collected by the Bureau during the +last eight years, and he has others in preparation. As curator +of Bureau collections he makes the following statement of +accessions for the year: From Mr. Thomas and his immediate +assistants, working in the mound region of the Mississippi +valley and contiguous portions of the Atlantic slope, the +Bureau has received one hundred and forty-six specimens, +including articles of clay, stone, shell, and bone. Mr. Victor +Mindeleff obtained sixteen specimens of pottery from the +Pueblo country. Other collections by members of the Bureau +and the U. S. Geological Survey are as follows: Shell beads +and pendants (modern) from San Buenaventura, California, by +Mr. Henshaw; fragments of pottery and other articles from +the vicinity of the Cheroki agency, North Carolina, by Mr. +Mooney; a large grooved hammer from the bluff at Three +Forks, Montana, by Mr. A. C. Peale; a large series of rude +stone implements from the District of Columbia, by Mr. De +Lancey W. Gill. Donations have been received as follows: +An important series of earthen vases from a mound on Perdido +bay, Alabama, given by F. H. Parsons; ancient pueblo vases +from southwestern Colorado, by William M. Davidson; a +series of spurious earthen vessels, manufactured by unknown +persons in eastern Iowa, from C. C. Jones, of Augusta, Georgia; +fragments of pottery, etc., from Romney, West Virginia, given +by G. H. Johnson; fragments of a steatite pot from Ledyard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxii" id="pagexxii">[xxii]</a></span> +Connecticut, by G. L. Fancher; an interesting series of stone +tools, earthen vessels, etc., from a mound on Lake Apopka, +Florida, by Thomas Featherstonhaugh; fragments of gilded +earthenware and photographs of antiquities from Mexico, by +F. Plancarte; fragments of gold ornaments from Costa Rica, +by Anastasio Alfaro. Important specimens have been received +as follows: Articles of clay from a mound on Perdido +bay, Alabama, loaned by Mrs. A. T. Mosman; articles of +clay from the last mentioned locality, by A. B. Simons; pottery +from the Potomac valley, by W. Hallett Phillips, by S. +V. Proudfit, and by H. L. Reynolds; articles of gold and +gold-copper alloy from Costa Rica, by Anastasio Alfaro, Secretary +of the National Museum at San Jose.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Thomas</span> was chiefly occupied during the year in the +preparation of the second and third volumes of his reports +upon the mounds. He also prepared a bulletin on the Circular, +Square, and Octagonal Earthworks of Ohio, with a view +of giving a summary of the recent survey by the mound division +of the principal works of the above character in southern +Ohio. A second bulletin was completed, entitled “The Problem +of the Ohio Mounds,” in which he presented evidence to +show that the ancient works of the state are due to Indians of +several different tribes, and that some, at least, of the typical +works were built by the ancestors of the modern Cherokees.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Reynolds</span> after his return from the field was engaged in +the preparation of a general map of the United States, showing +the area of the mounds and the relative frequency of their +occurrence. He also assisted Mr. Thomas in the preparation +of the monograph upon the inclosures.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Victor Mindeleff</span>, assisted by Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, +was engaged in preparing for publication a “Study of Pueblo +Architecture” as illustrated in the provinces of Tusayan and +Cibola, material for which he had been collecting for a number +of years. This report has appeared in the Eighth Annual +Report of the Bureau.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Cosmos Mindeleff</span> with the force of the modeling room +at the beginning of the fiscal year completed the exhibit of the +Bureau for the Cincinnati Exposition, and during the early<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxiii" id="pagexxiii">[xxiii]</a></span> +part of the year he was at Cincinnati in charge of that exhibit. +Owing to restricted space it was limited to the Pueblo culture +group, but this was illustrated as fully as the time would permit. +The exhibit covered about 1,200 feet of floor space, as +well as a large amount of wall space, and consisted of models +of pueblo and cliff ruins, models of inhabited pueblos, ancient +and modern pottery, examples of weaving, basketry, etc.; a +representative series of implements of war, the chase, agriculture, +and the household; manikins illustrating costumes, +and a series of large photographs illustrative of aboriginal +architecture of the pueblo region, and of many phases of +pueblo life. Upon Mr. Mindeleff’s return from Cincinnati he +resumed assistance to Mr. Victor Mindeleff upon the report on +pueblo architecture, and by the close of the fiscal year the two +chapters which had been assigned to him were completed. +They consist of a review of the literature on the pueblo region +and a summary of the traditions of the Tusayan group from +material collected by Mr. A. M. Stephen. Work was also continued +on the duplicate series of models, and twelve were +advanced to various stages of completion. Some time was +devoted to repairing original models which had been exhibited +at Cincinnati and other exhibitions, and also to experiments +in casting in paper, in order in find a suitable paper for use +in large models. The experiments were successful.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">J. K. Hillers</span> has continued the collection of photographs +of prominent Indians in both full-face and profile, by +which method all the facial characteristics are exhibited to the +best advantage. In nearly every instance a record has been +preserved of the sitter’s status in the tribe, his age, biographic +notes of interest, and in cases of mixed bloods, the degree of +intermixture of blood. The total number of photographs obtained +during the year is 27, distributed among the following +tribes, viz: Sac and Fox, 5; Dakota, 6; Omaha, 6, and mixed +bloods (Creeks), 10.</p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Franz Boas</span> was employed from February to April in +preparing for convenient use a series of vocabularies of the +several Salish divisions, previously collected by him in British +Columbia.</p> + + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxiv" id="pagexxiv">[xxiv]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lucien M. Turner</span> was for two years stationed at the +Hudson Bay Company’s post, Fort Chimo, near the northern +end of the peninsula of Labrador, as a civilian observer in the +employ of the Signal Service, U. S. Army. He was appointed +to that position at the request of the late Prof. Baird, Secretary +of the Smithsonian Institution, in order that his skill might be +made available in a complete investigation of the ethnology +and natural history of the region. Mr. Turner left Washington +in June, 1882, and returned in the autumn of 1884. During +the last year he was engaged in the preparation of a report +which will appear in one of the forthcoming annual reports of +the Bureau.</p> + + + + +<h3>NECROLOGY.</h3> + +<h4>MR. JAMES STEVENSON.</h4> + + +<p>The officers of the Bureau of Ethnology and all persons interested +in researches concerning the North American Indians +were this year called to lament the death of Mr. James +Stevenson, who had made regular and valuable contributions +to the publications and collections of the Bureau.</p> + +<p>Mr. Stevenson was born in Maysville, Kentucky, on the 24th +of December, 1840. When but a boy of 16 he became associated +with Prof. F. V. Hayden, and accompanied him upon expeditions +into the regions of the upper Missouri and Yellowstone +rivers. Although the main objects of these expeditions were +geological, his tastes led him chiefly to the observation of the +customs and dialects of the Indians, and the facilities for such +study afforded him by the winters spent among the Blackfoot +and Dakota Indians excited and confirmed the anthropologic +zeal which absorbed the greater part of his life.</p> + +<p>After military service during the civil war he resumed, in +1866, the studies which had been interrupted by it, and accompanied +Prof. Hayden to the Bad Lands of Dakota. From this +expedition and the action of the Congress of the United States +in 1866-’67, sprang the Hayden survey, and during its existence +Mr. Stevenson was its executive officer. In one of the +explorations from 1868 to 1878, which are too many to be +here enumerated, he climbed the Great Teton, and was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxv" id="pagexxv">[xxv]</a></span> +first white man known to have reached the ancient Indian altar +on its summit.</p> + +<p>In 1879 the Hayden survey was discontinued, the Bureau +of Ethnology was organized, and the U. S. Geological Survey +was established. Mr. Stevenson, in addition to his duties as +the executive officer of the new survey, was detailed for research +in connection with the Bureau of Ethnology. In the subsequent +years he devoted the winters—from the incoming of the +field parties to their outgoing in the spring—chiefly to business +of the survey; his summers to his favorite researches. He explored +the cliff and cave dwellings of Arizona and New Mexico; +he unearthed in the Canyon de Chelly two perfect skeletons +of its prehistoric inhabitants; he investigated the religious +mythology of the Zuñi, and secured a complete collection of +fetich-gods, never before allowed out of their possession; he +studied the history and religions of the Navajo and the Tusayan, +and made an invaluable collection of pottery, costumes, and +ceremonial objects, which are now prominent in the U. S. National +Museum. But in the high mesas which were the field +of his explorations in 1885 he was attacked by the “mountain +fever” in its worst form. It was his first serious illness, and +his regular and temperate life saved him for the time. But a +visit to the same region in 1887 brought on a second attack of +this peculiar and distressing disease. He came home prostrated, +with symptoms of serious heart failure.</p> + +<p>He died at the Gilsey House, in New York city, on the 25th +of July, 1888, and was buried in the cemetery of Rock Creek +church, near Washington.</p> + + + + +<h3>ACCOMPANYING PAPER.</h3> + + +<p>For the first time in the series of the Annual Reports of this +Bureau a single paper is submitted to exhibit the character of +the investigations undertaken and the facts collected by its +officers, with the results of their studies upon such collections. +But while the paper is single in form and in title, it includes, +in its illustrations and the text relating to them, nearly all +topics into which anthropology can properly be divided, and +therefore shows more diversity than would often be contained<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxvi" id="pagexxvi">[xxvi]</a></span> +in a volume composed of separate papers by several authors. +Its subject-matter being essentially pictorial, it required a +large number of illustrations, twelve hundred and ninety-five +figures being furnished in the text, besides fifty-four full-page +plates, which, with their explanation and discussion, expanded +the volume to such size as to exclude other papers.</p> + + +<h4>PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS, BY GARRICK +MALLERY.</h4> + +<p>The papers accompanying the Fourth Annual Report of this +Bureau, which was for the fiscal year 1882-’83, included one +under the title “Pictographs of the North American Indians, a +Preliminary Paper, by Garrick Mallery.” Although that work +was of considerable length and the result of much research +and study, it was in fact as well as in title preliminary. The +substance and general character of the information obtained +at that time on the subject was published not only for the +benefit of students already interested in it, but also to excite +interest in that branch of study among active explorers in the +field and, indeed, among all persons engaged in anthropologic +researches. For the convenience of such workers as were +invited in general terms to become collaborators, suggestions +were offered for the examination, description, and study of +the objects connected with this branch of investigation which +might be noticed or discovered by them. The result of this +preliminary publication has shown the wisdom of the plan +adopted. Since the distribution of the Fourth Annual Report +pictography in its various branches has become, far more than +ever before, a prominent feature in the publications of learned +societies, in the separate works of anthropologists, and in the +notes of scientific explorers. The present paper includes, with +proper credit to the authors quoted or cited, many contributions +to this branch of study which obviously have been +induced by the preliminary paper before mentioned.</p> + +<p>The interest thus excited has continued to be manifested by +the publication of new information of importance, in diverse +shapes and in many languages, some of which has been received +too late for proper attention in this paper.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxvii" id="pagexxvii">[xxvii]</a></span></p> + +<p>Col. Mallery’s studies in pictography commenced in the +field. He was stationed with his military command at Fort +Rice, on the upper Missouri river, in the autumn of 1876, and +obtained a copy of the remarkable pictograph which he then +called “A Calendar of the Dakota Nation,” and published under +that title, with interpretation and explanation, in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, No. 1, of +the series of bulletins of the U. S. Geological and Geographical +Survey of the Territories, issued April 9, 1877. This work attracted +attention, and at the request of the Secretary of the +Interior he was ordered by the Secretary of War, on June 13, +1877, to report for duty, in connection with the ethnology of the +North American Indians, to the present Director of this Bureau, +then in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of +the Rocky Mountain Region. Upon the organization of the +Bureau of Ethnology, in 1879, Col. Mallery was appointed ethnologist, +and has continued in that duty without intermission, +supplementing field explorations by study of all accessible +anthropologic literature and by extensive correspondence. His +attention has been steadily directed to pictography and to sign-language, +which branches of study are so closely connected +that neither can be successfully pursued to the exclusion of +the other, but his researches have by no means been confined +to those related subjects.</p> + +<p>The plan and scope of the present work may be very briefly +stated as follows:</p> + +<p>After some introductory definitions and explanations general +remarks are submitted upon the grand division of petroglyphs +or pictures upon rocks as distinct from other exhibitions of +pictography. This division is less susceptible of interpretation +than others, but it claims special interest and attention because +the locality of production is fixed, and also because the antiquity +of workmanship may often be determined with more +certainty than can that of pictures on less enduring and readily +transportable objects. Descriptions, with illustrations, are +presented of petroglyphs in North America, including those +in several provinces of Canada, in many of the states and +territories of the United States, in Mexico, and in the West +Indies. A large number from Central and South America<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxviii" id="pagexxviii">[xxviii]</a></span> +also appear, followed by examples from Australia, Oceanica, +Europe, Africa, and Asia, inserted chiefly for comparison +with the picture-writings in America, to which the work is +specially devoted, and therefore styled extra-limital petroglyphs. +The curious forms called cup sculptures are next +discussed, followed by a chapter on pictographs considered +generally, which condenses the results of much thought. The +substances, apart from rocks, on which picture-writing is found +are next considered, and afterwards the instruments and materials +by which they are made. The subjects of pictography +and the practices which elucidate it are classified under +several headings, viz: <i>Mnemonic</i>, subdivided into (1) Knotted +cords and objects tied, (2) Notched or marked sticks, (3) Wampum, +(4) Order of songs, (5) Traditions, (6) Treaties, (7) +Appointment, (8) Numeration, (9) Accounting; <i>Chronology</i>, +in which the charts at first called calendars, but now, in +correct translation of the Indian terms, styled winter-counts, +are discussed and illustrated with the care required by their +remarkable characteristics; <i>Notices</i>, which chapter embraces +(1) Notice of visit, departure, and direction, (2) Direction by +drawing topographic features, (3) Notice of condition, (4) +Warning and guidance; <i>Communications</i>, including (1) Declaration +of war, (2) Profession of peace and friendship, (3) +Challenge, (4) Social and religious missives, (5) Claim or demand; +<i>Totems, titles, and names</i>, divided into (1) Pictorial tribal +designations, (2) Gentile and clan designation, (3) Significance +of tattoo marks, which topic is discussed at length, with +ample illustration, and (4) Designations of individuals, subdivided +into insignia or tokens of authority, signs of individual +achievements, property marks, and personal names. Some of +the facts presented are to be correlated with the antique forms +of heraldry and others with proper names in modern civilization.</p> + +<p>The topic <i>Religion</i>, considered in the popular significance +of that term, is divided into (1) Symbols of the supernatural, +(2) Myths and mythic animals, (3) Shamanism, (4) Charms +and amulets, (5) Religious ceremonies, and (6) Mortuary practices. +<i>Customs</i> are divided into (1) Cult associations, (2) +Daily life and habits, (3) Games. The chapter entitled <i>Historic</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxix" id="pagexxix">[xxix]</a></span> +presents (1) Record of expeditions, (2) Record of battle, +which includes a highly interesting Indian pictured account +of the battle of the Little Big Horn, commonly called the +“Custer massacre,” (3) Record of migration, (4) Record of +notable events. The <i>Biographic</i> chapter gives too many minutiæ +for particularization here, but is divided into (1) Continuous +record of events in life and (2) Particular exploits or +events. <i>Ideography</i> permeates and infuses all the matter under +the other headings, but is discussed distinctively and with evidential +illustrations in the sections of (1) abstract ideas expressed +objectively, and (2) symbols and emblems. In the latter +section the author suggests that the proper mode of interpretation +of pictographs whose origin and significance are unknown +is that they are to be primarily supposed to be objective +representations, but may be, and often are, ideographic, and in +a limited number of cases may have become symbolic, but that +the strong presumption without extrinsic evidence is against +the occult or esoteric symbolism often attributed to the markings +under discussion. The significance of colors is connected +with ideography and examples are given of the colors used in +many parts of the world for mere decoration, in ceremonies, +for death and mourning, for war and peace, and to designate +social status. The depiction of gesture and posture signs is +next discussed, showing the intimate relation between a +thought as expressed without words by signs, and a thought +expressed without words by pictures corresponding to those +signs.</p> + +<p><i>Conventionalizing</i> is divided into conventional devices, which +were the precursors of writing, and the syllabaries and alphabets +evolved. The pictographic origin of all the current +alphabets of the world, often before discussed, receives further +explanation.</p> + +<p>While comparison by the reader between all the illustrations +and the facts recorded and the suggestions submitted +about them is essential to the utility of the work, the author +gives, as representing his own mode of study, found to be advantageous +in use, a chapter on <i>Special Comparison</i>, divided +into (1) Typical style, (2) Homomorphs and symmorphs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxx" id="pagexxx">[xxx]</a></span> +(3) Composite forms, (4) Artistic skill and methods. This +chapter is followed by one with which it is closely connected, +styled <i>Means of Interpretation</i>, divided into (1) Marked characters +of known significance, (2) Distinctive costumes, weapons, +and ornaments, (3) Ambiguous characters with known +meanings, the latter being chiefly a collection of separate +figures which would not be readily recognized without labels, +but which are understood through reliable authority. Finally, +under the rather noncommittal title of <i>Controverted Pictographs</i>, +the subjects of fraud and error are discussed with striking examples +and useful cautions.</p> + +<p>From this brief paraphrase of the table of contents, it is obvious +that nearly all branches of anthropology are touched upon. +It is also to be remarked that the work is unique because it +presents the several anthropologic topics recorded by the Indians +themselves according to their unbiased conceptions, and +in their own mode of writing. From this point of view the +anonymous and generally unknown pictographers may be +considered to be the primary authors of the treatise and Col. +Mallery a discoverer, compiler, and editor. But such depreciative +limitation of his functions would ignore the originality of +treatment pervading the work and the systematic classification +and skillful analysis shown in it which enhance its value and +interest.</p> + + + + +<h3>FINANCIAL STATEMENT.</h3> + +<p><i>Classification of expenditures made from the appropriation for North American ethnology +for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889.</i></p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Amount of appropriation 1888-’89</td><td class="right"><em class="doubleu">$40,000.00</em></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">EXPENSES.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Services</td><td class="right">$29,546.20</td></tr> +<tr><td>Traveling expenses</td><td class="right">3,243.45</td></tr> +<tr><td>Transportation of property</td><td class="right">128.05</td></tr> +<tr><td>Field supplies</td><td class="right">47.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Instruments</td><td class="right">16.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Laboratory material</td><td class="right">95.60</td></tr> +<tr><td>Photographic material</td><td class="right">44.20</td></tr> +<tr><td>Books for library</td><td class="right">202.39</td></tr> +<tr><td>Stationery and drawing material</td><td class="right">59.36</td></tr> +<tr><td>Illustrations for report</td><td class="right">114.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Office furniture</td><td class="right">92.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Office supplies and repairs</td><td class="right">218.75</td></tr> +<tr><td>Correspondence</td><td class="right">4.17</td></tr> +<tr><td>Specimens</td><td class="right">500.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bonded railroad accounts forwarded to Treasury for settlement</td><td class="right">61.19</td></tr> +<tr><td>Balance on hand to meet outstanding liabilities</td><td class="right">5,627.14</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td class="right"><em class="overline">40,000.00</em></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page001" id="page001">[1]</a></span><br /></p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page002" id="page002">[2]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page003" id="page003">[3]</a></span><br /></p> +<p class="p4 break center"> +<span class="x-large">ACCOMPANYING PAPER.</span> +</p> + + + + +<p class="p4 break center"> +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</p> + +<h1 class="nobreak">PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.</h1> +<p class="p4 center"> +<span class="small">BY</span><br /> +GARRICK MALLERY. +</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page004" id="page004">[4]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page005" id="page005">[5]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" class="toc" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tocright">Page.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Introduction</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter I. Petroglyphs</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page031">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter II. Petroglyphs in North America</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page037">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Petroglyphs in Canada</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page037">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Nova Scotia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page037">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Ontario</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Manitoba</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">British Columbia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Petroglyphs in the United States</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page045">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Alaska</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Arizona</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page048">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">California</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Owens Valley</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page056">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Colorado</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page072">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Connecticut</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page075">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Georgia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Idaho</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Illinois</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Iowa</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Kansas</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Kentucky</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page081">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Maine</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page081">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Maryland</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Massachusetts</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Minnesota</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Montana</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Nebraska</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Nevada</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">New Mexico</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">New York</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">North Carolina</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Ohio</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Oregon</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Pennsylvania</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Rhode Island</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">South Dakota</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Tennessee</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Texas</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Utah</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Virginia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Washington</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">West Virginia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page124">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Wisconsin</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Wyoming</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page128">128</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page006" id="page006">[6]</a></span>Section 3. Petroglyphs in Mexico</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Petroglyphs in the West Indies</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Puerto Rico</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">The Bahama islands</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Guadeloupe</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Aruba</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter III. Petroglyphs in Central and South America</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Petroglyphs in Central America</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Nicaragua</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Guatemala</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Petroglyphs in South America</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">United States of Colombia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Guiana</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Venezuela</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Brazil</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Argentine Republic</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Peru</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Chile</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter IV. Extra-limital petroglyphs</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Petroglyphs in Australia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Petroglyphs in Oceanica</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">New Zealand</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Kei islands</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Easter island</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Petroglyphs in Europe</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Great Britain and Ireland</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Sweden</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">France</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Spain</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page177">177</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Italy</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Petroglyphs in Africa</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Algeria</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Egypt</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">South Africa</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Canary islands</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 5. Petroglyphs in Asia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">China</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Japan</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">India</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Siberia</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter V. Cup sculptures</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter VI. Pictographs generally</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter VII. Substances on which pictographs are made</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. The human body</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Natural objects other than the human body</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Stone</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Bone</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Skins</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Feathers and quills</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page207">207</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Gourds</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page208">208</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Shells</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Earth and sand</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page210">210</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Copper</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page007" id="page007">[7]</a></span>Wood</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Artificial objects</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Fictile fabrics</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Textile fabrics</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter VIII. Instruments and materials by which pictographs are made</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page218">218</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Instruments for carving</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page218">218</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Instruments for drawing</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Coloring matter and its application</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter IX. Mnemonic</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page223">223</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Knotted cords and objects tied</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page223">223</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Notched or marked sticks</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Wampum</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Order of songs</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page231">231</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 5. Traditions</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">The origin of the Indians</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 6. Treaties</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 7. Appointment</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 8. Numeration</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 9. Accounting</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter X. Chronology</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Time</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Winter counts</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Lone-Dog’s winter count</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page273">273</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Battiste Good’s winter count</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page287">287</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XI. Notices</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Notice of visit, departure and direction</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Direction by drawing topographic features</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page341">341</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Notice of condition</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page347">347</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Warning and guidance</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XII. Communications</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page358">358</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Declaration of war</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page358">358</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Profession of peace and friendship</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page359">359</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Challenge</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page362">362</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Social and religious missives</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page362">362</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Australian message sticks</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page369">369</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">West African aroko</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page371">371</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 5. Claim or demand</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page374">374</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XIII. Totems, titles, and names</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page376">376</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Pictorial tribal designations</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page377">377</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Iroquoian</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page377">377</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Eastern Algonquian</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Siouan and other designations</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page379">379</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Absaroka, or Crow</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page380">380</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Arapaho</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Arikara, or Ree</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Assiniboin</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Brulé</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page382">382</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Cheyenne</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page382">382</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Dakota, or Sioux</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Hidatsa, Gros Ventre or Minitari</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Kaiowa</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Mandan</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Mandan and Arikara</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Ojibwa</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Omaha</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page008" id="page008">[8]</a></span>Pawnee</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Ponka</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Shoshoni</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page387">387</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Gentile and clan designations</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page388">388</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Significance of tattoo</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page391">391</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Tattoo in North America</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page392">392</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">On the Pacific coast</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page396">396</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Tattoo in South America</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page407">407</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Extra-limital tattoo</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page407">407</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Scarification</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page416">416</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Summary of studies on tattooing</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page418">418</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Designations of individuals</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page419">419</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Insignia, or tokens of authority</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page419">419</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Signs of individual achievements</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Property marks</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page441">441</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Personal names</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page442">442</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Objective</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page447">447</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Metaphoric</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page453">453</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Animal</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page455">455</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t3">Vegetable</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XIV. Religion</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page461">461</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Symbols of the supernatural</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page462">462</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Myths and mythic animals</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page468">468</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Thunder birds</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Shamanism</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page490">490</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Charms and amulets</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page501">501</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 5. Religious ceremonies</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page505">505</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 6. Mortuary practices</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page517">517</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XV. Customs</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page528">528</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Cult societies</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page528">528</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Daily life and habits</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page530">530</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Games</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page547">547</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XVI. History</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page551">551</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Record of expedition</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page552">552</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Record of battle</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page554">554</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Battle of the Little Bighorn</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page563">563</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Record of migration</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page566">566</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Record of notable events</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page567">567</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XVII. Biography</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page571">571</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Continuous record of events in life</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page571">571</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Particular exploits or events</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page575">575</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XVIII. Ideography</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page583">583</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Abstract ideas expressed pictorially</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page584">584</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">After; age—old and young; bad; before; big; center; deaf; direction; disease; fast; fear; freshet; good; high; lean; little; lone; many, much; obscure; opposition; possession; prisoner; short; sight; slow; tall; trade; union; whirlwind; winter, cold, snow</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page585">585</a>-<a href="#page606">606</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Signs, symbols, and emblems</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page607">607</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Significance of colors</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page618">618</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Decorative use of color</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page619">619</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Ideocrasy of colors</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page622">622</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Color in ceremonies</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page623">623</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page009" id="page009">[9]</a></span>Color relative to death and mourning</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page629">629</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Colors for war and peace</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page631">631</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Color designating social status</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page633">633</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Gesture and posture signs depicted</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page637">637</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Water</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page642">642</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Child</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page643">643</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Negation</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page644">644</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XIX. Conventionalizing</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page649">649</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Conventional devices</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page650">650</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Peace; war; chief; council; plenty of food; famine; starvation; horses; horse stealing; kill and death; shot; coming rain</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page650">650</a>-<a href="#page662">662</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Hittite emblems</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page662">662</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Syllabaries and alphabets</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page664">664</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">The Micmac “hieroglyphics”</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page666">666</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Pictographs in alphabets</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page674">674</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XX. Special comparison</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page676">676</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Typical style</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page676">676</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Homomorphs and symmorphs</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page692">692</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t2">Sky; sun and light; moon; day; night; cloud; rain; lightning; human form; human head and face; hand; feet and tracks; broken leg; voice and speech; dwellings; eclipse of the sun; meteors; the cross</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page694">694</a>-<a href="#page733">733</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Composite forms</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page735">735</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 4. Artistic skill and methods</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page738">738</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XXI. Means of interpretation</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page745">745</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. Marked characters of known significance</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page745">745</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. Distinctive costumes, weapons, and ornaments</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page749">749</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Ambiguous characters with ascertained meaning</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page755">755</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XXII. Controverted pictographs</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page759">759</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 1. The Grave creek stone</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page761">761</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 2. The Dighton rock</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page762">762</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="t1">Section 3. Imitations and forced interpretations</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page764">764</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Chapter XXIII. General conclusions</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page768">768</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>List of works and authors cited</td><td class="tocright"><a href="#page777">777</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page010" id="page010">[10]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page011" id="page011">[11]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + +<div class="nobreak center"> +<table border="0" class="tdl" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td class="right">Page.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="smcap">Pl.</span> I-XI.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Owens Valley, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page058">56</a>-<a href="#page059">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XII.</td><td>Petroglyph in Maine</td><td class="right"><a href="#page081">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XIII.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Nebraska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page091">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XIV.</td><td>The Stone of the Giants. Mexico</td><td class="right"><a href="#page133">134</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XV.</td><td>Powhatan’s mantle</td><td class="right"><a href="#page208">210</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XVI.</td><td>Peruvian quipu and birch-bark drawings</td><td class="right"><a href="#page225">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XVII.</td><td>Order of songs. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XVIII.</td><td>Mnemonic songs. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page236">236</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XIX.</td><td>Mnemonic songs. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page243">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XX.</td><td>Lone-Dog’s winter count</td><td class="right"><a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXI.</td><td>Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 901-1000</td><td class="right"><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXII.</td><td>Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 1141-1280</td><td class="right"><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXIII.</td><td>Battiste Good’s cycles. A. D. 1421-1700</td><td class="right"><a href="#page292">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXIV.</td><td>Haida double thunder-bird</td><td class="right"><a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXV.</td><td>Haida dog-fish</td><td class="right"><a href="#page401">402</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXVI.</td><td>Oglala chiefs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page421">420</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXVII.</td><td>Oglala subchiefs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page421">422</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXVIII.</td><td>Mexican military insignia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page432">432</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXIX.</td><td>Mexican military insignia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page432">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXX.</td><td>Hidatsa dancers bearing exploit marks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page440">440</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXI.</td><td>Petroglyph in rock shelter, West Virginia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page475">476</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXII.</td><td>Wasko and mythic raven, Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page479">480</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXIII.</td><td>Mantle of invisibility</td><td class="right"><a href="#page503">504</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXIV.</td><td>Mexican treatment of new-born children</td><td class="right"><a href="#page542">542</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXV.</td><td>Education of Mexican children. Three to six years</td><td class="right"><a href="#page543">544</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXVI.</td><td>Education of Mexican children. Seven to ten years</td><td class="right"><a href="#page544">546</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXVII.</td><td>Education of Mexican children. Eleven to fourteen years</td><td class="right"><a href="#page545">548</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXVIII.</td><td>Adoption of profession and marriage. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page546">550</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XXXIX.</td><td>Map of Little Bighorn battlefield</td><td class="right"><a href="#page563">564</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XL.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Indian camp</td><td class="right"><a href="#page564">566</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLI.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Soldiers charging Indian camp</td><td class="right"><a href="#page564">568</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLII.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Sioux charging soldiers</td><td class="right"><a href="#page565">570</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLIII.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Sioux fighting Custer’s battalion</td><td class="right"><a href="#page565">572</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLIV.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. The dead Sioux</td><td class="right"><a href="#page565">574</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLV.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. The dead Sioux</td><td class="right"><a href="#page565">576</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLVI.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Custer’s dead cavalry</td><td class="right"><a href="#page566">578</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLVII.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Indians leaving battle-ground</td><td class="right"><a href="#page566">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLVIII.</td><td>Battle of Little Bighorn. Indians leaving battle-ground</td><td class="right"><a href="#page566">582</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">XLIX.</td><td>Mexican symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page613">614</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">L.</td><td>Tablets at Ancon, Peru</td><td class="right"><a href="#page706">706</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page012" id="page012">[12]</a></span>LI.</td><td>Thruston tablet, Tennessee</td><td class="right"><a href="#page733">734</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LII.</td><td>Pictures on Dōtaku, Japan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page734">736</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LIII.</td><td>German knights and Apache warriors</td><td class="right"><a href="#page740">740</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">LIV.</td><td>Dighton rock</td><td class="right"><a href="#page763">762</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1-2.</td><td>Palimpsests on Fairy rocks, Nova Scotia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page042">40</a>-<a href="#page041">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">3.</td><td>Petroglyph on Vancouver island</td><td class="right"><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">4.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">5-8.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page049">48</a>-<a href="#page051">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">9.</td><td>Petroglyph in Shinumo canyon, Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page051">51</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">10.</td><td>Petroglyph in Mound canyon, Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">11.</td><td>Petroglyphs near Visalia, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page052">53</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">12-16.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Tule river, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page055">54</a>-<a href="#page056">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">17.</td><td>View of Chalk grade petroglyphs, Owens valley, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page059">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">18.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Death valley, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page061">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">19.</td><td>Rattlesnake rock, Mojave desert, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">20.</td><td>Petroglyph near San Marcos pass, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page064">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">21-22.</td><td>Petroglyphs near San Marcos pass, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page065">62</a>-<a href="#page065">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">23-28.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page067">63</a>-<a href="#page068">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">29-30.</td><td>Petroglyphs near Santa Barbara, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page067">67</a>-<a href="#page069">68</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">31.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Azuza canyon, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page069">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">32-33.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Santa Barbara county, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page071">71</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">34-35.</td><td>Petroglyphs on the Rio Mancos, Colorado</td><td class="right"><a href="#page073">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">36-37.</td><td>Petroglyphs on the Rio San Juan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page074">74</a>-<a href="#page075">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">38.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Georgia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">39.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Idaho, Shoshonean</td><td class="right"><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">40-41.</td><td>The Piasa Petroglyph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page078">78</a>-<a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">42.</td><td>Petroglyph on the Illinois river</td><td class="right"><a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">43.</td><td>Petroglyph near Alton, Illinois</td><td class="right"><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">44.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Kansas</td><td class="right"><a href="#page081">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">45.</td><td>Bald Friar rock, Maryland</td><td class="right"><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">46.</td><td>Slab from Bald Friar rock</td><td class="right"><a href="#page084">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">47.</td><td>Top of Bald Friar rock</td><td class="right"><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">48.</td><td>Characters from Bald Friar rock</td><td class="right"><a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">49.</td><td>Dighton rock, Massachusetts</td><td class="right"><a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">50.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Pipestone, Minnesota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page087">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">51.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Brown’s valley, Minnesota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">52-53.</td><td>Characters from Nebraska petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page091">91</a>-<a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">54.</td><td>Petroglyphs on Carson river, Nevada</td><td class="right"><a href="#page093">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">55.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Reveillé, Nevada</td><td class="right"><a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">56.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Dead mountain, Nevada</td><td class="right"><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">57.</td><td>Inscription rock, New Mexico</td><td class="right"><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">58-59.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Ojo de Benado, New Mexico</td><td class="right"><a href="#page098">97</a>-<a href="#page098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">60.</td><td>Petroglyph at Esopus, New York</td><td class="right"><a href="#page099">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">61.</td><td>Paint rock, North Carolina</td><td class="right"><a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">62.</td><td>Petroglyphs on Paint rock, North Carolina</td><td class="right"><a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">63.</td><td>Newark Track rock, Ohio</td><td class="right"><a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">64.</td><td>Independence stone, Ohio</td><td class="right"><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">65.</td><td>Barnesville Track rock, Ohio</td><td class="right"><a href="#page102">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">66.</td><td>Characters from Barnesville Track rock</td><td class="right"><a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">67.</td><td>Barnesville Track rock, No. 2</td><td class="right"><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">68.</td><td>Petroglyphs, Wellsville, Ohio</td><td class="right"><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">69.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Lake county, Oregon</td><td class="right"><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">70.</td><td>Big Indian rock, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">71.</td><td>Little Indian rock, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page107">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">72.</td><td>Petroglyph at McCalls ferry, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page013" id="page013">[13]</a></span>73.</td><td>Petroglyph near Washington, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">74.</td><td>Petroglyphs on “Indian God Rock,” Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">75.</td><td>Petroglyph at Millsboro, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">76.</td><td>Petroglyphs near Layton, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">77-78.</td><td>Glyphs in Fayette county, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page113">112</a>-<a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">79.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Roberts county, South Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">80.</td><td>Petroglyphs near El Paso, Texas</td><td class="right"><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">81.</td><td>Petroglyphs near Manti, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page117">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">82-85.</td><td>Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page118">118</a>-<a href="#page119">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">86.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Pipe Spring, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page119">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">87-88.</td><td>Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">89.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Shinumo canyon, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">90.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Tazewell county, Virginia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">91.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Browns cave, Wisconsin</td><td class="right"><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">92.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Trempealeau, Wisconsin</td><td class="right"><a href="#page127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">93-95.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Wind river valley, Wyoming</td><td class="right"><a href="#page128">128</a>-<a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">96-97.</td><td>Petroglyphs near Sage creek, Wyoming</td><td class="right"><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">98.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Mexico</td><td class="right"><a href="#page132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">99.</td><td>The emperor Ahuitzotzin</td><td class="right"><a href="#page134">134</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">100-102.</td><td>Petroglyphs in the Bahamas</td><td class="right"><a href="#page138">138</a>-<a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">103.</td><td>Petroglyph in Guadeloupe</td><td class="right"><a href="#page139">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">104.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Nicaragua</td><td class="right"><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">105.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Colombia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">106.</td><td>Shallow carvings in Guiana</td><td class="right"><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">107.</td><td>Sculptured rock in Venezuela</td><td class="right"><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">108.</td><td>Rock near Caïcara, Venezuela</td><td class="right"><a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">109.</td><td>Petroglyphs of Chicagua rapids, Venezuela</td><td class="right"><a href="#page148">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">110.</td><td>Petroglyphs on the Cachoeira do Ribeirão, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page150">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">111.</td><td>The rock Itamaraca, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">112.</td><td>Petroglyphs on the Rio Negro, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">113.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Caldierão do Inferno, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">114.</td><td>Petroglyphs at the falls of Girão, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">115.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Pederneira, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">116.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Araras rapids, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">117.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Ribeirão, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page155">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">118.</td><td>Character at Madeira rapid, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">119.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Pao Grande, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">120.</td><td>Petroglyph in Ceará, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page155">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">121-122.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Morcego, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">123.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Inhamun, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">124.</td><td>Petroglyphs Pedra Lavrada, Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page157">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">125.</td><td>Inscribed rock at Bajo de Canota, Argentine Republic</td><td class="right"><a href="#page157">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">126.</td><td>Petroglyphs near Araquipa, Peru</td><td class="right"><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">127.</td><td>Petroglyph in Huaytara, Peru</td><td class="right"><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">128.</td><td>Sculptured boulder in Chile</td><td class="right"><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">129.</td><td>Petroglyph in Cajon de los Cipreses, Chile</td><td class="right"><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">130.</td><td>Petroglyph on Finke river, Australia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">131.</td><td>Petroglyph in Depuch island, Australia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">132.</td><td>Petroglyph at Bantry bay, Australia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">133.</td><td>Petroglyph in New Zealand</td><td class="right"><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">134.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Kei islands</td><td class="right"><a href="#page167">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">135.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Easter island</td><td class="right"><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">136.</td><td>Tablet from Easter island</td><td class="right"><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">137-138.</td><td>Petroglyph in Bohuslän, Sweden</td><td class="right"><a href="#page174">174</a>-<a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page014" id="page014">[14]</a></span>139.</td><td>Petroglyph in Épone, France</td><td class="right"><a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">140.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Tyout, Algeria</td><td class="right"><a href="#page178">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">141.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Moghar, Algeria</td><td class="right"><a href="#page179">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">142.</td><td>Petroglyph in Léribé, South Africa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page181">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">143.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Basutoland, South Africa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page182">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">144-145.</td><td>Petroglyphs in the Canary islands</td><td class="right"><a href="#page183">183</a>-<a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">145<i>a</i>.</td><td>Petroglyph in Yezo, Japan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">146.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Chandeshwar, India</td><td class="right"><a href="#page186">187</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">147.</td><td>Types of cup sculptures</td><td class="right"><a href="#page189">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">148.</td><td>Variants of cup sculptures</td><td class="right"><a href="#page193">191</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">149.</td><td>Cup sculptures at Auchnabreach, Scotland</td><td class="right"><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">150.</td><td>Cup sculptures at Ballymenach, Scotland</td><td class="right"><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">151.</td><td>Cup sculptures in Chiriqui</td><td class="right"><a href="#page194">194</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">152-153.</td><td>Cup sculptures in Venezuela</td><td class="right"><a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">154-155.</td><td>Cup sculptures in Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page196">195</a>-<a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">156.</td><td>Cup sculptures in India</td><td class="right"><a href="#page197">197</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">157.</td><td>Comanche drawing on shoulder blade</td><td class="right"><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">158.</td><td>Quill pictograph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page207">208</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">159.</td><td>Pictograph on gourd</td><td class="right"><a href="#page208">208</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">160.</td><td>Pictographs on wood, Washington</td><td class="right"><a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">161.</td><td>Haida basketry hat</td><td class="right"><a href="#page217">216</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">162.</td><td>Tshimshian blanket</td><td class="right"><a href="#page217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">163.</td><td>Wampum strings</td><td class="right"><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">164.</td><td>Penn wampum belt</td><td class="right"><a href="#page231">230</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">165.</td><td>Song for medicine hunting</td><td class="right"><a href="#page246">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">166.</td><td>Song for beaver hunting</td><td class="right"><a href="#page248">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">167.</td><td>Osage chart</td><td class="right"><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">168.</td><td>Midē' record</td><td class="right"><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">169.</td><td>Midē' records</td><td class="right"><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">170.</td><td>Minabō'zho</td><td class="right"><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">171.</td><td>Midē' practicing incantation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">172.</td><td>Jĕssakkī'd curing a woman</td><td class="right"><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">173.</td><td>The origin of the Indians</td><td class="right"><a href="#page255">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">174.</td><td>Record of treaty</td><td class="right"><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">175-177.</td><td>Shop account</td><td class="right"><a href="#page260">259</a>-<a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">178-180.</td><td>Book account</td><td class="right"><a href="#page261">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">181.</td><td>Notched sticks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page262">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">182.</td><td>Device denoting the succession of time. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">183-196.</td><td>Lone-Dog’s Winter Count</td><td class="right"><a href="#page273">273</a>-<a href="#page276">276</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">197.</td><td>Whooping-cough. The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1813-’14</td><td class="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">198.</td><td>Whooping-cough. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1813-’14</td><td class="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">199-255.</td><td>Lone-Dog’s Winter Count</td><td class="right"><a href="#page276">276</a>-<a href="#page286">286</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">256.</td><td>Battiste Good’s Revelation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">257-436.</td><td>Battiste Good’s Winter Count</td><td class="right"><a href="#page293">293</a>-<a href="#page328">328</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">437.</td><td>Petroglyphs at Oakley Springs, Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page330">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">438.</td><td>Hunting notices</td><td class="right"><a href="#page330">331</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">439.</td><td>Alaskan notice of hunt</td><td class="right"><a href="#page332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">440.</td><td>Alaskan notice of departure</td><td class="right"><a href="#page332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">441.</td><td>Alaskan notice of hunt</td><td class="right"><a href="#page333">333</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">442-444.</td><td>Alaskan notice of direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page333">333</a>-<a href="#page334">334</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">445.</td><td>Abnaki notice of direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page334">335</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">446.</td><td>Amalecite notice of trip</td><td class="right"><a href="#page336">336</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">447-448.</td><td>Ojibwa notice of direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page337">337</a>-<a href="#page338">338</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">449.</td><td>Penobscot notice of direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page338">338</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page015" id="page015">[15]</a></span>450.</td><td>Passamaquoddy notice of direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page339">339</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">451.</td><td>Micmac notice of direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page341">341</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">452.</td><td>Lean-Wolf’s map. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page342">342</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">453.</td><td>Chart of battlefield</td><td class="right"><a href="#page342">343</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">454.</td><td>Topographic features</td><td class="right"><a href="#page344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">455.</td><td>Greenland map</td><td class="right"><a href="#page345">345</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">456-458.</td><td>Passamaquoddy wikhegan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page347">348</a>-<a href="#page349">350</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">459.</td><td>Alaskan notice of distress</td><td class="right"><a href="#page351">351</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">460.</td><td>Alaskan notice of departure and refuge</td><td class="right"><a href="#page351">351</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">461.</td><td>Alaskan notice of departure to relieve distress</td><td class="right"><a href="#page351">351</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">462.</td><td>Ammunition wanted. Alaskan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page352">352</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">463.</td><td>Assistance wanted in the hunt. Alaskan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page352">352</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">464-465.</td><td>Starving hunters. Alaskan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page352">352</a>-<a href="#page353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">466.</td><td>No thoroughfare</td><td class="right"><a href="#page353">354</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">467.</td><td>Rock paintings in Azuza canyon, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page354">354</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">468.</td><td>Site of paintings in Azuza canyon, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page355">355</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">469.</td><td>Sketches from Azuza canyon</td><td class="right"><a href="#page356">355</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">470.</td><td>West African message</td><td class="right"><a href="#page361">361</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">471.</td><td>Ojibwa love letter</td><td class="right"><a href="#page362">363</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">472.</td><td>Cheyenne letter</td><td class="right"><a href="#page363">364</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">473.</td><td>Ojibwa invitations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page365">365</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">474.</td><td>Ojibwa invitation sticks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page366">366</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">475.</td><td>Summons to Midé ceremony</td><td class="right"><a href="#page367">367</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">476.</td><td>Passamaquoddy wikhegan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page367">367</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">477.</td><td>Australian message sticks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page369">370</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">478-479.</td><td>West African aroko</td><td class="right"><a href="#page371">371</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">480-481.</td><td>Jebu complaint</td><td class="right"><a href="#page374">375</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">482.</td><td>Samoyed requisition</td><td class="right"><a href="#page375">375</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">483.</td><td>Eastern Algonquian tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page378">379</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">484-487.</td><td>Absaroka tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page380">380</a>-<a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">488.</td><td>Arapaho tribal designation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">489-490.</td><td>Arikara tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">491.</td><td>Assiniboin tribal designation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">492-493.</td><td>Brulé tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page382">382</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">494-497.</td><td>Cheyenne tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page382">382</a>-<a href="#page383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">498.</td><td>Dakota tribal designation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">499.</td><td>Hidatsa tribal designation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">500-501.</td><td>Kaiowa tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">502.</td><td>Mandan tribal designation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">503.</td><td>Mandan and Arikara tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">504-506.</td><td>Omaha tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page385">385</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">507-509.</td><td>Pawnee tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">510-512.</td><td>Ponka tribal designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page386">386</a>-<a href="#page387">387</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">513.</td><td>Tamga of Kirghise tribes</td><td class="right"><a href="#page387">387</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">514.</td><td>Dakota gentile designations</td><td class="right"><a href="#page389">389</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">515.</td><td>Kwakiutl carvings</td><td class="right"><a href="#page391">390</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">516.</td><td>Virginia tattoo designs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page393">393</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">517.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Sculpin and dragon-fly</td><td class="right"><a href="#page397">397</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">518.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Thunder-bird</td><td class="right"><a href="#page398">398</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">519.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Thunder-bird and tshimos</td><td class="right"><a href="#page399">399</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">520.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Bear</td><td class="right"><a href="#page399">399</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">521.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Mountain goat</td><td class="right"><a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">522.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Double thunder-bird</td><td class="right"><a href="#page400">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">523.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Double raven</td><td class="right"><a href="#page400">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page016" id="page016">[16]</a></span>524.</td><td>Haida tattooing. Dog-fish</td><td class="right"><a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">525-526.</td><td>Tattooed Haidas</td><td class="right"><a href="#page404">402</a>-<a href="#page404">403</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">527.</td><td>Two forms of skulpin. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page405">404</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">528.</td><td>Frog. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page405">405</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">529.</td><td>Cod. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page405">405</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">530.</td><td>Squid. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page405">405</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">531.</td><td>Wolf. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page405">405</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">532.</td><td>Australian grave and carved trees</td><td class="right"><a href="#page409">408</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">533.</td><td>New Zealand tattooed head and chin mark</td><td class="right"><a href="#page409">409</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">534.</td><td>Tattoo design on bone. New Zealand</td><td class="right"><a href="#page409">409</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">535.</td><td>Tattooed woman. New Zealand</td><td class="right"><a href="#page410">410</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">536.</td><td>Tattoo on Papuan chief</td><td class="right"><a href="#page411">411</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">537.</td><td>Tattooed Papuan woman</td><td class="right"><a href="#page411">412</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">538.</td><td>Badaga tattoo marks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page413">413</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">539.</td><td>Chukchi tattoo marks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page414">414</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">540.</td><td>Big-Road</td><td class="right"><a href="#page421">421</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">541.</td><td>Charging-Hawk</td><td class="right"><a href="#page422">422</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">542.</td><td>Feather-on-his-head</td><td class="right"><a href="#page422">422</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">543.</td><td>White-Tail</td><td class="right"><a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">544.</td><td>White-Bear</td><td class="right"><a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">545.</td><td>Standing-Bear</td><td class="right"><a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">546.</td><td>Four horn calumet</td><td class="right"><a href="#page424">424</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">547.</td><td>Two-Strike as partisan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page424">424</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">548.</td><td>Lean-Wolf as partisan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page424">425</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">549.</td><td>Micmac headdress in pictograph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page424">425</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">550.</td><td>Micmac chieftainess in pictograph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page426">426</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">551.</td><td>Insignia traced on rocks, Nova Scotia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page426">427</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">552.</td><td>Chilkat ceremonial shirt</td><td class="right"><a href="#page429">428</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">553.</td><td>Chilkat ceremonial cloak</td><td class="right"><a href="#page429">429</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">554.</td><td>Chilkat ceremonial blanket</td><td class="right"><a href="#page430">430</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">555.</td><td>Chilkat ceremonial coat</td><td class="right"><a href="#page430">430</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">556.</td><td>Bella Coola Indians</td><td class="right"><a href="#page431">431</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">557.</td><td>Guatemala priest</td><td class="right"><a href="#page431">431</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">558.</td><td>Mark of exploit. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">559.</td><td>Killed with fist. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">560.</td><td>Killed an enemy. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">561.</td><td>Cut throat and scalped. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">562.</td><td>Cut enemy’s throat. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">563.</td><td>Third to strike. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">564.</td><td>Fourth to strike. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">565.</td><td>Fifth to strike. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page435">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">566.</td><td>Many wounds. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page435">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">567-568.</td><td>Marks of exploits. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page437">437</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">569.</td><td>Successful defense. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page438">438</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">570.</td><td>Two successful defenses. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page438">438</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">571.</td><td>Captured a horse. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page438">438</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">572.</td><td>Exploit marks. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page438">438</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">573.</td><td>Record of exploits</td><td class="right"><a href="#page439">439</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">574.</td><td>Record of exploits</td><td class="right"><a href="#page439">439</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">575.</td><td>Exploit marks as worn</td><td class="right"><a href="#page439">439</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">576.</td><td>Scalp taken</td><td class="right"><a href="#page440">440</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">577.</td><td>Scalp and gun taken</td><td class="right"><a href="#page440">440</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">578.</td><td>Boat paddle. Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page442">442</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">579.</td><td>African property mark</td><td class="right"><a href="#page442">442</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page017" id="page017">[17]</a></span>580.</td><td>Owner’s marks. Slesvick</td><td class="right"><a href="#page442">442</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">581.</td><td>Signature of Running Antelope. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page445">445</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">582.</td><td>Solinger sword makers’ marks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page445">445</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">583-613.</td><td>Personal names. Objective</td><td class="right"><a href="#page447">447</a>-<a href="#page453">453</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">614-621.</td><td>Personal names. Metaphoric</td><td class="right"><a href="#page453">453</a>-<a href="#page455">454</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">622-634.</td><td>Personal names. Animal</td><td class="right"><a href="#page455">455</a>-<a href="#page458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">635-637.</td><td>Personal names. Vegetable</td><td class="right"><a href="#page458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">638.</td><td>Loud-Talker</td><td class="right"><a href="#page459">459</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">639.</td><td>Mexican names</td><td class="right"><a href="#page460">460</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">640-651.</td><td>Symbols of the supernatural</td><td class="right"><a href="#page462">462</a>-<a href="#page466">466</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">652.</td><td>Dream. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page466">466</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">653.</td><td>Religious symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page466">467</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">654.</td><td>Myth of Pokinsquss</td><td class="right"><a href="#page469">469</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">655.</td><td>Myth of Atosis</td><td class="right"><a href="#page470">470</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">656.</td><td>Myth of the Weasel girls</td><td class="right"><a href="#page471">471</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">657.</td><td>The giant bird Kaloo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page472">472</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">658.</td><td>Kiwach, the strong blower</td><td class="right"><a href="#page473">473</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">659.</td><td>Story of Glooscap</td><td class="right"><a href="#page473">474</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">660.</td><td>Ojibwa shamanistic symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page474">474</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">661.</td><td>Baho-li-kong-ya. Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page476">476</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">662.</td><td>Mythic serpents. Innuit</td><td class="right"><a href="#page476">476</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">663.</td><td>Haida wind-spirit</td><td class="right"><a href="#page477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">664.</td><td>Orca. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">665.</td><td>Bear mother. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page478">478</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">666.</td><td>Thunder-bird grasping whale</td><td class="right"><a href="#page479">479</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">667.</td><td>Haokah. Dakota giant</td><td class="right"><a href="#page479">480</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">668.</td><td>Ojibwa mánidō</td><td class="right"><a href="#page480">480</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">669.</td><td>Menomoni white bear mánidō</td><td class="right"><a href="#page481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">670.</td><td>Mythic wild cats. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page481">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">671.</td><td>Winnebago magic animal</td><td class="right"><a href="#page482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">672.</td><td>Mythic buffalo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">673-674.</td><td>Thunder-birds. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">675.</td><td>Wingless thunder-bird. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">676-677.</td><td>Thunder-birds. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page484">484</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">678.</td><td>Thunder-bird. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">679.</td><td>Thunder-bird. Twana</td><td class="right"><a href="#page485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">680.</td><td>Medicine-bird. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">681.</td><td>Five-Thunders. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">682.</td><td>Thunder-pipe. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">683.</td><td>Micmac thunder-bird</td><td class="right"><a href="#page487">487</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">684.</td><td>Venezuelan thunder-bird</td><td class="right"><a href="#page487">487</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">685.</td><td>Ojibwa thunder-birds</td><td class="right"><a href="#page487">487</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">686.</td><td>Moki rain-bird</td><td class="right"><a href="#page488">488</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">687.</td><td>Ahuitzotl</td><td class="right"><a href="#page488">488</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">688.</td><td>Peruvian fabulous animals</td><td class="right"><a href="#page488">488</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">689.</td><td>Australian mythic personages</td><td class="right"><a href="#page489">489</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">690.</td><td>Ojibwa Midē' wigwam</td><td class="right"><a href="#page493">493</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">691.</td><td>Lodge of a Midē'</td><td class="right"><a href="#page493">493</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">692.</td><td>Lodge of a Jĕssakkī'd</td><td class="right"><a href="#page493">493</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">693-697.</td><td>Making medicine. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page494">494</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">698.</td><td>Magic killing</td><td class="right"><a href="#page495">495</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">699.</td><td>Held-a-ghost-lodge</td><td class="right"><a href="#page495">495</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">700-701.</td><td>Muzzin-ne-neence. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page495">495</a>-<a href="#page496">496</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">702.</td><td>Ojibwa divination. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page496">497</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page018" id="page018">[18]</a></span>703.</td><td>Shaman exorcising demon. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page497">497</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">704.</td><td>Supplication for success. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page497">499</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">705.</td><td>Skokomish tamahous</td><td class="right"><a href="#page498">498</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">706.</td><td>Mdewakantawan fetich</td><td class="right"><a href="#page501">500</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">707.</td><td>Medicine bag, as worn</td><td class="right"><a href="#page501">501</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">708.</td><td>Medicine bag, hung up</td><td class="right"><a href="#page502">502</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">709-711.</td><td>Magic arrows</td><td class="right"><a href="#page503">503</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">712.</td><td>Hunter’s charm. Australia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page504">504</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">713.</td><td>Moki masks traced on rocks. Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page505">506</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">714.</td><td>Shaman’s lodge. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page507">507</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">715.</td><td>Ah-tón-we-tuck</td><td class="right"><a href="#page509">509</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">716.</td><td>On-sáw-kie</td><td class="right"><a href="#page509">510</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">717.</td><td>Medicine lodge. Micmac</td><td class="right"><a href="#page509">510</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">718.</td><td>Juggler lodge. Micmac</td><td class="right"><a href="#page510">511</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">719.</td><td>Moki ceremonial</td><td class="right"><a href="#page511">511</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">720.</td><td>Peruvian ceremony</td><td class="right"><a href="#page512">513</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">721-723.</td><td>Tartar and Mongol drums</td><td class="right"><a href="#page514">515</a>-<a href="#page517">517</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">724.</td><td>Votive offering. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page519">519</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">725-726.</td><td>Grave posts. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page520">520</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">727.</td><td>Village and burial ground. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page520">520</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">728.</td><td>Menomoni grave post</td><td class="right"><a href="#page521">521</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">729.</td><td>Incised lines on Menomoni grave post</td><td class="right"><a href="#page522">522</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">730.</td><td>Grave boxes and posts</td><td class="right"><a href="#page522">523</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">731.</td><td>Commemoration of dead. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page523">523</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">732.</td><td>Ossuary ceremonial. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page523">523</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">733.</td><td>Kalosh grave boxes</td><td class="right"><a href="#page524">524</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">734.</td><td>New Zealand grave effigy</td><td class="right"><a href="#page525">525</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">735.</td><td>New Zealand grave post</td><td class="right"><a href="#page526">526</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">736.</td><td>Nicobarese mortuary tablet</td><td class="right"><a href="#page526">526</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">737.</td><td>The policeman</td><td class="right"><a href="#page529">529</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">738.</td><td>Ottawa pipestem</td><td class="right"><a href="#page530">530</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">739-740.</td><td>Shooting fish. Micmac</td><td class="right"><a href="#page530">531</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">741.</td><td>Lancing fish. Micmac</td><td class="right"><a href="#page531">531</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">742.</td><td>Whale hunting. Innuit</td><td class="right"><a href="#page531">531</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">743.</td><td>Hunting in canoe. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page532">532</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">744.</td><td>Record of hunting. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page532">532</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">745.</td><td>Fruit gatherers. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page533">533</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">746.</td><td>Hunting antelope. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page534">533</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">747.</td><td>Hunting buffalo. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page534">534</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">748.</td><td>Counting coups. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page534">534</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">749-750.</td><td>Counting coup. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page535">535</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">751-752.</td><td>Scalp displayed. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page535">535</a>-<a href="#page536">536</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">753.</td><td>Scalped head. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page536">536</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">754.</td><td>Scalp taken. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page536">536</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">755-757.</td><td>Antelope hunting. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page536">536</a>-<a href="#page537">537</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">758.</td><td>Wife’s punishment. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page537">537</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">759.</td><td>Decorated horse. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page537">537</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">760.</td><td>Suicide. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page537">537</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">761.</td><td>Eagle hunting. Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page537">537</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">762.</td><td>Eagle hunting. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page538">538</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">763.</td><td>Gathering pomme blanche</td><td class="right"><a href="#page538">538</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">764.</td><td>Moving tipi</td><td class="right"><a href="#page538">538</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">765.</td><td>Claiming sanctuary</td><td class="right"><a href="#page538">538</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">766-769.</td><td>Raising war party. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page540">540</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page019" id="page019">[19]</a></span>770.</td><td>Walrus hunting. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page541">541</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">771.</td><td>Records carved on ivory. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page541">541</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">772-773.</td><td>Haka game. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page547">547</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">774.</td><td>Haida gambling sticks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page547">548</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">775.</td><td>Pebbles from Mas d’Azil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page551">549</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">776-781.</td><td>Records of expeditions. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page553">553</a>-<a href="#page554">554</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">782-783.</td><td>Records of battles</td><td class="right"><a href="#page556">556</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">784.</td><td>Battle of 1797. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page556">557</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">785.</td><td>Battle of Hard river. Winnebago</td><td class="right"><a href="#page559">559</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">786.</td><td>Battle between Ojibwa and Sioux</td><td class="right"><a href="#page559">559</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">787.</td><td>Megaque’s last battle</td><td class="right"><a href="#page560">560</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">788-795.</td><td>Records of battles. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page561">561</a>-<a href="#page563">563</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">796.</td><td>Record of Ojibwa migration</td><td class="right"><a href="#page567">566</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">797.</td><td>Origin of Brulé. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page567">567</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">798.</td><td>Kiyuksas</td><td class="right"><a href="#page568">568</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">799-802.</td><td>First coming of traders</td><td class="right"><a href="#page568">568</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">803.</td><td>Boy scalped</td><td class="right"><a href="#page568">568</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">804.</td><td>Boy scalped alive</td><td class="right"><a href="#page569">569</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">805.</td><td>Horses killed</td><td class="right"><a href="#page569">569</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">806-808.</td><td>Annuities received</td><td class="right"><a href="#page569">569</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">809.</td><td>Mexican blankets bought</td><td class="right"><a href="#page569">569</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">810.</td><td>Wagon captured</td><td class="right"><a href="#page570">570</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">811.</td><td>Clerk killed</td><td class="right"><a href="#page570">570</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">812.</td><td>Flagstaff cut down</td><td class="right"><a href="#page570">570</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">813.</td><td>Horses taken</td><td class="right"><a href="#page570">570</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">814.</td><td>Killed two Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page572">571</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">815.</td><td>Shot and scalped an Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page572">572</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">816.</td><td>Killed ten men and three women</td><td class="right"><a href="#page572">572</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">817.</td><td>Killed two chiefs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page573">573</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">818.</td><td>Killed one Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page573">573</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">819.</td><td>Killed two Arikara hunters</td><td class="right"><a href="#page574">574</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">820.</td><td>Killed five Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page574">574</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">821.</td><td>Peruvian biography</td><td class="right"><a href="#page575">575</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">822.</td><td>Hunting record. Iroquois</td><td class="right"><a href="#page575">575</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">823.</td><td>Martial exploits. Iroquois</td><td class="right"><a href="#page576">576</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">824.</td><td>Cross-Bear’s death</td><td class="right"><a href="#page576">576</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">825.</td><td>A dangerous trading trip</td><td class="right"><a href="#page577">577</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">826.</td><td>Shoshoni raid for horses</td><td class="right"><a href="#page578">578</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">827.</td><td>Life risked for water</td><td class="right"><a href="#page578">578</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">828.</td><td>Runs by the enemy</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">829.</td><td>Runs around</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">830.</td><td>Goes through the camp</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">831.</td><td>Cut through</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">832.</td><td>Killed in tipi</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">833.</td><td>Killed in tipi</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">834.</td><td>Took the warpath</td><td class="right"><a href="#page579">579</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">835.</td><td>White-Bull killed</td><td class="right"><a href="#page580">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">836.</td><td>Brave-Bear killed</td><td class="right"><a href="#page580">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">837.</td><td>Brave-man killed</td><td class="right"><a href="#page580">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">838.</td><td>Crazy Horse killed</td><td class="right"><a href="#page580">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">839.</td><td>Killed for whipping wife</td><td class="right"><a href="#page580">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">840.</td><td>Killed for whipping wife</td><td class="right"><a href="#page580">580</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">841-842.</td><td>Close shooting</td><td class="right"><a href="#page581">581</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">843.</td><td>Lean-Wolf’s exploits. Hidatsa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page581">581</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page020" id="page020">[20]</a></span>844.</td><td>Record of hunt. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page582">581</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">845.</td><td>Charge after</td><td class="right"><a href="#page585">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">846.</td><td>Killed after</td><td class="right"><a href="#page585">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">847.</td><td>Old-Horse</td><td class="right"><a href="#page585">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">848.</td><td>Old-Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page585">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">849.</td><td>Young-Rabbit</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">850.</td><td>Bad-Boy</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">851.</td><td>Bad-Horn</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">585</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">852.</td><td>Bad-Face</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">586</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">853.</td><td>Bad. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">586</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">854.</td><td>Got-there-first</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">586</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">855-860.</td><td>Big</td><td class="right"><a href="#page586">586</a>-<a href="#page587">587</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">861.</td><td>Center-Feather</td><td class="right"><a href="#page587">587</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">862.</td><td>Deaf Woman</td><td class="right"><a href="#page587">587</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">863-867.</td><td>Direction</td><td class="right"><a href="#page588">588</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">868.</td><td>Whooping cough</td><td class="right"><a href="#page588">588</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">869.</td><td>Measles</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">870.</td><td>Measles or smallpox</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">871.</td><td>Ate buffalo and died</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">872.</td><td>Died of “whistle”</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">873-874.</td><td>Smallpox</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">875.</td><td>Smallpox. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">876.</td><td>Died of cramps</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">589</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">877-878.</td><td>Died in childbirth</td><td class="right"><a href="#page589">590</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">879.</td><td>Sickness. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page590">590</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">880.</td><td>Sickness. Chinese</td><td class="right"><a href="#page590">590</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">881.</td><td>Fast-Horse</td><td class="right"><a href="#page590">590</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">882.</td><td>Fast-Elk</td><td class="right"><a href="#page590">590</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">883-887.</td><td>Fear</td><td class="right"><a href="#page591">591</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">888-890.</td><td>River freshet</td><td class="right"><a href="#page591">591</a>-<a href="#page592">592</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">891.</td><td>Good-Weasel</td><td class="right"><a href="#page592">592</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">892-897.</td><td>High</td><td class="right"><a href="#page592">592</a>-<a href="#page593">593</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">898-903.</td><td>Lean</td><td class="right"><a href="#page593">593</a>-<a href="#page594">594</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">904-915.</td><td>Little</td><td class="right"><a href="#page594">594</a>-<a href="#page595">595</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">916.</td><td>Lone-Woman</td><td class="right"><a href="#page595">595</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">917.</td><td>Lone-Bear</td><td class="right"><a href="#page596">596</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">918.</td><td>Many shells</td><td class="right"><a href="#page596">596</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">919.</td><td>Many deer</td><td class="right"><a href="#page596">596</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">920.</td><td>Much snow</td><td class="right"><a href="#page596">596</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">921.</td><td>Great, much</td><td class="right"><a href="#page596">596</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">922.</td><td>Ring-Cloud</td><td class="right"><a href="#page597">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">923.</td><td>Cloud-Ring</td><td class="right"><a href="#page597">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">924.</td><td>Fog</td><td class="right"><a href="#page597">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">925.</td><td>Kills-Back</td><td class="right"><a href="#page597">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">926.</td><td>Keeps-the-Battle</td><td class="right"><a href="#page597">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">927.</td><td>Keeps-the-Battle</td><td class="right"><a href="#page597">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">928.</td><td>His-Fight</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">597</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">929.</td><td>River fight</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">598</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">930.</td><td>Owns-the-arrows</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">598</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">931.</td><td>Has-something-sharp</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">598</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">932.</td><td>Prisoner. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">598</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">933.</td><td>Takes enemy</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">598</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">934.</td><td>Iroquois triumph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page598">599</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">935.</td><td>Prisoners. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page599">599</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page021" id="page021">[21]</a></span>936.</td><td>Prisoners. Iroquois</td><td class="right"><a href="#page600">600</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">937.</td><td>Prisoners. Mexico</td><td class="right"><a href="#page600">600</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">938.</td><td>Short bull</td><td class="right"><a href="#page600">600</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">939-944.</td><td>Sight</td><td class="right"><a href="#page600">600</a>-<a href="#page601">601</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">945.</td><td>Slow bear</td><td class="right"><a href="#page601">601</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">946-954.</td><td>Tall</td><td class="right"><a href="#page601">601</a>-<a href="#page602">602</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">955-956.</td><td>Trade</td><td class="right"><a href="#page603">603</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">957.</td><td>Brothers</td><td class="right"><a href="#page603">603</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">958.</td><td>Same tribe</td><td class="right"><a href="#page603">603</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">959.</td><td>Husband and wife</td><td class="right"><a href="#page604">604</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">960.</td><td>Same tribe</td><td class="right"><a href="#page604">604</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">961.</td><td>Same tribe</td><td class="right"><a href="#page604">604</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">962-966.</td><td>Whirlwind</td><td class="right"><a href="#page604">604</a>-<a href="#page605">605</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">967-975.</td><td>Winter, cold, snow</td><td class="right"><a href="#page605">605</a>-<a href="#page606">606</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">976.</td><td>Peruvian garrison</td><td class="right"><a href="#page606">607</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">977.</td><td>Comet. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page613">613</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">978.</td><td>Robbery. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page613">613</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">979.</td><td>Guatemalan symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page614">614</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">980.</td><td>Chibcha symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page615">616</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">981.</td><td>Syrian symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page616">616</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">982.</td><td>Piaroa color stamps</td><td class="right"><a href="#page621">621</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">983.</td><td>Rock painting. Tule river, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page638">638</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">984-998.</td><td>Gesture signs in pictographs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page639">639</a>-<a href="#page642">641</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">999.</td><td>Water symbols</td><td class="right"><a href="#page642">642</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1000.</td><td>Gesture sign for drink</td><td class="right"><a href="#page642">642</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1001.</td><td>Water. Egyptian</td><td class="right"><a href="#page642">642</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1002.</td><td>Gesture for rain</td><td class="right"><a href="#page643">643</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1003.</td><td>Water signs. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page643">643</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1004.</td><td>Symbols for child and man</td><td class="right"><a href="#page644">644</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1005.</td><td>Gestures for birth</td><td class="right"><a href="#page644">644</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1006.</td><td>Negation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page645">645</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1007.</td><td>Hand</td><td class="right"><a href="#page645">645</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1008.</td><td>Signal of discovery</td><td class="right"><a href="#page645">645</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1009.</td><td>Pictured gestures. Maya</td><td class="right"><a href="#page645">646</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1010.</td><td>Pictured gestures. Guatemala</td><td class="right"><a href="#page647">647</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1011-1019.</td><td>Peace</td><td class="right"><a href="#page650">650</a>-<a href="#page651">651</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1020-1022.</td><td>War</td><td class="right"><a href="#page652">651</a>-<a href="#page652">652</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1023.</td><td>Chief-Boy</td><td class="right"><a href="#page652">652</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1024.</td><td>War chief. Passamaquoddy</td><td class="right"><a href="#page652">652</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1025-1029.</td><td>Council</td><td class="right"><a href="#page653">653</a>-<a href="#page654">654</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1030-1037.</td><td>Plenty of food</td><td class="right"><a href="#page654">654</a>-<a href="#page655">655</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1038-1043.</td><td>Famine</td><td class="right"><a href="#page655">655</a>-<a href="#page656">656</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1044-1046.</td><td>Starvation</td><td class="right"><a href="#page656">656</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1047-1051.</td><td>Horses</td><td class="right"><a href="#page656">656</a>-<a href="#page657">657</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1052-1060.</td><td>Horse stealing</td><td class="right"><a href="#page657">657</a>-<a href="#page658">658</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1061-1069.</td><td>Kill and death</td><td class="right"><a href="#page658">658</a>-<a href="#page660">660</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1070.</td><td>Killed. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page660">660</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1071.</td><td>Life and death. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page660">660</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1072.</td><td>Dead. Iroquois</td><td class="right"><a href="#page660">660</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1073.</td><td>Dead man. Arikara</td><td class="right"><a href="#page660">660</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1074-1078.</td><td>Shot</td><td class="right"><a href="#page661">661</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1079.</td><td>Coming rain</td><td class="right"><a href="#page662">662</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1080.</td><td>Hittite emblems of known sound</td><td class="right"><a href="#page662">663</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1081.</td><td>Hittite emblems of uncertain sound</td><td class="right"><a href="#page663">664</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page022" id="page022">[22]</a></span>1082.</td><td>Title page of Kauder’s Micmac Catechism</td><td class="right"><a href="#page668">668</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1083.</td><td>Lord’s Prayer in Micmac “hieroglyphics”</td><td class="right"><a href="#page669">669</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1084-1085.</td><td>Religious story. Sicasica</td><td class="right"><a href="#page672">672</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1086.</td><td>Mo-so MS. Desgodins</td><td class="right"><a href="#page673">673</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1087.</td><td>Pictographs in alphabets</td><td class="right"><a href="#page675">675</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1088.</td><td>Algonquian petroglyph, Hamilton farm, West Virginia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page677">677</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1089.</td><td>Algonquian petroglyphs, Safe Harbor, Pennsylvania</td><td class="right"><a href="#page678">677</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1090.</td><td>Algonquian petroglyphs, Cunningham’s Island, Lake Erie</td><td class="right"><a href="#page678">679</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1091.</td><td>Algonquian petroglyphs, Wyoming</td><td class="right"><a href="#page678">680</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1092.</td><td>Shoshonean petroglyphs, Idaho</td><td class="right"><a href="#page680">680</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1093.</td><td>Shoshonean petroglyphs, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page681">681</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1094.</td><td>Shoshonean rock painting, Utah</td><td class="right"><a href="#page681">681</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1095-1096.</td><td>Arizona petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page682">682</a>-<a href="#page682">683</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1097-1098.</td><td>Petroglyphs in Lower California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page683">683</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1099.</td><td>Haida totem post</td><td class="right"><a href="#page684">684</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1100.</td><td>New Zealand house posts</td><td class="right"><a href="#page684">685</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1101.</td><td>New Zealand tiki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page684">686</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1102-1103.</td><td>Nicaraguan petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page686">686</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1104.</td><td>Deep carvings in Guiana</td><td class="right"><a href="#page686">687</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1105-1106.</td><td>Venezuelan petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page687">688</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1107.</td><td>Brazilian petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page689">689</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1108.</td><td>Spanish and Brazilian petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page689">690</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1109-1111.</td><td>Brazilian petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page691">690</a>-<a href="#page691">691</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1112.</td><td>Brazilian pictograph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page691">691</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1113-1114.</td><td>Brazilian petroglyphs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page692">692</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1115.</td><td>Tree</td><td class="right"><a href="#page693">693</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1116.</td><td>Grow</td><td class="right"><a href="#page694">693</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1117.</td><td>Sky</td><td class="right"><a href="#page694">694</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1118.</td><td>Sun. Oakley Springs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page694">694</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1119.</td><td>Sun. Gesture sign</td><td class="right"><a href="#page695">695</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1120.</td><td>Devices for sun</td><td class="right"><a href="#page695">695</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1121.</td><td>Sun and light</td><td class="right"><a href="#page695">695</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1122.</td><td>Light</td><td class="right"><a href="#page695">695</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1123.</td><td>Light and sun</td><td class="right"><a href="#page695">696</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1124.</td><td>Sun. Kwakiutl</td><td class="right"><a href="#page696">696</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1125.</td><td>Sun mask. Kwakiutl</td><td class="right"><a href="#page696">696</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1126.</td><td>Suns</td><td class="right"><a href="#page696">696</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1127.</td><td>Gesture for moon</td><td class="right"><a href="#page696">696</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1128.</td><td>Moon</td><td class="right"><a href="#page697">697</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1129.</td><td>Stars</td><td class="right"><a href="#page697">697</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1130.</td><td>Day. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page697">697</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1131.</td><td>Morning. Arizona</td><td class="right"><a href="#page698">698</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1132.</td><td>Day</td><td class="right"><a href="#page698">698</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1133.</td><td>Days. Apache</td><td class="right"><a href="#page698">698</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1134.</td><td>Clear, stormy. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page699">699</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1135-1139.</td><td>Night</td><td class="right"><a href="#page699">699</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1140.</td><td>Night. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page699">699</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1141.</td><td>Sign for night</td><td class="right"><a href="#page699">700</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1142.</td><td>Night. Egyptian</td><td class="right"><a href="#page700">700</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1143.</td><td>Night. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page700">700</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1144.</td><td>Cloud shield</td><td class="right"><a href="#page700">700</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1145.</td><td>Clouds. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page700">700</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1146.</td><td>Cloud. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page700">700</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1147.</td><td>Rain. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page701">701</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page023" id="page023">[23]</a></span>1148.</td><td>Rain. Pueblo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page701">701</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1149.</td><td>Rain. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page701">701</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1150.</td><td>Rain. Chinese</td><td class="right"><a href="#page701">701</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1151-1153.</td><td>Lightning. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page701">701</a>-<a href="#page702">702</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1154.</td><td>Lightning. Pueblo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page702">702</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1155-1158.</td><td>Human form</td><td class="right"><a href="#page703">703</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1159.</td><td>Human form. Alaska</td><td class="right"><a href="#page703">704</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1160.</td><td>Bird man. Siberia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page704">704</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1161.</td><td>American. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page704">704</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1162.</td><td>Man. Yakut</td><td class="right"><a href="#page704">704</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1163.</td><td>Human forms. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page704">704</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1164.</td><td>Human form. Navajo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page705">705</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1165.</td><td>Man and woman. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page705">705</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1166.</td><td>Human form. Colombia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page705">705</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1167.</td><td>Human form. Peru</td><td class="right"><a href="#page707">707</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1168.</td><td>Human face. Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page708">708</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1169-1170.</td><td>Human faces. Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page708">708</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1171.</td><td>Double-faced head. Brazil</td><td class="right"><a href="#page708">708</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1172.</td><td>Funeral urn. Marajo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page709">709</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1173.</td><td>Marajo vase</td><td class="right"><a href="#page709">709</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1174.</td><td>Marajo vases</td><td class="right"><a href="#page709">710</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1175.</td><td>Human heads</td><td class="right"><a href="#page711">711</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1176.</td><td>Hand. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page711">711</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1177.</td><td>Joined hands. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page712">712</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1178.</td><td>Cave-painting. Australia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page713">713</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1179.</td><td>Irish cross</td><td class="right"><a href="#page715">715</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1180.</td><td>Roman standard</td><td class="right"><a href="#page715">715</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1181-1185.</td><td>Tracks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page716">716</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1186.</td><td>Feet</td><td class="right"><a href="#page716">716</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1187-1192.</td><td>Broken leg. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page716">716</a>-<a href="#page717">717</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1193.</td><td>Broken leg. Chinese</td><td class="right"><a href="#page717">717</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1194-1198.</td><td>Voice</td><td class="right"><a href="#page717">717</a>-<a href="#page718">718</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1199.</td><td>Speech. Ojibwa</td><td class="right"><a href="#page719">719</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1200.</td><td>Talk. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page719">719</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1201.</td><td>Talk. Maya</td><td class="right"><a href="#page719">719</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1202.</td><td>Talk. Guatemala</td><td class="right"><a href="#page719">720</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1203.</td><td>Dwellings</td><td class="right"><a href="#page720">720</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1204-1210.</td><td>Dwellings. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page721">721</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1211.</td><td>Dwellings. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page721">721</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1212.</td><td>Dwelling. Maya</td><td class="right"><a href="#page722">722</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1213.</td><td>House. Egyptian</td><td class="right"><a href="#page722">722</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1214.</td><td>Eclipse of the sun</td><td class="right"><a href="#page722">722</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1215-1223.</td><td>Meteors</td><td class="right"><a href="#page722">722</a>-<a href="#page723">723</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1224.</td><td>Meteors. Mexican</td><td class="right"><a href="#page723">724</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1225.</td><td>Cross. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page725">725</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1226.</td><td>Cross. Ohio mound</td><td class="right"><a href="#page725">725</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1227.</td><td>Dragon fly</td><td class="right"><a href="#page725">725</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1228.</td><td>Crosses. Eskimo</td><td class="right"><a href="#page727">727</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1229.</td><td>Cross. Tulare valley, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page727">727</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1230.</td><td>Crosses. Owens valley, California</td><td class="right"><a href="#page728">728</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1231.</td><td>Cross. Innuit</td><td class="right"><a href="#page729">729</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1232.</td><td>Crosses. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page729">729</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1233.</td><td>Crosses. Maya</td><td class="right"><a href="#page730">729</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1234.</td><td>Crosses. Nicaragua</td><td class="right"><a href="#page730">730</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page024" id="page024">[24]</a></span>1235-1236.</td><td>Crosses. Guatemala</td><td class="right"><a href="#page730">730</a>-<a href="#page731">731</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1237.</td><td>Crosses. Sword-makers’ marks</td><td class="right"><a href="#page732">732</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1238.</td><td>Cross. Golasecca</td><td class="right"><a href="#page733">733</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1239-1251.</td><td>Composite forms</td><td class="right"><a href="#page735">735</a>-<a href="#page737">736</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1252.</td><td>Wolf-man. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page737">737</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1253.</td><td>Panther-man. Haida</td><td class="right"><a href="#page737">737</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1254.</td><td>Moose. Kejimkoojik</td><td class="right"><a href="#page740">739</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1255.</td><td>Hand. Kejimkoojik</td><td class="right"><a href="#page740">740</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1256.</td><td>Engravings on bamboo. New Caledonia</td><td class="right"><a href="#page743">743</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1257.</td><td>Typical character. Guiana</td><td class="right"><a href="#page745">745</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1258.</td><td>Moki devices</td><td class="right"><a href="#page746">746</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1259.</td><td>Frames and arrows. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page746">746</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1260.</td><td>Blossoms. Moki</td><td class="right"><a href="#page746">746</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1261.</td><td>Moki characters</td><td class="right"><a href="#page748">748</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1262.</td><td>Mantis. Kejimkoojik</td><td class="right"><a href="#page749">749</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1263.</td><td>Animal forms. Sonora</td><td class="right"><a href="#page749">749</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1264-1278.</td><td>Weapons and ornaments. Dakota</td><td class="right"><a href="#page751">750</a>-<a href="#page752">752</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1279.</td><td>Weapons</td><td class="right"><a href="#page753">753</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1280.</td><td>Australian wommera and clubs</td><td class="right"><a href="#page753">754</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1281.</td><td>Turtle. Maya</td><td class="right"><a href="#page755">756</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1282.</td><td>Armadillo. Yucatan</td><td class="right"><a href="#page756">756</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1283.</td><td>Dakota drawings</td><td class="right"><a href="#page756">756</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1284.</td><td>Ojibwa drawings</td><td class="right"><a href="#page756">757</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1285-1287.</td><td>Grave creek stone</td><td class="right"><a href="#page761">761</a>-<a href="#page762">762</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1288.</td><td>Imitated pictograph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page765">765</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1289.</td><td>Fraudulent pictograph</td><td class="right"><a href="#page766">767</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right">1290.</td><td>Chinese characters</td><td class="right"><a href="#page767">767</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page025" id="page025">[25]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="p4 center"><span class="x-large">PICTURE-WRITING OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.</span></p> + +<p class="p2 center"><span class="smcap">By Garrick Mallery.</span></p> + + + + +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + + +<p>An essay entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: A +Preliminary Paper,” appeared in the Fourth Annual Report of the +Bureau of Ethnology. The present work is not a second edition of +that essay, but is a continuation and elaboration of the same subject. +Of the eighty-three plates in that paper not one is here reproduced, +although three are presented with amendments; thus fifty-one of the +fifty-four plates in this volume are new. Many of the text figures, +however, are used again, as being necessary to the symmetry of the +present work, but they are now arranged and correlated so as to be +much more useful than when unmethodically disposed as before, and +the number of text figures now given is twelve hundred and ninety-five +as against two hundred and nine, the total number in the former +paper. The text itself has been rewritten and much enlarged. The +publication of the “Preliminary Paper” has been of great value in the +preparation of the present work, as it stimulated investigation and +report on the subject to such an extent that it is now impossible +to publish within reasonable limits of space all the material on hand. +Indeed, after the present work had been entirely written and sent to +the Public Printer, new information came to hand which ought to be +published, but can not now be inserted.</p> + +<p>It is also possible to give more attention than before to the picture-writing +of the aboriginal inhabitants of America beyond the limits of +the United States. While the requirements of the acts of Congress +establishing the Bureau of Ethnology have been observed by directing +main attention to the Indians of North America, there is sufficient +notice of Central and South America to justify the present title, in +which also the simpler term “picture-writing” is used instead of “pictographs.”</p> + +<p>Picture-writing is a mode of expressing thoughts or noting facts by +marks which at first were confined to the portrayal of natural or artificial +objects. It is one distinctive form of thought-writing without<span class="pagenum"><a name="page026" id="page026">[26]</a></span> +reference to sound, gesture language being the other and probably earlier +form. Whether remaining purely ideographic, or having become +conventional, picture-writing is the direct and durable expression of +ideas of which gesture language gives the transient expression. Originally +it was not connected with the words of any language. When +adopted for syllabaries or alphabets, which is the historical course of +its evolution, it ceased to be the immediate and became the secondary +expression of the ideas framed in oral speech. The writing common +in civilization may properly be styled sound-writing, as it does not +directly record thoughts, but presents them indirectly, after they have +passed through the phase of sound. The trace of pictographs in alphabets +and syllabaries is discussed in the present work under its proper +heading so far as is necessary after the voluminous treatises on the topic, +and new illustrations are presented. It is sufficient for the present +to note that all the varied characters of script and print now current +are derived directly or mediately from pictorial representations +of objects. Bacon well said that “pictures are dumb histories,” and he +might have added that in the crude pictures of antiquity were contained +the germs of written words.</p> + +<p>The importance of the study of picture-writing depends partly upon +the result of its examination as a phase in the evolution of human +culture. As the invention of alphabetic writing is admitted to be the +great step marking the change from barbarism to civilization, the history +of its earlier development must be valuable. It is inferred from +internal evidence, though not specifically reported in history, that picture-writing +preceded and generated the graphic systems of Egypt, +Assyria, and China, but in America, especially in North America, its +use is still current. It can be studied here without any requirement +of inference or hypothesis, in actual existence as applied to records +and communications. Furthermore, the commencement of its evolution +into signs of sound is apparent in the Aztec and the Maya +characters, in which transition stage it was arrested by foreign conquest. +The earliest lessons of the genesis and growth of culture in +this important branch of investigation may, therefore, be best learned +from the western hemisphere. In this connection it should be noticed +that picture-writing is found in sustained vigor on the same continent +where sign language has prevailed and has continued in active operation +to an extent historically unknown in other parts of the world. +These modes of expression, i. e., transient and permanent thought-writing, +are so correlated in their origin and development that neither +can be studied to the best advantage without including the other. +Unacquainted with these facts, but influenced by an assumption that +America must have been populated from the eastern hemisphere, some +enterprising persons have found or manufactured American inscriptions +composed of characters which may be tortured into identity with +some of the Eurasian alphabets or syllabaries, but which sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page027" id="page027">[27]</a></span> +suggest letters of indigenous invention. This topic is discussed in its +place.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of the present work there is no need to decide +whether sign-language, which is closely connected with picture-writing, +preceded articulate speech. It is sufficient to admit the high antiquity +of thought-writing in both its forms, and yet it is proper to notice a +strong current of recent opinions as indicated by Prof. Sayce (<i>a</i>) in his +address to the anthropologic section of the British Association for the +Advancement of Science, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I see no escape from the conclusions that the chief distinctions of race were established +long before man acquired language. If the statement made by M. de Mortillet +is true, that the absence of the mental tubercle, or bony excrescence in which the +tongue is inserted, in a skull of the Neanderthal type found at La Naulette, indicates +an absence of the faculty of speech, one race at least of palæolithic man would have +existed in Europe before it had as yet invented an articulate language. Indeed it is +difficult to believe that man has known how to speak for any very great length of time. +* * * We can still trace through the thin disguise of subsequent modifications +and growth the elements, both lexical and grammatical, out of which language must +have arisen. * * * The beginnings of articulate language are still too transparent +to allow us to refer them to a very remote era. * * * In fact the evidence +that he is a drawing animal * * * mounts back to a much earlier epoch than +the evidence that he is a speaking animal.</p></div> + +<p>When a system of ideographic gesture signs prevailed and at the +same time any form of artistic representation, however rude, existed, it +would be expected that the delineations of the former would appear in +the latter. It was but one more and an easy step to fasten upon bark, +skins, or rocks the evanescent air pictures that still in pigments or +carvings preserve their ideography or conventionalism in their original +outlines. A transition stage between gestures and pictographs, in +which the left hand is used as a supposed drafting surface, upon which +the index draws lines, is exhibited in the Dialogue between Alaskan +Indians in the First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (<i>a</i>). +This device is common among deaf-mutes, without equal archeologic +importance, as it may have been suggested by the art of writing, with +which, even when not instructed in it, they are generally acquainted.</p> + +<p>The execution of the drawings, of which the several forms of picture-writing +are composed, often exhibits the first crude efforts of graphic +art, and their study in that relation is of value.</p> + +<p>When pictures are employed for the same purpose as writing, the +conception intended to be presented is generally analyzed and only its +most essential points are indicated, with the result that the characters +when frequently repeated become conventional, and in their later form +cease to be recognizable as objective portraitures. This exhibition of +conventionalizing has its own historic import.</p> + +<p>It is not probable that much valuable information will ever be obtained +from ancient rock carvings or paintings, but they are important +as indications of the grades of culture reached by their authors, +and of the subjects which interested those authors, as is shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="page028" id="page028">[28]</a></span> +in the appropriate chapters following. Some portions of these pictures +can be interpreted. With regard to others, which are not yet +interpreted and perhaps never can be, it is nevertheless useful to +gather together for synoptic study and comparison a large number of +their forms from many parts of the world. The present collection shows +the interesting psychologic fact that primitive or at least very ancient +man made the same figures in widely separated regions, though it is +not established that the same figures had a common significance. Indications +of priscan habitat and migrations may sometimes be gained +from the general style or type of the drawings and sculptures, which +may be divided into groups, although the influence of the environing +materials must always be considered.</p> + +<p>The more modern specimens of picture-writing displayed on skins, +bark, and pottery are far more readily interpreted than those on rocks, +and have already afforded information and verification as to points of +tribal history, religion, customs, and other ethnologic details.</p> + +<p>A criticism has been made on the whole subject of picture-writing +by the eminent anthropologist, Dr. Andree, who, in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</span> (<i>a</i>), has described and figured a large number +of examples of petroglyphs, a name given by him to rock-drawings +and now generally adopted. His views are translated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>But if we take a connected view of the petroglyphs to which the rock pictures, +generally made with red paint, are equivalent, and make a comparison of both, it +becomes evident that they are usually made for mere pastime and are the first +artistic efforts of rude nations. Nevertheless, we find in them the beginnings of +writing, and in some instances their transition to pictography as developed among +North American Indians becomes evident.</p></div> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that Dr. Andree carefully excludes the picture-writings +of the North American Indians from his general censure, his +conclusion being that those found in other parts of the world usually +occupy a lower stage. It is possible that significance may yet be ascertained +in many of the characters found in other regions, and perhaps +this may be aided by the study of those in America; but no doubt +should exist that the latter have purpose and meaning. The relegation +to a trivial origin of such pictographs as are described and illustrated +in the present work will be abandoned after a thorough knowledge of +the labor and thought which frequently were necessary for their production. +American pictographs are not to be regarded as mere curiosities. +In some localities they represent the only intellectual remains +of the ancient inhabitants. Wherever found, they bear significantly +upon the evolution of the human mind.</p> + +<p>Distrust concerning the actual significance of the ancient American +petroglyphs may be dispelled by considering the practical use of similar +devices by historic and living Indians for purposes as important to +them as those of alphabetic writing, these serving to a surprising extent +the same ends. This paper presents a large number of conclusive<span class="pagenum"><a name="page029" id="page029">[29]</a></span> +examples. The old devices are substantially the same as the modern, +though improved and established in the course of evolution. The ideography +and symbolism displayed in these devices present suggestive +studies in psychology more interesting than the mere information or +text contained in the pictures. It must also be observed that when +Indians now make pictographs it is with intention and care—seldom for +mere amusement. Even when the labor is undertaken merely to supply +the trade demand for painted robes or engraved pipes or bark records, +it is a serious manufacture, though sometimes only imitative and +not intrinsically significant. In all other known instances in which +pictures are made without such specific intent as is indicated under the +several headings of this work, they are purely ornamental; but in such +cases they are often elaborate and artistic, not idle scrawls.</p> + +<p>This paper is limited in its terms to the presentation of the most important +known pictographs of the American Indians, but examples +from other parts of the world are added for comparison. The proper +classification and correlation of the matter collected has required more +labor and thought than is apparent. The scheme of the work has been +to give in an arrangement of chapters and sections some examples with +illustrations in connection with each heading in the classification. This +plan has involved a large amount of cross reference, because in many +cases a character or a group of characters could be considered with +reference to a number of different characteristics, and it was necessary +to choose under which one of the headings it should be presented, +involving reference to that from the other divisions of the work. Sometimes +the decision was determined by taste or judgment, and sometimes +required by mechanical considerations.</p> + +<p>It may be mentioned that the limitation of the size of the present +volume required that the space occupied by the text should be subordinated +to the large amount of illustration. It is obvious that a +work on picture-writing should be composed largely of pictures, and +to allow room for them many pages of the present writer’s views have +been omitted. Whatever may be the disadvantage of this omission +it leaves to students of the work the opportunity to form their own +judgments without bias. Indeed, this writer confesses that although +he has examined and studied in their crude shape, as they went to the +printer, all the illustrations and descriptions now presented, he expects +that after the volume shall be delivered to him in printed form with its +synoptic arrangement he will be better able than now to make appropriate +remarks on its subject-matter. Therefore he anticipates that +careful readers will judiciously correct errors in the details of the work +which may have escaped him and that they will extend and expand +what is yet limited and partial. It may be proper to note that when +the writer’s observation has resulted in agreement with published +authorities or contributors, the statements that could have been made +on his own personal knowledge have been cited, when possible, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page030" id="page030">[30]</a></span> +the printed or manuscript works of others. Quotation is still more +requisite when there is disagreement with the authorities.</p> + +<p>Thanks for valuable assistance are due and rendered to correspondents +and to officers of the Bureau of Ethnology and of the United +States Geological Survey, whose names are generally mentioned in +connection with their several contributions. Acknowledgment is also +made now and throughout the work to Dr. W. J. Hoffman, who has +officially assisted in its preparation during several years, by researches +in the field, in which his familiarity with Indians and his artistic skill +have been of great value. Similar recognition is due to Mr. De +Lancey W. Gill, in charge of the art department of the Bureau of +Ethnology and the U. S. Geological Survey, and to Mr. Wells M. +Sawyer, his assistant, specially detailed on the duty, for their work on +the illustrations presented. While mentioning the illustrations, it +may be noted that the omission to furnish the scale on which some of +them are produced is not from neglect, but because it was impossible to +ascertain the dimensions of the originals in the few cases where no scale +or measurement is stated. This omission is most frequently noticeable +in the illustrations of petroglyphs which have not been procured +directly by the officers of the Bureau of Ethnology. The rule in that +Bureau is to copy petroglyphs on the scale of one-sixteenth actual +size. Most of the other classes of pictographs are presented without +substantial reduction, and in those cases the scale is of little importance.</p> + +<p>It remains to give special notice to the reader regarding the mode +adopted to designate the authors and works cited. A decision was +formed that no footnotes should appear in the work. A difficulty in +observing that rule arose from the fact that in the repeated citation of +published works the text would be cumbered with many words and +numbers to specify titles, pages and editions. The experiment was +tried of printing in the text only the most abbreviated mention, generally +by the author’s name alone, of the several works cited, and +to present a list of them arranged in alphabetic order with cross +references and catch titles. This list appears at the end of the work +with further details and examples of its use. It is not a bibliography +of the subject of picture-writing, nor even a list of authorities read +and studied in the preparation of the work, but it is simply a special +list, prepared for the convenience of readers, of the works and authors +cited in the text, and gives the page and volume, when there is more +than one volume in the edition, from which the quotation is taken.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page031" id="page031">[31]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER I.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PETROGLYPHS.</span></h2> + + +<p>In the plan of this work a distinction has been made between a +petroglyph, as Andree names the class, or rock-writing, as Ewbank +called it, and all other descriptions of picture-writing. The criterion +for the former is that the picture, whether carved or pecked, or otherwise +incised, and whether figured only by coloration or by coloration +and incision together, is upon a rock either in situ or sufficiently large +for inference that the picture was imposed upon it where it was found. +This criterion allows geographic classification. In presenting the geographic +distribution, prominence is necessarily (because of the laws +authorizing this work) given to the territory occupied by the United +States of America, but examples are added from various parts of the +globe, not only for comparison of the several designs, but to exhibit the +prevalence of the pictographic practice in an ancient form, though probably +not the earliest form. The rocks have preserved archaic figures, +while designs which probably were made still earlier on less enduring +substances are lost.</p> + +<p>Throughout the world in places where rocks of a suitable character +appear, and notably in South America, markings on them have been +found similar to those in North America, though until lately they have +seldom been reported with distinct description or with illustration. +They are not understood by the inhabitants of their vicinity, who generally +hold them in superstitious regard, and many of them appear +to have been executed from religious motives. They are now most +commonly found remaining where the population has continued to be +sparse, or where civilization has not been of recent introduction, with +exceptions such as appear in high development on the Nile.</p> + +<p>The superstitions concerning petroglyphs are in accord with all other +instances where peoples in all ages and climes, when observing some +phenomenon which they did not understand, accounted for it by supernatural +action. The following examples are selected as of interest in +the present connection.</p> + +<p>It must be premised with reference to the whole character of the +mythology and folk-lore of the Indians that, even when professed converts +to Christianity, they seem to have taken little interest in the +stories of the Christian church, whether the biblical narratives or the +lives and adventures of the saints, which are so constantly dwelt upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page032" id="page032">[32]</a></span> +throughout the Christian world that they have become folk-lore. The +general character of the Christian legends does not seem to have suited +the taste of Indians and has not at all impaired their affection for or +their belief in the aboriginal traditions.</p> + +<p>Among the gods or demigods of the Abnaki are those who particularly +preside over the making of petroglyphs. Their name in the plural, +for there are several personages, is Oonagamessok. They lived in +caves by the shore and were never seen, but manifested their existence +by inscriptions on the rocks. The fact that these inscribed rocks +are now very seldom found is accounted for by the statement that the +Oonagamessok have become angry at the want of attention paid to +them since the arrival of the white people and have caused the pictures +to disappear. There is no evidence to determine whether this tradition +should be explained by the fact that the ingenious shamans of the +last century would sometimes produce a miracle, carving the rocks +themselves and interpreting the marks in their own way, or by the fact +that the rock inscriptions were so old that their origin was not remembered +and an explanation was, as usual, made by ascription to a special +divinity, perhaps a chieftain famous in the old stage of mythology, or +perhaps one invented for the occasion by the class of priests who from +immemorial antiquity have explained whatever was inexplicable.</p> + +<p>At a rock near the mouth of the Magiguadavic river, at the time immediately +before the Passamaquoddy Indians chose their first governor +after the manner of the whites, the old Indians say there suddenly +appeared a white man’s flag carved on the rocks. The old Indians +interpreted this as a prophecy that the people would soon be abandoned +to the white man’s methods, and this came to pass shortly after. Formerly +they had a “Mayouett” or chief. Many other rock carvings are +said to have foretold what has since come to pass. Strange noises have +also been heard near them.</p> + +<p>The Omaha superstition is mentioned on pages <a href="#page091">91</a>-<a href="#page092">92</a> infra.</p> + +<p>The Mandans had an oracle stone on which figures appeared on the +morning after a night of public fasting. They were deciphered by the +shaman, who doubtless had made them.</p> + +<p>Mr. T. H. Lewis (<i>a</i>) gives the following tradition relating to the incised +bowlders in the upper Minnesota valley:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In olden times there used to be an object that marked the bowlders at night. It +could be seen, but its exact shape was indistinct. It would work making sounds +like hammering, and occasionally emit a light similar to that of a firefly. After +finishing its work it would give one hearty laugh like a woman laughing and then +disappear. The next morning the Indians would find another pictured bowlder in +the vicinity where the object had been seen the night previous.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. J. W. Lynd (<i>a</i>) says of the Dakotas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The deities upon which the most worship is bestowed, if, indeed, any particular +one is nameable, are Tunkan (Inyan) the Stone God and Wakinyan, the Thunder +Bird. The latter, as being the main god of war, receives constant worship and +sacrifices; whilst the adoration of the former is an every-day affair. The Tunkan,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page033" id="page033">[33]</a></span> +the Dakotas say, is the god that dwells in stones or rocks, and is the oldest god. If +asked why it is considered the oldest, they will tell you because it is the hardest.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Charles Hallock, on the authority of Capt. Ed. Hunter, First +Cavalry, U. S. A., furnishes the following information respecting the +Assiniboin, Montana, rock pictures, which shows the reverence of these +Indians for the petroglyphs even when in ruins:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some of the rocks of the sculptured cliff cleaved off and tumbled to the ground, +whereupon the Indians assembled in force, stuck up a pole, hung up some buffalo +heads and dried meat, had a song and dance, and carefully covered the detached +fragments (which were sculptured or painted) with cotton cloth and blankets. Jim +Brown, a scout, told Capt. Hunter that the Indians assembled at this station at +stated times to hold religious ceremonies. The pictures are drawn on the smooth +face of an outcrop or rocky projection.</p></div> + +<p>Marcano (<i>a</i>) gives an account in which superstition is mixed with historic +tradition. It is translated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The legend of the Tamanaques, transmitted by Father Gili, has also been invoked +in favor of an ancient civilization. According to the beliefs of this nation, there +took place in days of old a general inundation, which recalls the age of the great +waters of the Mexicans, during which the scattered waves beat against the Encaramada. +All the Tamanaques were drowned except one man and one woman, who fled +to the mountain of Tamacu or Tamanácu, situated on the banks of Asiveru (Cuchivero). +They threw above their heads the fruits of the palm tree, Mauritia, and saw +arising from their kernels the men and women who repeopled the earth. It was +during this inundation that Amalavica, the creator of mankind, arrived on a bark +and carved the inscription of Tepumereme. Amalavica remained long among the +Tamanaques, and dwelt in Amalavica-Jeutitpe (house). After putting everything +in order he set sail and returned “to the other shore,” whence he had come. “Did +you perchance meet him there?” said an Indian to Father Gili, after relating to him +this story. In this connection Humboldt recalls that in Mexico, too, the monk Sahagun +was asked whether he came from the other shore, whither Quetzalcoatl had +retired.</p> + +<p>The same traveler adds: “When you ask the natives how the hieroglyphic characters +carved on the mountains of Urbana and Encaramada could have been traced, +they reply that this was done in the age of the great waters, at the time when their +fathers were able to reach the heights in their canoes.”</p> + +<p>If these legends and these petroglyphs are proof of an extinct civilization, it is +astonishing that their authors should have left no other traces of their culture. To +come to the point, is it admissible that they were replaced by savage tribes without +leaving a trace of what they had been, and can we understand this retrograde +march of civilization when progress everywhere follows an ascending course? +These destructions of American tribes in place are very convenient to prop up theories, +but they are contrary to ethnologic laws.</p></div> + +<p>The remarkable height of some petroglyphs has misled authors of +good repute as well as savages. Petroglyphs frequently appear on the +face of rocks at heights and under conditions which seemed to render +their production impossible without the appliances of advanced civilization, +a large outlay, and the exercise of unusual skill. An instance +among many of the same general character is in the petroglyphs at Lake +Chelan, Washington, where they are about 30 feet above the present +water level, on a perpendicular cliff, the base of which is in the lake. +On simple examination the execution of the pictographic work would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page034" id="page034">[34]</a></span> +seem to involve details of wharfing, staging, and ladders if operated +from the base, and no less elaborate machinery if approached from the +summit. Strahlenberg suggests that such elevated drawings were +made by the ingenious use of stone wedges driven into the rock, thus +affording support for ascent or descent, and reports that he actually +saw such stone wedges in position on the Yenesei river. A very +rough geological theory has been presented by others to account for +the phenomena by the rise of the rocks to a height far above the adjacent +surface at a time later than their carving.</p> + +<p>But in the many cases observed in America it is not necessary to +propose either the hypothesis involving such elaborate work as is suggested +or one postulating enormous geological changes. The escarpment +of cliffs is from time to time broken down by the action of the +elements and the fragments fall to the base, frequently forming a talus +of considerable height, on which it is easy to mount and incise or paint on +the remaining perpendicular face of the cliff. When the latter adjoins +a lake or large stream, the disintegrated débris is almost immediately +carried off, leaving the drawings or paintings at an apparently inaccessible +altitude. When the cliff is on dry land, the rain, which is driven +against the face of the cliff and thereby increased in volume and force +at the point in question, also sweeps away the talus, though more +slowly. The talus is ephemeral in all cases, and the face of the cliff +may change in a week or a century, as it may happen, so its aspect +gives but a slight evidence of age. The presence, therefore, of the +pictures on the heights described proves neither extraordinary skill in +their maker nor the great antiquity which would be indicated by the +emergence of the pictured rocks through volcanic or other dynamic +agency. The age of the paintings and sculptures must be inferred from +other considerations.</p> + +<p>Pictures are sometimes found on the parts of rocks which at present +are always, or nearly always, covered with water. On the sea shore at +Machias bay, Maine, the peckings have been continued below the line +of the lowest tides as known during the present generation. In such +cases subsidence of the rocky formation may be indicated. At Kejimkoojik +lake, Nova Scotia, incisions of the same character as those on +the bare surface of the slate rocks can now be seen only by the aid of +a water glass, and then only when the lake is at its lowest. This may +be caused by subsidence of the rocks or by rise of the water through +the substantial damming of the outlet. Some rocks on the shores of +rivers, e. g., those on the Kanahwa, in West Virginia, show the same +general result of the covering and concealment of petroglyphs by water, +except in an unusual drought, which may more reasonably be attributed +to the gradual elevation of the river through the rise of the surface +near its mouth than to the subsidence of the earth’s crust at the +locality of the pictured rocks.</p> + +<p>It must be admitted that no hermeneutic key has been discovered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page035" id="page035">[35]</a></span> +applicable to American pictographs, whether ancient on stone or modern +on bark, skins, linen, or paper. Nor has any such key been found +which unlocks the petroglyphs of any other people. Symbolism was +of individual origin and was soon variously obscured by conventionalizing; +therefore it requires separate study in every region. No interpreting +laws of general application to petroglyphs so far appear, +although types and tendencies can be classified. It was hoped that in +some lands petroglyphs might tell of the characters and histories of +extinct or emigrated peoples, but it now seems that knowledge of the +people who were the makers of the petroglyphs is necessary to any +clear understanding of their work. The fanciful hypotheses which +have been formed without corroboration, wholly from such works as +remain, are now generally discarded.</p> + +<p>There is a material reason why the interpretation of petroglyphs is +attended with special difficulty. They have often become so blurred by +the elements and so much defaced where civilized man has penetrated +that they cease to have any distinct or at least incontrovertible features. +The remarks relating to Dighton rock, infra, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page762">XXII</a></span>, are +in point.</p> + +<p>Rock-carving or picture-writing on rocks is so old among the American +tribes as to have acquired a nomenclature. The following general +remarks of Schoolcraft (<i>a</i>) are of some value, though they apply with +any accuracy only to the Ojibwa and are tinctured with a fondness +for the mysterious:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>For their pictographic devices the North American Indians have two terms, namely, +<i>Kekeewin</i>, or such things as are generally understood by the tribe, and <i>Kekeenowin</i>, +or teachings of the <i>medas</i> or priests and <i>jossakeeds</i> or prophets. The knowledge of +the latter is chiefly confined to persons who are versed in their system of magic +medicine, or their religion, and may be deemed hieratic. The former consists of +the common figurative signs, such as are employed at places of sepulture or by +hunting or traveling parties. It is also employed in the <i>muzzinabiks</i>, or rock-writings. +Many of the figures are common to both and are seen in the drawings generally; +but it is to be understood that this results from the figure alphabet being precisely +the same in both, while the devices of the nugamoons or medicine, wabino, +hunting, and war songs are known solely to the initiates who have learned them, +and who always pay high to the native professors for this knowledge.</p></div> + +<p>In the Oglala Roster mentioned in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, Section <a href="#page419">4</a>, infra, +one of the heads of families is called Inyanowapi, translated as Painted +(or inscribed) rock. A blue object in the shape of a bowlder is connected +with the man’s head by the usual line, and characters too minute for +useful reproduction appear on the bowlder. The name is interesting as +giving the current Dakota term for rock-inscriptions. The designation +may have been given to this Indian because he was an authority on the +subject and skilled either in the making or interpretation of petroglyphs.</p> + +<p>The name “Wikhegan” was and still is used by the Abnaki to signify +portable communications made in daily life, as distinct from the +rock carvings mentioned above, which are regarded by them as mystic.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page036" id="page036">[36]</a></span></p> + +<p>One of the curious facts in connection with petroglyphs is the meager +notice taken of them by explorers and even by residents other than +the Indians, who are generally reticent concerning them. The present +writer has sometimes been annoyed and sometimes amused by this +indifference. The resident nearest to the many inscribed rocks at Kejimkoojik +Lake, Nova Scotia, described in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, Section <a href="#page037">1</a>, was a +middle-aged farmer of respectable intelligence who had lived all his life +about 3 miles from those rocks, but had only a vague notion of their +character, and with difficulty found them. A learned and industrious +priest, who had been working for many years on the shores of Lake +Superior preparing not only a dictionary and grammar of the Ojibwa +language, but an account of Ojibwa religion and customs, denied the +present existence of any objects in the nature of petroglyphs in that +region. Yet he had lived for a year within a mile of a very important +and conspicuous pictured rock, and, on being convinced of his error by +sketches shown him, called in his Ojibwa assistant and for the first time +learned the common use of a large group of words which bore upon the +system of picture-writing, and which he thereupon inserted in his dictionary, +thus gaining from the visitor, who had come from afar to study +at the feet of this supposed Gamaliel, much more than the visitor gained +from him.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page037" id="page037">[37]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER II.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PETROGLYPHS IN NORTH AMERICA.</span></h2> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CANADA.</span></h3> + +<p>The information thus far obtained about petroglyphs in Canada is +meager. This may be partly due to the fact that through the region of +the Dominion now most thoroughly known the tribes have generally +resorted for their pictographic work to the bark of birch trees, which +material is plentiful and well adapted for the purpose. Indeed the +same fact affords an explanation of the paucity of rock-carvings or +paintings in the lands immediately south of the boundary line separating +the United States from the British possessions. It must also be +considered that the country on both sides of that boundary was in +general heavily timbered, and that even if petroglyphs are there they +may not even yet have been noticed. But that the mere plenty of birch +bark does not evince the actual absence of rock-pictures in regions +where there was also an abundance of suitable rocks, and where the +native inhabitants were known to be pictographers, is shown by the +account given below of the multitudes of such pictures lately discovered +in a single district of Nova Scotia. It is confidently believed that many +petroglyphs will yet be found in the Dominion. Others may be locally +known and possibly already described in publications which have +escaped the researches of the present writer. In fact, from correspondence +and oral narrations, there are indications of petroglyphs in +several parts of the Dominion besides those mentioned below, but their +descriptions are too vague for presentation here. For instance, Dr. +Boas says that he has seen a large number of petroglyphs in British +Columbia, of which neither he nor any other traveler has made distinct +report.</p> + + +<h4>NOVA SCOTIA.</h4> + +<p>The only petroglyphs yet found in the peninsula of Nova Scotia are +in large numbers within a small district in Queens county, and they +comprise objects unique in execution and in interest. They were examined +by the present writer in the field seasons of 1887 and 1888, and +some were copied by him, but many more copies were taken in the last-mentioned +year by Mr. George Creed, of South Rawdon, Nova Scotia, +who had guided the writer to the locality. Attention was at first<span class="pagenum"><a name="page038" id="page038">[38]</a></span> +confined to Fairy lake and its rocks. This lake is really a bay of a +larger lake which is almost exactly on the boundary line between Annapolis +and Queens counties, one of those forming the chain through +which the Liverpool river runs, and called Cegemacaga in More’s +History of Queens County (<i>a</i>), but according to Dr. Silas Rand in his +Reading Book in the Micmac Language (<i>a</i>), Kejimkoojik, translated +by him as “swelled parts,” doubtless referring to the expansion of the +Maitland river at its confluence with the Liverpool river.</p> + +<p>The Fairy rocks, as distinct from others in the lake, are three in +number, and are situated on the east side of Kejimkoojik lake and +south of the entrance to Fairy lake. The northernmost of the three +rocks is immediately at the entrance, the westernmost and central rock +showing but a small surface at high water and at the highest stage of +the water being entirely submerged. Three other inscribed rocks are +about 2 miles south of these, at Piels (a corruption of Pierre’s) point, +opposite an island called Glodes or Gload island, so named from a well-known +Micmac family. These rocks are virtually a continuation of the +same formation with depressions between them. Two other localities in +the vicinity where the rocks are engraved, as hereafter described, are +at Fort Medway river and Georges lake. As they are all of the same +character, on the same material, and were obviously made by the same +people, they are all classed together, when referred to in this paper, as +at Kejimkoojik lake. All of these rocks are of schistose slate of the +Silurian formation, and they lie with so gentle a dip that their magnitudes +vary greatly with a slight change in the height of the water. On +August 27, 1887, when, according to the reports of the nearest residents, +the water was one foot above the average summer level, the unsubmerged +portion of the central rock then surrounded by water was an +irregular oval, the dimensions of which were 47 by 60 feet. The highest +points of the Fairy rocks at that date were no more than three and +few were more than two feet above the surface of the water. The inclination +near the surface is so small that a falling of the water of one +foot would double the extent of that part of the surface which, by its +smoothness and softness, is adapted to engraving. The inclination at +Piels point is steeper, but still allows a great variation of exposed +surface in the manner mentioned.</p> + +<p>Mr. Creed first visited the Fairy rocks in July, 1881. His attention +was directed exclusively to the northernmost rock, which was then more +exposed than it was in September, 1887, and much of the inscribed +portion seen by him in 1881 was under water in 1887. The submerged +parts of the rocks adjoining those exposed are covered with incisions. +Many inscriptions were seen in 1881 by Mr. Creed through the water, +and others became visible through a water glass in 1887. His recollection +of the inscribed dates seen in 1881 is that some with French names +attached were of years near 1700, and that the worn appearance of the +figures and names corresponded with the lapse of time indicated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page039" id="page039">[39]</a></span> +those dates. A number of markings were noticed by him which are +not found in the parts now exposed, and were evidently more ancient +than most of the engravings on the latter. From other sources of information +it is evident that either from a permanent rise in the water +of the lake or from the sinking of the rocks, they formerly showed, +within the period of the recollection of people now living, a much +larger exposed surface than of late years, and that the parts long since +permanently submerged were covered with engravings. The inference +is that those engravings were made before Europeans had visited the +locality.</p> + +<p>It is to be specially remarked that the exposed surfaces where the +rocks were especially smooth were completely marked over, no space +of 3 inches square being unmarked, and over nearly all of those choice +parts there were two, and in many cases three, sets of markings, above +one another, recognizable by their differing distinctness. It also +seemed that the second or third marking was upon plane surfaces where +the earlier markings had been nearly obliterated by time. With pains +and skill the earlier markings can be traced, and these are the outlines +which from intrinsic evidence are Indian, whereas the later and more +sharply marked outlines are obviously made by civilized men or boys, +the latest being mere initials or full names of persons, with dates attached. +Warning must be given that the ancient markings, which +doubtless were made by the Micmacs, will probably not only escape +the attention of the casual visitor, but even that an intelligent expert +observer who travels to the scene with some information on the subject, +and for the express purpose of finding the incisions, may fail to see +anything but names, ships, houses, and similar figures of obviously +modern design. This actually occurred within the week when the present +writer was taking copies of the drawings by a mode of printing +which left no room for fancy or deception. Indeed, frequently the +marks were not distinctly apparent until after they had been examined +in the printed copies.</p> + +<p>The mode in which the copies were taken was by running over and +through their outlines a blue aniline pencil, and then pressing a wetted +sheet of ordinary printing paper upon them, so that the impression was +actually taken by the process of printing. During the two field seasons +mentioned, with the aid of Mr. Creed, three hundred and fifty +different engravings and groups of engravings were thus printed. +Some of these prints were of large dimensions, and included from ten +to fifty separate characters and designs.</p> + +<p>On the parts exposed in 1887 there were dates from 1800 to the current +year, the number for the last year being much the greatest, which +was explained by the fact that the wonderfully beautiful lake had been +selected for a Sunday-school excursion. Over the greater part of the +surface visible in 1887 there were few levels specially favorable for marking, +and when these were found the double or treble use was in some +instances noticed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page040" id="page040">[40]</a></span></p> + +<p>After the writer had inspected the rocks and discovered their characteristics, +and learned how to distinguish and copy their markings, it +seemed that, with the exception of a few designs recently dug or chipped +out by lumbermen or visitors, almost always initials, the only interesting +or ancient portions were scratchings which could be made on the +soft slate by any sharp instrument. The faces of the rocks were immense +soft and polished drawing-slates, presenting to any person who +had ever drawn or written before an irresistible temptation to draw or +write. The writer, happening to have with him an Indian stone arrow +which had been picked up in the neighborhood, used its point upon the +surface, and it would make as good scratches as any found upon the +rocks except the very latest, which were obviously cut by the whites +with metal knives.</p> + +<p>As is above suggested, the peculiar multiplication of the characters +upon the most attractive of the slates affords evidence as to their +relative antiquity superior to that generally found in petroglyphs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page041" id="page041">[41]</a></span> +The existence of two or three different sets of markings, all visible +and of different degrees of obliteration or distinctness, is in itself +important; but, in addition to that, it is frequently the case that the +second and third in the order of time have associated with them dates, +from which the relative antiquity of the faintest, the dateless, can be +to some extent estimated. Dates of the third and most recent class +are attached to English names and are associated with the forms of English +letters; those of the second class accompany French names, and in +some cases have French designs. Figs. 1 and 2, about one-fourth original +size, are presented to give an idea of these peculiar palimpsests.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page042" id="page042">[42]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;"> +<a href="images/dp072_pg040h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp072_pg040.jpg" class="hires" width="486" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Palimpsest on Fairy rocks, Nova Scotia.</div> +</div> + +<p>For examples of other copies printed from the rocks at Kejimkoojik +lake, see Figs. 549, 550, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 717, 718, 739, 740, 741, +1254, 1255, and 1262. These offer intrinsic evidence of the Micmac +origin of the early class of engravings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"> +<a href="images/dp073_pg041h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp073_pg041.jpg" class="hires" width="408" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Palimpsest on Fairy rocks, Nova Scotia.</div> +</div> + +<p>The presence of French names and styles of art in the drawings is +explained by a story which was communicated by Louis Labrador, +whose great-grandfather, old Ledore, according to his account, guided +a body of French Acadians who, at the time of the expulsion, were not +shipped off with the majority. They escaped the English in 1756 and +traveled from the valley of Annapolis to Shelbourne, at the extreme +southeast of the peninsula. During that passage they halted for a +considerable time to recruit in the beautiful valley along the Kejimkoojik +lake, on the very ground where these markings appear, which +also was on the ancient Indian trail. Another local tradition, told by +a resident of the neighborhood, gives a still earlier date for the French +work. He says that after the capture of Port Royal, now Annapolis, +in 1710, a party of the defeated Frenchmen, with a number of Indians +as guides, went with their cattle to the wide meadows upon Kejimkoojik +lake and remained there for a long time. It is exceedingly probable +that the French would have been attracted to scratch on this fascinating +smooth slate surface whether they had observed previous markings +or not, but it seems evident that they did scratch over such previous +markings. The latter, at least, antedated the beginning of the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>A general remark may be made regarding the Kejimkoojik drawings, +that the aboriginal art displayed in them did not differ in any important +degree from that shown in other drawings of the Micmacs and the +Abnaki in the possession of the Bureau of Ethnology. Also that the +rocks there reveal pictographic tendencies and practices which suggest +explanations of similar work in other regions where less evidence +remains of intent and significance. The attractive material of the +slates and their convenient situation tempted past generations of Indians +to record upon them the images of their current thoughts and +daily actions. Hence the pictographic practice went into operation +at this locality with unusual vigor and continuity. Although at Kejimkoojik +lake there is an exceptional facility for determining the relative +dates of the several horizons of scratchings, the suggestion there +evoked may help to ascertain similar data elsewhere.</p> + + +<h4>ONTARIO.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Charles Hallock kindly communicates information concerning +pictographs on Nipigon bay, which is a large lake in the province of Ontario, +30 miles northwest of Lake Superior, with which it is connected +by Nipigon river. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The pictographs, which are principally of men and animals, occupy a zone some 60 +feet long and 5 feet broad, about midway of the face of the rock; they are painted +in blood-red characters, much darker than the color of the cliff itself.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page043" id="page043">[43]</a></span></p> + +<p>He also, later, incloses a letter received by himself from Mr. Newton +Flanagan, of the Hudson Bay Company, an extract from which is as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>About the dimensions of the red rock in Nipigon bay, upon which appear the Indian +painted pictures, as near as I can give you at present, the face of the rock +fronting the water is about 60 feet, rising to a greater height as it runs inland. The +width along the water is something like 900 yards, depth quite a distance inland. +The pictures are from 10 to 15 or perhaps 20 feet above the water; the pictures are +representations of human figures, Indians in canoes, and of wild animals. They are +supposed to have been painted ages ago, by what process or for what reason I am +unable to tell you, nor do I know how the paint is made indelible.</p> + +<p>As far as I can gather, the Indians here have no traditions in regard to those +paintings, which I understand occur in several places throughout the country, and +none of the Indians hereabouts nowadays practice any such painting.</p></div> + + +<h4>MANITOBA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Hallock also furnishes information regarding a petroglyph, the +locality of which he gives as follows: Roche Percée, on the Souris +river, in Manitoba, near the international boundary, 270 miles west of +Dufferin, and nearly due north from Bismarck. This is an isolated +rock in the middle of a plain, covered with pictographs of memorable +events. It stands back from the river a half mile.</p> + +<p>Mr. A. C. Lawson (<i>a</i>) gives an illustrated account of petroglyphs on the +large peninsula extending into the Lake of the Woods and on an island +adjacent to it. Strictly speaking this peninsula is in the district of +Keewatin, but it is very near the boundary line of Manitoba, to which +it is attached for administrative purposes. The account is condensed +as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the north side of this peninsula, i. e., on the south shore of the northern half +of the lake, about midway between the east and west shores, occurs one of the two +sets of hieroglyphic markings. Lying off shore at a distance of a quarter to a half +a mile, and making with it a long sheltered channel, is a chain of islands, trending +east and west. On the south side of one of these islands, less than a mile to the west +of the first locality, is to be seen the other set of inscriptions. The first set occurs +on the top of a low, glaciated, projecting point of rock, which presents the characters +of an ordinary roche moutonnée. The rock is a very soft, foliated, green, +chloritic schist, into which the characters are more or less deeply carved. The top +of the rounded point is only a few feet above the high-water mark of the lake, whose +waters rise and fall in different seasons through a range of ten feet. The antiquity +of the inscriptions is at once forced upon the observer upon a careful comparison of +their weathering with that of the glacial grooves and striæ, which are very distinctly +seen upon the same rock surface. Both the ice grooves and carved inscriptions +are, so far as the eye can judge, identical in extent of weathering, though +there was doubtless a considerable lapse of time between the disappearance of the +glaciers and the date of the carving.</p> + +<p>The island on which were found the other inscriptions is one of the many steep +rocky islands known among the Indians as Ka-ka-ki-wa-bic min-nis, or Crow-rock +island. The rock is a hard greenstone, not easily cut, and the inscriptions are not +cut into the rock, but are painted with ochre, which is much faded in places. The +surface upon which the characters are inscribed forms an overhanging wall protected +from the rain, part of which has fallen down.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page044" id="page044">[44]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Indians of the present day have no traditions about these inscriptions +beyond the supposition that they must have been made by the “old people” long ago.</p></div> + +<p>The sketches published as copies of these glyphs show spirals, +concentric circles, crosses, horseshoe forms, arrow shapes, and other +characters similar to those found on rocks in the southwestern part of +the United States, and also to petroglyphs in Brazil, examples from +both of which regions are presented in this work, under their appropriate +headings.</p> + + +<h4>BRITISH COLUMBIA.</h4> + +<p>Dr. Franz Boas (<i>a</i>) published an account of a petroglyph on Vancouver +island (now presented as Fig. 3) which, slightly condensed, is +translated as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp076_pg044h.png"> +<img src="images/dp076_pg044.png" class="hires" width="500" height="147" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Petroglyph on Vancouver island.</div> +</div> + +<p>The accompanying rock picture is found on the eastern shore of +Sproat lake, near its southern outlet. Sproat lake lies about 10 kilometers +north of the upper end of the Alberni fiord, which cuts deep +into the interior of Vancouver island. In former times this region was +the territory of the Hōpetschisāth, a tribe of the Nootka or Aht, who +even now have a village some miles below the lake, at the entrance of +Stamp river into the main river. That tribe, according to the statement +of some of its older members, was a branch of the Kowitchin, who +occupy the east side of Vancouver island, some kilometers northeast +of the upper end of Alberni fiord. At that time the Ts’ēschāáth, +another tribe of the Nootka, are said to have ascended the fiord and +mixed with the Hōpetschisāth. The present inhabitants of the region +know nothing concerning the origin of the rock picture. According to +their legend, the rock on which it is carved was once the house of +Kwótiath. Kwótiath is the wandering divinity in Nootka mythology, +and corresponds approximately to the raven of the Tlinkit and Haida, +the Qäls of the Kowitchin. The picture is found on a perpendicular +rock wall about 7 meters high, which drops directly into the lake, so +that it was necessary to make the copy while standing in the water. +The rock is traversed in the middle by a broad cleft, narrowing below, +from which blocks have fallen out which bore part of the drawing. To +the north and south of the rock wall the shore rises gently, but rocky +portions are found everywhere. The lines of the drawing are flat<span class="pagenum"><a name="page045" id="page045">[45]</a></span> +grooves, about two or three fingers’ breadth, and in many places are +so weathered as to be hardly recognizable. They have been scraped +into the rock probably by the points of sticks rubbing moist sand +against it. No marks of blows of any kind are found. The figures are +here given in the same relative position in which they are found on the +rock, except that the upper one on the right hand is at a distance from +all the others, at the southern end of the rock. The objects represented +are evidently fishes or marine monsters. The middle figure to the left +of the cleft may be a manned boat, the fore part of which is probably +destroyed.</p> + +<p>Dr. Boas says that the copy as found in the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen</span> is incorrect. +The design on the right hand is reversed and is now corrected.</p> + +<p>Mr. G. M. Sproat (<i>a</i>) mentions this petroglyph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is rudely done and apparently not of an old date. There are half a dozen figures +intended to represent fishes or birds—no one can say which. The natives affirm that +Quawteaht made them. In their general character these figures correspond to the +rude paintings sometimes seen on wooden boards among the Ahts, or on the seal-skin +buoys that are attached to the whale and halibut harpoons and lances. The +meaning of these figures is not understood by the people; and I dare say if the +truth were known, they are nothing but feeble attempts on the part of individual +artists to imitate some visible objects which they had strongly in their minds.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">UNITED STATES.</span></h3> + +<p>Drawings or paintings on rocks are distributed generally over the +greater part of the territory of the United States.</p> + +<p>They are found on bowlders formed by the sea waves or polished by +ice of glacial epochs; on the faces of rock ledges adjoining lakes and +streams; on the high walls of canyons and cliffs; on the sides and roofs +of caves; in short, wherever smooth surfaces of rock appear. Yet, +while they are so frequent, there are localities to be distinguished in +which they are especially abundant and noticeable. They differ markedly +in character of execution and apparent subject-matter.</p> + +<p>An obvious division can be made between the glyphs bearing characters +carved or pecked and those painted without incision. There is +also a third, though small, class in which the characters are both incised +and painted. This division seems to coincide to a certain extent +with geographic areas and is not fully explained by the influence of +materials; it may, therefore, have some relation to the idiosyncrasy or +development of the several authors, and consequently to tribal habitat +and migrations.</p> + +<p>In examining a chart of the United States in use by the Bureau of +Ethnology, upon which the distribution of the several varieties of +petroglyphs is marked, two facts are noticeable: First, the pecked and +incised characters are more numerous in the northern and those expressed +in colors more numerous in the southern areas. Second, there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page046" id="page046">[46]</a></span> +are two general groupings, distinguished by typical styles, one in the +north Atlantic states and the other in the south Pacific states.</p> + +<p>The north Atlantic group is in the priscan habitat of the tribes of the +Algonquian linguistic family, and extends from Nova Scotia southward +to Pennsylvania, where the sculpturings are frequent, especially on the +Susquehanna, Monongahela, and Alleghany rivers, and across Ohio from +Lake Erie to the Kanawha river, in West Virginia. Isolated localities +bearing the same type are found westward on the Mississippi river +and a few of its western tributaries, to and including the Wind river +mountains, in Wyoming, the former habitat of the Blackfeet Indians. +All of these petroglyphs present typical characters, sometimes undefined +and complicated. From their presumed authors, they have been +termed the Algonquian type. Upon close study and comparison they +show many features in common which are absent in extra-limital areas.</p> + +<p>Immediately south of the Kanawha river, in West Virginia, and extending +southward into Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina, the +pecked or sculptured petroglyphs are replaced by painted figures of a +style differing from the Algonquian. These are in the area usually designated +as Cherokee territory, but there is no evidence that they are +the work of that tribe; indeed, there is no indication of their authorship. +The absence of pecked characters in this area is certainly not +due to an absence of convenient material upon which to record them +as the country is as well adapted to the mode of incision as is the +northern Atlantic area.</p> + +<p>Upon the Pacific slope a few pecked as well as colored petroglyphs +occur scattered irregularly throughout the extreme northern area west +of the Sierra Nevada, but on the eastern side of that range of mountains +petroglyphs appear in Idaho, which have analogues extending +south to New Mexico and Arizona, with remarkable groups at intervals +between these extremes. All of these show sufficient similarity of form +to be considered as belonging to a type which is here designated +“Shoshonean.” Tribes of that linguistic family still occupy, and for a +long time have occupied, that territory. Most of this Shoshonean group +consists of pecked or incised characters, though in the southern area +unsculptured paintings predominate.</p> + +<p>On the western side of the Sierra Nevada, from Visalia southward, +at Tulare agency, and thence westward and southward along the Santa +Barbara coast, are other groups of colored petroglyphs showing typical +features resembling the Shoshonean. This resemblance may be merely +accidental, but it is well known that there was intercourse between the +tribes on the two sides of the Sierra Nevada, and the Shoshonean family +is also represented on the Pacific slope south of the mountain range +extending from San Bernardino west to Point Conception. In this manner +the artistic delineation of the Santa Barbara tribes may have been +influenced by contact with others.</p> + +<p>Petroglyphs have seldom been found in the central area of the United<span class="pagenum"><a name="page047" id="page047">[47]</a></span> +States. In the wooded region of the Great lakes characters have been +depicted upon birch bark for at least a century, while in the area between +the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains the skins of buffalo +and deer have been used. Large rocks and cliffs favorably situated +are not common in that country, which to a great extent is prairie.</p> + +<p>In the general area of these typical groups characters are frequently +found which appear intrusive, i. e., they have a strong resemblance +not only to those found in other American groups, but are nearly identical +with characters in other parts of the world. This fact, clearly +established, prevents the adoption of any theory as to the authorship +of many of the petroglyphs and thwarts attempts to ascertain their +signification.</p> + + +<h4>ALASKA.</h4> + +<p>Ensign Albert P. Niblack, U. S. Navy, (<i>a</i>) gives a brief account, with +sketches, reproduced here as Fig. 4, of petroglyphs in Alaska, which +were taken from rocks from the ancient village of Stikine, near Fort +Wrangell. Others were found on rocks just above high-water mark +around the sites of ruined and abandoned villages.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp079_pg047h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp079_pg047.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="305" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Petroglyphs in Alaska.</div> +</div> + +<p>In the upper character the Alaskan typical style of human faces is +noticeable. The lower gives a representation of the orca or whale +killer, which the Haida believe to be a demon called Skana, about +which there are many mythic tales. Mr. Niblack remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In their paintings the favorite colors used are black, light green, and dark red. +Whether produced in painting, tattooing, or relief carving, the designs are somewhat +conventional. However rude the outline, there are for some animals certain +conventional signs that clearly indicate to the initiated what figure is meant. With +the brown bear it is the protruding tongue; with the beaver and wolf it is the character +of the teeth; with the orca, the fin; with the raven, the sharp beak; with the +eagle, the curved beak, etc.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page048" id="page048">[48]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>ARIZONA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, gives the following +information concerning petroglyphs observed by him in the vicinity +of San Francisco mountain, Arizona:</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The localities of the sketches Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are about 35 miles east and southeast +of San Francisco mountain, the material being a red sandstone, which stands +in low buttes upon the plain. About these are mealing stones, fragments of pottery +and chipped flints, giving evidence of the residence of sedentary Indians. So many +localities of petroglyphs were seen that I regard it as probable that a large number +could be found by search. The drawings in every case but one were produced by +blows upon the surface of the rocks, breaking through the film of rock discolored by +weathering so as to reveal (originally) the color of the interior of the rock. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page049" id="page049">[49]</a></span> +single exception is the first pattern in Fig. 6, similar to the patterns on pottery and +blankets, produced by painting with a white pigment on red rock. The original +arrangement of the drawings upon the rock was not as a rule preserved, but they +have approximately the original arrangement. I neglected to record the scale of +the drawings, but the several pictures are drawn on approximately the same scale.</p></div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp080_pg048ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp080_pg048a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="268" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Petroglyph in Arizona.</div> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp080_pg048bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp080_pg048b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="313" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Petroglyph in Arizona.</div> +</div> + + +<p>All of these figures partake of the general type designated as the +Shoshonean, and it is notable that close repetitions of some of the characters +appear in petroglyphs in Tulare valley and Owens valley, California, +which are described and illustrated in this section.</p> + +<p>The object resembling a centipede, in Fig. 6, is a common form in +various localities in Santa Barbara county, California, as will be observed +by comparing the illustrations given in connection with that locality. +In other of the Arizona and New Mexican petroglyphs similar +outlines are sometimes engraved to signify the maize stalk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp081_pg049h.png"> +<img src="images/dp081_pg049.png" class="hires" width="500" height="236" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Petroglyph in Arizona.</div> +</div> + + +<p>Mr. Paul Holman, of the U. S. Geological Survey, reports that eight +miles below Powers butte, on a mesa bordering on the Gila river and +rising abruptly to the height of 150 feet, are pictographs covering the +entire vertical face. Also on the summit of a spur of Oatman mountain, +200 yards from the Gila and 300 feet above it, are numbers of pictographs. +Many of them are almost obliterated where they are on exposed +surfaces.</p> + +<p>Lieut. Col. Emory (<i>a</i>) reports that on a table-land near the Gila +bend is a mound of granite bowlders, blackened by augite and covered +with unknown characters, the work of human hands. On the ground +near by were also traces of some of the figures, showing that some +of the pictographs, at least, were the work of modern Indians. Others +were of undoubted antiquity. He also reports in the same volume (<i>b</i>) +that characters upon rocks of questionable antiquity occur on the Gila +river at 32° 38′ 13″ N. lat. and 190° 7′ 30″ long. According to the +plate, the figures are found upon bowlders and on the face of the cliff +to the height of 30 feet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page050" id="page050">[50]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lieut. Whipple (<i>a</i>) remarks upon petroglyphs at Yampais spring, +Williams river, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The spot is a secluded glen among the mountains. A high shelving rock forms a +cave, within which is a pool of water and a crystal stream flowing from it. The +lower surface of the rock is covered with pictographs. None of the devices seem +to be of recent date.</p></div> + +<p>Many of the country rocks lying on the Colorado plateau of northern +Arizona, east of Peach springs, bear petroglyphs of considerable artistic +workmanship. Some figures, observed by Dr. W. J. Hoffman in 1872, +were rather elaborate and represented the sun, human beings in various +styles approaching the grotesque, and other characters not understood. +All of those observed were made by pecking the surface of basalt +with a harder variety of stone.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gilbert also obtained sketches of etchings in November, 1878, on +Partridge creek, northern Arizona, at the point where the Beale wagon +road comes to it from the east. He says: “The rock is cross-laminated +Aubrey sandstone and the surfaces used are faces of the laminæ. All +the work is done by blows with a sharp point. (Obsidian is abundant +in the vicinity.) Some inscriptions are so fresh as to indicate that the +locality is still resorted to. No Indians live in the immediate vicinity, +but the region is a hunting ground of the Wallapais and Avasupais +(Cosninos).”</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the occasional visits of the above named tribes, +the characters submitted more nearly resemble those of other localities +known to have been made by the Moki Pueblos.</p> + +<p>Rock drawings are of frequent occurrence along the entire extent of +the valley of the Rio Verde, from a short distance below Camp Verde +to the Gila river.</p> + +<p>Mr. Thomas V. Keam reports drawings on the rocks in Canyon Segy, +and in Keam’s canyon, northeastern Arizona. Some forms occurring at +the latter locality are found also upon Moki pottery.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page051" id="page051">[51]</a></span></p> + +<p>Petroglyphs are reported by Lieut. Theodore Mosher, Twenty-second +Infantry, U. S. Army, to have been discovered by Lieut. Casey’s party +in December, 1887, on the Chiulee (or Chilalí) creek, 30 or 40 miles +from its confluence with San Juan river, Arizona. A photograph +made by the officer in charge of the party shows the characters to have +been outlined by pecking, the designs resembling the Shoshonean type +of pictographs, and those in Owens valley, California, a description of +which is given below.</p> + +<p>A figure, consisting of two concentric circles with a straight line +running out from the larger circle, occurs, among other carvings, on +one of the many sculptured bowlders seen by Mr. J. R. Bartlett (<i>a</i>) in +the valley of the Gila river in Arizona. His representation of this +bowlder is here copied as Fig. 8. His language is as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;"> +<a href="images/dp082_pg050h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp082_pg050.jpg" class="hires" width="499" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Petroglyph in Arizona.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I found hundreds of these bowlders covered with rude figures of men, animals, and +other objects of grotesque forms, all pecked in with a sharp instrument. Many of +them, however, were so much defaced by long exposure to the weather and by subsequent +markings, that it was impossible to make them out. Among these rocks I found +several which contained sculptures on the lower side, in such a position that it would +be impossible to cut them where they then lay. Some weighed many tons each +and would have required immense labor to place them there, and that, too, without +an apparent object. The natural inference was that they had fallen down from the +summit of the mountain after the sculptures were made on them. A few only +seemed recent; the others bore the marks of great antiquity.</p></div> + +<p>In the collections of the Bureau of Ethnology is an album or sketch +book, which contains many drawings made by Mr. F. S. Dellenbaugh, +from which the following sketches of petroglyphs in Arizona are selected, +together with the brief references attached to each sheet.</p> + +<p>Fig. 9 is a copy of characters appearing in Shinumo canyon, Arizona. +They are painted, the middle and right hand figures being red, the +human form having a white mark upon the abdomen; the left-hand +figure of a man is painted yellow, the two plumes being red.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp083_pg051h.png"> +<img src="images/dp083_pg051.png" class="hires" width="500" height="196" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Petroglyph in Shinumo canyon, Arizona.</div> +</div> + +<p>The petroglyphs in Fig. 10 are rather indistinct and were copied from +the vertical wall of Mound canyon. The most conspicuous forms +appear to be serpents.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page052" id="page052">[52]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp084_pg052h.png"> +<img src="images/dp084_pg052.png" class="hires" width="500" height="316" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Petroglyph in Mound canyon, Arizona.</div> +</div> + + + + +<h4>CALIFORNIA.</h4> + +<p>In the foothills of California, wherever overhanging and rain-protected +rocks occur, they are covered with paintings of various kinds made by +Indians. Those on Rocky hill, some 15 miles east of Visalia, are especially +interesting. The sheltered rocks are here covered with images of +men, animals, and various inanimate objects, as well as curious figures. +The paint used is red, black, and white, and wherever protected it has +stood the ravages of time remarkably well. In many places the paintings +are as vivid as the day they were laid on. Deer, antelope, coyotes, +birds, and turtles are figured quite frequently, and may indicate either +names of chiefs or tribes, or animals slain in the hunt. Here are also +circles, spirals, crowns or bars, etc., signs the meaning of which is yet +doubtful.</p> + +<p>Mr. H. W. Turner, in a letter dated June 3, 1891, furnishes sketches +(Fig. 11) from this locality, and a description of them as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;"> +<a href="images/dp085_pg053h.png"> +<img src="images/dp085_pg053.png" class="hires" width="309" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Petroglyphs near Visalia, California.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I send herewith a rough sheet of drawings of figures on the sheltered face of a +huge granite cropping in Tulare county, California. One-half of the cropping had +split off, leaving a nearly plane surface, on which the figures were drawn in red, +white, and black pigments. The locality is known as Rocky point. They are now +quarrying granite at the place. It lies about 12 miles nearly due east of Visalia, in +the first foothills and south of Yokall creek. The figures appear to have been drawn +many years ago, and numbers of them are now indistinct.</p></div> + +<p>During the summer of 1882 Dr. Hoffman visited the Tule river agency, +California, where he found a large rock painting, of which Fig. <a href="#page638">983</a>, +infra, is a copy made by him. His description of it is as follows:</p> + +<p>“The agency is upon the western side of the Sierra Nevada, in the +headwater canyons of the branches of the south fork of Tule river. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page053" id="page053">[53]</a></span> +country is at present occupied by several tribes of the Mariposan +linguistic stock, and the only answer made to inquiries respecting the +age or origin of the painting was that it was found there when the ancestors +of the present tribes arrived. The local migrations of the various +Indian tribes of this part of California are not yet known with sufficient +certainty to determine to whom the records may be credited, but +all appearances with respect to the weathering and disintegration of the +rock upon which the record is engraved, the appearance of the coloring +matter subsequently applied, and the condition of the small depressions +made at the time for mixing the pigments with a viscous substance, indicate +that the work was performed about a century ago.</p> + +<p>“The Indians now at Tule river have occupied that part of the state +for at least one hundred years, and the oldest now living state that the +records were found by their ancestors, though whether more than two +generations ago could not be ascertained.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page054" id="page054">[54]</a></span></p> + +<p>“The drawings were outlined by pecking with a piece of quartz or other +siliceous rock, the depth varying from a mere visible depression to a +third of an inch. Having thus satisfactorily depicted the several ideas, +colors were applied which appear to have penetrated the slight interstices +between the crystalline particles of the rock, which had been +bruised and slightly fractured by hammering with a piece of stone. It +appears probable, too, that to insure better results the hammering was +repeated after application of the colors.</p> + +<p>“Upon a small bowlder, under the natural archway formed by the +breaking of the large rock, small depressions were found which had +been used as mortars for grinding and mixing the colors. These depressions +average 2 inches in diameter and about 1 inch in depth. +Traces of color still remain, mixed with a thin layer of a shining substance +resembling a coating of varnish and of flinty hardness. This +coating is so thin that it can not be removed with a steel instrument, +and appears to have become a part of the rock itself.</p> + +<p>“From the animals depicted upon the ceiling it seems that both beaver +and deer were found in the country, and as the beaver tail and the hoofs +of deer and antelope are boiled to procure glue, it is probable that the +tribe which made these pictographs was as far advanced in respect to +the making of glue and preparing of paints as most other tribes throughout +the United States.</p> + +<p>“Examination shows that the dull red color is red ocher, found in various<span class="pagenum"><a name="page055" id="page055">[55]</a></span> +places in the valley, while the yellow was an ocherous clay, also +found there. The white color was probably obtained there, and is evidently +earthy, though of what nature can only be surmised, not sufficient +being obtainable from the rock picture to make satisfactory analysis +with the blow-pipe. The composition of the black is not known, +unless it was made by mixing clay and powdered charcoal. The latter +is a preparation common at this day among other tribes.</p> + +<p>“An immense granite bowlder, about 20 feet in thickness and 30 in +length, is so broken that a lower quarter is removed, leaving a large +square passageway through its entire diameter almost northwest and +southeast. Upon the western wall of this passageway is a collection of +the colored sketches of which Fig. <a href="#page638">983</a> is a reduced copy. The entire +face of the rock upon which the pictograph occurs measures about 12 +or 15 feet in width and 8 in height. The largest human figure measures +6 feet in height, from the end of the toes to the top of the head, the +others being in proportion as represented.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp086_pg054h.png"> +<img src="images/dp086_pg054.png" class="hires" width="500" height="476" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Petroglyph at Tule river, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>“Upon the ceiling are a number of well executed drawings of the +beaver, bear, centipede (Fig. 12), and bald eagle (Fig. 13). Many of +the other forms indicated appear to represent some variety of insects, +several of which are drawn with exaggerated antennæ, as in Fig. 14. +It is curious to note the gradual blending of forms, as, for instance, +that of the bear with those resembling the human figure, often found +among the Shoshonean types in Arizona and New Mexico, some of +which are described and figured infra.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp087_pg055h.png"> +<img src="images/dp087_pg055.png" class="hires" width="500" height="315" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Petroglyph at Tule river, California.</div> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp088_pg056h.png"> +<img src="images/dp088_pg056.png" class="hires" width="500" height="416" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Petroglyph at Tule river, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>“Fig. 15 embraces a number of characters on the ceiling. The left +hand upper figure is in black, with a narrow line of red surrounding it. +The drawing is executed neatly and measures about 18 inches in length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page056" id="page056">[56]</a></span> +The remaining characters are in dull red, probably ocher, though the +two on the left hand, beneath the one just mentioned, are more yellowish.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp099_pg057ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp099_pg057a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="360" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Petroglyph at Tule river, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>“The first three forms in Fig. 16 are copies of human-like figures +painted on the ceiling. They are each about 12 inches in length. The +other form in Fig. 16 is white and is on the southern vertical wall of the +passageway facing the north. It resembles some of the human forms +occurring elsewhere in the same series of petroglyphs.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp099_pg057bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp099_pg057b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="207" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Petroglyph at Tule river, California.</div> +</div> + + +<h5>OWENS VALLEY.</h5> + +<p>In the range of mountains forming the northwestern boundary of +Owens valley are extensive groups of petroglyphs, apparently dissimilar +to those found west of the Sierra Nevada. Dr. Hoffman, of +the Bureau of Ethnology, hastily examined them in 1871 and more +thoroughly in the autumn of 1884. They are now represented in Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span> +to <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>. So large a space is given to these illustrations because of their +intrinsic interest, and also because it is desirable to show for one +locality what is true of some others, viz, the very large number of petroglyphs +still to be found in groups and series. Even with the present +illustrations, the petroglyphs in Owens valley are by no means exhaustively +shown.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman’s report is as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page057" id="page057">[57]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>One of the most important series of groups is that in the northern portion of +Owens valley, between the White mountains on the east and the Benton range on +the west. On the western slope of the latter, at Watterson’s ranch, is a detached +low butte or mesa, upon the blackened basaltic bowlders and cliffs of which are +numerous deeply cut characters, the most interesting of which are reproduced in +Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>. The illustrations are, approximately, one-twelfth real size. The designs +of footprints, in the lower left-hand corner of Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, vary in depth from half an +inch to 1½ inches. They appear to have been pecked and finally worked down to +a uniform and smooth surface by rubbing, as if with a piece of stone or with wood +and sand.</p> + +<p>In almost all, if not all, instances throughout the entire series referred to in this +description the sculptured surfaces have assumed the same shining blackened luster +as the original and undisturbed surface of the bowlder, caused by gradual oxidation +of the iron present. This would seem to indicate considerable antiquity of the +petroglyphs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page058" id="page058">[58]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the northeast angle of the mesa referred to were found the remains of an old +camp, over which were scattered large quantities of arrowheads, knives, and flakes +of obsidian. This in itself would be insignificant, but the fact that many of the +specimens of this material have been lying exposed to the elements until the upper +surface has undergone change in color, so as to become bleached and friable, in some +instances to the depth of from one-tenth to one-fourth of an inch, warrants the inference +that the relics may have been made by the same people who made the petroglyphs, +as the worked relics generally differ from those of the present Indians by +being larger and less elaborately finished.</p> + +<p>At the lower end of the southeastern slope of the mesa are a number of flat rocks +bearing mortar holes, which have no doubt been used in grinding grass seed and +other grains.</p> + +<p>In general type these petroglyphs correspond very closely to those of other areas, +in which the so-called Shoshonian types occur, the most common, apart from those +presented in Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, consisting of concentric circles, rings, footprints of the +bear and of man, and various outlines of the human form, beside numerous unintelligible +forms.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;"> +<a href="images/dp089_pg056p1h.png"> +<img src="images/dp089_pg056p1.png" class="hires" width="304" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. I<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;"> +<a href="images/dp091_pg056p2h.png"> +<img src="images/dp091_pg056p2.png" class="hires" width="315" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. II<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>Southeastward of this locality there is a low divide leading across the Benton +range into the broad, arid, sloping sand desert of Owens valley proper, but it is not +until a point 12 miles south of Benton, along the line of the old stage road, is reached +that petroglyphs of any consequence are met with. From this point southward, for +a distance of 6 miles, large exposures and bowlders of basalt are scattered, upon +which are great numbers of petroglyphs, pecked into the rock to depths of from half +an inch to 1½ inches, and representing circles, footprints, human forms, etc.</p> + +<p>The first series of illustrations, selected from numerous closely-connected bowlders, +are here presented on Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>. The designs marked <i>a</i> on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span> resemble serpents, +while that at <i>d</i> is obviously such. This device is on the horizontal surface, +and is pecked to the depth of about 1 inch. The scale of the drawing is one-thirtieth +of the original petroglyph. The characters indicating the human form in <i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, +and <i>h</i> resemble the ordinary Shoshonian type, and are like those from various localities +in Arizona and southern Utah and Colorado.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;"> +<a href="images/dp093_pg056p3h.png"> +<img src="images/dp093_pg056p3.png" class="hires" width="312" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. III<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>The upper characters in <span class="smcap lowercase">A</span> on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span> represent the trail of a grizzly bear—as indicated +by the immense claws—followed by a human footprint. The original sculpturings +are clearly cut, the toes of the man’s foot being cup-like, as if drilled with a +blunt piece of wood and sand. The tracks average 15 inches in length and vary in +depth from half an inch to more than an inch. The course of direction of the tracks, +which are cut upon a horizontal surface, is from north-northeast to south-southwest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp095_pg056p4h.png"> +<img src="images/dp095_pg056p4.png" class="hires" width="500" height="314" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IV<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>In <span class="smcap lowercase">E</span> is the semblance of an apparently two-headed snake, as also in <i>a</i> on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>. It +is possible that this was pecked into the rock to record the finding of such an anomaly. +The occurrence of double-headed serpents is not unique, five or six instances +having been recorded, one of which is from California, and a specimen may be seen +in the collection of the U. S. National Museum.</p> + +<p>In Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, <i>c</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>g</i> are characters resembling some from the Canary islands [see Figs. +<a href="#page183">144</a> and <a href="#page184">145</a>], as well as many of the cupstones and dumb-bell forms from Scotland +[see Figs. <a href="#page193">149</a> and <a href="#page193">150</a>].</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp098_pg056p5h.png"> +<img src="images/dp098_pg056p5.png" class="hires" width="500" height="312" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. V<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>An interesting specimen is presented in <i>d</i>, on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, resembling the Ojibwa thunder +bird, as well as etchings of Innuit workmanship to denote man [as shown in Fig. +1159]. The figures presented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span> are the northernmost of the series, of which +those on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span> form the southernmost examples, the distance between these two +points being about 2 miles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;"> +<a href="images/dp101_pg058p1h.png"> +<img src="images/dp101_pg058p1.png" class="hires" width="316" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VI<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp104_pg058p2h.png"> +<img src="images/dp104_pg058p2.png" class="hires" width="500" height="311" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VII<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>For the space of 4 miles southward there are a few scattered petroglyphs, to which +reference will be made below, and the greatest number of characters are not found +until the southernmost extremity of the entire series is reached. These are over the +surface of immense bowlders lying on the east side of the road where it passes +through a little valley known locally as the Chalk grade, probably on account of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page059" id="page059">[59]</a></span> +the whitened appearance of the sand and of some of the embankments. A general +view of the faces of the bowlders upon which the chief sculpturings occur is presented +in Fig. 17. The petroglyphs are represented in Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp105_pg059h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp105_pg059.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="259" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—View of Chalk grade petroglyphs, Owens valley.</div> +</div> + +<p>The figures presented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span> are, with one exception, each about one-thirtieth +the size of the original. The animal character in <i>e</i> is upon the top of the largest +bowlder shown on Fig. 17, and is pecked to the depth of from one-fourth to one-half +an inch. Portions of it are much defaced through erosion by sand blown by the +strong summer winds. The characters in <i>g</i> are only one-tenth of the original size, +but of depth similar to the preceding.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<a href="images/dp107_pg060p1h.png"> +<img src="images/dp107_pg060p1.png" class="hires" width="318" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VIII<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>On Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, <i>a</i> is one-twentieth the size of the original, while the remaining sculpturings +are about one-tenth size. The cross in <i>a</i> is singularly interesting because of +the elaborateness of its execution. The surface within the circle is pecked out so +as to have the cross stand out bold and level with the original surface. This is true +also of <i>f</i> on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, <i>b</i>, contains some animal forms like those reported from +New Mexico and Arizona, and Brazil [and presented in this work], especially that +character to the right resembling a guanaco couchant, although, from its relationship +to the figure of an antelope, in the same group, it no doubt is intended to represent +one of the latter species.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp110_pg060p2h.png"> +<img src="images/dp110_pg060p2.png" class="hires" width="500" height="313" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IX<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>On Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, as well as on others of this collection, are found many forms of circles with +interior decoration, such as lines arranged by pairs, threes, etc., zigzag and cross +lines, and other seemingly endless arrangements. They are interesting from the fact +of the occurrence of almost identical forms in remote localities, as in the Canary +islands and in Brazil. [These are figured and described infra.]</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp112_pg060p3h.png"> +<img src="images/dp112_pg060p3.png" class="hires" width="500" height="305" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. X<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>It is probable that they are not meaningless, because the disposition of the Indian, +as he is to-day, is such that no time would be spent upon such laborious work without +an object, and only motives of a religious or ceremonial nature would induce +him to expend the time and labor necessary to accomplish such results as are still +presented. On Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>, <i>a</i>, are more footprints and animal forms of the genus <i>cervus</i> +or <i>antelocapra</i>. The figures in <i>b</i> and <i>d</i>, having an upright line with two crossing it at +right angles, may signify either a lizard or man, the latter signification being probably +the true one, as similar forms are drawn in petroglyphs of a Shoshonian type, +as in Arizona. [See supra.]</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp114_pg060p4h.png"> +<img src="images/dp114_pg060p4.png" class="hires" width="500" height="329" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XI<br />PETROGLYPHS IN OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.</div> +</div> + +<p>The country over which these records are scattered is arid beyond description and +destitute of vegetation. Watterson’s ranch group is more favorably located, there +being an abundance of springs and a stream running northward toward Black lake.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page060" id="page060">[60]</a></span></p> + +<p>The only Indians found in this vicinity are Pai Utes, but they are unacquainted +with the significance of the characters, and declare that they have no knowledge of +the authors.</p> + +<p>As to the age of the sculpturings nothing can be learned. The external surface of +all the bowlders, as well as the surface of the deepest figures, is a glistening brownish +black, due, possibly, to the presence of iron. The color of a freshly broken surface +becomes lighter in tint as depth is attained, until at about one-half or three-fourths +of an inch from the surface the rock is chocolate brown. How long it +would take the freshly broken surface of this variety of rock to become thoroughly +oxidized and blackened it is impossible even to conjecture, taking into consideration +the physical conditions of the region and the almost entire absence of rainfall.</p> + +<p>Upon following the most convenient course across the Benton range to reach +Owen valley proper drawings are also found, though in limited numbers, and seem +to partake of the character of indicators as to course of travel. By this trail the +northernmost of the several groups of drawings above mentioned is the nearest and +most easily reached.</p> + +<p>The pictures upon the bowlders at Watterson’s are somewhat different from those +found elsewhere. The number of specific designs is limited, many of them being +reproduced from two to six or seven times, thus seeming to partake of the character +of personal names.</p></div> + +<p>In a communication dated Saratoga Springs, at the lower part of +Death valley, California, February 5, 1891, Mr. E. W. Nelson says that +about 200 yards from the springs, and on the side of a hill, he found<span class="pagenum"><a name="page061" id="page061">[61]</a></span> +several petroglyphs. He also furnished a sketch as an example of +their general type, now presented as Fig. 18. The locality is in the +lower end of Death valley. Mr. Nelson says:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp106_pg060h.png"> +<img src="images/dp106_pg060.png" class="hires" width="500" height="460" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Petroglyphs in Death valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The spring here is in a basin some 60 to 80 acres in extent in which are ponds +and tule marsh. Close by is an extensive ancient Indian camping ground, over which +are scattered very many “chips” made from manufacturing arrow points from +quartz crystal, chert, chalcedony, flint, and other similar material.</p> + +<p>The figures in the sketch inclosed are situated relatively, as to size and location, +as they occur on the rock. The latter is cracked and slopes at different angles, but +the figures are all visible from a single point of view. There are several other +figures in this group that are too indistinct to copy owing to age, or weather wearing. +The group copied is the most extensive one seen, but many smaller groups and +single figures are to be found on the rocks near by.</p> + +<p>The Shoshoni inhabit this region and a few families of Shoshoni live about the +Panamint mountains at present.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. C. Hart Merriam, of the Department of Agriculture, on his return +from the exploration of Death valley, kindly furnished a photograph +of a ledge in Emigrant canyon, Panamint mountains, which was received +too late for insertion in this work. This is much regretted, as a large +number of petroglyphs are represented in groups. The characters are +of the Shoshonean type. Among them are “Moki goats,” tridents, the +Greek Φ, many crosses, and other figures shown in this chapter as +found in the same general region.</p> + +<p>In the Mojave desert, about 2 miles north of Daggett station, according +to the Mining and Scientific Press (<i>a</i>) is a small porphyritic butte +known as “Rattlesnake rock,” “so named by reason of the immense +number of these reptiles that find shelter in this mass of rock.” The +accompanying Fig. 19 is a reproduction of that given in the paper +quoted. The author states that “the implement used in making these +characters was evidently a dull-pointed stone, as the lines are not +sharp, and the sides of the indentation show marks of striation.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp115_pg061h.png"> +<img src="images/dp115_pg061.png" class="hires" width="500" height="256" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Rattlesnake rock, Mojave desert, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>Lieut. Whipple reports the discovery of pictographs at Piute creek,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page062" id="page062">[62]</a></span> +about 30 miles west of the Mojave villages. These are carved upon a +rock, “are numerous, appear old, and are too confusedly obscured to +be easily traceable.” They bear great general resemblance to drawings +scattered over northeast Arizona, southern Utah, and western New +Mexico.</p> + +<p>From information received from Mr. Alphonse Pinart, pictographic +records exist in the hills east of San Bernardino, somewhat resembling +those at Tule river in the southern spurs of the Sierra Nevada, Kern +county.</p> + +<p>Mr. Willard J. Whitney, of Elmhurst, Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania, +gives information regarding nearly obliterated pecked petroglyphs +upon two flat granite rocks, or bowlders, on the summit of a +mountain 4 miles directly west of Escondido, San Diego county, California.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page063" id="page063">[63]</a></span> +The designs are not colored, and are not more than one-eighth +or one-fourth of an inch in depth. There is a good lookout from the +eminence, but there are no indications of either trails or burials in the +vicinity.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page064" id="page064">[64]</a></span></p> + +<p>This may be the locality mentioned by Mr. Barnes, of San Diego, +who furnished information relating to petroglyphs in San Diego county.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman reports the following additional localities in Santa Barbara +and Los Angeles counties. Fifteen miles west of Santa Barbara, +on the northern summit of the Santa Ynez range, and near the San +Marcos pass, is a group of paintings in red and black. Fig. 20 resembles +a portion of a checker-board in the arrangement of squares.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/dp116_pg062ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp116_pg062a.jpg" class="hires" width="250" height="219" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Petroglyph near San Marcos pass, California.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page065" id="page065">[65]</a></span></p> + +<p>Serpentine and zigzag lines occur, as also curved lines with serrations +on the concave sides; figures of the sun; short lines and groups +of short parallel lines, and figures representing types of insect forms +also appear, as shown in Figs. 21 and 22.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp116_pg062bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp116_pg062b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="397" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Petroglyphs near San Marcos pass, California.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp117_pg063ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp117_pg063a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="251" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Petroglyphs near San Marcos pass, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>These paintings are in a cavity near the base of an immense bowlder, +over 20 feet in height. A short distance from this is a flat granitic +bowlder, containing twenty-one mortar holes, which had evidently been +used by visiting Indians during the acorn season. Oaks are very +abundant, and their fruit formed one of the sources of subsistence.</p> + +<p>Three miles west-northwest of this locality, in the valley near the +base of the mountain, are indistinct figures in faded red, painted upon a +large rock. The characters appear similar, in general, to those above +mentioned.</p> + +<p>Forty-three miles west of Santa Barbara, in the Najowe valley, is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page066" id="page066">[66]</a></span> +promontory, at the base of which is a large shallow cavern, the opening +being smaller than the interior, upon the roof and back of which are +many designs, some of which are reproduced in Fig. 23, of forms similar +to those observed at San Marcos pass. Several characters appear to +have been drawn at a later date than others, such as horned cattle, etc. +The black used was a manganese compound, while the red pigments<span class="pagenum"><a name="page067" id="page067">[67]</a></span> +consist of ferruginous clays, abundant at numerous localities in the +mountain canyons.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"> +<a href="images/dp117_pg063bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp117_pg063b.png" class="hires" width="479" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>Some of the human figures are drawn with the hands and arms in +the attitude of making the gestures for <i>surprise</i> or <i>astonishment</i>, and +<i>negation</i>, as in Fig. 24.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;"> +<a href="images/dp118_pg064h.png"> +<img src="images/dp118_pg064.png" class="hires" width="364" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>The characters in Fig. 25 resemble forms which occur at Tulare valley, +and in Owens valley, respectively, and insect forms also occur as +in Fig. 26.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page068" id="page068">[68]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;"> +<a href="images/dp119_pg065h.png"> +<img src="images/dp119_pg065.png" class="hires" width="405" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Petroglyphs, Najowe valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp120_pg066ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp120_pg066a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="346" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>Other designs abounding at this locality are shown in Figs. 27 and 28.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp120_pg066bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp120_pg066b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="357" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 462px;"> +<img src="images/dp121_pg067a.png" width="462" height="366" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Petroglyphs in Najowe valley, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>One of the most extensive groupings, and probably the most elaborately +drawn, is in the Carisa plain, near Mr. Oreña’s ranch, 60 or 70 +miles due north of Santa Barbara. The most conspicuous figure is that +of the sun, resembling a human face, with ornamental appendages at the +cardinal points, and bearing striking resemblance to some Moki masks +and pictographic work. Serpentine lines and anomalous forms also +abound.</p> + +<p>Four miles northeast of Santa Barbara, near the residence of Mr. +Stevens, is an isolated sandstone bowlder measuring about 20 feet high +and 30 feet in diameter, upon the western side of which is a slight +cavity bearing designs shown in Fig. 29, which correspond in general +form to others in Santa Barbara county. The gesture for negation appears +in the attitude of the human figures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 466px;"> +<a href="images/dp121_pg067bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp121_pg067b.png" class="hires" width="466" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Petroglyphs near Santa Barbara, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>Half a mile farther east, on Dr. Coe’s farm, is another smaller bowlder, +in a cavity of which various engravings appear shown in Fig. 30. +Parts of the drawings have disappeared through disintegration of the +rock, which is called “Pulpit rock,” on account of the shape of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page069" id="page069">[69]</a></span> +cavity, its position at the side of the narrow valley, and the echo observed +upon speaking a little above the ordinary tone of voice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp122_pg068h.png"> +<img src="images/dp122_pg068.png" class="hires" width="500" height="487" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Petroglyphs near Santa Barbara, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>Painted rocks also occur in the Azuza canyon, about 30 miles northeast +of Los Angeles, of which Fig. 31 gives copies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp123_pg069h.png"> +<img src="images/dp123_pg069.png" class="hires" width="500" height="445" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Petroglyphs in Azuza canyon, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>Just before his departure from the Santa Barbara region, Dr. Hoffman +was informed of the existence of eight or nine painted records in that +neighborhood, which up to that time had been observed only by a few +sheep-herders and hunters.</p> + +<p>Mr. L. L. Frost, of Susanville, California, reports the occurrence of +pictographs (undoubtedly petroglyphs) 15 miles south of that town, on +Willow creek, and at Milford, in the lower end of the valley. No details +were furnished as to their general type and condition.</p> + +<p>On Porter creek, 9 miles southwest of Healdsburg, on a large bowlder +of hornblende syenite, petroglyphs similar to those found in Arizona +and Nevada are to be seen. They are generally oblong circles or ovals, +some of which contain crosses.</p> + +<p>Figs. 32 and 33 are reduced copies 1/32 of original size of colored petroglyphs +found by Dr. Hoffman in September, 1884, 12 miles west-northwest +of the city of Santa Barbara, California. The locality is almost +at the summit of the Santa Ynez range of mountains; the gray sandstone<span class="pagenum"><a name="page070" id="page070">[70]</a></span> +rock on which they are painted is about 30 feet high and projects +from a ridge so as to form a very marked promontory extending +into a narrow mountain canyon. At the base of the western side of +this bowlder is a rounded cavity, measuring on the inside about 15 +feet in width and 8 feet in height. The floor ascends rapidly toward +the back of the cave, and the entrance is rather smaller in dimensions +than the above measurements of the interior. About 40 yards +west of this rock is a fine spring of water. One of the four old Indian +trails leading northward across the mountains passes by this +locality, and it is probable that this was one of the camping places of +the tribe which came south to trade, and that some of its members +were the authors of the paintings. The three trails beside the one +just mentioned cross the mountains at several points east of this, the +most distant being about 15 miles. Other trails were known, but +these four were most direct to the immediate vicinity of the Spanish +settlement which sprang up shortly after the establishment of the Santa +Barbara mission in 1786. The appearance and position of these and +other pictographs in the vicinity appear to be connected with the several +trails. The colors used in the paintings are red and black.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp124_pg070h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp124_pg070.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="368" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Petroglyph in Santa Barbara county, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>The circles figured in <i>b</i> and <i>d</i> of Fig. 32, and <i>c</i>, <i>r</i>, and <i>w</i> of Fig. 33, +together with other similar circular marks bearing cross lines upon the +interior, were at first unintelligible, as their forms among various tribes +have very different signification. The character in Fig. 32, above and +projecting from <i>d</i>, resembles the human form, with curious lateral bands +of black and white, alternately. Two similar characters appear, also, +in Fig. 33, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. In <i>a</i> the lines from the head would seem to indicate a +superior rank or condition of the person depicted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page071" id="page071">[71]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the private ethnologic collection of Mr. A. F. Coronel, of Los +Angeles, California, Dr. Hoffman discovered a clue to the general import +of the above petroglyphs, as well as the signification of some of their +characters. In a collection of colored illustrations of old Mexican costumes +he found blankets bearing borders and colors nearly identical +with those shown in the circles in Fig. 32, <i>d</i>, and Fig. 33, <i>c</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>w</i>. It is +probable that the circles represent bales of blankets which early became +articles of trade at the Santa Barbara mission. If this supposition +is correct, the cross lines would seem to represent the cords used +in tying the blankets into bales, which same cross lines appear as +cords in <i>l</i>, Fig. 33. Mr. Coronel also possesses small figures of Mexicans, +of various conditions of life, costumes, trades, and professions, +one of which, a painted statuette, is a representation of a Mexican +lying down flat upon an outspread serape, similar in color and form to +the black and white bands shown in the upper figure of <i>d</i>, Fig. 32, and +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, of Fig. 33, and instantly suggesting the explanation of those +figures. Upon the latter the continuity of the black and white bands +is broken, as the human figures are probably intended to be in front, +or on top, of the drawings of the blankets.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp125_pg071h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp125_pg071.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="314" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Petroglyph in Santa Barbara county, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>The small statuette above mentioned is that of a Mexican trader, and +if the circles in the petroglyphs are considered to represent bales of +blankets, the character in Fig. 32, <i>d</i>, is still more interesting, from the +union of one of these circles with a character representing the trader, i. e., +the man possessing the bales. Bales, or what appear to be bales, are +represented to the top and right of the circle in <i>d</i>, in that figure. In +Fig. 33, <i>l</i>, a bale is upon the back of what appears to be a horse, led in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page072" id="page072">[72]</a></span> +an upward direction by an Indian whose headdress and ends of the +breechcloth are visible. To the right of the bale are three short lines, +evidently showing the knot or ends of the cords used in tying a bale of +blankets without colors, therefore of less importance, or of other goods. +Other human forms appear in the attitude of making gestures, one +also in <i>j</i>, Fig. 33, probably carrying a bale of goods. In the same +figure <i>u</i> represents a centipede, an insect found occasionally south of +the mountains, but reported as extremely rare in the immediate northern +regions. For remarks upon <i>x</i> in the same figure see Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, +Section 2, under the heading <a href="#page724">The Cross</a>.</p> + +<p>Mr. Coronel stated that when he first settled in Los Angeles, in 1843, +the Indians living north of the San Fernando mountains manufactured +blankets of the fur and hair of animals, showing transverse bands of +black and white similar to those depicted, which were sold to the inhabitants +of the valley of Los Angeles and to Indians who transported +them to other tribes.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the pictographs are intended to represent the salient +features of a trading expedition from the north. The ceiling of the +cavity found between the paintings represented in the two figures has +disappeared, owing to disintegration, thus leaving a blank about 4 feet +long, and 6 feet from the top to the bottom between the paintings as +now presented.</p> + + +<h4>COLORADO.</h4> + +<p>Petroglyphs are reported by Mr. Cyrus F. Newcomb as found upon +cliffs on Rock creek, 15 miles from Rio Del Norte, Colorado. Three +small photographs, submitted with this statement, indicate the characters +to have been pecked; they consist of men on horseback, cross-shaped +human figures, animals, and other designs greatly resembling +those found in the country of the Shoshonean tribes, examples of which +are given infra.</p> + +<p>Another notice of the same general locality is made by Capt. E. L. +Berthoud (<i>a</i>) as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The place is 20 miles southeast of Rio Del Norte, at the entrance of the canyon of the +Piedra Pintada (Painted rock) creek. The carvings are found on the right of the +canyon or valley and upon volcanic rocks. They bear the marks of age and are cut in, +not painted, as is still done by the Utes everywhere. They are found for a quarter +of a mile along the north wall of the canyon, on the ranches of W. M. Maguire +and F. T. Hudson, and consist of all manner of pictures, symbols, and hieroglyphics +done by artists whose memory even tradition does not now preserve. The fact that +these are carvings done upon such hard rock invests them with additional interest, +as they are quite distinct from the carvings I saw in New Mexico and Arizona on +soft sandstone. Though some of them are evidently of much greater antiquity than +others, yet all are ancient, the Utes admitting them to have been old when their +fathers conquered the country.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Charles D. Wright, of Durango, Colorado, in a communication +dated February 20, 1885, gives an account of some “hieroglyphs” on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page073" id="page073">[73]</a></span> +rocks and upon the walls of cliff houses near the boundary line between +Colorado and New Mexico. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The following were painted in red and black paints on the wall (apparently the +natural rock wall) of a cliff house: At the head was a chief on his horse, armed with +spear and lance and wearing a pointed hat and robe; behind this character were +some twenty characters representing people on horses lassoing horses, etc. In fact +the whole scene represented breaking camp and leaving in a hurry. The whole +painting measured about 12 by 16 feet.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Wright further reports characters on rocks near the San Juan +river. Four characters represent men as if in the act of taking an +obligation, hands extended, and wearing a “kind of monogram on +breast, and at their right are some hieroglyphics written in black paint +covering a space 3 by 4 feet.”</p> + +<p>The best discussed and probably the most interesting of the petroglyphs +in the region are described and illustrated by Mr. W. H. +Holmes (<i>a</i>), of the Bureau of Ethnology. The illustrations are here +reproduced in Figs. 34 to 37, and the remarks of Mr. Holmes, slightly +condensed, are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The forms reproduced in Fig. 34 occur on the Rio Mancos, near the group of cliff +houses. They are chipped into the rock evidently by some very hard implement +and rudely represent the human figure. They are certainly not attempts to represent +nature, but have the appearance rather of arbitrary forms, designed to symbolize +some imaginary being.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp127_pg073ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp127_pg073a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="164" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Petroglyphs on the Rio Mancos, Colorado.</div> +</div> + +<p>The forms shown in Fig. 35 were found in the same locality, not engraved, but +painted in red and white clay upon the smooth rocks. These were certainly done +by the cliff-builders, and probably while the houses were in process of construction, +since the material used is identical with the plaster of the houses. The sketches and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page074" id="page074">[74]</a></span> +notes were made by Mr. Brandegee. The reproduction is approximately one-twelfth +the size of the original.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp127_pg073bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp127_pg073b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="157" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Petroglyphs on the Rio Mancos, Colorado.</div> +</div> + +<p>The examples shown in Fig. 36 occur on the Rio San Juan about 10 miles below +the mouth of the Rio La Plata and are actually in New Mexico. A low line of bluffs, +composed of light-colored massive sandstones that break down in great smooth-faced +blocks, rises from the river level and sweeps around toward the north. Each of +these great blocks has offered a very tempting tablet to the graver of the primitive +artist, and many of them contain curious and interesting inscriptions. Drawings +were made of such of these as the limited time at my disposal would permit. They +are all engraved or cut into the face of the rock, and the whole body of each figure +has generally been chipped out, frequently to the depth of one-fourth or one-half of +an inch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp128_pg074h.png"> +<img src="images/dp128_pg074.png" class="hires" width="500" height="484" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Petroglyphs on the Rio San Juan, New Mexico.</div> +</div> + +<p>The work on some of the larger groups has been one of immense labor, and must +owe its completion to strong and enduring motives. With a very few exceptions +the engraving bears undoubted evidence of age. Such new figures as occur are +quite easily distinguished both by the freshness of the chipped surfaces and by the +designs themselves. The curious designs given in the final group have a very perceptible +resemblance to many of the figures used in the embellishment of pottery.</p> + +<p>The most striking group observed is given in Fig. 37 <span class="smcap lowercase">A</span>, same locality. It consists +of a great procession of men, birds, beasts, and fanciful figures. The whole picture +as placed upon a rock is highly spirited and the idea of a general movement toward +the right, skillfully portrayed. A pair of winged figures hover about the train as if<span class="pagenum"><a name="page075" id="page075">[75]</a></span> +to watch, or direct its movements; behind these are a number of odd figures, followed +by an antlered animal resembling a deer, which seems to be drawing a notched +sledge containing two figures of men. The figures forming the main body of the +procession appear to be tied together in a continuous line, and in form resemble one +living creature about as little as another. Many of the smaller figures above and +below are certainly intended to represent dogs, while a number of men are stationed +about here and there as if to keep the procession in order.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp129_pg075h.png"> +<img src="images/dp129_pg075.png" class="hires" width="500" height="291" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Petroglyphs on the Rio San Juan, New Mexico.</div> +</div> + +<p>As to the importance of the event recorded in this picture, no conclusions can be +drawn; it may represent the migration of a tribe or family or the trophies of a victory. +A number of figures are wanting in the drawing at the left, while some of +those at the right may not belong properly to the main group. The reduction is, +approximately, to one-twelfth.</p> + +<p>Designs B and C of the same figure represent only the more distinct portions of +two other groups. The complication of figures is so great that a number of hours +would have been necessary for their delineation, and an attempt to analyze them +here would be fruitless.</p></div> + +<p>It will be noticed that the last two petroglyphs are in New Mexico, but +they are so near the border of Colorado and so connected with the +series in that state that they are presented under the same heading.</p> + + +<h4>CONNECTICUT.</h4> + +<p>The following account is extracted from Rafn’s Antiquitates Americanæ +(<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the year 1789 Doctor Ezra Stiles, D. D., visited a rock situated in the Township +of Kent in the State of Connecticut, at a place called Scaticook, by the Indians. +He thus describes it: “Over against Scaticook and about one hundred rods East of +Housatonic River, is an eminence or elevation which is called Cobble Hill. On the +top of this stands the rock charged with antique unknown characters. This rock is +by itself and not a portion of the Mountains; it is of White Flint; ranges North and +South; is from twelve to fourteen feet long; and from eight to ten wide at base and +top; and of an uneven surface. On the top I did not perceive any characters; but +the sides all around are irregularly charged with unknown characters, made not +indeed with the incision of a chisel, yet most certainly with an iron tool, and that by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page076" id="page076">[76]</a></span> +pecks or picking, after the manner of the Dighton Rock. The Lacunae or excavations +are from a quarter to an inch wide; and from one tenth to two tenths of an +inch deep. The engraving did not appear to be recent or new, but very old.”</p></div> + + +<h4>GEORGIA.</h4> + +<p>Charles C. Jones, jr., (<i>a</i>) describes a petroglyph in Georgia as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Forsyth county, Georgia, is a carved or incised bowlder of fine grained granite, +about 9 feet long, 4 feet 6 inches high, and 3 feet broad at its widest point. The +figures are cut in the bowlder from one-half to three-fourths of an inch deep. It is +generally believed that they are the work of the Cherokees.</p></div> + +<p>The illustration given by him is here reproduced in Fig. 38. It will be +noted that the characters in it are chiefly circles, including plain, nucleated, +and concentric, sometimes two or more being joined by straight +lines, forming what is now known as the “spectacle shaped” figure. +The illustrations should be compared with the many others presented +in this paper under the heading of Cup Sculptures, see Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page189">V</a></span>, infra.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp130_pg076h.png"> +<img src="images/dp130_pg076.png" class="hires" width="500" height="429" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Petroglyphs in Georgia.</div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. M. F. Stephenson (<i>a</i>) mentions sculptures of human feet, various +animals, bear tracks, etc., in Enchanted mountain, Union county, Georgia. +The whole number of sculptures is reported as one hundred and +forty-six.</p> + +<p>Mr. Jones (<i>b</i>) gives a different résumé of the objects depicted, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Upon the Enchanted mountain, in Union county, cut in plutonic rock, are the tracks +of men, women, children, deer, bears, bisons, turkeys, and terrapins, and the outlines +of a snake, of two deer, and of a human hand. These sculptures—so far as they +have been ascertained and counted—number one hundred and thirty-six. The most +extravagant among them is that known as the footprint of the “Great Warrior.” +It measures 18 inches in length and has six toes. The other human tracks and those +of the animals are delineated with commendable fidelity.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page077" id="page077">[77]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>IDAHO.</h4> + +<p>Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has furnished a +small collection of drawings of Shoshonean petroglyphs from Oneida, +Idaho, shown in Fig. 39. Some of them appear to be totemic characters, +and possibly were made to record the names of visitors to the +locality.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"> +<a href="images/dp131_pg077h.png"> +<img src="images/dp131_pg077.png" class="hires" width="384" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—Petroglyphs in Idaho (Shoshonean).</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Willard D. Johnson, of the U. S. Geological Survey, reports +pictographic remains observed by him near Oneida, Idaho, in 1879. +The figures represent human beings and were on a rock of basalt.</p> + +<p>A copy of another petroglyph found in Idaho appears in Fig. <a href="#page680">1092</a>, +infra.</p> + + +<h4>ILLINOIS.</h4> + +<p>Petroglyphs are reported by Mr. John Criley as occurring near Ava, +Jackson county, Illinois. The outlines of the characters observed by +him were drawn from memory and submitted to Mr. Charles S. Mason, +of Toledo, Ohio, through whom they were furnished to the Bureau of +Ethnology. Little reliance can be placed upon the accuracy of such +drawing, but from the general appearance of the sketches the originals +of which they are copies were probably made by one of the middle Algonquian +tribes of Indians.</p> + +<p>The “Piasa” rock, as it is generally designated, was referred to by +the missionary explorer Marquette in 1675. Its situation was immediately +above the city of Alton, Illinois.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page078" id="page078">[78]</a></span></p> + +<p>Marquette’s remarks are translated by Dr. Francis Parkman (<i>a</i>) as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the flat face of a high rock were painted, in red, black, and green, a pair of +monsters, each “as large as a calf, with horns like a deer, red eyes, a beard like +a tiger, and a frightful expression of countenance. The face is something like that +of a man, the body covered with scales; and the tail so long that it passes entirely +round the body, over the head, and between the legs, ending like that of a fish.”</p></div> + +<p>Another version, by Davidson and Struvé (<i>a</i>), of the discovery of +the petroglyph is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Again they (Joliet and Marquette) were floating on the broad bosom of the unknown +stream. Passing the mouth of the Illinois, they soon fell into the shadow of +a tall promontory, and with great astonishment beheld the representation of two +monsters painted on its lofty limestone front. According to Marquette, each of these +frightful figures had the face of a man, the horns of a deer, the beard of a tiger, and +the tail of a fish so long that it passed around the body, over the head, and between +the legs. It was an object of Indian worship and greatly impressed the mind of the +pious missionary with the necessity of substituting for this monstrous idolatry the +worship of the true God.</p></div> + +<p>A footnote connected with the foregoing quotation gives the following +description of the same rock:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Near the mouth of the Piasa creek, on the bluff, there is a smooth rock in a cavernous +cleft, under an overhanging cliff, on whose face, 50 feet from the base, are +painted some ancient pictures or hieroglyphics, of great interest to the curious. +They are placed in a horizontal line from east to west, representing men, plants, and +animals. The paintings, though protected from dampness and storms, are in great +part destroyed, marred by portions of the rock becoming detached and falling down.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. McAdams (<i>a</i>), of Alton, Illinois, says “The name Piasa is Indian +and signifies, in the Illini, ‘The bird which devours men.’” He furnishes +a spirited pen-and-ink sketch, 12 by 15 inches in size and purporting +to represent the ancient painting described by Marquette. On +the picture is inscribed the following in ink: “Made by Wm. Dennis, +April 3d, 1825.” The date is in both letters and figures. On the top +of the picture in large letters are the two words, “FLYING DRAGON.” +This picture, which has been kept in the old Gilham family of Madison +county and bears the evidence of its age, is reproduced as Fig. 40.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/dp132_pg078h.png"> +<img src="images/dp132_pg078.png" class="hires" width="400" height="238" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—The Piasa petroglyph.</div> +</div> + +<p>He also publishes another representation (Fig. 41) with the following +remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>One of the most satisfactory pictures of the Piasa we have ever seen is in an old +German publication entitled “The Valley of the Mississippi Illustrated. Eighty<span class="pagenum"><a name="page079" id="page079">[79]</a></span> +illustrations from nature, by H. Lewis, from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf of +Mexico,” published about the year 1839 by Arenz & Co., Düsseldorf, Germany. One +of the large full-page plates in this work gives a fine view of the bluff at Alton, with +the figure of the Piasa on the face of the rock. It is represented to have been taken +on the spot by artists from Germany. We reproduce that part of the bluff (the +whole picture being too large for this work) which shows the pictographs. In the +German picture there is shown just behind the rather dim outlines of the second +face a ragged crevice, as though of a fracture. Part of the bluff’s face might have +fallen and thus nearly destroyed one of the monsters, for in later years writers +speak of but one figure. The whole face of the bluff was quarried away in 1846-’47.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;"> +<img src="images/dp133_pg079a.png" width="296" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—The Piasa petroglyph.</div> +</div> + +<p>Under Myths and Mythic Animals, Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>, Section <a href="#page468">2</a>, are illustrations +and descriptions which should be compared with these accounts, +and Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page759">XXII</a></span> gives other examples of errors and discrepancies in +the description and copying of petroglyphs.</p> + +<p>Mr. A. D. Jones (<i>a</i>) says of the same petroglyph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>After the distribution of firearms among the Indians, bullets were substituted for +arrows, and even to this day no savage presumes to pass the spot without discharging +his rifle and raising his shout of triumph. I visited the spot in June (1838) and +examined the image and the ten thousand bullet marks on the cliff seemed to corroborate +the tradition related to me in the neighborhood.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. McAdams, loc. cit., also reports regarding Fig. 42:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp133_pg079bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp133_pg079b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="264" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Petroglyph on the Illinois river.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some twenty-five or thirty miles above the mouth of the Illinois river, on the west +bank of that stream, high up on the smooth face of an overhanging cliff, is another +interesting pictograph sculptured deeply in the hard rock. It remains to-day probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="page080" id="page080">[80]</a></span> +in nearly the same condition it was when the French voyagers first descended +the river and got their first view of the Mississippi. The animal-like body, with the +human head, is carved in the rock in outline. The huge eyes are depressions like +saucers, an inch or more in depth, and the outline of the body has been scooped out +in the same way; also the mouth.</p> + +<p>The figure of the archer with the drawn bow, however, is painted, or rather +stained with a reddish brown pigment, over the sculptured outline of the monster’s +face.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. McAdams suggests that the painted figure of the human form +with the bow and arrows was made later than the sculpture.</p> + +<p>The same author (<i>b</i>) says, describing Fig. 43:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp134_pg080h.png"> +<img src="images/dp134_pg080.png" class="hires" width="500" height="78" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Petroglyph near Alton, Illinois.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some 3 or 4 miles above Alton, high up beneath the overhanging cliff, which forms +a sort of cave shelter on the smooth face of a thick ledge of rock, is a series of paintings, +twelve in number. They are painted or rather stained in the rock with a +reddish brown pigment that seems to defy the tooth of time. It may be said, +however, that their position is so sheltered that they remain almost perfectly dry. +We made sketches of them some thirty years ago and on a recent visit could see that +they had changed but little, although their appearance denotes great age.</p> + +<p>These pictographs are situated on the cliff more than a hundred feet above the +river. A protruding ledge, which is easily reached from a hollow in the bluff, leads +to the cavernous place in the rock.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. James D. Middleton, formerly of the Bureau of Ethnology, +mentions the occurrence of petroglyphs on the bluffs of the Mississippi +river, in Jackson county, about 12 miles below Rockwood. Also of +others about 4 or 5 miles from Prairie du Rocher, near the Mississippi +river.</p> + + +<h4>IOWA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. P. W. Norris, of the Bureau of Ethnology, found numerous caves +on the banks of the Mississippi river, in northeastern Iowa, 4 miles +south of New Albion, containing incised petroglyphs. Fifteen miles +south of this locality paintings occur on the cliffs. He also discovered +painted characters upon the cliffs on the Mississippi river, 19 miles below +New Albion.</p> + + +<h4>KANSAS.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Edward Miller reports in Proceedings of the American Philosophical +Society, vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, 1869, p. 383, the discovery of a petroglyph near +the line of the Union Pacific railroad, 15 miles southeast of Fort Harker, +formerly known as Fort Ellsworth, Kansas. The petroglyph is upon +a formation belonging to No. 1, Lower Cretaceous group, according to +the classification of Meek and Hayden.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page081" id="page081">[81]</a></span></p> + +<p>The parts of the two plates <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span> of the work cited, which bear +the inscriptions, are now presented as Fig. 44, being from two views of +the same rock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp135_pg081h.png"> +<img src="images/dp135_pg081.png" class="hires" width="500" height="192" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—Petroglyphs in Kansas.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>KENTUCKY.</h4> + +<p>Mr. James D. Middleton, formerly of the Bureau of Ethnology, in +a letter dated August 14, 1886, reports that at a point in Union +county, Kentucky, nearly opposite Shawneetown, Illinois, petroglyphs +are found, and from the description given by him they appear to resemble +those in Jackson county, Illinois, mentioned above.</p> + +<p>Mr. W. E. Barton, of Wellington, Ohio, in a communication dated +October 4, 1890, writes as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At Clover Bottom, Kentucky, on a spur of the Big Hill, in Jackson county, about +13 miles from Berea, is a large rock which old settlers say was covered with soil and +vegetation within their memory. Upon it are representations of human tracks, with +what appear to be those of a bear, a horse, and a dog. These are all in the same +direction, as though a man leading a horse, followed the dog upon the bear’s track. +Crossing these is a series of tracks of another and larger sort which I can not attempt +to identify. The stone is a sandstone in the subcarboniferous. As I remember, the +strata are nearly horizontal, but erosion has made the surface a slope of about 20°. +The tracks ascending the slope cross the strata. I have not seen them for some years.</p> + +<p>The crossing of the strata shows that the tracks are the work of human hands, if +indeed it were not preposterous to think of anything else in rocks of that period. +Still the tracks are so well made that one is tempted to ask if they can be real. +They alternate right and left, though the erosion and travel have worn out some of +the left tracks. A wagon road passes over the rock and was the cause of the present +exposure of the stone. It can be readily found a fourth of a mile or less from the +Pine Grove schoolhouse.</p></div> + + +<h4>MAINE.</h4> + +<p>A number of inscribed rocks have been found in Maine and information +of others has been obtained. The most interesting of them and +the largest group series yet discovered in New England is shown in +Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp137c_pg082p3h.png"> +<img src="images/dp137c_pg082p3.png" class="hires" width="500" height="245" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XII<br />PETROGLYPHS IN MAINE.</div> +</div> + +<p>The rock upon which the glyphs appear is in the town of Machiasport, +Maine, at Clarks point, on the northwestern side of Machias bay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page082" id="page082">[82]</a></span> +2 miles below the mouth of Machias river. The rock or ledge is about +50 feet long from east to west and about fifteen feet in width, nearly +horizontal for two-thirds its length, from the bank or western end at +high water, thence inclining at an angle of 15° to low-water mark. Its +southern face is inclined about 40°. The formation is schistose slate, +having a transverse vein of trap dike extending nearly across its section. +Nearly the entire ledge is of blue-black color, very dense and +hard except at the upper or western end, where the periodical formation +of ice has scaled off thin layers of surface and destroyed many +figures which are remembered by persons now living. The ebb and +flow of tides, the abrasion of moving beach stones or pebble wash and +of ice-worn bowlders, have also effaced many figures along the southern +side, until now but one or two indentations are discernible. Visitors, in +seeking to remove some portion of the rock as a curiosity or in striving +to perpetuate their initials, have obscured several of the most interesting, +and until recently the best defined figures. It was also evident to +the present writer, who carefully examined the rock in 1888, that it lay +much deeper in the water than once had been the case. At the lowest +tides there were markings seen still lower, which could not readily have +been made if that part of the surface had not been continuously exposed. +The depression of a rock of such great size, which was so +gradual that it had not been observed by the inhabitants of the neighboring +settlement, is an evidence of the antiquity of the peckings.</p> + +<p>The intaglio carving of all the figures was apparently made by +repeated blows of a pointed instrument—doubtless of hard stone; not +held as a chisel, but working by a repetition of hammerings or peckings. +The deepest now seen is about three-eighths of an inch. +The amount of patient labor bestowed upon these figures must have +been great, considering the hardness of the rock and the rude implement +with which they were wrought.</p> + +<p>There is no extrinsic evidence of their age. The place was known +to traders early in the seventeenth century, and much earlier was +visited by Basque fishermen, and perhaps by the unfortunate Cortereals +in 1500 and 1503. The descendants of the Mechises Indians, a tribal +branch of the Abnaki, who once occupied the territory between the St. +Croix and Narraguagus rivers, when questioned many years ago, would +reply in substance that “all their old men knew of them,” either by +having seen them or by traditions handed down through many generations.</p> + +<p>Several years ago Mr. H. R. Taylor, of Machias, who made the original +sketch in 1868 and kindly furnished it to the Bureau of Ethnology, +applied to a resident Indian there (Peter Benoit, then nearly 80 +years old) for assistance in deciphering the characters. He gave little +information, but pointed out that the figures must not all be read “from +one side only,” thus, the one near the center of the sketch, which seen +from the south was without significance, became from the opposite<span class="pagenum"><a name="page083" id="page083">[83]</a></span> +point a squaw with sea fowl on her head, denoting, as he said, “that +squaw had smashed canoe, saved beaver-skin, walked one-half moon +all alone toward east, just same as heron wading alongshore.” Also +that the three lines below the figure mentioned, which together resemble +a bird track or a trident, represent the three rivers, the East, +West, and Middle rivers of Machias, which join not far above the +locality. The mark having a rough resemblance to a feather, next on +the right of this river-sign, is a fissure in the rock. Most of the figures +of human beings and other animals are easily recognizable.</p> + +<p>Peckings of a character similar to those on the Picture rock at +Clarks point, above described, were found and copied 600 feet south of +it at high-water mark on a rock near Birch point. Others were discovered +and traced on a rock on Hog island, in Holmes bay, a part of +Machias bay. All these petroglyphs were without doubt of Abnaki +origin, either of the Penobscot or the Passamaquoddy divisions of that +body of Indians. The rocks lay on the common line of water communication +between those divisions and were convenient as halting +places.</p> + + +<h4>MARYLAND.</h4> + +<p>In the Susquehanna river, about half a mile south of the state line, +is a group of rocks, several of the most conspicuous being designated +as the “Bald Friars.” Near by are several mound-shaped bowlders +of the so-called “nigger-head” rock, which is reported as a dark-greenish +chlorite schist. Upon the several bowlders are deep sculpturings, +apparently finished by rubbing the depression with stone, or +wood and sand, thus leaving sharp and distinct edges to the outlines. +Some of these figures are an inch in depth, though the greater number +are becoming more and more eroded by the frequent freshets, and by +the running ice during the breaking up in early spring of the frozen +river.</p> + +<p>The following account is given by Prof. P. Frazer (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Passing the Pennsylvania state line one reaches the southern barren serpentine +rocks, which are in general tolerably level for a considerable distance.</p> + +<p>About 700 yards, or 640 meters, south of the line, on the river shore, are rocks which +have been named the Bald Friars. French’s tavern is here, at the mouth of a small +stream which empties into the Susquehanna. About 874 yards (800 meters) south +of this tavern are a number of islands which have local names, but which are curious +as containing inscriptions of the aborigines.</p> + +<p>The material of which most of these islands are composed is chlorite schist, but +as this rock is almost always distinguished by the quartz veins which intersect it, +so in this case some of the islands are composed of this material almost exclusively, +which gives them a very striking white appearance.</p> + +<p>One of these, containing the principal inscriptions, is called Miles island.</p> + +<p>The figures, which covered every part of the rocks that were exposed, were apparently +of historical or at least narrative purport, since they seemed to be connected. +Doubtless the larger portion of the inscription has been carried away by +the successive vicissitudes which have broken up and defaced, and in some instances +obliterated, parts of which we find evidence of the previous existence on the islands.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page084" id="page084">[84]</a></span></p> + +<p>Every large bowlder seems to contain some traces of previous inscription, and in +many instances the pictured side of the bowlder is on its under side, showing that +it has been detached from its original place. The natural agencies are quite sufficient +to account for any amount of this kind of displacement, for the rocks in their +present condition are not refractory and offer no great resistance to the wear of +weather and ice; but in addition to this must be added human agencies.</p> + +<p>Amongst other things, they represent the conventional Indian serpent’s head, with +varying numbers of lines.</p> + +<p>Some of the signs next frequently recurring were concentric circles, in some cases +four and in other cases a lesser number.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp139_pg084h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp139_pg084.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="417" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Bald Friar rock, Maryland.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 45 is a reproduction of Prof. Frazer’s illustration.</p> + +<p>This region was also referred to by Dr. Charles Rau (<i>a</i>), his cut +from the specimen in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution +(Mus. No. 39010) being here reproduced as Fig. 46.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;"> +<a href="images/dp140_pg085ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp140_pg085a.jpg" class="hires" width="273" height="401" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Slab from Bald Friar rock, Maryland.</div> +</div> + +<p>During the autumn of the years 1888 and 1889 Dr. Hoffman visited +these rocks, securing sketches and measurements, the former of which +are reproduced in Figs. 47 and 48. The figures are deeply cut, as if +rubbed down with sand and a round stick of green wood. The deepest +channels, varying from three-fourths to 1¼ inches across and almost as +deep as they are wide, appear as if cut out with a gouge, and for this +reason bear a strong resemblance to the petroglyphs in Owens valley, +California. In whatever manner these sculpturings were made, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page085" id="page085">[85]</a></span> +evident that much time and great labor were expended upon them, as +this variety of rock, locally termed “Nigger-head,” is extremely hard.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp140_pg085bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp140_pg085b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="367" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Top of Bald Friar rock, Maryland.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 45 represents a bird’s-eye +view of the top of the rock, bearing +the greater amount of workmanship. +The petroglyphs cover a surface +measuring about 5 feet by 4 feet 6 +inches. The extreme ends of the +figures extend beyond the irregular +horizontal surface and project over +the rounded edge of the rock, so +that the line, at the left-hand lower +part of the illustration, dips at an +angle of about 45°. The two short +lines at the extreme right are upon +the side of the upper edge of the +rock, where the surface inclines at +an angle of 30°.</p> + +<p>Some of the figures are indefinite, +which is readily accounted for by +the fact that the rock is in the river, +a considerable distance from shore, +and annually subjected to freshets +and to erosion by floating logs and drift material. The characters at +the right end of the upper row resemble those near Washington, Lancaster +county, Pennsylvania. (See Fig. <a href="#page109">73</a>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page086" id="page086">[86]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fig. 48 presents three characters, selected from other portions of the +rock, to illustrate the variety of designs found. They are like some +found at Owens valley, California, as will be observed by comparing +them with the descriptions and plates under that heading in this section. +The left-hand figure is 4 inches in diameter, the middle one 6 +inches wide and about 15 inches in height, and the third, or right-hand, +is composed of concentric rings, measuring about 10 inches across.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp141_pg086bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp141_pg086b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="116" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Characters from Bald Friar rock, Maryland.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>MASSACHUSETTS.</h4> + +<p>The following description of the much-discussed Dighton rock is +taken from Schoolcraft (<i>b</i>), where it is accompanied with a plate, now +reproduced as Fig. 49:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp141_pg086ch.png"> +<img src="images/dp141_pg086c.png" class="hires" width="500" height="157" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Dighton rock, Massachusetts.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The ancient inscription on a bowlder of greenstone rock lying in the margin of +the Assonet or Taunton river, in the area of ancient Vinland, was noticed by the +New England colonists so early as 1680, when Dr. Danforth made a drawing of it. +This outline, together with several subsequent copies of it, at different eras, reaching +to 1830, all differing considerably in their details, but preserving a certain general +resemblance, is presented in the Antiquatés Americanes [<i>sic</i>] (Tables XI, XII), +and referred to the same era of Scandinavian discovery. The imperfections of the +drawings (including that executed under the auspices of the Rhode Island Historical +Society in 1839, Table XII), and the recognition of some characters bearing more or +less resemblance to antique Roman letters and figures, may be considered to have +misled Mr. Magnusen in his interpretation of it. From whatever cause, nothing +could, it would seem, have been wider from the purport and true interpretation of +it. It is of purely Indian origin, and is executed in the peculiar symbolic character +of the Kekeewin.</p></div> + +<p>A number of copies of the inscriptions on this rock, taken at different +times by different persons, are given below in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span>, sec. <a href="#page762">2</a>, +with remarks upon them.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman visited the locality in 1886, and found that the surface +was becoming rapidly destroyed from the frequent use of scrubbing +with broom and water to remove the film of sand and dirt which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page087" id="page087">[87]</a></span> +daily deposited by every tide, the rock being situated at a short distance +inshore. Visitors are frequent, and the guide or ferryman does +not interfere with them so long as he can show his passengers the +famous inscription.</p> + +<p>The resemblance between the characters on this rock and those found +in western Pennsylvania, near Millsboro, Fig. <a href="#page111">75</a>, and south of Franklin, +on the “Indian God rock,” Fig. 74, will be noted.</p> + +<p>In Rafn’s Antiq. Amer. (<i>b</i>) is the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A large stone, on which is a line of considerable length in unknown characters, +has been recently found in Rutland, Worcester county, Massachusetts; they are +regularly placed, and the strokes are filled with a black composition nearly as hard +as the rock itself. The Committee also adds that a similar rock is to be found in +Swanzy, county of Bristol and Commonwealth of Massachusetts, perhaps ten miles +from the Dighton Rock.</p></div> + + +<h4>MINNESOTA.</h4> + +<p>The late Mr. P. W. Norris, who was connected with the Bureau of +Ethnology, reported large numbers of pecked totemic characters on the +horizontal faces of the ledges of rock at Pipestone quarry in Minnesota, +and presented some imitations of the peckings. There is a tradition +that it was formerly the custom for each Indian who gathered stone +(catlinite) for pipes, to inscribe his totem (whether clan or tribal or +personal totem is not specified) upon the rock before venturing to +quarry upon this ground. Some of the cliffs in the immediate vicinity +were of too hard a nature to admit of pecking or scratching, and upon +these the characters were placed in colors. Mr. Norris distinguished +bird tracks, the outline of a bird resembling a pelican, deer, turtle, a +circle with an interior cross, and a human figure.</p> + +<p>Examples of so-called totemic designs from this locality are given in +Fig. 50, which are reproduced from the work of R. Cronau (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<a href="images/dp143_pg088h.png"> +<img src="images/dp143_pg088.png" class="hires" width="331" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Petroglyphs at Pipestone, Minn.</div> +</div> + + +<p>The same petroglyphs and also others at the Pipestone quarry are +described and illustrated by Prof. N. H. Winchell (<i>a</i>). A part of his +remarks is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the glaciated surface of the quartzite about the “Three Maidens,” which is +kept clean by the rebound of the winds, are a great many rude inscriptions, which +were made by pecking out the rock with some sharp-pointed instrument or by the +use of other pieces of quartzite. They are of different sizes and dates, the latter +being evinced by their manner of crossing and interfering and by the evident difference +in the weight of the instruments used. They generally represent some animal, +such as the turtle, bear, wolf, buffalo, elk, and the human form. The “crane’s foot” +is the most common; next is the image of men; next the turtle. It would seem as if +any warrior or hunter who had been successful and happened to pass here left his +tribute of thanks to the great spirit in a rude representation of his game and perhaps +a figure of himself on the rocks about these bowlders, or perhaps had in a similar +way invoked the good offices of the spirits of his clan when about to enter on some +expedition. In some cases there is a connection of several figures by a continuous +line, chipped in the surface of the rock in such a manner as if some legend or adventure +were narrated, but for the most part the figures are isolated. This is the “sacred +ground” of the locality. Such markings can be seen at no other place, though there +is abundance of bare, smooth rock. (Similar inscriptions are found on the red<span class="pagenum"><a name="page088" id="page088">[88]</a></span> +quartzite in Cottonwood county). The excavation of the surface of the rock is very +slight, generally not exceeding a sixteenth of an inch, and sometimes only enough +to leave a tracing of the designed form. The hardness of the rock was a barrier to +deep sculpturing with the imperfect instruments of the aborigines; but it has effectually +preserved the rude forms that were made. The fine glacial scratches that are +abundantly scattered over this quartzite indicate the tenacity with which it retains +all such impressions, and will warrant the assignment of any date to these inscriptions +that may be called for within the human period. Yet it is probable that +they date back to no very great antiquity. They pertain, at least, to the dynasty +of the present Indian tribes. The totems of the turtle and the bear, which are +known to have been powerful among the clans of the native races in America at the +time of the earliest European knowledge of them, and which exist to this day, are +the most frequent objects represented. The “crane’s foot,” or “turkey foot,” or +“bird track,” terms which refer perhaps to the same totem sign—the snipe—is not +only common on these rocks, but is seen among the rock inscriptions of Ohio, and +was one of the totems of the Iroquois, of New York.</p></div> +<p>In June, 1892, Mr. W. H. Holmes, of the Bureau of Ethnology, visited +the Pipestone quarry and took a number of tracings of the petroglyphs, +which unfortunately were received too late for insertion in the present +work. Some of his remarks are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The trouble with the figures copied and published by Prof. Winchell is that they +are not arranged in the original order. It will now be impossible to correct this +entirely, as most of the stones have been taken up and removed. * * * The Winchell +drawings were evidently drawn by eye and have a very large personal equation; +besides, they are mixed up while appearing to be in some order. The few +groups that I was able to get are, it seems to me, of more interest than all the single +figures you could put in a book. There can be little doubt that in the main this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page089" id="page089">[89]</a></span> +great group of pictures was arranged in definite order, agreeing with the arrangements +of mythical personages and positions usual in the aboriginal ceremonials of +the region. It is a great pity that the original order has been destroyed, but the +inroads of relic hunters and inscription cranks made it necessary to take up the +stones. One large stone was taken to Minneapolis by Prof. Winchell. There are a +few pieces still in place. All were near the base of one of the great granite bowlders, +and it is said here that formerly, within the memory of the living, the place was +visited by Indians who wished to consult the gods.</p></div> + +<p>The following description is extracted from the account of Mr. James +W. Lynd (<i>b</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Numerous high bluffs and cliffs surround it; the Pipestone quarry and the alluvial +flat below these, in which the quarry is situated, contains a huge bowlder that rests +upon a flat rock of glistening, smooth appearance, the level of which is but a few +inches above the surface of the ground. Upon the portions of this rock not covered +by the bowlder above and upon bowlder itself are carved sundry wonderful figures—lizards, +snakes, otters, Indian gods, rabbits with cloven feet, muskrats with human +feet, and other strange and incomprehensible things—all cut into the solid granite, +and not without a great deal of time and labor expended in the performance. * * *</p> + +<p>A large party of Ehanktonwanna and Teetonwan Dakotas, says the legend, had +gathered together at the quarry to dig the stone. Upon a sultry evening, just before +sunset, the heavens suddenly became overclouded by a heavy rumbling thunder and +every sign of an approaching storm, such as frequently arises on the prairie without<span class="pagenum"><a name="page090" id="page090">[90]</a></span> +much warning. Each one hurried to his lodge, expecting a storm, when a vivid flash +of lightning, followed immediately by a crashing peal of thunder, broke over them, +and, looking towards the huge bowlder beyond their camp, they saw a pillar or +column of smoke standing upon it, which moved to and fro, and gradually settled +down into the outline of a huge giant, seated upon the bowlder, with one long arm +extended to heaven and the other pointing down to his feet. Peal after peal of +thunder, and flashes of lightning in quick succession followed, and this figure then +suddenly disappeared. The next morning the Sioux went to this bowlder and found +these figures and images upon it, where before there had been nothing, and ever +since that the place has been regarded as wakan or sacred.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. T. H. Lewis (<i>b</i>) gives a description of Fig. 51.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> +<a href="images/dp144_pg089h.png"> +<img src="images/dp144_pg089.png" class="hires" width="377" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Petroglyphs in Brown’s valley, Minnesota.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This bowlder is in the edge of the public park, on the north end of the plateau at +Brown’s valley, Minnesota. The bowlder has a flat surface with a western exposure, +is irregular in outline, and is about 5 feet 8 inches in diameter, and firmly imbedded +in the terrace.</p> + +<p>The central figure, <i>a</i>, undoubtedly represents a man, although the form is somewhat +conventional; <i>b</i> represents a bird; <i>c</i> represents a tortoise; <i>d</i> is a cross and +circle combined, but the circle has a groove extending from it; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, and <i>g</i>, although +somewhat in the shape of crosses, probably represent bird tracks; <i>h</i> and <i>i</i> are nondescript +in character, although there must be some meaning attached to them; <i>k</i> +and <i>l</i> are small dots or cups cut into the bowlder.</p> + +<p>The figures as illustrated are one-eighth of their natural size, and are also correct +in their relative positions one to the other. The work is neatly done although the +depth of the incisions is very slight.</p></div> + + +<h4>MONTANA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Charles Hallock, of Washington, D. C., reports the occurrence +of pictured rocks near Fort Assiniboin, Montana, but does not mention +whether they are colored or incised, and also fails to describe the general +type of the characters found.</p> + + +<h4>NEBRASKA.</h4> + +<p>The following (condensed) description of petroglyphs found in Dakota +county, Nebraska, is furnished by Mr. J. H. Quick, of Sioux City, Iowa:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The petroglyphs are found upon the face of a sandstone cliff in a deep ravine at a +point where two watercourses (dry for the most part), meet about 20 miles south of +Sioux City, Iowa, but in Dakota county, in the State of Nebraska. At this point the +range of bluffs which bounds the Missouri river bottom is deeply cut through by the +above-mentioned ravine, which runs in a northerly direction towards the Missouri. +Another ravine coming from the southwest leaves this narrow point of land between +the two ravines, rising to a height of 50 to 75 feet above the bottom of the ravines. +For some distance from the point this cape, if I may so term it, shows ledges of +sandstone cropping out on both sides. And exactly at the point and for some rods +back on the east side are found the pictographs under consideration.</p> + +<p>The rocks are of two kinds, a few feet of hard jasperous sandstone superimposed +on about the same thickness of sandstone so soft that it can be crumbled to pieces in the +fingers. The lower soft strata have been worn away, leaving the upper harder layers +jutting out to a distance of several feet over and completely sheltering them. And +on the smooth surface of these lower soft strata, protected by the overhanging ledge +above, shut in by bluffs 200 feet high on the east and sheltered from the winds by +dense underwood and scrubby forest trees, are carved these pictographs. These +safeguards, combined with the advantage of a very secluded situation, have combined +to preserve them, very little marred by careless and mischievous hands.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page091" id="page091">[91]</a></span></p> + +<p>The eagle or “thunder-bird” figures are quite numerous. There are also many of +the “buffalo track” and of the “turkey track” figures. I call them “turkey tracks” +because they all show a spur and seem to represent some of the large <i>gallinaciæ</i>.</p> + +<p>In one of the groups, which I will call the “bear-fight group,” we are at a loss to +determine whether the figure of the small animal was a part of the original design +or a subsequent interpolation. It seemed genuine, but was not so deeply carved as +the other figures. The same may be said of the diagonal bars across the figure of +the bear.</p> + +<p>In the other group, which I will term the “turkey-track group,” there are some +figures of which we could not even imagine the meaning. But they are undoubtedly +genuine, and seem to belong to the same design as the other figure.</p> + +<p>The “bear-track” figures are very numerous and of several different sizes. A cat-like +figure, which we call a panther, shows faintly. It is about effaced by time. +Other figures reminded us of a crab or crawfish, but we were unable to determine +whether the line running back just below belongs to it or not.</p> + +<p>I am informed by the same gentleman who saw these petroglyphs in 1857 that there +were at one time many more some 3 or 4 miles from this place, near Homer, Nebraska, +in the vicinity of a large spring, but he also said that as it is a favorite picnic +ground for the country people the carvings are probably destroyed. I presume +others may be found in these bluffs.</p> + +<p>I surmise that the almost cave-like nature of the place where the carvings I have +above attempted to describe are situated rendered it a favorite camping ground and +resting place; and also that the ravines above mentioned made easy trails from the +Missouri bottom up to the higher grounds farther from the river, because it obviated +the ascent of the very steep bluffs.</p> + +<p>The Winnebago Indian reservation is a few miles south of this locality, but they +were placed here by the Government as late as from 1860 to 1865. Previous to that +time I think this ground was occupied by the Omahas. I have been unable to gain +any information as to the Indians who carved these figures or as to their meaning.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp147_pg090ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp147_pg090p.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="359" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XIII<br />PETROGLYPHS IN NEBRASKA.</div> +</div> + +<p>The most instructive of the petroglyphs, copies of which are kindly +furnished by Mr. Quick, is presented as Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, and selected sketches +from that and the other petroglyphs copied are shown as Figs. 52 and 53.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp148_pg091h.png"> +<img src="images/dp148_pg091.png" class="hires" width="500" height="357" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Characters from Nebraska petroglyphs.</div> +</div> + +<p>Frank La Flèche, of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, in February, 1886, +communicated the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ingna<sup>n</sup>χe gikáχa-ina is the Omaha name of a rock ledge on the banks of the Missouri +river, near the Santee agency, Nebraska. This ledge contains pictographs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page092" id="page092">[92]</a></span> +men who passed to the happy hunting grounds, of life size, the sandstone being so +soft that the engravings would be made with a piece of wood. They are represented +with the special cause (arrow, gun, etc.), which sped them to hades. The souls +themselves are said to make these pictographs before repairing “to the spirits.”</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp149_pg092ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp149_pg092a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="371" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Characters from Nebraska petroglyphs.</div> +</div> + +<p>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, of the Bureau of Ethnology, says that the +probable rendering of the term when corrected is, “Spirit(s) they-made-themselves +the (place where).”</p> + + +<h4>NEVADA.</h4> + +<p>Petroglyphs have been found by members of the U. S. Geological +Survey at the lower extremity of Pyramid lake, Nevada, though no accurate +reproductions are available. These characters are mentioned as +incised upon the surface of basalt rocks.</p> + +<p>Petroglyphs also occur in considerable numbers on the western slope +of Lone Butte, in the Carson desert. All of these appear to have been +produced on the faces of bowlders and rocks by pecking and scratching +with some hard mineral material like quartz.</p> + +<p>A communication from Mr. R. L. Fulton, of Reno, Nevada, tells that +the drawing now reproduced as Fig. 54 is a pencil sketch of curious +petroglyphs on a rock on the Carson river, about 8 miles below old<span class="pagenum"><a name="page093" id="page093">[93]</a></span> +Fort Churchill. It is the largest and most important one of a group +of similar characters. It is basaltic, about 4 feet high and equally +broad.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp149_pg092bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp149_pg092b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="348" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Petroglyphs on Carson river, Nevada.</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Fulton gives the following description:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The rock spoken of has an oblong hole about 2 inches by 4 and 16 inches deep at +the left end, which has been chipped out before the lines were drawn, if it was not +some form of the ancient mill which is so common, as it seems to be the starting +point for the whole scheme of the artist. The rock lies with a broad, smooth top +face at an angle towards the south, and its top and southeast side are covered with +lines and marks that convey to the present generation no intelligence whatever, so +far as I can learn.</p> + +<p>A line half an inch wide starts at the hole on the left and sweeping downward +forms a sort of border for the work until it reaches midway of the rock, when it suddenly +turns up and mingles with the hieroglyphics above. Two or three similar lines cross +at the top of the stone, and one runs across and turns along the north side, losing +itself in a coating of moss that seems as hard and dry and old as the stone itself. +From the line at the bottom a few scallopy looking marks hang that may be a part +of the picture, or it may be a fringe or ornament. The figures are not pictures of +any animal, bird, or reptile, but seem to be made up of all known forms and are +connected by wavy, snake-like lines. Something which might be taken for a dog +with a round and characterless head at each end of the body, looking towards you, +occupies a place near the lower line. The features are all plain enough. A deer’s +head is joined to a patchwork that has something that might be taken for 4 legs +beneath it. Bird’s claws show up in two or three places, but no bird is near them. +Snaky figures run promiscuously through the whole thing. A circle at the right +end has spokes joining at the center which run out and lose themselves in the maze +outside.</p> + +<p>The best known and largest collection of marks that I know of covers a large +smooth ledge at Hopkins Soda Springs, 12 miles south of the summit on the Central +Pacific railroad. The rock is much the same in character as those I have described, +but the groundwork in this case is a solid ledge 10 feet one way and perhaps 40 the +other, all closely covered with rude characters, many of which seem to point to +human figures, animals, reptiles, etc. The ledge lies at an angle of 45°, and +must have been a tempting place for a lazy artist who chanced that way.</p> + +<p>Many other places on the Truckee river have such rocks all very much alike, and +yet each bearing its own distinct features in the marking. Near a rock half a mile +east of Verdi, a station on the Central Pacific railroad, 10 miles east of Reno, lie +two others, the larger of which has lines originating in a hole at the upper right-hand +corner, all running in tangents and angles, making a double-ended kind of an +arrangement of many-headed arrows, pointing three ways. A snail-like scroll lies +between the two arms, but does not touch them. Below are blotches, as if the artist +had tried his tools.</p> + +<p>This region has been roamed over by the Washoe Indians from a remote period, +but none of them know anything of these works. One who has gray hair and more +wrinkles than hairs, who is bent with age and who is said to be a hundred years +old, was led to the spot. He said he saw them a heap long time ago, when he was +only a few summers old, and they looked then just as they do now.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lovejoy, a well-known newspaper man, took up, in 1854, the ranche where +the rocks lie, and said just before his death that they were in exactly the same condition +when he first saw them as they are to-day. Others say the same, and they +are certainly of a date prior to the settlement of this coast by Americans and probably +by the Spanish.</p> + +<p>They are very peculiar in many respects, and the rock is wonderfully adapted to +the uses to which it has been put. Wherever the surface has been broken the color<span class="pagenum"><a name="page094" id="page094">[94]</a></span> +has changed to gray, and no amount of wear or weather seems to turn it back. The +indentation is so shallow as to be imperceptible to sight or touch, and yet the marks +are as plain as they could be made, and can be seen as far as the rock can be distinguished +from its fellows.</p> + +<p>It is hardly likely that the work was done without some motive besides the simple +love of doing it, and it was well and carefully done, too, showing much patience and +doubtless consumed a good deal of time, as the tools were poor.</p> + +<p>A large ledge is marked near Meadow lake in Nevada county, and in the state of +Nevada the petroglyphs cover a route extending from the southeast to the northwest +corner of the state, crossing the line into California in Modoc county, and leaving +a string of samples clear across the Madeline plains.</p> + +<p>Eight miles below Belmont, in Nye county, Nevada, an immense rock which at +some time has fallen into the canyon from the porphyry ledge above it has a patch +of marks nearly 20 feet square. It is so high that a man on horseback can not reach +the top.</p> + +<p>A number at Reveillé, in the same county, are also marked. On the road to Tybo +every large rock is marked, one of the figures being a semicircle with a short vertical +spoke within the curve. At Reno a heavy black rock a couple of feet across is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page095" id="page095">[95]</a></span> +beautifully engraved to represent a bull’s eye of 4 rings, an arrow with a very large +feather, and one which may mean a man. In a steep canyon 15 miles northeast of +Reno, in Spanish Spring mountains, several cliffs are well marked, and an exposed +ledge, where the Carson river has cut off the point of a hill below Big Bend, is +covered with rings and snakes by the hundred. Several triangles, a well-formed +square and compass, a woman with outstretched arms holding an olive branch, etc., +are there.</p> + +<p>Humboldt county has its share, the best being on a bluff below the old Sheba +mine. Ten miles south of Pioche are about 50 figures cut into the rock, many of +them designed to represent mountain sheep. Eighty miles farther south, near Kane’s +Spring, the most numerous and perfect specimens of this prehistoric art are found. +Men on horseback engaged in the pursuit of animals are among the most numerous, +best preserved, and carefully executed.</p> + +<p>The region I have gone over is of immense size, and must impress everyone with +the importance of a set of symbols which extends in broken lines from Arizona far +into Oregon.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 55 exhibits engravings at Reveillé, Nevada. Great numbers of +incised characters of various kinds are also reported from the walls of +rocks flanking Walker river, near Walker lake, Nevada. Waving +lines, rings, and what appear to be vegetable forms are of frequent +occurrence. The human form and footprints are also depicted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;"> +<a href="images/dp151_pg094h.png"> +<img src="images/dp151_pg094.png" class="hires" width="361" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Petroglyphs at Reveillé, Nevada.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 56 is a copy of a drawing made by Lieut. A. G. Tassin, Twelfth +U. S. Infantry, in 1877, of an ancient rock-carving at the base and in +the recesses of Dead mountain and the abode of dead bad Indians according +to the Mohave mythology. This drawing and its description is +from a manuscript report on the Mohave Indians, in the library of the +Bureau of Ethnology, prepared by Lieut. Tassin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp152_pg095h.png"> +<img src="images/dp152_pg095.png" class="hires" width="500" height="292" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Petroglyphs at Dead mountain, Nevada.</div> +</div> + +<p>He explains some of the characters as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Evidently the two different species of mesquite bean.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Would seem to refer to the bite of the cidatus, and to the use of a certain herb +for its cure.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Presumably the olla or water cooler of the Mohaves.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page096" id="page096">[96]</a></span></p> + +<p>The whole of this series of petroglyphs is regarded as being Shinumo +or Moki. They show a general resemblance to drawings in Arizona, +known to have been made by the Moki Indians. The locality is within +the territory of the Shoshonean linguistic division, and the drawings +are in all probability the work of one or more of the numerous tribes +comprised within that division.</p> + + +<h4>NEW MEXICO.</h4> + +<p>On the north wall of Canyon de Chelly, one-fourth of a mile east of +its mouth, are several groups of petroglyphs, consisting chiefly of various +grotesque forms of the human figure, and also numbers of animals, +circles, etc. A few of them are painted black, the greater portion consisting +of rather shallow lines, which are in some places considerably +weathered. Further up the canyon, in the vicinity of the cliff dwellings, +are numerous small groups of pictographic characters, consisting +of men and animals, waving or zigzag lines, and other odd figures.</p> + +<p>Lieut. James H. Simpson (<i>a</i>), in his Journal of a Military Reconnoissance, +etc., presents a number of plates bearing copies of inscriptions +on rocks in the northwestern part of New Mexico, among which are +those on the so-called “Inscription rock” at El Moro, here reproduced +as Fig. 57. The petroglyphs are selected from the south face of the +rock. Lieut. Simpson states that most of the characters are no higher +than a man’s head, and that some of them are undoubtedly of Indian +origin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp153_pg096h.png"> +<img src="images/dp153_pg096.png" class="hires" width="500" height="184" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Inscription rock, New Mexico.</div> +</div> + +<p>Among the many colored etchings and paintings on rock discovered +by the Pacific railroad expedition in 1853-’54, Lieut. Whipple (<i>c</i>) notes +those at Rocky dell creek, New Mexico, which were found between the +edge of the Llano Estacado and the Canadian river. The stream flows +through a gorge, upon one side of which a shelving sandstone rock +forms a sort of cave. The roof is covered with paintings, some evidently +ancient, and beneath are innumerable carvings of footprints, +animals, and symmetrical lines. He also remarks (<i>d</i>) that figures cut +upon a rock at Arch spring, near Zuñi, present some faint similarity +to those at Rocky dell creek.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page097" id="page097">[97]</a></span></p> + +<p>Near Ojo Pescado, in the vicinity of the ruins, are petroglyphs, also +reported by Lieut. Whipple (<i>d</i>), which are very much weather-worn +and have “no trace of a modern hand about them.”</p> + +<p>Mr. Edwin A. Hill, of Indianapolis, in a letter, notes petroglyphs on +the Denver and Rio Grande railroad, between Antonite and Espanola. +Below Tres Piedras and near Espanola are rude sculptures, lining the +valley on both sides of the road for a long distance, at least several +miles. The canyon has a slope of about 45° and contains many +bowlders, and on every available face pictographs are cut. Figures of +arrows, hatchets, circles, triangles, bows, spears, turtles, etc., are outlined +as if with some cutting-tool. The country had two years before +been occupied by Apaches, but far greater age is attributed to the +petroglyphs.</p> + +<p>Other petroglyphs actually within the geographical area of New +Mexico are so near the border that they are treated of in connection +with those of Colorado.</p> + +<p>Prof. E. D. Cope (<i>a</i>) gives a copy of figures which he found on the +side of a ravine near Abiquiu, on the river Chama. They are cut in +Jurassic sandstone of medium hardness, and are quite worn and overgrown +with the small lichen which is abundant on the face of the rock.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gilbert Thompson, of the U. S. Geological Survey, reports his +observation of petroglyphs at San Antonio springs, 30 miles east of +Fort Wingate, New Mexico. The human figure, in various forms, occurs, +as well as numerous other characters, strikingly similar to those frequent +in the country farther west occupied by the Moki Indians. The +peculiarity of these figures is that the outlines are incised and that +the depressions thus formed are filled with red, blue or white pigments. +The interior of the figures is simply painted with one or more +of the same colors.</p> + +<p>Figs. 58 and 59 are reproductions of drawings of petroglyphs from +Ojo de Benado, south of Zuñi, New Mexico. The manuscripts which +once accompanied them, and which were forwarded to the Bureau of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page098" id="page098">[98]</a></span> +Ethnology in the usual official manner, have become separated from the +sketches, and on those there are no indications of the collectors’ names.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp154_pg097h.png"> +<img src="images/dp154_pg097.png" class="hires" width="500" height="317" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Petroglyphs at Ojo de Benado, New Mexico.</div> +</div> + +<p>The characters are very like others from several localities in the territory +and in the adjacent region. The type is that of the Pueblos generally.</p> + +<p>Mr. Bandelier, in conversation, reported having seen and sketched a +petroglyph at Nambe, in a canyon about 2 miles east of the pueblo, +also another at Cueva Pintada, about 17 miles by the trail northwest +of Cochiti.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp155_pg098ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp155_pg098a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="128" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Petroglyphs at Ojo de Benado, New Mexico.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>NEW YORK.</h4> + +<p>The following is extracted from Schoolcraft (<i>c</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There is a pictographic Indian inscription [now obliterated] in the valley of the +Hudson, above the Highlands, which from its antiquity and character appears to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page099" id="page099">[99]</a></span> +denote the era of the introduction of firearms and gunpowder among the aboriginal +tribes of that valley. This era, from the well-known historical events of the contemporaneous +settlement of New Netherlands and New France, may be with general +accuracy placed between the years 1609, the date of Hudson’s ascent of that stream +above the Highlands, and the opening of the Indian trade with the Iroquois at the +present site of Albany, by the erection of Fort Orange, in 1614. * * *</p> + +<p>In a map published at Amsterdam, in Holland, in 1659, the country, for some distance +both above and below Esopus creek, is delineated as inhabited by the Waranawankongs, +who were a totemic division or enlarged family clan of the Mohikinder. +They spoke a well-characterized dialect of the Mohigan, and have left numerous +geographical names on the streams and physical peculiarities of that part of the +river coast quite to and above Coxsackie. The language is Algonquin.</p> + +<p>Esopus itself appears to be a word derived from Seepu, the Minsi-Algonquin name +for a river.</p> + +<p>* * * The inscription may be supposed, if the era is properly conjectured, to +have been made with metallic tools. The lines are deeply and plainly impressed. +It is in double lines. The plumes from the head denote a chief or man skilled in the +Indian medico-magical art. The gun is held at rest in the right hand; the left appears +to support a wand. [The position of the arm may be merely a gesture.]</p></div> + +<p>The reproduction here as Fig. 60 is from a rock on the western bank of +the Hudson, at Esopus landing. It is presented mainly on account of +the frequent allusions to it in literature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;"> +<a href="images/dp155_pg098bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp155_pg098b.png" class="hires" width="277" height="501" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Petroglyph at Esopus, New York.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>NORTH CAROLINA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of Ethnology, reports petroglyphs +upon a gray gneissoid rock, a short distance east of Caney river, on the +north side of the road from Asheville to Burnsville, North Carolina. The +face of the surface is at an angle of 30° toward the south, and the +sculptured area covers about 10 feet square. The characters consist +chiefly of cup-shaped depressions, some about 2 inches deep, some being +also connected. There are a few markings which appear to have been +intended to represent footprints. The characters resemble, to some +extent, those at Trap Rock gap, Georgia, and at the Juttaculla rock, +North Carolina, on a branch of the Tuckasegee river, above Webster.</p> + +<p>The above-described sculptured rock is on the property of Ellis Gardner, +and is known as Gardner’s, or the “Garden rock.”</p> + +<p>Mr. Mooney also reports that at Webster, North Carolina, there is +one large rock bearing numerous petroglyphs, rings, cup-shaped depressions, +fish-bone patterns, etc. He further states, upon the authority +of Dr. J. M. Spainhour, of Lenoir, that upon a light gray rock measuring +4 feet by 30 are numerous cup-shaped petroglyphs, he having +counted 215. The rock is on the Yadkin river, 4 miles below Wilkesboro, +and is at times partly under water.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman, who in 1886 visited western North Carolina, gives the +following account of colored pictographs found there by him.</p> + +<p>“The locality known as ‘Paint rock’ is situated on the east or right +bank of the French Broad river, about 100 yards above the Tennessee +and North Carolina state line. The limestone cliff, which terminates +abruptly near the river, measures about 100 feet in height and covers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100">[100]</a></span> +an area from side to side of exposure of at least 100 yards. The accompanying +view (Fig. 61), taken from across the river, presents the wall +of limestone rock and the position of the petroglyph, which is delineated +in proper proportion nearly in the center of the illustration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp157_pg100ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp157_pg100a.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="262" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Paint rock, North Carolina.</div> +</div> + +<p>“The property belongs to Mr. J. W. Chockley, who has been living in +the vicinity for about fifteen years. He states that during this time +the pictograph has undergone some change on account of gradual disintegration +or fracture of the rock. The first knowledge of the pictograph, +according to local tradition, dates back about sixty years, and +no information as to its import could be learned, either from the white +residents, who are few in number, or the straggling Cherokee Indians +who visit the railway station at odd intervals.”</p> + +<p>The pictograph is peculiar in design, no animal forms being apparent +but an indefinite number of short, straight lines at right angles to one +another, as shown in Fig. 62. One-thirty-sixth actual size.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;"> +<img src="images/dp157_pg100b.png" width="537" height="499" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Petroglyphs on Paint rock, North Carolina.</div> +</div> + +<p>The characters are in dark red, probably a ferrous oxide, quantities +of which are found in the neighborhood. The color appears to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101">[101]</a></span> +penetrated the softer portions of the limestone, though upon the harder +surfaces it has been removed by exposure to the elements. The lowermost +figure appears to resemble a rude outline of a human form, with +one arm lowered and reaching forward, though this is only a suggestion.</p> + +<p>Upon the face of the rock, a few yards to the right of the above, are +indistinct outlines of circles, several of which indicate central spots, +and one, at least, has a line extending from the center downward for +about 8 inches.</p> + + +<h4>OHIO.</h4> + +<p>A large number of petroglyphs are reported from this state. It is +sufficient to present the following examples extracted, with reproduced +illustrations and abbreviated descriptions, from the Report of the Committee +of the State Archæological Society, published in the Report of +the Ohio State Board of Centennial Managers.</p> + +<p>Fig. 63 is a copy of the petroglyph on the Newark Track rock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp158_pg101h.png"> +<img src="images/dp158_pg101.png" class="hires" width="500" height="231" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Newark Track rock, Ohio.</div> +</div> + +<p>It is described in the volume cited, pages 94, 95, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The inscriptions near Newark, in Licking county, Ohio, originally covered a vertical +face of conglomerate rock, 50 or 60 feet in length, by 6 and 8 feet in height. +This rock is soft and, therefore, the figures are easily erased * * *. About the +year 1800 it became a place where white men sought to immortalize themselves by +cutting their names across the old inscription * * *.</p> + +<p>On the rock faces and detached sandstone blocks of the banks of the Ohio river +there are numerous groups of intaglios, but in them the style is quite different from +those to which I have referred, and which are located in the interior. Those on the +Ohio river resemble the symbolical records of the North American Indians, such as +the Kelley Island stone, described in Schoolcraft by Capt. Eastman, the Dighton +rock, the Big Indian rock of the Susquehanna, and the “God rock” of the Allegheny +river. In those the supposed bird track is generally wanting. The large sculptured +rock near Wellsville, which is only visible at low water of the Ohio, has among the +figures one that is prominent on the Barnesville stones. This is the fore foot of the +bear, with the outside toe distorted and set outward at right angles.</p> + +<p>Other sculptured rocks of a similar character have been found in Fairfield, Belmont, +Cuyahoga, and Lorain counties.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102">[102]</a></span></p> + +<p>That the ancient bird-track character belonged to the mound-builders is evident +from the fact that it is found among their works, constructed of soil on a large scale.</p> + +<p>One of these bird-track mounds occurs in the center of the large circular inclosure +near Newark, Ohio, now standing in the Licking county fair grounds. Among the +characters will be noticed the human hand. In one instance the hand is open, the +palm facing the observer, and in the other the hand is closed, except the index +finger which points downward to the base of the cliff. Of the bird-track characters +there are many varieties. There is also a character resembling a cross and another +bearing some resemblance to an arrow.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 64 is an illustration of the Independence stone, which is described +in the same volume, pp. 98, 99, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp159_pg102h.png"> +<img src="images/dp159_pg102.png" class="hires" width="500" height="289" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Independence stone, Ohio.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Great care has been taken to obtain a correct sketch of what remains of this inscription. +A very rude drawing of it was published in Schoolcraft’s great work +upon the Indian tribes, in 1854.</p> + +<p>The rock here described only contains a portion of the inscription. The balance +was destroyed in quarrying. The markings on the portion of the rock preserved +consist of the human foot, clothed with something like a moccasin or stocking; of +the naked foot; of the open hand; of round markings one in front of the great toe, +of each representation of the clothed foot; the figure of a serpent, and a peculiar +character which might be taken for a rude representation of a crab or crawfish, but +which bears a closer resemblance to an old-fashioned spearhead used in capturing +fish.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 65 is a copy of the drawings on the Track rock, near Barnesville, +Belmont county, Ohio, the description of which is in the same +volume, pp. 89-93.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;"> +<a href="images/dp160_pg103ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp160_pg103a.png" class="hires" width="251" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Barnesville Track rock, Ohio.</div> +</div> + +<p>The rude cuts of the human faces, part of the human feet, the rings, +stars, serpents, and some others, are evidently works of art, as in the +best of them the marks of the engraving instrument are to be seen. In +all cases, whether single or in groups, the relative dimensions of the +figures are preserved. The surface of this block is 8 by 11 feet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103">[103]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the south end of the petroglyphs occurs a figure of several concentric +rings, a design by no means confined to Ohio. The third figure +right of this resembles others in the same group, and evidently indicates +the footprints of the buffalo. Human footprints are generally indicated +by the pronounced toe marks, either detached as slight depressions or +attached to the foot, and are thus recognized as different from bear +tracks, which frequently have but slight indications of toes or perhaps +claw marks, and in which also the foot is shorter or rounder. The +arrow-shaped figures are no doubt intended for turkey tracks, characters +common to many petroglyphs of the middle and eastern Algonquian +area.</p> + +<p>Fig. 66 gives several of the above characters enlarged from the preceding +figure.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;"> +<a href="images/dp160_pg103bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp160_pg103b.png" class="hires" width="439" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Characters from Barnesville Track rock.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104">[104]</a></span></p> + +<p>In Fig. 67, referring to another block mentioned in the same report, +lying 20 feet south of the one first mentioned, there is a duplication of +the characters before noted—human footprints, bear and turkey tracks, +and the indication of what may be intended to represent a serpent.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<a href="images/dp161_pg104ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp161_pg104a.png" class="hires" width="331" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Barnesville Track rock, No. 2.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 68, from p. 105 of the same volume, gives copies of sketches from +the rocks near Wellsville, Ohio, with remarks as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp161_pg104b.png" width="300" height="209" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Petroglyphs, Wellsville, Ohio.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the Ohio side of the river, 1 mile above Wellsville, there is a large group of +sculptures on a flat sand rock of the coal series, scarred by floating ice and flood +wood. They are only visible in low water, as they are only 2 or 3 feet above the extreme +low stage of the river. * * * They are made in double outline and not by +a single deep channel. The outlines are a series of dots made with a round-pointed +instrument, seldom more than half an inch deep.</p> + +<p>The upper design is a rattlesnake with a fancy head and tail. Its length is 4½ feet, +a very clumsy affair, but intended for the common yellow rattlesnake of the West. +The head of the snake, which occupies a space 6 inches square, +is represented in the second character, which is reduced from +a tracing size of nature. It brings to mind the horned snake +of the Egyptians, which was an object of worship by them.</p> + +<p>The character at the left hand of the lower line may be an +uncouth representation of a demon or evil spirit. The right-hand +character is probably an otter carrying a vine or string +in his month.</p></div> + +<p>It is more probable that the lines from the mouth of the animal indicate +magic or supernatural power, of which many examples appear in +this paper, as also of the device in the region of the animal’s heart, +from which a line extends to the mouth. These characteristics connect +the glyph with the Ojibwa drawings on bark.</p> + + +<h4>OREGON.</h4> + +<p>Many bowlders and rock escarpments at and near the Dalles of the +Columbia river, Oregon, are covered with incised or pecked glyphs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105">[105]</a></span> +Some of them are representations of human figures, but characters of +other forms predominate.</p> + +<p>Mr. Albert S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, reports the discovery +by him, in 1878, of rock etchings 4 miles from Gaston, Oregon, +and 2½ miles from the ancient settlement of the Tuálati (or Atfálati) Indians. +These etchings are about 100 feet above the valley bottom on +six rocks of soft sandstone, projecting from the grassy hillside of Patten’s +valley, opposite Darling Smith’s farm, and are surrounded with +timber on two sides.</p> + +<p>This sandstone ledge extends for one-eighth of a mile horizontally +along the hillside, upon the projecting portions of which the inscriptions +are found. These rocks differ greatly in size, and slant forward +so that the inscribed portions are exposed to the frequent rains of that +region. The first rock, or that one nearest the mouth of the canyon, +consists of horizontal zigzag lines and a detached straight line, also +horizontal. On another side of the same rock is a series of oblique +parallel lines. Some of the most striking characters found upon other +exposed portions of the rock appear to be human figures, i. e., circles +to which radiating lines are attached, and bear indications of eyes +and mouth, long vertical lines running downward as if to represent the +body, and terminating in a furcation, as if intended for legs, toes, etc. +To the right of one figure is an arm and three-fingered hand (similar to +some of the Moki characters), bent downward from the elbow, the +humerus extending at a right angle from the body. Horizontal rows +of short vertical lines are placed below and between some of the figures, +probably numerical marks of some kind.</p> + +<p>Other characters occur of various forms, the most striking being an +arrow pointing upward, with two horizontal lines drawn across the +shaft, and with vertical lines having short oblique lines attached +thereto.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gatschet remarks that the Tuálati tell a trivial story to explain +the origin of these pictures, the substance of which is as follows: The +Tillamuk warriors living on the Pacific coast were often at variance +with the several Kalapuya tribes. One day, passing through Patten’s +valley to invade the country of the Tuálati, they inquired of a woman +how far they were from their camp. The woman, desirous not to betray +her own countrymen, said they were yet at a distance of one (or two?) +days’ travel. This made them reflect over the intended invasion, and, +holding a council, they decided to withdraw. In commemoration of +this the inscription, with its numeration marks, was incised by the +Tuálati.</p> + +<p>Dr. Charles Rau received from Dr. James S. Denison, physician at +the Klamath agency, Lake county, Oregon, a communication relative +to the practice of painting figures on rocks in the territory of the Klamath +Indians in Oregon. There are in that neighborhood many rocks +bearing painted figures; but Dr. Rau’s (<i>b</i>) description refers specially<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106">[106]</a></span> +to a single rock, called Ktá-i Tupákshi (standing rock), situated about +50 yards north of Sprague river and 150 yards from the junction of +Sprague and Williamson rivers. It is about 10 feet high, 14 feet long, +and 12 or 14 feet deep. Fig. 69, drawn one-twelfth of the natural size, +illustrates the character of the paintings seen on the smooth southern +surface of this rock. The most frequent designs are single or concentric +circles, like Fig. 69, <i>a</i>, which consists of a dark red circle surrounded +by a white one, the center being formed by a round red spot. +Fig. 69, <i>b</i>, painted in dark red and white colors, exhibits a somewhat +Mahadeo-like shape; the straight appendage of the circle is provided +on each side with short projecting lines, alternately red and white, and +almost producing the effect of the so-called herring-bone ornament.</p> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp163_pg106h.png"> +<img src="images/dp163_pg106.png" class="hires" width="500" height="224" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Petroglyphs in Lake county, Oregon.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 69, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, executed in dark red, are other designs seen on the +standing rock above mentioned. The colors, which, as the informant +thinks, are rubbed in with grease, appear quite distinct on the dark +surface of the rock.</p> + + +<h4>PENNSYLVANIA.</h4> + +<p>Along the river courses in northern and western Pennsylvania many +rocks are found bearing traces of carvings, though, on account of the +character of the geological formations, some of them are nearly obliterated.</p> + +<p>In 1875 Mr. P. W. Shafer published in a historical map of Pennsylvania +several groups of pictographs. These had before appeared in a rude +and crowded form in the Transactions of the Anthropological Institute +of New York, 1871-’72, page 66, where the localities are mentioned as +“Big” and “Little” Indian rocks, respectively. One of these rocks is +in the Susquehanna river, below the dam at Safe harbor, and the drawing +clearly shows its Algonquian origin. The characters are nearly all +either animals or various forms of the human body. Birds, bird tracks, +and serpents also occur. A part of this pictograph is presented below, +Fig. <a href="#page678">1089</a>.</p> + +<p>Dr. W. J. Hoffman visited this place during the autumn of 1889 and +made sketches of the petroglyphs. The Algonquian type of delineation +of objects is manifest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<p>The rock known as “Big Indian rock” is in the Susquehanna river, +three-fourths of a mile below the mouth of Conestoga creek and about +400 yards from the eastern bank of the Susquehanna. It is one of +many, but larger than any other in the immediate vicinity, measuring +about 60 feet in length, 30 feet in width, and an average height of +about 20 feet. The upper surface is uneven, though smoothly worn, +and upon this are pecked the characters, shown in Fig. 70.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp164_pg107h.png"> +<img src="images/dp164_pg107.png" class="hires" width="500" height="431" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Big Indian rock, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>The characters, through exposure to the elements, are becoming +rather indistinct, though a few of them are pecked so deep that they +still present a depression of from one-fourth to one-half an inch in +depth. The most conspicuous objects consist of human figures, thunder +birds, and animals resembling the panther.</p> + +<p>“Little Indian rock” is also situated in the Susquehanna river, one-fourth +of a mile from the eastern bank and a like distance below the +mouth of Conestoga creek. This rock, also of hard micaceous schist, +is not so large as the one above mentioned, but bears more interesting +characters, the most conspicuous being representations of the thunder +bird, serpents, deer and bird tracks, etc.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp165_pg108ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp165_pg108a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="231" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Little Indian rock, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>Prof. Persifor Frazer, jr., (<i>b</i>) remarks upon the gradual obliteration +of these pictographs, and adds:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In addition to these causes of obliteration it is a pity to have to record another, +which is the vandalism of some visitors to the locality who have thought it an excellent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108">[108]</a></span> +practical joke to cut spurious figures alongside of and sometimes over those +made by the Indians. It is not unlikely, too, that the “fish pots” here, as in the +case of the Bald Friar’s inscriptions, a few miles below the Maryland line, may have +been constructed in great part out of fragments of rock containing these hieroglyphics, +so that the parts of the connected story which they relate are separated and the +record thus destroyed.</p> + +<p>Others have cut their initials or full names in these rocks, thus for an obscure +record whose unriddling would award the antiquarian, substituting one, the correct +deciphering of which leads to obscurity itself.</p></div> + +<p>At McCalls ferry, on the Susquehanna river, in Lancaster county, +and on the right shore near the water’s edge, is a gray gneissoid flat +rock, bearing petroglyphs that have been pecked upon the surface. +It is irregular in shape, measuring about 3½ by 4 feet in superficial +area, upon which is a circle covering nearly the entire surface, in the +middle of which is a smaller circle with a central point. On one side +of the inner space, between the outer and inner circles, are a number of +characters resembling human figures and others of unintelligible form. +The petroglyph is represented in Fig. 72.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp165_pg108b.png" width="500" height="390" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Petroglyph at McCalls ferry, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>The resemblance between these drawings and those on Dighton rock +is to be noted, as well as that between both of them and some in Ohio. +All those localities are within the area formerly occupied by tribes of +the Algonquian stock.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109">[109]</a></span></p> + +<p>Near Washington, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on “Mill stream,” +one-fourth of a mile above its junction with the Susquehanna river, is a +large bowlder of gray sandstone (Fig. 73), the exposed portion of which +bears several deeply incised lines which appear to have served as topographic +indicators, as several others of like kind occur farther downstream. +The longest incision is about 28 inches in length, the next one +parallel to it, about 14 inches, while the third character is V-shaped, +one arm of which is about 10 inches in length and the other 12. The +apex of this character points in a southeast direction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp166_pg109h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp166_pg109.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="301" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Petroglyph near Washington, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>One-eighth of a mile farther down is another bowlder, also near the +water, which bears shorter lines than the preceding, but in general +pointing almost southeast and northwest.</p> + +<p>The workmanship is similar to that at Conowingo, Maryland, at the +site of the Bald Friar rocks. The marks appear to have been chipped +to a considerable depth and then rubbed with sand and some hard substance +so as to present a smooth and even surface, removing all or +nearly all of the pecked surface.</p> + +<p>Mr. P. W. Shafer, on the same historical map of Pennsylvania before +mentioned, presents also a group of pictures copied from the originals +on the Alleghany river, in Venango county, 5 miles south of Franklin, +on what is known as the Indian God rock. There are but six characters +furnished in his copy, three of which are variations of the human +form, while the others are undetermined.</p> + +<p>This rock was visited in 1886 by Dr. Hoffman, who made a number of +drawings of objects represented, of which only those in Fig. 74 are +here reproduced. The face of the bowlder bearing the original petroglyphs +has been much disfigured by visitors who, in endeavoring to display +their skill by pecking upon the surface names, dates, and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110">[110]</a></span> +designs, have so injured it that it is difficult to trace the original +characters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp167_pg110h.png"> +<img src="images/dp167_pg110.png" class="hires" width="500" height="303" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Petroglyphs on “Indian God rock.”</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 74, <i>a</i>, represents, apparently, a panther. Above and beneath it +are markings resembling wolf tracks, while farther down is a turkey +track, and in the left-hand lower corner is a human form, such as is +usually found upon rocks in the areas represented by Shoshonian tribes.</p> + +<p>The design at <i>b</i> is much mutilated and eroded, and may originally +have been a character like <i>a</i>, the first of this series.</p> + +<p>The characters at <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> are evidently human faces, the former representing +that of the sun, the latter being very much like a mask. That +at <i>e</i> is found upon other Algonquian rocks, notably those called “Bald +Friar,” Maryland, in the Susquehanna river, immediately below the +state line of Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p>The bowlder upon which these petroglyphs are engraved lies at the +water’s edge, and during each freshet the lower half of the surface and +sometimes even more is under water. At these times floating logs, +impelled according to the curve in the river immediately above, are +directed toward this rock, which may explain the worn surface and +the eroded condition of the sculpture.</p> + +<p>Mr. J. Sutton Wall, of Monongahela city, describes in correspondence +a rock bearing pictographs opposite the town of Millsboro, in Fayette +county, Pennsylvania. This rock is about 390 feet above the level +of the Monongahela river, and belongs to the Waynesburg stratum of +sandstone. It is detached and rests somewhat below its true horizon. +It is about 6 feet in thickness, and has vertical sides; only two figures +are carved on the sides, the principal inscriptions being on the top, and +all are now considerably worn. Mr. Wall mentions the outlines of +animals and some other figures formed by grooves or channels cut from +an inch to a mere trace in depth. No indications of tool marks were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111">[111]</a></span> +discovered. The footprints are carved depressions. The character +marked z, near the lower left-hand corner, is a circular cavity 7 inches +deep. A copy of the inscription made in 1882 by Mr. Wall and Mr. +William Arison is reproduced as Fig. 75.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 469px;"> +<a href="images/dp168_pg111h.png"> +<img src="images/dp168_pg111.png" class="hires" width="469" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Petroglyph at Millsboro, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>Again the resemblance between these drawings, those on Dighton +rock, and some of those in Ohio, introduced above, is to be noted, and +the fact that all these localities are within the area formerly occupied +by tribes of the Algonquian stock.</p> + +<p>Mr. Wall also contributes a group of glyphs on what is known as +the “Geneva Picture rock,” in the Monongahela valley, near Geneva. +These are footprints and other characters similar to those from Hamilton +farm, West Virginia, which are shown in Fig. <a href="#page677">1088</a>.</p> + +<p>Mr. L. W. Brown, of Redstone, Fayette county, Pennsylvania, mentions +a rock near Layton, in that county, which measures about 15 +by 25 feet in area, upon the surface of which occur a number of petroglyphs +consisting of the human figure, animals, and footprints, some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112">[112]</a></span> +of which are difficult to trace. From a rough sketch reproduced as +Fig. 76, made by Mr. Brown, these appear to be Algonquian in type.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"> +<a href="images/dp169_pg112ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp169_pg112a.png" class="hires" width="379" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Petroglyphs near Layton, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Brown also submitted for examination two pieces of chocolate-colored, +smooth, fine grained slate, of hard texture, bearing upon the +several sides outlines of incised figures. The specimens were found in +Indian graves in Fayette county, Pennsylvania. The outline of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113">[113]</a></span> +incisions, although they are not strictly petroglyphs, are reproduced in +Figs. 77 and 78.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp169_pg112bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp169_pg112b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="272" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Glyphs in Fayette county, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + +<p>The designs are made in delicate lines, as if scratched with a sharply +pointed piece of quartz, or possibly metal. The character <i>d</i> on Fig. +78 is the representation of a fish, which has been accentuated by additional +cutting since found. The characters resemble the Algonquian +type, many of them being frequently found among those tribes living +along the Great Lakes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> +<a href="images/dp170_pg113h.png"> +<img src="images/dp170_pg113.png" class="hires" width="492" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—Glyphs in Fayette county, Pennsylvania.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>RHODE ISLAND.</h4> + +<p>In C. C. Rafn’s Antiq. Amer. (<i>c</i>), is the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Portsmouth rocks.</i>—The rocks, for there are several of them, are situated on the +western side of the island of Rhode Island, in the town of Portsmouth, on the shore, +about 7 miles from Newport, taking the western road, and 4 miles from Bristol +ferry. * * * They are partially, if not entirely, covered by water at high tide; +and such was the state of the tide and the lateness of the hour when the location +was ascertained, that I was unable to make a thorough examination of them. I saw +sufficient, however, to satisfy me that they were formerly well covered with characters, +although a large portion of them have become obliterated by the action of +air and moisture, and probably still more by the attrition of masses of stone against +them in violent storms and gales, and by the ruthless ravages of that most destructive +power of all, the hand of man.</p> + +<p><i>Tiverton rocks</i> [op. cit. <i>d</i>].—Their situation may be thus known: by tracing along +the east side of the map of Rhode Island until you strike Tiverton, and then following +along to the southwest extremity of that town, the Indian name Puncoteast, also +the English names Almy and High Hill, will be seen. The inscriptions are on masses +of Graywacke. * * * We can only state they were occupied with some kind of +characters.</p></div> + +<p>These two inscriptions are pictured, op. cit., Table <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114">[114]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>SOUTH DAKOTA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. T. H. Lewis (<i>c</i>), gives a description of Fig. 79 as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This bowlder is on a high terrace on the west side of the Minnesota river, 1½ miles +south of Browns valley, and is in Roberts county, South Dakota. It is oblong in +form, being 3½ feet in length, 2 feet in width, and is firmly imbedded in the ground.</p> + +<p>Of the characters <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are undoubtedly tortoises; <i>c</i> is probably intended to represent +a bird track; <i>d</i> represents a man, and is similar to the one at Browns valley, +Minnesota, [Fig. <a href="#page090">51</a>, supra;] <i>e</i> is a nondescript of unusual form; <i>f</i> is apparently intended +to represent a headless bird, in that respect greatly resembling certain earthen +effigies in the regions to the southeast.</p> + +<p>The figures are about one-fourth of an inch in depth and very smooth, excepting +along their edges, which roughness is caused by a slight unevenness of the surface +of the bowlder.</p></div> + +<p>The same authority, op. cit., describes Fig. 79, <i>g</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp171_pg114h.png"> +<img src="images/dp171_pg114.png" class="hires" width="500" height="184" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Petroglyphs in Roberts county, South Dakota.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This bowlder, 4 miles northwest of Browns valley, Minnesota, is in Roberts county, +South Dakota.</p> + +<p>The figures here represented are roughly pecked into the stone, and were never +finished; for the grooves that form the pictograph on other bowlders in this region +have been rubbed until they are perfectly smooth. The face of the bowlder upon +which these occur is about 2 feet long and 1½ feet in width.</p></div> + + +<h4>TENNESSEE.</h4> + +<p>Mr. John Haywood (<i>a</i>) gives the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>About 2 miles below the road which crosses the Harpeth river from Nashville to +Charlotte is a large mound 30 or 40 feet high. About 6 miles from it is a large rock, +on the side of the river, with a perpendicular face of 70 or 80 feet altitude. On it, +below the top some distance and on the side, are painted the sun and moon in yellow +colors, which have not faded since the white people first knew it. The figure of +the sun is 6 feet in diameter; that of the moon is of the old moon. The sun and +moon are also painted on a high rock on the side of the Cumberland river, in a spot +which several ladders placed upon each other could not reach, and which is also inaccessible +except by ropes let down the summit of the rock to the place where the +painting was performed. * * * The sun is also painted on a high rock on the +side of the Cumberland river, 6 or 7 miles below Clarksville; and it is said to be +painted also at the junction of the Holston and French Broad rivers, above Knoxville, +in East Tennessee; also on Duck river, below the bend called the Devil’s Elbow, +on the west side of the river, on a bluff; and on a perpendicular flat rock facing +the river, 20 feet below the top of the bluff and 60 above the water, out of which the +rock rises, is the painted representation of the sun in red and yellow colors, 6 feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115">[115]</a></span> +in circumference, yellow on the upper side and a yellowish red on the lower. The +colors are very fresh and unfaded. The rays, both yellow and red, are represented +as darting from the center. It has been spoken of ever since the river was navigated +and has been there from time immemorial. * * *</p> + +<p>The painting on Big Harpeth, before spoken of, is more than 80 feet from the +water and 30 or 40 below the summit. All these paintings are in unfading colors, +and on parts of the rock inaccessible to animals of every description except the fowls +of the air. The painting is neatly executed, and was performed at an immense hazard +of the operator.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. W. M. Clarke, in Smithsonian Report for 1877, page 275, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the bluffs of the Big Harpeth many pictures of Indians, deer, buffalo, and bows +and arrows are to be seen. These pictures are rudely drawn, but the coloring is as +perfect now as when first put on.</p></div> + +<p>Haywood (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At a gap of the mountains and near the head of Brasstown creek, which is toward +the head of the Hiawassee, and among the highlands, is a large horizontal rock on +which are engraved the tracks of deer, bears, horses, wolves, turkeys, and barefooted +human beings of all sizes. Some of the horses’ tracks appear to have slipped forward. +The direction of them is westward. Near them are signs of graves.</p></div> + +<p>He also (<i>c</i>) gives the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the south bank of the Holston, 5 miles above the mouth of French Broad, is a +bluff of limestone opposite the mounds and a cave in it. The bluff is 100 feet in height. +On it are painted in red colors, like those on the Paint rock, the sun and moon, a man, +birds, fishes, etc. The paintings have in part faded within a few years. Tradition +says these paintings were made by the Cherokees, who were accustomed in their +journeys to rest at this place. Wherever on the rivers of Tennessee are perpendicular +bluffs, on the sides, and especially if caves be near, are often found mounds +near them, inclosed in intrenchments, with the sun and moon painted on the rocks, +and charcoal and ashes in the smaller mounds. These tokens seem to be evincive of +a connection between the mounds, the charcoal and ashes, the paintings and the +caves.</p></div> + + +<h4>TEXAS.</h4> + +<p>Mr. J. R. Bartlett (<i>b</i>) gives the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>About 30 miles from El Paso del Norte, in Texas, very near the boundary line of +Mexico, there is an overhanging rock, extending for some distance, the whole surface +of which is covered with rude paintings and sculptures, representing men, animals, +birds, snakes, and fantastic figures. The colors used are black, red, white, +and a brownish yellow. The sculptures are mere peckings with a sharp instrument +just below the surface of the rock. The accompanying engravings [reproduced in +Fig. 80] show the character of the figures and the taste of the designers. Hundreds +of similar ones are painted on the rocks at this place. Some of them, evidently of +great age, had been partly defaced to make room for more recent devices.</p> + +<p>The overhanging rock, beneath which we encamped, seemed to have been a favorite +place of resort for the Indians, as it is at the present day for all passing travelers. +The recess formed by this rock is about 15 feet in length by 10 in width. Its entire +surface is covered with paintings, one laid on over the other, so that it is difficult +to make out those which belong to the aborigines. I copied a portion of these figures, +about which there can be no doubt as to the origin. They represent Indians +with shields and bows, painted with a brownish earth; horses, with their riders; uncouth +looking animals, and a large rattlesnake. Similar devices cover the rock in +every part, but are much defaced. Near this overhanging rock is the largest and +finest tank or pool of water to be found about here. It is only reached by clambering<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116">[116]</a></span> +on the hands and knees 15 or 20 feet up a steep rock. Over it projects a gigantic +bowlder, which, resting on or wedged between other rocks, leaves a space of about 4 +feet above the surface of the water. On the underside of this bowlder are fantastic +designs in red paint, which could only have been made by persons lying on their +backs in this cool and sheltered spot.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp173_pg116h.png"> +<img src="images/dp173_pg116.png" class="hires" width="500" height="290" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Petroglyphs near El Paso, Texas.</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Charles Hallock, of Washington, District of Columbia, gives information +that there is a locality termed the Painted caves, “on the +Rio Grande, near Devil’s river, in Crockett county, Texas, on the line +of the ‘Sunset’ railroad. Here the rock is gray limestone and the petroglyphs +are for the most part sculptured. They are in great variety, +from a manifest antiquity to the most recent date; for these cliff caverns +have been from time immemorial the refuge and resort of all sorts +of wayfarers, marauders, and adventurers, who have painted, cut, and +carved in every geometrical and grotesque form imaginable.”</p> + + +<h4>UTAH.</h4> + +<p>Carvings and paintings on rocks are found in such numbers in the +southern interior of Utah that a locality there has been named Pictograph +rocks.</p> + +<p>Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, collected in 1875 +a number of copies of inscriptions in Temple creek canyon, southeastern +Utah, and noted their finding as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The drawings were found only on the northeast wall of the canyon, where it cuts +the Vermillion cliff sandstone. The chief parts are etched, apparently by pounding +with a sharp point. The outline of a figure is usually more deeply cut than the +body. Other marks are produced by rubbing or scraping, and still others by laying +on colors. Some, not all, of the colors are accompanied by a rubbed appearance, as +though the material had been a dry chalk.</p> + +<p>I could discover no tools at the foot of the wall, only fragments of pottery, flints, +and a metate.</p> + +<p>Several fallen blocks of sandstone have rubbed depressions that may have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117">[117]</a></span> +ground out in the sharpening of tools. There have been many dates of inscriptions, +and each new generation has unscrupulously run its lines over the pictures already +made. Upon the best protected surfaces, as well as the most exposed, there are +drawings dimmed beyond restoration and others distinct. The period during which +the work accumulated was longer by far than the time which has passed since the +last. Some fallen blocks cover etchings on the wall, and are themselves etched.</p> + +<p>Colors are preserved only where there is almost complete shelter from rain. In +two places the holes worn in the rock by swaying branches impinge on etchings, +but the trees themselves have disappeared. Some etchings are left high and dry by +a diminishing talus (15 to 20 feet), but I saw none partly buried by an increasing +talus (except in the case of the fallen block already mentioned).</p> + +<p>The painted circles are exceedingly accurate, and it seems incredible that they +were made without the use of a radius.</p></div> + +<p>In the collection contributed by Mr. Gilbert there are at least fifteen +series or groups of figures, most of which consist of the human form +(from the simplest to the most complex style of drawing), animals, +either singly or in long files—as if driven—bird tracks, human feet and +hands, etc. There are also circles, parallel lines, and waving or undulating +lines, spots, and other characters.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gilbert also reports the discovery, in 1883, of a great number of +pictographs, chiefly in color, though some are only incised, in a canyon +of the Book cliff containing Thompson’s spring, about 4 miles north of +Thompson’s station, on the Denver and Colorado Railroad, Utah. He +has also furnished a collection of drawings of pictographs at Black +rock spring, on Beaver creek, north of Milford, Utah. A number of +fallen blocks of basalt at a low escarpment are filled with etchings upon +the vertical faces. The characters generally are of an “unintelligible” +nature, though the human figure is drawn in complex forms. Footprints +and circles abound.</p> + +<p>Mr. I. C. Russell, of the U. S. Geological Survey, furnished rude +drawings of pictographs at Black rock spring, Utah (see Fig. <a href="#page681">1093</a>). +Mr. Gilbert Thompson also discovered pictographs at Fool creek canyon, +Utah (see Fig. <a href="#page681">1094</a>).</p> + +<p>Mr. Vernon Bailey, in a letter dated January 18, 1889, reports that +in the vicinity of St. George “all along the sandstone cliffs are strange +figures like hieroglyphics and pictures of animals cut in the rocks, but +now often worn dim.”</p> + +<p>Mr. George Pope, of Provo city, Utah county, in a letter, kindly gives +an account of an inscription on a rock in a canyon at the mouth of +Provo river, about 7 miles from the city named. There is no paint seen, +the inscription being cut. A human hand is conspicuous, being cut +(probably pecked) to a depth of at least one-third of an inch, and so +with representations of animals.</p> + +<p>Dr. Rau (<i>c</i>) gives the design of a portion of a group carved on a cliff +in the San Pete valley at the city of Manti, Utah, now reproduced as +Fig. 81. He says:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp175_pg118a.png" width="500" height="364" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—Petroglyphs near Manti, Utah.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A line drawn horizontally through the middle of the parallel lines connecting the +concentric circles would divide the figure into two halves, each bearing a close<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118">[118]</a></span> +resemblance to Prof. Simpson’s fifth type of cup stones. A copy of the group in +question was made and published by Lieut. J. W. Gunnison, in The Mormons or +Latter-Day Saints, etc., Philadelphia, 1853, p. 63. The illustration is taken from +Bancroft’s Native Races (Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, p. 717). In accordance with Lieut. Gunnison’s +design, the position of the grotesque human figure is changed to the left of the concentric +circle. He also says that the Mormon leaders made this aboriginal inscription +subservient to their religion by giving the following translation of it: “I, +Mahanti, the second king of the Lamanites, in five valleys of the mountains, make +this record in the twelve hundredth year since we came out of Jerusalem. And I +have three sons gone to the south country to live by hunting antelope and deer.” +* * * Schoolcraft attempts (Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 494) something like an interpretation +which appears to me fanciful and unsatisfactory.</p></div> + +<p>The following extract is made from The Shinumos by F. S. Dellenbaugh +(<i>a</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some of the least disintegrated ruins are situated on the Colorado river, only +a short distance below the mouth of the Dirty Devil river. * * * A level +shelf varying from about 6 to 10 feet in width ran along for 150 feet or more. In most +places the rocks above protruded as far as the edge of the lower rocks, sometimes +farther, thus leaving a sort of gallery, generally 7 or 8 feet high. Walls that extended +to the roof had been built along the outer edge of the natural floor, and the +inclosed space being subdivided by stone partitions to suit the convenience of the +builders, the whole formed a series of rather comfortable rooms or houses. The back +walls of the houses—the natural rock—had on them many groups of hieroglyphics, +and farther along where there was no roof rock at all the vertical faces had been +inscribed with seeming great care. Some of the sheltered groups were painted in +various dull colors, but most of them were chiseled.</p> + +<p>The figure [82] gives a chiseled group. It is easy to see that these are signs of no low +order. Considering their great age, their exposure, many of the delicate touches +must be obliterated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119">[119]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp175_pg118bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp175_pg118b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="281" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah.</div> +</div> + + +<p>The inscriptions on this ruin might possibly be the history of the defense of the +crossing, the stationing of the garrison, the death of officers of rank, etc.</p></div> + +<p>The following sketches of petroglyphs, with the references attached, are +taken from the sketch book of Mr. F. S. Dellenbaugh, before referred to.</p> + +<p>The petroglyph, of which Fig. 83 is a copy, appears on a horizontal +rock 5 miles below the mouth of the Dirty Devil river, Utah.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp176_pg119ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp176_pg119a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="252" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah.</div> +</div> + + + +<p>The characters in Fig. 84 from rocks near the preceding group +are painted red, with the imprint of a hand (on the larger figure) in +white.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp176_pg119bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp176_pg119b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="429" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah.</div> +</div> + +<p>The petroglyphs reproduced in Fig. 85 are copied from the vertical +walls near the two groups immediately before mentioned.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp177_pg120ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp177_pg120a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="373" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah.</div> +</div> + + + +<p>The characters presented in Fig. 86 are copied from a vertical surface +10 by 16 feet in area and halfway up the ascent to the geodetic point +west of “Windsor castle,” Pipe Spring. The human forms are similar +in general design to the greater number of such representations made +by the Shinumo Indians.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp177_pg120bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp177_pg120b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="249" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Petroglyphs at Pipe Spring, Utah.</div> +</div> + + + +<p>The human forms represented in Fig. 87 are from the vicinity of +Colorado river, 5 miles below the mouth of the Dirty Devil river. Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120">[120]</a></span> +Dellenbaugh notes that the darkest portions of the figures indicate a +chiseled surface.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp177_pg120ch.png"> +<img src="images/dp177_pg120c.png" class="hires" width="500" height="234" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah.</div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121">[121]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fig. 88 represents a number of petroglyphs obtained at the same +locality as the one last mentioned. The greater number of the characters +appear to represent snakes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp177_pg120dh.png"> +<img src="images/dp177_pg120d.png" class="hires" width="500" height="195" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Petroglyphs on Colorado river, Utah.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 89 shows characters from the Shinumo canyon, which, according +to the draftsman’s general notes, are painted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp178_pg121ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp178_pg121a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="190" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Petroglyphs in Shinumo canyon, Utah.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>VIRGINIA.</h4> + +<p>In 1886 Dr. Hoffman visited a local field 9 miles southwest of Tazewell, +Tazewell county, Virginia, which can be designated as follows: +The range of hills bounding the western side of the valley presents at +various points low cliffs and exposures of Silurian sandstone. About +4 miles below the village, known as Knob post-office, there is a narrow +ravine leading up toward a depression in the range, forming a pass to +the valley beyond, near the summit of which is a large irregular exposure +of rock facing west-southwest, upon the eastern extremity of which +are a number of pictographs, many of which are still in good preservation. +Fig. 90 is a representation. The westernmost object, i. e., +the one on the extreme left, appears to be a circle about 16 inches in +diameter, from the outer side of which are short radiating lines giving +the whole the appearance of a sun. Beneath and to the right of this is +the outline of an animal resembling a doe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp178_pg121bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp178_pg121b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="134" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Petroglyphs in Tazewell county, Virginia.</div> +</div> + +<p>Other figures, chiefly human, follow in close succession to the eastern +edge of the vertical face of the rock, nearly all of which present the +arms in various attitudes, i. e., extended or raised as in extreme surprise +or adoration. Concentric rings appear at one point, while a thunder-bird +is shown not far away. About 12 feet east of this place are +several figures resembling the thunder-bird.</p> + +<p>All of the characters, with one exception, are drawn in heavy or solid<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122">[122]</a></span> +lines of dark red paint, presumably a ferruginous coloring material prepared +in the neighborhood, which abounds in iron compounds. The exception +is one object which appears to have been black, but is now so +faded or eroded as to seem dark gray.</p> + +<p>The following account of the Tazewell county, Virginia, pictographs +is taken from Coale’s Life, etc., of Waters: (<i>a</i>)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In August, 1871, the writer went to visit Tazewell county by way of the saltworks. +Upon this place are found those strangely painted rocks which have been a +wonder and a mystery to all who have seen them. The grandfather of Gen. Bowen +settled the cove in 1766, one hundred and ten years ago, and the paintings were +there then, and as brilliant to-day as they were when first seen by a white man. +They consist of horses, elk, deer, wolves, bows and arrows, eagles, Indians, and +various other devices. The mountain upon which these rocks are based is about +1,000 feet high, and they lie in a horizontal line about halfway up and are perhaps +75 feet broad upon their perpendicular face.</p> + +<p>When it is remembered that the rock is hard, with a smooth white surface, incapable +of absorbing paint, it is a mystery how the coloring has remained undimmed under +the peltings of the elements for how much longer than a hundred years no one +can tell. This paint is found near the rocks, and Gen. Bowen informed the writers +that his grandmother used it for dyeing linsey, and it was a fadeless color.</p> + +<p>As there was a battle fought on a neighboring mountain, between 1740 and 1750, +between the Cherokees and Shawnees for the possession of a buffalo lick, the remains +of the rude fortifications being still visible, it is supposed the paintings were hieroglyphics +conveying such intelligence to the red man as we now communicate to +each other through newspapers.</p> + +<p>It was a perilous adventure to stand upon a narrow, inclined ledge without a shrub +or a root to hold to, with from 50 to 75 feet of sheer perpendicular descent below to +a bed of jagged bowlders and the home of innumerable rattlesnakes, but I didn’t +make it. I crawled far enough along that narrow slanting ledge with my fingers +inserted in the crevices of the rocks to see most of the paintings, and then “coon’d” +it back with equal care and caution.</p></div> + +<p>Five miles east of the last-noted locality and 7 west of Tazewell, +high up against a vertical cliff of rock, is visible a lozenge-shaped +group of red and black squares, known in the locality as the “Handkerchief +rock,” because the general appearance of the colored markings +suggests the idea of an immense bandana handkerchief spread out. +The pictograph is on the same range of hills as the preceding, but +neither is visible from any place near the other. The objects can not +be viewed upon Handkerchief rock excepting from a point opposite to +it and across the valley, as the locality is so overgrown with large trees +as to obscure it from any position immediately beneath. The lozenge +or diamond-shaped figure appears to cover an area about 3 feet in +diameter.</p> + + +<h4>WASHINGTON.</h4> + +<p>Capt. Charles Bendire, U. S. Army, in a letter dated Fort Walla-walla, +Washington, May 18, 1881, mentions a discovery made by Col. +Henry C. Merriam, then lieutenant-colonel Second United States Infantry, +as thus quoted:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>While encamped at the lower end of Lake Chelan, lat. 48° N., he made a trip to +the upper end of said lake, where he found a perpendicular cliff of granite with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123">[123]</a></span> +perfectly smooth surface, from 600 to 1,000 feet high, rising out of the lake. On the +cliff he found Indian picture-writings, painted evidently at widely different periods, +but evidently quite old. The oldest was from 25 to 30 feet above the present water +level, and could at the time they were executed only be reached by canoe. The +paintings are figures, black and red in color, and represent Indians with bows and +arrows, elk, deer, bear, beaver, and fish, and are from 1 foot to 18 inches in size. +There are either four or five rows of these figures, quite a number in each row. +The Indians inhabiting this region know nothing of the origin of these pictures, +and say that none of their people for the past four generations knew anything about +them.</p></div> + +<p>Since the preceding letter was written a notice of the same rock has +been published, together with an illustration, by Mr. Alfred Downing, +of Seattle, Washington, in “The Northwest,” <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>, No. 10, October, 1889, +pp. 3, 4. The description, condensed, is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In that part of Washington territory until recent years known as the Moses Indian +reservation lies the famous Lake Chelan, 70 miles in length with an average +width of 2 miles.</p> + +<p>About half a mile from its head, on the western shore and rising from the water, as +an abrupt and precipitous wall of granite, stands “Pictured rock.”</p> + +<p>The most remarkable feature of the Chelan picture is that the figures representing +Indians, bear, deer, birds, etc., are painted upon the surface of the smooth +granite, nearly horizontal, but about 17 feet above the lake; the upper portion of +the picture being about 2 feet higher. The figures depicted are 5 to 10 inches long.</p> + +<p>The difference between high and low stage of water at any period during the year +does not exceed 4 feet, and this high-water mark being well defined along the shore, +it becomes self-evident that these signs were placed there ages ago, when the water was +17 feet higher than it is now. The granite bluff or walls in this instance are smooth, +being weather and water worn, and afford no hold for hand or foot either from +above or below, and from careful observation it would appear to be a physical +impossibility for either a white or red man to show his artistic skill on those rocks +unless at the ancient stage of water and with the aid of a canoe or a “dugout.”</p> + +<p>The paint or color used was black and red, the latter resembling venetian. How +wonderfully the color has stood the test in the face of the storms to which the lake +is subject is apparent; only in one or two instances does it to-day show any signs of +fading or weather-wearing. The signs impressed me as intending to convey the idea +of the prowess of an Indian chief in the hunt, or as being a page in the history of a +tribe, the small perpendicular strokes seen in the lower portion indicating probably +the number of bear, deer, or other animals slain.</p></div> + +<p>When referring, in Pacific Railroad Report, vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, page 411, to a +locality on the Columbia river in Washington, between Yakima and +Pisquouse counties, Mr. George Gibbs mentioned pecked and colored +petroglyphs which he found there as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It was a perpendicular rock, on the face of which were carved sundry figures, most +of them intended for men. They were slightly sunk into the sandstone and colored, +some black, others red, and traces of paint remained more or less distinctly on all of them. +These also, according to their [the Indians’] report, were the work of the ancient +race; but from the soft nature of the rock, and the freshness of some of the paint, +they were probably not of extreme antiquity.</p></div> + +<p>For another example of petroglyphs from Washington see Fig. <a href="#page485">679</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124">[124]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>WEST VIRGINIA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. John Haywood (<i>d</i>) gives the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the county of Kenhaway [Kanawha] about 4 miles below the Burning spring, +and near the mouth of Campbell’s creek, in the state of Virginia, is a rock of great +size, on which, in ancient times, the natives engraved many representations. There +is the figure of almost every indigenous animal—the buffalo, the bear, the deer, the +fox, the hare, and other quadrupeds of various kinds; fish of the various productions +of the western waters, fowls of different descriptions, infants scalped, scalps +alone, and men as large as life. The rock is in the river Kenhaway, near its northern +shore, accessible only at low water unless by the aid of water craft.</p></div> + +<p>The following notice of the same locality, but perhaps not of the +same rock, was published by James Madison (<i>a</i>), bishop of Virginia, +in 1804:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I cannot conclude this letter without mentioning another curious specimen of Indian +labour, and of their progress in one of the arts. This specimen is found within 4 +miles of the place whose latitude I endeavoured to take, and within 2 of what are +improperly called Burning springs, upon a rock of hard freestone, which sloping to +the south, touching the margin of the river, presents a flat surface of above 12 feet +in length and 9 in breadth, with a plane side to the east of 8 or 9 feet in thickness.</p> + +<p>Upon the upper surface of this rock, and also upon the side, we see the outlines +of several figures, cut without relief, except in one instance, and somewhat larger +than the life. The depth of the outline may be half an inch; its width three-quarters, +nearly, in some places. In one line ascending from the part of the rock nearest +the river there is a tortoise; a spread eagle, executed with great expression, particularly +the head, to which is given a shallow relief, and a child, the outline of which is +very well drawn. In a parallel line there are other figures, but among them that of +a woman only can be traced. These are very indistinct. Upon the side of the rock +there are two awkward figures which particularly caught my attention. One is +that of a man with his arms uplifted, and hands spread out as if engaged in prayer. +His head is made to terminate in a point, or rather, he has the appearance of something +upon the head of a triangular or conical form; near to him is another similar +figure suspended by a cord fastened to his heels. I recollected the story which +Father Hennepin relates of one of the missionaries from Canada who was treated in +a somewhat similar manner, but whether this piece of seemingly historical sculpture +has reference to such an event can be only a matter of conjecture. A turkey, badly +executed, with a few other figures may also be seen. The labour and the perseverance +requisite to cut those rude figures in a rock so hard that steel appeared to make +but little impression upon it, must have been great; much more so than making of +enclosures in a loose and fertile soil.</p></div> + +<p>Another petroglyph, a copy of which is presented in Fig. 1088, is +thus described in a letter from Morgantown, West Virginia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The famous pictured rocks on the Evansville pike, about 4 miles from this place, +have been a source of wonder and speculation for more than a century, and have +attracted much attention among the learned men of this country and Europe. The +cliff upon which these drawings exist is of considerable size and within a short distance +of the highway above mentioned. The rock is a white sandstone, which +wears little from exposure to the weather, and upon its smooth surface are delineated +the outlines of at least fifty [?] species of animals, birds, reptiles, and fish, embracing +in the number panthers, deer, buffalo, otters, beavers, wildcats, foxes, wolves, +raccoons, opossums, bears, elk, crows, eagles, turkeys, eels, various sorts of fish, +large and small, snakes, etc. In the midst of this silent menagerie of specimens of +the animal kingdom is the full length outline of a female form, beautiful and perfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125">[125]</a></span> +in every respect. Interspersed among the drawings of animals, etc., are imitations +of the footprints of each sort, the whole space occupied being 150 feet long by +50 feet wide. To what race the artist belonged or what his purpose was in making +these rude portraits must ever remain a mystery, but the work was evidently done +ages ago.</p></div> + +<p>The late P. W. Norris, of the Bureau of Ethnology, reported that he +found petroglyphs in many localities along the Kanawha river, West +Virginia. Engravings are numerous upon smooth rocks, covered during +high water, at the prominent fords in the river, as well as in the niches +or long shallow caves high in the rocky cliffs of this region. Rude +representations of men, animals, and some characters deemed symbolic +were found, but none were observed superior to, or essentially differing +from those of modern Indians.</p> + +<p>On the rocky walls of Little Coal river, near the mouth of Big Horse +creek, are cliffs which display many carvings. One of the rocks upon +which a mass of characters appear, is 8 feet in length and 5 feet in +height.</p> + +<p>About 2 miles above Mount Pleasant, Mason county, on the north +side of the Kanawha river, are numbers of characters, apparently totemic. +These are at the foot of the hills flanking the river.</p> + +<p>On the cliffs near the mouth of the Kanawha river, opposite Mount +Carbon, Nicholas county, are numerous pictographs. These appear to +be cut into the sandstone rock.</p> + +<p>Pictographs were lately seen at various points on the banks of the +Kanawha river, both above and below Charleston, but since the construction +of the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad some of the rocks bearing +them have been destroyed. About 6 miles above Charleston there was +formerly a rock lying near its water’s edge upon which, it is reported +by old residents, were depicted the outline of a bear, turkey tracks, and +other markings. Tradition told that this was a boat or canoe landing, +used by the Indians in their travels when proceeding southward. The +tribe was not designated. From an examination of the locality it was +learned that this rock had been broken and used in the construction of +buildings. It is said that a trail passing there led southward, and at +a point 10 miles below the Kanawha river stood several large trees +upon which were marks of red ocher or some similar pigment, at which +point the trail spread or branched out in two directions, one leading +southward into Virginia, the other southwest toward Kentucky.</p> + +<p>On a low escarpment of sandstone facing Little Coal river, 6 or 8 +miles above its confluence with Coal river and about 18 miles south of +the Kanawha river, are depicted the outlines of animals, such as the +deer, panther (?), etc., and circles, delineated in dark red, but rather +faint from disintegration of the surface. The characters are similar +in general appearance to those in Tazewell county, Virginia, and appear +as if they might have been made by the same tribe. There +are no peculiarities in the topography of the surrounding region that +would suggest the idea of their having served as topographic indications,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126">[126]</a></span> +but they rather appear to be a record of a hunting party, and +to designate the kinds of game abounding in the region.</p> + +<p>Mr. L. V. McWhorter reports pictographs in a cave near Berlin, Lewis +county, West Virginia. No details are given.</p> + +<p>A petroglyph found in a rock shelter in West Virginia is also presented +in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page475">XXXI</a></span>.</p> + + +<h4>WISCONSIN.</h4> + +<p>A large number of glyphs are incised on the face of a rock near +Odanah, now a village of the Ojibwa Indians, 12 miles northeast from +Ashland, on the south shore of lake Superior, near its western extremity. +The characters were easily cut on the soft stone, so were also +easily worn by the weather, and in 1887 were nearly indistinguishable. +Many of them appeared to be figures of birds. An old Ojibwa Indian +in the vicinity told the present writer that the site of the rock was +formerly a well-known halting place and rendezvous, and that on the +arrival of a party, or even of a single individual, the appropriate totemic +mark or marks were cut on the rock, much as white men register +their names at a hotel.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp183_pg126h.png"> +<img src="images/dp183_pg126.png" class="hires" width="500" height="311" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Petroglyphs in Brown’s cave, Wisconsin.</div> +</div> + +<p>The Pictured cave of La Crosse valley, called Brown’s cave, is described +by Rev. Edward Brown (<i>a</i>) as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This curious cavern is situated in the town of Barre, 4 miles from West Salem and +8 miles from La Crosse. * * *</p> + +<p>Before the landslide it was an open shelter cavern, 15 feet wide at the opening and +7 feet at the back end; greatest width, 16 feet; average, 13; length, 30 feet; height, +13 feet, and depth of excavation after clearing out the sand of the landslide, 5 feet. +The pictures are mostly of the rudest kind, but differing in degree of skill. Except +several bisons, a lynx, rabbit, otter, badger, elk, and heron, it is perhaps impossible +to determine with certainty what were intended or whether they represented large +or small animals, no regard being had to their relative sizes.</p> + +<p>[Examples of the figures are here presented as Fig. 91.]</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127">[127]</a></span></p> + +<p>Perhaps <i>a</i> indicates a bison or buffalo, and is the best executed picture of the collection. +Its size is 19 inches long by 15½ inches from tip of the horns to the feet.</p> + +<p><i>b</i> represents a hunter, with a boy behind him, in the act of shooting an animal +with his bow and arrow weapon. The whole representation is 25 inches long; the +animal from tip of tail to end of horn or proboscis 12 inches, and from top of head +to feet 7 inches; the hunter 11 inches high, the boy 4½.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> represents a wounded animal, with the arrow or weapon near the wound. This +figure is 21¾ inches from the lower extremity of the nose to the tip of the tail, 8¾ +inches from fore shoulders to front feet, and 8 inches from the rump to the hind feet. +The weapon is 4½ inches long by 5 inches broad from the tip of one prong or barb to +that of the other.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> represents a chief with eight plumes and a war club, 11 inches from top of head +to the lower extremity, and 6¾ inches from the tip of the upper finger to the end of +the opposite arm; the war club 6½ inches long.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman made a visit to this cave in August, 1888, to compare +the pictographic characters with others of apparently similar outline and +of known signification. He found but a limited number of the figures +distinct, and these only in part, owing to the rapid disintegration of +the sandstone upon which they were drawn. Many names and inscriptions +had been incised in the soft surface by visitors, who also, by means +of the smoke of candles, added grotesque and meaningless figures over +and between the original paintings, so as to seriously injure the latter.</p> + +<p>Mr. T. H. Lewis (<i>d</i>) describes the petroglyphs, a part of which is reproduced +in Fig. 92, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp184_pg127.png" width="500" height="256" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Petroglyphs at Trempealeau, Wisconsin.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Last November my attention was called to some rock sculptures located about 2½ +miles northwest from Trempealeau, Wisconsin. There is at the point in question an +exposed ledge of the Potsdam sandstone extending nearly one-eighth of a mile along +the east side of the lower mouth of the Trempealeau river, now known as the bay. +Near its north end there is a projection extending out about 7 feet from the top of +the ledge and overhanging the base about 10 feet. The base of the ledge is 40 feet +back from the shore, and the top of the cliff at this point is 30 feet above the water. +On the face of the projection, and near the top, are the sculpture figures referred to.</p> + +<p>The characters designated <i>a</i> <i>a</i> are two so-called canoes, somewhat crescent-shaped, +but with some variation in outline; <i>b</i> has the same form, but the additional upright +portion overlaps it; <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> are also of the same form as <i>a</i>, but <i>c</i> is cut in the bottom +of <i>d</i>; <i>e</i> probably represents a fort, and its length is 18½ inches; <i>f</i> is a nondescript, +and it partly overlaps <i>d</i>; <i>g</i> is a nondescript four-legged animal, its length in a +straight line from the end of the nose to the tip of the tail being 10½ inches; <i>h</i> may +be intended to represent a foot, but possibly it may be a hand; it is 7½ inches in +length; <i>i</i> is an outspread hand, a little over 13 inches long; <i>j</i> undoubtedly represents +a foot and is 4½ inches long; <i>k</i> <i>k</i> are of the same class as <i>a</i>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128">[128]</a></span></p> + +<p>The figures are not mere outlines, but intaglio, varying in depth from +a quarter of an inch to fully 1 inch. Although the surface of the rock +is rough the intaglios were rubbed perfectly smooth after they had been +engraved by pecking or cutting.</p> + + +<h4>WYOMING.</h4> + +<p>Several pictographs in Wyoming are described by Capt. William A. +Jones, U. S. Army (<i>a</i>). They are reproduced here as Figs. 93, 94, +and 95.</p> + +<p>Fig. 93, found in the Wind river valley, Wyoming, was interpreted by +members of a Shoshoni and Banak delegation to Washington in 1880 +as “an Indian killed another.” The latter is very roughly delineated +in the horizontal figure, but is also represented by the line under the +hand of the upright figure, meaning the same dead person. At the +right is the scalp taken and the two feathers showing the dead warrior’s +rank. The arm nearest the prostrate foe shows the gesture for +killed; concept, to put down, flat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp185_pg128ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp185_pg128a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="209" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—Petroglyph in Wind river valley, Wyoming.</div> +</div> + +<p>The same gesture appears in Fig. 94, from the same authority and +locality. The scalp is here held forth, and the numeral (1) is indicated +by the lowest stroke.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp185_pg128b.png" width="500" height="635" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Petroglyph in Wind river valley, Wyoming.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129">[129]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fig. 95, from the same locality and authority, was also interpreted by +the Shoshoni and Banak. It appears from their description that a +Blackfoot had attacked the habitation of some of his own people. The +right-hand upper figure represents his horse, with the lance suspended +from the side. The lower figure illustrates the log house built against +a stream. The dots are the prints of the horse’s hoofs, while the two +lines running outward from the upper inclosure show that two thrusts +of the lance were made over the wall of the house, thus killing the +occupant and securing two bows and five arrows, as represented in the +left-hand group. The right-hand figure of that group shows the hand +raised in the attitude of making the gesture for kill.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp186_pg129h.png"> +<img src="images/dp186_pg129.png" class="hires" width="500" height="227" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—Petroglyphs in Wind river valley, Wyoming.</div> +</div> + +<p>The Blackfeet, according to the interpreters, were the only Indians +in the locality mentioned who constructed log houses, and therefore +the drawing becomes additionally interesting, as an attempt appears +to have been made to illustrate the crossing of the logs at the corners, +the gesture for which (log house) is as follows:</p> + +<p>Both hands are held edgewise before the body, palms facing, spread +the fingers, and place those of one hand into the spaces between those +of the other, so that the tips of each protrude about an inch beyond.</p> + +<p>Another and more important petroglyph was discovered on Little +Popo-Agie, northwestern Wyoming, by members of Capt. Jones’s party +in 1873. The glyphs are upon a nearly vertical wall of the yellow +sandstone in the rear of Murphy’s ranch, and appear to be of some +antiquity. Further remarks, with specimens of the characters, are +presented below in this paper. (See Fig. <a href="#page678">1091</a>.)</p> + +<p>Dr. William H. Corbusier, U. S. Army, in a letter to the writer, mentions +the discovery of drawings on a sandstone rock near the headwaters +of Sage creek, in the vicinity of Fort Washakie, Wyoming, and +gives a copy which is presented as Fig. 96. Dr. Corbusier remarks +that neither the Shoshoni nor the Arapaho Indians know who made the +drawings. The two chief figures appear to be those of the human form,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130">[130]</a></span> +with the hands and arms partly uplifted the whole being inclosed +above and on either side by an irregular line.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp187_pg130ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp187_pg130a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="388" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—Petroglyph near Sage creek, Wyoming.</div> +</div> + +<p>The method of grouping, together with various accompanying appendages, +as irregular lines, spirals, etc., observed in Dr. Corbusier’s +drawing, show great similarity to the Algonquian type, and resemble +some engravings found near the Wind river mountains, which were +the work of Blackfeet (Satsika) Indians, who, in comparatively recent +times, occupied portions of the country in question, and probably also +sketched the designs near Fort Washakie.</p> + +<p>Fig. 97 is also reported from the same locality.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131">[131]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;"> +<img src="images/dp187_pg130b.png" width="228" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—Petroglyph near Sage creek, Wyoming.</div> +</div> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">MEXICO.</span></h3> + +<p>No adequate attention can be given in the present paper to the distribution +and description of the petroglyphs of Mexico. In fact very +little accurate information is accessible regarding them. The distinguished +explorer, Mr. A. Bandelier, in a conversation mentioned that he +had sketched but not published two petroglyphs in Sonora. One, very +large and interesting, was at Cara Pintada, 3 miles southwest of Huassavas, +and a smaller one was at Las Flechas, 1 mile west of Huassavas. +He also sketched one in Chihuahua on the trail from Casas Grandes to +the Cerro de Montezuma. From the accounts of persons met in his +Mexican travels he gave it as his opinion that a large number of petroglyphs +still remained in the region of the Sierra Madre.</p> + +<p>The following mention of the paintings of the ancient inhabitants of +Lower California is translated from an anonymous account, in <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Documentos +para la Historia de Mexico</span> (<i>a</i>), purporting to have been written +in 1790:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Throughout civilized California, from south to north, and especially in the caves +and smooth rocks, there remain various rude paintings. Notwithstanding their disproportion +and lack of art, the representations of men, fish, bows and arrows, can +be distinguished and with them different kind of strokes, something like characters. +The colors of these paintings are of four kinds; yellow, a reddish color, green and +black. The greater part of them are painted in high places, and from this it is inferred +by some that the old tradition is true, that there were giants among the +ancient Californians. Be this as it may, in the Mission of Santiago, which is at the +south, was discovered on a smooth rock of great height, a row of hands stamped in +red. On the high cliffs facing the shore are seen fish painted in various shapes and +sizes, bows, arrows, and some unknown characters. In other parts are Indians armed +with bows and arrows, and various kinds of insects, snakes, and mice, with lines and +characters of other forms. On a flat rock about 2 yards in length were stamped insignia +or escutcheons of rank and inscriptions of various characters.</p> + +<p>Towards Purmo, about 30 leagues beyond the Mission of Santiago del Sur, is a +bluff 8 yards in height and on the center of it is seen an inscription which resembles +Gothic letters interspersed with Hebrew and Chaldean characters [?].</p> + +<p>Though the Californian Indians have often been asked concerning the significance +of the figures, lines, and characters, no satisfactory answer has been obtained. The +most that has been established by their information is that the paintings were their +predecessors, and that they are absolutely ignorant of the signification of them. It +is evident that the paintings and drawings of the Californians are significant symbols +and landmarks by which they intended to leave to posterity the memory, either +of their establishment in this country, or of certain wars or political or natural +triumphs. These pictures are not like those of the Mexicans, but might have the +same purpose.</p></div> + +<p>Several petroglyphs in Sonora are described and illustrated infra in +Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page676">XX</a></span> on Special Comparisons. The following copies of petroglyphs +are presented here as specimens and are markedly different from +those in the northwestern states of Mexico, which represent the Aztec +culture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132">[132]</a></span></p> + +<p>The description of Fig. 98 is extracted from <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Viages de Guillelmo +Dupaix</span> (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> +<a href="images/dp189_pg132h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp189_pg132.jpg" class="hires" width="440" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Petroglyphs in Mexico.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Going from the town of Tlalmanalco to that of Mecamecan, at a distance of a +league to the east of the latter and in the confines of the estate of Señor Don José +Tepatolco, is an isolated rock of granitic stone artificially cut into a conical form +with a series of six steps cut in the solid rock itself on the eastern side, the summit +forming a platform or horizontal section suitable for the purpose of observing the +stars at all points of the compass. It is, therefore, most evident that this ancient +monument or observatory was employed solely for astronomical observations, and it +is further proved by various hieroglyphs cut in the south side of the cone; but the +most interesting feature of this side is the figure of a man standing upright and in +profile directing his gaze to the east with the arms raised, holding in the hands a +tube or species of optical instrument. Beneath his feet is seen a carved frieze with +six compartments or squares and other symbols of a celestial nature are engraved<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133">[133]</a></span> +on their surfaces, evidently the product of observation and calculation. Some of +them have connection with those found symmetrically arranged in circles on the +ancient Mexican calendar, exposed in this capital to general admiration. In front +of the observer is a rabbit seated and confronted by two parallel rows of numerical +figures; lastly two other symbols relating to the same science are seen at the back.</p></div> + +<p>Prof. Daniel G. Brinton (<i>a</i>), gives an account of the illustration here +produced on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span> A, which may be thus condensed:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;"> +<a href="images/dp192_pg134ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp192_pg134p.jpg" class="hires" width="277" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XIV<br />THE STONE OF THE GIANTS, MEXICO.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The “Stone of the Giants” at Escamela near the city of Orizaba, Mexico, has +been the subject of much discussion. Father Damaso Sotomayor sees in the inscribed +figures a mystical allusion to the coming of Christ to the Gentiles and to the occurrences +supposed in Hebrew myth to have taken place in the Garden of Eden. This +stone was examined by Capt. Dupaix in the year 1808 and is figured in the illustrations +to his voluminous narrative. The figure he gives [now presented as B +on Pl. <i>XIV</i>] is, however, so erroneous that it yields but a faint idea of the real character +and meaning of the drawing. It omits the ornament on the breast and also +the lines along the right of the giant’s face, which as I shall show are distinctive +traits. It gives him a girdle where none is delineated, and the relative size and proportions +of all the three figures are quite distorted.</p> + +<p>The rock on which the inscription is found is roughly triangular in shape, presenting +a nearly straight border of 30 feet on each side. It is hard and uniform in +texture and of a dark color. The length or height of the principal figure is 27 feet, +and the incised lines which designate the various objects are deeply and clearly cut.</p> + +<p>I now approach the decipherment of the inscriptions. Any one versed in the signs +of the Mexican calendar will at once perceive that it contains the date of a certain +year and day. On the left of the giant is seen a rabbit surrounded with ten circular +depressions. These depressions are the well-known Aztec marks for numerals, and +the rabbit represents one of the four astronomic signs by which they adjusted their +chronologic cycles of fifty-two years. The stone bears a carefully dated record, with +year and day clearly set forth. The year is represented to the left of the figure and +is that numbered “ten” under the sign of the rabbit; the day of the year is number +“one” under the sign of the fish.</p> + +<p>These precise dates recurred once, and only once, every fifty-two years, and had +recurred only once between the year of our era, 1450, and the Spanish conquest of +Mexico in 1519-’20. Within the period named the year “ten rabbit” of the Aztec +calendar corresponded with the year 1502 of the Gregorian calendar. It is more difficult +to fix the day, but it is, I think, safe to say that, according to the most probable +computations, the day, “one fish,” occurred in the first month of the year 1502, +which month coincided in whole or in part with our February.</p> + +<p>Such is the date on the inscription. Now, what is intimated to have occurred on +that date? The clew to this is furnished by the figure of the giant. It represents +an ogre of horrid mien with a death’s-head grin and formidable teeth, his hair wild +and long, the locks falling down upon the neck. Suspended on the breast as an +ornament is the bone of a human lower jaw, with its incisor teeth. The left leg is +thrown forward as in the act of walking, and the arms are uplifted, the hands open, +and the fingers extended as at the moment of seizing the prey or the victim. The +lines about the umbilicus represent the knot of the girdle which supported the +<i>maxtli</i> or breechcloth.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt as to which personage of the Aztec pantheon this fear-inspiring +figure represents. It is <i>Tzontemoc Mictlantecutli</i>, “the Lord of the Realm of the +Dead, He of the Falling Hair,” the dread god of death and the dead. His distinctive +marks are there, the death’s-head, the falling hair, the jaw bone, the terrible aspect, +the giant size.</p> + +<p>We possess several chronicles of the empire before Cortes destroyed it, written in +the hieroglyphs which the inventive genius of the natives had devised. Taking two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134">[134]</a></span> +of these chronicles, one known as the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, the other as the +Codex Vaticanus, I turn to the year numbered “ten” under the sign of the rabbit +and I find that both present the same record which I copy in the following figure.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<a href="images/dp191_pg134h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp191_pg134.jpg" class="hires" width="318" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—The Emperor Ahuitzotzin.</div> +</div> + +<p>The figure so copied is entitled “Extract from the Vatican Codex,” +which is a slight error. It is a copy from the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, +Kingsborough, <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pt. 4, p. 23, year 1502, which is here reproduced +as Fig. 99. The record in the Vatican Codex, Kingsborough, <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, +p. 130, differs in some unimportant details. It may also be noted that +in the text relating to the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, Kingsborough, +<span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, p. 141, the word Ahuitzotl is given as “the name of an aquatic +animal famous in Mexican mythology.” The present opportunity is +embraced to recognize the acumen displayed by Prof. Brinton in his +interpretation of the petroglyph. He proceeds as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The sign of the year (the rabbit) is shown merely by his head for brevity. The +ten dots, which give its number, are beside it. Immediately beneath is a curious +quadruped, with what are intended as water-drops dripping from him. The animal +is the hedgehog, and the figure is to be constructed <i>iconomatically</i>; that is, it must +be read as a rebus through the medium of the Nahuatl language. In that language +water is <i>atl</i>, in composition <i>a</i>, and hedgehog is <i>uitzotl</i>. Combine these and you get +<i>ahuitzotl</i>, or, with the reverential termination, <i>ahuitzotzin</i>. This was the name of +the ruler or emperor, if you allow the word, of ancient Mexico before the accession +to the throne of that Montezuma whom the Spanish <i>conquistador</i>, Cortes, put to +death.</p> + +<p>Returning to the page from the chronicle, we observe that the hieroglyph of +Ahuitzotzin is placed immediately over a corpse swathed in its mummy cloths, as +was the custom of interment with the highest classes in Mexico. This signifies that +the death of Ahuitzotzin took place in that year. Adjacent to it is the figure of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135">[135]</a></span> +successor, his name iconomatically represented by the headdress of the nobles, the +<i>tecuhtli</i>, giving the middle syllables of “<i>Mo-tecuh-zoma</i>.” No doubt is left that +<i>La Piedra de los Gigantes</i> of Escamela is a necrologic tablet commemorating the death +of the Emperor Ahuitzotzin, some time in February, 1502.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Eugène Boban (<i>a</i>) mentions manuscript copies, dating from the beginning +of the century, of various sculptured stones in Mexico. These +sculpturings represent native ideographic characters, among them the +<i>teocalli</i>, the <i>tepetl</i>, the sign <i>ollin</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>On several of the plates which compose this collection are notes indicating +the place where the monument, fragment, or ruin is found, from +which the characters are copied; for example, one of them bears the +note: “de la calle R<sup>l</sup> de la villa de Cuernabaca.” Several others bear +annotations which show that they have been copied in the cemetery, +in the streets of that town, or in its environs.</p> + +<p>Aside from these notes the plates are not accompanied by any information +which could give a trace of the person who drew them, or the purpose +for which they were intended.</p> + +<p>The same author (<i>b</i>) describes a large sculptured stone of Mexico, +the designs on which have been reproduced in paintings on deerskin. +After giving a detailed description of the copied MS. he speaks of the +stone as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>We deem it of interest to give some notes concerning the famous cylindrical stone, +both sculptured and painted, known by the name <i>Teocuauhxicalli</i> (the sacred drinking +vase of the eagles) on which are found the themes of all the designs which have +been above described. This stone, buried at the time of the Spanish Conquest, was +discovered in the first half of this century at the close of a series of excavations +made in the soil of the Place d’Armes, Mexico. The director of the national museum, +who was then M. Rafael Gondra, contented himself with taking the dimensions and +making a hurried sketch of it. It was then reinterred, as the necessary funds were +lacking to exhume it entirely and transport it to the museum.</p> + +<p>The name Teocuauhxicalli is composed of: <i>Teotl</i>, god; <i>cuauhili</i>, eagle, and <i>xicalli</i>, +hemispherical vase formed from the half of a gourd. It may be translated by, +“The vase of god and the eagles,” or, rather, “The sacred drinking cup of the +eagles.”</p> + +<p>“The Mexican monarch Axayacatl, jealous of his predecessor Motecuhzoma I, +took down the Teocuauhxicalli which was in the upper part of the Great Temple of +Mexico, and replaced it by another, sculptured by his order;” so says the eminent +Mexican archæologist and historian, Don Manuel Orozco y Berra, in his excellent +work, <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Historia Antigua y de la Conquesta de Mexico</span> (t. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 348). This monument +was also dedicated to the god of war, Huitzilopochtli.</p> + +<p>According to Duran and Tezozomoc, those stones on which gods were represented +were designated by the name Teocuauhxicalli; i. e., divine cuauhxicalli. They belonged +to the class of painted stones, for they were covered with several colors.</p> + +<p>Orozco y Berra adds the following: “It is evident that the figures sculptured and +painted do not represent armed warriors preparing for combat. On the contrary, we +see that they represent gods. Among them is found Huitzilopochtli (god of war) +with his arms and attributes, having before him another deity or high priest who holds +in his hands the emblems of the holocaust.</p> + +<p>“The figures of the upper part are not fighting and could not have known how +to fight, if we judge by their positions; the chest is turned back, the face raised +toward the sky, in which appears an object which resembles the astronomical sign +<i>cipactli</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<p>“Everywhere on the surface of this stone are noticed symbols, birds, quadrupeds, +fantastic reptiles, signs of the sun, days, months, and a quantity of objects whose +character is imitated in manuscripts and rituals. There can be no doubt that we are +in the presence of a monument devoted to the gods and bearing legends relative to +their worship. M. the minister of Fomento, D. Vicente Rivera Palacio, in 1877 +made several attempts at excavation in the Plaza Mayor of Mexico, to recover this +important monument, but all search remained unfruitful.”</p> + +<p>This stone is supposed to be buried beneath the Place d’Armes at Mexico.</p></div> + +<p>Mexican petroglyphs are also discussed and figured by Chavero (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<p>It would seem from these and other descriptions of and allusions to +petroglyphs in Mexico, that at the time of the Spanish conquest they +were extant in large numbers, though now seldom found. Perhaps the +Spaniards destroyed them in the same spirit which led them to burn up +many of the Mexican pictographs on paper and other substances.</p> + +<p>A number of illustrations of the Mexican pictographic writings are +given below under various headings.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> +<span class="subhead">WEST INDIES.</span></h3> + +<p>The valuable paper of A. L. Pinart (<i>a</i>), giving a description of the +petroglyphs found by him in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, is received +too late for reproduction of the illustrations. He explored a number of +the groups of the West Indies with varying success, but found that the +island of Puerto Rico was the one which now furnishes the greatest +amount of evidence of development in the pictographic art. His +marks translated with condensation appear below.</p> + + +<h4>PUERTO RICO.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The first petroglyph to be mentioned is found at la Cueva del Islote, on Punta +Braba, about 5 leagues east from Arecibo and on the north side of the island of Puerto +Rico. The grotto is found in an immense blackish mass of igneous rock, forming a +point projecting into the sea, which beats furiously against it; it communicates +with the sea at the foot, and the water entering this passage, which is quite narrow, +produces a terrific roaring followed soon after by veritable thunder claps. The +people of the neighborhood have a superstitious fear of it, and it is only with great +difficulty that anyone can be found to accompany one there. The entrance on +the land side is toward the east—a yawning crevasse, filled partly with rubbish +and partly by the stunted vegetation of the coast. On penetrating to the interior +we find, after following a short but wide passage, a pyriform chamber 20 +meters in diameter. In the ceiling a very narrow crack admits a ray of light which, +reflected in the water of the sea, filling the bottom of the cave, produces a bluish +twilight. Notwithstanding this twilight, we are obliged to carry torches to distinguish +objects. All around us, but especially over the point where the sea enters in, +are to be seen the inscriptions represented here. The incisions are very deep, and +the edges are generally dulled by the blows of the hammer; in certain spots, toward +the lower part of the grotto, several inscriptions are partially effaced by the action +of the sea, but those of the upper part are in a remarkable state of preservation. +Beneath certain principal figures of the groups are little circular basin-like depressions +cut in the rock with a trench running down toward the bottom.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137">[137]</a></span></p> + +<p>I will not attempt here to give a formal explanation of these inscriptions, but may +we not regard the spot in which they are found as having served for a rendezvous +for the ancient Borrinqueños where they performed their sacrifices or the ceremonies +of their religion? On the other hand, the appearance of these inscriptions is very +peculiar. One of them might be considered a representation of those little figurines +and statuettes of stone found in Mexico, in Mixteca, and in the country to the south. +In another a head is curiously decorated with a diadem of feathers, and apparently +represents one presiding at a feast served in the small circular basin set before him. +The most noticeable thing in this group of inscriptions is the frequency of the grinning +faces in a circle, often alone, often accompanied by two others placed at the +sides, which are universally met with in every inscription found in the Greater and +Lesser Antilles. The same may be said of the human figure apparently swaddled +in cloths like a very young infant, the head and body more or less decorated, which +is also very frequently found.</p> + +<p>Following these petroglyphs of Islote, we present a list of others discovered at +Puerto Rico, hastily describing them and giving a particular description only of those +which are of the greatest interest.</p> + +<p>In the above-mentioned grotto of Cueva de los Archillas, near the village of +Ciales, we observed the curious figures bearing traces of a crown and peculiar ear +ornaments. In la Cueva de los Conejos, some distance from Arecibo, on the road +from Utauado, we found a figure partly incised and partly painted in a dark red; it +is very artistically fashioned, and represents the famous “guava,” the monster +spider of the Greater Antilles, of which the natives have a great dread. It is probable +that the ancient Borrinqueños also considered it with a certain awe, and we find +images of the same animal in la Cueva del Templo on the coast of Haiti, at Santo +Domingo. A solitary rock of a reddish color, in a field of the hacienda of Don Pedro +Pavez at la Carolina, a short distance from the Rio Pedras, bears a series of grimacing +faces in circles. On a granitic rock of large dimensions, superimposed on a heap +of rocks of the same character, in the midst of a grove of Indian trees and at the entrance +of the Cano del Indio into Rio la Ceiba, near Fajardo, on the east side, are +found three swaddled human figures, the heads decorated with various ornaments. +On a black rock in the Rio Arriba, one of the branches of the Rio de la Ceiba, is a +petroglyph which presents but little that is of interest.</p> + +<p>On the Loma Muñoz, near the Rio Arriba above mentioned, and on the summit of +the hill, stands a dark rock with smooth face protected by another mass of rock, +forming a sort of shelter on which is an inscription composed of a number of incised +grinning faces. At the confluence of the Rio Blanco and the Rio de la Ceiba, in the +district of Fajardo, is a series of violent rapids formed by immense rocks of a granitic +character, on which are cut a large number of other grimacing faces and also some +swaddled figures, and other incisions which are not of interest.</p></div> + + +<h4>BAHAMA ISLANDS.</h4> + +<p>Lady Edith Blake, wife of Sir Henry Arthur Blake, formerly governor +of the Bahama islands, has kindly furnished the following information +and sketches (Figs. 100, 101, and 102), relating to petroglyphs in the +Bahama islands. Lady Blake says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The carvings are on the walls of an “Indian hole,” also called Hartford cave, in +the northern shore of a small island in Rum Cay, one of the Bahama group. Rum +Cay measures 5 miles from north to south and about 8 or 9 from east to west. It +lies 20 miles northwest of Watlings island, the San Salvador of Columbus.</p> + +<p>The cave is situated on the seashore about a mile and a half from the western +point of the island to the eastward of a bluff, close to which is a “puffing hole,” +through which the waves blow when the seas roll in from the north. The cave is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138">[138]</a></span> +semicircular in shape and about 20 yards in depth, and is partially filled with debris +of rocks, earth, and sand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp197_pg138ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp197_pg138a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="237" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Petroglyphs in the Bahamas.</div> +</div> + +<p>Like all rocks of which the Bahamas are formed, those in Hartford cave are a mixture +of coral, detritus, and shell, very rough and full of cracks and indentations, and +in this cave, from the constant damp of filtration and spray, the walls were coated +with a deposit of lime and salt, so that it would be impossible to say if the carvings +had been colored. If ever they had been, any traces of coloring must long have +disappeared. Besides the markings copied there were others scattered over the walls +of the cave, most of which were circles apparently resembling human faces. Unfortunately, +we neglected to measure the carvings, but I should judge the circles or +faces to be 10 inches or more across, while others of the figures must have been a foot +and a half in length, and the markings must have been nearly half an inch in depth, +cut into the face of the rock, and seemed to us such as might have been made with a +sharp stone implement. Although we visited numerous caves in the various islands +of the Bahamas, in no other did we find any appearance of markings or carvings on +the walls, nor could we hear of any reported to have such markings.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139">[139]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp197_pg138bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp197_pg138b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="300" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—Petroglyphs in the Bahamas.</div> +</div> + +<p>The absence of any traces of carvings in other caves whose situation was better +adapted for the preservation of markings, had such ever existed, and the proof that +their contents afforded that most of those caves had been known to the Lucayans +and used by them as burying places or otherwise, and the close proximity of Hartford +cave to the sea, taken in connection with the great number of markings on its +walls, led me to think that possibly this cave had been the resort of the marauding +tribes whom the Lucayans gave Columbus to understand were their enemies, and +who were in the habit of making war upon them; and if so, the Caribs, or whatever +tribe it may have been, had left these rock markings as mementos of their various +expeditions and guides to succeeding ones.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp198_pg139h.png"> +<img src="images/dp198_pg139.png" class="hires" width="500" height="168" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Petroglyphs in the Bahamas.</div> +</div> + +<p>The above-mentioned petroglyphs bear a remarkable similarity to +those in British Guiana figured and described below, and the authorship +would seem to relate to the same group of natives, the Caribs.</p> + + +<h4>GUADELOUPE.</h4> + +<p>In the Guesde collection of antiquities, described in the Smithsonian +report for 1884, p. 834, Fig. 208, here reproduced as Fig. 103, is an inscribed +slab found in Guadeloupe. It weighs several tons and it is impossible +to remove it. In the vicinity are to be seen many other rocks +bearing inscriptions, but this is the most elaborate of the group.</p> + +<p>The inscriptions may be compared with those from Guiana presented +in this work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> +<a href="images/dp199_pg140h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp199_pg140.jpg" class="hires" width="451" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Petroglyph in Guadeloupe.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>ARUBA.</h4> + +<p>Pinart (<i>b</i>) gives the following account, translated and condensed:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The island of Aruba forms one of the group of the islands of Curaçao, on the north +coast of Venezuela. This group consists of three principal islands, Curaçao, Buen +Ayre, Aruba, and some isolated rocks. It belongs to Holland.</p> + +<p>Aruba is the most western island of the group and is situated opposite the peninsula +of Paraguana, on the mainland. The distance between the two is about 10 +leagues, and from the island the shores of the continent can be seen very distinctly.</p> + +<p>These islands, at the time of the discovery by the Spaniards, were inhabited by an +Indian race which has left numerous traces of its occupancy; pottery, stone objects, +petroglyphs, etc., are met with in large numbers in Aruba and in a less quantity on +Buen Ayre and Curaçao. * * * These petroglyphs are quite different in character +from those which I have recently described in a brief study of the Greater and Lesser +Antilles, and their appearance brings to mind those found in Orinoco, in Venezuela, +in the peninsula of Paraguana, on the border of the Magdalena river, and as far as +Chiriqui. They differ from these, however, in several respects, and especially in +that they are almost always multi-colored. The colors usually employed are red,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140">[140]</a></span> +blue, a yellowish white, and black. They are, moreover, painted and not cut in the +rock. They show the same degree of variance as I have already noticed in North +America—in Sonora, Arizona, and Chihuahua—between the petroglyphs which I have +designated as Pimos, which are always incised, and those in the mountains which +I designated as Comanche, and which are always painted and in many colors. The +petroglyphs are, as has already been said, very numerous on the island of Aruba. I +have personal knowledge of thirty, but, according to my friend Père van Kolwsjk, +there must be more than fifty. The most important groups are as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) <i>Avikok.</i> An enormous dark rock forms the summit of a wooded knob, and in +this rock are two large cavities, one above the other, on the walls of which are the +petroglyphs represented.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Fontein.</i> On the border of a fresh-water lagoon, a short distance from the +northeast part of the island, near the sea, is a grotto of coralline origin, whose walls +are of remarkable whiteness. This grotto is composed of a principal passage, quite +wide, cut off toward the lower end by a row of stalactites and stalagmites, which, +joining together, form a curious grimacing figure. On the wall to the left, as we +look toward the bottom of the grotto, are found some petroglyphs. They are well +preserved, thanks to their situation and the shelter from inclement weather, and +they show no indication of painting, being distinctly traced on the walls.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Chiribana.</i> On some granitic spurs of a hill of the same name are found curious +petroglyphs.</p> + +<p>(4) At Lero de Wajukan, near Avikok, and at the foot of a hill, petroglyphs are +found on some blocks of granite. I notice specially the human figure which in the +original is outlined in red and bears on the shoulder a hatchet of the Carib type +with a haft.</p> + +<p>(5) At Ayo I discovered petroglyphs with figures in blue and red.</p> + +<p>(6) At Woeboeri inscriptions are found on the wall of an immense mass of granite.</p> + +<p>(7) Some petroglyphs on the walls of a grotto at Karasito.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141">[141]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER III.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PETROGLYPHS IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA.</span></h2> + + +<p>Some writers have endeavored to draw definite ethnic distinctions +between the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North America and those +farther south. The opinions and theories which have favored such discriminations +have originated in error and ignorance. Until lately there +has been but scanty scientific investigation of the peoples of Central and +South America and but a limited exploration of the regions now or +formerly occupied by them. The latest opinion of the best ethnologists +is that no sufficient reason can be shown for separate racial classification +of the aborigines of the three Americas. The examples of petroglyphs +now presented from Central and South America, all of which +are selected as typical, show remarkable similarity to some of those +above illustrated and described, especially to those in California, New +Mexico, and Arizona. This topic is further discussed under the heading +of Special Comparison, Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page676">XX</a></span>, infra.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION I.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PETROGLYPHS IN CENTRAL AMERICA.</span></h3> + + +<h4>NICARAGUA.</h4> + + + + + +<p>Dr. J. F. Bransford (<i>a</i>) gives the following +account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On a hillside on the southern end of the island of +Ometepec, Nicaragua, about 1½ miles east of Point +San Ramon, are many irregular blocks of basalt with +marks and figures cut on them. The hillside faces +east, and is about half a mile from the lake. There +were similar markings on many of the shore rocks, +which, in May, were partially covered with water, +notwithstanding that that was about the driest season. +These markings were excavated about half an +inch in depth and a little more in width. Human +faces and spiral lines predominated. There was also +a crown, a representation of a monkey, and many +irregular figures.</p></div> + +<p>Several illustrations from these rocks are +presented, infra, in Figs. <a href="#page686">1102</a> and <a href="#page686">1103</a>, and one is reproduced in this +connection as Fig. 104.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;"> +<img src="images/dp200_pg141.png" width="290" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—Petroglyphs in Nicaragua.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142">[142]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>GUATEMALA.</h4> + +<p>The following extract is taken from the work of Dr. S. Habel (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Santa Lucia is a village in the Republic of Guatemala, in the Department of +Esquintla, near the base of the Volcano del Fuego, at the commencement of the +inclined plane which extends from the mountain range to the coast of the Pacific +Ocean. * * *</p> + +<p>The sculptured slabs are in the vicinity of the village. The greater number of +them form an extended heap, rendering it probable that there are others hidden +from view that more extended researches would reveal. * * * All the sculptures, +with the exception of three statues, are in low relief, nearly all being in cavo-relievo, +that is, surrounded by a raised border, the height of which indicates the +elevation of the relief. The same kind of relief was practiced by the ancient +Assyrians and Egyptians.</p> + +<p>In seven instances the sculpture represents a person adoring a deity of a different +theological conception in each case. One of these seems to represent the sun, another +the moon, while in the remaining five it is impossible to define their character. All +these deities are represented by a human figure, of which only the head, arms, and +breast are correctly portrayed, proving that the religious conceptions had risen to +anthropomorphism, while the idols of the nations of Central America and Mexico, +which have previously come to our knowledge, are represented by disfigured human +forms or grotesque images.</p> + +<p>Four of the other sculptures represent allegorical subjects; two of them the myth +of the griffin, the bird of the sun.</p> + +<p>The slabs on which the low reliefs are sculptured are of various sizes; the greater +number of these, like those representing the deities, are 12 feet in length, 3 feet in +width, and 2 feet in thickness. Nine feet of the upper part of these stones are occupied +by the sculptures, while the lower 3 feet appear to have served as a base.</p></div> + +<p>Several illustrations of these rock sculptures are presented, infra, as +Figs. <a href="#page730">1235</a> and <a href="#page731">1236</a>. It is evident that these very large slabs received +their markings when they were in the locality in which they are now +found so can be classed geographically.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SOUTH AMERICA.</span></h3> + +<p>Alexander von Humboldt (<i>a</i>) gives general remarks, now condensed, +upon petroglyphs in South America:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the interior of South America, between the second and fourth degrees of north +latitude, a forest-covered plain is inclosed by four rivers, the Orinoco, the Atabapo, +the Rio Negro, and the Cassiquiare. In this district are found rocks of granite and +of syenite, covered with colossal symbolical figures of crocodiles and tigers, and +drawings of household utensils, and of the sun and moon. The tribes nearest to its +boundaries are wandering naked savages, in the lowest stages of human existence, +and far removed from any thoughts of carving hieroglyphics on rocks. One may +trace in South America an entire zone, extending through more than 8° of longitude, +of rocks so ornamented, viz, from the Rupuniri, Essequibo, and the mountains +of Pacaraima, to the banks of the Orinoco and of the Yupura. These carvings +may belong to very different epochs, for Sir Robert Schomburgk even found on the +Rio Negro representations of a Spanish galiot, which must have been of a later date +than the beginning of the sixteenth century; and this in a wilderness where the natives +were probably as rude then as at the present time. Some miles from Encaramada<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143">[143]</a></span> +there rises in the middle of the savannah the rock Tepu-Mereme, or painted rock. +It shows several figures of animals and symbolical outlines which resemble much +those observed by us at some distance above Encaramada, near Caycara. Rocks +thus marked are found between the Cassiquiare and the Atabapo and, what is particularly +remarkable, 560 geographical miles farther to the east, in the solitudes of +Parime. Nicholas Hortsmann found on the banks of the Rupunuri, at the spot +where the river winding between the Macarana mountains forms several small +cascades, and before arriving at the district immediately surrounding lake Amucu, +“rocks covered with figures,” or, as he says in Portuguese, “<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">de varias letras</span>.” We were +shown at the rock of Culimacari, on the banks of the Cassiquiare, signs which were +called characters, arranged in lines, but they were only ill-shaped figures of heavenly +bodies, boa-serpents, and the utensils employed in preparing manioc meal. I have +never found among these painted rocks (<span lang="es" xml:lang="es">piedras pintadas</span>) any symmetrical arrangement +or any regular even-spaced characters. I am therefore disposed to think that +the word “<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">letras</span>,” in Hortsmann’s journal, must not be taken in the strictest sense.</p> + +<p>Schomburgk saw and described other petroglyphs on the banks of the Essequibo, +near the cascade of Warraputa. Neither promises nor threats could prevail on the +Indians to give a single blow with a hammer to these rocks, the venerable monuments +of the superior mental cultivation of their predecessors. They regard them +as the work of the Great Spirit, and the different tribes whom we met with, though +living at a great distance, were nevertheless acquainted with them. Terror was +painted on the faces of my Indian companions, who appeared to expect every moment +that the fire of heaven would fall on my head. I saw clearly that my endeavors +to detach a portion of the rock would be fruitless, and I contented myself with +bringing away a complete drawing of these memorials. Even the veneration everywhere +testified by the Indians of the present day for these rude sculptures of their +predecessors show that they have no idea of the execution of similar works. There +is another circumstance which should be mentioned. Between Encaramada and +Caycara, on the banks of the Orinoco, a number of these hieroglyphical figures are +sculptured on the face of precipices at a height which could now be reached only by +means of extraordinarily high scaffolding. If one asks the natives how these figures +have been cut, they answer, laughing, as if it were a fact of which none but a white +man could be ignorant, that “in the days of the great waters their fathers went in +canoes at that height.”</p></div> + + +<h4>UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. W. H. Holmes (<i>b</i>), of the Bureau of Ethnology, gives this account +of petroglyphs in the province of Chiriqui, state of Panama:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Pictured rocks.</i>—Our accounts of these objects are very meager. The only one +definitely described is the “<span lang="es" xml:lang="es">piedra pintal</span>.” A few of the figures engraved upon it +are given by Seemann, from whom the following paragraph is quoted:</p> + +<p>“At Caldera, a few leagues (north) from the town of David, lies a granite block +known to the country people as the <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">piedra pintal</span> or painted stone. It is 15 feet +high, nearly 50 feet in circumference, and flat on the top. Every part, especially +the eastern side, is covered with figures. One represents a radiant sun; it is followed +by a series of heads, all with some variations, scorpions, and fantastic figures. +The top and the other side have signs of a circular and oval form, crossed by lines. +The sculpture is ascribed to the Dorachos (or Dorasques), but to what purpose the +stone was applied no historical account or tradition reveals.”</p> + +<p>These inscriptions are irregularly placed and much scattered. They are thought +to have been originally nearly an inch deep, but in places are almost effaced by +weathering, thus giving a suggestion of great antiquity. Tracings of these figures +made recently by Mr. A. L. Pinart show decided differences in detail, and Mr. McNiel +gives still another transcription.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144">[144]</a></span></p> + +<p>In Fig. 105 Mr. McNiel’s sketch of the southwest face of the rock is +presented.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp203_pg144h.png"> +<img src="images/dp203_pg144.png" class="hires" width="500" height="197" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—Petroglyphs in Colombia.</div> +</div> + +<p>Other illustrations from Colombia appear as Figs. <a href="#page194">151</a> and <a href="#page705">1166</a>, infra.</p> + + +<h4>GUIANA.</h4> + +<p>The name of Guiana has been applied to the territory between the +rivers Amazon, Orinoco, Negro, and Cassiquiare. It was once divided +into the French, British, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish Guianas. +The Portuguese Guiana now belongs to Brazil and Spanish Guiana is +part of Venezuela. Many petroglyphs have been found in the several +Guianas. They appear throughout the whole of the part belonging to +Venezuela, but they are more thickly grouped in parts of the valley of +the Orinoco.</p> + +<p>The subject is well discussed in the following extract from Among +the Indians of Guiana, by im Thurn (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The pictured rocks of Guiana are not all of one kind. In all cases various figures +are rudely depicted on larger or smaller surfaces of rocks. Sometimes these figures +are painted, though such cases are few and of but little moment; more generally +they are graven on the rock, and these alone are of great importance. Rock sculptures +may, again, be distinguished into two kinds, differing in the depth of incision, +the apparent mode of execution, and, most important of all, the character of the +figures represented.</p> + +<p>Painted rocks in British Guiana are mentioned by Mr. C. Barrington Brown. He +says that in coming down past Amailah fall, on the Cooriebrong river, he passed “a +large white sandstone rock ornamented with figures in red paint.” * * * Mr. +Wallace, in his account of his Travels on the Amazons, mentions the occurrence of +similar drawings in more than one place near the Amazons. * * *</p> + +<p>The engraved rocks must be of some antiquity; that is to say, they must certainly +date from a time before the influence of Europeans was much felt in Guiana. As has +already been said, the engravings are of two kinds and are probably the work of +two different people; nor is there even any reason to suppose that the two kinds +were produced at one and the same time.</p> + +<p>These two kinds of engravings may, for the sake of convenience, be distinguished +as “deep” and “shallow,” respectively, according as the figures are deeply cut into +the rock or are merely scratched on the surface. The former vary from one-eighth +to one-half of an inch, or even more, in depth; the latter are of quite inconsiderable +depth. This difference probably corresponds with a difference in the means by +which they were produced. The deep engravings seem cut into the rock with an +edged tool, probably of stone; the shallow figures were apparently formed by long<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145">[145]</a></span> +continued friction with stones and moist sand. The two kinds seem never to occur +in the same place or even near to each other; in fact, a distinct line may almost be +drawn between the districts in which the deep and shallow kinds occur, respectively; +the deep form occurs at several spots on the Mazeruni, Essequibo, Ireng, Cotinga, +Potaro, and Berbice rivers. The shallow form has as yet only been reported from +the Corentyn river and its tributaries, where, however, examples occur in considerable +abundance. But the two kinds differ not only in the depth of incision, in the +apparent mode of their production, and in the place of their occurrence, but also—and +this is the chief difference between the two—in the figures represented.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 106 is a typical example of the shallow carvings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> +<a href="images/dp204_pg145h.png"> +<img src="images/dp204_pg145.png" class="hires" width="420" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Shallow carvings in Guiana.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. <a href="#page686">1104</a>, infra, is a similar example of the deep carvings.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The shallow engravings seem always to occur on comparatively large and more +or less smooth surfaces of rock, and rarely, if ever, as the deep figures, on detached +blocks of rock, piled one on the other. The shallow figures, too, are generally much +larger, always combinations of straight or curved lines in figures much more elaborate +than those in the deep engravings; and these shallow pictures always represent +not animals, but greater or less variations of the figure which has been described. +Lastly, though I am not certain that much significance can be attributed to this, all +the examples that I have seen face more or less accurately eastward.</p> + +<p>The deep engravings, on the other hand, consist not of a single figure but of a greater +or less number of rude drawings. * * * These depict the human form, monkeys, +snakes, and other animals, and also very simple combinations of two or three straight<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146">[146]</a></span> +or curved lines in a pattern, and occasionally more elaborate combinations. The individual +figures are small, averaging from 12 to 18 inches in height, but a considerable +number are generally represented in a group.</p> + +<p>Some of the best examples of this latter kind are at Warrapoota cataracts, about +six days’ journey up the Essequibo.</p> + +<p>* * * The commonest figures at Warrapoota are figures of men or perhaps +sometimes monkeys. These are very simple and generally consist of one straight line, +representing the trunk, crossed by two straight lines at right angles to the body +line; one about two-thirds of the distance from the top, represents the two arms as +far as the elbows, where upward lines represent the lower part of the arms; the +other, which is at the lower end, represent the two legs as far as the knees, from +which point downward lines represent the lower part of the legs. A round dot, or a +small circle, at the top of the trunk line, forms the head; and there are a few radiating +lines where the fingers, a few more where the toes, should be. Occasionally the +trunk line is produced downwards as if to represent a long tail. Perhaps the tailless +figures represent men, the tailed monkeys. In a few cases the trunk, instead of +being indicated by one straight line, is formed by two curved lines, representing the +rounded outlines of the body; and the body thus formed is bisected by a row of +dots, almost invariably nine in number, which seem to represent vertebræ.</p> + +<p>Most of the other figures at Warrapoota are very simple combinations of two, three, +or four straight lines similar to the so-called “Greek meander pattern,” which is of +such widespread occurrence. Combinations of curved and simple spiral lines also +frequently occur. Many of these combinations closely resemble the figures which +the Indians of the present day paint on their faces and naked bodies.</p></div> + +<p>The same author (pp. 368, 369) gives the following account of the +superstitious reverence entertained for the petroglyphs by the living +Indians of Guiana:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Every time a sculptured rock or striking mountain or stone is seen, Indians avert +the ill will of the spirits of such places by rubbing red peppers (<i>Capsicum</i>) each in +his or her own eyes. * * * Though the old practitioners inflict this self-torture +with the utmost stoicism, I have again and again seen that otherwise rare sight of +Indians children, and even young men, sobbing under the infliction. Yet the ceremony +was never omitted. Sometimes, when by a rare chance no member of the party +had had the forethought to provide peppers, lime juice was used as a substitute; and +once, when neither peppers nor limes were at hand, a piece of blue indigo-dyed +cloth was carefully soaked, and the dye was then rubbed into the eyes.</p></div> + +<p>The same author (<i>b</i>) adds:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It may be as well briefly to sum up the few facts that can be said, with any probability, +of these rock pictures in Guiana. The engravings are of two kinds, which +may or may not have had different authors and different intention. They were still +produced after the first arrival of Europeans, as is shown by the sculptured ship. +They were, therefore, probably made by the ancestors of the Indians now in the +country; for, from the writings of Raleigh and other early explorers, as well as from +the statements of early colonists, it is to be gathered that the present tribes were +already in Guiana at the time of the first arrival of Europeans, though not perhaps +in the same relative positions as at present. The art of stone-working being destroyed +by the arrival of Europeans, the practice of rock-engraving ceased. Possibly +the customary figures were for a time painted instead of engraved; but this degenerated +habit was also soon relinquished. As to the intention of the figures, that they +had some seems certain, but what kind this was is not clear. Finally, these figures +really seem to indicate some very slight connection with Mexican civilization.</p></div> + +<p>The following extract from a paper on the Indian picture-writing in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147">[147]</a></span> +British Guiana, by Mr. Charles B. Brown (<i>a</i>), gives views and details +somewhat different from the foregoing:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These writings or markings are visible at a greater or less distance in proportion +to the depth of the furrows. In some instances they are distinctly visible upon the +rocks on the banks of the river at a distance of 100 yards; in others they are so faint +that they can only be seen in certain lights by reflected rays from their polished +surfaces. They occur upon greenstone, granite, quartz-porphyry, gneiss, and jasperous +sandstone, both in a vertical and horizontal position, at various elevations +above the water. Sometimes they can only be seen during the dry season when the +rivers are low, as in several instances on the Berbice and Cassikytyn rivers. In one +instance, on the Corentyn river, the markings on the rock are so much above the +level of the river when at its greatest height, that they could only have been made +by erecting a staging against the face of the rock, unless the river was at the time +much above its usual level. The widths of the furrows vary from half an inch to 1 +inch, while the depth never exceeds one-fourth of an inch. * * * The furrows +present the same weather-stained aspect as the rocks upon which they are cut. * * *</p> + +<p>The Indians of Guiana know nothing about the picture-writing by tradition. +They scout the idea of their having been made by the hand of man, and ascribe them +to the handiwork of the Makunaima, their great spirit. * * *</p> + +<p>As these figures were evidently cut with great care and at much labor by a former +race of men, I conclude that they were made for some great purpose, probably a +religious one, as some of the figures give indications of phallic worship.</p></div> + + +<h4>VENEZUELA.</h4> + +<p>Prof. R. Hartmann (<i>a</i>) presented a pencil drawing of a South American +rock, covered with sculptures, sketched by Mr. Anton Goering, a +painter in Leipzig, which is here reproduced as Fig. 107. The rock is +situated not far from San Esteban, a village in the vicinity of Puerto +Cabello, in Venezuela. C. F. Appun, in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter den Tropen</span>, I, p. 82, +remarks as follows in reference to this “<span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Piedra de los Indios</span>” (Indians’ +stone), a large granite block lying by the side of the road:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp206_pg147h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp206_pg147.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="260" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Sculptured rock in Venezuela.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These drawings, cut in the stone to a depth of half an inch, mostly represent +snakes and other animal forms, human heads and spiral lines, and differ from those +which I afterward saw in Guiana, on the Essequibo and Rupununi, in characters<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148">[148]</a></span> +and forms, but their execution, like that of the latter, is rude. Though greatly +weathered by the influence of rain and the atmosphere, the figures can still be perfectly +distinguished and gigantic patience, such as none but Indians possess, was +surely needed to carve them in the hard granite mass by means of a stone.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. G. Marcano (<i>a</i>) gives an account translated as follows, which is +connected with Fig. 108:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp207_pg148h.png"> +<img src="images/dp207_pg148.png" class="hires" width="500" height="122" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Rock near Caïcara, Venezuela.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A tradition, the legend of the rock of Tepumereme, has been preserved by Father +Gili. Some old writers, adhering to the Tamanak acceptation of the word, say +indifferently tepumeremes or <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">rocas pintadas</span> (painted rocks). Usage has converted +Tepumereme into a proper noun. At the present day it is applied exclusively to the +rock situated some leagues from Encaramada, in the midst of the savanna, this rock +having been the Mount Ararat of the Tamanaks.</p> + +<p>Supposing that it is authentic, this legend, which we will relate further on [see +<a href="#page033">page 33</a>, supra], yields no information that might aid us in interpreting hieroglyphs, +and so we are reduced to describing its principal characters.</p> + +<p>Not all our pictographs correspond to the region of the Raudals, but in our ignorance +of the peoples who carved them we see no harm in bringing them together so +long as they all come from the banks of the Orinoco, and so long as the localities +where they exist are indicated. The copies which we give of them have been very +carefully made and reduced to one-tenth.</p> + +<p>The first thing that strikes one on looking at them is that, despite differences in +detail, the design presents a general common character. In fact, there is question not +of figures with undecided forms, but with sure lines perfectly traced and combined in +one and the same style. They are geometric designs rather than objective representations. +The illustration [Fig. 108] came from a rock in the vicinity of Caïcara, +a town situated on the right bank of the Orinoco, close to its last great bend. It +represents three jaguars, one large and two small, the former being separated from +the latter by an ornamented sun placed at the level of their feet. The spotting of +their hides is rendered by means of angular lines arranged in so regular a manner +that one might take them to be tigers did he not know that these felines never existed +in these regions. The jaguars differ in insignificant details which, however, +must have a purpose, in view of the general regularity. The largest shows six radiating +lines on the muzzle and a circle in one of the ears. The second shows two +hooks on the lower part of the body. The third is preceded by an isolated head, +which is unfinished, without ears, inclined differently from the others. Some differences +are also noted in the limbs.</p> + +<p>Placed in the attitude of marching, these animals seem to descend from a height +and to follow the same direction. Perhaps there is question here of a mnemonic +whole, and, we might add, of a totem, if we knew that that system had been employed +by the Indians of the region.</p></div> + +<p>The same author (p. 205) gives a description of the petroglyphs of the +rapids of Chicagua, here presented as Fig. 109.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"> +<a href="images/dp208_pg149h.png"> +<img src="images/dp208_pg149.png" class="hires" width="387" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—Petroglyphs of Chicagua rapids, Venezuela.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This interesting collection includes the most varied ideographs.</p> + +<p>Alongside of representations analogous to the preceding there appear new characters<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149">[149]</a></span> +and partial groupings which we had not yet found. On running over them one +passes successively from simple points to figures made up of tangled lines, to objective +representations, and even to letters of the alphabet, a resemblance which, of course, +is fortuitous.</p> + +<p>The first group begins by three points similar to those in Fig. 19 [of Marcano, occurring +in Fig. <a href="#page687">1105</a> in this paper], followed by two circles with central dots, and terminates +below in a plexus of broken lines. The second group, placed at the right, is +composed of regular figures of great variety. Among them we note the two lowest, +one of which resembles a K and the other a reversed A. A spiral, two circles, one of +which has two appendices, and a figure in broken lines make up the third group. +Below is seen a coiled serpent. Its head is characteristic; it is found in other pre-Columbian +carvings of the Orinoco. As regards design e, we will merely call attention +to the sign analogous to the E of our alphabet. It is found at times in the +United States of America. [For this remark the author refers to the ideograph for +pain, in Figs. <a href="#page576">824</a> and <a href="#page589">872</a>, infra.]</p> + +<p>Design <i>f</i> is an animal difficult to characterize; its head and tail may be guessed +at. The body is covered with ornaments and the legs, very incomplete, are in the +attitude of running. Design <i>g</i> represents probably a tree with an appendix of undulating +lines; design <i>h</i>, a head surmounted by a complicated headgear. This is +the first distinctly human representation that we have found in the country. The +strange combinations of designs <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, and <i>l</i> exhibit the dots at the end of the lines +which we have already spoken of. Design <i>m</i> resembles an M; design <i>n</i> shows a +circle with plane face.</p> + +<p>Thus we see that the statements of some travelers concerning mysterious hieroglyphic +combinations are far from being realized. As regards the exaggerations of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150">[150]</a></span> +Humboldt, they arise from the fact that he did not content himself with describing +what he had seen. This is illustrated by the following sentence: “There is even +seen on a grassy plain near Uruana an isolated granite rock on which, according +to the account of <i>trustworthy people</i>, there are seen at a height of 80 feet deeply +carved images which appear arranged in rows and represent the sun, the moon, and +different species of animals, especially crocodiles and boas.” Elsewhere he speaks +of kitchen and household utensils and of a number of objects which he can only +have seen with the eyes of his imagination.</p></div> + +<p>Other illustrations of pictographs in Venezuela are presented as +Figs. <a href="#page195">152</a>, <a href="#page195">153</a>, <a href="#page687">1105</a> and <a href="#page689">1106</a>, infra.</p> + + +<h4>BRAZIL.</h4> + +<p>Remarks of general applicability to this region are made by Mr. J. +Whitfield (<i>a</i>), an abstract of which follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The rock inscriptions were visited in August, 1865. Several similar inscriptions +are said to exist in the interior of the province of Ceará, as well as in the provinces +of Pernambuco and Piauhy, especially in the Sertaōs, that is, in the thinly-wooded +parts of the interior, but no mention is ever made of their having been seen near the +coast.</p> + +<p>In the margin and bed only of the river are the rocks inscribed. On the margin +they extend in some instances to 15 or 20 yards. Except in the rainy season the +stream is dry. The rock is a silicious schist of excessively hard and flinty texture. +The marks have the appearance of having been made with a blunt, heavy tool, such +as might be made with an almost worn-out mason’s hammer. The situation is about +midway between Serra Grande or Ibiapaba and Serra Merioca, about 70 miles from +the coast and 40 west of the town Sobral. The native population attribute all the +“<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Letreiros</span>” (inscriptions), as they do everything else of which they have no information, +to the Dutch, as records of hidden wealth. The Dutch, however, only occupied +the country for a few years in the early part of the seventeenth century. Along the +coast numerous forts, the works of the Dutch, still remain; but there are no authentic +records of their ever having established themselves in the interior of the country, and +less probability still of their amusing themselves with inscribing puzzling hieroglyphics, +which must have been a work of time, on the rocks of the far interior, for +the admiration of wandering Indians.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Franz Keller (<i>a</i>) narrates as follows regarding Fig. 110:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp210_pg151ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp210_pg151a.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="178" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—Petroglyphs on the Cachoeira do Ribeirão, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I found a “written rock” covered with spiral lines and concentric rings, evenly +carved in the black gneiss-like material, and similar to those of the Caldeirão. +Looking about for more, I discovered a perfect inscription, whose straight orderly +lines can hardly be thought the result of lazy Indians’ “hours of idleness.” These +characters were incised on a very hard smooth block 3 feet 4 inches in length, and +3¼ feet in height and breadth. It lay at an angle of 45°, only 8 feet above low water, +and close to the water’s edge of the second smaller rapid, the Cachoeira do Ribeirão. +The transverse section of the characters is not very deep, and their surface is as worn +as that of the inscription farther down. In some places they are almost effaced by +time and are to be seen distinctly only with a favorable light. A dark brown coat +of glaze, found everywhere on the surface of the stones, laved at times by the water, +covers the block so uniformly well on the concave glyphs as on the parts untouched +by instrument, that many ages must have elapsed since some patient Indian spent +long hours in cutting them out with his quartz chisel. As the lines of the inscription +run almost perfectly horizontally, and as the figures near the Caldeirão and the +Cachoeira and the Cachoeira das Lages are so little above low-water mark, the +present position of the block seems to have been the original one. * * * On the +rocky shores of the Araguaya, that huge tributary of the Tocantino, there are similar +rude outlines of animals near a rapid called Martirios, from the first Portuguese explorers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151">[151]</a></span> +fancying they recognized the instruments of the Passion in the clumsy representation.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Ladisláu Netto (<i>a</i>) gives the illustration, reproduced as Fig. 111, of +an inscription discovered by Domingos S. Ferreira Penna on the rock +called Itamaraca, on the Rio Xingu. Dr. Netto’s description is translated +as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;"> +<a href="images/dp210_pg151bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp210_pg151b.png" class="hires" width="305" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—The rock Itamaraca, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152">[152]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This whole inscription seems to represent one idea, figuring a collection of villages +of vast proportions, inclosed by fortifications on two sides, at which it seems most +accessible. On these same sides this collection of villages has external constructions +or means of security, a kind of meanders or symbolic figures, which perhaps +signify difficulties besetting the communication of the inhabitants with the surrounding +fields.</p> + +<p>In the lower part of the left-hand side there is a group of figures which seem to +represent residences of chiefs, war houses, or redoubts, built near the principal +entrance to the villages or to the city for its defense. There are found three figures +of saurians, one with a large tail, on the side of the redoubts or fortified houses, as +if representing the population, and two with small tails, which seem strange, and +which walk toward the first.</p> + +<p>This inscription is evidently the most perfect and the most notable of those found +till now in all America [?], not only by its perfect condition and dimensions, but +also by the mode in which a series of ideas has here been brought together.</p></div> + +<p>The same author, on p. 552, furnishes copies +of inscriptions carved on stones in the valley +of the Rio Negro, and remarks: “In this series +there are notable the two crowned personages +[represented here in Fig. 112], one of whom holds +a staff in the right hand, and below and under +them there are two figures of capibars (sea-hogs) +facing each other, and whose representation in +black color resembles some figures from the inscriptions +of North America.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;"> +<img src="images/dp211_pg152a.png" width="437" height="448" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—Petroglyphs on the +Rio Negro, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>The following account is in Dr. E. R. Heath’s (<i>a</i>) +Exploration of the River Beni:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Hieroglyphics were found on rocks at the falls and rapids of the rivers Madeira +and Mamoré. * * * By accident we found some at the rapids at the foot of Caldierão +do Inferno. Designs <i>d</i> and <i>b</i> are figures on the same rock side by side. <i>a</i> is +another face of the same rock 10 feet across. <i>e</i> and <i>f</i> are on the upper surface of +a rock, and <i>c</i> on one of its sides near the bottom; <i>g</i> is upon a rock 15 feet above +the surface of the river. Many more were on the other rocks, but our time did not +permit further copying. Mr. T. M. Fetterman, my companion, and myself sketched +as fast as possible.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 113 is a reproduction of the illustration given.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp211_pg152bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp211_pg152b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="181" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—Petroglyphs at the Caldierão do Inferno, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The moment we arrived at the falls of Girão we searched for stone carvings, finding +a few, and several repetitions of circles similar to those already found. Designs <i>a</i> +and <i>d</i> are on the west and east side of the same rock, which is 9 feet in length. The +figure is 21 inches high, the five circles 1 foot across. The east side was almost obliterated. +Designs <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> are on loose stones; <i>b</i>, facing west, is 16 inches long; +the rock is 50 inches long and 35 wide; <i>c</i> is 22 inches long; the rock 70 inches long +by 27 inches broad, and was 30 feet above the river at date. The rocks are basaltic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153">[153]</a></span> +dipping north at an angle of 86°. Many small stones, 1 and 2 feet in diameter, lie +about, with marks on them nearly defaced.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 114 is a reproduction of the illustration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp212_pg153a.png" width="500" height="154" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—Petroglyphs at the falls of Girão, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At Pederneira all the rocks on the right side at the foot of the rapids are literally +covered with figures. Fig. 115 <i>a</i> is on a large bowlder facing the south; <i>b</i> has joined +to its right side, <i>c</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, and <i>f</i> are on the same stone. Most of these rocks are only a +few feet above low water and are covered at least eight months each year.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;"> +<a href="images/dp212_pg153bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp212_pg153b.png" class="hires" width="310" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—Petroglyphs at Pederneira, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>At Araras rapids the river is very wide, [containing] two islands and a rocky +ledge crossing the river from the rapid. Nearly all the rocks on the right bank are +covered with figures.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154">[154]</a></span></p> + +<p>These are reproduced in Fig. 116.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 409px;"> +<a href="images/dp213_pg154ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp213_pg154a.png" class="hires" width="409" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—Petroglyphs at Araras rapids, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Having no small canoe +we could not pass a small +channel so as to gather +copies of the figures we +could see at a distance. +The approaches both above +and below the rapids and +falls are many times as difficult +to pass as the rapid +or fall itself, giving rise to +the division into “head,” +“body,” and “tail.” Some +not only have these divisions, +but also have these +subdivided into “head, +body, and tail.” One is +constantly hearing “el rabo,” +“el rabo del rabo,” +“el rabo del cuerpo,” or +“cabeza,” and so on.</p> + +<p>Ribeiráo.—The tail of the +rapid is 3 miles in length, +a continuous broken current +and fields of rocks. It +is here, on a rock but a foot +or two above the river, +that the hieroglyphic +shown in F. Keller’s “Amazon +and Madeira” is found. +As both Mr. Fetterman and myself made copies of it, unknown to the other till +finished, our copies may be relied on, although differing from Keller’s. The length<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155">[155]</a></span> +of the upper part is 45 inches and of the lower 36 inches, with 13 inches depth of +each.</p></div> + +<p>The copy mentioned is given here as Fig. 117.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp213_pg154bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp213_pg154b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="493" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—Petroglyphs at Ribeiráo, Brazil.</div> +</div> + + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 80px;"> +<img src="images/dp214_pg155a.png" width="80" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—Character at Madeira rapid, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The character of the lower right-hand corner was at one time as clearly cut as we +represent it, some of the edges being yet clear and distinct.</p> + +<p>At the rapid of Madeira there were a number of circles similar to 15 and 16 at Ribeiráo. +On a ridge of rocks in the middle of the river, just above Larges rapids, are +figures, and we had only time to sketch one, Fig. 118.</p> + +<p>At Pao Grande we had a better harvest, showing evidently a later period than +the former. One could easily believe these were made at the time of the Spanish +conquest, the anchors, shields, and hearts being so often found in Spanish religious +rites. Without doubt these were notices for navigators, as they were only out of +water and seen when that passage was dangerous. Where projecting points of rock +gave a face both up and down stream the same figure was on both faces. These +rocks are syenitic granite and are cut to a depth of a half inch.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 119 is a reproduction of the copy published.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;"> +<a href="images/dp214_pg155bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp214_pg155b.png" class="hires" width="423" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—Petroglyphs at Pao Grande, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>Senhor Tristão de Alencar Araripe (<i>a</i>) gives a large +number of descriptions with illustrations, a selection +of which, with translations, is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the province of Ceará district of Inhamun, on the plantation +of Carrapateira, is a small hill (or mound). On the +face of one of its rocks, on the eastern side, near the edge of +the road, is the inscription given in Fig. 120 painted in red.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp215_pg156a.png" width="500" height="359" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—Petroglyph in Ceará, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>In the district of Inhamun, on the plantation of Carrapateira, +in Morcego, on the top of a mound, is a semicircular +stone bearing on the face toward the mound the four characters which appear in +Fig. 121.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156">[156]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp215_pg156b.png" width="400" height="118" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—Petroglyph in Morcego, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>In Inhamun, on the plantation of Carrapateira, in Morcego, is a large stone mound, +the stones being piled up in a form of a tower; and in the inside of this tower, on +the south or southwest side, are the characters given in Fig. 122 painted in bright, +cochineal color.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp215_pg156c.png" width="500" height="278" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—Petroglyphs in Morcego, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>Near the road from Cracará to Favelas, Inhamun, is a large rock, on the face of +which, at the top of the western side, is the inscription [given on the upper part of +Fig. 123,] all in red paint, as is also that following.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157">[157]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp216_pg157h.png"> +<img src="images/dp216_pg157.png" class="hires" width="500" height="332" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Petroglyphs in Inhamun, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>The under part of this rock forms a shelter, and on the roof of this shelter are all the +remaining characters of the figure.</p> + +<p>To the right or south of the shelter containing the inscription is a stone, with the +form of the figure represented in the third place in the lower row of characters, +counting from left to right, on a small heap, with the rear end raised up and the +sharp point toward the east, its side inclining toward the west, in such a way that +it can be climbed to the end which is erect.</p> + +<p>On the same side, at the south, but beyond this, on the top of a rise, is a mound in +sight, which is represented by the figure [delineated in the lower part of Fig. 123 at +the extreme right,] resembling an inclosure (corral) with the 21 small lines before it.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 124 is a copy of an inscription at Pedra Lavrada, Province of +Parahiba, published loc. cit., but the description by Senhor de Alencar +Araripe is very meager, amounting in substance to the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is an inscription of vast proportions on a large rock in the town of Pedra +Lavrada, which takes its name from that of the rock.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"> +<a href="images/dp217_pg158ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp217_pg158a.png" class="hires" width="391" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Petroglyphs at Pedra Lavrada, Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>Other petroglyphs in Brazil are copied in Figs. <a href="#page689">1107</a>, <a href="#page689">1108</a>, <a href="#page691">1109</a>, <a href="#page691">1110</a>, +<a href="#page691">1111</a>, <a href="#page692">1113</a>, <a href="#page692">1114</a>, and also under the heading of Cup Sculptures, Chapter +<a href="#page189">V</a>, infra.</p> + + +<h4>ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.</h4> + +<p>F. P. Moreno (<i>a</i>), Museo de La Plata, Catamarca, gives an illustration +of an inscribed rock at Bajo de Canota, Mendoza, reproduced as +Fig. 125.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp217_pg158bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp217_pg158b.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="349" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—Inscribed rock at Bajo de Canota, Argentine Republic.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>PERU.</h4> + +<p>The following account is furnished by Messrs. de Rivero and Von +Tschudi (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Eight leagues north of Arequipa there exist a multitude of engravings on granite +which represent figures of animals, flowers, and fortifications, and which doubtless +tell the story of events anterior to the dynasty of the Incas.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158">[158]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159">[159]</a></span></p> + +<p>The illustration presented is copied here as Fig. 126.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp218_pg159a.png" width="400" height="263" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—Petroglyphs near Arequipa, Peru.</div> +</div> + +<p>The account is continued as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the province of Castro-Vireyna, in the town of Huaytara, there is found in the +ruins of a large edifice, of similar construction to the celebrated palace of old Huanuco, +a mass of granite many square yards in size, with coarse engravings like those last +mentioned near Arequipa. None of the most trustworthy historians allude to these inscriptions +or representations, or give the smallest direct information concerning the +Peruvian hieroglyphics, from which it may possibly be inferred that in the times of +the Incas there was no knowledge of the art of writing in characters and that all of +these sculptures are the remains of a very remote period. * * * In many parts +of Peru, chiefly in situations greatly elevated above the sea are vestiges of inscriptions +very much obliterated by time.</p></div> + +<p>The illustration is copied here as Fig. 127.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp218_pg159b.png" width="400" height="294" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>—Petroglyph in Huaytara, Peru.</div> +</div> + +<p>Charles Wiener (<i>a</i>), in Pérou et Bolivie, gives another statement, +viz:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The archeologists of Peru have only found a single point—Tiahuanaco—where +there were a limited number, though very interesting, of signs on rocks or stones +which seemed to all observers to be symbolic. While there are a few petroglyphs +found in Peru there are a large number of inscriptions properly so called on the +tissues which cover or are found in connection with remains in the graves.</p></div> + +<p>A number of pictographs from Peru are described and illustrated +infra (see Figs. <a href="#page488">688</a>, <a href="#page512">720</a>, and <a href="#page706">1167</a>).</p> + + +<h4>CHILE.</h4> + +<p>Prof. Edwyn C. Reed, of Valparaiso, Chile, presented through A. P. +Niblack, ensign U. S. Navy, a photograph of a large bowlder bearing +numerous sculpturings. No information pertaining to the locality at +which the rock is situated or details respecting the characters upon it +were furnished. The photograph is reproduced in Fig. 128.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160">[160]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp219_pg160ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp219_pg160a.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="200" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>—Sculptured bowlder in Chile.</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. R. A. Philippi, of Santiago, a corresponding member, made a +communication to the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</span>, session +of January 19, 1876, page 38, from which the following is extracted and +translated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I made a visit to the valley “Cajon de los Cipreses” in order to see the glacier +giving rise to the Rio de los Cipreses, a tributary of the Cachapoal, and on that occasion +had a cursory view of a rock with some pictures. I send you herewith a drawing +of the rock and some of the figures cut on it. The rock, a kind of greenstone, +lies at an altitude of about 5,000 feet above sea level, and the surface covered with +figures, gently inclined down to the ground, may be 8 feet long and 5 or 6 feet high. +The lines are about 4 mm. broad and 1 to ½ mm. deep. The carved figures on the stone +are without any sort of order. When I spoke before a meeting of our faculty of physical +and mathematical sciences concerning this stone which the shepherds of the region +called <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">piedra marcada</span>, I learned that similar stones with carved figures are +found in various places.</p></div> + +<p>The figure mentioned is here reproduced as Fig. 129.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp219_pg160b.png" width="400" height="265" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>—Petroglyph in Cajon de los Cipreses, Chile.</div> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161">[161]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER IV.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">EXTRA-LIMITAL PETROGLYPHS.</span></h2> + + +<p>The term “extra-limital,” familiar to naturalists, refers in its present +connection to the sculptures, paintings, and drawings on rocks beyond +the continents of North and South America, which are now introduced +for comparison and as evidence of the occurrence throughout the world +of similar forms in the department of work now under examination.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">AUSTRALIA.</span></h3> + +<p>Mr. Edward G. Porter (<i>a</i>), in “The Aborigines of Australia,” says: +“Their rock carvings are only outline sketches of men, fish, animals, +etc., sometimes seen on the top of large flat rocks. Two localities are +mentioned, one on Sydney common and another on a rock between +Brisbane water and Hawkesbury river.”</p> + +<p>Much more detailed information is given by Thomas Worsnop, viz:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At Chasm island, which lies 1½ miles from “Groote Eylandt,” in the steep sides of +the chasms, were deep holes or caverns undermining the cliffs, upon the walls of +which are found rude drawings, made with charcoal and something like red paint, +upon the white ground of the rock. These drawings represented porpoises, turtle, +kangaroos, and a human hand, and Mr. Westall found the representations of a kangaroo +with a file of thirty-two persons following after it.</p> + +<p>In the MacDonnell ranges, 6 miles from Alice springs, in a large cave, there were +paintings made by the aborigines, well defined parallel lines, intersected with footprints +of the emu, kangaroo rat, and birds, with the outlines of iguana, hands of +men, well sketched and almost perfect.</p> + +<p>The parallel lines were of deep red and yellow colors, with brown and white borders; +the footprints of light red, light yellow, and black; the outlines of the animals +and hands were of red, yellow, white, black, wonderfully (considering it was +done by savages) displayed and blended. All the paintings were in good preservation +and evidently touched up occasionally, as they looked quite fresh.</p> + +<p>I can only conjecture that these paintings were left as a record, a life-long charm, +against the total destruction of the above animals. The paintings were seen by Mr. +S. Gason, of Beltana, in the year 1873.</p> + +<p>Very interesting groups of native drawings are to be seen in the caves of the +Emily gorge in the MacDonnell ranges. Many of these drawings represent life-size +objects.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162">[162]</a></span></p> + +<p>The same author, page 20, describes the petroglyph copied in Fig. +130 as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"> +<a href="images/dp221_pg162h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp221_pg162.jpg" class="hires" width="391" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>—Petroglyph on Finke river, Australia.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Mr. Arthur John Giles in the year 1873 discovered, at the junction of Sullivan’s +creek with the Finke river, carvings on rocks. The sketch represents a smooth-faced +rock, portion of a rock cliff about 45 feet high, composed of hard metamorphic +slate. The lower portion of the sculptured face has been worn and broken away, +forming a sort of cave. From the level of the creek to the lower edge of the sculptured +rock is about 15 feet. The perpendicular lines are cut out, forming semicircular +grooves about 1½ inches in diameter, cut in to a depth of nearly half an inch; +all remaining figures are also carved into the solid rock to a depth of one-fourth of +an inch.</p></div> + +<p>The same author, page 14, gives the following description of some +pictures discovered between 1831 and 1840 by Capt. Stokes on Depuch +island, one of the Forestier group in Dampier archipelago, on +the western coast of Australia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Depuch island would seem to be their favorite resort, and we found several of +their huts still standing. The natives are doubtless attracted to the place partly by +the reservoirs of water they find among the rocks after rain; partly that they may +enjoy the pleasure of delineating the various objects that attract their attention on +the smooth surface of the rocks. This they do by removing the hard red outer coating +and baring to view the natural color of the greenstone, according to the outline<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163">[163]</a></span> +they have traced. Much ability is displayed in many of these representations, the +subject of which could be discovered at a glance. The number of specimens are immense, +so that the natives must have been in the habit of amusing themselves in +this innocent manner for a long period of time.</p> + +<p>These savages of Australia, who have adorned the rocks of Depuch island with +their drawings, have in one thing proved themselves superior to the Egyptian and +the Etruscan, whose works have elicited so much admiration and afforded food to +so many speculations, namely, there is not in them to be observed the slightest trace +of indecency.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"> +<a href="images/dp222_pg163h.png"> +<img src="images/dp222_pg163.png" class="hires" width="288" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>—Petroglyphs in Depuch island, Australia.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 131 shows a number of the characters drawn on these rocks. +They are supposed to represent objects as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a</i>, a goose or duck; <i>b</i>, a beetle; <i>c</i>, a fish, with a quarter moon over, considered to +have some reference to fishing by moonlight; <i>d</i>, a native, armed with spear and wommera +or throwing stick, probably relating his adventures, which is usually done by +song and accompanied with great action and flourishing of weapons, particularly +when boasting of his powers; <i>e</i>, a duck and a gull; <i>f</i>, a native in a hut, with portion +of the matting with which they cover their habitations; <i>g</i>, shark and pilot fish; <i>h</i>, +a corroboreeo or native dance; <i>i</i>, a native dog; <i>j</i>, a crab; <i>k</i>, a kangaroo; <i>l</i>, appears +to be a bird of prey, having seized upon a kangaroo rat.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164">[164]</a></span></p> + +<p>The same author, page 5, describes another locality as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In New South Wales, in the neighborhood of Botany bay and port Jackson, the +figures of animals, of shields and weapons, and even of men, have been found carved +upon the rocks, roughly, indeed, but sufficiently well to ascertain very fully what +was the object intended. Fish were often represented, and in one place the form of +a large lizard was sketched out with tolerable accuracy. On top of one of the hills +the figure of a man, in the attitude usually assumed by them when they begin to +dance, was executed in a still superior style.</p></div> + +<p>The figure last mentioned was probably the god Daramūlŭn, see +Howitt, Australian Customs of Initiation (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<p>A special account of the aboriginal rock carvings at the head of +Bantry bay is furnished by R. Etheridge, jr. (<i>a</i>), as follows, the illustration +referred to being presented here as Fig. 132:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp223_pg164.png" width="550" height="209" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>—Petroglyphs at Bantry bay, Australia.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Of the numerous traces of aboriginal rock carvings to be seen on the shores of Port +Jackson, none probably equal in extent or completeness of detail those on the heights +at the head and on the eastern side of Bantry bay, Middle harbor, Australia.</p> + +<p>The table of sandstone over which the carvings are scattered measures 2 chains +in one direction by 3 in the contrary, and has a gentle slope of 7 degrees to the southwest. +The high road as now laid out passes over a portion of them. * * *</p> + +<p>The figures are represented in their present state in outline by a continuous indentation +or groove from 1 to 1½ inches broad by half an inch to 1 inch in depth. Some +are single subjects scattered promiscuously over the surface; others form small +groups, illustrating compound subjects, but all appear to have been executed about +one and the same time. * * *</p> + +<p>An advance on the other sculptures existing at this place seems to be made in the +originals of the designs <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, from the fact that an attempt was apparently made to +represent a compound idea in the form of a single combat between two warriors. The +figures are quite contiguous to one another. The individual marked <i>a</i> seems to be +holding in his right hand a body similar to that represented as <i>c</i>, and the position in +which it is held would lend color to the belief in its shield-like nature. In the opposite +hand are a bundle of rods which have been suggested to be spears, and this +explanation for the want of a better may be accepted. On the other hand, we are +confronted with the fact that these weapons of offense and defense are held in the +wrong hands, unless the holder be regarded as sinistral; otherwise it must be conceived +that the warrior’s back is presented to the observer, which is contrary to the +other evidence existing in the carving. The opponent, marked as <i>b</i>, with legs astride +and arms outstretched much in the position of an aboriginal when throwing the +boomerang, is equally definitive. I conceive it quite possible that the position of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165">[165]</a></span> +the boomerang close to the right hand conveys the idea that this man has just +thrown the missile at the subject of <i>a</i>, allowing, of course, for the want of a knowledge +of perspective on the part of the aboriginal artist. * * *</p> + +<p>In several other figures the head is a mere rounded outline, but in <i>b</i> it is presented +with a rather bird-like appearance. Another peculiarity is the great angularity +given to the kneecap: this is visible both in <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. It is further exemplified in +the elbow of the left arms of both <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">OCEANICA.</span></h3> + +<p>The term “Oceanica” is used here without geographic precision, to +include several islands not mentioned in other sections of the present +work, in different parts of the globe, where specially interesting petroglyphs +have been found and made known in publications. Although +more such localities are known than are now mentioned, the pictographs +from them are not of sufficient importance to justify description or illustration, +but it may be remarked that they show the universality of the +pictographic practice.</p> + + +<h4>NEW ZEALAND.</h4> + +<p>Dr. Julius von Haast (<i>a</i>) published notes, condensed as follows, descriptive +of the illustration produced here as Fig. 133:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The most remarkable petroglyphs found in New Zealand are situated about 1 mile +on the western side of the Weka Pass road in a rock shelter, which is washed out of +a vertical wall of rock lining a small valley for about 300 feet on its right or southern +side. The whole length of the rock below the shelter has been used for painting, +and it is evident that some order has been followed in the arrangement of the subjects +and figures. The paint consists of kokowai (red oxide of iron), of which the +present aborigines of New Zealand make still extensive use, and of some fatty substance, +such as fish oil, or perhaps some oily bird fat. It has been well fixed upon +the somewhat porous rock and no amount of rubbing will get it off.</p> + +<p>Some of the principal objects evidently belong to the animal kingdom, and represent +animals which either do not occur in New Zealand or are only of a mythical or fabulous +character. The paintings occur over a face of about 65 feet, and the upper end +of some reaches 8 feet above the floor, the average height, however, being 4 to 5 +feet. They are all of considerable size, most of them measuring several feet, and one +of them even having a length of 15 feet.</p> + +<p>Beginning at the eastern end in the left-hand corner is the representation <i>a</i> of +what might be taken for a sperm whale with its mouth wide open diving downward. +This figure is 3 feet long. Five feet from it is another figure <i>c</i>, which might also +represent a whale or some fabulous two-headed marine monster. This painting is +3 feet 4 inches long. Below it, a little to the right in <i>d</i>, we have the representation +of a large snake possessing a swollen head and a long protruding tongue. This figure +is nearly 3 feet long, and shows numerous windings.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to conceive how the natives in a country without snakes could not +only have traditions about them but actually be able to picture them, unless they +had received amongst them immigrants from tropical countries who had landed on +the coasts of New Zealand.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166">[166]</a></span></p> + +<p>Between the two fishes or whales is <i>b</i>, which might represent a fishhook, and below +the snake <i>d</i> a sword <i>e</i> with a curved blade.</p> + +<p>Advancing toward the right is a group which is of special interest, the figure <i>i</i>, +which is nearly a foot long, having all the appearance of a long-necked bird carrying +the head as the cassowary and emu do, and as the moa has done. If this design +should represent the moa, I might suggest that it was either a conventional way of +drawing that bird or that it was already extinct when this representation was +painted according to tradition; in which latter case <i>k</i> might represent the taniwha +or gigantic fabulous lizard which is said to have watched the moa. <i>h</i> is doubtless +a quadruped, probably a dog, which was a contemporary of the moa and was used +also as food by the moa hunters. <i>j</i> is evidently a weapon, probably an adz or tomahawk, +and might, being close to the supposed bird, indicate the manner in which +the latter was killed during the chase. The post, with the two branches near the top +<i>l</i>, finds a counterpart in the remnant of a similar figure <i>g</i> between the figures <i>c</i> and <i>i</i>. +They might represent some of the means by which the moa was caught or indicate +that it existed in open country between the forest. <i>m</i>, under which the rock in the +central portion has scaled off, is like <i>f</i>, one of the designs which resemble ancient +oriental writing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp225_pg166h.png"> +<img src="images/dp225_pg166.png" class="hires" width="500" height="409" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>—Petroglyph in New Zealand.</div> +</div> + +<p>Approaching the middle portion of the wall we find here a well-shaped group of +paintings, the center of which <i>n</i> has all the appearance of a hat ornamented on the +crown. The rim of this broad-brimmed relic measures 2 feet across. The expert of +ancient customs and habits of the Malayan and South Indian countries might perhaps +be able to throw some light upon this and the surrounding figures, <i>o</i> to <i>r</i>.</p> + +<p>From <i>q</i>, which is altogether 3 feet high, evidently issues fire or smoke; it therefore +might represent a tree on fire, a lamp or an altar with incense offering. * * * +The figure <i>o</i> is particularly well painted, and the outlines are clearly defined, but I<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167">[167]</a></span> +can make no suggestion as to its meaning. In <i>s</i> we have, doubtless, the picture of +a human being who is running away from <i>q</i>, the object from the top of which issues +fire or smoke. I am strengthened in my conviction that it is meant for a man by +observing a similar figure running away from the monster <i>aa</i>. <i>p</i>, which has been +placed below that group, might be compared to a pair of spectacles, but is probably +a letter or an imitation of such a sign.</p> + +<p>A little more to the right a figure 6 feet long is very prominent. It is probably the +representation of a right whale in the act of spouting. Above it, in <i>v</i>, the figure of +a mantis is easily recognizable, whilst <i>u</i> and the characters to the right below the supposed +right whale again resemble cyphers or letters. <i>w</i> and <i>y</i>, although in many +respects different, belong doubtless to the same group, and represent large lizards or +crocodiles. * * * <i>w</i> is 4 feet long; it is unfortunately deficient in its lower portion, +but it is still sufficiently preserved to show that besides four legs it possesses +two other lower appendages, of which one is forked and the other has the appearance +of a trident. I wish also to draw attention to the unusual form of the head. +<i>y</i> is a similar animal 3 feet long, but it has eight legs, and head and tail are well defined. +The head is well rounded off, and both animals represent, without doubt, +some fabulous animal, such as the taniwha, which is generally described as a huge +crocodile, of which the ancient legends give so many accounts.</p> + +<p><i>aa</i>, a huge snake-like animal 15 feet long, is probably a representation of the +tuna tuoro, a mythical monster. It is evident that the tuna tuoro is in the act of +swallowing a man, who tries to save himself by running away from it.</p></div> + + +<h4>KEI ISLANDS.</h4> + +<p>Mr. A. Langen (<i>a</i>) made a report on the Kei islands and their Ghost +grottoes, with a plate now reproduced as Fig. 134. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The group of the small Kei islands, more correctly Arue islands [southwest from +New Guinea], is a sea bottom raised by volcanic forces and covered with corals and +shells. The corals appear but at a few points. They are in the main covered with +a layer of shells cemented together, whose cement is so hard and firm that it offers +resistance to the influence of time even after the shell has been weathered away.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;"> +<a href="images/dp227_pg168h.png"> +<img src="images/dp227_pg168.png" class="hires" width="319" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>—Petroglyphs in Kei islands.</div> +</div> + +<p>On the whole, all the figures in similar genre are represented in thousands of +specimens. [They may be divided into three series, the first including letters <i>a</i> to +<i>k</i>; the second, letters <i>l</i> to <i>t</i>; the third, letters <i>u</i> to <i>cc</i>.] Many are effaced and unrecognizable, +only letter <i>k</i>, series 1; letters <i>n</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, series 2; and letters <i>cc</i>, series 3, stand +isolated and seem to have a peculiar meaning. The popular legend ascribes the greatest +age to the characters of series 1 and series 2, and it is said that the signs record +a terrible fight in which the islanders lost many dead, but yet remained victors. It +is stated that the signs were produced by the ghosts of the fallen. The signs of series +3 are said to be the work of a woman named Tewaheru, who was able to converse +with ghosts as well as with the living. But, when on one occasion she helped a +living man to recover his dead wife by betraying to him the secret of making the +spirit return to the body, she is said to have been destroyed by the ghosts and +changed into a blackbird, whose call even at this day indicates death. Since that +time no medium is said to exist between the living and the dead, nor do any new +signs appear on the rock.</p> + +<p>Investigation in place showed me that the color of series 3 consists of ocher made +up with water. The very oldest drawings seem to have been made with water +color, as the color has nowhere penetrated into the rock. Most of the figures are +painted on overhanging rocks in such a way as to be protected as much as possible +against wind and weather; whether they bear any relation to the signs on the rocks +of Papua, and what that relation may be, I am not yet able to judge.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168">[168]</a></span></p> + +<p>It may safely be assumed that the caves as abodes of spirits were sacred, but did +not serve as places of burial. The lead rings and pieces of copper gongs found in +small number before some of the caves seem to be derived from sacrifices offered to +the spirits. At the present day no more sacrifices are offered there, and the islanders +knew nothing of the existence of these things.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169">[169]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>EASTER ISLAND.</h4> + +<p>In this island carved human figures of colossal size have been frequently +noticed in various publications, with and without illustrations, +but apart from those statues ancient stone houses remain in which +have been found large stone slabs bearing painted figures. Paymaster +William J. Thompson, U. S. Navy (<i>a</i>) says of the Orongo houses, +that the “smooth slabs lining the walls and ceilings were ornamented +with mythological figures and rude designs painted in white, red, +and black pigments.” The figures partake of the form of fish and bird-like +animals, the exaggerated outlines clearly indicating mythologic +beings, the type of which does not exist in nature. Fig. 135 is presented +here, extracted by permission from the work above cited, and it +may be of interest to know that nearly all, if not all, of the original +specimens are now deposited in the U. S. National Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp228_pg169h.png"> +<img src="images/dp228_pg169.png" class="hires" width="500" height="407" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>—Petroglyphs in Easter island.</div> +</div> + +<p>While the curious carvings on the wooden tablets which are discussed +in the work of Paymaster Thompson are not petroglyphs, it +seems proper to mention them in this connection. Fig. 136 is taken +from <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, in Wien</span> (<i>a</i>), +and shows one of the tablets, which does not appear to be presented +in this exact form in the work before mentioned.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170">[170]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp229_pg170h.png"> +<img src="images/dp229_pg170.png" class="hires" width="500" height="264" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>—Tablet from Easter island.</div> +</div> + +<p>The following remarks by Prof. de Lacouperie (<i>b</i>) are quoted on account +of the eminence of his authority, though the subject is still under +discussion:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The character of eastern India, the Vengi-Châlukya, was also carried to north +Celebes islands. The people have not remained at the level required for the practical +use of a phonetic writing. It is no more used as an alphabet. Curiously +enough, it is employed as pictorial ornaments on the MSS. they now write in a pictographic +style of the lowest scale. This I have seen on the facsimile (<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bilderschriften +des Ostindischen Archipels</span>, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 1, 11) published by Dr. A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, +in his splendid album on the writings of this region.</p> + +<p>In the Easter island, or Vaihu, some fourteen inscriptions have been found incised +on wooden boards, perhaps of driftwood. The characters are peculiar. Most of them +display strange shapes, in which, with a little imagination, forms of men, fishes, +trees, birds, and many other things have been fancied. A curious characteristic is +that the upper part of the signs are shaped somewhat like the head of the herronia +or albatross. A pictorial tendency is obvious in all of these. Some persons in Europe +have taken them for hieroglyphics, and have ventured to find a connection +with the flora and fauna of the island. The knowledge of this writing is now lost; +and it is not sure that the few priests and other men of the last generation who +boasted of being able to read them could do so thoroughly. Anyhow, in 1770, some +chiefs were still able to write down their names on a deed of gift when the island +was taken in the name of Carlos III of Spain.</p> + +<p>In examining carefully the characters I was struck by the forked heads of many +of them, which reminded me of the forked matras of the Vengi-Châlukya inscriptions. +A closer comparison with Pls. i to viii of the Elements of South Indian +Paleography (A. C. Burnell, Elements of South Indian Paleography, from the +fourth to the seventeenth century A. D., being An Introduction to the Study of +South Indian Inscriptions and MSS., 2d edit., London and Mangalore, 1878; Pls. i, vii, +viii are specially interesting for the forked matras) soon showed me that I was on +the right track, and a further study of the Vaihu characters, and their analysis by +comparing the small differences (vocalic notation) existing between several of them, +convinced me that they are nothing else than a decayed form of the above writing +of southern India returning to the hieroglyphical stage. With this clue, the inscriptions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171">[171]</a></span> +of Easter island are no more a sealed text. They can easily be read after +a little training. Their language is Polynesian, and I can say that the vocabulary +of the Samoan dialect has proved very useful to me for the purpose.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">EUROPE.</span></h3> + +<p>In the more settled and civilized parts of Europe petroglyphs are now +rarely found. This is, perhaps, accounted for in part by the many occasions +for use of the inscribed rocks or by their demolition during the +long period after the glyphs upon them had ceased to have their original +interest and significance and before their value as now understood +had become recognized. Yet from time to time such glyphs have been +noticed, and they have been copied and described in publications.</p> + +<p>But few of the petroglyphs in the civilized portions of Europe not +familiar by publication have that kind of interest which requires their +reproduction in the present paper. It may be sufficient to state in general +terms that Europe is no exception to the rest of the world in the +presence of petroglyphs.</p> + +<p>A number of these extant in the British islands and in the Scandinavian +peninsula, besides the few examples presented in this chapter, +are described and illustrated in other parts of this work, and brief accounts +of others recently noted in France, Spain, and Italy are also +furnished.</p> + + +<h4>GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</h4> + +<p>Nearly all of the petroglyphs found in the British islands, accounts +of which have been published, belong to the class of cup sculptures +discussed in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page189">V</a></span>, infra, but several inscriptions showing characters +not limited to that category are mentioned in “Archaic Rock Inscriptions,” +(<i>a</i>) from which the following condensed extract referring to a +cairn in county Meath, Ireland, is taken:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The ornamentation may be thus described: Small circles, with or without a central +dot; two or many more concentric circles; a small circle with a central dot, +surrounded by a spiral line; the single spiral; the double spiral, or two spirals +starting from different centers; rows of small lozenges or ovals; stars of six to thirteen +rays; wheels of nine rays; flower ornaments, sometimes inclosed in a circle or +wide oval; wave-like lines; groups of lunette-shaped lines; pothooks; small squares +attached to each other side by side, so as to form a reticulated pattern; small attached +concentric circles; large and small hollows; a cup hollow surrounded by one or more +circles; lozenges crossed from angle to angle (these and the squares produced by scrapings); +an ornament like the spine of a fish with ribs attached, or the fiber system of +some leaf; short equiarmed crosses, starting sometimes from a dot and small circle; a +circle with rays round it, and the whole contained in a circle; a series of compressed +semicircles like the letters ∩ ∩ ∩ inverted; vertical lines far apart, with ribs sloping +downwards from them like twigs; an ornament like the fiber system of a broad leaf, +with the stem attached; rude concentric circles with short rays extending from part +of the outer one; an ornament very like the simple Greek fret, with dots in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172">[172]</a></span> +center of the loop; five zigzag lines and two parallel lines, on each of which, and +pointing toward each other, is a series of cones ornamented by lines radiating from +the apex, crossed by others parallel to the base—this design has been produced by +scraping, and I propose to call it the Patella ornament, as it strikingly resembles +the large species of that shell so common on our coasts, and which shell Mr. Conwell +discovered in numbers in some of the cists, in connection with fragments of pottery +and human bones; a semicircle with three or four straight lines proceeding from it, +but not touching it; a dot with several lines radiating from it; combinations of +short straight lines arranged either at right angles to or sloping from a central line; +an S-shaped curve, each loop inclosing concentric circles; and a vast number of +other combinations of the circle, spiral, line, and dot, which can not be described in +writing.</p></div> + +<p>Some of the ancient “Turf-Monuments” of England are to be classed +as petroglyphs. The following extracts from the work of Rev. W. A. +Plenderleath (<i>b</i>) give sufficient information on these curious pictures:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Although all the White Horses, except one, are in Wiltshire, that one exception +is the great sire and prototype of them all, which is at Uffington, just 2½ miles outside +the Wiltshire Boundary and within that of Berkshire. * * * The one mediæval +document in which the White Horse is mentioned is a cartulary of the Abbey +of Abingdon, which must have been written either in the reign of Henry II or soon +after, and which runs as follows: “It was then customary amongst the English that +any monks who wished might receive money or landed estates and both use and devolve +them according to their pleasure. Hence two monks of the monastery at +Abingdon, named Leofric and Godric Cild, appear to have obtained by inheritance +manors situated upon the banks of the Thames; one of them, Godric, becoming possessed +of Spersholt, near the place commonly known as the White Horse Hill, and the +other that of Whitchurch, during the time that Aldhelm was abbot of this place.”</p> + +<p>This Aldhelm appears to have been abbot from 1072 to 1084, and from the terms in +which the White Horse Hill is mentioned the name was evidently an old one at that +time.</p> + +<p>Now it was only two hundred years before this time, viz, in 871, that a very +famous victory had been gained by King Alfred over the Danes close to this very +spot. “Four days after the battle of Reading,” says Asser, “King Æthelred, and +Alfred, his brother, fought against the whole army of the pagans at Ashdown. * * * +And the flower of the pagan youths were there slain, so that neither before nor since +was ever such destruction known since the Saxons first gained Britain by their arms.” +And it was in memory of this victory that, we are informed by local tradition, Alfred +caused his men, the day after the battle, to cut out the White Horse, the standard +of Hengist, on the hillside just under the castle. The name Hengist, or Hengst, +itself means <i>Stone Horse</i> in the ancient language of the Saxons, and Bishop Nicholson, +in his “English Atlas,” goes so far as to suppose the names of Hengist and +Horsa to have been not proper at all, but simply emblematical.</p> + +<p>The Uffington horse measures 355 feet from the nose to the tail and 120 feet from +the ear to the hoof. It faces to sinister, as do also those depicted upon all British +coins. The slope of the portion of the hill upon which it is cut is 39°, but the +declivity is very considerably greater beneath the figures. The exposure is southwest.</p></div> + +<p>The author then describes the White Horse on Bratton Hill, near +Westbury, Wilts, now obliterated, the dimensions of which were, extreme +length, 100 feet; height, nearly the same; from toe to chest, 54 +feet, and gives accounts of several other White Horses, the antiquity<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173">[173]</a></span> +of which is not so well established. He then (<i>c</i>) treats of the Red +Horse in the lordship of Tysoe, in Warwickshire, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is traditionally reported to have been cut in 1461, in memory of the exploits +of Richard, Earl of Warwick, who was for many years one of the most prominent +figures in the Wars of the Roses. The earl had in the early part of the year found +himself, with a force of forty thousand men, opposed to Queen Margaret, with sixty +thousand, at a place called Towton, near Tadcaster. Overborne by numbers, the +battle was going against him, when, dismounting from his horse, he plunged his +sword up to the hilt in the animal’s side, crying aloud that he would henceforth +fight shoulder to shoulder with his men. Thereupon the soldiers, animated by their +leader’s example, rushed forward with such impetuosity that the enemy gave way +and flew precipitately. No less than twenty-eight thousand Lancastrians are said +to have fallen in this battle and in the pursuit which followed, for the commands of +Prince Edward were to give no quarter. It was to this victory that the latter owed +his elevation to the throne, which took place immediately afterwards.</p> + +<p>The Red Horse used to be scoured every year, upon Palm Sunday, at the expense +of certain neighboring landowners who held their land by that tenure, and the +scouring is said to have been as largely attended and to have been the occasion of +as great festivity as that of the older horse in the adjoining county of Berks. The +figure is about 54 feet in extreme length by about 31 in extreme height.</p></div> + +<p>The best known of Turf-Monuments other than horses is the Giant, +on Trendle Hill, near Cerne Abbas, in Dorsetshire. This the same +author (<i>d</i>) describes as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is a figure roughly representing a man, undraped, and with a club in his right +hand; the height is 180 feet, and the outlines are marked out by a trench 2 feet wide +and of about the same depth. It covers nearly an acre of ground. Hutchin imagines +this figure to represent the Saxon god, Heil, and places its date as anterior to A. D. +600. * * * Britton, on the other hand, tells us that “vulgar tradition makes +this figure commemorate the destruction of a giant who, having feasted on some +sheep in Blackmoor and laid himself to sleep on this hill, was pinioned down like +another Gulliver and killed by the enraged peasants, who immediately traced his +dimensions for the information of posterity.” There were formerly discernible some +markings between the legs of the figure rather above the level of the ankles, which +the country folk took for the numerals 748, and imagined to indicate the date. We +need, perhaps, scarcely remark that Arabic numerals were unknown in Europe until +at least six centuries later than this period.</p></div> + + +<h4>SWEDEN.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Paul B. Du Chaillu (<i>a</i>) gives the following (condensed) account +describing, among many more “rock tracings,” as he calls them, those +reproduced as Figs. 137 and 138:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There are found in Sweden large pictures engraved on the rocks which are of +great antiquity, long before the Roman period.</p> + +<p>These are of different kinds and sizes, the most numerous being the drawings of +ships or boats, canoe-shaped and alike at both ends (with figures of men and animals), +and of fleets fighting against each other or making an attack upon the shore. +The hero of the fight, or the champion, is generally depicted as much larger than the +other combatants, who probably were of one people, though of different tribes, for +their arms are similar and all seem without clothing, though in some cases they are +represented as wearing a helmet or shield.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174">[174]</a></span></p> + +<p>On some rocks are representations of cattle, horses, reindeer, turtles, ostriches, +and camels, the latter showing that in earlier times these people were acquainted +with more southern climes. The greatest number and the largest and most complicated +in detail of the tracings occur, especially in the present Sweden, in Bohuslän, +“the ancient Viken of the Sagas,” on the coast of the peninsula washed by the Cattegat. +They are also found in Norway, especially in Smaalenene, a province contiguous +to that of Bohuslän, but become more scarce in the north, though found on the +Trondhjem fjord.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"> +<img src="images/dp233_pg174.png" width="414" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>—Petroglyph in Bohuslän, Sweden.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 137 is a copy of a petroglyph in Tanum parish, Bohuslän, Sweden. +The large figure is doubtless a champion or commander, the exaggerated +size of which is to be noted in connection with that of the +Zulu chiefs in Fig. <a href="#page181">142</a>, infra, from South Africa, and Fig. <a href="#page652">1024</a>, infra, +from North America. There are numerous small holes and footprints +between the chief and the attacking force. Height, 20 feet; width, 15 +feet.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Bohuslän the tracings are cut in the quartz, which is the geological formation +of the coast. They are mostly upon slightly inclined rocks, which are generally 200 +or 300 feet or more above the present level of the sea, and which have been polished +by the action of the ice. The width of the lines in the same representation varies from +1 to 2 inches and even more, and their depth is often only a third or fourth of an +inch, and at times so shallow as to be barely perceptible. Those tracings, which +have for hundreds, perhaps for thousands, of years been laid bare to the ravages of +the northern climate, are now most difficult to decipher, while those which have +been protected by earth are as fresh as if they had been cut to-day. Many seem to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175">[175]</a></span> +have been cut near the middle or base of the hills, which were covered with vegetation, +and were in the course of time concealed by the detritus from above.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 138 is from the same author (<i>b</i>) and locality. Height, 29 feet; +width, 17 feet. The large birds and footprints and a chief designated +by his size will be noticed, and also a character in the middle of the +extreme upper part of the illustration which may be compared with +the largest human form in Fig. <a href="#page638">983</a>, infra, from Tule valley, California.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"> +<a href="images/dp234_pg175h.png"> +<img src="images/dp234_pg175.png" class="hires" width="288" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>—Petroglyph in Bohuslän, Sweden.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>FRANCE.</h4> + +<p>Perrier du Carne (<i>a</i>), gives the following account (translated and condensed) +of signs carved on the dolmen of Trou-aux-Anglais, in Épone:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This dolmen, situated in the commune of Épone, in a place called Le Bois de la +Garenne, was constructed beneath the ground; it was concealed from view and it is +to this circumstance, no doubt, that its preservation is due. Nothing indicates that +it has been surmounted by a tumulus; in any case this tumulus had long since disappeared,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176">[176]</a></span> +and the ground was entirely leveled when the digging was commenced +some years ago. * * *</p> + +<p>The characters (Fig. 139) are carved in intaglio on the farthest stone of the entrance, +on the left side. The whole of the inscription measures 1<sup>m</sup>, 10 in height +and 82 centimeters in width, and may be divided into two groups, an upper and a +lower one.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp235_pg176.png" width="300" height="403" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>—Petroglyph in +Épone, France.</div> +</div> + +<p>The upper character represents a rectangular figure divided into three transverse +sections; in the third section and almost in the center is a cupule.</p> + +<p>The lower character is more complicated and more difficult to describe. The first, +or left-hand portion, represents a stone hatchet with a shaft; there is no doubt as +to this, in my mind, as the outlines are perfectly clear, the design of the hatchet +being very distinct. This hatchet measures 0<sup>m</sup>, 108 in length and 38<sup>mm</sup> in width to the +edge of the blade. These are precisely the most common dimensions of the hatchets +of our country. As to the remainder of the character, I think an interpretation of +it difficult and premature.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the result of an examination of these inscriptions leaves the impression +that the author did not seek to cover a stone with ornamentation, for these +outlines have nothing whatever of the ornamental, but that he wished to represent +to his people, by intelligible symbols, some particular idea.</p></div> + +<p>É. Cartailhac (<i>a</i>) begins an account of petroglyphs +in the Department of Morbihan, in the old +province of Brittany, translated and condensed as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is hardly possible to give a description of the designs +in the covered way of Gavr’ inis. They are various linear +combinations, the lines being straight, curved, undulating, +isolated, or parallel, ramified like a fern, segments of concentric +circles, limited or not, and decorating certain compartments +with close winding spirals, recalling vividly the +figures produced by the lines on the skin in the hollow of +the hand and on the tips of the fingers.</p> + +<p>In the midst of accumulated and very oddly grouped +lines, which no doubt are merely decorative, there are +found signs which must have had a meaning, and some figures easy to determine.</p> + +<p>The hatchet, the stone hatchet and no other, the large hatchet of Tumiac, of +Mané-er-Hroèg, and of Mont Saint Michel, is represented in intaglio or in relief, +real size. A single pillar of Gavr’ inis bears eighteen of them. Less numerous +groups are seen on some other blocks of the same covered way.</p> + +<p>On a little block placed under the ceiling in order to wedge up one of the covering +slabs, is seen the image of a hatchet with handle, conformable to a type found in the +marsh of Ehenside in Cumberland, England. On many other monuments the presence +of the same figures of hatchets, with handles or without, has been observed. +The most curious slab is certainly that of Mané-er-Hroèg. It had been broken, and +its three pieces had been thrown in disorder before the threshold of the crypt. One +of its faces, very well smoothed off, bears a cartouche in the form of a stirrup, filled +with enigmatic signs and surrounded above and below by a dozen hatchets with +handles, all engraved.</p> + +<p>One other sign, the imprint of the naked foot, is to be noted, found only once on +this slab. Two human footprints are traced on one of the pillars of the crypt of the +Petit-Mont in Arzon. They are said to be divided off, by a slight relief, from +the rest of the granite frame on which they are sculptured, and which contains +other drawings. Similar figures, engraved on rock or on tombstones, are cited from +abroad, in lands far apart. In Sweden, the prints of naked or sandaled feet are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177">[177]</a></span> +common among the rock sculptures of the age of bronze which represent the curious +scenes of the life of the people of that period. It is proper to note that these Scandinavian +and Morbihan sculptures are not synchronous; the idea of an immediate influence +of one people on the other can not be entertained. One might, however, +maintain the identity of origin.</p> + +<p>The other inscriptions of Brittany are enigmatic in every respect. But they +probably had a conventional value, a determined meaning. There is first of all a +sort of complicated cartouche, plainly defined, having the appearance of a buckler +or heraldic shield. Among the isolated signs it is proper to note a figure of the +shape of the letter U with the ends spread wide apart and curved in opposite directions. +It recalls, with some aid from the imagination, the character which on the +Scandinavian rocks represents more plainly ships and barks.</p></div> + +<p>The sculpturing of hands and feet is to be remarked in connection +with similar characters on the rocks in America, many illustrations of +which appear in the present work.</p> + +<p>B. Souché (<i>a</i>) in 1879 described and illustrated curious characters on +the walls of the crypt of the tumulus of Lisières (Deux-Sèvres), France, +some of which in execution markedly resemble several found in the +United States and figured in this work.</p> + + +<h4>SPAIN.</h4> + +<p>Mr. T. Jagor (<i>a</i>) communicated a brochure in reference to the Cueva +de Altamira, transmitted to him by Prof. Vilanova in Madrid: “Short +notes on some prehistoric objects of the province of Santander,” in +which Don Marcelino de Sautuola describes the wall pictures and other +finds in the cave discovered by him at Altamira. Mr. Jagor remarks +as follows on the subject:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The reproductions of the large wall pictures discovered in that cave displayed, in +part, so excellent technique that the question arose how much of this excellence is +to be attributed to the prehistoric artist, and how much to his modern copyist. Mr. +Vilanova, who visited the cave soon after its discovery, and who regards the wall +pictures as prehistoric, being about equal in age to the Danish Kjökken-möddings, +states that the pictures given are pretty faithful imitations of the originals. The +published drawings are all found on the ceiling of the first cave; on the walls of the +subsequent caves are seen sketches of those pictures, which the artist afterwards +completed. The outlines of all the drawings have been cut in the wall with coarse +instruments, and nearly all the bone implements found in the cave show scratches, +which render it probable that they were used for this purpose. The colors used consist +merely of various kinds of ocher found in the province, without further preparation. +Finally Mr. Vilanova reports that in the cave farthest back there was found, +in his presence, an almost perfect specimen of <i>Ursus spelæus</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Don Manuel de Góngora y Martinez (<i>a</i>) gives the account translated +as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The inscriptions of Fuencaliente are of great interest and importance. About one +league east of the town, on a spur of the Sierra de Quintana, at the site of the Piedra +Escritá, there is an almost inaccessible place, the home of wild beasts and mountain +goats. Beyond the river de los Batanes and the river de las Piedras, looking toward +sunset and toward the town, the artisans of a remote age cut skillfully and symmetrically +with the point of the pickax into the flank of the rock and of the +mountain, which is of fine flint, leaving a facade or frontispiece 6 yards in height<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178">[178]</a></span> +and twice as wide, and excavating there two contiguous caves, which are wide at +the mouth and end in a point, making two triangular niches polished on their four +faces. On the two outer fronts to the left and right appear more than 60 symbols or +hieroglyphs, written in a simple and rustic way with the index finger of a rude hand, +and with a reddish bituminous pigment. The niches, about a yard and a half in +height, 1 yard deep, and half a yard at the mouth, are covered by the exceedingly +hard and immense rock of the mountain. There is formed, as it were, a vestibule or +esplanade before the monument, and it is defended by a rampart made of the rocks +torn from the niches, strengthened with juniper, oaks, and cork trees. The half-moon, +the sun, an ax, a bow and arrows, an ear of corn, a heart, a tree, two human +figures, and a head with a crown stand out among those signs, the foreshadowings of +primitive writing.</p></div> + +<p>The inscription on the first triangular face of the second cave is +reproduced here as the left-hand group of the upper part of Fig. <a href="#page689">1108</a>, +infra, and that “on the outer plane to the right, which already turns +pyramidally to the north,” is reproduced as the right-hand group of the +same figure. They are inserted at that place for convenient comparison +with other characters on the figure mentioned and with those in +Figs. <a href="#page683">1097</a> and <a href="#page689">1107</a>.</p> + + +<h4>ITALY.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Moggridge (in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Gr. Br. and I., <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, p. 65) +observes that one of the designs, <i>q</i>, reported by Dr. Von Haast from +New Zealand (see Fig. <a href="#page166">133</a>), was the same as one which had been seen on +rocks 6,900 feet above the sea in the northwest corner of Italy. He adds:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The inscriptions are not in colors, as are those given in Dr. Von Haast’s paper, but +are made by the repeated dots of a sharp pointed instrument. It is probable that if +we knew how to read them they might convey important information, since the same +signs occur in different combinations, just as the letters of our alphabet recur in +different combinations to form words. Without the whole of these figures we can +not say whether the same probability applies to them.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">AFRICA.</span></h3> + +<p>The following examples are selected from the large number of petroglyphs +known to have been discovered in Africa apart from those in +Egypt, which are more immediately connected with the first use of +syllabaries and alphabets, with symbolism and with gesture signs, under +which headings some examples of the Egyptian hieroglyphics appear +in this work.</p> + + +<h4>ALGERIA.</h4> + +<p>In the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Géographique Internationale</span> (<i>a</i>) is a communication +upon the rock inscriptions at Tyout (Fig. 140) and Moghar (Fig. 141) +translated, with some condensation, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp238_pg179h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp238_pg179.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="366" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>—Petroglyphs at Tyout, Algeria.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the last military expedition made in the Sahara Gen. Colonieu made a careful +restoration of the inscriptions on the rocks, whose existence was discovered at Tyout +and Moghar. At Tyout these inscriptions are engraved on red or Vosgian sandstone,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179">[179]</a></span> +and at Moghar on a hard compact calcareous stone. At Moghar the designs are +more complicated than those at Tyout. An attempt has been made to render ideas +by more learned processes; to the simplicity of the line, the artlessness of the poses +which are seen at Tyout, there are added at Moghar academic attitudes difficult to +render, and which must be intended to represent some custom or ceremony in use +among the peoples who then inhabited this country. The costume at Moghar is also +more complicated. The ornaments of the head recall those of Indians, and the +woman’s dress is composed of a waist and a short skirt fastened by a girdle with +flowing ends. All this is very decent and elegant for the period. The infant at the +side is swaddled. The large crouching figure is the face view of a man who seems +to be bearing his wife on his shoulders. At the right of this group is a giraffe or +large antelope. In the composition above may be distinguished a solitary individual +in a crouching attitude, seen in front, the arms crossed in the attitude of +prayer or astonishment. The animals which figure in the designs at Moghar are +cattle and partridges. The little quadruped seated on its haunches may be a gerboise +(kind of rat), very common in these parts.</p> + +<p>In the inscriptions at Tyout we easily recognize the elephant, long since extinct +in these regions, but neither horse nor camel is seen, probably not having been yet +imported into the Sahara country.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp239_pg180.png" width="500" height="347" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>—Petroglyphs at Moghar, Algeria.</div> +</div> + + +<h4>EGYPT.</h4> + +<p>While the picture-writings of Egypt are too voluminous for present +discussion and fortunately are thoroughly presented in accessible publications, +it seems necessary to mention the work of the late Mrs. A. +B. Edwards (<i>a</i>). She gives a good account of the petroglyphs on the +rocks bounding the ancient river bed of the Nile below Philæ, which +show their employment in a manner similar to that in parts of North +America:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These inscriptions, together with others found in the adjacent quarries, range over +a period of between three and four thousand years, beginning with the early reigns<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180">[180]</a></span> +of the ancient empire and ending with the Ptolemies and Cæsars. Some are mere +autographs. Others run to a considerable length. Many are headed with figures of +gods and worshippers. These, however, are for the most part mere graffiti, ill +drawn and carelessly sculptured. The records they illustrate are chiefly votive. +The passer-by adores the gods of the cataract, implores their protection, registers +his name, and states the object of his journey. The votaries are of various ranks, +periods, and nationalities; but the formula in most instances is pretty much the +same. Now it is a citizen of Thebes performing the pilgrimage to Philæ, or a general +at the head of his troops returning from a foray in Ethiopia, or a tributary +prince doing homage to Rameses the Great and associating his suzerain with the +divinities of the place.</p></div> + + +<h4>SOUTH AFRICA.</h4> + +<p>Dr. Richard Andree, in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeichen bei den Naturvölkern</span> (<i>a</i>), presents +well-considered remarks, thus translated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Hottentots and the Bantu peoples of South Africa produce no drawings, +though the latter accomplish something in indifferent sculptures. The draftsmen +and painters of South Africa are the Bushmen, who in this way, as well as by many +other striking ethnic traits, testify to their independent ethnic position. The extraordinary +multitude of figures of men and animals drawn by this people within +its whole area, now greatly reduced, from the cape at the south to the lands and +deserts north of the Orange river, and which they still draw at this day in gaudy +colors, testify to an uncommonly firm hand, a keenly observing eye, and a very +effective characterization. The Bushman artist mostly selects the surfaces of the +countless rock bowlders, the walls of caves, or rock walls protected by overhanging +crags, to serve as the canvas whereon to practice his art. He either painted his figures +with colors or chiseled them with a hard sharp stone on the rock wall, so that +they appear in intaglio. The number of these figures may be judged from the fact +that Fritsch at Hopetown found “thousands” of them, often twenty or more on one +block; Hubner, at “Gestoppte Fontein,” in Transvaal, saw two hundred to three +hundred together, carved in a soft slate. The earth colors employed are red, ochre, +white, black, mixed with fat or also with blood. What instrument (brush?) is employed +in applying the colors has not yet been ascertained, since, so far as I know, +no Bushman artist has yet been observed at his work. As regards the paintings<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181">[181]</a></span> +themselves, various classes may be distinguished, but in all cases the subjects are +representations of figures; ornaments and plants are excluded. First of all, there +are fights and hunting scenes, in which white men (boers) play a part, demonstrating +the modern origin of these paintings. Next there are representations of animals, +both of domestic animals (cattle, dogs) and of game, especially the various antelope +species, giraffes, ostriches, elephants, rhinoceroses, monkeys, etc. A special class +consists of representations of obscene nature, and, by way of exception, there has +been drawn in one instance a ship or a palm tree.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Emil Holub (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Bushmen, who are regarded as the lowest type of Africans, in one thing excel +all the other South African tribes whose acquaintance I made between the south +coast and 10° south latitude. They draw heads of gazelles, elephants, and hippopotami +astonishingly well. They sketch them in their caves and paint them with +ochre or chisel them out in rocks with stone implements, and on the tops of mountains +we may see representations of all the animals which have lived in those parts +in former times. In many spots where hippopotami are now unknown I found beautiful +sketches of these animals, and in some cases fights between other native races +and Bushmen are represented.</p></div> + +<p>G. Weitzecker (<i>a</i>) gives a report of a large painting, in a cave at +Thaba Phatsoua district of Léribé, here presented as Fig. 142, containing +eighteen characters, with the addition of eight boys’ heads. It +represents the flight of Bushman women before some Zulu Kaffirs +(Matebele). The description, translated, is as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp241_pg182h.png"> +<img src="images/dp241_pg182.png" class="hires" width="500" height="133" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>—Petroglyph in Léribé, South Africa.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>As usual, the Bushmen are represented as dwarfs and painted in bright color as +contrasted with the Kaffirs, who are painted large and of dark color. The scene is +full of life, a true artistic conception, and in the details there are many important +things to be noted. For this reason I add a sketch of it, with the figures numbered, +in order to be able to send you some brief annotations.</p> + +<p>I will premise that as far as the women are concerned, in the small figures, no +mistaken notion should be entertained in regard to the anterior appendages which +catch, or rather strike, the eye in some of them. There is question simply of the pudendal +coverings of the Bushman women, consisting of a strip of skin, and flapping +in the wind.</p> + +<p><i>a</i> seems to represent a woman in an advanced interesting condition, who in her +headlong flight has lost even her mantle. She holds in her hand a mogope (disproportionate); +that is to say, a gourd dipper, such as are found, I believe, among all +the south African tribes.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> This figure, besides the mogope which she holds in her left hand, carries away +in her flight, steadying it on her head with her right hand, a nkho (sesuto), a baked +earthenware vessel, in which drinks are kept, and of which the ethnographic museum +now contains some specimens. This woman, too, has lost all her clothing +except the pudendal covering, and she looks pregnant. The attitudes of flight, +while maintaining equilibrium, I deem very fine.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, and perhaps <i>j</i>. Women carrying their babies on their backs, as is +the practice of the natives, in the so-called thari; that is, a sheepskin so prepared +that they can fasten it to their bodies and hold it secure, even while bent to the +ground or running.</p> + +<p><i>l</i> and <i>m</i>. Women with twins. It may be worthy of note that the painter has +placed them last, hampered as they are with a double weight.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Apparently a woman who has fallen in her flight. Figures <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> represent +men, who by their stature might be thought to be Bushmen, as also by their color, +which, so far as I remember, is not the same as that of the men coming up after +them, being rather similar to that of the women. In that case <i>e</i> would stoop to raise<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182">[182]</a></span> +the woman <i>c</i> who has fallen, and <i>i</i> would point the way to the others. Otherwise, +if there is question of Matebeles, which is rendered plausible by the fact that <i>n</i> +(which evidently represents an enemy) is not larger in stature than those two, then +<i>e</i> would stoop to snatch the baby of the fallen woman, and <i>i</i> would strive to catch +up with the two women <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>, who flee before it.</p> + +<p><i>j.</i> I can not explain this unless as a diffusion of color, which has transformed into +something unrecognizable the figure of the child carried by its mother, who has +fallen, like <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p><i>k</i> seems to be a woman resigned to her fate, who touches her neck with the left +hand, unless, indeed, the line which I take to be the arm is the sketch of the thari +with the baby.</p> + +<p><i>l.</i> A woman who runs toward the looker-on.</p> + +<p><i>m</i> represents a woman who has sat down, perhaps in order to place her twins +better in the thari, while behind her <i>n</i> arrives, preparing to spear her. With <i>n</i> the +band of enemies begins plainly, <i>o</i> seeming to be the leader, who, standing still, gives +the signal. But this figure must have been altered by the water, which by diluting +the color of the body has made it appear as a garment.</p> + +<p><i>p</i> and <i>q</i>. These admirable portraits of impetuosity and menace are a pictorial +translation of the saying “having long legs so as to run fast.”</p> + +<p><i>r.</i> A fine type of an attitude in the poise of running.</p></div> + +<p>The author’s discussion respecting the difference in size between the +male human figures mentioned as indicating their respective tribes +would have been needless had he considered the frequent expedient of +representing chiefs or prominent warriors by figures of much larger +stature than that of common soldiers or subjects. This device is common +in the Egyptian glyphs, and examples of it also appear in the +present work. (See Figs. <a href="#page175">138</a>, <a href="#page176">139</a>, and <a href="#page652">1024</a>.)</p> + +<p>The same author, loc. cit., gives a brief account of two petroglyphs +found by him near Leribo, in Basutoland, South Africa. They were +on a large hollow rock overlooking a plain where the bushmen might +spy game. The rock was all covered with pictures to a man’s height. +Many of them were entirely or almost entirely spoiled, both by the +hands of herdsmen and by water running down the walls in time of +rain. Some of them, however, are still very well preserved. They are +shown on Fig. 143.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp242_pg183a.png" width="500" height="248" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span>—Petroglyphs in Basutoland, South Africa.</div> +</div> + +<p>The left hand character represents a man milking an animal; the +latter, judging by the back part, especially by the legs, was at first +taken for an elephant; but the fore parts, especially the fore legs, evidently +are those of a bovine creature or of an elk (eland). The enormous +proportions of the back part are probably due to diffusion of colors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183">[183]</a></span> +through the action of water running down the rock. The right hand +character represents the sketch of an elk (eland), on which and under +which are depicted four monkeys, admirable for fidelity of expression. +The legs, with one exception, are not finished.</p> + + +<h4>CANARY ISLANDS.</h4> + +<p>These islands are considered in connection with the continent of +Africa.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp242_pg183bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp242_pg183b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="236" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>—Petroglyphs in the Canary islands.</div> +</div> + +<p>S. Berthelot (<i>a</i>) gives an account, referring to Figs. 144 and 145, +from which the following is extracted and translated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A site very little frequented, designated by the name of Los Letreros, appears to +have been inhabited in very ancient times by one of the aboriginal tribes established +on the Island of Fer, one of the Canary islands. At a distance of about three-quarters +of a league from the coast all the land sloping and broken by volcanic +mounds extends in undulations to the edge of the cliffs which flank the coast. It +is on this desert site, called Los Letreros, that inscriptions are found engraved on an +ancient flow of basaltic lava, with a smooth surface, over an extent of more than 400 +meters. On all this surface, at various distances and without any relation to each<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184">[184]</a></span> +other, but placed where the lava presents the smoothest spots, rendered shining and +glassy by the light varnish left by the volcanic matter in +cooling, are the various groups of characters.</p> + +<p>When we examine closely these different signs or characters +so deeply engraved [pecked] on the rock, doubtless +by means of some hard stone (obsidian or basalt), the first +thing observed is that several identical signs are reproduced +several times in the same group. These are, first, +round and oval characters, more or less perfect, sometimes +simple and isolated, again agglomerated in one group. +These characters so often reproduced are again seen in +juxtaposition or united, sometimes to others which are +similar, sometimes to different ones, and even inclosed in +others similar to them; for example, <i>a</i> in Fig. 144.</p> + +<p>Round or more or less oval characters reappear several +times in <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>Others, which are not met with more than once or twice +among the groups of signs, also present notable variations; +examples in <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p>Of these are formed composite groups <i>d</i>, which belong, +however, to the system of round signs.</p> + +<p>Other analogous but not identical signs appear to assume +rather the ovoid form than the round, and seem to have been +so traced as not to be confounded with the round symbols. +Some of them resemble leaves or fruit.</p> + +<p>Another system of simple characters is the straight line, +which can be represented by a stroke of the pen, isolated +or repeated as if in numeration, and sometimes accompanied +by other signs.</p> + +<p>Other peculiar signs shown in <i>e</i>, which are not repeated, +figure in the different groups of characters which the author +has reproduced.</p> + +<p>We notice further, in <i>f</i>, a small number of signs which +bear a certain analogy to each other, and several of which +are accompanied by other and more simple characters.</p> + +<p>Several others still more complicated are in eccentric +shapes which it is attempted to present in <i>g</i>.</p> + +<p>Including the common oval characters often repeated and +those consisting of a simple stroke similar to the strokes +made by school children, all the various engraved characters +scarcely exceed 400.</p> + +<p>Fig. 145 gives a view of a series of different groups of +signs in the length of the whole lava flow. The copyist +has expressed by dots those symbols which were confused, +partly defaced by the weather, or destroyed by fissures in +the rock.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp243_pg184h.png"> +<img src="images/dp243_pg184.png" class="hires" width="550" height="93" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>—Petroglyphs in Canary Islands.</div> +</div> + +<p>The same author (<i>b</i>) gives an account of several +strange characters found engraved on a rock of +the grotto of Belmaco, in the island of La Palma, +one of the Canaries. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These drawings, presented that they may be compared +with those of Fer Island (Los Letreros), show some fifteen +signs, some of which are repeated several times and others partly effaced by weather, +or at least feebly traced. But what seems most remarkable is that six or seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185">[185]</a></span> +signs are recognized as exactly similar to those of Letreros, of the island of Fer, +and almost all the others are analogous, for we recognize at once in comparing them +the same style of bizarre writing, formed of hieroglyphic characters, mainly rude +arabesques.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 5.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">ASIA.</span></h3> + +<p>A considerable number of petroglyphs found in Asia are described +and illustrated under other headings of this work. The following are +presented here for geographic grouping:</p> + + +<h4>CHINA.</h4> + +<p>Prof. Terrien de Lacouperie (<i>c</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is apparently to the art of the aboriginal non-Chinese that the following inscription +[not copied] belongs, should it be proved to be primitive; and it is the only +precise mention I have ever found of the kind in my researches.</p> + +<p>Outside of Li-tch’eng (in N. Shangtang), at some 500 li on the west towards the +north, is a stone cliff mountain, on the upper parts of which may be seen marks and +lines representing animals and horses. They are numerous and well drawn, like a +picture.</p></div> + + +<h4>JAPAN.</h4> + +<p>Prof. Edward S. Morse (<i>a</i>) kindly furnishes the illustration, reduced +from a drawing made by a Japanese gentleman, Mr. Morishima, which +is here reproduced (1/30 original size) as Fig. 145 <i>a</i>:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp244_pg185h.png"> +<img src="images/dp244_pg185.png" class="hires" width="500" height="165" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 145</span> <i>a</i>.—Petroglyph in Yezo, Japan.</div> +</div> + +<p>Prof. Morse in a letter gives further information as follows: +“The inscriptions are cut in a rough way on the side of the cliff on the +northwestern side of the bay of Otaru. Otaru is a little town on the +western coast of Yezo. The cliffs are of soft, white tufa about 100 feet +high, and the inscriptions were cut possibly with stone axes, and were +1 inch in width and from ¼ to ½ of an inch in depth. They are about 4 +feet from the ground.”</p> + +<p>Prof. John Milne (<i>a</i>) remarks upon the same petroglyph, of which he +gives a rude copy, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>So far as I could learn the Japanese are quite unable to recognize any of the characters, +and they regard them as being the work of the Ainos.</p> + +<p>I may remark that several of the characters are like the runic <i>m</i>. It has been suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186">[186]</a></span> +that they have a resemblance to old Chinese. A second suggestion was that +they might be drawings of the insignia of rank carried by certain priests; a third +idea was that they were phallic; a fourth that they were rough representations of +men and animals, the runic m being a bird; and a fifth that they were the handicraft +of some gentleman desirous of imposing upon the credulity of wandering +archæologists.</p> + +<p>I myself am inclined to think that they were the work of the peoples who have +left so many traces of themselves in the shape of kitchen middens and various implements +in this locality. In this case they may be Aino.</p></div> + +<p>Another illustration from Japan is presented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page734">LII</a></span>.</p> + + +<h4>INDIA.</h4> + +<p>Mr. Rivett-Carnac, in Archæologic Notes on Ancient Sculpturings on +Rocks in Kumaon, India (<i>a</i>), gives a description of the glyphs copied in +Fig. 146:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"> +<a href="images/dp246_pg187h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp246_pg187.jpg" class="hires" width="353" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>—Petroglyphs at Chandeshwar, India.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At a point about two miles and a half south of Dwara-Hath, and twelve miles +north of the military station of Ranikhet in Kumaon, the bridle-road leading from +the plains through Naini Tal and Ranikhet to Baijnath, and thence on to the celebrated +shrine of Bidranath, is carried through a narrow gorge at the mouth of which +is a temple sacred to Mahadeo, ... which is locally known by the name of +Chandeshwar.</p> + +<p>About two hundred yards south of the temple, toward the middle of the defile, +rises a rock at an angle of forty-five degrees presenting a surface upon which, in a +space measuring fourteen feet in height by twelve in breadth, more than two hundred +cups are sculptured. They vary from an inch and a half to six inches in diameter +and from half an inch to an inch in depth, and are arranged in groups composed +of approximately parallel rows.</p></div> + +<p>The cups are mostly of the simple types and only exceptionally surrounded +by single rings or connected by grooves.</p> + + +<h4>SIBERIA.</h4> + +<p>N. S. Shtukin (<i>a</i>) referring to certain picture-writings on the cliffs of +the Yenesei river, in the Quarterly Isvestia of the Imperial Geographical +Society for 1882, says: “These are figured, but are not particularly +remarkable, except as being the work of invaders from the far south, +perhaps Persians. Camels and pheasants are among the animals represented.”</p> + +<p>Philip John von Strahlenberg, in An Historico-Geographical Description +of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia, etc., reported +inscriptions relating to the chase, on the banks of the river Yenesei. +He says of one: “It takes its characteristic features from the natural +history of the region; and we may suppose it to embrace rude representations +of the Siberian hare, the cabarda or musk deer and other +known quadrupeds.”</p> + +<p>He also furnishes a transcript of inscriptions found by him on a precipitous +rock on the river Irtish. This rock, which is 36 feet high, is +isolated. It has four sides, one of which faces the water and has a +number of tombs or sepulchral caves beneath. All of the four faces<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187">[187]</a></span> +have rude representations of the human form, and other unintelligible +characters are drawn in red colors in a durable kind of pigment, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188">[188]</a></span> +is found to be almost indestructible and is much used for rock inscriptions.</p> + +<p>Prof. Terrien de Lacouperie, op. cit., makes the following remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Symbolical marks, incised or drawn graffitti, not properly speaking inscriptions, +have been found in Siberia, but they are not the expected primitive remains of ancient +writings. Some are purely Tartar, being written in Mongolian and Kalmuck; others, +obviously the work of common people, may be Arabic, while some others found on +the left bank of the Jenissei river are much more interesting. They seem to me to +be badly written in Syriac, from right to left horizontally, before the time of the +adaptation of this writing to the Uigur and Mongol. The characters are still separated +one from the other. On one of these graffitti found at the same place several Chinese +characters, as written by common people, are recognizable.</p> + +<p>Some hieroglyphical graffitti have been discovered on rocks above Tomsk, on the +right bank of the Tom river, in Siberia. They are incised at a height of more than +20 feet. They are very rude, and somewhat like the famous <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Livre de Sauvages</span> of +merry fame in palæography. Quadrupeds, men, heads, all roughly drawn, and some +indistinct lines, are all that can be seen. It looks more like the pictorial figures +which can be used as a means of notation by ignorant people at any moment than +like an historical beginning of some writing. There is not the slightest appearance +of any sort of regularity or conventional arrangement in them.</p> + +<p>The last we have to speak of are quite peculiar and altogether different from the +others. The signs are painted in red. They are made of straight lines, disposed like +drawings of lattices and window shades, and also like the tree characters of the +Arabs and like the runes. They are met with near the Irtisch river, on a rock over +the stream Smolank.</p></div> + +<p>Figs. <a href="#page387">513</a>, <a href="#page514">721</a>, <a href="#page515">722</a>, and <a href="#page517">723</a>, infra, have relation to this geographic +region.</p> + +<p>It is to be remarked that some of the Siberian and Tartar characters, +especially those reproduced by Schoolcraft, I, Pls. 65 and 66, have a +strong resemblance to the drawings of the Ojibwa, some of which are +figured and described in the present work, and this coincidence is more +suggestive from the reason that the totem or dodaim, which often is +the subject of those drawings, is a designation which is used by both +the Ojibwa and the Tartar with substantially the same sound and significance.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189">[189]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER V.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CUP SCULPTURES</span></h2> + + +<p>The simplest form of rock inscription is almost ubiquitous. In Europe, +Asia, Africa, America, and Oceanica, shallow, round, cup-like +depressions are found, sometimes in rows, sometimes singly, sometimes +surrounded by a ring or rings, but often quite plain. The cup-markers +often arranged their sculpturings in regularly spaced rows, not infrequently +surrounding them with one or more clearly cut rings; sometimes, +again, they associated them with concentric circles or spirals. +Occasionally the sculptors demonstrated the artificial character of their +work by carving it in spots beyond the reach of atmospheric influences, +such as the interiors of stone cists or of dwellings. It must, however, +be noted that, although there is thus established a distinction between +those markings which are natural and those which are artificial, it is +possible that there may have been some distant connection between the +two, and that the depressions worn by wind and rain may have suggested +the idea of the devices, now called cup-markings, to those who +first sculptured them.</p> + +<p>Vast numbers of these cup stones are found in the British islands, +often connected with other petroglyphs. In the county of Northumberland +alone there are 53 stones charged with 350 sculptures, among +which are many cup depressions. So also in Germany, France, Denmark, +and indeed everywhere in Europe, but these forms took their +greatest development in India.</p> + +<p>The leading work relating to this kind of sculpture is that of Prof. +J. Y. Simpson (<i>a</i>), afterward known as Sir James Simpson, who reduces +the forms of the cup sculptures to seven elementary types, here reproduced +in Fig. 147. His classification is as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"> +<a href="images/dp249_pg190h.png"> +<img src="images/dp249_pg190.png" class="hires" width="325" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>—Types of cup sculptures.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>First type. <i>Single cups.</i>—They are the simplest type of these ancient stone-cuttings. +Their diameter varies from 1 inch to 3 inches and more, while they are often +only half an inch deep, but rarely deeper than an inch or an inch and a half. +They commonly appear in different sizes on the same stone or rock, and although +they sometimes form the only sculptures on a surface they are more frequently associated +with figures of a different character. They are in general scattered without +order over the surface, but occasionally four or five or more of them are placed in +more or less regular groups, exhibiting a constellation-like arrangement.</p> + +<p>Second type. <i>Cups surrounded by a single ring.</i>—The incised rings are usually much +shallower than the cups and mostly surround cups of comparatively large size. The +ring is either complete or broken, and in the latter case it is often traversed by a +radial groove which runs from the central cup through and even beyond the ring.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190">[190]</a></span></p> + +<p>Third type. <i>Cups surrounded by a series of concentric complete rings.</i>—In this complete +annular form the central cup is generally more deeply cut than the surrounding +rings, but not always.</p> + +<p>Fourth type. <i>Cups surrounded by a series of concentric, but incomplete rings having a +straight radial groove.</i>—This type constitutes perhaps the most common form of the +circular carvings. The rings generally touch the radial line at both extremities, +but sometimes they terminate on each side of it without touching it. The radial +groove occasionally extends considerably beyond the outer circle, and in most cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191">[191]</a></span> +it runs in a more or less downward direction on the stone or rock. Sometimes it +runs on and unites into a common line with other ducts or grooves coming from +other circles, till thus several series of concentric rings are conjoined into a larger +or smaller cluster, united together by the extension of their radial branch-like +grooves.</p> + +<p>Fifth type. <i>Cups surrounded by concentric rings and flexed lines.</i>—The number of inclosing +or concentric rings is generally fewer in this type than in the two last preceding +types, and seldom exceeds two or three in number.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192">[192]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sixth type. <i>Concentric rings without a central cup.</i>—In many cases the concentric +rings of the types already described appear without a central cup or depression, +which is most frequently wanting in the complete concentric circles of the third +type.</p> + +<p>Seventh type. <i>Concentric circular lines of the form of a spiral or volute.</i>—The central +beginning of the spiral line is usually, but not always, marked by a cup-like excavation.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193">[193]</a></span></p> + +<p>It often occurs that two, three, or more of these various types are +found on the same stone or rock, a fact indicating that they are intimately +allied to each other.</p> + +<p>Prof. Simpson presents what he calls “the chief deviations from the +principal types” reproduced here as Fig. 148.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;"> +<a href="images/dp250_pg191h.png"> +<img src="images/dp250_pg191.png" class="hires" width="344" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>—Variants of cup sculptures.</div> +</div> + +<p>The first four designs represent cups connected by grooves, which is +a noticeable and frequently occurring feature. In Fig. 149 views of +sculptured rock surfaces at Auchnabreach, Argyleshire, Scotland, are +given. Simple cups, cups surrounded +by one ring or by concentric +rings, with radial grooves +and spirals, appear here promiscuously +mingled. Fig. 150 exhibits +isolated as well as connected cups, +a cup surrounded by a ring, and +concentric rings with radial +grooves, on a standing stone (menhir), +belonging to a group of seven +at Ballymenach, in the parish of +Kilmichael-Glassary, in Argyleshire, +Scotland.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 358px;"> +<a href="images/dp251_pg192h.png"> +<img src="images/dp251_pg192.png" class="hires" width="358" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>—Cup sculptures at Auchnabreach, Scotland.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;"> +<img src="images/dp252_pg193.png" width="345" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>—Cup sculptures at Ballymenach, +Scotland.</div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Berthold Seeman remarks +concerning the characters in Fig. +<a href="#page144">105</a>, supra, copied from a rock in +Chiriqui, Panama, that he discovers +in it a great resemblance to +those of Northumberland, Scotland, +and other parts of Great +Britain. He says, as quoted by +Dr. Rau (<i>d</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is singular that, thousands of miles away, in a remote corner of tropical America, +we should find the concentric rings and several other characters typically identical +with those engraved on the British rocks.</p> + +<p>The characters in Chiriqui are, like those of Great Britain, incised on large stones, +the surface of which has not previously undergone any smoothing process. The incised +stones occur in a district of Veraguas (Chiriqui or Alanje), which is now thinly +inhabited, but which, judging from the numerous tombs, was once densely peopled.</p> + +<p>From information received during my two visits to Chiriqui and from what has +been published since I first drew attention to this subject, I am led to believe that +there are a great many inscribed rocks in that district. But I myself have seen +only one, the now famous <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">piedra pintal</i> (i. e., painted stone), which is found on a +plain at Caldera, a few leagues from the town of David. It is 15 feet high, nearly 50 +feet in circumference, and rather flat on the top. Every part, especially the eastern +side, is covered with incised characters about an inch or half an inch deep. The +first figure on the left hand side represents a radiant sun, followed by a series of +heads or what appear to be heads, all with some variation. It is these heads, particularly +the appendages (perhaps intended for hair?), which show a certain resemblance +to one of the most curious characters found on the British rocks, and calling<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194">[194]</a></span> +to mind the so-called “Ogham characters.” These “heads” are succeeded by scorpion-like +or branched and other fantastic figures. The top of the stone and the other +sides are covered with a great number of concentric rings and ovals, crossed by +lines. It is especially these which bear so striking a resemblance to the Northumbrian +characters.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"> +<a href="images/dp253_pg194h.png"> +<img src="images/dp253_pg194.png" class="hires" width="353" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>—Cup sculptures in Chiriqui.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 151 presents five selected characters from the rock mentioned: +<i>a</i> attached to the respective numbers always refers to the Chiriqui and +<i>b</i> to the British type of the several designs; 1<i>a</i> and 1<i>b</i> represent radiant +suns; 2<i>a</i> and 2<i>b</i> show several grooves, radiating from an outer arch, +resembling, as Dr. Seeman thinks, the Ogham characters; 3<i>a</i> and 3<i>b</i> +show the completely closed concentric circles; 4<i>a</i> and 4<i>b</i> show how the +various characters are connected by lines; 5<i>a</i> and 5<i>b</i> exhibit the groove +or outlet of the circle.</p> + +<p>Mr. G. H. Kinahan, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute of +Great Britain and Ireland, 1889, p. 171, gives an account of Barnes’s +Inscribed Dallâus, County Donegal, Ireland. One of his figures bears +four cups joined together by lines forming a cross. The remainder of +the illustrations consist of concentric rings and cups resembling others +already figured in this paper.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195">[195]</a></span></p> + +<p>Marcano (<i>c</i>) describes Fig. 152 as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The chain of Cuchivero, situated in Venezuela between the Orinoco and the Caura, +shows on its flanks small plateaus on which are numerous stones which seem to have +been aligned. This chain is separated by a deep valley from that of Tiramuto, from +which were copied the petroglyphs here presented. The one represents a single sun, +the other two suns joined together. The rays of the former run from one circumference +to the other. The other two are joined together by a central stroke, and the +rays all start from the outer circumference.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp254_pg195a.png" width="500" height="164" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>—Cup sculptures in Venezuela.</div> +</div> + +<p>The same author (loc. cit.) thus describes Fig. 153:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These designs, taken on the little hills of the high Cuchivero, differ altogether +from the preceding. <i>a</i> is a very regular horizontal grouping. It begins by a spiral +joined to three figures similar among themselves, and similar also to the eyes of +jaguars which we have often met with. There follows a sort of isolated fret; at +its right is another, larger and joined to a circle different from the +preceding; it has a central point, and the second circumference is +interrupted. The figure terminates in a spiral like the one at the +beginning of the line, and which, being turned in the opposite +direction, serves as its pendant.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp254_pg195b.png" width="500" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>—Cup sculptures in Venezuela.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>b</i> is formed of two horizontal rows one above the other. We +there find first of all two frets united by a vertical stroke ending in +a hook. The characters which follow, resembling those of <i>a</i>, are +distinct in each row, but on closer inspection they are seen to +have a peculiar correspondence.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Ladisláu Netto (<i>b</i>) gives copies of carvings on the +rocks in Brazil on the banks of the Rio Negro, from +Moura to the city of Manaus, and remarks upon the characters reproduced +here as Fig. 154, that they represent the figure of the multiple +concentric circles joined together two by two, as were found<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196">[196]</a></span> +on several other rocks in the same region, and as they appear in +many inscriptions of Central America and at various points of North +America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 292px;"> +<img src="images/dp254_pg195c.png" width="292" height="402" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>—Cup sculptures +in Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>Senhor Araripe (<i>b</i>) gives the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Banabuiu, Brazil, about three-quarters of a league from the plantation of Caza-nova, +on the road to Castelo, is a stone resting upon another, at the height of a man, +which the inhabitants call <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Pedra-furada</span> (pierced stone) having on its western face +the inscription in Fig. 155.</p> + +<p>The characters have been much effaced by the rubbing of cattle against them; +the stone has also cracked. Some fragments lying at the foot of it bear on their +upper faces round holes made by a sharp tool, and resembling those shown in this +figure.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp255_pg196.png" width="500" height="218" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>—Cup sculptures in Brazil.</div> +</div> + +<p>Cup stones, called by the French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pierres à ecuelles</i> and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pierres à +cupules</i> and by the Germans <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Schalensteine</i>, are found throughout Hindustan, +on the banks of the Indus, at the foot of the Himalayas, in +the valley of Cashmere, and on the many cromlechs around Nagpoor. +At this very day one may see the Hindu women carrying the water of +the Ganges all the way to the mountains of the Punjab, to pour into +the cupules and thus obtain from the divinity the boon of motherhood +earnestly desired.</p> + +<p>The cup sculptures often become imposing by their number and combination. +In the Kamaon mountains there are numerous blocks that +support small basins. One of them is mentioned as being 13 feet in +length by 9 in breadth and 7 in height, and showing five rows of cupules. +At Chandeswar (see Fig. <a href="#page186">146</a>) the rocks themselves are covered with +these signs. They present two different types. One of the most frequent +groups shows a simple round cavity; in the others, the cupels +are encircled by a sort of ring carved in intaglio and encircling figures. +One of these figures recalls the swastika, the sacred sign of the Aryans. +The present Hindus are absolutely ignorant of the origin of these sculptures; +they are fain to attribute them to the Goalas, a mysterious race +of shepherd kings who preceded the great invasions which imprinted +an indelible stamp on the Indies as well as on Europe. These cupels +are correlated with the worship of Mahadeo, one of the many names +given to Siva, the third god of the Hindu triad, whose emblem is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197">[197]</a></span> +serpent. Chandeswar is reached through a narrow gorge; at the entrance +is found a temple sacred to Mahadeo. The columns and slabs +bear cupules similar to those seen on the rocks.</p> + +<p>Some of the Mahadeo designs +engraved on stone slabs in this +temple (see Rivett-Carnac, loc. cit.) +are represented in Fig. 156, showing +a marked resemblance to and +approaching identity with this class +of cuttings on bowlders, rocks, and +megalithic monuments in Europe.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<a href="images/dp256_pg197h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp256_pg197.jpg" class="hires" width="169" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>—Cup sculptures in India.</div> +</div> + +<p>A large number of stones with +typical cup markings have been +found in the United States of +America. Some of those illustrated +in this paper are presented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page058">V</a></span>, +and Figs. <a href="#page061">19</a> and <a href="#page086">48</a>.</p> + +<p>Among the many attempts, all +hitherto unsatisfactory, to explain +the significance of the cup stones +as distributed over nearly all parts +of the earth, one statement of Mr. +Rivett-Carnac (<i>b</i>) is of value as +furnishing the meaning now attached +to them in India. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Having seen sketches and notes on +rock sculptures in India which closely +resemble unexplained rock carvings in +Scotland, and having myself found one +of the Scotch forms cut on a bowlder in +Kángrá, * * * being at Ayodhyá +with a Hindu who speaks good English, +I got a fakir and drew on the sand of the +Gogra the figure +<img src="images/dp256_pg197a.png" class="inline_image" width="30" height="29" alt="concentric circles" /> +. I asked what +that meant. The fakir at once answered, +“Mahadeo.” I then drew +<img src="images/dp256_pg197b.png" class="inline_image" width="30" height="32" alt="concentric circles with line from center" /> + and got +the same answer. At Delhi my old +acquaintance, Mr. Shaw, told me that +these two signs are chalked on stones +in Kángrá by people marching in marriage +processions. The meaning given to these +two symbols now in India is familiarly +known to the people.</p></div> + +<p>Mahadeo, more accurately Mahadiva, is the god of generation. He +is worshiped by the Sawas, one of the numerous Hindu sects, under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198">[198]</a></span> +form of a phallus, often represented by a simple column, which sometimes +is placed on the yoni or female organ. It is suggested that in a +common form of the sculptures the inner circle represents the Mahadeo +or lingam, and the outer or containing circle the yoni. No idea of +obscenity occurs from this representation to the Hindus, who adore +under this form the generative power in nature.</p> + +<p>Prof. Douglas, in the Saturday Review, November 24, 1883, furnishes +some remarks on the topic now considered:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Palestine and the country beyond Jordan some of the marks found are so large +that it has been supposed that they may have been used as small presses of wine, or +as mortars for pounding the gleanings of wheat. But there is an objection to these +theories as accounting for the marks generally, which is fatal to them. To serve +these purposes the rocks on which the marks occur should be in a horizontal position, +whereas in a majority of cases all over the world the “cups” are found either +on shelving rocks or on the sides of perpendicular stones. This renders worthless +also the ideas which have at different times been put forward that they may have +been used for some sort of gambling game, or as sun-dials. A Swiss archæologist +who has lately devoted himself to the question believes that he has recognized, in +the sculpturings under his observation, maps of the surrounding districts, the +“cups” indicating the mountain peaks. In the same way others have thought that +similar markings may have been intended as maps or plans pointing out the direction +and character of old circular camps and cities in their neighborhood. But if +any such resemblances have been discovered they can hardly be other than fortuitous, +since it is difficult to understand how rows of cup marks, arranged at regular +intervals and in large numbers, could have served as representatives either of the +natural features of a country or of camps and cities. But a closer resemblance may +be found in them as maps if we suppose that they were intended to represent things +in the heavens rather than on earth. The round cup-like marks are reasonably suggestive +of the sun, moon, and stars, and if only an occasional figure could be found +representing a constellation, some color might be held to be given to the idea; but +unfortunately this is not the case. Nevertheless the shape of the marks has led +many to believe that they are relics of the ancient sun worship of Phœnicia, and +that their existence in Europe is due to the desire of the Phœnician colonists to convert +our forefathers to their faith. But there are many reasons for regarding this +theory, though supported by the authority of Prof. Nilsson, as untenable. The +observations of late years have brought to light cup marks and megalithic circles in +parts of Europe on which a Phœnician foot never trod; and it is a curious circumstance +that in those portions of the British Isles most frequented by these indefatigable +traders there are fewer traces of these monuments than in the northern and +inland districts, which were comparatively inaccessible to them.</p></div> + +<p>The Swiss archæologist mentioned above by Prof. Douglas is Fritz +Roediger (<i>a</i>), of whose theory the following is a translated abstract:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>What renders the deciphering of these sign stones exceedingly difficult (I purposely +avoid the words “map stones” because not all are such) is their great variety in +size, position, material, workmanship, and meaning. I will here speak of the latter +only, inasmuch as there are stones which in their smallest and their largest form +are yet frequently nothing else than boundary stones, whose origin can often not be +definitely established as prehistoric, while on the other hand again we discover +well-marked boundary stones, which at the same time show the outline of the piece +of ground which they guard. Similarly we find prehistoric (Gallic) “Leuk” stones, +differing from the meter-high communal and state boundary stones of modern times +in nothing but this, that they have some indistinct grooves and one or two hooks,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199">[199]</a></span> +while on the other hand we meet “Leuk” stones, which on their restricted heads, +often also on the side walls, indicate their environs for (Leuk) miles around, up, +down, and sidewise, while a third class of this form merely adorn crossroads, and +indicate deviations by means of lines and points (waranden). Thus we find quite +extensive slabs or structures that signify only some hectares, often only one, while +we meet very small ones, or, at any rate, of moderate size, which, one man can move, +that represent very large districts, some presenting only lines and grooves, others +with shells of various sizes, a third kind with both kinds of ornaments and samples +of ornaments, and again others with no sign at all, but yet respected as stones of +special meaning by the population, and called “hot stone,” “pointed stone,” +“heath stone,” “child’s stone,” etc. Other stones have basin-like or platter-like +depressions, and finally there are outcropping rocks with marks of one kind or +another, holes, rents, clefts, etc. A further great difficulty hampering the deciphering +of these wonderful stones is the lack of opportunities for comparison and experience. +I have been markedly favored in this respect by my sojourn and wanderings in +valley, mountain and alp. Western Switzerland is a very paradise for investigations +of this kind, especially the lake country and the upper part of the canton of +Solothurn (Soleure). A third difficulty, often insuperable, lies in the nonexistence +of appropriate good maps for comparison. In this respect too we are well off +in Switzerland.</p> + +<p>According to my observations in this field, now continued nearly 12 years, prehistoric +man had: (1) His land or province survey; (2) his circle, district, and communal +surveys, in reference to which (3) the Alpine surveys deserve special mention, +in cantons which down to the present day know nothing of such surveys; (4) private +and special surveys. Thus it seems that my observations lend full confirmation to +the oldest historic or traditional statements concerning the tenure of land of the +Kelto-Germans or Germano-Kelts.</p></div> + +<p>Among the Ojibwa concentric circles, according to Schoolcraft (<i>d</i>), +constituted the symbol of time. It would be dangerous to explain the +many markings of this character by the suggested symbolism, which +also recalls that of Egypt in relation to the circle-figure. Inquiries +have often been made whether the North American Indians have any +superstitious or religious practices connected with the markings under +consideration, e. g., in relation to the desire for offspring, which undoubtedly +is connected with the sculpturing of cup depressions and +furrows in the eastern hemisphere. No evidence is yet produced of +any such correspondence of practice or tradition relating to it. In the +absence of any extrinsic explanation the prosaic and disappointing +suggestion intrudes that circular concentric rings are easy to draw and +that the act of drawing them suggests the accentuation of depressions or +hollows within their curves. Much stress is laid upon the fact that the +characters are found in so many parts of the earth, with the implication +that all the sculptors used them with the same significance, thus +affording ground for the hypothesis that anciently one race of people +penetrated all the regions designated. But in such an implication the +history of the character formed by two intersecting straight lines is +forgotten. The cross is as common as the cup-stone, and has, or anciently +had, a different signification among the different people who +used it, beginning as a mark and ending as a symbol. Therefore, it +may readily be imagined that the rings in question, which are drawn<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200">[200]</a></span> +nearly as easily as the cross, were at one time favorite but probably +meaningless designs, perhaps, in popular expression, “instinctive” commencements +of the artistic practice, as was the earliest delineation of +the cross-figure. Afterward the rings, if employed as symbols or emblems, +would naturally have a different meaning applied to them in +each region where they now appear.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be noted that the figures under discussion can be +and often are the result of conventionalization. A striking remark is +made by Mr. John Murdoch (<i>a</i>), of the Smithsonian Institution, that +south of Bering strait the design of the “circle and dot,” which may be +regarded as the root of the cup sculpture, is the conventionalized representation +of a flower, and is very frequently seen as an ornamental +device.</p> + +<p>An elucidation of some of the most common forms of cup sculptures +is given, without qualification and also without authority, but with the +serene consciousness of certainty, by the Rev. Charles Rogers, “<span class="smcap lowercase">D.D.</span>, +<span class="smcap lowercase">LL. D.</span>, <span class="smcap lowercase">F. S. A.</span>, Scot., etc.,” as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The sculptures are sacred books, which the awe-inspired worshipper was required +to revere and, probably, to salute with reverence. A single circle represented the +sun, two circles in union the sun and moon—Baal and Ashtaroth. The wavy groove +passing across the circle pointed to the course of water from the clouds, as discharged +upon the earth. Groups of pit marks pointed to the stars or, more probably, to the +oaks of the primeval temples.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201">[201]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER VI.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PICTOGRAPHS GENERALLY.</span></h2> + + +<p>In leaving the geographic distribution of petroglyphs to examine +the comprehensive theme of pictographs in general, the first and correct +impression is that the mist of the archaic and unknown is also left and +that the glow of current significance is reached. The pictographs of +the American Indians are seldom if ever cryptographs, though very +often conventional and sometimes, for special reasons, preconcerted, +as are their signals. They are intended to be understood without a +key, and nearly all of those illustrated below in the present work are +accompanied by an interpretation. As the art is in actual daily use it +is free from the superstition pending from remote antiquity.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that a large proportion of the pictographs to be now +presented, which are not petroglyphs, are Micmac, Abnaki, Dakota, and +Ojibwa, although it is admitted that as many more could be obtained +from other tribes, such as the Zuñi and the Navajo. The reason for the +omission of details regarding the latter is that they are already published, +or are in the course of publication, by Mrs. Stevenson, Dr. +Matthews, Mr. Cushing, Mr. Fewkes, and other writers, who have +specially devoted themselves to the peoples mentioned and the region +occupied by them.</p> + +<p>The present writer obtained a valuable collection of birch-bark pictographs +immemorially and still made by the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot +tribes of Abnaki in Maine, showing a similarity in the use of +picture-writing between the members of the widespread Algonquian +stock in the regions west of the great lakes and those on the northeastern +seaboard. He also learned that the same art was common to +the less known Montagnais and Nascapees in the wooded regions north +of the St. Lawrence. This correlation of the pictographic practice, in +manner and extent, was before inferentially asserted, but no satisfactory +evidence of it had been furnished until the researches of the Bureau +of Ethnology, in 1887 and 1888, made by the writer, brought into direct +comparison the pictography of the Ojibwa with that of the Micmacs +and the Abnaki. Many of the Indians of the last-named tribes still use +marks and devices on birch bark in the ordinary affairs of life, especially +as notices of departure and direction and for warning and guidance. +The religious use of original drawings among them, which is still prominent +among the Ojibwa, has almost ceased, but traces of it remain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202">[202]</a></span></p> + +<p>The most interesting of all the accounts regarding the pictographs +of the North American Indians published before the last decade was +contained in the works of Henry R. Schoolcraft, issued in 1853 and +subsequent years, and the most frequently quoted part of his contributions +on this subject describes the pictographs of the Ojibwa. He +had special facilities for obtaining accurate information with regard to +all matters relating to that tribe on account of his marriage to one of +its women, a granddaughter of a celebrated chief, Waub-o-jeeg and +daughter of a European named Johnson. She was educated in Ireland +and had sufficient intelligence to understand and describe to her husband +the points of interest relating to her tribe.</p> + +<p>The accounts given by Mr. Schoolcraft, with numerous illustrations, +convey the impression that the Ojibwa were nearly as far advanced in +hieroglyphic writing as the Egyptians before their pictorial representations +had become syllabic. The general character of his voluminous +publications has not been such as to assure modern critics of +his accuracy, and the wonderful combination of minuteness and comprehensiveness +attributed by him to the Ojibwa “hieroglyphs” has of late +been generally regarded with suspicion. It was considered in the +Bureau of Ethnology an important duty to ascertain how much of truth +existed in these remarkable accounts, and for that purpose the writer, +with Dr. Hoffman as assistant, examined the most favorable points in +the present habitat of the tribe, namely, the northern regions of Minnesota +and Wisconsin, to ascertain how much was yet to be discovered.</p> + +<p>The general results of the comparison of Schoolcraft’s statements +with what is now found show that he told the truth in substance, but +with much exaggeration and coloring. The word “coloring” is particularly +appropriate, because in his copious illustrations various colors +were used freely and with apparent significance, whereas, in fact, the +general rule in regard to the birch-bark rolls was that they were never +colored at all; indeed, the bark was not adapted to coloration. The +metaphorical coloring was also flourished by him in a manner which +seems absurd to any thorough student of the Indian philosophy and +religions. Metaphysical concepts are attached by him to some of the +devices which he calls “symbols,” which could never have been entertained +by a people in the stage of culture of the Ojibwa. While some +symbolism, in the wide sense of the term, may be perceived, iconography +and ideography are more apparent.</p> + +<p>The largest part of the bark rolls and other pictographs of the Ojibwa +obtained by the Bureau, relates to the ceremonies of the Midē' and of +the shamanistic orders; another division refers to the Jessakid performances, +which can be classed under the head of jugglery; and a third +part embraces the more current and practical uses. Examples of all of +these are given, infra.</p> + +<p>The difficulties sometimes attending the pursuit of ceremonial pictographs +were exemplified to the writer at Odanah, Wisconsin. Very<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203">[203]</a></span> +few of the Ojibwa in that neighborhood, who are generally civilized +and in easy circumstances, had any more than a vague knowledge that +such things as inscribed bark rolls had ever existed. Three, however, +were traced and one was shown. The owner, an uncompromising heathen, +was called Kitche-sha-bads. “Kitche” means big, “sha” is an +attempt at the French form of John, and “bads” is a bad shot at Baptiste, +the whole translation, therefore, being “Big John the Baptist.” +This old fellow, though by no means as enterprising or successful as +some of the younger generation, had a snug house and farm and $300 +in the savings bank at Ashland. One thing, however, he needed, viz, +whisky. The strictest regulations prevailed on the reservation, really +prohibitory to the introduction of spirits, and, indeed, there was at +the nearest town, Ashland, a severe penalty for selling any form of +liquor to an Indian. To obtain whisky, therefore, was the only consideration +which would tempt him to allow a copy of the roll to be taken or +by which he could be induced to recite or rather to chant it in the manner +prescribed. He was undoubtedly accomplished in the knowledge +of the Midē' rites, and the roll, which was shown in his hands, but not +out of them, is substantially the same as one of those copied in the +present work, which was discovered several hundred miles farther +northwest among a different division of the same tribe. The shaman +began rather mildly to plead that he was an old man and could not +remember well unless his spirit was made good by a little whisky. +This difficulty might have been obviated by a traveler’s pocket flask, +but his demands increased with great rapidity. He said that the roll +could only be sung at night, that he must have another old man to help +him, and the old man must have whisky; then that there must be a +number of young men, who would join in the chorus, and all the young +men must have whisky too. These demands made it evident that he +was intending to have a drunken orgy, which resulted in a cloture of +the debate. And yet the idea of the old shaman was in its way correct. +The ceremonial chants could be advantageously pronounced only under +inspiration, which was of old obtained by a tedious form of intoxication, +now expedited by alcohol.</p> + +<p>The fact that this work shows a large proportion of pictographs from +the Siouan linguistic family, and especially from the Dakota division of +that family, may be explained partly by the greater familiarity of the +present writer with it than with most other Indian divisions. Yet +probably more distinctive examples of evolution in ideography and in +other details of picture-writing are found still extant among the Dakota +than among any other North American tribe. The degree of advance +made by the Dakota was well expressed by the Rev. S. D. Hinman, who +was born, lived, married, and died in their midst, and, though unfortunately +he committed to writing but little of his knowledge, was more +thoroughly informed about that people than any other man of European +descent.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204">[204]</a></span></p> + +<p>To express his views clearly he gave to this writer in a manuscript +communication his own classification of pictography (which is not in all +respects approved) as follows:</p> + +<p><i>I. Picturing.</i>—[This is the method called by Prof. Brinton (<i>b</i>) iconographic +writing.] This shows a simple representation of a thing or +event in picture, as of a bear, a man’s hand, a battle.</p> + +<p><i>II. Ideography.</i>—This arbitrarily, though significantly, recalls an idea +or abstract quality, as love or goodness.</p> + +<p><i>III. Picture-writing.</i>—This will, in picture and character, arbitrarily +or otherwise, recite a connected story, there being a picture or character +for every word, even for conjunctions and prepositions.</p> + +<p><i>IV. Phonetic writing.</i>—This gives phonetic value to every picture +and spells out the words by sound, almost as in later alphabets, as if +a lion should stand for the “l” sound, a bear for the “b” sound, etc., +and from this last by modification came alphabets. [This is the familiar +theory, which is accurate so far as it is applicable, of the initial sound, +but other elements are disregarded, such as the “rebus,” for which +special class Prof. Brinton, loc. cit., has invented the title of the Iconomatic +method.]</p> + +<p>Accepting this chronologic if not evolutionary arrangement, Mr. +Hinman decided that the Dakota picture-writing had passed through +stage I and was already entering upon stage II when it was first +observed by the European explorers. Of III and IV he found no examples +in Dakota pictography, though in sign language the Dakota +had progressed further and had entered upon III.</p> + +<p>As a summary of the topic it seems that pictographs other than petroglyphs +which presumably are more modern than most of the latter, +can be studied, not by geographic distribution, but by their ascertainable +intent and use. Unless the classification of the remaining +part of this work under its various headings has been defective, further +discussion in this chapter is unnecessary.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205">[205]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER VII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SUBSTANCES ON WHICH PICTOGRAPHS ARE MADE.</span></h2> + + +<p>Substances on which pictographs are made may be divided <span class="lock">into—</span></p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The human body.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. Natural objects other than the human body.</span><br /> +III. Artificial objects.<br /> +</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">THE HUMAN BODY.</span></h3> + +<p>Markings on human bodies are—(1) Those expressed by painting +or such coloration as is not permanent. It has been found convenient +to treat this topic under the heading of “Significance of Colors,” Chap. +<span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span>, Sec. <a href="#page618">3</a>. (2) Those of intended permanence upon the skin, generally +called tattoo, but including scarification. This enormous and +involved topic is discussed, so far as space allows, under the heading of +“Totems, Titles, and Names,” Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, Sec. <a href="#page391">3</a>, where it seems to be +most convenient in the general arrangement of this work. Though +logically it might have been divided among several of the headings, +that course would have involved much repetition or cross reference.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">NATURAL OBJECTS OTHER THAN THE HUMAN BODY.</span></h3> + +<p>Other natural objects may be divided into—(1) Stone; (2) bone; (3) +skins; (4) feathers and quills; (5) gourds; (6) shells; (7) earth and +sand; (8) copper; (9) wood.</p> + + +<h4>STONE.</h4> + +<p>This caption comprises the pictographs upon stone surfaces or tablets +which are not of the dimensions or in the position to be included +under the heading of petroglyphs, as elsewhere defined. Accounts, +with and without illustrations, have been published of several engraved +tablets, regarding which there has been much discussion, and some examples +appear, infra, under the appropriate heading. (See Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span>, +Sec. <a href="#page761">1</a>.) Other examples, in which the genuine aboriginal character of +the work is undisputed, appear in the present work, and a large number +of other engraved and incised stone objects could be referred to, some +of which are in the possession of the Bureau of Ethnology, unpublished,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206">[206]</a></span> +others being figured in its several reports. It is sufficient now for illustration +of this subject to refer to the account accompanying Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page733">LI</a></span>, infra, +describing and copying the Thruston tablet, which is, perhaps, the +most interesting of any pictograph on stone yet discovered, the genuineness +of which as Indian work has not been called in question.</p> + + +<h4>BONE.</h4> + +<p>For instances of the use of bone, several Alaskan and Eskimo carvings +figured in this work may be referred to, e. g., Figs. <a href="#page383">334</a>, <a href="#page351">459</a>-<a href="#page352">462</a>, +<a href="#page409">534</a>, <a href="#page497">703</a>, <a href="#page497">704</a>, <a href="#page531">742</a>, <a href="#page541">771</a>, <a href="#page581">844</a>, and <a href="#page727">1228</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;"> +<a href="images/dp265_pg206h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp265_pg206.jpg" class="hires" width="283" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>—Comanche drawing on shoulder-blade.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 157, copied from +Schoolcraft (<i>e</i>), is taken +from the shoulder-blade of +a buffalo found on the plains +in the Comanche country +of Texas. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is a symbol showing the +strife for the buffalo existing +between the Indian and white +races. The Indian (1) presented +on horseback, protected by his +ornamented shield and armed +with a lance, (2) kills a Spaniard +(3) after a circuitous chase (6), +the latter being armed with a +gun. His companion (4), armed +with a lance, shares the same +fate.</p></div> + +<p>It may be questioned +whether Mr. Schoolcraft +was not too active in the +search for symbols in his +explanation of (6) as a circuitous +chase. The device +is either a lasso or a lariat, +and relates to the possession +or attempt to take possession +of the buffalo. The +design (5), however, well +expresses ideographically +the fact that the buffalo at +the time was in contention, +and therefore was the property half of the Indians and half of the +whites.</p> + + +<h4>SKINS.</h4> + +<p>A large number of pictographs upon the hides of animals are mentioned +in the present paper. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, with its description in the Dakota<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207">[207]</a></span> +Winter Counts, infra, Chap, <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, Sec. <a href="#page266">2</a>, is one instance. Rawhide drum-heads +are also used to paint upon, as by the shamans of the Ojibwa.</p> + +<p>The use of robes made of the hides of buffalo and other large animals, +painted with biographic, shamanistic, and other devices, is also mentioned +in various parts of this work. A description of very early observation +is now introduced, taken from John Ribault in Hakluyt (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The king gaue our Captaine at his departure a plume or fanne of Hernshawes +feathers died in red, and a basket made of Palmeboughes after the Indian fashion, +and wrought very artificially and a great skinne painted and drawen throughout +with the pictures of diuers wilde beasts so liuely drawen and pourtrayed, that nothing +lacked but life.</p></div> + +<p>With the American use of pictographic robes may be compared the +following account of the same use by Australian natives by Dr. Richard +Andree (<i>b</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The inner side of the opossum skins worn by the blacks is also often ornamented +with figures. They scratch lines into the skin, which afterward are rubbed over +with fat and charcoal.</p></div> + + +<h4>FEATHERS AND QUILLS.</h4> + +<p>Edward M. Kern, in Schoolcraft (<i>f</i>), reports that the Sacramento +tribes of California were very expert in weaving blankets of feathers, +many of them having beautiful figures worked upon them.</p> + +<p>The feather work in Mexico, Central America, and the Hawaiian +Islands is well known, often having designs properly to be considered +among pictographs, though in modern times not often passing beyond +ornamentation.</p> + +<p>Worsnop (op. cit.) mentions that on grand occasions of the “Mindarie” +(i. e., peace festival) the Australian natives decorate the bodies, face, +legs, and feet with the down of wild fowl, stuck on with their own blood. +The ceremony of taking the blood is very painful, yet they stand it +without a murmur. It takes five or six men four to five hours to +decorate one man. The blood is put on the body wet and the down +stuck on the blood, showing, when finished, outlines of man’s head, face, +feet, snakes, emu, fish, trees, birds, and other outlines representing the +moon, stars, sun, and Aurora Australis, the whole meaning that they +are at peace with the world.</p> + +<p>Mr. David Boyle (<i>a</i>) gives an account of a piece of porcupine quill +work, with an illustration, a part of which is copied in Fig. 158.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 452px;"> +<img src="images/dp267_pg208a.jpg" width="452" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>—Quill pictograph.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the lost or almost lost arts of the Canadian Indians is that of employing +porcupine quills as in the illustration. Partly on account of scarcity of material, +but chiefly, it is likely, from change of habits and of taste, there are comparatively +few Indian women now living who attempt to produce any fabric of this kind. * * *</p> + +<p>The central figure is meant to represent the eagle or great thunder-bird, the belief +in which is, or was, widely spread among the Indians over the northern part of this +continent. * * *</p> + +<p>This beautiful piece of quill work was produced from Ek-wah-satch, who resides +at Baptiste lake. He informed me that it had belonged to his grandfather, who +resided near Georgian bay.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208">[208]</a></span></p> + +<p>See also Fig. <a href="#page487">685</a> for another illustration of pictographic work by +colored porcupine quills.</p> + + +<h4>GOURDS.</h4> + +<p>After gourds have dried the contents are removed and small pebbles +or bones placed in the empty vessel. Handles are sometimes attached. +They serve as rattles in dances and in religious and shamanistic rites. +The representations of natural +or mythical objects, connected +with the ceremonies, for which +the owner may have special +reverence are often depicted +upon their outer surfaces. +This custom prevails among +the Pueblos generally, and +also among many other tribes, +notably those of the Siouan +linguistic stock.</p> + +<p>Fig. 159 is a drawing of the +Sci-Manzi or “Mescal Woman” +of the Kiowa as it appears +on a sacred gourd rattle +in the mescal ceremony of that +tribe, and was procured with +full explanations in the winter +of 1890-’91 by Mr. James Mooney of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/dp267_pg208b.jpg" width="159" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>—Pictograph +on gourd.</div> +</div> + +<p>It shows the rude semblance of a woman, with divergent rays about +her head, a fan in her left hand, and a star under her feet.</p> + +<p>The peculiarity of the drawing is its hermeneutic character, which is +rarely ascertained by actual evidence as existing among the North +American Indians. It has a double meaning, and +while apparently only a fantastic figure of a woman, it +conveys also to the minds of the initiated a symbolic +representation of the interior of the sacred mescal +lodge. Turning the rattle with the handle toward the +east, the lines forming the halo about the head of the +figure represent the circle of devotees within the lodge. +The head itself, with the spots for eyes and mouth, +represents the large consecrated mescal which is placed +upon a crescent-shaped mound of earth in the center of +the lodge, this mound being represented in the figure +by a broad, curving line, painted yellow, forming the +curve of the shoulders. Below this is a smaller crescent curve, +the original surface of the gourd, which symbolizes the smaller +crescent mound of ashes built up within the crescent of earth as the +ceremony progresses. The horns of both crescents point toward the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209">[209]</a></span> +door of the lodge on the east side which, in the figure, is toward +the feet. In the chest of the body is a round globule painted red, +emblematic of the fire within the horns of the crescent in the lodge. +The lower part of the body is green, symbolic of the eastern ocean +beyond which dwells the mescal woman who is the ruling spirit or +divinity to whom prayers are addressed in the ceremony, and the star +under her feet is the morning star which heralds her approach. In her +left hand is a device representing the fan of eagle feathers used to +shield the eyes from the glare of the fire during the ceremony.</p> + + +<h4>SHELLS.</h4> + +<p>The admirable and well illustrated paper, Art in Shell of the Ancient +Americans, by Mr. W. H. Holmes, in the Second Annual Report of the +Bureau of Ethnology, and a similar paper, Burial Mounds of the Northern +Section of the United States, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas, in the Fifth +Annual Report of the same Bureau, render unnecessary present extended +discussion under this head.</p> + +<p>One example, however, which is unique in character and of established +authenticity, is presented here as Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XV</span>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;"> +<a href="images/dp270_pg210ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp270_pg210p.jpg" class="hires" width="341" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XV<br />POWHATAN’S MANTLE.</div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Edward B. Tylor (<i>a</i>) gives a description of the mantle copied +upon that plate, which is condensed as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among specimens illustrative of native North American arts, as yet untouched by +European influence, is the deerskin mantle ornamented with shellwork, recorded to +have belonged to the Virginian chief, Powhatan. Of the group of Virginian mantles +in Tradescant’s collection there only now remains this shell embroidered one. It is +entered as follows in the MS. catalogue of the Ashmolean Museum, in the handwriting +of the keeper, Dr. Plot, the well-known antiquary, about 1685: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">205 Basilica Powhatan +Regis Virginiani vestis, duabus cervorum cutibus consuta, et nummis indicis +vulgo cori’s dictis splendidè exornata.</span>” He had at first written “Roanoke,” but +struck his pen through this word, and wrote “cori’s” (i. e. cowries) above, thus by +no means improving the accuracy of his description.</p> + +<p>The mantle measures about 2.2<sup>m</sup> in length by 1.6<sup>m</sup> in width. The two deerskins +forming it are joined down the middle; no hair remains. The ornamental design +consists of an upright human figure in the middle; divided by the seam; a pair of +animals; 32 spirally-formed rounds (2 in the lowest line have lost their shells) and +the remains of some work in the right lower corner. The marks where shellwork +has come away plainly show the hind legs and tapering tails of both animals. It is +uncertain whether the two quadrupeds represent in the conventional manner of picture-writing +some real animal of the region, or some mythical composite creature +such as other Algonquin tribes are apt to figure. The decorative shellwork is of a +kind well known in North America. The shells used are <i>Marginella</i>; so far as Mr. +Edgar A. Smith is able to identify them in their present weathered state, <i>M. nivosa</i>. +They have been prepared for fastening on, in two different ways, which may be distinguished +in the plate. In the animals and rounds, the shells have been perforated +by grinding on one side, so that a sinew thread can be passed through the hole thus +made and the mouth. In the man, the shells are ground away and rounded off at +both ends into beads looking roughly ball-like at a distance.</p></div> + +<p>The artistic skill of the North American Indians was not, as a rule, +directed to represent the forms of animals with such accuracy as to +allow of their identification as portraitures. Instead of attempting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210">[210]</a></span> +such accuracy they generally selected some prominent feature such as +the claws of the bear, which were drawn with exaggeration, or the tail +of the mountain lion which was portrayed of abnormal length over the +animal’s back. Those animals were, therefore, recognized by those +selected features in much the same manner as if there had been a +written legend—“this is a bear” or “a mountain lion,” the want of +iconographic accuracy being admitted. In the animals represented +on the mantle no such indicating feature is obvious, and the general +resemblance to the marten is the only guide to identification.</p> + +<p>The habitat of the marten does not include Virginia as a whole, but +the animal is found in the elevated regions of that state. This local +infrequency is not, however, of much significance. If regarded as a +clan totem, as is probable, it may well be that the clan of Powhatan was +connected with the clans of the more northern Algonquian tribes among +whom the marten frequently appears as a clan totem. What is generally +termed the Powhatan confederacy was a union, not apparently ancient, +of a large number of tribal divisions or villages, and it is not known to +which clan (probably extending through many of these tribal divisions) +the head chief Powhatan belonged. There is almost nothing on record +of the clan system of those Virginian Indians, but it is supposed to be +similar to that of the northern and eastern members of the same linguistic +family, among whom the marten clan was and still is found.</p> + +<p>The topic of wampum which, considered as to its material, belongs to +the division of shellwork, is with regard to the purposes of the present +paper, discussed under the head of “Mnemonic,” Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, Sec. <a href="#page228">3</a>.</p> + + +<h4>EARTH AND SAND.</h4> + +<p>The highly important work, The Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony, +in the Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, by Dr. +Washington Matthews, U. S. Army, and that of Mr. James Stevenson, +Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis and Mythical Sand Painting of the +Navajo Indians, in the Eighth Annual Report of that Bureau, give +accounts of most interesting sand paintings by the Navajo Indians, +which were before unknown. These paintings were made upon the +surface of the earth by means of sand, ashes, and powdered vegetable +and mineral matter of various colors. They were highly elaborate, +and were fashioned with care and ceremony immediately preceding the +observance of specific rites, at the close of which they were obliterated +with great nicety. The subject is further discussed by Dr. W. H. Corbusier, +U. S. Army, in the present paper (see Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>, <a href="#page505">Sec. 5</a>).</p> + +<p>Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing, of the Bureau of Ethnology, kindly +contributes the following remarks with special reference to the Zuñi:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A study of characteristic features in these so-called sand pictures of the Navajos +would seem to indicate a Pueblo origin of the art, this notwithstanding the fact that +it is to-day more highly developed or at least more extensively practiced amongst +the Navajos than now, or perhaps ever, amongst the Pueblos. When, during my first<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211">[211]</a></span> +sojourn with the Zuñi, I found this art practice in vogue among the tribal priest +magicians and members of cult societies, I named it dry or powder painting. I +could see at a glance that this custom of powder painting had resulted from the +effort to transfer from a vertical, smooth, and stable surface, which could be painted +on, to a horizontal and unstable surface, unsuited to like treatment, such symbolic +and sacramental pictographs as are painted on the walls of the kivas, temporarily, +as appurtenances to the dramaturgic ceremonials of the cult societies, and as supposed +aids to the magical incantations and formulæ of all the monthly, semiannual, +and quadrennial observances and fasts of the tribal priests; sometimes, also, in the +curative or “Betterment” ceremonials of these priests. It is noteworthy that, with +the exception of the invariable “Earth terrace,” “Pathway of (earth) life,” and a +few other conventional symbols of mortal or earthly things (nearly always made of +scattered prayer meal), powder painting is resorted to amongst the Zuñi only in +ceremonials pertaining to <i>all</i> the regions or inclusive of the <i>lower</i> region. In such +cases paintings typical of the North, West, South, and East are made on the four +corresponding walls of the kiva, whilst the lower region is represented by appropriately +powder or paint colored sand on the floor, and the upper region either by +paintings on the walls near the ceiling or on stretched skins suspended from the latter. +Thus the origin of the practice of floor powder painting may be seen to have +resulted from the effort to represent with more dramatic appropriateness or exactness +the lower as well as the other sacramental regions, and to have been incident +to the growth from the quaternary of the sextenary or septenary system of world +division so characteristic of Pueblo culture. Hence it is that I attribute the art of +powder or sand painting to the Pueblos, and believe that it was introduced both by +imitation and by the adoption of Pueblo men amongst the Navajos. Its greater +prevalence amongst them to-day is simply due to the fact that having, as a rule, no +suitable vertical or wall surfaces for pictorial treatment, all their larger ceremonial +paintings have to be made on the ground, and can only or best be made, of course, +by this means alone.</p> + +<p>It is proper to add, as having a not inconsiderable bearing on the absence generally +of screen or skin painting among the Navajos, that, with the Pueblos at least, +these pictures are—must be—only temporary; for they are supposed to be spiritually +shadowed, so to say, or breathed upon by the gods or god animals they represent, +during the appealing incantations or calls of the rites; hence the paint substance of +which they are composed is in a way incarnate, and at the end of the ceremonial must +be killed and disposed of as dead if evil, eaten as medicine if good.</p> + +<p>Further light is thrown on this practice of the Zuñi in making use of these suppositively +vivified paintings by their kindred practice of painting not only fetiches +of stone, etc., and sometimes of larger idols, then of washing the paint off for use as +above described, but also of <i>powder painting in relief</i>; that is, of modeling effigies in +sand, sometimes huge in size, of hero or animal gods, sacramental mountains, etc., +powder painting them in common with the rest of the pictures, and afterwards removing +the paint for medicinal or further ceremonial use.</p></div> + +<p>The construction of the effigies in high relief last above mentioned +should be compared with the effigy mounds mentioned below in this +section.</p> + +<p>In connection with the ceremonial use, for temporary dry painting +on the ground, of colored earth and sand and also that of sacred corn +meal, a remarkable parallel is found in India. Mr. Edward Carpenter +(<i>a</i>) mentions that the Devadásis, who are popularly called Nautch girls, +as a part of their duty, ornament the floor of the Hindu temples with +quaint figures drawn in rice flour.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212">[212]</a></span></p> + +<p>The well known mounds or tumuli more or less distinctly representing +animal forms and sometimes called effigy mounds, found chiefly in +Wisconsin and Illinois, come in this category, but it is not possible to +properly discuss them and also give space to the many other topics in +this paper, the facts and authorities upon which are less known or less +accessible. A large amount of information is published by Rev. S. D. +Peet (<i>a</i>). Other articles are by Mr. T. H. Lewis in Science, September +7, 1888, and No. 318, 1889. One upon the Serpent mound of Ohio, by +Prof. F. W. Putnam (<i>a</i>), is of special interest. It may be suggested as +a summation that there is not sufficient evidence of the erection of this +class of effigy mounds merely for burial purposes. They seldom exceeded +6 feet in height and varied in expanse from 30 to 300 feet. The +animals most frequently recognizable in the constructions are lizards, +birds, and several more or less distinct quadrupeds; serpents and +turtles also are identified. The species of fauna represented are those +now or lately found in the same region. There is a strong probability +that the forms of the mounds in question were determined by totemic +superstitions or tribal habitudes.</p> + +<p>In England the pictographs styled “turf monuments” are sometimes +made by cutting the natural turf and filling with chalk the part of the +surface thus laid bare. Sometimes the color depends wholly upon the +limestone, granite, or other rock exposed by removing the turf. Rev. +W. C. Plenderleath (<i>a</i>) gives a full account of this variety of pictograph.</p> + + +<h4>COPPER.</h4> + +<p>This is the only metal on which it is probable that the North American +Indians made designs. To present comparisons of pictures by other +peoples on that or other metals or alloys would be to enter into a field, +the most interesting part of which is classed as numismatic, and which +would be a departure from the present heading. That virgin copper +was used for diverse purposes, generally ornamental, by the North +American Indians, is now established, and there is a presentation of +the subject in Prof. Cyrus Thomas’s (<i>a</i>) Burial Mounds. The most distinct +and at the same time surprising account of a true pictographic +record on copper is given by W. W. Warren (<i>a</i>), an excellent authority, +and is condensed as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Ojibwa of the Crane family hold in their possession a circular plate of virgin +copper, on which are rudely marked indentations and hieroglyphics denoting the number +of generations of the family who have passed away since they first pitched their +lodges at Shang-a-waum-ik-ong and took possession of the adjacent country, including +the island of La Pointe.</p> + +<p>When I witnessed this curious family register in 1843 it was exhibited to my +father. The old chief kept it carefully buried in the ground and seldom displayed +it. On this occasion he brought it to view only at the entreaty of my mother +whose maternal uncle he was.</p> + +<p>On this plate of copper were marked eight deep indentations, denoting the number +of his ancestors who had passed away since they first lighted their fire at Shang-a-waum-ik-ong. +They had all lived to a good old age.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213">[213]</a></span></p> + +<p>By the rude figure of a man with a hat on its head, placed opposite one of these +indentations, was denoted the period when the white race first made its appearance +among them. This mark occurred in the third generation, leaving five generations +which had passed away since that important era in their history.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. I. W. Powell (<i>a</i>), Indian superintendent, in the report of the +deputy superintendent-general of Indian affairs of Canada for 1879, +gives an account of some tribes of the northwest coast, especially the +Indians called in the report Newittees, a tribe now known as the +Naqómqilis of the Wakashan family, who treasure pieces of copper +peculiarly shaped and marked. The shape is that of one face of a truncated +pyramid with the base upward. In the broad end appear marks +resembling the holes for eyes and mouth, which are common in masks of +the human face. The narrower end has a rough resemblance to an ornamental +collar. These copper articles were made by the Indians originally +from the native copper, and in 1879 a few were held by the chiefs +who used them for presentation at the potlaches or donation feasts. The +value which is attached to these small pieces of copper, which are +intrinsically worthless, is astounding. For one of them 1,200 blankets +were paid, which would at the time and place represent $1,800. Sometimes +a chief in presenting one of them, in order to show his utter disregard +of wealth, would break it into three or four pieces and give +them away, each fragment being perhaps repurchased at an exorbitant +sum. This competition in extravagance for display, under the guise of +charity and humility, has had parallels in the silver-brick and flour-barrel +auctions in parts of the United States, when the actors were +white citizens. Apart from such public exhibitions, the copper tokens +seem to partake of the natures both of fiat money and of talismans.</p> + + +<h4>WOOD.</h4> + +<p>This division comprises:</p> + +<p>(1) <i>The living tree</i>, of the use of which for pictographic purposes +there are many descriptions and illustrations in this paper. In addition +to them may be noted the remark made by Bishop De Schweinitz (<i>a</i>) +in the Life and Times of Zeisberger, that in 1750 there were numerous +tree carvings at a place on the eastern shore of Cayuga lake, the meaning +of which was known to and interpreted by the Cayuga Indians.</p> + +<p>This mode of record or notice is so readily suggested that it is found +throughout the world, e. g., the “hieroglyph” in New Guinea, described +by D’Albertis (<i>a</i>), being a drawing in black on a white tree.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Bark.</i>—The Abnaki and Ojibwa have been and yet continue to +be in the habit of incising pictographic characters and mnemonic +marks upon birch bark. Many descriptions and illustrations of this +style are given in this paper, and admirable colored illustrations of it +also appear in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span> of the Seventh Ann. Rept. Bureau of Ethnology. +The lines appear sometimes to have been traced on the inner surface of +young bark with a sharply pointed instrument, probably bone, but in +other examples the drawings are made by simple puncturing. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214">[214]</a></span> +strips of bark, varying from an inch to several feet in length, roll up +after drying, and are by heating straightened out for examination.</p> + +<p>Another mode of drawing on birch bark which appears to be peculiar +to the Abnaki is by scratching the exterior surface, thus displaying a +difference in color between the outermost and the second layer of the +rind, which difference forms the figure. The lower character in Pl. +<span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page225">XVI</a></span> shows this mode of picturing. It is an exact copy of part of an old +bark record made by the Abnaki of Maine.</p> + +<p>They also use the mode of incision, many examples of which appear +in the present work, but their mode of scratching produced a much +more picturesque effect, as is shown also in Fig. <a href="#page473">659</a>, than the mere linear +drawing.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Manufactured wood.</i>—The Indians of the northwest coast generally +employ wood as the material on which their pictographs are to be +made. Totem posts, boats, boat paddles, the boards constituting the +front wall of a house, and wooden masks, are among the objects used.</p> + +<p>Many drawings among the Indians of the interior parts of the United +States are also found upon pipestems made of wood, usually ash. +Among the Arikara boat paddles are used upon which marks of personal +distinction are reproduced, as shown in Fig. <a href="#page442">578</a>.</p> + +<p>Mortuary records are also drawn upon slabs of wood. (See Figs. <a href="#page521">728</a> +and <a href="#page522">729</a>). Mnemonic devices, notices of departure, distress, etc., are +also drawn upon slips of wood.</p> + +<p>The examples of the use of wood for pictographs which are illustrated +and described in this paper are too numerous for recapitulation; to +them, however, may be added the following from Wilkes’s (<i>a</i>) Exploring +Expedition, referring to Fig. 160.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp275_pg214.png" width="500" height="216" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>—Pictographs on wood, Washington.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Near an encampment on Chickeeles river, near Puget Sound, Washington, were +found some rudely carved painted planks, of which Mr. Eld made a drawing. These +planks were placed upright and nothing could be learned of their origin. The colors +were exceedingly bright, of a kind of red pigment.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. James O. Pattie (<i>a</i>) gives an account of a wooden passport given +to him in 1824 by a Pawnee chief. He describes it, without illustration, +as a small piece of wood curiously painted with characters something +like “hieroglyphics.” The chief told Mr. Pattie’s party if they saw +any of his warriors to give them the stick, in which case they would be +kindly treated, which promise was fulfilled a few days later when the +party met a large band of the same tribe on the warpath.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215">[215]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.</span></h3> + +<p>Artificial objects may be classified, so far as is important for the +present work, into, I, fictile fabrics and, II, textile fabrics.</p> + + +<h4>FICTILE FABRICS.</h4> + +<p>A large number of articles of pottery bearing pictographs are figured +in the illustrated collections by Mr. James Stevenson in the +Second Annual Report, and by Mr. Stevenson and Mr. William H. +Holmes in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Pipes +on which totemic designs and property marks appear are also common.</p> + +<p>The art of pottery was at first limited to vessel-making. In the +earlier stages of culture, vases were confined to simple use as receptacles, +but as culture ripened they were advanced to ceremonial and religious +offices and received devices and representations in color and in relief +connected with the cult to which they were devoted. Among some tribes +large burial vases were fashioned to contain or cover the dead. An infinite +variety of objects, such as pipes, whistles, rattles, toys, beads, +trowels, calendars, masks, and figurines, were made of pottery. Clays +of varying degrees of purity were used, and sometimes these were tempered +with powdered quartz, shell, or like materials. The vessels +were frequently built by coiling. The surface was smoothed by the hands +or the modeling implement or was polished with a stone or other +smoothing tool. Much attention was given to surface embellishment. +The finger nails and various pointed tools were used to scarify and indent, +and elaborate figures and designs were incised. Stamps with +systematically worked designs were sometimes applied to the soft clay. +Cords and woven fabrics were also employed to give diversity to the +surface. With the more advanced tribes, though these simple processes +were still resorted to, engraving, modeling in relief and in the round, +and painting in colors were employed.</p> + + +<h4>TEXTILE FABRICS.</h4> + +<p>Textile fabrics include those products of art in which the elements +of their construction are filamental and mainly combined by using their +flexibility. The processes employed are called wattling, interlacing, +plaiting, netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidery. The materials +generally used by primitive people were pliable vegetal growths, such +as twigs, leaves, roots, canes, rushes, and grasses, and the hair, quills, +feathers, and tendons of animals.</p> + +<p>Unlike works in stone and clay, textile articles are seldom long preserved. +Still, from historic accounts and a study of the many beautiful +articles produced by existing Indian tribes, a fair knowledge of the +range and general character of native fabrics may be obtained. In +many cases buried articles of that character have been preserved by +the impregnation of the engirding earths with preservative salts, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216">[216]</a></span> +also some fabrics which had been wrapped about buried utensils, or +ornaments of copper remained without serious decay. Charring has +also been a means of preserving cloth, and much has been learned of +the weaving done by ancient workers through impressions upon pottery +which had been made by applying the texture while the clay was still +soft. The weaving appliances were simple, but the results in plain and +figured fabrics, in tapestry, in lace-like embroideries, and in feather-work +are admirable.</p> + +<p>This subject is discussed by Mr. W. H. Holmes in his paper, A Study +of the Textile Art, etc., in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology, in a manner so comprehensive as to embrace the field of +pictography in its relation to woven articles.</p> + +<p>Several examples of this application also appear in the present work. +See Figs. <a href="#page575">821</a>, <a href="#page607">976</a> and <a href="#page706">1167</a>. In addition the following are now presented.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217">[217]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some of the California tribes are expert workers in grass and roots +in the manufacture of baskets, upon which designs other than for mere +ornamentation are frequently worked. The Yokuts, at Tule river +Agency, in the southeastern part of the State, sometimes incorporate +various human forms in which the arms are suspended at the sides of +the body with the hands directed outward to either side. Above the +head is a heavy horizontal line.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;"> +<a href="images/dp277_pg216h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp277_pg216.jpg" class="hires" width="329" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>—Haida basketry hat.</div> +</div> + +<p>The following is extracted from Prof. O. T. Mason’s (<i>a</i>) paper on +basket work, describing Fig. 161:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a</i> is a rain hat of twined basketry in spruce root from Haida Indians. This figure +is the upper view and shows the ornamentation in red and black paint. The device +in this instance is the epitomized form of a bird, perhaps a duck. Omitting +the red cross on the top the beak, jaws, and nostrils are shown; the eyes at the +sides near the top, and just behind them the ears. The wings, feet, and tail, inclosing +a human face, are shown on the margin. The Haida, as well as other coast Indians +from Cape Flattery to Mount Saint Elias, cover everything of use with totemic +devices in painting and carving.</p> + +<p><i>b</i> shows the conical shape of <i>a</i>. The painted ornamentation on these hats is laid +on in black and red in the conventional manner of ornamentation in vogue among +the Haidas and used in the reproduction of their various totems on all of their houses, +wood and slate carvings, and implements.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp278_pg217h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp278_pg217.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="293" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>—Tsimshian blanket.</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Niblack (<i>b</i>) says, describing Fig. 162:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Chilkat and cedar-bark blankets are important factors in all ceremonial +dances and functions. Other forms of ceremonial blankets or mantles are made from +Hudson Bay Company blankets, with totemic figures worked on them in a variety +of ways. The usual method is to cut out the totemic figure in red cloth and sew it +on to the garment (ornamenting it with borders of beads and buttons) by the method +known as appliqué work; another method is to sew pieces of bright abalone or pearl +shell or pearl buttons on to the garment in the totemic patterns. The illustration +is a drawing of a vestment which hangs down the back, representing the totem or +crest of the wearer.</p></div> + +<p>This specimen is mentioned as the workmanship of the Tsimshian +Indians, at Point Simpson, British Columbia, and represents the halibut.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218">[218]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS BY WHICH PICTOGRAPHS +ARE MADE.</span></h2> + + +<p>So far as appears on ancient pictographic works the kind of instruments +and materials with which they were made can be inferred only +from its aspect, though microscopic examination and chemical analysis +have sometimes been successfully applied. A few examples relating +to the topic are given as follows, though other descriptions appear elsewhere +in this treatise.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">INSTRUMENTS FOR CARVING.</span></h3> + +<p>This title, as here used, is intended to include cutting, pecking, +scratching, and rubbing. The Hidatsa, when scratching upon stone or +rocks, as well as upon pieces of wood, employ a sharply pointed piece +of hard stone, usually a fragment of quartz. The present writer successfully +imitated the Micmac scratchings at Kejimkoojik lake, Nova +Scotia, by using a stone arrow point upon the slate rocks.</p> + +<p>The bow-drill was largely used by the Innuit of Alaska in carving +bone and ivory. Their present method of cutting figures and other +characters is by a small steel blade, thick, though sharply pointed, resembling +a graver.</p> + +<p>Many petroglyphs, e. g., those at Conowingo, Maryland, at Machiasport, +Maine, and in Owens valley, California, present every evidence +of having been deepened if not altogether fashioned by rubbing, either +with a piece of wood and sand or with pointed stone.</p> + +<p>To incise or indent lines upon birch bark the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and +other Algonquian tribes used a sharply pointed piece of bone, though +they now prefer an iron nail. Examples of scratching upon the outer +surface of bark are mentioned elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Several examples of producing characters on stone by pecking with +another stone are mentioned in this paper, and Mr. J. D. McGuire (<i>a</i>), of +Ellicott City, Maryland, has been remarkably successful in forming +petroglyphs with the ordinary Indian stone hammer. Some of the results +established by him are published in The American Anthropologist.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219">[219]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">INSTRUMENTS FOR DRAWING.</span></h3> + +<p>Drawings upon small slabs of wood, found among the Ojibwa, were +made with a piece of red-hot wire or thin iron rod hammered to a point. +Such figures are blackened by being burned in.</p> + +<p>When in haste or when better materials are not at hand, the Hidatsa +sometimes drew upon a piece of wood or the shoulder-blade of a +buffalo with a piece of charcoal from the fire or with a piece of red +chalk or red ocher, with which nearly every warrior is at all times +supplied.</p> + +<p>Mr. A. W. Howitt, in Manuscript Notes on Australian Pictographs, +says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Not having any process such as is used by some of the savage tribes to soften skins, +the harshness of these rugs is remedied by marking upon them lines and patterns, +which being partly cut through the skin give to it a certain amount of suppleness. +In former times, before the white man enabled the black fellow to supplement his +meager stock of implements with those of civilization, a Kumai made use of the sharp +edge of a mussel shell (unio) to cut these patterns. At the present time the sharpened +edge of the bowl of a metal spoon is used, partly because it forms a convenient instrument, +partly, perhaps, because its bowl bears a resemblance in shape to the +familiar ancestral tool.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">COLORING MATTER AND ITS APPLICATION.</span></h3> + +<p>Painting upon robes or skins is executed by means of thin strips of +wood or sometimes of bone. Tufts of antelope hair are also used, by +tying them to sticks to make a brush, but this is evidently a modern +innovation. Pieces of wood, one end of which is chewed so as to produce +a loose fibrous brush, are also used at times, as has been specially +observed among the Teton Dakota.</p> + +<p>The Hidatsa and other Northwest Indians usually employ a piece of +buffalo rib or a piece of hard wood having an elliptical form. This is +dipped in a solution of glue, with or without color, and a tracing is +made, which is subsequently filled up and deepened by a repetition of +the process with the same or a stronger solution of the color.</p> + +<p>Of late years in the United States colors of civilized manufacture +are readily obtained by the Indians for painting and decoration. Frequently, +however, when the colors of commerce can not be obtained, +the aboriginal colors are still prepared and used. The ferruginous +clays of various shades of brown, red, and yellow occur in nature so +widely distributed that these are the most common and leading tints. +Black is generally prepared by grinding fragments of charcoal into a +very fine powder. Among some tribes, as has also been found in some +of the “ancient” pottery from the Arizona ruins, clay had evidently +been mixed with charcoal to give better body. The black color made by +some of the Innuit tribes is made with blood and charcoal intimately<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220">[220]</a></span> +mixed, which is afterwards applied to incisions in ivory, bone, and +wood.</p> + +<p>Among the Dakota, colors for dyeing porcupine quills were obtained +chiefly from plants. The vegetable colors, being soluble, penetrate the +substance of the quills more evenly and beautifully than the mineral +colors of eastern manufacture.</p> + +<p>The black color of some of the Pueblo pottery is obtained by a special +burning with pulverized manure, into which the vessel is placed as it is +cooling after the first baking. The coloring matter—soot produced by +smoke—is absorbed into the pores of the vessel, and does not wear off +as readily as when colors are applied to the surface by brushes.</p> + +<p>In decorating skins or robes the Arikara Indians boil the tail of the +beaver, thus obtaining a viscous fluid which is thin glue. The figures +are first drawn in outline with a piece of beef-rib, or some other flat +bone, the edge only being used after having been dipped into the +liquor. The various pigments to be employed in the drawing are +then mixed with some of the same liquid, in separate vessels, when +the various colors are applied to the objects by means of a sharpened +piece of wood or bone. The colored mixture adheres firmly to the +original tracing in glue.</p> + +<p>When similar colors are to be applied to wood, the surface is frequently +pecked or slightly incised to receive the color more readily.</p> + +<p>Jacques Cartier, in Hakluyt (<i>b</i>), reports the Indian women of the Bay +of Chaleur as smearing the face with coal dust and grease.</p> + +<p>A small pouch, discovered on the Yellowstone river in 1873, which +had been dropped by some fleeing hostile Sioux, contained several fragments +of black micaceous iron. The latter had almost the appearance +and consistence of graphite, so soft and black was the result upon rubbing +with it. It had evidently been used for decorating the face as +war-paint.</p> + +<p>Mr. Wm. H. Dall (<i>a</i>), treating of the remains found in the mammalian +layers in the Amakuak cave, Unalaska, remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the remains of a woman’s work-basket, found in the uppermost layer in a cave, +were bits of this resin [from the bark of pine or spruce driftwood], evidently carefully +treasured, with a little birch-bark case (the bark also derived from drift logs) +containing pieces of soft hematite, graphite, and blue carbonate of copper, with +which the ancient seamstress ornamented her handiwork.</p></div> + +<p>The same author reports (<i>f</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The coloration of wooden articles with native pigments is of ancient origin, but all +the more elaborate instances that have come to my knowledge bore marks of comparatively +recent origin. The pigments used were blue carbonates of iron and copper; +the green fungus, or peziza, found in decayed birch and alder wood; hematite +and red chalk; white infusorial or chalky earth; black charcoal, graphite, and micaceous +ore of iron. A species of red was sometimes derived from pine bark or the +cambium of the ground willow.</p></div> + +<p>Stephen Powers (<i>a</i>) states that the Shastika women “smear their faces +all over daily with choke-cherry juice, which gives them a bloody, corsair +aspect.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221">[221]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. A. S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, reports that the +Klamaths of southwestern Oregon employ a black color, lgú, made of +burnt plum seeds and bulrushes, which is applied to the cheeks in the +form of small round spots. This is used during dances. Red paint, for +the face and body, is prepared from a resin exuding from the spruce +tree, pánam. A yellow mineral paint is also employed, consisting probably +of ocher or ferruginous clay. He also says that the Klamath +spál, yellow mineral paint, is of light yellow color, but turns red when +burned, after which it is applied in making small round dots upon the +face. The white infusorial clay is applied in the form of stripes or +streaks over the body. The Klamaths use charcoal, lgúm, in tattooing.</p> + +<p>Mud and white clay were used by the Winnebago for the decoration +of the human body and of horses. Some of the California Indians in the +vicinity of Tulare river used a white coloring matter, consisting of infusorial +earth, obtained there. The tribes at and near the geysers +north of San Francisco bay procured vermilion from croppings of cinnabar. +The same report is made with probability of truth concerning +the Indians at the present site of the New Almaden mines, where tribes +of the Mutsun formerly lived. Some of the black coloring matter of +pictographs in Santa Barbara, California, proved on analysis to be a +hydrous oxide of manganese. The Mojave pigments are ocher, clay, +and charcoal mingled with oil.</p> + +<p>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, of the Bureau of Ethnology, reports regarding +the Osage that one of their modes of obtaining black color for the face +was by burning a quantity of small willows. When these were charred +they were broken in small pieces and placed in pans, with a little +water in each. The hands were then dipped into the pan and rubbed +together and finally rubbed over the parts to be colored.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman reports that among the Hualpai, living on the western +border of the Colorado plateau, Arizona, some persons appeared as if +they had been tattooed in vertical bands from the forehead to the +waist, but upon closer examination it was found that dark and light +bands of the natural skin were produced in the following manner: When +a deer or an antelope had been killed the blood was rubbed over the +face and breast, after which the spread and curved fingers were +scratched downward from the forehead over the face and breast, thus +removing some of the blood; that remaining soon dried and gave the +appearance of black stripes. The exposed portion of the skin retained +the natural dark-tanned color, while that under the coating of coagulated +blood became paler by being protected against the light and air. +These persons did not wash off the marks and after a while the blood +began to drop off by desquamation, leaving lighter spots and lines +which for a week or two appear like tattoo marks. Similar streaks +of blood have been held to have originated tattoo designs in several +parts of the world to record success in hunting or in war, but such +evolution does not appear to have resulted from the transient decoration +in the case mentioned.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222">[222]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is well known that the meal of maize called kunque is yet commonly +used by the Zuñi for ceremonial coloration of their own persons +and of objects used in their religious rites. Hoddentin is less familiarly +known. It is the pollen of the tule, which is a variety of cat-tail +rush growing in all the ponds of the southwestern parts of the United +States. It is a yellow powder with which small buckskin bags are +filled and those bags then attached to the belts of Apache warriors. +They are also worn as amulets by members of the tribe. In dances for +the cure of sickness the shaman applied the powder to the forehead of +the patient, then to his breast in the figure of a cross; next he sprinkles +it in a circle around his couch, then on the heads of the chanters and +the assembled friends of the patient, and lastly upon his own head and +into his own mouth.</p> + +<p>Everard F. im Thurn (<i>c</i>) gives the following details concerning British +Guiana:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The dyes used by the Indians to paint their own bodies, and occasionally to draw +patterns on their implements, are red faroah, purple caraweera, blue-black lana, +white felspathic clay and, though very rarely, a yellow vegetable dye of unknown +origin.</p> + +<p>Faroah is the deep red pulp around the seed of a shrub (<i>Bixa orellana</i>) which +grows wild on the banks of some of the rivers, and is cultivated by the Indians in +their clearings. It is mixed with a large quantity of oil. When it is to be used +either a mass of it is taken in the palm of the hand and rubbed over the skin or +other surface to be painted, or a pattern of fine lines is drawn with it by means of +a stick used as a pencil.</p> + +<p>Caraweera is a somewhat similar dye, of a more purplish red, and by no means +so commonly used. It is prepared from the leaves of a yellow-flowered bignonia +(<i>B. chicka</i>) together with some other unimportant ingredients. The dried leaves are +boiled. The pot is then taken from the fire and the contents being poured into +bowls are allowed to subside. The clear water left at the top is poured away and +the sediment is of a beautiful purple color.</p> + +<p>Lana is the juice of the fruit of a small tree (<i>Genipa americana</i>) with which without +further preparation, blue-black lines are drawn in patterns, or large surfaces +are stained on the skin. The dye thus applied is for about a week indelible.</p></div> + +<p>Paul Marcoy (<i>a</i>), in Travels in South America, says the Passés, Yuris, +Barrés and Chumanas of Brazil, employ a decoction of indigo or genipa +in tattooing.</p> + +<p>F. S. Moreat, M. D., in Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXII</span>, 1862, p. 125, +says that the Andaman Islanders rubbed earth on the top of the head, +probably for the purpose of ornamentation.</p> + +<p>Dr. Richard Andree (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Long before Europeans came to Australia, the Australian blacks knew a kind of +pictorial representation, exhibiting scenes from their life, illustrating it with great +fidelity to nature. An interesting specimen of that kind was found on a piece of +bark that had served as cover of a hut on Lake Tyrrell. The black who produced +this picture had had intercourse with white people, but had had no instruction +whatever in drawing. The bark was blackened by smoke on the inside, and on +this blackened surface the native drew the figures with his thumb nail.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223">[223]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER IX.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">MNEMONIC.</span></h2> + + +<p>This is the most obvious and probably was the earliest use to which +picture-writing was applied. The contrivance of drawing the representations +of objects, to fix in the memory either the objects themselves +or the concepts, facts, or other matters connected with them, is practiced +early by human individuals and is found among peoples the most +ancient historically or in the horizons of culture. After the adoption +of the characters for purely mnemonic purposes, those at first intended +to be iconographic often became converted into ideographic, emblematic, +or symbolic designs, and perhaps in time so greatly conventionalized +that the images of the things designed could no longer be perceived +by the imagination alone.</p> + +<p>It is believed, however, that this form and use of picturing were preceded +by the use of material objects which afterwards were reproduced +graphically in paintings, cuttings, and carvings. In the present paper +many examples appear of objects known to have been so used, the graphic +representations of which, made with the same purpose, are explained +by knowledge of the fact. Other instances are mentioned as connected +with the evolution of pictographs, and they possibly may interpret some +forms of the latter which are not yet understood.</p> + +<p>This chapter is divided into (1) knotted cords and objects tied; +(2) notched or marked sticks; (3) wampum; (4) order of songs; (5) traditions; +(6) treaties; (7) appointment; (8) numeration; (9) accounting.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">KNOTTED CORDS AND OBJECTS TIED.</span></h3> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman reports a device among the Indians formerly inhabiting +the mountain valleys north of Los Angeles, California, who brought or +sent to the settlements blankets, skins, and robes for sale. The man +trusted to transport and sell those articles was provided with a number +of strings made of some flexible vegetable fiber, one string for each +class of goods, which were attached to his belt. Every one confiding an +article to the agent fixed the price, and when he disposed of it a single +knot was tied to the proper cord for each real received, or a double +knot for each peso. Thus any particular string indicated the kind of +goods sold, as well as the whole sum realized for them, which was distributed +according to the account among the former owners of the +goods.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224">[224]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. George Turner (<i>a</i>) says that among the South Sea Islanders tying +a number of knots in a piece of cord was a common way of noting +and remembering things in the absence of a written language.</p> + +<p>A peculiar and ingenious mode of expressing thoughts without pronouncing +or writing them in language is still met with among the Indian +shepherds in the Peruvian Cordilleras, though it is practiced +merely in the accounts of the flocks. This system consists of a peculiar +intertwining of various strings into a net-like braidwork, and the diverse +modes of tying these strings form the record, the knots and loops +signifying definite ideas and their combination the connection of these +ideas. This system of mnemonic device, which was practiced by the ancient +Peruvians, was called quipu, and, though a similar knot-writing +is found in China, Tartary, eastern Asia, on many islands of the Pacific, +and even in some parts of Africa, yet in Peru, at the time of the Incas, +it was so elaborately developed as to permit its employment for official +statistics of the government. Of course, as this writing gave no +picture of a word and did not suggest sounds, but, like the notched +stick, merely recalled ideas already existing, the writing could be +understood by those only who possessed the key to it; but it is noteworthy +that when the Jesuit missions began their work in Peru they +were able to use the quipus for the purpose of making the Indians +learn Latin prayers by heart.</p> + +<p>A more detailed account of the ancient quipu is extracted from Dr. +von Tschudi’s Travels in Peru (<i>a</i>) with condensation as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots on strings, so as to +render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrument was composed of one thick +head or top string, to which, at certain distances, thinner ones were fastened. The +top string was much thicker than these pendent strings and consisted of two doubly +twisted threads, over which two single threads were wound. The branches, or +pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by a single loop; the knots were +made in the pendent strings and were either single or manifold. The length of the +strings was various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards, +and sometimes only a foot; the branches are seldom more than 2 feet long, and in +general they are much shorter.</p> + +<p>The strings were often of different colors, each having its own particular signification. +The color for soldiers was red; for gold, yellow; for silver, white; for corn, +green, etc. The quipu was especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; +each single knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred; each +triple knot for one thousand, etc.; two single knots standing together made twenty; +and two double knots, two hundred.</p> + +<p>In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. On one +string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another the spearmen; on +a third, those who carried clubs, etc. In the same manner the military reports +were prepared. In every town some expert men were appointed to tie the knots of +the quipu and to explain them. These men were called <i>quipucamayocuna</i> (literally, +officers of the knots.) The appointed officers required great dexterity in unriddling +the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that they had to read +a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something was always required to be +added if the quipu came from a distant province, to explain whether it related to +the numbering of the population, to tributes, or to war, etc. This method of calculation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225">[225]</a></span> +is still practiced by the shepherds of Puna. On the first branch or string +they usually place the number of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows, the +latter being classed into those which were milked and those which were not milked; +on the next string were numbered the calves according to their ages and sizes. Then +came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next followed the number of foxes killed, +the quantity of salt consumed, and, finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. +Other quipus showed the produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, etc. Each +list was distinguished by a particular color or by some peculiarity in the twisting +of the string.</p></div> + +<p>Other accounts tell that the descendants of the Quiches still use the +quipu, perhaps as modified by themselves, for numeration. They pierce +beans and hang them by different colored strings, each of which represents +one of the column places used in decimal arithmetic. A green +string signifies 1,000; a red one, 100; a yellow, 10, and a white refers +to the 9 smaller digits. Thus if 7 beans are on a green, 2 on a red, 8 +on a yellow, and 6 on a white string, and the whole tied together, the +bundle expresses the number 7,286.</p> + +<p>Before the time of their acquaintance with the quipus, the Peruvians +used in the same way pebbles or maize-beans of various colors. The +same practice was known in Europe in the prehistoric period. The +habit of many persons in civilized countries to tie a knot in the handkerchief +to recall an idea or fact to mind is a familiar example to show +how naturally the action would suggest itself for the purpose, and perhaps +indicates the inheritance of the practice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"> +<a href="images/dp288_pg226ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp288_pg226p.jpg" class="hires" width="288" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XVI<br />PERUVIAN QUIPU AND BIRCH BARK DRAWING.</div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Andree (<i>b</i>) gives an illustration of a quipu (here reproduced as +part of Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVI</span>), which he represents as taken from Perez, and states +that the drawing was made soon after the exhuming of the object from +an ancient Peruvian grave.</p> + +<p>Capt. Bourke (<i>a</i>) gives descriptions and illustrations of varieties of +the izze-kloth or medicine cord of the Apache. A condensed extract +of his remarks is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These cords, in their perfection, are decorated with beads and shells strung along +at intervals, with pieces of the sacred green chalchihuitl, which has had such a mysterious +ascendancy over the minds of the American Indians—Aztec, Peruvian, Quiche, +as well as the more savage tribes like the Apache and Navajo; with petrified wood, +rock crystal, eagle down, claws of the hawk or eaglet, claws of the bear, rattle of +the rattlesnake, buckskin bags of hoddentin, circles of buckskin in which are inclosed +pieces of twigs and branches of trees which have been struck by lightning, +small fragments of the abalone shell from the Pacific coast, and much other sacred +paraphernalia of a similar kind.</p> + +<p>That the use of these cords was reserved for the most sacred and important occasions +I soon learned. They were not to be seen on occasions of no moment, but the +dances for war, medicine, and summoning the spirits at once brought them out, and +every medicine man of any consequence would appear with one hanging from his +right shoulder over his left hip.</p> + +<p>These cords will protect a man while on the warpath, and many of the Apache +believe firmly that a bullet will have no effect upon the warrior wearing one of +them. This is not their only virtue by any means; the wearer can tell who has +stolen ponies or other property from him or from his friends, can help the crops, and +cure the sick. If the circle attached to one of these cords is placed upon the head +it will at once relieve any ache, while the cross attached to another prevents the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226">[226]</a></span> +wearer from going astray, no matter where he may be; in other words, it has some +connection with cross-trails and the four cardinal points, to which the Apache pay +the strictest attention.</p> + +<p>I was at first inclined to associate these cords with the quipus of the Peruvians and +also with the wampum of the aborigines of the Atlantic coast, and investigation +only confirms this first suspicion.</p></div> + +<p>The praying beads of the Buddhists and of many Oriental peoples, +who have used them from high antiquity, are closely allied to the quipu. +They are more familiar now in the shape of the rosaries of Roman +Catholics. In the absence of manufactured articles, arranged on wires, +the necessary materials were easily procured. Berries, nuts, pease, or +beans strung in any manner answered the purpose. The abacus of the +Chinese and Greeks was connected in origin with the same device.</p> + +<p>E. F. im Thurn (<i>d</i>) says of the Nikari-Karu Indians of Guiana:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At last, after four days’ stay, we got off. The two or three people from Euwari-manakuroo +who came with us gave their wives knotted strings of quippus, each +knot representing one of the days they expected to be away, and the whole string +thus forming a calendar to be used by the wives until the return of their husbands.</p></div> + +<p>That the general idea or invention for mnemonic purposes appearing +in the quipu was actually used pictorially is indicated in the illustrations +of the sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa in Guatemala +given by Dr. S. Habel (<i>b</i>). Upon these he remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It has been frequently affirmed that the aborigines of America had nowhere arisen +high enough in civilization to have characters for writing and numeral signs, but +the sculptures of Santa Lucia exhibit signs which indicate a kind of cipher-writing +higher in form than mere hieroglyphics. From the mouth of most of the human +beings, living or dead, emanates a staff, variously bent, to the sides of which nodes +are attached. These nodes are of different sizes and shapes, and variously distributed +on the sides of the staff, either singly or in twos and threes, the last named +either separated or in shape of a trefoil. This manner of writing not only indicates +that the person is speaking or praying, but also indicates the very words, the contents +of the speech or prayer. It is quite certain that each staff, as bent and ornamented, +stood for a well-known petition, which the priest could read as easily as +those acquainted with a cipher dispatch can know its purport. Further, one may +be allowed to conjecture that the various curves of the staves served the purpose of +strength and rhythm, just as the poet chooses his various meters for the same purpose.</p></div> + +<p>The following notices of the ancient mnemonic use of knotted cords +and of its survival in various parts of the world are extracted from the +essay of Prof. Terrien de Lacouperie (<i>d</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Yang tung, south of Khoten, and consequently north of Tibet, who first communicated +with China in A. D. 641, had no written characters. They only cut +notches in sticks and tied knots in strings for records.</p> + +<p>The Bratyki and Buriats of Siberia are credited with the use of knotted cords.</p> + +<p>The Japanese are also reputed to have employed knots on strings or bind-weeds +for records.</p> + +<p>The Li of Hainan, being unacquainted with writing, use knotted cords or notched +sticks in place of bonds or agreements.</p> + +<p>In the first half of the present century cord records were still generally used in +the Indian archipelago and Polynesia proper. The tax-gatherers in the island of +Hawaii by this means kept accounts of all the articles collected by them from the +inhabitants. A rope 400 fathoms long was used as a revenue book. It was divided<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227">[227]</a></span> +into numerous portions corresponding to the various districts of the island; the portions +were under the care of the tax-gatherers, who, with the aid of loops, knots, +and tufts of different shapes, colors, and sizes, were enabled to keep an accurate account +of the hogs, pigs, and pieces of sandal wood, etc., at which each person was +taxed.</p> + +<p>In Timor island, according to the Chinese records in 1618, the people had no writing. +When they wanted to record something they did it with flat stones, and a +thousand stones were represented by a string.</p> + +<p>Knotted cords were originally used in Tibet, but we have no information about +their system of using them. The bare statement comes from the Chinese annals.</p></div> + +<p>The following statement regarding the same use by the Chinese is +made by Ernest Faber (<i>a</i>). He says: “In the highest antiquity, government +was carried on successfully by the use of knotted cords to preserve +the memory of things. In subsequent ages, the sages substituted +for these written characters. By means of these the doings of all the +officers could be regulated and the affairs of all the people accurately +examined.”</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">NOTCHED OR MARKED STICKS.</span></h3> + +<p>The use of notches for mere numeration was frequent, but there are +also instances of their special significance.</p> + +<p>The Dakotas, Hidatsa, and Shoshoni have been observed to note the +number of days during which they journeyed from one place to another +by cutting lines or notches upon a stick.</p> + +<p>The coup sticks carried by Dakota warriors often bear a number of +small notches, which refer to the number of the victims hit with the +stick after they had been wounded or killed.</p> + +<p>The young men and boys of the several tribes at Fort Berthold, +Dakota, frequently carry a stick, upon which they cut a notch for every +bird killed during a single expedition.</p> + +<p>In Seaver’s (<i>a</i>) life of Mary Jemison it is set forth that the war chief +in each tribe of Iroquois keeps a war-post, in order to commemorate +great events and preserve the chronology of them. This post is a +peeled stick of timber 10 or 12 feet high, and is erected in the village. +For a campaign they make, or rather the chief makes, a perpendicular +red mark about 3 inches long and half an inch wide. On the opposite +side from this, for a scalp taken, they make a red cross, thus +<img src="images/dp288_pg227a.png" class="inline_image" width="30" height="38" alt="Greek cross" /> + +On another side, for a prisoner taken alive, they make a red cross in +this manner +<img src="images/dp288_pg227b.png" class="inline_image" width="30" height="30" alt="saltire with dot" /> + with a head or dot, and by placing these significant +signs in so conspicuous a situation they are enabled to ascertain with +great certainty the time and circumstances of past events.</p> + +<p>It is suggested that the device first mentioned represents the scalp +severed and lifted from the head, and that the second refers to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228">[228]</a></span> +manner in which the prisoners were secured at night, +pegged and tied in the style called spread-eagle.</p> + +<p>Rev. Richard Taylor (<i>a</i>) notes that the Maori had +neither the quipus nor wampum, but only a board +shaped like a saw, which was called “he rakau +wakapa-paranga,” or genealogical board. It was, +in fact, a tally, having a notch for each name, and a +blank space to denote where the male line failed +and was succeeded by that of the female; youths +were taught their genealogies by repeating the +names of each ancestor to whom the notches referred.</p> + +<p>It is supposed that the use by bakers of notched +sticks or tallies, as they are called, still exists in +some civilized regions, and there is an interesting +history connected with the same wooden tallies, +which until lately were used in the accounts of the +exchequer of Great Britain. They also appear more +recently and in a different use as the Khe-mou circulated +by Tartar chiefs to designate the number of +men and horses required to be furnished by each +camp.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">WAMPUM.</span></h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp291_pg228h.png"> +<img src="images/dp291_pg228.png" class="hires" width="500" height="71" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 163.</span>—Wampum strings.</div> +</div> + +<p>Prof. Robert E. C. Stearns (<i>a</i>) says that wampum +consisted of beads of two principal colors having a +cylindrical form, a quarter of an inch, more or less, +in length, the diameter or thickness being usually +about half the length. The color of the wampum +determined its value. The term wampum, wampon, +or wampom, and wampum-peege was apparently applied +to these beads when strung or otherwise connected, +fastened, or woven together. The illustration +given by him is now reproduced as Fig. 163.</p> + +<p>In the Jesuit Relations, 1656, p. 3, the first present +of an Iroquois chief to Jesuit missionaries at a +council is described. This was a great figure of the +sun, made of 6,000 beads of wampum, which explained +to them that the darkness shall not influence +them in the councils and the sun shall enlighten them +even in the depth of night.</p> + +<p>Among the Iroquoian and Algonquian tribes wampum +belts were generally used to record treaties. +Mr. John Long (<i>a</i>) describes one of them:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The wampum belts given to Sir William Johnson, of immortal +Indian memory, were in several rows, black on each +side and white in the middle; the white being placed in the +center was to express peace and that the path between them +was fair and open. In the center of the belt was a figure of +a diamond made of white wampum, which the Indians call the +council fire.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229">[229]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the Jesuit Relations, 1642, p. 53, it is said that among the northern +Algonquins a present to deliver a prisoner consisted of three strings of +wampum to break the three bonds by which he was supposed to be +tied, one around the legs, one around the arms, and the third around +the middle.</p> + +<p>In the same Relations, 1653, p. 19, is a good example of messages +attached to separate presents of wampum, etc. This was at a council +in 1653 at the Huron town, 2 leagues from Quebec:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The first was given to dry the tears which are usually shed at the news of brave +warriors massacred in combat.</p> + +<p>The second served as an agreeable drink, as an antidote to whatever bitterness +might remain in the heart of the French on account of the death of their people.</p> + +<p>The third was to furnish a piece of bark or a covering for the dead, lest the sight +of them should renew the old strife.</p> + +<p>The fourth was to inter them and to tread well the earth upon their graves, in +order that nothing should ever come forth from their tombs which could grieve their +friends and cause the spirit of revenge to arise in their minds.</p> + +<p>The fifth was to serve as a wrapping to pack up the arms which were henceforth +not to be touched.</p> + +<p>The sixth was to cleanse the river, soiled with so much blood.</p> + +<p>The last, to exhort the Hurons to agree to what Onontio, the great captain of the +French, should decide upon touching the peace.</p></div> + +<p>As a rule there was no intrinsic significance in a wampum belt, or +collar, as the French sometimes called it. It was not understood +except by the memory of those to whom and by whom it was delivered. +This is well expressed in a dialogue reported by Capt. de Lamothe +Cadillac (<i>a</i>) in 1703:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>[Council of Hurons at Fort Ponchartrain, June 3, 1703.]</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quarante-Sols.</span> I come on my way to tell you what I propose to do at Montreal. +Here is a collar which has been sent to us by the Iroquois, and which the Ottawas +have brought to us; we do not know what it signifies.</p> + +<p>M. de <span class="smcap">Lamothe</span>. How have you received this collar without knowing the purpose +for which it was sent you?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quarante-Sols.</span> It has already been long since we received it. I was not there, +and our old men have forgotten what it said.</p> + +<p>M. de <span class="smcap">Lamothe</span>. Your old men are not regarded as children to have such a short +memory.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quarante-Sols.</span> We do not accept this collar; but we are going to take it to +Sonnontouan [the Seneca town] to find out what it means; because it is a serious +matter not to respond to a collar; it is the custom among us. The Ottawas can tell +you what it is, because our people have forgotten it.</p> + +<p>M. de <span class="smcap">Lamothe</span>. The Ottawas will reply that having received it you should +remember it, but since this collar is dumb and has lost its speech I am obliged to be +silent myself.</p></div> + +<p>In the Diary of the Siege of Detroit (<i>a</i>) it is narrated that after receiving +a belt of wampum from the commanding officer the Pottawatomi +chief called it the officer’s “mouth,” and said that those to whom it +was sent would believe it when “they saw his mouth.”</p> + +<p>But wampum designs, besides being mere credentials, and thus like +the Australian message sticks, and also mnemonic, became, to some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230">[230]</a></span> +extent, conventional. The predominance +of white beads indicated peace, and purple +or violet meant war.</p> + +<p>On the authority of Sir Daniel Wilson +(<i>a</i>) a string of black wampum sent round +the settlement is still among the Indians +of the Six Nations the notice of the death +of a chief.</p> + +<p>The Iroquois belts had an arrangement +of wampum to signify the lakes, rivers, +mountains, valleys, portages, and falls +along the path of trail between them and +the Algonkins, who were parties to their +treaty in 1653.</p> + +<p>On the authority of a manuscript letter +from St. Ange to D’Abbadie, September 9, +1764, quoted by Parkman (<i>a</i>), Pontiac’s +great wampum belt was 6 feet long, 4 inches +wide, and was wrought from end to end +with the symbols of tribes and villages, 47 +in number, which were leagued with him.</p> + +<p>In addition to becoming conventional +the designs in wampum, perhaps from expertness +in their workmanship, exhibited +ideographs in their later development, of +which the following description, taken +from Rev. Peter Jones’s (<i>a</i>), “History of +the Ojebway Indians” is an instance:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Johnson then explained the emblems contained +in the wampum belt brought by Yellowhead, +which, he said, they acknowledged to be the acts +of their fathers. Firstly, the council fire at the +Sault Ste. Marie has no emblem, because then the +council was held. Secondly, the council fire at +Mamtoulni has the emblem of a beautiful white +fish; this signifies purity, or a clean white heart—that +all our hearts ought to be white toward each +other. Thirdly, the emblem of a beaver, placed at +an island on Penetanguishew bay, denotes wisdom—that +all the acts of our fathers were done +in wisdom. Fourthly, the emblem of a white deer, +placed at Lake Simcoe, signified superiority; the +dish and ladles at the same place indicated abundance +of game and food. Fifthly, the eagle perched +on a tall pine tree at the Credit denotes watching, +and swiftness in conveying messages. The +eagle was to watch all the council fires between +the Six Nations and the Ojebways, and being far-sighted, +he might, in the event of anything happening, +communicate the tidings to the distant +tribes. Sixthly, the sun was hung up in the center +of the belt to show that their acts were done +in the face of the sun, by whom they swore that +they would forever after observe the treaties +made between the two parties.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231">[231]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the same work, p. 119, is a description of a wampum belt that +recorded the first treaty between the Ojibwa and the Six Nations of +the Iroquois confederacy. It has the figure of a dish or bowl at its +middle to represent that the Ojibwa and the Six Nations were all to +eat out of the same dish, meaning, ideographically, that all the game +in the region should be for their common use.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp293_pg230h.png"> +<img src="images/dp293_pg230.png" class="hires" width="500" height="108" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>—Penn wampum belt.</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. W. H. Holmes (<i>c</i>) gives an illustration of the well-known Penn +wampum belt, reproduced here as Fig. 164, with remarks condensed as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is believed to be the original belt delivered by the Leni-Lenape sachems to +William Penn at the celebrated treaty under the elm tree at Schackamaxon in 1682. +Up to the year 1857 this belt remained in the keeping of the Penn family. In March, +1857, it was presented to the Pennsylvania Historical Society by Granville John +Penn, a great-grandson of William Penn. Mr. Penn, in his speech on this occasion, +states that there can be no doubt that this is the identical belt used at the treaty, +and presents his views in the following language:</p> + +<p>“In the first place, its dimensions are greater than of those used on more ordinary +occasions, of which we have one still in our possession—this belt being composed of +18 strings of wampum, which is a proof that it was the record of some very important +negotiation. In the next place, in the center of the belt, which is of white +wampum, are delineated in dark-colored beads, in a rude, but graphic style, two +figures—that of an Indian grasping with the hand of friendship the hand of a man +evidently intended to be represented in the European costume wearing a hat, which +can only be interpreted as having reference to the treaty of peace and friendship +which was then concluded between William Penn and the Indians, and recorded by +them in their own simple but descriptive mode of expressing their meaning by the +employment of hieroglyphics.”</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /><span class="subhead">ORDER OF SONGS.</span></h3> + +<p>The Indian songs or, more accurately, chants, with which pictography +is connected, have been preserved in their integrity by the use of +pictured characters. They are in general connected with religious +ceremonies, and are chiefly used in the initiation of neophytes to secret +religious orders. Some of them, however, are used in social meetings +or ceremonies of cult societies, though the distinction between social or +any other general associations and those to be classified as religious is +not easily defined. Religion was the real life of the tribes, permeating +all their activities and institutions.</p> + +<p>The words of these songs are invariable, even to the extent that by +their use for generations many of them have become archaic and form +no part of the colloquial language. Indeed, they are not always understood +by the best of the shaman songsters, which fact recalls the +oriental memorization of the Veda ritual through generations by the +priests, who thus, without intent, preserved a language. The sounds +were memorized, although the characters designating or, more correctly, +recalling them, were not representations of sound, but of idea.</p> + +<p>Practically, the words—or sounds, understood or not, which passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232">[232]</a></span> +for words—as well as the notes, were memorized by the singers, and +their memory, or that of the shaman, who acted as leader or conductor +or precentor, was assisted by the charts. Exoteric interpretation of +any ideographic and not merely conventional or purely arbitrary characters +in the chart, which may be compared for indistinctness with the +translated libretto of operas, may suggest the general subject-matter, +perhaps the general course, of the chant, but can not indicate the exact +words, or, indeed, any words, of the language chanted.</p> + +<p>A simple mode of explaining the amount of symbolism necessarily +contained in the charts of the order of songs is by likening them to the +illustrated songs and ballads lately published in popular magazines, +where every stanza has at least one appropriate illustration. Let it be +supposed that the text was obliterated forever, indeed, the art of reading +lost, the illustrations remaining, as also the memory to some persons +of the words of the ballad. The illustrations, kept in their original +order, would always supply the order of the stanzas and also the particular +subject-matter of each particular stanza, and that subject-matter +would be a reminder of the words. This is what the rolls of birchbark +supply to the initiated Ojibwa. Schoolcraft pretended that there is +intrinsic symbolism in the characters employed, which might imply +that the words of the chants were rather interpretations of those characters +than that the latter were reminders of the words. But only +after the vocables of the actual songs and chants have been learned +can the mnemonic characters be clearly understood. Doubtless the +more ideographic and the less arbitrary the characters the more readily +can they be learned and retained in the memory, and during the +long period of the practical use of the mnemonic devices many exhibiting +ideography and symbolism have been invented or selected.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;"> +<a href="images/dp296_pg232ph.png"> +<img src="images/dp296_pg232p.png" class="hires" width="371" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XVII<br />ORDER OF SONGS—OJIBWA.</div> +</div> + +<p>The ceremonial songs represented pictorially in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, A, B, C, +and D, were obtained from Ojibwa shamans at White Earth, Minnesota, +by Dr. Hoffman, and pertain to the ceremony of initiating new +members into the Midē' wiwin or Grand Medicine Society. The language, +now omitted, differs to some extent from that now spoken. The +songs and ritual are transmitted from generation to generation, and +although an Indian who now receives admission into the society may +compose his own songs for use in connection with his profession, he +will not adopt the modern Ojibwa words, but employs the archaic whenever +practicable. To change the ancient forms would cause loss of +power in the charms which such songs are alleged to possess.</p> + +<p>The translation of the songs was given by the Ojibwa singers, while +the remarks in smaller type further elucidate the meaning of the phrases, +as afterwards explained by the shaman.</p> + +<p>The characters were all drawn upon birch bark, as is usual with the +“medicine songs” of the Ojibwa, and the words suggested by the incisions +were chanted. The incompleteness of some of the phrases was +accounted for by the shaman by the fact that they are gradually<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233">[233]</a></span> +being forgotten. The ceremonies are now of infrequent occurrence, which +tends to substantiate this assertion.</p> + +<p>One song, as presented on a single piece of birch bark, really consists +of as many songs as there are mnemonic characters. Each phrase, corresponding +to a character, is repeated a number of times; the greater +the number of repetitions the greater will be the power of inspiration +in the singer. One song or phrase may, therefore, extend over a +period of from two to ten or more minutes.</p> + +<p>The song covers much more time when dancing accompanies it, as is +the case with the first one presented below. The dancing generally +commences after a pause, designated by a single vertical bar.</p> + +<p>The following characters are taken from A, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, and are here +reproduced separately to facilitate explanation:</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 51px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233a.png" width="51" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The earth, spirit that I am, I take medicine out of +the earth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The upper figure represents the arm reaching down toward +the earth, searching for hidden remedies.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 64px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233b.png" width="64" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>(Because of) a spirit that I am, my son.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The headless human figure emerging from the circle is a mysterious +being, representing the power possessed by the speaker. +He addresses a younger and less experienced Midē' or shaman.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233c.png" width="43" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Bar or rest.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The vertical line denotes a slight pause in the song, after which +the chant is renewed, accompanied by dancing.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 72px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233d.png" width="72" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>They have pity on me, that is why they call us to the +Grand Medicine.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The inner circle represents the speaker’s heart; the outer circle, +the gathering place for shamans, while the short lines indicate +the directions from which the shamans come together.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233e.png" width="69" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I want to see you, medicine man.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The figure of a head is represented with lines running downward +(and forward) from the eyes, donating sight. The speaker is +looking for the shaman, spoken to, to make his appearance within +the sacred structure where the Midē' ceremonies are to take place.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 89px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233f.png" width="89" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>My body is a spirit.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The character is intended to represent the body of a bear, with +a line across the body, signifying one of the most powerful of the +sacred Man'idōs or spirits, of the Midē' wiwin or “Grand Medicine +Society.”</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 84px;"> +<img src="images/dp298_pg233g.png" width="84" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You would [know] it, it being a spirit.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The figure of a head is shown with lines extending both upward +and downward from the ears, denoting a knowledge of things in +realm of the Man'idōs above, and of the secrets of the earth beneath.</p></div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234">[234]</a></span></p> +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 48px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234a.png" width="48" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>As I am dressed, I am.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The otter is emerging from the sacred Midē' inclosure; the otter +typifies the sacred Man'idō who received instruction for the people +from Mi'nabō'zho, the intermediary between the “Great +Spirit” and the Ânîshinâbeg.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 53px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234b.png" width="53" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>That is what ails me, I fear my Midē' brothers.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The arm reaching into a circle denotes the power of obtaining +mysterious influence from Kítschi Man'idō, but the relation between +the pictograph and the phrase is obscure; unless the speaker +fears such power as possessed by others.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The following is the order of another Midē' song. The general style +of the original resembles the specific class of songs which are used when +digging medicines, i. e., plants or roots. The song is shown in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, +B as the character appears on the bark.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 61px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234c.png" width="61" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>As I arise from [slumber].</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The speaker is shown as emerging from a double circle, his +sleeping place.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234d.png" width="66" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>What have I unearthed?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The speaker has discovered a bear Man'idō, as shown by the +two hands grasping that animal by the back.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234e.png" width="96" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Down is the bear.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The bear is said to have his legs cut off, by the outline of the +Midē' structure, signifying he has become helpless because he is +under the influence of the shamans.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 37px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234f.png" width="37" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Big, I am big.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The speaker is great in his own estimation; his power of obtaining +gifts from superior beings is shown by the arm reaching for +an object received from above; he has furthermore overcome the +bear Man'idō and can employ it to advantage.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 49px;"> +<img src="images/dp299_pg234g.png" width="49" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You encourage me.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Two arms are shown extended toward a circle containing spots +of mī'gis, or sacred shells. The arms represent the assistance of +friends of the speaker encouraging him with their assistance.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235">[235]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 42px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235a.png" width="42" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I can alight in the medicine pole.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The eagle or thunder-bird is perched upon the medicine pole +erected near the shamans’ sacred structure. The speaker professes +to have the power of flight equal to the thunder-bird, that +he may transport himself to any desired locality.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="parallel">The following is another example of a pictured Midē' song, and is +represented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, C.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235b.png" width="69" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I know you are a spirit.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The figure is represented as having waving lines extending +from the eyes downward toward the earth, and indicating search +for secrets hidden beneath the surface of the earth. The hands +extending upward indicate the person claims supernatural powers +by which he is recognized as “equal to a spirit.”</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 37px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235c.png" width="37" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I lied to my son.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The signification of the phrase could not be explained by the +informant, especially its relation to the character, which is an +arm, reaching beyond the sky for power from Ki'tshi Man'idō. +The waving line upon the arm denotes mysterious power.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 59px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235d.png" width="59" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Spirit I am, the wolf.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The speaker terms himself a wolf spirit, possessing peculiar +power. The animal as drawn has a line across the body signifying +its spirit character.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 54px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235e.png" width="54" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>At last I become a spirit.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The circle denotes the spot occupied by the speaker; his hands +extended are directed toward the source of his powers.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 48px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235f.png" width="48" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I give you the mī'gis.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The upper character represents the arm reaching down giving +a sacred shell, the mī'gis, the sacred emblem of the “Grand Medicine +Society.” The “giving of the mī'gis” signifies its “being +shot” into the body of a new member of the society to give him +life and the power of communing with spirits, or Man'idōs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/dp300_pg235g.png" width="43" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You are speaking to me.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An arm is extended toward a circle containing a smaller one, +the latter representing the spot occupied by Midē' friends.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236">[236]</a></span></p> + +<p class="parallel">The characters next explained are taken from the last line, D, of the +series given in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>. The speaker appears to have great faith in his +own powers as a Midē'.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 31px;"> +<img src="images/dp301_pg236a.png" width="31" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Spirit I am, I enter.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The otter, which Man'idō, the speaker, professes to represent, is +entering the sacred structure of Midē' lodge.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 83px;"> +<img src="images/dp301_pg236b.png" width="83" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Midē' friends, do you hear me?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The circles denote the locality where the Midē' are supposed to +be congregated. The waving lines signify hearing, when, as in +this case, attached to the ears.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/dp301_pg236c.png" width="43" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The first time I heard you.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The speaker asserts that he heard the voices of the Man'idōs +when he went through his first initiation into the society. He is +still represented as the otter.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;"> +<img src="images/dp301_pg236d.png" width="67" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The spirit, he does hear (?)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The interpretation is vague, but could not be otherwise explained. +The lines from the ears denote hearing.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/dp301_pg236e.png" width="43" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>They, the Midē' friends, have paid enough.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The arm in the attitude of giving, to Ki'tshi Man'idō, signifies +that the Midē' have made presents of sufficient value to be enabled +to possess the secrets, which they received in return.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 52px;"> +<img src="images/dp301_pg236f.png" width="52" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>They have pity on me, the chief Midē'.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The arms of Ki'tshi Man'idō are extended to the Midē' lodge, giving +assistance as besought.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="parallel">The song mnemonically represented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span> A (reproduced from +Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span> A. of the Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. of Ethn.) is sung by the Ojibwa +preceptor who has been instructing the candidate for initiation. It +praises the preceptor’s efforts and the character of the knowledge he +has imparted. Its delivery is made to extend over as much time as +possible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp303_pg237ph.png"> +<img src="images/dp303_pg237p.png" class="hires" width="500" height="310" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XVIII<br />MNEMONIC SONGS—OJIBWA.</div> +</div> + +<p>The mnemonic characters were drawn by Sikas'sigĕ, and are a copy +of an old birchbark scroll, which has for many years been in his possession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237">[237]</a></span> +and which was a transcript of one in the possession of his +father Baiédzĭk, one of the leading Midē' at Mille Lacs, Minnesota.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237a.png" width="69" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>My arm is almost pulled out with digging medicine. +It is full of medicine.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The short zigzag lines signifying magic influence, erroneously +designated “medicine.”</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 62px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237b.png" width="62" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Almost crying because the medicine is lost.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The lines extending downward from the eye signify weeping; +the circle beneath the figure, the place where the “medicine” +is supposed to exist. The idea of “lost” signifies that +some information has been forgotten through death of those who +possessed it.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237c.png" width="69" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Yes, there is much medicine you may cry for.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Refers to that which is yet to be taught.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 73px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237d.png" width="73" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Yes, I see there is plenty of it.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē' has knowledge of more than he has imparted, but +reserves that knowledge for a future time. The lines of “sight” +run to various medicines which he perceives or knows of.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 27px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237e.png" width="27" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Rest.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 62px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237f.png" width="62" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>When I come out the sky becomes clear.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When the otter-skin Midē' sack is produced the sky becomes +clear, so that the ceremonies may proceed.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 88px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237g.png" width="88" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The spirit has given me power to see.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē' sits on a mountain the better to commune with the +good Man'idō.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 82px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237h.png" width="82" height="70" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I brought the medicine to bring life.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē' Man'idō, the Thunderer, after bringing some of the +plants—by causing the rains to fall—returns to the sky. The +short line represents part of the circular line usually employed +to designate the imaginary vault of the sky.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 86px;"> +<img src="images/dp304_pg237i.png" width="86" height="70" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I too, see how much there is.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>His power elevates the Midē' to the rank of a Man'idō, from +whose position he perceives many secrets hidden in the earth.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238">[238]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238a.png" width="85" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am going to the medicine lodge.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The vertical, left-hand figure denotes a leg going toward the +Midē'wigân.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 31px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238b.png" width="31" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I take life from the sky.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē' is enabled to reach into the sky and to obtain from +Ki'tshi Man'idō' the means of prolonging life. The circle at +the top denotes the sacred migis or shell.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 80px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238c.png" width="80" height="40" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Let us talk to one another.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The circles denote the places of the speaker (Midē') and the +hearer (Ki'tshi Man'idō), the short lines signifying magic influences, +the Midē' occupying the left hand and smaller seat.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238d.png" width="70" height="70" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The spirit is in my body, my friend.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The mī'gis, given by Ki'tshi Man'idō, is in contact with the +Midē'’s body, and he is possessed of life and power.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="parallel">In the order of song, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span>, B, reproduced from Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, C, of the +Seventh Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Ethnology, the preceptor appears +to feel satisfied that the candidate is prepared to receive the initiation, +and therefore tells him that the Midē' Man'idō announces to him the +assurance. The preceptor therefore encourages his pupil with promises +of the fulfillment of his highest desires:</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238e.png" width="67" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I hear the spirit speaking to us.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē'-singer is of superior power, as designated by the +horns and pointer upon his head. The lines from the ears indicate +hearing.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238f.png" width="87" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am going into the medicine lodge.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē'wigân is shown with a line through it, to signify +that the preceptor is going through it in imagination, as in the +initiation.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 42px;"> +<img src="images/dp305_pg238g.png" width="42" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am taking (gathering) medicine to make me live.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The disks indicate the sacred objects sought for, which are +successively obtained by the speaker, who represents the officiating +shaman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239">[239]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/dp306_pg239a.png" width="104" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I give you medicine, and a lodge, also.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē', as the personator of Makwá Man'idō, is empowered +to offer this privilege to the candidate.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 92px;"> +<img src="images/dp306_pg239b.png" width="92" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am flying into my lodge.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Represents the thunder-bird, a deity flying into the arch of +the sky, the abode of spirits or Man'idōs. The short lines cutting +the curve are spirit lines.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp306_pg239c.png" width="50" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The spirit has dropped medicine from the sky where +we can get it.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The line from the sky, diverging to various points, indicates +that the sacred objects fall in scattered places.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp306_pg239d.png" width="75" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I have the medicine in my heart.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The singer’s heart is filled with knowledge relating to sacred +objects from the earth.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="parallel">The song depicted in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span> C, was drawn by “Little Frenchman,” +an Ojibwa Midē' of the first degree, who reproduced it from a bark +record belonging to his preceptor. “Little Frenchman” had not yet +received instruction in these characters, and consequently could not +sing the songs, but from his familiarity with mnemonic delineations of +the order of the Grand Medicine of ideas he was able to give an outline +of the signification of the figures and the phraseology which they suggested +to his mind. In the following description the first line pertaining +to a character is the objective description, the second being the +explanation.</p> + +<p>It is furthermore to be remarked that in this chart and the one following +the interpretation of characters begins at the right hand instead +of the left, contrary to rule. The song is reproduced from. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span>, A, +of the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology:</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 49px;"> +<img src="images/dp306_pg239e.png" width="49" height="70" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>From the place where I sit.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A man, seated and talking or singing.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240">[240]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 57px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240a.png" width="57" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The big tree in the middle of the earth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tree; inclosure represents the world as visible from a given +spot of observation—horizon.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 46px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240b.png" width="46" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I will float down the fast running stream.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Stream of water; the spots indicate progress of traveler, and +may be rude indications of canoes or equally rude foot tracks, +the usual pictograph for traveling.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240c.png" width="65" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The place that is feared I inhabit; the swift running +stream.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A spirit surrounded by a line indicating the shore.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 64px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240d.png" width="64" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You who speak to me.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Two spirits communing.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 39px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240e.png" width="39" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I have long horns.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Horned water monster.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 29px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240f.png" width="29" height="50" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Rest; dancing begins with next character.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 58px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240g.png" width="58" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I, observing, follow your example.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man listening to water monster (spirit).</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 59px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240h.png" width="59" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You are my body; you see anybody; you see my +nails are worn off in grasping the stone (from which +medicine is taken).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bear, with claws, scratching; depression shown by line under +claws, where scratching has been done.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 59px;"> +<img src="images/dp307_pg240i.png" width="59" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You (i. e., the spirits who are there), to whom I am +speaking.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Spirit panther.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241">[241]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241a.png" width="60" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am floating down smoothly.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Spirit otter, swimming; outer lines are river banks.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 30px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241b.png" width="30" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Rest.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 73px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241c.png" width="73" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I have finished my drum.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Spirit holding drum; sound ascending.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 53px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241d.png" width="53" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>My body is like unto you.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is the mī'gis shell—the special symbol of the Midē' wiwin.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241e.png" width="65" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Hear me, thou, who art talking to me.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Listening, and wanting others (spirits) to hear.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 51px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241f.png" width="51" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>See what I am taking.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Spirit (Midē') taking “medicine root.”</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 49px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241g.png" width="49" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>See me whose head is out of the water.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Otters, two spirits, the left-hand one being the “speaker.”</p></div></div> + +<p class="parallel">The Midē' song, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span>, D, was also copied by “Little Frenchman” +upon birchbark, from one in the possession of his preceptor, but upon +which he had not yet received careful instruction; hence the incompleteness +of some of his interpretations. It is reproduced from Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span>, +B, of the Seventh Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241h.png" width="78" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am sitting down with my pipe.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man sitting, holding a pipe. He has been called upon to +“make medicine.” The short lines beneath the body represent +that he is seated. He holds a filled pipe which he is not yet +smoking.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 81px;"> +<img src="images/dp308_pg241i.png" width="81" height="70" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I, me the spirit, the spirit of the owl.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Owl, held by Midē'; arm above bird. This character appears +upon the Grand Medicine chart from Red Lake, as passing from +the midē' lodge to the ghost lodge.</p></div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242">[242]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242a.png" width="93" height="61" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>It stands, that which I am going after.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tree; showing tracks made by bear spirit. The speaker terms +himself equal with this spirit and represents himself seeking +remedies.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242b.png" width="75" height="70" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I, who fly.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Medicine bag, flying. The figure is that of the thunder bird +(eagle) whose skin was used for a bag. The trees beneath show +the bird to have ascended beyond their tops.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 51px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242c.png" width="51" height="55" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Kibinan is what I use—the magic arrow.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An arrow, held by hand.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 63px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242d.png" width="63" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am coming to the earth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Otter spirit. Circle denotes the surrounding sky in which is +the spirit. The earth is shown by the horizontal line above +which is the Indian hut. The speaker likens himself to the +otter spirit who first received the rites of the Midē' initiation.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 88px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242e.png" width="88" height="71" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am feeling for it.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man (spirit) seeking for hidden medicine. The circle represents +a hole in the earth.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242f.png" width="69" height="61" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am talking to it.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Medicine bag made of an owl skin is held by shaman; latter +is talking to the magic elements contained therein.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242g.png" width="43" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>They are sitting in a circle (“around in a row”).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Midē' lodge; Midē' sitting around. The crosses represent the +persons present.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 55px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242h.png" width="55" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>You who are newly hung, and you who have reached +half, and you who are now full.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Full moon, one half, and quarter moon.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 43px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242i.png" width="43" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am going for my dish.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Footprints leading to dish (ghost society dish). The circular +objects here each denotes a “feast,” usually represented by a +“dish.”</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 42px;"> +<img src="images/dp309_pg242j.png" width="42" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I go through the medicine lodge.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Grand medicine lodge; tracks leading through it. The +speaker, after having prepared a feast, is entitled to enter for +initiation.</p></div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243">[243]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 57px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243a.png" width="57" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Let us commune with one another.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Two men conversing; two Midē'.</p></div></div> + +<div class="figcenter p2" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp313_pg245ph.png"> +<img src="images/dp313_pg245p.png" class="hires" width="500" height="294" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XIX<br />MNEMONIC SONGS—OJIBWA.</div> +</div> + +<p class="parallel">The mnemonic order of song, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span> a, is another example from Red +Lake, prepared by the Ojibwa last mentioned:</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243b.png" width="66" height="66" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>“Carved images.”</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Carved images. These represent the speaker to say that he +prepares fetishes for hunting, love, etc.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243c.png" width="60" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am holding my grand medicine sack.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man holding “medicine bag.”</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 61px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243d.png" width="61" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>“Wants a woman.” [No interpretation was ventured +by “Little Frenchman.”]</p></div> + + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243e.png" width="98" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Hear me, great spirit.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Lines from the ears, to denote hearing.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 71px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243f.png" width="71" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am about to climb.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Medicine tree at grand lodge. The marks on either side are +bear tracks, the footprints of the bear spirit—the speaker representing +him.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243g.png" width="65" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am entering the grand medicine lodge.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Midē'wigân, showing footprints of the bear Man'idō which +are simulated by the boastful shaman.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 58px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243h.png" width="58" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am making my tracks on the road.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Footprints on the path.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 57px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243i.png" width="57" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am resting at my home.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Human figure, with “voice” issuing—singing.</p></div></div> + +<p class="parallel">Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span> b is a similar song, also made by “Little Frenchman,” and +relates to magic remedies and his powers of incantation:</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 82px;"> +<img src="images/dp310_pg243j.png" width="82" height="137" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The stars.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Stars, preceded by a mark of rest or beginning. It may be +noticed that one star has eight and the other six rays, showing +that their number is not significant.</p></div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244">[244]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 35px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244a.png" width="35" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The wolf that runs.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Wolf; the banded tail distinguishes it from the otter.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 57px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244b.png" width="57" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>See me what I have; what I have (goods given in the +midē' wigwân).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man holding bow.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 46px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244c.png" width="46" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>See what I am about to do.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Arm, holding a gun.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 47px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244d.png" width="47" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The house of the beaver.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Beaver, in his house.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 39px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244e.png" width="39" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I, who make a noise.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A frog, croaking, shown by “voice” lines.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 56px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244f.png" width="56" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>My white hair.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Head with hair. The signification of white hair is great age, +though there is no way to ascertain this without oral statement +by the singer.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 41px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244g.png" width="41" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The house of the otter.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Otter in his burrow.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244h.png" width="69" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Hear me, you, to whom I am talking.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Mī'gis, spoken to by man, lines showing hearing. The sacred +emblem of the Midē'wiwin is implored for aid in carrying out a +desired scheme.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 49px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244i.png" width="49" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I stoop as I walk.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An old man. Age is denoted by the act of walking with a staff.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244j.png" width="60" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I stand by the tree.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Standing near medicine tree. The speaker knows of valued +remedies which he desires to dispose of for payment.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/dp311_pg244k.png" width="65" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am raising a rock.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man with stone for Midē' lodge. Carrying stone to Midē' lodge, +against which to place a patient.</p></div></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245">[245]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245a.png" width="50" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am holding my pail.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Vessel of medicine; arm reaching down to it.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 54px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245b.png" width="54" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>My arrow point is of iron, and about to kill a male +bear.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bear, above arrow. Bow—lower character.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245c.png" width="50" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am about to speak to the sky.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Speaking to the “sky.” Power of communing with the Great +Spirit, Ki'tshi Man'idō'.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 51px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245d.png" width="51" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am about to depart; I will liken myself to a bear.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bear, tracks and path.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245e.png" width="50" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am walking on the hard sand beach.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Body of water, and lynx. The ellipse denotes a lake.</p></div> + +<p class="parallel">Another song of a similar character, reproduced from birchbark on +Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span> c, is explained below. It was also made by “Little Frenchman,” +and relates to the searching for and preparation of objects used +in sorcery.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245f.png" width="50" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>It is fiery, that which I give you.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Vessel, with flames on top. Contains strong water wi-bīn', a +magical decoction.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245g.png" width="93" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>It is growing, the tree.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Midē'wigân, with trees growing around it at four corners.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 48px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245h.png" width="48" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I cover the earth with my length.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Snakes; guardians of the first degree.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 48px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245i.png" width="48" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The bear is contained within me.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bear spirit within the man—i. e., the speaker. This indicates +that he possesses the power of the Bear Man'idō, one of the most +powerful of the guardians of the Midē' society.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 55px;"> +<img src="images/dp314_pg245j.png" width="55" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>He has Man'idō (spirit) in his mouth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Possessing the power of curing by “sucking” bad spirits from +patient’s body. This is the practice of the lower shamans, known +as Jēs'sakkīd'.</p></div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246">[246]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246a.png" width="93" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The hawk genus et sp.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ki-ni-en', the hawk from which “medicine” is obtained.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 58px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246b.png" width="58" height="60" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I, who am about to talk.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Head of man; lines from mouth denote speech.</p></div></div> + +<p class="parallel">The interpretation now again proceeds from right to left.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246c.png" width="106" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am about to walk.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bear spirit, talking. The lines upon the back indicate his +spirit character.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 47px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246d.png" width="47" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am crawling away.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Mī'gis shell. The sacred emblem of the Midē' society.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 24px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246e.png" width="24" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Rest.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246f.png" width="70" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>From this, I wish to be able to walk.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Taking “medicine” trail (behind man). The speaker is addressing +a Man'idō which he holds.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 59px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246g.png" width="59" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am being called to go there.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Sacred lodges, with spirits within.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246h.png" width="50" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>I am going.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Footprints, leading toward a wigwam.</p></div></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 28px;"> +<img src="images/dp315_pg246i.png" width="28" height="80" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Rest.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="parallel">The Ojibwa chart, used in the “Song for the Metai, or for Medicine +Hunting,” is taken from Tanner’s (<i>a</i>) Narrative and reproduced in +Fig. 165. It should be noted that the Metai of Tanner’s interpretation, +which follows, is the same as the Midē' in the foregoing interpretations:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 465px;"> +<img src="images/dp316_pg247.png" width="465" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>—Song for Medicine Hunting.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>. Now I hear it, my friends of the Metai, who are sitting about me.</p> + +<p>This and the three following are sung by the principal chief of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247">[247]</a></span> +Metai, to the beat of his bwoin ah-keek, or drum. The line from the +sides of the head of the figure indicate hearing.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Who makes this river flow? The Spirit, he makes this river flow.</p> + +<p>The second figure is intended to represent a river, and a beaver +swimming down it.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Look at me well, my friends; examine me, and let us understand +that we are all companions.</p> + +<p>This translation is by no means literal. The words express the +boastful claims of a man who sets himself up for the best and most +skillful in the fraternity.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Who maketh to walk about, the social people? A bird maketh +to walk about the social people.</p> + +<p>By the bird the medicine man means himself; he says that his voice +has called the people together. Weej-huh nish-a-nauba, or weeja-nish-a-nau-ba +seems to have the first syllable from the verb which +means to accompany. The two lines drawn across, between this figure +and the next, indicate that here the dancing is to commence.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> I fly about and if anywhere I see an animal, I can shoot him.</p> + +<p>This figure of a bird (probably an eagle or hawk) seems intended to +indicate the wakefulness of the senses and the activity required to insure +success in hunting. The figure of the moose which immediately +follows, reminding the singer of the cunning and extreme shyness of +that animal, the most difficult of all to kill.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> I shoot your heart; I hit your heart, oh, animal—your heart—I hit +your heart.</p> + +<p>This apostrophe is mere boasting and is sung with much gesticulation +and grimace.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> I make myself look like fire.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248">[248]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is a medicine man disguised in the skin of a bear. The small parallelogram +under the bear signifies fire, and the shamans, by some composition +of gunpowder, or other means, contrive to give the appearance +of fire to the mouth and eyes of the bear skin, in which they go about +the village late at night, bent on deeds of mischief, oftentimes of blood. +We learn how mischievous are these superstitions when we are informed +that they are the principal men of the Metai, who thus wander +about the villages in the disguise of a bear, to wreak their hatred on a +sleeping rival or their malice on an unsuspecting adversary. But the +customs of the Indians require of anyone who may see a medicine man +on one of these excursions to take his life immediately, and whoever +does so is accounted guiltless.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> I am able to call water from above, from beneath, and from around.</p> + +<p>Here the medicine man boasts of his power over the elements, and +his ability to do injury or benefit. The segment of a circle with dots +in it represents water and the two short lines touching the head of the +figure indicate that he can draw it to him.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i> I cause to look like the dead, a man I did.</p> + +<p>I cause to look like the dead, a woman I did.</p> + +<p>I cause to look like the dead, a child I did.</p> + +<p>The lines drawn across the face of this figure indicate poverty, distress, +and sickness; the person is supposed to have suffered from the +displeasure of the medicine man. Such is the religion of the Indians. +Its boast is to put into the hands of the devout supernatural means +by which he may wreak vengeance on his enemies whether weak or +powerful, whether they be found among the foes of his tribe or the +people of his own village. This Metai, so much valued and revered by +them, seems to be only the instrument in the hands of the crafty for +keeping in subjection the weak and the credulous, which may readily +be supposed to be the greater part of the people.</p> + +<p><i>k.</i> I am such, I am such, my friends; any animal, any animal, my +friends, I hit him right, my friends.</p> + +<p>This boast of certain success in hunting is another method by which +he hopes to elevate himself in the estimation of his hearers. Having +told them he has the power to put them all to death, he goes on to speak +of his infallible success in hunting, which will always enable him to be +a valuable friend to such as are careful to secure his good will.</p> + +<p>The following chart for the “Song for beaver hunting and the Metai,” +is taken from the same author, loc. cit., and reproduced in Fig. 166, +with interpretations as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp318_pg249.png" width="500" height="336" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>—Song for beaver hunting.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a.</i> I sit down in the lodge of the Metai, the lodge of the Spirit.</p> + +<p>This figure is intended to represent the area of the Metai-we-gaun, or +medicine lodge, which is called also the lodge of the Man'idō, and two +men have taken their seats in it. The matter of the song seems to be +merely introductory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249">[249]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Two days must you sit fast, my friend; four days must you sit +fast, my friend.</p> + +<p>The two perpendicular lines on the breast of this figure are read ne-o-gone +(two days), but are understood to mean two years; so of the +four lines drawn obliquely across the legs, these are four years. The +heart must be given to this business for two years, and the constrained +attitude of the legs indicates the rigid attention and serious consideration +which the subject requires.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Throw off, woman, thy garments, throw off.</p> + +<p>The power of their medicines and the incantations of the Metai are +not confined in their effect to animals of the chase, to the lives and +health of men; they control also the minds of all and overcome the +modesty as well as the antipathies of women. The Indians firmly believe +that many a woman who has been unsuccessfully solicited by a +man is not only by the power of the Metai made to yield, but even in +a state of madness to tear off her garments and pursue after the man +she before despised. These charms have greater power than those in +the times of superstition among the English, ascribed to the fairies, +and they need not, like the plant used by Puck, be applied to the person +of the unfortunate being who is to be transformed; they operate at +a distance through the medium of the Miz-zin-ne-neens.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Who makes the people walk about? It is I that calls you.</p> + +<p>This is in praise of the virtue of hospitality, that man being most +esteemed among them who most frequently calls his neighbors to his +feast.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Anything I can shoot with it (this medicine) even a dog, I can +kill with it.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> I shoot thy heart, man, thy heart.</p> + +<p>He means, perhaps, a buck moose by the word e-nah-ne-wah, or man.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> I can kill a white loon, I can kill.</p> + +<p>The white loon (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">rara avis nigroque similimo cygno</span>) is certainly a rare +and most difficult bird to kill; so we may infer that this boaster can +kill anything, which is the amount of the meaning intended in that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250">[250]</a></span> +part of his song recorded by the five last figures. Success in hunting +they look upon as a virtue of a higher character, if we may judge from +this song, than the patience under suffering or the rakishness among +women, or even the hospitality recommended in the former part.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> My friends——</p> + +<p>There seems to be an attempt to delineate a man sitting with his +hands raised to address his friends; but the remainder of his speech +is not remembered. This is sufficient to show that the meaning of the +characters in this kind of picture writing is not well settled and requires +a traditional interpretation to render it intelligible.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i> I open my wolf skin and the death struggle must follow.</p> + +<p>This is a wolf skin used as a medicine bag and he boasts that whenever +he opens it something must die in consequence.</p> + +<p>Tanner’s Narrative (<i>b</i>) says of musical notation drawn on bark by +Ojibwas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Many of these songs are noted down by a method probably peculiar to the Indians, +on birch bark, or small flat pieces of wood: the ideas being conveyed by emblematic +figures, somewhat like those * * * used in communicating ordinary information.</p></div> + +<p>Rev. P. J. De Smet (<i>a</i>) gives an account of the mnemonic order of +songs among the Kickapoo and Pottawatomi. He describes a stick 1½ +inches broad and 8 or 10 long, upon which are arbitrary characters +which they follow with the finger in singing the prayers, etc. There +are five classes of these characters. The first represents the heart, the +second heart and flesh (chair), the third life, the fourth their names, +and the fifth their families.</p> + +<p>A. W. Howitt (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The makers of the Australian songs, or of the combined songs and dances are the +poets or bards of the tribe and are held in great esteem. Their names are known +to the neighboring peoples, and their songs are carried from tribe to tribe until the +very meaning of the words is lost as well as the original source of the song.</p> + +<p>Such an instance is a song which was accompanied by a carved stick painted red, +which was held by the chief singer. This traveled down the Murray river from some +unknown source. The same song, accompanied by such a stick, also came into +Gippsland many years ago from Melbourne and may even have been the above mentioned +one on its return.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 5.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">TRADITIONS.</span></h3> + +<p>Even since the Columbian discovery some tribes have employed +devices yet ruder than the rudest pictorial attempt as markers for the +memory. An account of one of these is given in E. Winslow’s Relation +(A. D. 1624), Col. Mass. Hist. Soc., 2d series, <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, 1822, p. 99, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Instead of records and chronicles they take this course: Where any remarkable +act is done, in memory of it, either in the place or by some pathway near adjoining, +they make a round hole in the ground about a foot deep and as much over, which, +when others passing by behold, they inquire the cause and occasion of the same, +which, being once known, they are careful to acquaint all men as occasion serveth +therewith. And lest such holes should be filled or grown over by any accident, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251">[251]</a></span> +men pass by they will often renew the same, by which means many things of great +antiquity are fresh in memory. So that as a man traveleth, if he can understand his +guide, his journey will be the less tedious by reason of the many historical discourses +which will be related unto him.</p></div> + +<p>In connection with this section students may usefully consult Dr. Brinton’s +(<i>f</i>) Lenâpé and their Legends.</p> + +<p>As an example of a chart used in the exact repetition of traditions, +Fig. 167 is presented with the following explanation by Rev. J. Owen +Dorsey:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<a href="images/dp320_pg251h.png"> +<img src="images/dp320_pg251.png" class="hires" width="196" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>—Osage chart.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The chart accompanies a tradition chanted by members of a secret society of the +Osage tribe. It was drawn by an Osage, Red Corn.</p> + +<p>The tree at the top represents the tree of life. By this flows a river. The tree +and the river are described later in the degrees. +When a woman is initiated she is required by the +head of her gens to take four sips of water (symbolizing +the river), then he rubs cedar on the palms +of his hands, with which he rubs her from head to +foot. If she belongs to a gens on the left side of a +tribal circle, her chief begins on the left side of her +head, making three passes, and pronouncing the +sacred name three times. Then he repeats the process +from her forehead down; then on the right side +of her head; then at the back of her head; four times +three times, or twelve passes in all.</p> + +<p>Beneath the river are the following objects: The +Watse ʇuʞa, male slaying animal (?), or morning +star, which is a red star. 2. Six stars called the +“Elm rod” by the white people in the Indian territory. +3. The evening star. 4. The little star. +Beneath these are the moon, seven stars, and sun. +Under the seven stars are the peace pipe and war +hatchet; the latter is close to the sun, and the former +and the moon are on the same side of the chart. +Four parallel lines extending across the chart, represent +four heavens or upper worlds through which +the ancestors of the Tsiↄu people passed before they +came to this earth. The lowest heaven rests on an +oak tree; the ends of the others appear to be supported +by pillars or ladders. The tradition begins +below the lowest heaven, on the left side of the +chart, under the peace pipe. Each space on the +pillar corresponds with a line of the chant; and each +stanza (at the opening of the tradition) contains +four lines. The first stanza precedes the arrival of +the first heaven, pointing to a time when the children +of the “former end” of the race were without human bodies as well as human +souls. The bird hovering over the arch denotes an advance in the condition of the +people; then they had human souls in the bodies of birds. Then followed the progress +from the fourth to the first heaven, followed by the descent to earth. The +ascent to four heavens and the descent to three, makes up the number seven.</p> + +<p>When they alighted, it was on a beautiful day when the earth was covered with +luxuriant vegetation. From that time the paths of the Osages separated; some +marched on the right, being the war gentes, while those on the left were peace +gentes, including the Tsiↄu, whose chart this is.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252">[252]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then the Tsiↄu met the black bear, called in the tradition Káxe-wáhü-sa<sup>n</sup>' (Crow-bone-white), +in the distance. He offered to become their messenger, so they sent him +to the different stars for aid. According to the chart he went to them in the following +order: Morning star, sun, moon, seven stars, evening star, little star.</p> + +<p>Then the black bear went to the Waↄiñʞa-ↄüʇse, a female red bird sitting on her +nest. This grandmother granted his request. She gave them human bodies, making +them out of her own body.</p> + +<p>The earth lodge at the end of the chart denotes the village of the Hañʞa uta¢a<sup>n</sup>ʇsi, +who were a very warlike people. Buffalo skulls were on the tops of the lodges, and +the bones of the animals on which they subsisted whitened on the ground. The very +air was rendered offensive by the decaying bodies and offal.</p> + +<p>The whole of the chart was used mnemonically. Parts of it, such as the four +heavens and ladders, were tattooed on the throat and chest of the old men belonging +to the order.</p></div> + +<p>The tradition relating to Minabō'zho and the sacred objects received +from Kítshi Man'idō is illustrated in Fig. 168, which, represents a copy +(one-third original size) of the record preserved at White Earth. This +record is read from left to right and is, briefly, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp321_pg252.png" width="500" height="118" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>—Midē' record.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i> represents Minabō'zho, who says of the adjoining characters representing +the members of the Midéwin: “They are the ones, they are the +ones who put into my heart the life.” Minabō'zho holds in his left +hand the sacred medicine bag.</p> + +<p><i>b</i> and <i>c</i> represent the drummers; at the sound of the drum everybody +rises and becomes inspired, because the Great Spirit is then present in +the lodge.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> denotes that women also have the privilege of becoming members +of the Midéwin. This figure holds a snake-skin “medicine bag” in her +left hand.</p> + +<p><i>e</i> represents the tortoise, the good spirit, who was the giver of some +of the sacred objects used in the rite.</p> + +<p><i>f</i> the bear, also a benevolent spirit, but not held in so great veneration +as the tortoise. His tracks are visible in the lodge.</p> + +<p><i>g</i> the sacred medicine bag, Biń-ji-gú-sân, which contains life and can +be used by the Midē' to prolong the life of a sick person.</p> + +<p><i>h</i> represents a dog given by the spirits to Minabō'zho as a companion.</p> + +<p>Fig. 169 gives copies, one-third actual size, of two records in possession +of different Midē' at Red lake. The characters are almost identical, +and one record appears to have been copied from the other. The lower +figure, however, contains an additional character. The following is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253">[253]</a></span> +incomplete interpretation of the characters, the letters applying equally +to both:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp322_pg253.png" width="500" height="270" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>—Midē' records.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, Esh'gibŏ'ga, the great uncle of the Unish'-in-ab'-aig, the receiver +of the Midéwin.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, the drum and drumsticks.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, a bar or rest, observed while chanting the words pertaining to the +records.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, the bin'-ji-gu'-sân, or sacred medicine bag. It consists of an otter +skin, and is the mī'gis, or sacred symbol of the midē'wigân' or grand +medicine lodge.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, a Midē' shaman, the one who holds the mī'gis while chanting the +Midē' song in the grand medicine lodge, <i>f</i>. He is inspired, as indicated +by the line extending from the heart to the mouth.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, representation of the grand medicine lodge. This character, with +slight addition, is usually employed by the southern division of the +Ojibwa to denote the lodge of a jĕssakkī'd, and is ordinarily termed a +“jugglery.”</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, a woman, and signifies that women may also be admitted to the +midē'wigân', shown in the preceding character.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, a pause or rest in the chant.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, the sacred snake-skin bag, having the power of giving life through +its skin. This power is indicated by the lines radiating from the head +and the back of the snake.</p> + +<p><i>j</i> represents a woman.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, another illustration of the mī'gis, represented by the sacred otter.</p> + +<p><i>l</i> denotes a woman who is inspired, as shown by the line extending +from the heart to the mouth in the lower chart, and simply showing the +heart in the upper. In the latter she is also empowered to cure with +magic plants.</p> + +<p><i>m</i> represents a Midē' shaman, but no explanation was obtained of the +special character delineated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254">[254]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp323_pg254a.png" width="100" height="92" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>—Minabozho.</div> +</div> + +<p>In Fig. 170 is presented a variant of the characters shown +in <i>a</i> of Fig. 169. The fact that this denotes the power to +cure by the use of plants would appear to indicate an older +and more appropriate form than the delineation of the bow +and arrow, as well as being more in keeping with the general +rendering of the tradition.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 171, two-thirds real size, is a reproduction, introduced here for +comparison and explanation, of a record illustrating the alleged power +of a Midē'.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp323_pg254c.png" width="500" height="158" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>—Midē' practicing incantation.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, the author, is the Midē', who was called upon to take a man’s life +at a distant camp. The line extending from the Midē' to <i>i</i>, explained +below, signifies that his power extended to at least that distance.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, an assistant Midē'.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, and <i>f</i> represent the four degrees of the Midéwin, of which +both shamans are members. The degrees are also indicated by the +vertical lines above each lodge character.</p> + +<p><i>g</i> is the drum used in the ceremony.</p> + +<p><i>h</i> is an outline of the victim. A human figure is drawn upon a piece +of birchbark, over which the incantations are made, and, to insure +the death of the subject, a small spot of red paint is rubbed upon the +breast and a sharp instrument thrust into it.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, the outer line represents a lake, while the inner one is an island, +upon which the victim resides.</p> + +<p>The ceremony indicated in the above description actually occurred at +White Earth during the autumn of 1884, and, by a coincidence, the Indian +“conjured” died the following spring of pneumonia resulting from +cold contracted during the winter. This was considered as the result +of the Midē'’s power, and naturally secured for him many new adherents +and believers.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp323_pg254b.png" width="150" height="146" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>—Jĕssakkī'd +curing a +woman.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 172 represents a jĕssakkī'd, named Ne-wik'-ki, curing a sick +woman by sucking the demon through a bone tube. It +is introduced here for comparison, though equally appropriate +to Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>, sec. <a href="#page490">3</a>. The left-hand character +represents the Midē' holding a rattle in his hand. +Around his head is an additional circle, denoting quantity +(literally, more than an ordinary amount of knowledge), +the short line projecting to the right therefrom +indicating the tube used. The right-hand character is the patient +operated upon.</p> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255">[255]</a></span></p> + +<p>The juggling trick of removing disease by sucking it through tubes +is performed by the Midē' after fasting and is accompanied with many +ceremonies.</p> + + +<h4>THE ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS.</h4> + +<p>Sikas'sigé, one of the officiating priests of the Midē' society of the +Ojibwa at White Earth, Minnesota, gives the following explanation of +Fig. 173, which is a reduced copy of a pictorial representation of a tradition +explaining the origin of the Indians:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp325_pg256h.png"> +<img src="images/dp325_pg256.png" class="hires" width="500" height="206" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>—Origin of the Indians.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the beginning, Ki'tshi Man'idō—Dzhe Man'idō, <i>a</i>—made the Midē' Man'idōs. +He first created two men, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, and two women, <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, but they had no power +of thought or reason. Then Dzhe Man'idō made them reasoning beings. He then +took them in his hands so that they should multiply; he paired them, and from this +sprung the Indians. Then, when there were people, he placed them upon the earth; +but he soon observed that they were subject to sickness, misery, and death, and +that unless he provided them with the sacred medicine they would soon become +extinct.</p> + +<p>Between the position occupied by Dzhe Man'idō and the earth were four lesser +spirits, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, and <i>i</i>, with whom Dzhe Man'idō decided to commune, and to impart +the mysteries by which the Indians could be benefited; so he first spoke to a spirit +at <i>f</i>, and told him all he had to say, who in turn communicated the same information +to <i>g</i>, and he in turn to <i>h</i>, who also communed with <i>i</i>. Then they all met in council +and determined to call in the four wind gods at <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, and <i>m</i>. After consulting as +to what would be best for the comfort and welfare of the Indians, these spirits +agreed to ask Dzhe Man'idō to communicate the mystery of the sacred medicine to +the people.</p> + +<p>Dzhe Man'idō then went to the Sun Spirit (<i>o</i>) and asked him to go to the earth and +instruct the people as had been decided upon by the council. The Sun Spirit, in the +form of a little boy, went to the earth and lived with a woman (<i>p</i>) who had a little +boy of her own.</p> + +<p>This family went away in the autumn to hunt, and during the winter this woman’s +son died. The parents were so much distressed that they decided to return to the +village and bury the body there; so they made preparations to return, and as they +traveled along they would each evening erect several poles upon which the body +was placed to prevent the wild beasts from devouring it. When the dead boy was +thus hanging upon the poles the adopted child—who was the Sun Spirit—would +play about the camp and amuse himself, and finally told his adopted father he +pitied him, and his mother, for their sorrow. The adopted son said he could bring +his dead brother to life, whereupon the parents expressed great surprise and desired +to know how that could be accomplished.</p> + +<p>The adopted boy then had the party hasten to the village, when he said, “Get the +women to make a wig'iwam of bark (<i>q</i>), put the dead boy in a covering of birch +bark and place the body on the ground in the middle of the wig'iwam.” On the +next morning, when this had been done, the family and friends went into this lodge +and seated themselves around the corpse.</p> + +<p>After they had all been sitting quietly for some time they saw, through the doorway, +the approach of a bear (<i>r</i>), which gradually came toward the wig'iwam, entered +it, and placed itself before the dead body, and said hŭ', hŭ', hŭ', hŭ', when he passed +around it toward the left side, with a trembling motion, and as he did so the body +began quivering, which increased as the bear continued, until he had passed around +four times, when the body came to life and stood up. Then the bear called to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256">[256]</a></span> +father, who was sitting in the distant right-hand corner of the wig'iwam, and +addressed to him the following words:</p> + +<p> +Nōs | Ka-wi'-na | ni'-shi-nâ'-bi | wis'-si | a-ya'wi-an' | man'-i-do | nin-gi'-sis.<br /> +My father | is not | an Indian | not | you are | a spirit | son.<br /> +<br /> +Be-mai'-a-mi'-nik | ni'-dzhi | man'-i-do | mi'-a-zhi'-gwa | tshi-gi'-a-we-an'.<br /> +Insomuch | my fellow | spirit | now | as you are.<br /> +<br /> +Nōs | a-zhi'-gwa | a-se'-ma | tshi-a'-to-yek'. | Â'-mi-kun'-dem | mi-e'-ta<br /> +My father | now | tobacco | you shall put. | He speaks of | only<br /> +<br /> +a-wi-dink' | dzhi-gŏsh'-kwi-tōt' | wen'-dzhi-bĭ-mâ'-di-zid'-o-ma' | a-ga'-wa<br /> +once | to be able to do it | why he shall live here | now<br /> +<br /> +bi-mâ'-di-zid'-mi-o-ma'; | ni'-dzhi | man'-i-do | mi'-a-zhi'-gwa | tshi-gi'-we-an'.<br /> +that he scarcely lives; | my fellow | spirit | now I shall go | home.<br /> +</p> + +<p>The little bear boy (<i>r</i>) was the one who did this. +He then remained among the Indians (<i>s</i>) and +taught them the mysteries of the Grand Medicine +(<i>t</i>), and after he had finished he told his adopted +father that as his mission had been fulfilled, that +he was to return to his kindred spirits, the Indians +would have no need to fear sickness, as they now +possessed the Grand Medicine which would assist +them to live. He also said that his spirit could +bring a body to life but once, and he would now +return to the sun from which they would feel his +influence.</p> + +<p>This is called Kwi'-wi-sĕns' wed-di'-shi-tshi' +ge'-wi-nĭp'—“Little boy, his work.”</p> + +<p>From subsequent information it was learned +that the line (<i>w</i>) denotes the earth, and that, +being considered as one step in the course of initiation +into the Midē'wiwin, three others must be +taken before a candidate can be admitted. These +steps, or rests, as they are denominated, are typified +by four distinct gifts of goods, which must +be remitted to the Midē' priests before the ceremony +can take place.</p> + +<p>The characters <i>s</i> and <i>t</i> are repetitions of the +figures alluded to in the tradition (<i>q</i> and <i>r</i>) to +signify that the candidate must personate the +Makwa' Man'idō—bear spirit—when entering the +Midē'wiwin (<i>t</i>); <i>t</i> is the Midē' Man'idō, as Ki'tshi +Man'idō is termed by the Midē' priests. The +device of horns, attached to the head, is a common +symbol of superior power, found in connection +with the figures of human and divine +forms in many Midē' songs and other mnemonic +records; <i>v</i> represents the earth’s surface, similar +to that designated as <i>w</i>. <i>w</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, and <i>z</i> represent the four degrees of the grand +medicine.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 6.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">TREATIES.</span></h3> + +<p>Fig. 174 is copy of a birchbark record which was made to commemorate +a treaty of peace between the Ojibwa and Assinaboin Indians. +The drawing on bark was made by an Ojibwa chief at White +Earth, Minnesota.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257">[257]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp326_pg257.png" width="400" height="286" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>—Record of treaty.</div> +</div> + +<p>The figure on the left, holding a flag, represents the Ojibwa chief, +while that on the right denotes the chief acting on the part of the +Assinaboins. The latter holds in his left +hand the pipe which was used in the preliminaries, +and smoke is seen issuing from the +mouth of the Assinaboin. He also holds in +his right hand the drum used as an accompaniment +to the songs.</p> + +<p>The Ojibwa holds a flag used as an emblem +of peace.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of pictographic records of treaties are presented +in different parts of the present work (see under the headings +of Wampum, Chap. ix, <a href="#page228">Sec. 3</a>; Notices, Chap. <a href="#page329">xi</a>; History, Chap. <a href="#page551">xvi</a>; +Winter Counts, Chap. x, Sec. <a href="#page266">2</a>).</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 7.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">APPOINTMENT.</span></h3> + +<p>Le Page Du Pratz (<i>b</i>) says in describing the council of conspiracy +which resulted in the Natchez war of 1729:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An aged councillor advised that after all the nations had been informed of the +necessity of taking this violent action, each one should receive a bundle of sticks, +all containing an equal number, and which were to mark the number of days to +pass before that on which they were all to strike at once; that in order to guard +against any mistake it would be necessary to take care to extract one stick every +day and to break it and throw it away; a man of wisdom should be charged with +this duty. All the old men approved of his advice and it was adopted.</p></div> + +<p>Père Nicholas Perrot (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Celui qui, chez les Hurons, prenait la parole en cette circonstance, recevait un +petit faisceau de pailles d’pied de long qui luy servoient comme de jetons, pour supputer +les nombres et pour ayder la mémoire des assistans, les distribuant en divers +lots, suyvant la diversité des choses. Dans l’Amérique du Sud, les Galibis de la +rivière d’Amacourou et de l’Orénoque usaient du même procédé mnémotechnique, mais +perfectionné. Le capitaine [Galibis] et moy, écrit le P. la Pierre (Voyage en terre-ferme +et à la coste de Paria, p. 15 du Ms. orig.), eusmes un grand discours ... luy +ayant demandé ce qu’il alloit faire à Barime, il me respondit qu’il alloit avertir tous +les capitaines des aultres rivières, du jour qu’il en faudroit sortir pour aller donner +l’attaque à leurs ennemis. Et, pour me faire comprendre la façon dont il s’y prenoit +il me montra vingt petites buches liées ensemble qui se plient à la façon d’un rouleau. +Les six premières estoient d’une couleur particulière; elles signifioent que, les six +premiers jours, il falloit préparer du magnot [manioc] pour faire vivres. Les quatre +suivantes estoient d’une aultre couleur pour marque qu’il falloit avertir les hommes. +Les six d’aultre couleur et ainsi du reste, marquant par leur petites buches, faites +en façon de paille, l’ordre que chaque capitaine doit faire observer à ses gens pour +estre prest tous en mesme temps. La sortie devroit se faire dans vingt jours; car +il n’y avoit que cest [vingt] petites buches.</p></div> + +<p>Im Thurn (<i>e</i>) tells of the Indians of Guiana as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When a paiwari feast is to be held, invitations are sent to the people of all neighboring +settlements inhabited by Indians of the same tribe as the givers of the feast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258">[258]</a></span> +The latter prepare a number of strings, each of which is knotted as many times as +there are days before the feast day. One of these strings is kept by the headman of +the settlement where the feast is to be held; the others are distributed, one to the +headman of each of the settlements from which guests are expected. Every day +one of the knots, on each of the strings, is untied, and when the last has been untied +guests and hosts know that the feast day has come.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, instead of knots on a string, notches on a piece of wood are used. +This system of knot-tying, the quippoo system of the Peruvians, which occurs in +nearly identical form in all parts of the world, is not only used as in the above instance +for calendar-keeping, but also to record items of any sort; for instance, if +one Indian owes another a certain number of balls of cotton or other articles, debtor +and creditor each has a corresponding string or stick, with knots or notches to the +number of the owed article, and one or more of these is oblitered each time a payment +is made until the debt is wiped out.</p></div> + +<p>Darius (Herodot. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, 98) did something of the kind when he took a +thong and, tying sixty knots in it, gave it to the Ionian chiefs, that they +might untie a knot every day and go back to their own land if he had +not returned when all the knots were undone.</p> + +<p>Champlain (<i>a</i>) describes a mode of preparation for battle among the +Canadian Algonquins which partook of the nature of a military drill +as well as of an appointment of rank and order. It is in its essentials +mnemonic. He describes it as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les chefs prennent des bâtons de la longueur d’un pied autant en nombre qu’ils +sont et signalent par d’autres un peu plus grands, leurs chefs; puis vont dans le bois +et esplanadent une place de cinq ou six pieds en quarré où le chef comme Sergent +Major, met par ordre tous ces bâtons comme bon luy semble; puis appelle tous ses +compagnons, qui viennent tous armez, et leur monstre le rang et ordre qu’ils deuvont +tenir lors qu’ils se battront avec leurs ennemis.</p></div> + +<p>The author adds detail with regard to alignment, breaking ranks, +and resumption of array.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 8.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">NUMERATION.</span></h3> + +<p>D. W. Eakins, in Schoolcraft I, p. 273, describes the mnemonic numeration +marks of the Muskoki thus:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Each perpendicular stroke stood for one, and each additional stroke marked an +additional number. The ages of deceased persons or number of scalps taken by +them, or war-parties which they have headed, are recorded on their grave-posts by +this system of strokes. The sign of the cross represents ten. The dot and comma +never stood as a sign for a day, or a moon, or a month, or a year. The chronological +marks that were and are in present use are a small number of sticks made generally +of cane. Another plan sometimes in use was to make small holes in a board, +in which a peg was inserted to keep the days of the week.</p></div> + +<p>Capt. Bourke (<i>b</i>) gives the following account of an attempt at compromise +between the aboriginal method of numbering days, weeks, and +months, and that of the civilized intruders to whose system the Indians +found it necessary to conform.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Apache scouts kept records of the time of their absence on campaign. There +were several methods in vogue, the best being that of colored beads which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259">[259]</a></span> +strung on a string, six white ones to represent the days of the week, and one black, or +other color, to stand for Sundays. This method gave rise to some confusion, because +the Indians had been told that there were four weeks, or Sundays (“Domingos”), in +each “Luna,” or moon, and yet they soon found that their own method of determining +time by the appearance of the crescent moon was much the more satisfactory. Among +the Zuñi I have seen little tally sticks with the marks for the days and months incised +on the narrow edges, and among the Apache another method of indicating the +flight of time by marking on a piece of paper along a horizontal line a number of +circles or of straight lines across the horizontal datum line to represent the full days +which had passed, a heavy straight line for each Sunday, and a small crescent for +the beginning of each month.</p></div> + +<p>It is not necessary to discuss the obvious method of repeating strokes, +dots, knots, human heads or forms, weapons, and totemic designs, to +designate the number of persons or articles referred to in the pictographs +where they appear.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 9.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">ACCOUNTING.</span></h3> + +<p>The Abnaki, in especial the Passamaquoddy division of the tribe in +Maine, during late years have been engaged in civilized industries in +which they have found it necessary to keep accounts. These are interesting +as exhibiting the aboriginal use of ideographic devices which +are only partially supplemented by the imitation of the symbols peculiar +to European civilization. Several of these devices were procured +by the present writer in 1888, and are illustrated and explained as follows:</p> + +<p>A deer hunter brings 3 deerskins, for which he is allowed $2 each, +making $6; 30 pounds of venison, at 10 cents per pound, making $3. +In payment thereof he purchases 3 pounds of powder, at 40 cents per +pound; 5 pounds of pork, at 10 cents per pound; and 2 gallons of molasses, +at 50 cents per gallon. The debit foots $3.30, according to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260">[260]</a></span> +Indian account, but it seems on calculation to be 30 cents in excess, an +overcharge, showing the advance in civilization of the Passamaquoddy +trader.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp328_pg259.png" width="500" height="273" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>—Shop account.</div> +</div> + +<p>The following explanation will serve to make intelligible the characters +employed, which are reproduced in Fig. 175. The hunter is +shown as the first character in line <i>a</i>, and that he is a deer-hunter is +furthermore indicated by his having a skin-stretcher upon his back, as +well as the figure of a deer at which he is shooting. The three skins +referred to are shown stretched upon frames in line <i>b</i>, the total number +being also indicated by the three vertical strokes, between which +and the drying frames are two circles, each with a line across it, to denote +dollars, the total sum of $6 being the last group of dollar marks +on line <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>The 30 pounds of venison are represented in line <i>c</i>, the three crosses +signifying 30, the T-shaped character designating a balance scale, +synonymous with pound, while the venison is indicated by the drawing +of the hind quarter or ham. The price is given by uniting the X, or +numeral, and the T, or pound mark, making a total of $3 as completing +the line <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p>The line <i>d</i> refers to the purchase of 3 pounds of powder, as expressed +by the three strokes, the T, or scale for pound, and the powder horn, the +price of which is four Xs or 40 cents per pound, or T; and 3 pounds of +powder, the next three vertical strokes succeeded by a number of spots +to indicate grains of powder, which is noted as being 10 cents per +pound, indicated by the cross and T, respectively. The next item, +shown on line <i>e</i>, charges for 5 pounds of pork, the latter being indicated +by the outline of a pig, the price being indicated by the X or 10, +and T, scale or pound; then two short lines preceding one small oblong +square or quart measure, indicates that 2 quarts of molasses, shown by +the black spot, cost 5 crosses, or 50 cents per measure, the sum of the +whole of the purchase being indicated by three rings with stems and +three crosses, equivalent to $3.30.</p> + +<p>Another Indian, whose occupation was to furnish basket wood, +brought some to the trader for which he received credit to the amount +of $1.15, taking in exchange therefor pork sufficient to equal the above +amount.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp329_pg260.png" width="400" height="153" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 176.</span>—Shop account.</div> +</div> + +<p>In Fig. 176 the Indian is shown with a bundle of basket wood, the +value of which is given in the next characters, consisting of a ring with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261">[261]</a></span> +a line across to denote $1, a cross to represent 10 cents, and the five short +vertical lines for an additional 5 cents, making a total of $1.15. The +pork received from the trader is indicated by the outline of a pig, while +the crossed lines to the right denotes that the “account” is canceled.</p> + +<p>Another customer, as shown in Fig. 177, was an old woman, the +descendent of an ancient name—one known before the coming of white +people. She was therefore called the “Owl,” and is represented in the +“account” given below. She had bought on credit 1 plug of smoking +tobacco, designated by one vertical stroke for the quantity and an oblong +square figure corresponding to the shape of the package, which was to +be used for smoking, as indicated by the spiral lines to denote smoke. +She had also purchased 2 quarts of kerosene oil, the quantity designated +by the two strokes preceding the small squares to represent quart +measures, and the liquid is indicated by the rude outline of a kerosene +lamp. This is followed by two crosses, representing 20 cents, as the +value of the amount of her purchases. This account was settled by +giving one basket, as shown in the device nearly beneath the owl, half +of which is marked with crossed lines, connected by a line of dots or +dashes with the cancellation mark at the extreme right of the record.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp330_pg261.png" width="500" height="134" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>—Shop account.</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp331_pg262a.png" width="500" height="174" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>—Book account.</div> +</div> + +<p>Another Passamaquoddy Indian, unable to read or write, carries on +business and keeps his books according to a method of his own invention. +One account is reproduced in Fig. 178. It is with a very slim +Indian, as will be observed from the drawing, who carries on “trucking” +and owns a horse, that animal being represented in outline and +connected by lines with its owner. For services he was paid $5.45, +which sum is shown in the lower line of characters by five dollar-marks—i. e., +rings with strokes across them—4 crosses or numerals signifying 10 +cents each, and five short vertical lines for 5 cents. The date is shown in +the upper line of characters, the 4 short lines in front of the horse signifying +4, the oval figure next, to the right and intended for a circle, denoting +the moon—i. e., the fourth moon, or April—while the 10 short +strokes signify the tenth day of the month—i. e., he was paid $5.45 in +full for services to April 10.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;"> +<img src="images/dp331_pg262b.png" width="271" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>—Book account.</div> +</div> + +<p>Another account was with a young woman noted as very slim, and +is shown in Fig. 179. The girl brought a basket to the store, for which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262">[262]</a></span> +she was allowed 20 cents. She received credit for 10 cents on account +of a plug of tobacco bought some time previously.</p> + +<p>In the illustration the decidedly slim form of the girl is portrayed, +her hands holding out the basket which she had made. The unattached +cross signifies 10 cents, which she probably received in cash, while the +other cross is connected by a dotted line with the piece of plug tobacco +for which she had owed 10 cents. The attachment of the plug to the +unpaid dime is amusingly ideographic.</p> + +<p>Another Indian, descended from the prehistoric +Indians, was called “Lox,” the evil or tricksy deity, +appearing as an animal having a long body and tail +and short legs, which is probably a wolverine, under +which form Lox is generally depicted by the Passamaquoddy. +His account with the trader is given in +Fig. 180, and shows that he brought 1 dozen ax +handles, for which he received $1.50.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;"> +<img src="images/dp331_pg262c.png" width="501" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—Book account.</div> +</div> + +<p>Beneath the figure of Lox are 2 axes, the 12 short +lines denoting the number of handles delivered, while +the dotted line to the right connects them with the +amount received, which is designated by 1 one dollar mark and 5 +crosses or dime marks.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman found in Los Angeles, +California, a number of notched sticks, +which had been invented and used by +the Indians at the Mission of San +Gabriel. They had chief herders, who +had under their charge overseers of +the several classes of laborers, herders, +etc. The chief herder was supplied +with a stick of hard wood, measuring +about 1 inch in breadth and thickness +and from 20 to 24 inches long. +The corners were beveled at the handle. The general form of the stick +is given in the upper character of Fig. 181, with the exception that +the illustration is intentionally shortened so as to show both ends.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp332_pg263.png" width="500" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>—Notched sticks.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263">[263]</a></span></p> + +<p>Upon each of the beveled surfaces on the handle are marks to indicate +the kind of horned cattle referred to. The cross indicates that +the corner of the stick upon which it is incised relates to heifers, each +notch designating one head, the long transverse cut denoting ten, with +an additional three cuts signifying that the herder has in charge thirteen +heifers. Upon the next beveled edge appears an arrow-pointed +mark, to denote in like manner which edge of the stick is to be notched +for indicating the oxen. Upon the third beveled surface is one transverse +cut for the record of the number of bulls in the herd, while upon +the fourth bevel of the handle are two notches to note the number of +cows.</p> + +<p>The stick is notched at the end opposite the handle to signify that +it refers only to horned cattle. That used to designate horses is sharpened +from two sides only, so that the end is wedge-shaped, or exactly +the reverse of the one first mentioned. The marks upon the handle +would be the same, however, with this exception—that one cut would +mean a stallion, two cuts a mare, the cross a gelding, and the arrow-shaped +figure a colt. Sticks were also marked to denote the several +kinds of stock and to record those which had been branded.</p> + +<p>Another class of sticks were also used by the overseers, copies of +which were likewise preserved by the laborers and herders, to keep an +account of the number of days on which labor was performed, and to +record the sums of money received by the workman.</p> + +<p>The lower character of Fig. 181 represents a stick, upon the beveled +edge of the handle of which is a cross to denote work. The short +notches upon the corner of the stick denote days, each seventh day or +week being designated by a cut extending across the stick.</p> + +<p>Upon the opposite side of the handle is a circle or a circle with a +cross within it to denote the number of reals paid, each real being indicated +upon the edge of the stick by a notch, while each ten reals or +peso is noted by making the cut all the way across that face of the +stick.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264">[264]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mr. Dall (<i>a</i>) says that the Innuit frequently keep accounts by tying +knots in a string or notching a stick. Capt. Bourke (<i>c</i>) reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the Mexican state of Sonora I was shown, some twenty years ago, a piece of +buckskin, upon which certain Opata or Yaqui Indians—I forget exactly which tribe, +but it matters very little, as they are both industrious and honest—had kept account +of the days of their labor. There was a horizontal datum line as before, with complete +circles to indicate full days and half circles to indicate half days, a long heavy +black line for Sundays and holidays, and a crescent moon for each new month. +These accounts had to be drawn up by the overseer or superintendent of the rancho +at which the Indians were employed before the latter left for home each night.</p></div> + +<p>Terrien de Lacouperie (<i>e</i>) says of the Sonthals of Bengal:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Their accounts are either notches on a stick, like those formerly used by the rustics +for keeping scores at cricket matches in country villages in England, or knots +on a piece of grass string, or a number of bits of straw tied together. I well remember +my astonishment while trying my first case between a grasping Mahajun and a +Sonthal when I ordered them to produce their accounts. * * * The Sonthal produced +from his back hair, where it had been kept, I suppose, for ornament, a dirty +bit of knotted grass string and threw it on the table, requesting the court to count +that, as it had got too long for him. Each knot represented a rupee, a longer space +between two knots represented the lapse of a year.</p></div> + +<p>Many modes of accounting in a pictorial manner are noted in Europe +and America among people classed as civilized. Some of these are very +curious, but want of space prevents their recital here. A valuable +description of the survival of the system in Brittany is given by M. +Armand Landrin (<i>a</i>), translated and condensed as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the department of Finisterre the farmers, in keeping accounts, made bags of +their old socks and coat sleeves, of different colors, each color representing one of +the divisions of farm outlay or receipt, as cows, butter, milk, and corn. Each amount +received was placed in coin in the appropriate bag. When any coins were taken +out the same number of small stones or of peas or beans was put in to replace the +coins. Other farmers substituted for the bags small sticks of different length and +thickness in which they made cuts representing the receipts.</p> + +<p>In the accounts with the laborers and farm hands the women were designated by +the triangle, intended to represent the Breton head dress <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">á grandes barbes</i>. The +kind of work performed was expressed by the tool connected with it, <i>e. g.</i>, a horseshoe +denoted the blacksmith, a scythe the mower, an ax the carpenter, a saddle the +harness-maker, and a tub the cooper. The bill of a veterinary surgeon was rendered +by drawing the figures of the several animals treated united in one group by a line.</p></div> + +<p>Until quite recently the important accounts of the British exchequer +were kept by wooden tallies, and some bakers in the United States yet +persevere in keeping their accounts with their customers by duplicate +tallies, one of which is rendered as a bill and is verified by the other.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265">[265]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER X.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CHRONOLOGY.</span></h2> + + +<p>It is not within the scope of the present work to examine the several +systems of chronology of the American Indians, but only those pictorially +exhibited. The Mexican system, much more scientific and +more elaborate than that employed by the northern tribes, resembled +it in the graphic record or detail of exhibit, and is highly interesting +as compared with the Dakota Winter Counts. Although the principle +of designating the years was wholly different, the mode of that designation +was often similar, as is shown by collating the Codex Vaticanus +and the Codex Telleriano Remensis with the Winter Counts of Lone +Dog and Battiste Good, infra. It is also desirable to note the remarks +of Prof. Brinton (<i>e</i>) with regard to the Chilan Balam. At the close +of each of the Maya larger divisions of time (the so-called “Katum”), a +“chilan” or inspired diviner uttered a prediction of the character of +the year or epoch which was about to begin. This prophetic designation +of the year was like a Zadkiel’s almanac, while the Dakotan method +was a selection of the most important events of the past.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">TIME.</span></h3> + +<p>Dr. William H. Corbusier, surgeon, U. S. Army, gives the following +information:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp334_pg265.png" width="200" height="101" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>—Device denoting succession of time. Dakota.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Dakotas make use of the circle as the symbol of a cycle of time; a small one +for a year and a large one for a longer period of time, as a life time, one old man. +Also a round of lodges or a cycle of seventy years, as in Battiste Good’s Winter +Count. The continuance of time is sometimes indicated by a line extending in a direction +from right to left across the page when on paper, and the annual circles are +suspended from the line at regular intervals by short lines, as in Fig. 182, upper +character, and the ideograph for the year is placed beneath each one. At other times +the line is not continuous, but is interrupted at regular intervals by the yearly circle, +as in the lower character of Fig. 182.</p></div> + +<p>Under other headings in this paper are presented graphic expressions +for divisions of time—month, day, night, morning, noon, and +evening. See, for some of them, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, Sec. <a href="#page692">2</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266">[266]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">WINTER COUNTS.</span></h3> + +<p>In the preliminary paper on “Pictographs of the North American +Indians,” published in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, +58 pages of text and 46 full-page plates were devoted to the +winter counts of the Dakota Indians. The minute detail of explanation, +the systematic comparison, and the synoptic presentation which +seemed to be necessary need not now be repeated to establish the genuine +character of the invention. This consisted in the use of events, +which were in some degree historical, to form a system of chronology. +The record of the events was only the device by which was accomplished +the continuous designation of years, in the form of charts +corresponding in part with the orderly arrangement of divisions of +time termed calendars. It was first made public by the present writer +in a paper entitled “A Calendar of the Dakota Nation,” which was +issued in April, 1877, in Bulletin III, No. I, of the United States Geological +and Geographical Survey. The title is now changed to that +adopted by the Dakotas themselves, viz, Winter Counts—in the original, +wan'iyetu wo'wapi.</p> + +<p>The lithographed chart published with that paper, substantially the +same as Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, Lone-Dog’s Winter Count, now much better presented +than ever before, is the winter count used by, or at least known to, a +large portion of the Dakota people, extending over the seventy-one +years commencing with the winter of A. D. 1800-’01.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp336e_pg266p3h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp336e_pg266p3.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="357" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption">BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XX<br />LONE DOG’S WINTER COUNT.</div> +</div> + +<p>The copy from which the lithograph was taken is traced on a strip +of cotton cloth, in size 1 yard square, which the characters almost +entirely fill, and is painted in two colors, black and red, used in the +original, of which it is a facsimile. The plate is a representation of +the chart as it would appear on the buffalo robe. It was photographed +from the copy on linen cloth, and not directly from the buffalo robe. +It was painted on the robe by Lone-Dog, an Indian belonging to the +Yanktonais tribe of the Dakotas, who in the autumn of 1876 was near +Fort Peck, Montana. His Dakota name is given in the ordinary English +literation as Shunka-ishnala, which words correspond nearly with +the vocables in Riggs’s lexicon for dog-lone. Lone-Dog claimed that, +with the counsel of the old men of his tribe, he decided upon some event +or circumstance which should distinguish each year as it passed, and +marked what was considered to be its appropriate symbol or device +upon a buffalo robe kept for the purpose. The robe was at convenient +times exhibited to other Indians of the tribe, who were thus taught the +meaning and use of the signs as designating the several years.</p> + +<p>It is not, however, supposed that Lone-Dog was of sufficient age in the +year 1800 to enter upon the work. Either there was a predecessor from +whom he received the earlier records or, when he had reached manhood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267">[267]</a></span> +he gathered the traditions from his elders and worked back, the +object either then or before being to establish some system of chronology +for the use of the tribe or more probably in the first instance for +the use of his own band.</p> + +<p>Present knowledge of the winter-count systems shows that Lone-Dog +was not their originator. They were started, at the latest, before the +present generation, and have been kept up by a number of independent +recorders. The idea was one specially appropriate to the Indian +genius, yet the peculiar mode of record was an invention, and it is not +probably a very old invention, as it has not been used beyond a definite +district and people. If an invention of that character had been of +great antiquity it would probably have spread by intertribal channels +beyond the bands or tribes of the Dakota, where alone the copies of +such charts have been found and are understood.</p> + +<p>The fact that Lone-Dog’s Winter Count, the only one known at the +time of its first publication, begins at a date nearly coinciding with +the first year of the present century, as it is called in the arbitrary computation +that prevails among most of the civilized peoples, awakened +a suspicion that it might be due to civilized intercourse and was not a +mere coincidence. If the influence of missionaries or traders started +any plan of chronology, it is remarkable that they did not suggest one +in some manner resembling the system so long and widely used, and +the only one they knew, of counting the numbers from an era, such as +the birth of Christ, the Hegira, the Ab Urbe Conditâ, or the first Olympiad. +But the chart shows nothing of this nature. The earliest character +merely represents the killing of a small number of Dakotas by +their enemies, an event neither so important nor interesting as many +others of the seventy-one shown in the chart, more than one of which, +indeed, might well have been selected as a notable fixed point before +and after which simple arithmetical notation could have been used to +mark the years. Instead of any plan that civilized advisers would +naturally have introduced, the one actually adopted was to individualize +each year by a specific recorded symbol. The ideographic record, +being preserved and understood by many, could be used and referred +to with ease and accuracy. Definite signs for the first appearance of +the smallpox and for the first capture of wild horses were dates as +satisfactory to the Dakota as the corresponding expressions A. D. +1802 and 1813 are to the Christian world, and far more certain than the +chronology expressed in terms of A. M. and B. C. The arrangement of +separate characters in an outward spiral starting from a central point +is a clever expedient to dispense with the use of numbers for noting +the years, yet allowing every date to be determined by counting backward +or forward from any other known. The whole conception seems +one strongly characteristic of the Indians, who in other instances have +shown such expertness in ideography. The discovery of several other +charts, which differ in their times of commencement and ending from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268">[268]</a></span> +that of Lone-Dog and from each other, removed any inference arising +from the above-mentioned coincidence in beginning with the present +century. The following copies of charts, substantially the same as that +of Lone-Dog, are now or have been in the possession of the present +writer:</p> + +<p>1. A chart made and kept by Bo-i'-de, The-Flame, a Dakota, who, in +1877, lived near Fort Sully, Dakota.</p> + +<p>The facsimile copy is on a cotton cloth about a yard square and in +black and red, thus far similar to the copy of Lone-Dog’s chart, but +the arrangement is different. The character for the first year mentioned +appears in the lower left-hand corner, and the record proceeds +toward the right to the extremity of the cloth, then crossing toward +the left and again toward the right at the edge of the cloth, and so +throughout, in the style called boustrophedon. It thus answers the +same purpose of orderly arrangement, allowing constant additions, like +the more circular spiral of Lone-Dog. This record is for the years +1786-’87 to 1876-’77, thus commencing earlier and ending later than +that of Lone-Dog.</p> + +<p>2. A Minneconjou chief, The-Swan, kept another record on the dressed +skin of an antelope or deer, claiming that it had been preserved in his +family for seventy years.</p> + +<p>The characters are arranged in a spiral similar to those in Lone-Dog’s +chart, but more oblong in form. The course of the spiral is from left +to right, not from right to left.</p> + +<p>3. Another chart was kindly loaned to the writer by Bvt. Maj. +Joseph Bush, captain Twenty-second U. S. Infantry. It was procured +by him, in 1870 at the Cheyenne Agency. This copy is one yard by +three-fourths of a yard, spiral, beginning in the center, from right to +left. The figures are substantially the same as those in Lone-Dog’s +chart, with which it coincides in time, except that it ends at 1869-’70, +but the interpretation differs from that accompanying the latter in a +few particulars.</p> + +<p>4. The chart of Mato Sapa, Black-Bear. He was a Minneconjou +warrior, residing in 1868 and 1869 on the Cheyenne Agency reservation, +on the Missouri river, near the mouth of the Cheyenne river.</p> + +<p>This copy is on a smaller scale than that of Lone-Dog, being a flat +and elongated spiral, 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches. The spiral +reads from right to left. This chart, which begins like that of Lone-Dog, +ends with the years 1868-’69.</p> + +<p>5. A most important and interesting Winter Count is that made by +Battiste Good, a Brulé Dakota, which was kindly contributed by Dr. +William H. Corbusier, surgeon U. S. Army. It begins with peculiar +cyclic devices from the year A. D. 900, and in thirteen figures embraces +the time to A. D. 1700, all these devices being connected with myths, +and some of them showing European influence. From 1700-’01 to +1879-’80 a separate character is given for each year, with its interpretation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269">[269]</a></span> +in much the same style as shown in the other charts mentioned. +Several Indians and half-breeds said that this count formerly embraced +about the same number of years as the others, but that Battiste Good +gathered the names of many years from the old people and placed +them in chronological order as far back as he was able to learn them.</p> + +<p>Another Winter Count, communicated by Dr. Corbusier, is that in +the possession of American-Horse, an Oglala Dakota, at the Pine +Ridge agency in 1879, who asserted that his grandfather began it, and +that it is the production of his grandfather, his father, and himself.</p> + +<p>A third Winter Count is communicated by Dr. Corbusier as kept +by Cloud-Shield. He was also an Oglala Dakota, at the Pine Ridge +agency, but of a different band from American-Horse. The last two +counts embrace nearly the same number of years, viz, from A. D. 1775 +to 1878. Two dates belong to each figure, as a Dakota year covers a +portion of two of the calendar years common to civilization.</p> + +<p>Dr. Corbusier also saw copies of a fourth Winter Count, which was +kept by White-Cow-Killer, at the Pine Ridge agency. He did not obtain +a copy of it, but learned most of the names given to the winters.</p> + +<p>With reference to all the Winter Counts and to the above remarks +that a Dakota year covers a portion of two calendar years, the following +explanation may be necessary: The Dakota count their years by +winters (which is quite natural, that season in their high levels and latitudes +practically lasting more than six months), and say a man is so +many snows old, or that so many snow seasons have passed since an +occurrence. They have no division of time into weeks, and their months +are absolutely lunar, only twelve, however, being designated, which +receive their names upon the recurrence of some prominent physical +phenomenon. For example, the period partly embraced by February is +called the “raccoon moon;” March, the “sore-eye moon;” and April, that +“in which the geese lay eggs.” As the appearance of raccoons after +hibernation, the causes inducing inflamed eyes, and oviposition by geese +vary with the meteorological character of each year, and as the twelve +lunations reckoned do not bring back the point in the season when +counting commenced, there is often dispute in the Dakota tipis toward +the end of winter as to the correct current date. In careful examination +of the several counts it often is left in doubt whether the event +occurred in the winter months or was selected in the months immediately +before or in those immediately after the winter. No regularity +or accuracy is noticed in these particulars.</p> + +<p>In considering the extent to which Lone-Dog’s chart is understood +and used, it may be mentioned that every intelligent Dakota of full +years to whom the writer has shown it has known what it meant, and +many of them knew a large part of the years portrayed. When there +was less knowledge, there was the amount that may be likened to that +of an uneducated person or a child who is examined about a map of the +United States, which had been shown to him before, with some explanation<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270">[270]</a></span> +only partially apprehended or remembered. He would tell that +it was a map of the United States; would probably be able to point out +with some accuracy the state or city where he lived; perhaps the capital +of the country; probably the names of the states of peculiar position +or shape, such as Maine, Delaware, or Florida. So the Indian +examined would often point out in Lone-Dog’s chart the year in which +he was born, or that in which his father died, or in which there was +some occurrence that had strongly impressed him, but which had no +relation whatever to the significance of the character for the year in +question. It had been pointed out to him before, and he had remembered +it, while forgetting the remainder of the chart.</p> + +<p>On comparing all the Winter Counts it is found that they often correspond, +but sometimes differ. In a few instances the differences are in +the succession of events, but they are usually due to an omission or to +the selection of another event. When a year has the same name in all +of them, the bands were probably encamped together, or else the event +fixed upon was of general interest; and when the name is different +the bands were scattered, or nothing of general interest occurred. +Many of the recent events are fresh in the memory of the people, as +the warriors who strive to make their exploits a part of the tribal traditions +proclaim them on all occasions of ceremony, count their coups, +as the performance is called. Declarations of this kind partake of the +nature of affirmations made in the invoked presence of a supposed +divinity. War shirts, on which scores of the enemies killed are kept, +and which are carefully transmitted from generation to generation, +help to refresh their memories in regard to some of the events.</p> + +<p>The study of all the charts renders plain some points remaining in +doubt while the Lone-Dog chart was the only example known. It became +clear that there was no fixed or uniform mode of exhibiting the +order of continuity of the year-characters. They were arranged spirally +or lineally, or in serpentine curves, by boustrophedon or direct, starting +backward from the last year shown or proceeding uniformly forward +from the first year selected or remembered. Any mode that +would accomplish the object of continuity with the means of regular +addition seemed equally acceptable. So a theory advanced that there +was some symbolism in the right-to-left circling of Lone-Dog’s chart +was abandoned, especially when an obvious reproduction of that very +chart was made by an Indian with the spiral reversed. It was also +obvious that when copies were made, some of them probably from +memory, there was no attempt at Chinese accuracy. It was enough to +give the graphic or ideographic character, and frequently the character +is better defined on one of the charts than on the others for the corresponding +year. One interpretation would often throw light on the +others. It also appeared that, while different events were selected by +the recorders of the different systems, there was sometimes a selection +of the same event for the same year and sometimes for the next, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271">[271]</a></span> +as would be natural in the progress of a famine or epidemic, or as an +event gradually became known over a vast territory.</p> + +<p>A test of the mode of selecting events for designating the Winter +Counts may be found in a suggestion made by the present writer in his +account of Lone-Dog’s chart, published in 1877, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The year 1876 has furnished good store of events for the recorder’s choice, and it +will be interesting to learn whether he has selected as the distinguishing event the +victory over Custer, or, as of still greater interest, the general seizure of ponies, +whereat the tribes, imitating Rachel, weep and will not be comforted, because they +are not.</p></div> + +<p>It now appears that two of the Counts made for 1876 and observed +by the writer several years later have selected the event of the seizure +of the ponies, and that none of them make any allusion to the defeat of +Custer.</p> + +<p>After examination of all the charts it is obvious that the design is not +narrative, that the noting of events is being subordinated to the marking +of the years by them, and that the pictographic serial arrangements +of sometimes trivial though generally notorious incidents having been +selected with special adaptation for use as a calendar. That in a few +instances small personal events, such as the birth of the recorder or the +death of members of his family, are set forth, may be regarded as interpolations +in or unauthorized additions to the charts. If they had exhibited +a complete national or tribal history for the years embraced in +them, their discovery would have been in some respects more valuable, +but they are interesting to anthropologists because they show an attempt +before unsuspected among the northern tribes of American +Indians to form a system of chronology.</p> + +<p>While, as before mentioned, it is not now necessary to recapitulate +the large amount of matter before published concerning the Winter +Counts of the Dakota, it has been decided to present in an abbreviated +form the characters and interpretations of the Lone-Dog chart +as being the system which was first discovered, and the publication of +which occasioned the discovery of all the other charts mentioned. The +Winter Count of Battiste Good has not hitherto been published, and it +possesses special importance and interest apart from its chronology, for +which reason it is inserted in the present paper, see infra.</p> + +<p>The several charts of The-Flame, The-Swan, American-Horse, and +Cloud-Shield, published in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology, are omitted, but selections from all of them are presented +under the headings of Ideography, Tribal and Personal Designations, +Religion, Customs, History, Biography, Conventionalizing, Comparison, +and in short are interspersed through the present paper where +they appropriately belong.</p> + +<p>The reader of the Lone-Dog and Battiste Good charts may find it +convenient to note the following brief account of the tribal names frequently +mentioned:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272">[272]</a></span></p> + +<p>The great linguistic stock or family which embraces not only the +Sioux or Dakota proper, but the Missouri, Omaha, Ponka, Osage, +Kansa, Oto, Assinaboin, Gros Ventre or Minnitari, Crow, Iowa, Mandan, +and some others, has been frequently styled the Dakota family. +Maj. J. W. Powell, the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, from +consideration of priority, has lately adopted the name Siouan for the +family, and for the grand division of it popularly called Sioux has used +the term Dakota, which the people claim for themselves.</p> + +<p>The word “Dakota” is translated in Riggs’s dictionary of that language +as “leagued” or “allied.” The title Sioux, which is indignantly +repudiated by the people, is either the last syllable or the last two syllables, +according to pronunciation, of “Nadowesioux,” which is the +French plural of the Algonkin name for the Dakotas “Nadowessi,” +“hated foe.” The Ojibwa called the Dakota “Nadowessi,” which is +their word meaning rattlesnake, or, as others translate, adder, with a +contemptuous or diminutive termination; the plural is Nadowessiwak +or Nadawessyak. The French gave the name their own form of the +plural and the voyagers and trappers cut it down to “Sioux.”</p> + +<p>The more important of the tribes and organized bands into which the +Dakotas are now divided, being the dislocated remains of the “Seven +Great Council Fires,” are as follows:</p> + +<p>Yankton and Yanktonai or Ihankto<sup>n</sup>wạ<sup>n</sup>, both derived from a root +meaning “at the end,” alluding to the former locality of their villages.</p> + +<p>Sihasapa, or Blackfeet.</p> + +<p>Oheno<sup>n</sup>pa, or Two-Kettles.</p> + +<p>Itaziptco, Without Bow. The French equivalent Sans Arc is more +commonly used.</p> + +<p>Minneconjou, translated “Those who plant by the water,” the physical +features of their old home.</p> + +<p>Sitca<sup>n</sup>gu, Burnt Hip or Brulé.</p> + +<p>Santee, subdivided into Wahpeton, Men among Leaves, i. e., among +forests, and Sisseton, Men of Prairie Marsh. Two other bands, now +practically extinct, formerly belonged to the Santee, or as it is more +correctly spelled, Isanti tribes, from the root “Issan,” knife. Their +former territory furnished the material for stone knives, from the manufacture +of which they were called the “knife people.”</p> + +<p>Uncpapa, once the most warlike and probably the most powerful of +all the bands, though not the largest.</p> + +<p>Oglala. The meaning and derivation of this name and of Uncpapa +have been the subjects of controversy.</p> + +<p>Hale, Gallatin, and Riggs designate a “Titon tribe” as located west +of the Missouri, and as much the largest division of the Dakotas, the +latter authority subdividing into the Sicha<sup>n</sup>gu, Itazipcho, Sihasapa, +Minneconjou, Ohenonpa, Oglala, and Huncpapa, seven of the tribes +specified above, which he calls bands. “Titon,” (from the word <i>ti<sup>n</sup>tan</i>, +meaning “at or on land without trees or prairie,”) was the name of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273">[273]</a></span> +tribal division, but it has become only an expression for all those tribes +whose ranges are on the prairie, and thus it is a territorial and accidental, +not a tribular distinction. One of the Dakotas at Fort Rice +spoke to the present writer of the “hostiles” as “Titons,” with obviously +the same idea of locality, “away on the prairie,” it being well known +that they were a conglomeration from several tribes.</p> + + +<h4>LONE-DOG’S WINTER COUNT.</h4> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;"> +<img src="images/dp343_pg273a.png" width="85" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 183, 1800-’01.—Thirty Dakotas were killed by Crow Indians. +The device consists of thirty parallel black lines in three columns, +the outer lines being united. In this chart, such black lines +always signify the death of Dakotas killed by their enemies.</p> + +<p>The Absaroka or Crow tribe, although belonging to the +Siouan family, has nearly always been at war with the Dakotas +proper since the whites have had any knowledge of +either. They are noted for the extraordinary length of their +hair, which frequently distinguishes them in pictographs.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 73px;"> +<img src="images/dp343_pg273b.png" width="73" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 184, 1801-’02.—Many died of smallpox. The smallpox broke +out in the tribe. The device is the head and body of a man +covered with red blotches. In this, as in all other cases where +colors in this chart are mentioned, they will be found to correspond +with Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, but not in that respect with the text figures, +which have no coloration.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp343_pg273c.png" width="96" height="96" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 185.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 185, 1802-’03.—A Dakota stole horses with shoes on, i. e., stole +them either directly from the whites or from some other Indians +who had before obtained them from whites, as the Indians +never shoe their horses. The device is a horseshoe.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp343_pg273d.png" width="250" height="259" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 186, 1803-’04.—They stole some “curly horses” +from the Crows. Some of these horses are still on +the plains, the hair growing in closely curling tufts. +The device is a horse with black marks for the tufts. +The Crows are known to have been early in the possession +of horses.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 218px;"> +<img src="images/dp343_pg273e.png" width="218" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 187, 1804-’05.—The Dakota had a calumet dance and then went +to war. The device is a long pipestem, ornamented with feathers and +streamers. The feathers are white, with black tips, evidently the tail +feathers of the adult golden eagle (Aquila chrysaëtos), highly prized by +the Plains Indians. The streamers anciently were colored +strips of skin or flexible bark; now gayly colored strips +of cloth are used. The word calumet is a corruption of +the French <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chalumeau</span>. Capt. Carver (<i>c</i>) in his Three Years +Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America, +after puzzling over the etymology of “calumet,” describes +the pipe as “about 4 feet long, bowl of red marble, stem of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274">[274]</a></span> +a light wood curiously painted with hieroglyphics in various colors and +adorned with feathers. Every nation has a different method of decorating +these pipes and can tell at once to what band it belongs. It is used +as an introduction to all treaties, also as a flag of truce is among Europeans.” +Among the Indian tribes generally the pipe, when presented +or offered to a stranger or enemy, was the symbol of peace, yet when +used ceremonially by members of the same tribe among themselves +was virtually a token of impending war. For further remarks on this +point see the year 1842-’43 of this Winter Count.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<img src="images/dp344_pg274a.png" width="151" height="100" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 188, 1805-’06.—The Crows killed eight Dakotas. Again the +short parallel black lines, this time eight in number, united +by a long stroke. The interpreter, Fielder, says that this +character with black strokes is only used for grave marks.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 205px;"> +<img src="images/dp344_pg274b.png" width="205" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 189, 1806-’07.—A Dakota killed an Arikara (Ree) as he was +about to shoot an eagle. The sign gives the head and +shoulders of a man with a red spot of blood on his neck, +an arm being extended, with a line drawn to a golden +eagle.</p> + +<p>The drawing represents an Indian in the act of catching +an eagle by the legs, as the Arikara were accustomed +to catch eagles in their earth traps. These were +holes to which the eagles were attracted by baits and in +which the Indians were concealed. They rarely or never shot war +eagles. The Arikara was shot in his trap just as he put his hand up +to grasp the bird.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> +<img src="images/dp344_pg274c.png" width="143" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 190, 1807-’08.—Red-Coat, a chief, was killed. The +figure shows the red coat pierced by two arrows, with blood +dropping from the wounds.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp344_pg274d.png" width="124" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 191, 1808-’09.—The Dakota who had killed the Ree shown in +this record for 1806-’07 was himself killed by the Rees. He is represented +running, and shot with two arrows, blood dripping. These two +figures, taking in connection, afford a good illustration of the method +pursued in the chart, which was not intended to be a continuous +history, or even to record the most important event of +each year, but to exhibit some one of special peculiarity. +There was some incident about the one Ree who was shot +when, in fancied security, he was bringing down an eagle, and +whose death was avenged by his brethren the second year +afterward. It would, indeed, have been impossible to have +graphically distinguished the many battles, treaties, horse-stealings, +big hunts, etc., so most of them were omitted and other events of greater +individuality and better adapted for portrayal were taken for the year +count, the criterion being not that they were of historic moment, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275">[275]</a></span> +that they were of general notoriety, or perhaps of special interest to +the recorders.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 102px;"> +<img src="images/dp345_pg275a.png" width="102" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 192, 1809-’10.—A chief, Little-Beaver, set fire to a trading +store, and was killed. The character simply designates +his name-totem. The other interpretations say that he was a +white trapper, but probably he had gained a new name among +the Indians.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 71px;"> +<img src="images/dp345_pg275b.png" width="71" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 193, 1810-’11.—Black-Stone made medicine. The expression +medicine is too common to be successfully eliminated, though it is +altogether misleading. The “medicine men” have no connection with +therapeutics, feel no pulses, and administer no drugs, or, if sometimes +they direct the internal or external use of some secret preparation, +it is as a part of superstitious ceremonies, and with main +reliance upon those ceremonies. Their incantations are not +only to drive away disease, but for many other purposes, such +as to obtain success in war, avert calamity, and were very frequently +used to bring within reach the buffalo, on which the +Dakotas depended for food. The rites are those known as +shamanism, noticeable in the ethnic periods of savagery and +barbarism. In the ceremonial of “making medicine,” a buffalo head, +and especially the head of an albino buffalo, held a prominent place +among the plains tribes. Many references to this are to be found +in the Prince of Wied’s Travels in the Interior of North America. Also +see infra, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page461">XIV</a></span>. The device in the chart is the man figure, with +the head of an albino buffalo held over his own.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 74px;"> +<img src="images/dp345_pg275c.png" width="74" height="75" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 194, 1811-’12.—The Dakota fought a battle with the Gros +Ventres and killed a great many. Device, a circle inclosing +three round objects with flat bases, resembling heads severed +from trunks, which are too minute in this device for decision of +objects represented; but they appear more distinct in the record for +1864-’65 as the heads of enemies slain in battle. In the sign language +of the plains, the Dakota are denoted by drawing a hand across the +throat, signifying that they cut the throats of their enemies. The +Dakota count by the fingers, as is common to most peoples, but with +a peculiarity of their own. When they have gone over the fingers and +thumbs of both hands, one finger is temporarily turned down for <i>one ten</i>. +At the end of the next ten another finger is turned, and so on to a hundred. +<i>Opawinge</i> (<i>Opawi<sup>n</sup>xe</i>), one hundred, is derived from pawinga +(pawi<sup>n</sup>xa), to go round in circles, to make gyrations, and contains the +idea that the round of all the fingers has again been made for their +respective tens. So the circle is never used for less than one hundred, +but sometimes signifies an indefinite number greater than a hundred. +The circle, in this instance, therefore, was at first believed to express +the killing in battle of many enemies. But the other interpretations +removed all symbolic character, leaving the circle simply as the rude<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276">[276]</a></span> +drawing of a dirt lodge to which the Gros Ventres were driven. The +present writer, by no means devoted to symbolism, had supposed a +legitimate symbol to be indicated, which supposition further information +on the subject showed to be incorrect.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 62px;"> +<img src="images/dp346_pg276a.png" width="62" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 195, 1812-’13.—Wild horses were first run and caught by the +Dakotas. The device is a lasso. The date is of value, as showing +when the herds of prairie horses, descended from those animals +introduced by the Spaniards in Mexico, or those deposited by +them on the shores of Texas and at other points, had multiplied +so as to extend into the far northern regions. The Dakotas +undoubtedly learned the use of the horse and perhaps also that +of the lasso from southern tribes, with whom they were in contact; +and it is noteworthy that notwithstanding the tenacity with +which they generally adhere to ancient customs, in only two generations +since they became familiar with the horse they had been +so revolutionized in their habits as to be utterly helpless, both in war +and the chase, when deprived of that animal.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 92px;"> +<img src="images/dp346_pg276b.png" width="92" height="125" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 196, 1813-’14.—The whooping-cough was very prevalent +and fatal. The sign is suggestive of a blast of air +coughed out by the man-figure.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp346_pg276c.png" width="98" height="100" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span></div> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp346_pg276d.png" width="136" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>The interruption in the cough peculiar to the disease is +more clearly delineated in the Winter Count of The-Flame +for the same year, Fig. 197, and still better in The-Swan’s +Winter Count, Fig. 198.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 155px;"> +<img src="images/dp346_pg276e.png" width="155" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 199, 1814-’15.—A Dakota killed an Arapaho in +his lodge. The device represents a tomahawk or battle-ax, +the red being blood from the cleft skull.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 108px;"> +<img src="images/dp346_pg276f.png" width="108" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 200, 1815-’16.—The Sans Arcs made the first attempt at a dirt +lodge. This was at Peoria Bottom, Dakota. Crow-Feather +was their chief, which fact, in the absence of the other charts, +seemed to explain the fairly drawn feather of that bird protruding +from the lodge top, but the figure must now be admitted +to be a badly drawn bow, in allusion to the tribe Sans +Arc, without, however, any sign of negation. As the interpreter +explained the figure to be a crow feather and as Crow-Feather<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277">[277]</a></span> +actually was the chief, Lone-Dog’s chart with its interpretation +may be independently correct.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 71px;"> +<img src="images/dp347_pg277b.png" width="71" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 201, 1816-’17.—“Buffalo belly was plenty.” The device +rudely portrays a side of buffalo.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 247px;"> +<img src="images/dp347_pg277c.png" width="247" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 202, 1817-’18.—La Framboise, a Canadian, +built a trading store with dry timber. The dryness +is shown by the dead tree. La Framboise +was an old trader among the Dakota, who once +established himself in the Minnesota valley. His +name is mentioned by various travelers.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 72px;"> +<img src="images/dp347_pg277a.png" width="72" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 203, 1818-’19.—The measles broke out and many died. The device +in the copy is the same as that for 1801-’02, relating to the smallpox, +except a very slight difference in the red blotches; and, though +Lone-Dog’s artistic skill might not have been sufficient to distinctly +vary the appearance of the two patients, both diseases being +eruptive, still it is one of the few serious defects in the chart +that the sign for the two years is so nearly identical that, separated +from the continuous record, there would be confusion between +them. Treating the document as a mere aide-de-mémoire +no inconvenience would arise, it probably being well known +that the smallpox epidemic preceded that of the measles; but care is +generally taken to make some, however minute, distinction between +the characters. It is also to be noticed that the Indian diagnosis makes +little distinction between smallpox and measles, so that no important +pictographic variation could be expected. The head of this figure is +clearly distinguished from that in 1801-’02.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/dp347_pg277d.png" width="128" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 204, 1819-’20.—Another trading store was built, this +time by Louis La Conte, at Fort Pierre, Dakota. His timber, +as one of the Indians consulted especially mentioned, +was rotten.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp347_pg277e.png" width="250" height="238" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 205, 1820-’21.—The trader, La Conte, gave Two-Arrow +a war dress for his bravery. So translated an +interpreter, and the sign shows the two arrows as the +warrior’s name-totem; likewise the gable of a house, +which brings in the trader; also a long strip of black +tipped with red streaming from the roof, which possibly +may be the piece of parti-colored material out of which +the dress was fashioned. This strip is not intended for sparks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278">[278]</a></span> +smoke, which at first sight was suggested, as in that case the red would +have been nearest the roof instead of farthest from it.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 86px;"> +<img src="images/dp348_pg278a.png" width="86" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 206, 1821-’22.—The character represents the falling to +earth of a very brilliant meteor.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<img src="images/dp348_pg278b.png" width="154" height="237" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 207, 1822-’23.—Another trading house was built, which +was by a white man called Big-Leggings, and was at the +mouth of the Little Missouri or Bad river. The drawing is +distinguishable from that for 1819-’20.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp348_pg278c.png" width="250" height="142" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 208, 1823-’24.—White soldiers made their first appearance in +the region. So said the interpreter, Clement, but from the unanimous +interpretation of others the event portrayed is +the attack of the United States forces accompanied +by Dakotas upon the Arikara villages, +the historic account of which is given in some +detail in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page551">XVI</a></span>, infra.</p> + +<p>The device represents an Arickara palisaded +village and attacking soldiers. Not only the remarkable character and +triumphant result of this expedition, but the connection that the Dakotas +themselves had with it, made it a natural subject for the year’s totem.</p> + +<p>All the winter counts refer to this expedition.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp348_pg278d.png" width="200" height="184" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 209, 1824-’25.—Swan, chief of the Two-Kettle +tribe, had all of his horses killed. Device, a horse +pierced by a lance, blood flowing from the wound.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp348_pg278e.png" width="150" height="48" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 210, 1825-’26.—There was a remarkable flood in the +Missouri river and a number of Indians were drowned. +With some exercise of fancy the symbol may suggest +heads appearing above a line of water, and this is more +distinct in some of the other charts.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 112px;"> +<img src="images/dp348_pg278f.png" width="112" height="170" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 211, 1826-’27.—“An Indian died of the dropsy.” So Basil +Clement said. It was at first suggested that this circumstance was +noted because the disease was so unusual in 1826 as to excite remark. +Baron de La Hontan (<i>c</i>), a good authority concerning the Northwestern +Indians before they had been greatly affected by intercourse +with whites, specially mentions dropsy as one of the diseases +unknown to them. Carver, op. cit., also states that this +malady was extremely rare. The interpretations of other charts explained,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279">[279]</a></span> +however, that some Dakotas on the warpath had nearly +perished with hunger when they found and ate the rotting carcass of +an old buffalo on which the wolves had been feeding. They were seized +soon after with pains in the stomach, their abdomens swelled, and gas +poured from the mouth. This disease is termed tympanites, the external +appearance occasioned by it much resembling that of dropsy.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp349_pg279a.png" width="87" height="100" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 212.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 212, 1827-’28.—Dead-Arm was stabbed with a knife or +dirk by a Mandan. The illustration is quite graphic, showing +the long-handled dirk in the bloody wound and withered +arm.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp349_pg279b.png" width="107" height="100" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 213, 1828-’29.—A white man named Shadran, who +lately, as reported in 1877, was still living in the same +neighborhood, built a dirt lodge. The hatted head appears +under the roof. This name should probably be +spelled Chadron, with whom Catlin hunted in 1832, in the +region mentioned.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp349_pg279c.png" width="98" height="100" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 214, 1829-’30.—A Yanktonai Dakota was killed by +Bad-Arrow Indians.</p> + +<p>The Bad-Arrow Indians is a translation of the Dakota +name for a certain band of Blackfeet Indians.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 91px;"> +<img src="images/dp349_pg279d.png" width="91" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 215, 1830-’31.—Bloody battle with the Crows, of whom +it is said twenty-three were killed. Nothing in the sign denotes +number, it being only a man figure with red or bloody +body and red war bonnet.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp349_pg279e.png" width="160" height="125" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 216, 1831-’32.—Le Beau, a white man, killed +another named Kermel. Le Beau was still alive at +Little Bend, 30 miles above Fort Sully, in 1877.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp349_pg279f.png" width="125" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 217, 1832-’33.—Lone-Horn had his leg “killed,” as +the interpretation gave it. The single horn is on the figure, +and a leg is drawn up as if fractured or distorted, though +not unlike the leg in the character for 1808-’09, where running +is depicted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280">[280]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 245px;"> +<img src="images/dp350_pg280a.png" width="245" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 218, 1833-’34.—“The stars fell,” as the Indians +all agreed. This was the great meteoric +shower observed all over the United States on the +night of November 12 of that year. In this chart +the moon is black and the stars are red.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 94px;"> +<img src="images/dp350_pg280b.png" width="94" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 219, 1834-’35.—The chief Medicine-Hide was killed. The +device shows the body as bloody, but not the war bonnet, by +which it is distinguished from the character for 1830-’31.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 219px;"> +<img src="images/dp350_pg280c.png" width="219" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 220, 1835-’36.—Lame-Deer shot a Crow Indian with an arrow; +drew it out and shot him again with the same arrow. The +hand is drawing the arrow from the first wound. This +is another instance of the principle on which events were +selected. Many fights occurred of greater moment, but +with no incident precisely like this. Lame-Deer was a distinguished +chief among the hostiles in 1876. His camp of +five hundred and ten lodges was surprised and destroyed by Gen. Miles, +and four hundred and fifty horses, mules, and ponies were captured.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 74px;"> +<img src="images/dp350_pg280d.png" width="74" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 221, 1836-’37.—Band’s-Father, chief of the Two Kettles, died. +The device is nearly the same as that for 1816-’17, denoting +plenty of buffalo belly.</p> + +<p>Interpreter Fielder throws light on the subject by saying that +this character was used to designate the year when The-Breast, +father of The-Band, a Minneconjou, died. The-Band +himself died in 1875, on Powder river. His name was O-ye-a-pee. The +character was, therefore, the Buffalo-Breast, a personal name.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp350_pg280e.png" width="200" height="155" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 222, 1837-’38.—Commemorates a remarkably successful +hunt, in which it is said 100 elk were killed. +The drawing of the elk is good enough to distinguish it +from the other quadrupeds in this chart.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"><div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp350_pg280f.png" width="125" height="109" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 223, 1838-’39.—A dirt lodge was built for Iron-Horn. The other +dirt lodge (1815-’16) has a mark of ownership, which this has +not. A chief of the Minneconjous is mentioned in Gen. Harney’s +report in 1856 under the name of The-One-Iron-Horn.</p> + +<p>The word translated “iron” in this case and appearing thus +several times in the charts does not always mean the metal of that name. +According to Rev. J. Owen Dorsey it has a mystic significance, in some +manner connected with water and with water spirits. In pictographs +objects called iron are painted blue when that color can be obtained.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281">[281]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp351_pg281a.png" width="124" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 224, 1839-’40.—The Dakotas killed an entire village +of Snake or Shoshoni Indians. The character is the ordinary +tipi pierced by arrows.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp351_pg281b.png" width="150" height="47" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 225, 1840-’41.—The Dakotas made peace +with the Cheyennes. The symbol of peace is the +common one of the approaching hands of two persons. +The different coloration of the two hands and arms shows that +they belonged to two different persons, and in fact to different tribes. +The mere unceremonial hand grasp or “shake” of friendship was not +used by the Indians before it was introduced by Europeans.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/dp351_pg281c.png" width="186" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 226, 1841-’42.—Feather-in-the-Ear stole 30 +spotted ponies. The spots are shown red, distinguishing +them from those of the curly horse in the +character for 1803-’04.</p> + +<p>A successful theft of horses, demanding skill, +patience, and daring, is generally considered by +the Plains Indians to be of equal merit with the +taking of scalps. Indeed, the successful horse thief is more popular +than a mere warrior, on account of the riches gained by the tribe, wealth +until lately being generally estimated in ponies as the unit of value.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 122px;"> +<img src="images/dp351_pg281d.png" width="122" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 227, 1842-’43.—One-Feather raised a large war +party against the Crows. This chief is designated by +his long solitary red eagle feather, and holds a pipe with +black stem and red bowl, alluding to the usual ceremonies +before starting on the warpath. For further information +on this subject see Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page528">XV</a></span>. The Red-War-Eagle-Feather +was at this time a chief of the Sans Arcs.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;"> +<img src="images/dp351_pg281e.png" width="110" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 228, 1843-’44.—The Sans Arcs made medicine to +bring the buffalo. The medicine tent is denoted by a +buffalo’s head drawn on it, which in this instance is not +the head of an albino buffalo.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/dp351_pg281f.png" width="133" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 229, 1844-’45.—The Minneconjous built a pine +fort. Device, a pine tree connected with a tipi. +Another account explains that they went to the woods +and erected their tipis there as affording some protection +from the unusually deep snow. This would +account for the pine tree.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282">[282]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/dp352_pg282a.png" width="173" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 230, 1845-’46.—Plenty of buffalo meat, which +is represented as hung upon poles and trees to +dry. This device has become the conventional +sign for plenty and frequently appears in the several +charts.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 94px;"> +<img src="images/dp352_pg282b.png" width="94" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 231, 1846-’47.—Broken-Leg died. Rev. Dr. Williamson +says he knew him. He was a Brulé. There is enough +difference between this device and those for 1808-’09 and +1832-’33 to distinguish each.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp352_pg282c.png" width="75" height="56" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 232, 1847-’48.—Two-Man was killed. His totem is drawn, +two small man figures side by side. Another interpretation +explains the figure as indicating twins.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp352_pg282d.png" width="150" height="155" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 233, 1848-’49.—Humpback was killed. An +ornamented lance pierces the distorted back. Other +records name him Broken-Back. He was a distinguished +chief of the Minneconjous.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp352_pg282e.png" width="100" height="125" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 234, 1849-’50.—The Crows stole a large drove of +horses (it is said eight hundred) from the Brulés. The +circle is a design for a camp or corral from which a number +of horse-tracks are departing.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/dp352_pg282f.png" width="169" height="90" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 235, 1850-’51.—The character is a distinct drawing of a buffalo +containing a human figure. Clément translated that +“a buffalo cow was killed in that year and an old +woman found in her belly;” also that all the Indians +believed this. Good-Wood, examined through another +interpreter, could or would give no explanation except that it was +“about their religion.” The Dakotas have long believed in the appearance +from time to time of a monstrous animal that swallows human +beings. This superstition was perhaps suggested by the bones of mastodons, +often found in the territory of those Indians; and, the buffalo +being the largest living animal known to them, its name was given to +the legendary monster, in which nomenclature they were not wholly +wrong, as the horns of the fossil <i>Bison latifrons</i> are 10 feet in length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283">[283]</a></span> +Major Bush suggests that perhaps some old squaw left to die sought +the carcass of a buffalo for shelter and then died. He has known this +to occur.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 244px;"> +<img src="images/dp353_pg283a.png" width="244" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 236, 1851-’52.—Peace with the Crows. Two Indians, +with differing arrangement of hair, showing +two tribes, are exchanging pipes for a peace smoke.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;"> +<img src="images/dp353_pg283b.png" width="176" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 237, 1852-’53.—The Nez Percés came to Lone-Horn’s lodge at +midnight. The device shows an Indian touching with +a pipe a tipi, the top of which is black or opaque, signifying +night.</p> + +<p>Touch-the-Clouds, a Minneconjou, son of Lone-Horn, +when this chart was shown to him by the present +writer, designated this character as being particularly +known to him from the fact of its being his +father’s lodge. He remembered all about it from talk +in his family, and said it was the Nez Percés who came.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;"> +<img src="images/dp353_pg283c.png" width="225" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 238, 1853-’54.—Spanish blankets were first brought +to the country. A fair drawing of one of those striped +blankets is held out by a white trader.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp353_pg283d.png" width="200" height="107" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 239, 1854-’55.—Brave-Bear was killed. His extended +arms are ornamented with pendent stripes.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp353_pg283e.png" width="200" height="103" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 240, 1855-’56—Gen. Harney, called by the Dakota Putinska +(“white beard” or “white mustache”), made peace +with a number of the tribes or bands of the Dakotas. +The figure shows an officer in uniform shaking hands +with an Indian.</p> + +<p>Executive document No. 94, Thirty-fourth Congress, +first session, Senate, contains the “minutes of a council held at Fort +Pierre, Nebraska, on the 1st day of March, 1856, by Brevet Brig. Gen. +William S. Harney, U. S. Army, commanding the Sioux expedition, +with the delegations from nine of the bands of the Sioux, viz, the Two +Kettle band, Lower Yankton, Uncpapas, Blackfeet Sioux, Minneconjous, +Sans Arcs, Yanctonnais (two bands), Brulés of the Platte.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp354_pg284a.png" width="171" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 241, 1856-’57.—Four-Horn was made a calumet or medicine man.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284">[284]</a></span></p> + +<p>A man with four horns holds out the same kind of +ornamented pipestem shown in the character for +1804-’05, it being his badge of office. Four-Horn +was one of the subchiefs of the Uncpapas, and was +introduced to Gen. Harney at the council of 1856 +by Bear-Rib, head chief of that tribe.</p> + +<p>Interpreter Clément, in the spring of 1874, said +that Four-Horn and Sitting-Bull were the same +person, the name Sitting-Bull being given him +after he was made a calumet man. No other authority +tells this.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;"> +<img src="images/dp354_pg284b.png" width="140" height="111" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 242, 1857-’58.—The Dakotas killed a Crow squaw. +She is pierced by four arrows, and the peace made with +the Crows in 1851-’52 seems to have been short lived.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp354_pg284c.png" width="144" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 243, 1858-’59.—Lone-Horn, whose solitary horn +appears, made buffalo “medicine,” doubtless on account +of the scarcity of that animal. Again the head of an albino +bison. One-Horn, probably the same individual, is +recorded as the head chief of the Minneconjous at this +date.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp354_pg284d.png" width="150" height="140" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 244, 1859-’60.—Big-Crow, a Dakota chief, was +killed by the Crows. He had received his name from +killing a Crow Indian of unusual size.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp354_pg284e.png" width="150" height="74" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 245, 1860-’61.—Device, the head and neck of an elk, similar to +that part of the animal for 1837-’38, with a line extending +from its mouth, at the extremity of which is the +albino buffalo head. “The elk made you understand +the voice while he was walking.” The interpreter persisted +in this oracular rendering. This device and its interpretation +were unintelligible to the writer until examination of Gen. Harney’s +report, above referred to, showed the name of a prominent chief of the +Minneconjous set forth as “The Elk that Holloes Walking.” It then +became probable that the device simply meant that the aforesaid chief +made buffalo medicine, which conjecture, published in 1877, was verified +by the other records subsequently discovered.</p> + +<p>Interpreter A. Lavary said, in 1867, that The-Elk-that-Holloes-Walking, +then chief of the Minneconjous, was then at Spotted-Tail’s camp. +His father was Red-Fish. He was the elder brother of Lone-Horn. +His name is given as A-hag-a-hoo-man-ie, translated The Elk’s Voice +Walking; compounded of he-ha-ka, elk, and omani, walk; this according +to Lavary’s literation. The correct literation of the Dakota +word meaning elk is heqaka; voice, ho; and to walk, walking, mani.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285">[285]</a></span> +Their compound would be heqaka-ho-mani, the translation being the +same as above given.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285a.png" width="170" height="175" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 246, 1861-’62.—Buffalo were so plentiful that +their tracks came close to the tipis. The cloven-hoof +mark is cleverly distinguished from the tracks of +horses in the character for 1849-’50.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285b.png" width="66" height="175" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 247, 1862-’63.—Red-Feather, a Minneconjou, was killed. His +feather is shown entirely red, while the “one-feather” in +1842-’43 has a black tip.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted that there is no allusion to the great Minnesota +massacre, which commenced in August, 1862, and in which +many of the Dakotas belonging to the tribes familiar with these +charts were engaged. Little-Crow was the leader. He escaped +to the British possessions, but was killed in July, 1863. Perhaps +the reason of the omission of any character to designate the massacre +was the terrible retribution that followed it.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285c.png" width="150" height="88" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 248, 1863-’64.—Eight Dakotas were killed. Again +the short, parallel black lines united by a long stroke. In +this year Sitting-Bull fought General Sully in the Black +Hills.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285d.png" width="150" height="56" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 249, 1864-’65.—The Dakotas killed four Crows. +Four of the same rounded objects, like severed heads, +shown in 1825-’26, but these are bloody, thus distinguishing +them from the cases of drowning.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285e.png" width="175" height="134" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 250, 1865-’66.—Many horses died for want of +grass. The horse here drawn is sufficiently distinct +from all others in the chart.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285f.png" width="175" height="148" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 251, 1866-’67.—Swan, father of Swan, chief of the +Minneconjous in 1877, died. With the assistance of the +name the object intended for his totem may be recognized +as a swan swimming on the water.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 99px;"> +<img src="images/dp355_pg285g.png" width="99" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 252, 1867-’68.—Many flags were given them by the Peace Commission. +The flag refers to the visit of the Peace Commissioners, +among whom were Generals Sherman, Terry, and other prominent +military and civil officers. Their report appears in the +Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1868. +They met at Fort Leavenworth, August 13, 1867, and between +August 30 and September 13 held councils with the various bands +of the Dakota Indians at Forts Sully and Thompson, and also at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286">[286]</a></span> +the Yankton, Ponka, and Santee reservations. These resulted in the +Dakota treaty of 1868.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp356_pg286a.png" width="200" height="144" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 253, 1868-’69.—Texas cattle were brought +into the country. This was done by Mr. William +A. Paxton, a well-known business man, resident +in Dakota in 1877.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp356_pg286b.png" width="200" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 254.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 254, 1869-’70.—An eclipse of the sun. This was the solar +eclipse of August 7, 1869, which was central and +total on a line drawn through the Dakota country. +This device has been criticised because Indians generally +believe an eclipse to be occasioned by a dragon or +aerial monster swallowing the sun, and it is contended +that they would so represent it. An answer is that +the design is objectively good, the sun being painted +black, as concealed, while the stars come out red, i. e., bright, and +graphic illustration prevails throughout the charts where it is possible +to employ it.</p> + +<p>Dr. Washington Matthews, surgeon, U. S. Army, communicated the +fact that the Dakotas had opportunities all over their country of receiving +information about the real character of the eclipse. He was at Fort +Rice during the eclipse and remembers that long before it occurred the +officers, men, and citizens around the post told the Indians of the coming +event and discussed it with them so much that they were on the +tip-toe of expectancy when the day came. Two-Bears and his band +were then encamped at Fort Rice, and he and several of his leading +men watched the eclipse along with the whites and through their +smoked glass, and then and there the phenomenon was thoroughly +explained to them over and over again. There is no doubt that similar +explanations were made at all the numerous posts and agencies along +the river that day. The path of the eclipse coincided nearly with the +course of the Missouri for over a thousand miles. The duration of +totality at Fort Rice was nearly two minutes (1′ 48″).</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp356_pg286c.png" width="400" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 255.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 255, 1870-’71.—The +Uncpapas had a battle +with the Crows, the former +losing, it is said, 14, and +killing 29 out of 30 of the +latter, though nothing appears +to show those numbers. +The central object is +not a circle denoting multitude, +but an irregularly +rounded object, perhaps +intended for one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287">[287]</a></span> +wooden inclosures or forts frequently erected by the Indians, and +especially the Crows. The Crow fort is shown as nearly surrounded, +and bullets, not arrows or lances, are flying. This is the first instance +in this chart in which any combat or killing is portrayed where guns +explicitly appear to be used by Indians, though nothing in the chart +is at variance with the fact that the Dakotas had for a number of years +been familiar with firearms. The most recent indications of any +weapon were those of the arrows piercing the Crow squaw in 1857-’58, +and Brave-Bear in 1854-’55, while the last one before those was the +lance used in 1848-’49, and those arms might well have been employed +in all the cases selected, although rifles and muskets were common. +There is an obvious practical difficulty in picturing, by a single character, +killing with a bullet, not arising as to arrows, lances, dirks, and +hatchets, all of which can be and are shown in the chart projecting +from the wounds made by them. Other pictographs show battles in +which bullets are denoted by continuous dotted lines, the spots at +which they take effect being sometimes indicated, and the fact that +they did hit the object aimed at is expressed by a specially invented +symbol. It is, however, to be noted that the bloody wound on the Ree’s +shoulder (1806-’07) is without any protruding weapon, as if made by a +bullet.</p> + +<p>More distinct information regarding this fight, the record of which +concludes the original Lone-Dog chart, has been kindly communicated +by Mr. Luther S. Kelly, of Garfield County, Colorado.</p> + +<p>The war party of Uncpapas mentioned charged upon a small trading +post for the Crows on the Upper Missouri river, at the mouth of Musselshell +river. Usually this post was garrisoned by a few frontiersmen, +but on that particular day there happened to be a considerable force +of freighters and hunters. The Indians were afoot and, being concealed +by the sage brush, got within shooting distance of the fort before being +discovered. They were easily driven off, and going a short distance +took shelter from the rain in a circular washout, not having any idea +of being followed by the whites. Meanwhile the whites organized and +followed. The surprise was complete, the leading white man only being +killed. The Indians sang their song and made several breaks to escape, +but were shot down as fast as they rose above the bank. Twenty-nine +were killed.</p> + + +<h4>BATTISTE GOOD’S WINTER COUNT.</h4> + +<p>Dr. William H. Corbusier, surgeon, U. S. Army, while stationed in +1879 and 1880 at Camp Sheridan, Nebraska, near the Pine Ridge Indian +Agency, Dakota, obtained a copy of this Winter Count from its recorder +Baptiste, commonly called Battiste Good, a Brulé Dakota, whose Dakotan +name is given as Wa-po-cta<sup>n</sup>-xi, translated Brown-Hat. He was then living +at the Rose Bud Agency, Dakota, and explained the meaning of the +pictographs to the Rev. Wm. J. Cleveland, of the last named agency, +who translated them into English.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288">[288]</a></span></p> + +<p>The copy made by Battiste Good from his original record, of which +it is said to be a facsimile, is painted in five colors besides black, in +which the outlines are generally drawn, but with the exception of red +blood-marks these colors do not often appear to be significant. This +copy, which was kindly contributed by Dr. Corbusier, is made in an +ordinary paper drawing-book, the last page of which contains the +first record. This is represented in Fig. 256, and pictures what is +supposed to be an introduction in the nature of a revelation. The +next page, reading backwards and corresponding with Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page290">XXI</a></span>, is +a pretended record of a cycle comprising the years (presumed to be in +the Christian chronology) from 901 to 930. Eleven similar pages and +cycles bring the record down to 1700. These pages are only interesting +from the mythology and tradition referred to and suggested by them, +and which must be garnered from the chaff of uncomprehended missionary +teaching. From 1700 to 1880, when the record closes, each +year, or rather winter, is represented by a special character according +to the Dakota system above explained.</p> + +<p>Battiste Good, by his own statement in the present record, was born +in the year 1821-’22. Any careful examination of the figures as worked +over by his own hand shows that he has received about enough education +in English and in writing to induce him to make unnecessary +additions and presumptuous emendations on the pictographs as he +found them and as perhaps he originally kept and drew the more recent +of them. He has written English words and Arabic numerals over and +connected with the Dakota devices, and has left some figures in a state +of mixture including the methods of modern civilization and the +aboriginal system. To prevent the confusion to the reader which might +result from Battiste’s meddlesome vanity, these interpolated marks are +in general omitted from the plates and figures as now presented, but, +as specimens of the kind and amount of interference referred to, the +designs on the copy for the years 1700-’01, 1701-’02, and 1707-’08 are +given below as furnished.</p> + +<p>The facts stated to have occurred so long ago as the beginning of +the last century can not often be verified, but those of later date given +by Battiste are corroborated by other records in the strongest manner—that +is, by independent devices which are not mere copies. Therefore, +notwithstanding Battiste’s mythic cycles and English writing, the body +of his record, which constitutes the true Winter Counts, must be regarded +as genuine. He is simply the bad editor of a good work. But whether +or not the events occurred as represented, the pictography is of unique +interest. It may be remarked that Battiste’s record is better known +among the Oglala and Brulé, and Lone-Dog’s Winter Count among +the Minneconjou.</p> + +<p>It should be noted that when allusions are made to coloration in +Fig. 256, and in any one of the other figures in the text which illustrate +this Winter Count, they must be understood as applicable to the original.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289">[289]</a></span> +Pls. XXI, XXII, and XXIII are colored copies of those furnished +by Battiste Good, reduced, however, in size.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 465px;"> +<a href="images/dp359_pg289h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp359_pg289.jpg" class="hires" width="465" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 256.</span>—Battiste Good’s Revelation.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 256 illustrates Battiste Good’s introduction. He is supposed to +be narrating his own experience as follows: “In the year 1856, I went +to the Black Hills and cried, and cried, and cried, and suddenly I saw +a bird above me, which said: ‘Stop crying, I am a woman, but I will +tell you something: My Great-Father, Father God, who made this +place, gave it to me for a home and told me to watch over it. He put +a blue sky over my head and gave me a blue flag to have with this +beautiful green country. [Battiste has made the hill country, as well +as the curve for sky and the flag, blue in his copy.] My Great-Father, +Father God (or The Great-Father, God my Father) grew, and his flesh +was part earth and part stone and part metal and part wood and part +water; he took from them all and placed them here for me, and told +me to watch over them. I am the Eagle-Woman who tell you this.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290">[290]</a></span> +The whites know that there are four black flags of God; that is, four +divisions of the earth. He first made the earth soft by wetting it, then +cut it into four parts, one of which, containing the Black Hills, he gave +to the Dakotas, and, because I am a woman, I shall not consent to the +pouring of blood on this chief house (or dwelling place), i. e., the Black +Hills. The time will come that you will remember my words; for after +many years you shall grow up one with the white people.’ She then +circled round and round and gradually passed out of my sight. I also +saw prints of a man’s hands and horse’s hoofs on the rocks [here he +brings in petroglyphs], and two thousand years, and one hundred millions +of dollars ($100,000,000). I came away crying, as I had gone. I +have told this to many Dakotas, and all agree that it meant that we +were to seek and keep peace with the whites.”</p> + +<p>(<span class="smcap">Note by Dr. Corbusier.</span>—The Oglálas and Brulés say that they, +with the rest of the Dakota nation, formerly lived far on the other side +of the Missouri River. After they had moved to the river, they lived +at first on its eastern banks, only crossing it to hunt. Some of the +hunting parties that crossed at length wandered far off from the rest +and, remaining away, became the westernmost bands.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;"> +<a href="images/dp361_pg290p1h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp361_pg290p1.jpg" class="hires" width="319" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXI</p> +<p>BATTISTE GOOD’S CYCLES.</p> + +<p>A 901-930. B 931-1000.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXI</span> A. The record shown by this figure dates from the appearance +of The-Woman-from-Heaven, 901 A. D.; but the Dakotas were a +people long before this. The circle of lodges represents a cycle of +thirty years, from the year 901 to 930, and incloses the “legend” by +which this period is known. All the tribes of the Dakota nation were +encamped together, as was then their custom, when all at once a beautiful +woman appeared to two young men. One of them said to the +other, “Let us catch her and have her for our wife.” The other said, +“No; she may be something waka<sup>n</sup>” (supernatural or sacred). Then +the woman said to them, “I came from Heaven to teach the Dakotas +how to live and what their future shall be.” She had what appeared +to be snakes about her legs and waist, but which were really braids of +grass. She said, “I give you this pipe; keep it always;” and with the +pipe she gave them a small package, in which they found four grains +of maize, one white, one black, one yellow, and one variegated. The +pipe is above the buffalo. She said, “I am a buffalo, The White-Buffalo-Cow. +I will spill my milk all over the earth, that the people may +live.” She meant by her milk maize, which is seen in the picture dropping +from her udders. The colored patches on the four sides of the +circle are the four quarters of the heavens (the cardinal points of the +compass). In front of the cow are yellow and red. She pointed in this +direction and said, “When you see a yellowish (or brownish) cloud +toward the north, that is my breath; rejoice at the sight of it, for you +shall soon see buffalo. Red is the blood of the buffalo, and by that you +shall live.” Pointing east [it will be noticed that Battiste has placed +the east toward the top of the page], she said, “This pipe is related to +the heavens, and you shall live with it.” The line running from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291">[291]</a></span> +pipe to the blue patch denotes the relation. The Dakotas have always +supposed she meant by this that the blue smoke of the pipe was one with +or nearly related to the blue sky; hence, on a clear day, before smoking, +they often point the stem of the pipe upward, in remembrance of her +words. Pointing south, she said, “Clouds of many colors may come +up from the south, but look at the pipe and the blue sky and know that +the clouds will soon pass away and all will become blue and clear +again.” Pointing west, i. e., to the lowest part of the circle, she said, +“When it shall be blue in the west, know that it is closely related to +you through the pipe and the blue heavens, and by that you shall grow +rich.” Then she stood up before them and said, “I am The White-Buffalo-Cow; +my milk is of four kinds; I spill it on the earth that you may +live by it. You shall call me Grandmother. If you young men will +follow me over the hills you shall see my relatives.” She said this four +times, each time stepping back from them a few feet, and after the +fourth time, while they stood gazing at her, she mysteriously disappeared. +[It is well known that four is the favorite or magic number +among Indian tribes generally, and has reference to the four cardinal +points.] The young men went over the hills in the direction she took +and there found a large herd of buffalo.</p> + +<p>(<span class="smcap">Note by Dr. Corbusier.</span>—Mr. Cleveland states that he has heard +several different versions of this tradition.)</p> + +<p>The man who first told the people of the appearance of the woman +is represented both inside and outside the circle. He was thirty years +old at the time, and said that she came as narrated above, in July of +the year of his birth. Outside of the circle, he is standing with a pipe +in his hand; inside, he is squatting, and has his hands in the position +for the gesture-sign for pipe. The elm tree and yucca, or Spanish bayonet, +both shown above the tipis, indicate that in those days the Dakota +obtained fire by rapidly revolving the end of a dry stalk of the yucca +in a hole made in a rotten root of the elm. The people used the bow +and stone-pointed arrows, which are shown on the right. From time +immemorial they have kept large numbers of sticks, shown by the side +of the pipe, each one about as thick and as long as a lead-pencil (sic), +for the purpose of counting and keeping record of numbers, and they +cut notches in larger sticks for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>(<span class="smcap">Note by Dr. Corbusier.</span>—They commonly resort to their fingers +in counting, and the V of the Roman system of notation is seen in the +outline of the thumb and index, when one hand is held up to express +five, and the X in the crossed thumbs, when both hands are held up +together to express ten.)</p> + +<p>The bundle of these sticks drawn in connection with the ceremonial +pipe suggests the idea of an official recorder.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXI</span> B, 931-1000. From the time the man represented in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXI</span> A +was seventy years of age, i. e., from the year 931, time is counted by cycles +of seventy years until 1700. This figure illustrates the manner of killing +buffalo before and after the appearance of The-Woman. When the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292">[292]</a></span> +Dakotas had found the buffalo, they moved to the herd and corralled +it by spreading their camps around it. The Man-Who-Dreamed-of-a-Wolf, +seen at the upper part of the circle, with bow and arrow in hand, +then shot the chief bull of the herd with his medicine or sacred arrow; +at this, the women all cried out with joy, “He has killed the chief bull!” +On hearing them shout the man with bow and arrow on the opposite side, +The-Man-Who-Dreamed-of-the-Thunder-and-received-an-arrow-from-the-Thunder-Bird +(wakinyan, accurately translated “the flying one”) +shot a buffalo cow, and the women again shouted with joy. Then all the +men began to shout, and they killed as many as they wished. The +buffalo heads and the blood-stained tracks show what large numbers +were killed. They cut off the head of the chief bull, and laid the pipe +beside it until their work was done. They prayed to The-Woman to +bless and help them as they were following her teachings. Having no +iron or knives, they used sharp stones, and mussel shells, to skin and +cut up the buffalo. They rubbed blood in the hides to soften and tan +them. They had no horses, and had to pack everything on their own +backs.</p> + +<p>The cyclic characters that embrace the period from 1001 to 1140 illustrate +nothing of interest not before presented. Slight distinction appears +in the circles so that they can be identified, but without enough +significance to merit reproduction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;"> +<a href="images/dp365_pg290p2h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp365_pg290p2.jpg" class="hires" width="293" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXII</p> +<p>BATTISTE GOOD’S CYCLES.</p> + +<p>A 1141-1210. B 1211-1280.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span> A, 1141-1210. Among a herd of buffalo, surrounded at one +time during this period, were some horses. The people all cried out, +“there are big dogs with them,” having never seen horses before, hence +the name for horse, sunka (dog) tanka (big), or sunka (dog) wakan (wonderful +or mysterious). After killing all the buffalo they said “let us +try and catch the big dogs;” so they cut a thong out of a hide with a +sharp stone and with it caught eight, breaking the leg of one of them. +All these years they used sharpened deer horn for awls, bone for needles, +and made their lodges without the help of iron tools. [All other +Dakota traditions yet reported in regard to the first capture of horses, +place this important event at a much later period and long after horses +were brought to America by the Spaniards. See this count for the +year 1802-’03, and also Lone-Dog’s Winter Count for the same year.]</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span> B, 1211-1280. At one time during this period a war party +of enemies concealed themselves among a herd of buffalo, which the +Dakotas surrounded and killed before they discovered the enemy. +No one knows what people, or how many they were; but the Dakotas +killed them all. The red and black lodges indicate war, and that the +Dakotas were successful.</p> + +<p>The pages of the copy which embrace the period from 1281 to 1420 +are omitted as valueless.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;"> +<a href="images/dp369_pg294ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp369_pg294p.jpg" class="hires" width="297" height="500" alt="" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIII</p> +<p>BATTISTE GOOD’S CYCLES.</p> + +<p>A 1421-1490. B 1631-1700.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIII</span> A, 1421-1490. “Found horses among the buffalo again +and caught six.” Five of the horses are represented by the hoof prints. +The lasso or possibly the lariat is shown in use. The bundle of sticks +is now in the recorder’s hands.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293">[293]</a></span></p> + +<p>Battiste’s pages which embrace the period from 1491 to 1630 are +omitted for the same reason as before offered.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIII</span> B, 1631-1700. This represents the first killing of buffalo +on horseback. It was done in the year 1700, inside the circle of lodges +pitched around the herd, by a man who was tied on a horse with thongs +and who received the name of Hunts-inside-the-lodges. They had but +one horse then, and they kept him a long time. Again the bundle of +count-sticks is in the recorder’s hands.</p> + +<p>This is the end of the obviously mythic part of the record, in which +Battiste has made some historic errors. From this time forth each +year is distinguished by a name, the explanation of which is in the +realm of fact.</p> + +<p>It must be again noted that when colors are referred to in the description +of the text figures, the language (translated) used by Battiste +is retained for the purpose of showing the coloration of the original and +his interpretation of the colors, which are to be imagined, as they can +not be reproduced by the process used.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp367_pg293a.png" width="162" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 257.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 257, 1700-’01.—“The-two-killed-on-going-back-to-the-hunting-ground +winter (or year).” Two Dakotas returned to +the hunting ground, after the hunt one day, and were +killed by enemies, of what tribe is unknown. The blood-stained +arrow in the man’s side signifies killed; the +numeral 2 over his head, the number killed; and, the +buffalo heads, the carcass of a buffalo—which had been +left behind because it was too poor to eat—together with +the arrow pointing toward them, the hunting-ground. +The dot under the figure 2, and many of the succeeding +ones, signifies, That is it. This corresponds with some +gesture signs for the same concept of declaration, in which the index +finger held straight is thrust forward with emphasis and repeatedly as +if always hitting the same point.</p> + +<p>With regard to the numeral 2 over the head of the man see remarks, +page <a href="#page288">288</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/dp367_pg293b.png" width="159" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 258.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 258, 1701-’02.—“The-three-killed-who-went-fishing +winter.” The arrow pointing toward the 3, indicates +that they were attacked; the arrow in the man’s +arm, and the blood stain, that they were killed; the +pole, line, and fish which the man is holding, their +occupation at the time.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp368_pg294a.png" width="150" height="160" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 259.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 259, 1702-’03.—“Camped-cutting-the-ice-through winter.” A long +lake toward the east, near which the Dakotas were encamped, was +frozen over, when they discovered about one thousand buffalo. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294">[294]</a></span> +secured them all by driving them on the ice, through +which they broke, and in which they froze fast. Whenever +the people wanted meat, they cut a buffalo out of +the ice. In the figure, the wave lines represent the water +of the lake; the straight lines, the shore; the blue lines +outside the black ones, trees; the blue patches inside, +the ice through which the heads of the buffalo are seen; the line across +the middle, the direction in which they drove the buffalo. The supply +of meat lasted one year. (<span class="smcap">Note</span> by <span class="smcap">Dr. Corbusier</span>.—The Apache of +Arizona, the Ojibwa, and the Ottawa also represent water by means +of waved lines.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp368_pg294b.png" width="150" height="223" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 260.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 260, 1703-’04—“The-burying winter,” or “Many-hole +winter.”—They killed a great many buffalo during the +summer, and, after drying the meat, stored it in pits for +winter’s use. It lasted them all winter, and they found +it all in good condition. The ring surrounding the buffalo +head, in front of the lodge, represents a pit. The +forked stick, which is the symbol for meat, marks the +pit. [Other authorities suggest that the object called +by Battiste a pit, which is more generally called “cache,” +is a heap, and means many or much.]</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/dp368_pg294c.png" width="113" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 261.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 261, 1704-’05.—“Killed-fifteen-Pawnees-who-came-to-fight winter.” +The Dakotas discovered a party of Pawnees coming +to attack them. They met them and killed fifteen. +In this chart the Pawnee of the Upper Missouri (Arikara +or Ree), the Pawnee of Nebraska, and the Omaha +are all depicted with legs which look like ears of corn, +but an ear of corn is symbol for the Rees only. The +Pawnee of Nebraska may be distinguished by a lock of +hair at the back of the head; the Omaha, by a cropped +head or absence of the scalp-lock. The absence of all +signs denotes Dakota. Dr. W. Matthews, in Ethnography +and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, states that the +Arikara separated from the Pawnee of the Platte valley more than a +century ago. [To avoid confusion the literation of the tribal divisions +as given by the translator of Battiste Good are retained, though not +considered to be accurate.]</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp368_pg294d.png" width="96" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 262.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 262, 1705-’06.—“They-came-and-killed-seven-Dakotas +winter.” It is not known what enemies killed +them.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp371_pg295a.png" width="150" height="272" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 263.</span></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295">[295]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fig. 263, 1706-’07.—“Killed-the-Gros-Ventre-with-snowshoes-on +winter.” A Gros-Ventre (Hidatsa), while +hunting buffalo on snowshoes, was chased by the Dakotas. +He accidentally dropped a snowshoe, and, being +then unable to get through the snow fast enough, they +gained on him, wounded him in the leg, and then killed +him. The Gros-Ventres and the Crows are tribes of the +same nation, and are therefore both represented with +striped or spotted hair, which denotes the red clay they +apply to it.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 183px;"> +<img src="images/dp371_pg295b.png" width="183" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 264.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 264, 1707-’08.—“Many-kettle winter.” A man—1 man—named +Corn, killed (3) his wife, 1 woman, +and ran off. He remained away for a year, +and then came back, bringing three guns +with him, and told the people that the English, +who had given him these guns, which were the +first known to the Dakotas, wanted him to +bring his friends to see them. Fifteen of the +people accordingly went with him, and when +they returned brought home a lot of kettles or +pots. These were the first they ever saw. Some +numerical marks for reference and the written +words in the above are retained as perhaps +the worst specimens of Battiste’s mixture of civilized methods with the +aboriginal system of pictography. See remarks above, page <a href="#page288">288</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp371_pg295c.png" width="100" height="129" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 265.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 265, 1708-’09.—“Brought-home-Omaha-horses winter.” +The cropped head over the horse denotes Omaha.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp371_pg295d.png" width="96" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 266.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 266, 1709-’10.—“Brought-home-Assiniboin-horses +winter.” The Dakota sign for Assiniboin, or Hohe, which +means the voice, or, as some say, the voice of the musk ox, +is the outline of the vocal organs, as the Dakotas conceive +them, and represents the upper lip and roof of the mouth, +the tongue, the lower lip and chin, and the neck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp371_pg295e.png" width="200" height="227" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 267.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 267, 1710-’11.—“The-war-parties-met, or killed-three-on-each-side +winter.” A war party of Assiniboins +met one of Dakotas, and in the fight which +ensued three were killed on each side.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296">[296]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296a.png" width="145" height="152" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 268.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 268, 1711-’12.—“Four-lodges-drowned winter.” When the thunders +returned in the summer the Dakotas were still in their +winter camp, on the bottom lands of a large creek. Heavy +rains fell, which caused the creek to rise suddenly; the bottoms +were flooded, and the occupants of four lodges were +swept away and drowned. Water is represented by waved +lines, as before. The lower part of the lodge is submerged. +The human figure in the doorway of the lodge indicates how unconscious +the inmates were of their peril.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296b.png" width="142" height="173" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 269.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 269, 1712-’13.—“Killed-the-Pawnee-who-was-eagle-hunting winter.” +A Pawnee (Ree) was +crouching in his eagle-trap, a hole in the ground +covered with sticks and grass, when he was surprised +and killed by the Dakotas. This event is +substantially repeated in this count for the year +1806-’07.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296c.png" width="121" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 270.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 270, 1713-’14.—“Came-and-shot-them-in-the-lodge +winter.” The Pawnee (Rees) came by night, +and, drawing aside a tipi door, shot a sleeping man, +and thus avenged the death of the eagle-hunter.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296d.png" width="175" height="138" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 271.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 271, 1714-’15.—“Came-to-attack-on-horseback-but-killed-nothing +winter.” The horseman +has a pine lance in his hand. It is not known +what tribe came. (<span class="smcap">Note by Dr. Corbusier.</span>—It +is probable that horses were not numerous among +any of the Indians yet, and that this mounted attack +was the first one experienced by the Brulé.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296e.png" width="197" height="164" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 272.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 272, 1715-’16.—“Came-and-attacked-on-horseback-and-stabbed-a-boy-near-the-lodge +winter.” +Eagle tail-feathers hang from the butt end +of the lance.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296f.png" width="187" height="152" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 273.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 273, 1716-’17.—“Much-pemmican winter.” A year of peace and +prosperity. Buffalo were plentiful all the fall and +winter. Large quantities of pemmican (wasna) +were made with dried meat and marrow. In front +of the lodge is seen the backbone of a buffalo, the +marrow of which is used in wasna; below this is +the buffalo stomach, in which wasna is packed for +preservation.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp372_pg296g.png" width="171" height="194" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 274.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 274, 1717-’18.—“Brought-home-fifteen-Assiniboin-horses +winter.” The sign for Assiniboin +is above the horse.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297">[297]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp373_pg297a.png" width="147" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 275.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 275, 1718-’19.—“Brought-home-Pawnee-horses +winter.” The sign for Ree, i. e., an ear of +corn, is in front of the horse.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp373_pg297b.png" width="149" height="190" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 276.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 276, 1719-’20.—“Wore-snowshoes winter.” +The snow was very deep, and the people hunted +buffalo on snowshoes with excellent success.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;"> +<img src="images/dp373_pg297c.png" width="176" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 277.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 277, 1720-’21.—“Three-lodges-starved-to-death +winter.” The bare ribs of the man denote +starvation. [The gesture-sign for poor or lean indicates +that the ribs are visible. In the Ojibwa +and Ottawa pictographs lines across the chest denote +starvation.]</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<img src="images/dp373_pg297d.png" width="194" height="282" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 278.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 278, 1721-’22.—“Wore-snowshoes-and-dried-much-buffalo-meat +winter.” It was even a better +year for buffalo than 1719-’20.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp373_pg297e.png" width="125" height="237" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 279.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 279, 1722-’23.—“Deep-snow-and-tops-of-lodges-only-visible +winter.” The spots are intended +for snow.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298">[298]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp374_pg298a.png" width="149" height="135" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 280.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 280, 1723-’24.—“Many-drying-sticks-set-up +winter.” They set up more than the usual number +of sticks for scaffolds, etc., as they dried the +buffalo heads, hides, and entrails, as well as the +meat. This figure is repeated with differentiation +for the year 1745-’46 in this chart.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp374_pg298b.png" width="177" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 281.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 281, 1724-’25.—“Blackens-himself-died winter.” +This man was in the habit of blacking his +whole body with charcoal. He died of some kind of +intestinal bend [sic] as is indicated by the stomach +and intestines in front of him, which represent the +bowels in violent commotion, or going round and +round.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp374_pg298c.png" width="185" height="202" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 282.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 282, 1725-’26.—“Brought-home-ten-Omaha-horses +winter.” The sign for Omaha is the head, +as before.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/dp374_pg298d.png" width="130" height="215" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 283.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 283, 1726-’27.—“Killed-two-Pawnees-among-the-lodges +winter.” The Pawnees (Rees) made an +assault on the Dakota Village, and these two ran +among the lodges without any arrows. The sign +for Ree is, as usual, an ear of corn.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> +<img src="images/dp374_pg298e.png" width="131" height="263" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 284.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 284, 1727-’28.—“Killed-six-Assiniboins winter.” +Two signs are given here for Assiniboin. +There is some uncertainty as to whether they were +Assiniboins or Arikaras, so the signs for both are +given.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<img src="images/dp374_pg298f.png" width="126" height="128" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 285.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 285, 1728-’29.—“Brought-home-Gros-Ventre-horses +winter.” A Gros Ventre head is shown in +front of the horse.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299">[299]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 79px;"> +<img src="images/dp375_pg299a.png" width="79" height="106" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 286.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 286, 1729-’30.—“Killed-the-Pawnees-camped-alone-with-their-wives +winter.” Two Pawnees and +their wives, who were hunting buffalo by themselves, +and living in one lodge, were surprised and killed +by a war party of Dakotas.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp375_pg299b.png" width="171" height="237" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 287.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 287, 1730-’31.—“Came-from-opposite-ways-and-camped-together +winter.” By a singular coincidence, +two bands of Dakotas selected the same +place for an encampment, and arrived there the +same day. They had been separated a long time, +and were wholly ignorant of each other’s movements. +The caps of the tipis face one another.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;"> +<img src="images/dp375_pg299c.png" width="127" height="243" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 288.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 288, 1731-’32.—“Came-from-killing-one-Omaha-and-danced +winter.” This is the customary +feast at the return of a successful war party. The +erect arrow may stand for “one,” and the Omaha +is drawn at full length with his stiff short hair and +painted cheeks.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/dp375_pg299d.png" width="196" height="226" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 289.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 289, 1732-’33.—“Brought-home-Assiniboin-horses +winter.” The sign for Assiniboin is as before, +over the horse.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp375_pg299e.png" width="136" height="253" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 290.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 290, 1733-’34.—“Killed-three-Assiniboins +winter.” There is again uncertainty as to whether +they were Assiniboins or Arikaras, and both signs +are used.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300">[300]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<img src="images/dp376_pg300a.png" width="151" height="304" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 291.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 291, 1734-’35.—“Used-them-up-with-bellyache +winter.” About fifty of the people died of an +eruptive disease which was accompanied by pains +in the bowels. The eruption is shown on the man +in the figure. This was probably the first experience +by the Dakotas of the smallpox, which has +been so great a factor in the destruction of the +Indians.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp376_pg300b.png" width="144" height="304" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 292.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 292, 1735-’36.—“Followed-them-up-and-killed-five +winter.” A war party of Dakotas were chased +by some enemies, who killed five of them. The +arrows flying from behind at the man indicate pursuit, +and the number of the arrows, each with a +bloody mark as if hitting, is five.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/dp376_pg300c.png" width="182" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 293.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 293, 1736-’37.—“Brought-home-Pawnee-horses +winter.” This date must be considered in +connection with the figure in this record for 1802-’03. +There is a distinction between the wild and the shod +horses, but the difference in tribe is great. The ear +of corn showing the husk is as common in this record +for Pawnee as for Arikara.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 119px;"> +<img src="images/dp376_pg300d.png" width="119" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 294.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 294, 1737-’38.—“Killed-seven-Assiniboins-bringing-them-to-a-stand-under-a-bank +winter.” +The daub, blue in the original, under the crouching +figure, represents the bank.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;"> +<img src="images/dp376_pg300e.png" width="110" height="235" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 295.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 295, 1738-’39.—“The-four-who-went-on-the-war-path-starved-to-death +winter.” Starvation is +indicated as before.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301">[301]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;"> +<img src="images/dp377_pg301a.png" width="101" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 296.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 296, 1739-’40—“Found-many-horse winter.” +The horses had thongs around their necks, +and had evidently been lost by some other tribe. +Hoof prints are represented above and below the +horse, that is all around.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp377_pg301b.png" width="147" height="181" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 297.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 297, 1740-’41.—“The-two-came-home-having-killed-an-enemy +winter.” They took his entire +scalp, and carried it home at the end of a pole. +Only a part of the scalp is ordinarily taken, and +that from the crown of the head.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/dp377_pg301c.png" width="174" height="234" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 298.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 298, 1741-’42.—“Attacked-them-while-gathering-turnips +winter.” Some women, who were digging +turnips (pomme blanche) near the camp, were +assaulted by a party of enemies, who, after knocking +them down, ran off without doing them any +further harm. A turnip, and the stick for digging +it, are seen in front of the horseman.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<img src="images/dp377_pg301d.png" width="137" height="176" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 299.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 299, 1742-’43.—“Killed-them-on-the-way-home-from-the-hunt +winter.” The men were out hunting, and about +100 of their enemies came on horseback to attack +the camp, and had already surrounded it, when a +woman poked her head out of a lodge and said, +“They have all gone on the hunt. When I heard +you, I thought they had come back.” She pointed +toward the hunting-ground, and the enemies going +in that direction, met the Dakotas, who killed many of them with their +spears, and put the rest to flight. Hoof-prints surround the circle of +lodges, and are on the trail to the hunting-ground.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<img src="images/dp377_pg301e.png" width="152" height="148" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 300.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 300, 1743-’44.—“The-Omahas-came-and-killed-them-in-the-night +winter.” They wounded many, but +killed only one. The Dakotas were all encamped together.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302">[302]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302a.png" width="176" height="213" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 301.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 301, 1744-’45.—“Brought-home-Omaha-horses +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302b.png" width="128" height="132" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 302.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 302, 1745-’46.—“Many-drying-scaffolds winter.” It +was even a better year for buffalo than 1723-’24.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302c.png" width="134" height="170" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 303.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 303, 1746-’47.—“Came-home-having-killed-one-Gros-Ventre +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302d.png" width="124" height="160" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 304.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 304, 1747-’48.—“Froze-to-death-at-the-hunt winter.” +The arrow pointing toward the buffalo head indicates they +were hunting, and the crouching figure of the man, together +with the snow above and below him, that he suffered severely +from cold or froze to death.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302e.png" width="154" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 305.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 305, 1748-’49.—“Eat-frozen-fish winter.” They +discovered large numbers of fish frozen in the ice, and +subsisted on them all winter.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302f.png" width="136" height="127" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 306.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 306, 1749-’50.—“Many-hole-camp-winter.” The +same explanation as for Fig. 260, for the year 1703-’04. +The two figures are different in execution though the +same in concept. There would, however, be little confusion +in distinguishing two seasons of exceptional success +in the hunt that were separated by forty-six years.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<img src="images/dp378_pg302g.png" width="146" height="120" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 307.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 307, 1750-’51.—“Killed-two-white-buffalo-cows winter.” +(Note by Dr. Corbusier: Two white buffalo are so +rarely killed one season that the event is considered worthy +of record. Most Indians regard the albinos among animals +with the greatest reverence. The Ojibwas, who look +upon a black loon as the most worthless of birds regard a +white one as sacred.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303">[303]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;"> +<img src="images/dp379_pg303a.png" width="134" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 308.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 308, 1751-’52.—“Omahas-came-and-killed-two-in-the-lodge +winter.” An Omaha war party surprised them in the +night, shot into the lodge, wounding two, and then fled. +The two shot died of their wounds.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> +<img src="images/dp379_pg303b.png" width="131" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 309.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 309, 1752-’53.—“Destroyed-three-lodges-of-Omahas +winter.” The Dakotas went to retaliate on the Omahas, +and finding three lodges of them killed them. It will be +noticed that in this figure the sign for Omaha is connected +with the lodge, and in the preceding figure with the arrow.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 122px;"> +<img src="images/dp379_pg303c.png" width="122" height="184" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 310.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 310, 1753-’54.—“Killed-two-Assiniboins-on-the-hunt +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/dp379_pg303d.png" width="178" height="220" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 311.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 311, 1754-’55.—“Pawnees-shouted-over-the-people +winter.” The Pawnees (Rees) came at night, and +standing on a bluff overlooking the Dakota village shot +into it with arrows, killing one man, and alarmed the +entire village by their shouts.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/dp379_pg303e.png" width="180" height="222" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 312.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 312, 1755-’56.—“Killed-two-Pawnees-at-the-hunt +winter.” A war party of Dakotas surprised some Pawnee +(Ree) hunters and killed two of them.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp379_pg303f.png" width="147" height="204" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 313.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 313, 1756-’57.—“The-whole-people-were-pursued-and-two-killed +winter.” A tribe, name unknown, attacked +and routed the whole band. The man in the figure is +retreating, as is shown by his attitude; the arrow on his +bow points backward at the enemy, from whom he is +retreating. The two blood-stained arrows in his body mark +the number killed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304">[304]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/dp380_pg304a.png" width="168" height="230" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 314.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 314, 1757-’58.—“Went-on-the-warpath-on-horseback-to-camp-of-enemy-but-killed-nothing +winter.” The +lack of success may have been due to inexperience in +mounted warfare as the Dakotas had probably for the +first time secured a sufficient number of horses to mount +a war party.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;"> +<img src="images/dp380_pg304b.png" width="155" height="209" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 315.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 315, 1758-’59.—“Killed-two-Omahas-who-came-to-the-camp-on-war-path +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 183px;"> +<img src="images/dp380_pg304c.png" width="183" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 316.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 316, 1759-’60.—“War-parties-met-and-killed-a-few-on-both-sides +winter.” The attitude of the opposed +figures of the Dakota and Gros Ventre and the footprints +indicate that the parties met; the arrows in opposition, +that they fought; and the blood-stained arrow in +each man that some were killed on both sides.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/dp380_pg304d.png" width="129" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 317.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 317, 1760-’61.—“Assiniboins-came-and-attacked-the-camp-again +winter;” or “Assiniboins-shot-arrows-through-the-camp +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<img src="images/dp380_pg304e.png" width="137" height="281" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 318.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 318, 1761-’62.—“Killed-six-Pawnees (Rees) winter.” +Besides the arrow sticking in the body another is flying near +the head of the man figure, who has the tribal marks for +Pawnee or Ree, as used in this record.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 118px;"> +<img src="images/dp381_pg305a.png" width="118" height="148" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 319.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 319, 1762-’63.—“The-people-were-burnt winter.” They were +living somewhere east of their present country when a prairie fire destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305">[305]</a></span> +their entire village. Many of their children and a man and his +wife, who were on foot some distance away from the village, +were burned to death, as also were many of their horses. +All the people that could get to a long lake, which was +near by, saved themselves by jumping into it. Many of +these were badly burned about the thighs and legs, and +this circumstance gave rise to the name Sican-zhu, burnt +thigh (or simply burnt as translated Brulé by the French), +by which they have since been known, and also to the gesture sign, as +follows: “Rub the upper and outer part of the right thigh in a small +circle with the open right hand, fingers pointing downward.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/dp381_pg305b.png" width="133" height="234" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 320.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 320, 1763-’64.—“Many-sticks-for-drying-beef winter.” +They dried so much meat that the village was crowded +with drying poles and scaffolds.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/dp381_pg305c.png" width="178" height="205" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 321.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 321, 1764-’65.—“Stole-their-horses-while-they-were-on-the-hunt +winter.” A Dakota war party +chanced to find a hunting party of Assiniboins asleep +and stole twenty of their horses. It was storming at +the time and horses had their packs on and were +tied. The marks which might appear to represent a +European saddle on the horse’s back denote a pack +or load. Hunting is symbolized as before, by the +buffalo head struck by an arrow.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp381_pg305d.png" width="136" height="226" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 322.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 322, 1765-’66.—“Killed-a-war-party-of-four-Pawnees +winter.” The four Pawnees (Rees) made an +attack on the Dakota camp.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/dp381_pg305e.png" width="148" height="176" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 323.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 323, 1766-’67.—“Brought-home-sixty-Assiniboin-horses +(one spotted) winter.” They were all +the horses the Assiniboins had and were on an island +in the Missouri river, from which the Dakotas +cleverly stole them during a snowstorm.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306">[306]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/dp382_pg306a.png" width="174" height="257" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 324.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 324, 1767-’68.—“Went-out-to-ease-themselves-with-their-bows-on +winter.” The Dakotas were in +constant fear of an attack by enemies. When a man +left his lodge after dark, even to answer the calls of +nature, he carried his bows and arrows along with +him and took good care not to go far away from the +lodge. The squatting figure, etc., close to the lodge +tells the story.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/dp382_pg306b.png" width="148" height="354" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 325.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 325, 1768-’69.—“Two-horses-killed-something +winter.” A man who had gone over a hill just out +of the village was run down by two mounted enemies +who drove their spears into him and left him for dead, +one of them leaving his spear sticking in the man’s +shoulder, as shown in the figure. He recovered, however. +(Note by Dr. Corbusier: They frequently speak +of persons who have been very ill and have recovered +as dying and returning to life again, and have a +gesture sign to express the idea.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<img src="images/dp382_pg306c.png" width="126" height="212" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 326.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 326, 1769-’70.—“Attacked-the-camp-from-both-sides +winter.” A mounted war party—tribe unknown—attacked +the village on two sides, and on +each side killed a woman. The footprints of the +enemies’ horses and arrows on each side of the lodge, +which represents the village, show the mode of attack.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/dp382_pg306d.png" width="148" height="181" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 327.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 327, 1770-’71—“Came-and-killed-the-lodges +winter.” The enemy came on horseback and assailed +the Dakota lodges, which were pitched near together, +spoiling some of them by cutting the hide coverings +with their spears, but killing no one. They used +spears only, but arrows are also depicted, as they +symbolize attack. No blood is shown on the arrows, +as only the lodges were “killed.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/dp382_pg306e.png" width="175" height="156" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 328.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 328, 1771-’72.—“Swam-after-the-buffalo winter.” +In the spring the Dakotas secured a large +supply of meat by swimming out and towing ashore +buffalo that were floating past the village and which +had fallen into the river on attempting to cross on +the weak ice.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307">[307]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp383_pg307a.png" width="171" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 329.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 329, 1772-’73.—“Killed-an-Assiniboin-and-his-wife +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<img src="images/dp383_pg307b.png" width="154" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 330.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 330, 1773-’74.—“Killed-two-Pawnee-boys-while-playing +winter.” A war party of Dakotas surprised +two Pawnee (Ree) boys who were wrestling +and killed them while they were on the ground.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp383_pg307c.png" width="184" height="202" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 331.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 331, 1774-’75.—“Assiniboins-made-an-attack +winter.” They were cowardly, however, and soon +retreated. Perhaps the two arrows of the Assiniboins +compared with the one arrow of the attacked +Dakotas suggests the cowardice.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp383_pg307d.png" width="125" height="177" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 332.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 332, 1775-’76.—“Assiniboins-went-home-and-came-back-mad-to-make-a-fresh-attack +winter.” They +were brave this time, being thoroughly aroused. +They fought with bows and arrows only.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 116px;"> +<img src="images/dp383_pg307e.png" width="116" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 333.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 333, 1776-’77.—“Killed-with-war-club-in-his-hand +winter.” A Dakota war club is in the man’s +hand and an enemy’s arrow is entering his body.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp383_pg307f.png" width="96" height="195" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 334.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 334, 1777-’78.—“Spent-the-winter-in-no-particular-place +winter.” They made no permanent +camp, but wandered about from place to place.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308">[308]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 117px;"> +<img src="images/dp384_pg308a.png" width="117" height="192" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 335.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 335, 1778-’79.—“Skinned-penis-used-in-the-game-of-haka winter.” +A Dakota named as mentioned was killed in +a fight with the Pawnees and his companions left +his body where they supposed it would not be found, +but the Pawnees found it and as it was frozen stiff +they dragged it into their camp and played haka with +it. The haka-stick which, in playing the game, they +cast after a ring, is represented on the right of the +man. This event marks 1777-’78 in the Winter Count +of American-Horse and 1779-’80 in that of Cloud-Shield. +The insult and disgrace made it remarkable.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 97px;"> +<img src="images/dp384_pg308b.png" width="97" height="261" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 336.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 336, 1779-’80.—“Smallpox-used-them-up winter.” +The eruption and pains in the stomach and +bowels are shown as before.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 99px;"> +<img src="images/dp384_pg308c.png" width="99" height="195" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 337.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 337, 1780-’81.—“Smallpox-used-them-up-again +winter.” There is in this figure no sign for pain but +the spots alone are shown. An attempt to discriminate +and distinguish the year-devices is perceived.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp384_pg308d.png" width="184" height="270" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 338.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 338, 1781-’82.—“Came-and-attacked-on-horseback-for-the-last-time +winter.” The name of the tribe +is not known, but it is the last time they ever attacked +the Dakotas.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309">[309]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp385_pg309a.png" width="162" height="254" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 339.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 339, 1782-’83.—“Killed-the-man-with-the-scarlet-blanket-on +winter.” It is not known what tribe +killed him.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/dp385_pg309b.png" width="115" height="217" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 340.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 340, 1783-’84.—“Soldier-froze-to-death winter.” +The falling snow and the man’s position with his legs +drawn up to his abdomen, one hand in an armpit +and the other in his mouth, are indicative of intense +cold.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"> +<img src="images/dp385_pg309c.png" width="190" height="246" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 341.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 341, 1784-’85.—“The-Oglala-took-the-cedar winter.” During a +great feast an Oglala declared he was wakan and could +draw a cedar tree out of the ground. He had previously +fastened the middle of a stick to the lower end of a +cedar with a piece of the elastic ligament from the neck +of the buffalo and then planted the tree with the stick +crosswise beneath it. He went to this tree, dug away a +little earth from around it and pulled it partly out of +the ground and let it spring back again, saying “the +cedar I drew from the earth has gone home again.” +After he had gone some young men dug up the tree and exposed the +shallow trick.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<img src="images/dp385_pg309d.png" width="189" height="327" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 342.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 342, 1785-’86.—“The-Cheyennes-killed-Shadow’s-father winter.” +The umbrella signifies, shadow; the arrow which touches +it, attacked; the three marks under the arrow (not shown +in the copy), Cheyenne; the blood-stained arrow in the +man’s body, killed. Shadow’s name and the umbrella in +the figure intimate that he was the first Dakota to carry +an umbrella. The advantages of the umbrella were soon +recognized by them, and the first they obtained from the +whites were highly prized. It is now considered an indispensable +article in a Sioux outfit. They formerly wore +a wreath of green leaves or carried green boughs, to +shade them from the sun. The marks used for Cheyenne +stand for the scars on their arms or stripes on their sleeves, which +also gave rise to the gesture-sign for this tribe, see Fig. <a href="#page383">495</a>, infra.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310">[310]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/dp386_pg310a.png" width="182" height="307" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 343.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 343, 1786-’87.—“Iron-Head-Band-killed-on-warpath +winter.” They formerly carried burdens on their +backs, hung from a band passed across the forehead. This +man had a band of iron which is shown on his head. So +said the interpreter, but probably the band was not of the +metal iron. The word so translated has a double meaning +and is connected with religious ideas of water, spirit, +and the color blue.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/dp386_pg310b.png" width="159" height="279" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 344.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 344, 1787-’88.—“Left-the-heyoka-man-behind winter.” A certain +man was heyoka—that is, his mind was disordered and +he went about the village bedecked with feathers singing +to himself, and, while so, joined a war party. On sighting +the enemy the party fled, and called to him to turn back +also; as he was heyoka, he construed everything that was +said to him as meaning the very opposite, and therefore, +instead of turning back, he went forward and was killed. +If they had only had sense enough to tell him to go on, +he would then have run away, but the thoughtless people +talked to him just as if he had been in an ordinary condition and of +course were responsible for his death. The mental condition of this +man and another device for the event are explained by other records +(see Fig. <a href="#page466">651</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;"> +<img src="images/dp386_pg310c.png" width="157" height="155" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 345.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 345, 1788-’89.—“Many-crows-died winter.” Other +records for the same year give as the explanation of the +figure and the reason for its selection that the crows froze +to death because of the intense cold.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp386_pg310d.png" width="149" height="109" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 346.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 346, 1789-’90.—“Killed-two-Gros-Ventres-on-the-ice +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> +<img src="images/dp386_pg310e.png" width="179" height="317" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 347.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 347, 1790-’91.—“Carried-a-flag-about-with-them +winter.” They went to all the surrounding tribes with +the flag, but for what purpose is unknown. So said the +interpreter, but The-Flame’s chart explains the figure +by the statement: “The first United States flags in the +country brought by United States troops.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311">[311]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 88px;"> +<img src="images/dp387_pg311a.png" width="88" height="227" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 348.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 348, 1791-’92.—“Saw-a-white-woman winter.” +The dress of the woman indicates that she was not an +Indian. This is obviously noted as being the first occasion +when the Dakotas, or at least the bands which this +record concerns, saw a white woman.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp387_pg311b.png" width="124" height="228" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 349.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 349, 1792-’93.—“Camped-near-the-Gros-Ventres +winter.” They were engaged in a constant warfare during +this time. A Gros Ventre dirt lodge, with the entrance +in front, is depicted in the figure and on its roof +is a Gros Ventre head.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/dp387_pg311c.png" width="174" height="234" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 350.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 350, 1793-’94.—“Killed-a-long-haired-man-at-Rawhide-butte +winter.” The Dakotas attacked a village of 58 lodges +and killed every soul in it. After the fight they found +the body of a man whose hair was done up with +deer-hide in large rolls, and, on cutting them open, +found it was all real hair, very thick, and as long as +a lodge-pole. [Mem. Catlin tells of a Crow called +Long-Hair whose hair, by actual measurement, was +10 feet and 7 inches long.] The fight was at Rawhide +butte (now so called by the whites), which the +Dakotas named Buffalo-Hide butte, because they +found so many buffalo hides in the lodges. According +to Cloud-Shield, Long-Hair was killed in 1786-’87, and according +to American-Horse, Long-Hair, a Cheyenne, was killed in 1796-’97.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<img src="images/dp387_pg311d.png" width="137" height="176" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 351.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 351, 1794-’95.—“Killed-the-little-faced-Pawnee +winter.” The Pawnee’s face was long, flat, +and narrow, like a man’s hand, but he had the body +of a large man.</p> + +<p>White-Cow-Killer calls it: “Little-Face-killed +winter.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312">[312]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<img src="images/dp388_pg312a.png" width="141" height="297" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 352.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 352, 1795-’96.—“The-Rees-stood-the-frozen-man-up-with-the-buffalo-stomach-in-his-hand +winter.” +The body of a Dakota who had been killed +in an encounter with the Rees (Pawnees), and had +been left behind, frozen. The Rees dragged it into +their village, propped it up with a stick, and hung +a buffalo stomach filled with ice in one hand to +make sport of it. The buffalo stomach was in common +use at that time as a water-jug.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 183px;"> +<img src="images/dp388_pg312b.png" width="183" height="345" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 353.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 353, 1796-’97.—“Wears-the-War-Bonnet-died +winter.” He did not die this winter, but received +a wound in the abdomen from which the arrowhead +could not be extracted, and he died of the “bellyache” +years after.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/dp388_pg312c.png" width="182" height="232" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 354.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 354, 1897-’98.—“Took-the-God-Woman-captive winter.” A Dakota +war party captured a woman—tribe unknown—who, in order to +gain their respect, cried out, “I am a Wakan-Tanka,” +meaning that she belonged to God, whereupon +they let her go unharmed. This is the origin +of their name for God (Wakan Tanka, the Great +Holy, or Supernatural One). They had never heard +of a Supernatural Being before, but had offered their +prayers to the sun, the earth, and many other objects, +believing they were endowed with spirits. [Those +are the remarks of Battiste Good, who is only half +correct, being doubtless influenced by missionary teaching. The term +is much older and signifies mystic or unknown.]</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp388_pg312d.png" width="107" height="247" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 355.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 355, 1798-’99.—“Many-women-died-in-childbirth +winter.” They died of bellyache. The convoluted +sign for pain in the abdominal region has +appeared before. Cloud-Shield’s winter count for +the same year records the same mortality among +the women which was perhaps an epidemic of puerperal +fever.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313">[313]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 112px;"> +<img src="images/dp389_pg313a.png" width="112" height="230" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 356.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 356, 1799-1800.—“Don’t-Eat-Buffalo-Heart-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead +winter.” A buffalo heart is represented +above the man. Don’t Eat is expressed by +the gesture sign for negation, a part of which is +indicated, and the line connecting the heart with +his month. The red flag which is used in the ceremony +is employed as its symbol. The name Don’t-Eat-Buffalo-Heart +refers to the man for whom that +viand is taboo, either by gentile rules or from personal +visions. The religious ceremony of commemoration +of the dead is mentioned elsewhere in this +work, see Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>, section <a href="#page517">6</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp389_pg313b.png" width="107" height="234" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 357.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 357, 1800-’01.—“The-Good-White-Man-came winter.” Seven +white men came in the spring of the year to their +village in a starving condition; after feeding them +and treating them well, they allowed them to go on +their way unmolested. The Dakotas [of the recorder’s +band] had heard of the whites, but had +never seen any before. In the fall some more came, +and with them, The-Good-White-Man, who is represented +in the figure, and who was the first one to +trade with them. They became very fond of him +because of his fair dealings with them. The gesture +made by his hands is similar to benediction, and +suggests a part of the Indian gesture sign for “good.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;"> +<img src="images/dp389_pg313c.png" width="103" height="237" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 358.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 358, 1801-’02.—“Smallpox-used-them-up-again +winter.” The man figure is making a part of +a common gesture sign for death, which consists +substantially in changing the index from a perpendicular +to a horizontal position and then pointing to +the ground.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<img src="images/dp389_pg313d.png" width="187" height="265" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 359.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 359, 1802-’03.—“Brought-home-Pawnee-horses-with-iron-shoes-on +winter.” The Dakotas +had not seen horseshoes before. This agrees with +and explains Lone-Dog’s Winter Count for the +same year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314">[314]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp390_pg314a.png" width="184" height="216" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 360.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 360, 1803-’04.—“Brought-home-Pawnee-horses-with-their-hair-rough-and-curly +winter.” +The curly hair is indicated by the curved +marks. Lone-Dog’s Winter Count for the same +year records the same incident, but states that +the curly horses were stolen from the Crows.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp390_pg314b.png" width="149" height="211" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 361.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 361, 1804-’05.—“Sung-over-each-other-while-on-the-war-path +winter.” A war party while out +made a large pipe and sang each other’s praises. +The use of an ornamented pipe in connection with +the ceremonies of organizing a war party is mentioned +in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page528">XV</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 90px;"> +<img src="images/dp390_pg314c.png" width="90" height="190" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 362.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 362, 1805-’06.—“They-came-and-killed-eight +winter.” The enemy killed eight Dakotas, as shown +by the arrow and the eight marks beneath it.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 111px;"> +<img src="images/dp390_pg314d.png" width="111" height="145" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 363.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 363, 1806-’07.—“Killed-them-while-hunting-eagles +winter.” Some Dakota eagle-hunters were +killed by enemies. See Lone-Dog’s Winter Count +for the same year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315">[315]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 84px;"> +<img src="images/dp391_pg315a.png" width="84" height="174" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 364.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 364, 1807-’08.—“Came-and-killed-man-with-red-shirt-on +winter.” Other records say that Red-Shirt +killed in this year was an Uncpapa Dakota, +and that he was killed by Arikaras.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;"> +<img src="images/dp391_pg315b.png" width="70" height="172" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 365.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 365, 1808-’09.—“Pawnees-(Rees)-killed-Blue-Blanket’s-father +winter.” A blanket, which in the +original record is blue, is represented above the arrow +and across the man’s body.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/dp391_pg315c.png" width="50" height="122" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 366.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 366, 1809-’10.—“Little-Beaver’s-house-burned +winter.” Little-Beaver was an English trader, and +his trading house was a log one.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/dp391_pg315d.png" width="173" height="175" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 367.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 367, 1810-’11.—“Brought-home-horse-with-his-tail-braided-with-eagle-feathers +winter.” +They stole a band of horses beyond the +South Platte. One of them was very fleet, +and had his tail ornamented as described.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<img src="images/dp391_pg315e.png" width="194" height="204" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 368.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 368, 1811-’12.—“First-hunted-horses +winter.” The Dakotas caught wild horses in +the Sand Hills with braided lariats.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316">[316]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;"> +<img src="images/dp392_pg316a.png" width="154" height="265" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 369.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 369, 1812-’13.—“Rees-killed-Big-in-the-Middle’s-father +winter.” Other records call this warrior +Big-Waist and Big-Belly.</p> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp392_pg316b.png" width="147" height="275" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 370.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 370, 1813-’14.—“Killed-six-Pawnees (Rees) +winter.” Six strokes are under the arrow, but are +not shown in the copy.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<img src="images/dp392_pg316c.png" width="126" height="281" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 371.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 371, 1814-’15.—“Smashed-a-Kiowa’s-head-in +winter.” The tomahawk with which it was done is +sticking in the Kiowa’s head.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp392_pg316d.png" width="100" height="145" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 372.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 372, 1815-’16.-“The-Sans-Arcs-made-large-houses +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp392_pg316e.png" width="75" height="133" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 373.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 373, 1816-’17.—“Lived-again-in-their-large-houses +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/dp392_pg316f.png" width="115" height="134" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 374.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 374, 1817-’18.—“Chozé-built-a-house-of-dead-logs +winter.” The house was for trading purposes. +The Frenchman’s name is evidently a corruption.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317">[317]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/dp393_pg317a.png" width="113" height="183" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 375.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 375, 1818-’19.—“Smallpox-used-them-up-again winter.” +They at this time lived on the Little +White river, about 20 miles above the Rosebud +agency. The two fingers held up may mean the +second time the fatal epidemic appeared in the particular +body of Indians concerned in the record.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 79px;"> +<img src="images/dp393_pg317b.png" width="79" height="130" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 376.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 376, 1819-’20.—“Chozé-built-a-house-of-rotten-wood +winter.” Another trading house was built.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp393_pg317c.png" width="149" height="310" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 377.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 377, 1820-’21.—“They-made-bands-of-strips-of-blanket-in-the-winter.” +These bands were of +mixed colors and reached from the shoulders to the +heels. They also made rattles of deer’s hoofs by +tying them to sticks with bead-covered strings. +The man has a sash over his shoulders and a rattle +in his hand.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;"> +<img src="images/dp393_pg317d.png" width="163" height="268" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 378.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 378, 1821-’22.—“Star-passed-by-with-loud-noise winter,” “Much-whisky +winter,” and “Used-up-the-Omahas winter.” +In the figure the meteor, its pathway, and the cloud +from which it came are shown. Whisky was furnished +to them for the first time and without stint. +It brought death to them in a new form, many since +then having died from the excessive use of it, Red-Cloud’s +father among the number. Battiste Good, +alias Wa-po’stan-gi, more accurately Wa-po-cta<sup>n</sup>-xi +(Brown-Hat), historian and chief, was born. He +says that Omaha bullets were whizzing through the +village and striking and piercing his mother’s lodge as she brought +him forth. Red-Cloud was also born. In the count of American-Horse +for this year he makes no mention of the meteor, but strongly marks +the whisky as the important figure for the winter.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"> +<img src="images/dp393_pg317e.png" width="190" height="276" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 379.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 379, 1822-’23.—“Peeler-froze-his-leg winter.” +Peeler was a white trader, and his leg was frozen +while he was on his way to or from the Missouri +river. The name is explained by White Cow Killer’s +record as follows: “White-man-peels-the-stick-in-his-hand-broke-his-leg +winter.” He was probably +a Yankee, addicted to whittling.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318">[318]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/dp394_pg318a.png" width="129" height="269" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 380.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 380, 1823-’24.—“General-——-first-appeared-and-the-Dakotas-aided-in-an-attack-on-the-Rees +winter.” +Also “Much-corn winter”. The gun and the +arrow in contact with the ear of corn show that both +whites and Indians fought the Rees. This refers to +Gen. Leavenworth’s expedition against the Arikara +in 1823, when several hundred Dakotas were his allies. +This expedition is mentioned several times in +this work.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp394_pg318b.png" width="164" height="275" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 381.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 381, 1824-’25.—“Killed-two-picking-plums winter.” +A Dakota war party surprised and killed two +Pawnees who were gathering plums.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 117px;"> +<img src="images/dp394_pg318c.png" width="117" height="92" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 382.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 382, 1825-’26.—“Many-Yanktonais-drowned winter.” The +river bottom on a bend of the Missouri river, where +they were encamped, was suddenly submerged, when +the ice broke and many women and children were +drowned. All the Winter Counts refer to this flood.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp394_pg318d.png" width="171" height="266" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 383.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 383, 1826-’27.—“Ate-a-whistle-and-died winter.” +Six Dakotas on the war path (shown by bow and +arrow) had nearly perished with hunger, when they +found and ate the rotting carcass of an old buffalo, on +which the wolves had been feeding. They were seized +soon after with pains in the stomach, the abdomen +swelled, and gas poured from mouth and anus, and +they died of a whistle or from eating a whistle. The +sound of gas escaping from the mouth is illustrated +in the figure.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp394_pg318e.png" width="160" height="303" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 384.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 384, 1827-’28.—“Wore-snowshoes winter.” The +snow was very deep.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319">[319]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 123px;"> +<img src="images/dp395_pg319a.png" width="123" height="170" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 385.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 385, 1828-’29.—“Killed-two-hundred-Gros Ventres +(Hidatsas) winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;"> +<img src="images/dp395_pg319b.png" width="103" height="151" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 386.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 386, 1829-’30.—“Old-Speckled-Face-clung-to-his-son-in-law winter.” +The daughter of Speckled-Face, who was coming +out second best in an altercation with her husband, +called to her father for help. The latter ran and +grabbed his son-in-law around the waist, and, crying +“That is my daughter,” stabbed him. The son-in-law +fell and the old man fell on top of him, and, clinging +to him, begged the lookers on to put an end to him +also, as he wished to bear his beloved son-in-law company +to the spirit land. No one, however, was in the humor to speed +him on the journey, and he remained with the living.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 122px;"> +<img src="images/dp395_pg319c.png" width="122" height="96" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 387.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 387, 1830-’31.—“Shot-many-white-buffalo-cows +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 108px;"> +<img src="images/dp395_pg319d.png" width="108" height="93" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 388.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 388, 1831-’32.—“Killed-him-while-looking-about-on-the-hill winter.” +A Dakota, while watching for buffalo at Buffalo +Gap, in the Black Hills, was shot by the Crows. +The man is represented on a hill, which is dotted with +pine trees and patches of grass. Battiste makes the +grass blue. Blue and green are frequently confounded +by other Indians than Battiste, and some tribes have +but one name for the two colors.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;"> +<img src="images/dp395_pg319e.png" width="191" height="229" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 389.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 389, 1832-’33.—“Stiff-Leg-with-War-Bonnet-on-died +winter.” He was killed in an engagement +with the Pawnees on the Platte river, +in which the Brulés killed one hundred Pawnees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320">[320]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;"> +<img src="images/dp396_pg320a.png" width="121" height="280" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 390.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 390, 1833-’34.—“Storm-of-stars winter.” All +the Winter Counts refer to this great meteoric display, +which occurred on the night of November 12, +1833, and was seen over most of the United States.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/dp396_pg320b.png" width="178" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 391.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 391, 1834-’35.—“Killed-the-Cheyenne-who-came-to-the-camp +winter.” A Cheyenne who stole +into the village by night was detected and killed. +The village was near what is now the Pine Ridge +agency.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;"> +<img src="images/dp396_pg320c.png" width="163" height="283" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 392.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 392, 1835-’36.—“Killed-the-two-war-party-leaders +winter.” A Dakota war party met one of +Pawnees and killed two of their leaders, whereupon +the rest ran.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp396_pg320d.png" width="185" height="308" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 393.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 393, 1836-’37.—“Fight-on-the-ice winter.” +They fought with the Pawnees on the ice, on the +Platte river, and killed seven of them. The two vertical +marks, which are for the banks of the river, and +the two opposed arrows, signify that the tribes were +on opposite sides of the river.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp396_pg320e.png" width="149" height="277" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 394.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 394, 1837-’38.—“Spread-out-killed winter.” A +Santee man, whose name is indicated by his spread +hands, was killed by soldiers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321">[321]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp397_pg321a.png" width="177" height="259" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 395.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 395, 1838-’39.—“Came-and-killed-five-Oglálas +winter.” They were killed by Pawnees. The man in +the figure has on a capote, the hood of which is drawn +over his head. This garment is used here as a sign +for war, as the Dakotas commonly wear it on their +war expeditions.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;"> +<img src="images/dp397_pg321b.png" width="121" height="273" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 396.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 396, 1839-’40.—“Came-home-from-the-starve-to-death-war-path +winter.” All of the Dakota tribes +united in an expedition against the Pawnees. They +killed one hundred Pawnees, but nearly perished +with hunger.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp397_pg321c.png" width="125" height="229" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 397.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 397, 1840-’41—“Came-and-killed-five-of-Little-Thunder’s-brothers +winter,” and “Battiste-alone-returns +winter.” The five were killed in an encounter +with the Pawnees. Battiste Good was the only one +of the party to escape. The capote is shown again.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/dp397_pg321d.png" width="133" height="244" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 398.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 398, 1841-’42.—“Pointer-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead +winter.” Also “Deep-snow winter.” +The extended index denotes the man’s name, the ring +and spots deep snow.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/dp397_pg321e.png" width="148" height="236" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 399.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 399, 1842-’43.—“Killed-four-lodges-of-Shoshoni-and-brought-home-many-horses +winter.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322">[322]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> +<img src="images/dp398_pg322a.png" width="131" height="267" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 400.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 400, 1843-’44.—“Brought-home-the-magic-arrow +winter.” This arrow originally belonged to the Cheyennes +from whom the Pawnees stole it. The Dakotas +captured it this winter from the Pawnees and the +Cheyennes then redeemed it for one hundred horses.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp398_pg322b.png" width="147" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 401.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 401, 1844-’45.—“The-Crows-came-and-killed-thirty-eight-Oglálas +winter.” The Oglálas were on the +warpath, as indicated by the capote.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> +<img src="images/dp398_pg322c.png" width="179" height="243" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 402.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 402, 1845-’46.—“Broke-out-on-faces-had-sore-throats-and-camped-under-the-bluff +winter.” “Also-had-bellyache.” +The position of the camp is shown, +also the suggestive attitude of the man.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 91px;"> +<img src="images/dp398_pg322d.png" width="91" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 403.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 403, 1846-’47.—“Winter-camp-broke-his-neck +winter.” He was thrown from his horse while on a +hunt. The red on his neck is the break.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;"> +<img src="images/dp398_pg322e.png" width="114" height="306" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 404.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 404, 1847-’48.—“The-Teal-broke-his-leg winter.” +His arm is lengthened to direct attention to his leg. +The Chinese radical and phonetic character for the +same concept, Fig. <a href="#page717">1193</a>, infra, may be compared, as also +Fig. <a href="#page282">231</a>, supra.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323">[323]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/dp399_pg323a.png" width="132" height="153" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 405.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 405, 1848-’49.—“Killed-the-hermaphrodite winter” and “Big-horse-stealing +winter.” They captured a Crow who +pretended to be a woman, but who proved to be a man, +and they killed him. It is probable that this was one of +the men, not uncommon among the Indian tribes, who +adopt the dress and occupation of women. This is +sometimes compulsory from failure to pass an ordeal +or from exhibition of cowardice. Eight hundred horses +were stolen from the Dakotas, but seven hundred of +them were recovered. The Crows killed one Dakota, as is indicated +by the arrow in contact with the red spot in the hoof print.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;"> +<img src="images/dp399_pg323b.png" width="192" height="189" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 406.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 406, 1849-’50.—“Brought-the-Crows-to-a-stand +winter.” This was done at Crow Butte, +near Camp Robinson, Nebraska. It is said +that a party of Crows, who were flying from +the Dakotas, took refuge on the Butte about +dark and that the Dakotas surrounded them, +confident of capturing them the next morning, +but the Crows escaped during the night, very +much to the chagrin of the Dakotas. The Crow’s +head is just visible on the summit of the hill, as +if the body had gone down.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 86px;"> +<img src="images/dp399_pg323c.png" width="86" height="151" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 407.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 407, 1850-’51.—“The-big-smallpox winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp399_pg323d.png" width="136" height="123" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 408.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 408, 1851-’52.—“First-issue-of-goods winter.” The colored +patches outside the circle are at the four cardinal +points, the colored patches inside the circle are meant +for blankets and the other articles issued, and the circle +of strokes the people sitting. The Dakotas were told +that fifty-five years after that issue they would have to +cultivate the ground, and they understood that they +would not be required to do it before.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp399_pg323e.png" width="93" height="85" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 409.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 409, 1852-’53.—“Deep-snow-used-up-the-horses +winter.” The spots around the horses represent snow.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324">[324]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 105px;"> +<img src="images/dp400_pg324a.png" width="105" height="155" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 410.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 410, 1853-’54.—“Cross-Bear-died-on-the-hunt winter.” The travail +means they moved; the buffalo, to hunt buffalo; the +bear with mouth open and paw advanced, Cross-Bear; the +stomach and intestines, took the bellyache and died. +The gesture sign for bear is made as follows: Slightly +crook the thumbs and little fingers, and nearly close the +other fingers; then, with their backs upward, hold the +hands a little in advance of the body or throw them several +times quickly forward a few inches. The sign is sometimes made +with one hand only.</p> + +<p>For explanation of the word “travail,” applied to the Indian sledge +made of the joined tent poles, see Fig. <a href="#page538">764</a> and accompanying remarks.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp400_pg324b.png" width="162" height="220" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 411.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 411, 1854-’55.—“Killed-five-Assiniboins winter.” The Dakotas +are ashamed of the part they took in the following +deplorable occurrence and it is not therefore noted in +the record, although it really marks the year. In consequence +of a misunderstanding in regard to an old +foot-sore cow, which had been abandoned on the road by +some emigrants and which the Dakotas had innocently +appropriated, Lieut. Grattan, Sixth U. S. Infantry, +killed Conquering Bear (Mato-way'uhi, Startling Bear +properly) about ten miles east of Fort Laramie, August 19, 1854. The +Dakotas then, in retaliation, massacred Lieut. Grattan and the thirty +men of Company G, Sixth U. S. Infantry, he had with him.</p> + +<p>The figure without the above statement tells the simple story about +the killing of five Assiniboins who are denoted by the usual tribal sign, +the number being designated by the five strokes below the arrow.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/dp400_pg324c.png" width="174" height="197" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 412.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 412, 1855-’56.—“Little-Thunder-and-Battiste-Good-and-others-taken-prisoners-at-Ash-Hollow-on-the-Blue-creek +winter,” and one hundred and thirty +Dakotas were killed by the white soldiers. Also called +“Many-sacrificial-flags winter.” The last-mentioned +name for the winter is explained by other records and +by Executive Document No. 94, Thirty-fourth Congress, +first session, Senate, to refer to a council held on March 18, 1856, +by Brevet Brig. Gen. W. S. Harney, U. S. Army, with nine of the bands +of the Dakotas.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp400_pg324d.png" width="184" height="165" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 413.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 413, 1856-’57.—“Bad-Four-Bear-trades-with-Battiste-Good-for-furs-all +winter.” Bad-Four-Bear, a +white trader, is represented sitting smoking a pipe in +front of Battiste’s tipi under a bluff at Fort Robinson, +Nebraska.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;"> +<img src="images/dp400_pg324e.png" width="114" height="104" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 414.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 414, 1857-’58.—“Hunted-bulls-only winter.” +They found but few cows, the buffalo being composed +principally of bulls. The travail is shown.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325">[325]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 88px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325a.png" width="88" height="54" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 415.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 415, 1858-’59.—“Many-Navajo-blankets winter.” +A Navajo blanket is shown in the figure. Several of +the records agree in the explanation about the bringing +of these blankets at that time.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325b.png" width="173" height="220" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 416.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 416, 1859-’60.—“Came-and-killed-Big-Crow winter.” +The two marks under the arrow indicate that +two were killed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 119px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325c.png" width="119" height="181" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 417.</span></div> +</div> + + + +<p>Fig. 417, 1860-’61.—“Broke-out-with-rash-and-died-with-pains-in-the-stomach +winter.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325d.png" width="182" height="241" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 418.</span></div> +</div> + + +<p>Fig. 418, 1861-’62.—“Killed-Spotted-Horse winter.” +Spotted Horse and another Crow came and stole many +horses from the Dakotas, who followed them, killed +them, and recovered their horses.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 121px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325e.png" width="121" height="183" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 419.</span></div> +</div> + + +<p>Fig. 419, 1862-’63—“Cut-up-the-boy-in-the-camp +winter.” The Crows came to the lodges and cut up the +boy while the people were away. The knife above his +head shows that he was cut to pieces.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325f.png" width="150" height="196" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 420.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 420, 1863-’64.—“Crows-came-and-killed-eight +winter.” Some of the eight were Cheyennes. The +marks below the arrow represent the killed.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> +<img src="images/dp401_pg325g.png" width="143" height="205" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 421.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 421, 1864-’65.—“Roaster-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead +winter.” A piece of roasted meat is +shown on the stick in the man’s hand. The Dakotas +roast meat on a stick held in front of the fire.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326">[326]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 183px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326a.png" width="183" height="104" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 422.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 422, 1865-’66.—“Deep-snow-used-up-the-horses +winter.” The horse is obviously in a deplorable condition.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326b.png" width="151" height="180" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 423.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 423, 1866-’67.—“Beaver’s-Ears-killed winter.”</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326c.png" width="144" height="159" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 424.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 424, 1867-’68.—“Battiste-Good-made-peace-with-General-Harney-for-the-people +winter.” This refers to +the great Dakota treaty of 1868 in which other general +officers besides Gen. Harney were active and other +Indian chiefs much more important than Battiste took +part. The assumption of his intercession is an exhibition +of boasting.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326d.png" width="170" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 425.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 425, 1868-’69.—“Killed-Long-Fish winter” and +“Killed-fifteen winter.” The Crows killed fifteen Sans +Arcs and Long-Fish also, a Lower Brulé. The long +fish is shown attached by a line to the mouth of the +man figure in the manner that personal names are frequently +portrayed in this paper.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326e.png" width="115" height="191" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 426.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 426, 1869-’70.—“Trees-killed-them winter.” A +tree falling on a lodge killed a woman.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326f.png" width="135" height="152" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 427.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 427, 1870-’71.—“Came-and-killed-High-Back-Bone +winter.” He was a chief. The Crows and Shoshoni +shot him at long range, and the pistol with which +he was armed was of no service to him.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;"> +<img src="images/dp402_pg326g.png" width="120" height="201" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 428.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 428, 1871-’72.—“Gray-Bear-died winter.” He +died of the bellyache.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327">[327]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp403_pg327a.png" width="177" height="123" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 429.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 429, 1872-’73.—“Issue-year winter.” A blanket +is shown near the tipi. A blanket is often used as the +symbol for issue of goods by the United States Government.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;"> +<img src="images/dp403_pg327b.png" width="140" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 430.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 430, 1873-’74.—“Measles-and-sickness-used-up-the-people +winter.”</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/dp403_pg327c.png" width="166" height="207" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 431.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 431, 1874-’75.—“Utes-stole-horses winter.” +They stole five hundred horses. The Utes are called +“black men,” hence the man in the figure is represented +as black. He is throwing his lariat in the direction of +the hoof prints.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp403_pg327d.png" width="149" height="243" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 432.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 432, 1875-’76.—“Bull-Head-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead +winter.”</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> +<img src="images/dp403_pg327e.png" width="143" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 433.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 433, 1876-’77.—“Female-Elk-Walks-Crying-died +winter.” For some explanation of this figure see Lone +Dog’s Winter Count for 1860-’61.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/dp403_pg327f.png" width="130" height="216" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 434.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 434, 1877-’78.—“Crazy-Horse-came-to-make-peace-and-was-killed-with-his-hands-stretched-out winter.” +This refers to the well-known killing of the chief +Crazy-Horse while a prisoner.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328">[328]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/dp404_pg328a.png" width="175" height="106" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 435.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 435, 1878-’79.—“Brought-the-Cheyennes-back-and-killed-them-in-the-house +winter.” The Cheyennes are shown in prison surrounded +by blood stains, and with guns pointing toward them. +The Cheyennes referred to are those who left the +Indian Territory in 1878 and made such a determined +effort to reach their people in the north, and who, after +committing many atrocities, were captured and taken +to Fort Robinson, Nebraska. They broke from the house in which they +were confined and attempted to escape January 9, 1879. Many of them +were killed; it was reported at the time among the Dakotas that they +were massacred in their prison by the troops.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp404_pg328b.png" width="93" height="138" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 436.</span></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 436, 1879-’80.—“Sent-the-boys-and-girls-to-school +winter.” A boy with a pen in his hand is represented +in the picture.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329">[329]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XI.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">NOTICES.</span></h2> + + +<p>This is an important division of the purposes for which pictographs +are used. The pictographs and the objective devices antecedent to +them under this head may be grouped as follows: 1st. Notice of visit, +departure, and direction. 2d. Direction by drawing topographic +features. 3d. Notice of condition. 4th. Warning and guidance.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">NOTICE OF VISIT, DEPARTURE, AND DIRECTION.</span></h3> + +<p>Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, discovered drawings +at Oakley spring, Yavapai County, Arizona, in 1878. He remarks +that an Oraibi chief explained them to him and said that the “Mokis +make excursions to a locality in the canyon of the Colorado Chiquito +to get salt. On their return they stop at Oakley spring and each Indian +makes a picture on the rock. Each Indian draws his crest or totem, +the symbol of his gens (?). He draws it once, and once only, at each +visit.” Mr. Gilbert adds, further, <span class="lock">that—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There are probably some exceptions to this, but the drawings show its general +truth. There are a great many repetitions of the same sign and from two to ten will<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330">[330]</a></span> +often appear in a row. In several instances I saw the end drawings of a row quite +fresh while the others were not so. Much of the work seems to have been performed +by pounding with a hard point, but a few pictures are scratched on. Many drawings +are weather-worn beyond recognition, and others are so fresh that the dust left by +the tool has not been washed away by rain. Oakley spring is at the base of the +Vermilion cliff, and the etchings are on fallen blocks of sandstone, a homogeneous, +massive, soft sandstone. Tubi, the Oraibi chief above referred to, says his totem is +the rain cloud, but it will be made no more, as he is the last survivor of the gens.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp405_pg329h.png"> +<img src="images/dp405_pg329.png" class="hires" width="500" height="309" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 437.</span>—Petroglyphs at Oakley spring, Arizona.</div> +</div> + +<p>A group from Oakley spring, of which Fig. 437 is a copy, furnished +by Mr. Gilbert, measures 6 feet in length and 4 feet in height. Interpretations +of several of the separated characters are given in Chapter +<span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page745">XXI</a></span>, infra.</p> + +<p>Champlain (<i>b</i>) reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Quelque marque ou signal par où ayont passé leurs ennemis, ou leurs amis, ce +qu’ils cognoissent par de certaines marques que les chefs se donnent d’une nation a +l’autre, qui ne sont pas toujours semblables, s’advertisans de temps en temps quand +ils en changent; et par ce moyen ils recognoissent si ce sont amis ou ennemis qui +ont passé.</p></div> + +<p>A notice of departure, direction, and purpose made in 1810 by Algonquins, +of the St. Lawrence River, is described by John Merrick in the +Collections of the Maine Historical Society (<i>a</i>), of which the following +is an abstract;</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It was drawn with charcoal on a chip cut from a spruce tree and wedged firmly +into the top of a stake. It represented two male Indians paddling a canoe in an +attitude of great exertion, and in the canoe were bundles of baggage and a squaw +with a papoose; over all was a bird on the wing ascertained to be a loon. The +whole was interpreted by an Indian pilot on the St. Lawrence, to be a Wickheegan +or Awickheegan, and that it was left by a party of Indians for the information of +their friends. The attitude of exertion showed that the party, consisting of two men, +a woman, and a child, were going upstream. They intended to remain during the +whole period allotted by Indians to the kind of hunting which was then in season, +because they had all their furniture and family in the canoe. The loon expressed +the intention to go without stopping anywhere before they arrived at the hunting +ground, as the loon, from the shortness of its legs, walking with great difficulty, +never alighted on its way.</p></div> + +<p>The following account is from Doc. Hist. N.Y. (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When they go to war and wish to inform those of the party who may pass their +path, they make a representation of the animal of their tribe, with a hatchet in his +dexter paw; sometimes a saber or a club; and if there be a number of tribes together +of the same party, each draws the animal of his tribe, and their number, all on a +tree from which they remove the bark. The animal of the tribe which heads the +expedition is always the foremost.</p></div> + +<p>The three following figures show the actual use of the wikhegan by +the Abnaki in the last generation. Wikhegan is a Passamaquoddy +word which corresponds in meaning nearly to our missive, or letter, +being intelligence conveyed to persons at a distance by marks on a +piece of birch bark, which may be either sent to the person or party +with whom it is desired to hold communication, or may be left in a conspicuous +place for such persons to notice on their expected arrival. In +the cases now figured the wikhegan was left as notice of departure +and direction. They were made at different times by the brother, now<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331">[331]</a></span> +dead, of Big Raven, baptized as Noel Joseph, who lived all alone on +Long Lake, a few miles from Princeton, Maine. He would not have +anything to do with civilization, and subsisted by hunting and fishing +in the old fashion, nor would he learn a word of French or English. +When he would go on any long expedition his custom was to tie to a +stick conspicuously attached to his wigwam a small roll of birch bark, +with the wikhegan on it for the information of his friends.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp407_pg331h.png"> +<img src="images/dp407_pg331.png" class="hires" width="500" height="404" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 438.</span>—Hunting notices.</div> +</div> + +<p>The upper device of Fig. 438 means, I am going across the lake to +hunt deer.</p> + +<p>The middle device means, I am going towards the lake and will turn +off at the point where there is a pointer, before reaching the lake.</p> + +<p>The lower device means, I am going hunting—will be gone all winter, +the last information indicated by snowshoes and packed sledge.</p> + +<p>The following description of a pictograph on the Pacific coast is extracted +from Dr. Gibbs’ (<i>a</i>) account, “Tribes of Western Washington,” +etc., Contrib. to N. A. Ethn. I, p. 222, of the Sound tribes.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A party of Snakes are going to hunt strayed horses. A figure of a man, with a long +queue or scalp lock, reaching to his heels, denoted Shoshone; that tribe being in +the habit of braiding horse or other hair into their own in that manner. A number +of marks follow, signifying the strength of the party. A footprint, pointing in the +direction they take, shows their course, and a hoof mark turned backward, that +they expect to return with animals. If well armed, and expecting a possible attack, +a little powder mixed with sand tells that they are ready, or a square dotted about +the figures indicates that they have fortified. These pictographs are often an object +of study to decipher the true meaning. The shrewder or more experienced old men +consult over them. It is not everyone that is sufficiently versed in the subject to +decide correctly.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. W. J. Hoffman obtained the original of the accompanying drawing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332">[332]</a></span> +Fig. 439, from Naumoff, an Alaskan, in San Francisco in 1882; also +the interpretation.</p> + +<p>The drawing was in imitation of similar ones made by the natives to +inform their visitors or friends of their departure for a purpose designated. +They are depicted upon strips of wood, which are placed in +conspicuous places near the doors of the habitations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp408_pg332ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp408_pg332a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="57" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 439.</span>—Alaskan notice of hunt.</div> +</div> + +<p>The following is the explanation of the characters: <i>a</i>, the speaker, +with the right hand indicating himself and with the left pointing in the +direction to be taken; <i>b</i>, holding a boat-paddle, going by boat; <i>c</i>, the +right hand to the side of the head, to denote sleep, and the left elevated +with one finger erect to signify one night; <i>d</i>, a circle with two marks in +the middle, signifying an island with huts upon it; <i>e</i>, same as <i>a</i>; <i>f</i>, a +circle to denote another island; <i>g</i>, same as <i>c</i>, with an additional finger +elevated, signifying two nights; <i>h</i>, the speaker, with his harpoon, making +the sign of a sea-lion with the left hand. The flat hand is held +edgewise with the thumb elevated, then pushed outward from the body +in a slightly downward curve. At <i>i</i> is represented a sea-lion; <i>j</i>, shooting +with bow and arrow; <i>k</i>, the boat with two persons in it, the paddles +projecting downward; <i>l</i>, the winter or permanent habitation of the +speaker.</p> + +<p>The following, Fig. 440, is of a similar nature to the preceding, and +was obtained under similar circumstances.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp408_pg332b.png" width="550" height="89" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 440.</span>—Alaskan notice of departure.</div> +</div> + +<p>The explanation of the above characters is as follows:</p> + +<p>The letters <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, represent the person spoken to.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Indicates the speaker with his right hand to the side or breast, indicating +<i>self</i>, the left hand pointing in the direction in which he is going.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Both hands elevated, with fingers and thumbs signifies many, according +to the informant. When the hands are thus held up, in sign-language, +it signifies <i>ten</i>, but when they are brought toward and backward +from one another, <i>many</i>.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> The right hand is placed to the head to denote sleep—<i>many sleeps</i>, +or, in other words, <i>many nights and days</i>; the left hand points downward, +<i>at that place</i>.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> The right hand is directed toward the starting point, while the left +is brought upward toward the head—<i>to go home</i>, or <i>whence he came</i>.</p> + +<p>The drawing presented in Fig. 441 was made by a native Alaskan, +and represents information to the effect that the artist contemplates<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333">[333]</a></span> +making a journey to hunt deer. The drawing is made upon a narrow +strip of wood, and placed on or near the door of the house, where visitors +will readily perceive it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp409_pg333ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp409_pg333a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="90" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 441.</span>—Alaskan notice of hunt.</div> +</div> + +<p>In this figure the curves <i>a a</i> represent the contour lines of the country +and mountain peaks; <i>b</i>, native going away from home; <i>c</i>, stick placed +on hilltop, with bunch of grass attached, pointing in the direction he +has taken; <i>d</i>, native of another settlement, with whom the traveler +remained over night; <i>e</i>, lodge; <i>f</i>, line representing the end of the first +day, i. e., the time between two days; rest; <i>g</i>, traveler again on the +way; <i>h</i>, making signal that on second day (right hand raised with two +extended fingers) he saw game (deer, <i>i</i>,) on a hilltop, which he secured, +so terminating his journey; <i>i</i>, deer.</p> + +<p>Figs. 442, 443, and 444 were drawn by Naumoff and signify “Have +gone home.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp409_pg333b.png" width="300" height="65" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 442.</span>—Alaskan notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>His explanation of this figure is as follows:</p> + +<p>When one of a hunting party is about to return home and wishes to +inform his companions that he has started, he ascends the hilltop +nearest to which they became separated, where he ties a bunch of grass +or other light-colored material to the top of a long stick or pole. The +lower end of the stick is placed firmly in the ground, leaning in the +direction taken. When another hill is ascended, another stick with +similar attachment is erected, again leaning in the direction to be taken. +These sticks are placed at proper intervals until the village is sighted. +This device is employed by Southern Alaskan Indians.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;"> +<img src="images/dp409_pg333c.png" width="396" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 443.</span>—Alaskan notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>He explained Fig. 443 as follows:</p> + +<p>Seal hunters thus inform their comrades +that they have returned to the settlement. +The first to return to the regular +landing place sometimes sticks a piece +of wood into the ground, leaning toward +the village, upon which is drawn or +scratched the outline of a baidarka, or +skin canoe, heading toward one or more +outlines of lodges, signifying that the +occupants of the boat have gone toward +their homes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334">[334]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/dp410_pg334.png" width="172" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 444.</span>—Alaskan notice +of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>This device is used by coast natives of Southern Alaska and Kadiak. +He explained Fig. 444 as follows:</p> + +<p>When hunters become separated, the one first returning +to the forks of the trail puts a piece of wood +in the ground, on the top of which he makes an incision, +into which a short piece of wood is secured horizontally, +so as to point in the direction taken.</p> + +<p>Maj. Long—Keating’s Long (<i>a</i>)—says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When we stopped to dine, White Thunder (the Winnebago chief that accompanied +me), suspecting that the rest of his party were in the neighborhood, requested a piece +of paper, pen, and ink, to communicate to them the intelligence of his having come +up with me. He then seated himself and drew three rude figures, which, at my request, +he explained to me. The first represented my boat with a mast and flag, with +three benches of oars and a helmsman. To show that we were Americans, our heads +were represented by a rude cross, indicating that we wore hats. The representation +of himself was a rude figure of a bear over a kind of cipher, representing a hunting +ground. The second figure was designed to show that his wife was with him; the +device was a boat with a squaw seated in it; over her head lines were drawn in a +zigzag direction, indicating that she was the wife of White Thunder. The third +was a boat with a bear sitting at the helm, showing that an Indian of that name [or +of the bear gens] had been seen on his way up the river and had given intelligence +where the party were. This paper he set up at the mouth of Kickapoo creek, up +which the party had gone on a hunting trip.</p></div> + +<p>An ingenious mode of giving intelligence is practiced at this day by +the Abnaki, as reported by H. L. Masta, chief of that tribe, lately living +at Pierreville, Quebec. When they are in the woods, to say “I am +going to the east,” a stick is stuck in the ground pointing in that direction, +Fig. 445, <i>a</i>. “I am not gone far,” another stick is stuck across +the former, close to the ground, same figure, <i>b</i>. “Gone far” is the +reverse, same figure, <i>c</i>. The number of days’ journey of proposed absence +is shown by the same number of sticks across the first; thus, +same figure, <i>d</i>, signifies five days’ journey.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;"> +<a href="images/dp411_pg335h.png"> +<img src="images/dp411_pg335.png" class="hires" width="489" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 445.</span>—Abnaki notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 446, scratched on birch bark, was given to the present writer at +Fredericton, New Brunswick, in August, 1888, by Gabriel Acquin, an +Amalecite, then 66 years old, who spoke English quite well. The circumstances +under which it was made and used are in the Amalecite’s +words, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;"> +<a href="images/dp412_pg336h.png"> +<img src="images/dp412_pg336.png" class="hires" width="145" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 446.</span>—Amalecite notice of trip.</div> +</div> + +<p>“When I was about 18 years old I lived at a village 11 miles above +Fredericton and went with canoe and gun. I canoed down to Washademoak +lake, about 40 miles below Fredericton; then took river until +it became too narrow for canoe; then ‘carried’ to Buctoos river; followed +down to bay of Chaleur; went up the northwest Mirimachi, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335">[335]</a></span> +‘carried’ into the Nepisigiut. There spent the summer. On that river +met a friend of my time; we camped there.</p> + +<p>“One time while I was away my friend had gone down the river by +himself and had not left any wikhe'gan for me. I had planned to go off +and left for him this wikhe'gan, to tell where I would be and how long +gone. The wigwam at the lower left-hand corner showed the one used +by us, with the river near it. The six notches over the door of the +wigwam meant that I would be gone six days. The canoe and man +nearest to the wigwam referred to my friend, who had gone in the opposite +direction to that I intended to travel. Next to it I was represented +in my own canoe, with rain falling, to show the day I started, which +was very rainy. Then the canoe carried by me by a trail through woods +shows the ‘carry’ to Nictaux lake, beside which is a very big mountain. +I stayed at that lake for six days, counting the outgoing and returning. +As I had put the wikhe'gan in the wigwam before I started, my friend +on his return understood all about me, and, counting six from and including<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336">[336]</a></span> +the rainy day, knew just +when I was coming back, and was +waiting for me.”</p> + +<p>The chief point of interest in this +notice is the ingenious mode of fixing +the date of departure. The marks +for rain are nearly obliterated, but it +flows from the man’s hair. The topography +is also delineated.</p> + +<p>The following is extracted from +James Long’s Expedition (<i>b</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the bank of the Platte river was a +semicircular row of sixteen bison skulls, +with their noses pointing down the river. +Near the center of the circle which this row +would describe, if continued, was another +skull marked with a number of red lines.</p> + +<p>Our interpreter informed us that this +arrangement of skulls and other marks here +discovered were designed to communicate +the following information, namely, that the +camp had been occupied by a war party of +the Skeeree or Pawnee Loup Indians, who +had lately come from an excursion against +the Cumancias, Ietans, or some of the +western tribes. The number of red lines +traced on the painted skull indicated the +number of the party to have been thirty-six; +the position in which the skulls were +placed, that they were on their return to +their own country. Two small rods stuck +in the ground, with a few hairs tied in two +parcels to the end of each, signified that +four scalps had been taken.</p></div> + +<p>When a hunting party of the +Hidatsa arrived at any temporary +camping ground from which some of +them had left on a short reconnoitering +expedition, the remainder, having +occasion to move, erect a pole +and cause it to lean in the direction +taken. At the foot of this pole a +buffalo shoulder blade or other flat +bone is placed, upon which is depicted +the reason of departure; e. g. +should buffalo or antelope be seen, +the animal is drawn with a piece of +charred wood or red lead.</p> + +<p>When a Hidatsa party has gone +on the warpath, and a certain number<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337">[337]</a></span> +is detailed to take another direction, the point of separation is +taken as the rendezvous. After the return of the first party to the +rendezvous, should the second not come up in a reasonable length of +time, they will set sticks in the ground leaning in the direction to be +taken, and notches are cut into the upper ends of the sticks to represent +the number of nights spent there by the waiting party.</p> + +<p>A party of Hidatsa who may be away from home for any purpose +whatever often appoint a rendezvous, from which point they return to +their respective lodges. Should one of the party return to the rendezvous +before any others and wish to make a special trip, he will, for the +information of the others, place a stick of about 3 or 4 feet in length in +the ground, upon the upper end of which a notch is cut, or perhaps a +split made for the reception of a thinner piece of twig or branch having +a length of about a foot. This horizontal top piece is inserted at one +end, so that the whole may point in the direction to be taken. Should +he wish to say that the trail would turn at a right angle, to either +side, at about half the distance of the whole journey in prospect, the +horizontal branch is either bent in that direction or a naturally curved +branch is selected having the turn at the middle of its entire length, +thus corresponding to the turn in the trail. Any direction can be indicated +by curves in the top branch.</p> + +<p>No prescribed system of characters is used at the present time by the +Ojibwa, in the indication of direction or travel. When anyone leaves +camp or home for any particular hunting or berry ground, a concerted +arrangement is made by which only those interested can, with any certainty, +recognize “blaze” or trail marks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp413_pg337.png" width="400" height="156" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 447.</span>—Ojibwa notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>Three characters cut upon the bark of large pine trees observed in +the forest near Red Lake, Minnesota, are shown in Fig. 447. The +Ojibwa using such a mark will continue on a trail leading from his +home, until he leaves the trail, when a conspicuous tree, or in its absence +a piece of wood or bark, is selected upon which a human figure is +cut, with one arm elevated and pointing in the direction to be taken. +These figures measure about 18 inches in height. Those represented +on the two sides of the copy were cut into the bark of a “jack pine” +without coloration, and the one in the middle had been rubbed with +red chalk upon the wood of the trunk after the bark had been removed +and the incision made. The middle figure indicates the direction by +its bearings, although the pointers are differently arranged.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338">[338]</a></span></p> + +<p>Plain sticks are sometimes used by the Ojibwa to indicate direction. +These vary in length according to the fancy of the person and the +requirements of the case. They are stuck into the ground, and lean in +the direction to which notice is invited.</p> + +<p>When a preconcerted arrangement is made, scrolls of birch bark are +used, upon which important geographic features are delineated, so that +the reader can, with little difficulty, learn the course taken by the +traveler. For instance, a hunter upon leaving his home, deposits there +a scroll bearing marks such as appear in Fig. 448:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp414_pg338a.png" width="400" height="75" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 448.</span>—Ojibwa notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i> is a stream to be followed to a lake <i>b</i>, where the hunter will erect +his lodge <i>c</i>, during his stay. The do-dém (totem) is added, used between +persons or parties communicating, to show who was the one that +drew it. It is in the nature of a signature.</p> + +<p>Fig. 449 shows a still existing use of the wikhegan between a Penobscot +Indian and his nephew. It is copied from the original, incised on +birch bark, by Nicholas Francis, a Penobscot, of Oldtown, Maine, which +was obtained and kindly presented by Miss A. L. Alger of Boston.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp414_pg338bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp414_pg338b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="299" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 449.</span>—Penobscot notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>Pitalo (Roaring Lion), English name, Noel Lyon, and his old uncle, +aged over 70 years, went trapping for beaver in 1885 and camped at <i>d</i>, +near Moosehead Lake <i>h</i>, having their supply tent at <i>e</i>. They visited +the ponds <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> and knew there were beaver there, and set traps +for them, <i>f f</i>. The beaver dams are also shown extending across the +outlets of the streams. Noel came back from pond <i>b</i> one day to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339">[339]</a></span> +camping tent and found this birch-bark wikhegan made by the old +uncle, who still used the pictographic method, as he does not know how +to write, and by this Noel knew his uncle had gone to pond <i>c</i> to see if +there were any beaver there and would be gone one night, the latter +expressed by one line <i>g</i> drawn between the two arrows pointing in opposite +directions, showing the going and returning on the same trail.</p> + +<p>The notable part of the above description is that the wikhegan consisted +of the chart of the geographic features before traversed by the +two trappers, with the addition of new features of the country undoubtedly +known to both of the Indians, but not before visited in the present +expedition. This addition exhibited the departure, its intent, direction, +and duration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp415_pg339h.png"> +<img src="images/dp415_pg339.png" class="hires" width="500" height="468" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 450.</span>—Passamaquoddy notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>Sapiel Selmo, a chief of the Passamaquoddy tribe, who gave to the +writer the wikhegan copied as Fig. 450, in 1887, was then a very aged +man and has since died. He lived at Pleasant point, 7 miles north of +Eastport, Maine. He was the son of a noted chief, Selmo Soctomah +(a corruption of St. Thomas), who, as shown by a certificate exhibited, +commanded 600 Passamaquoddy Indians in the Revolutionary war. +When a young man Sapiel, with his father, had a temporary camp, <i>a</i>, +at Machias Lake. He left his father and went to their permanent +home at Pleasant Point, <i>b</i>, to get meat, and then returned to the first +camp (route shown by double track) and found that his father had +gone, but that he had left in the temporary wigwam the wikhegan on +birch bark, showing that he had killed one moose, the meat of which +Sapiel found in the snow, and that the father was going to hunt moose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340">[340]</a></span> +on the other lake (East Machias lake) and would camp there three +days, shown by the same number of strokes at <i>c</i>; so he waited for him +until he came back.</p> + +<p>Josiah Gregg (<i>a</i>) says of the Plains tribes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When traveling they will also pile heaps of stones upon mounds or conspicuous +points so arranged as to be understood by their passing comrades; and sometimes +they set up the bleached buffalo heads, which are everywhere scattered over those +plains, to indicate the direction of their march, and many other facts which may +be communicated by those simple signs.</p></div> + +<p>Putnam (<i>a</i>) gives one example of this character:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A family of five persons were killed—a tall man, a short, fat woman, and three +children—at some place to the north. Five sticks were cut of various lengths. The +longest being forked or split indicated the man, the thick short one the woman, +and three of smaller sizes and lengths the children. They were all scalped, as is +shown by the peeling of the bark. There were thirteen Indians, as we are informed +by the stick with stripes and thirteen notches; and they have fled south with two +prisoners, as we judge from the pointer and little strips of bark seemingly tied +together. Sometimes all the intimations would be on one stick or piece of bark. A +spy finding, at places well known, some of these mysterious articles, would bring +them to the station, where a consultation would be held and conclusion drawn as to +the meaning. A spy or hunter would intimate to his friend his want of powder or +lead or other want and the place at which he would look for supplies.</p></div> + +<p>Hind (<i>a</i>) speaks of a special form of notice by the natives of the Labrador +peninsula:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>To indicate their speed and direction on a march, the Nasquapees of the Labrador +peninsula thrust a stick in the ground, with a tuft of grass at the top, pointing +toward their line of route, and they show the rate at which they are traveling by +the greater or less inclination of the stick. This mode of communicating intelligence +to those who may follow is universal among Indians; but the excellent and simple +contrivance for describing the speed at which they travel is not generally employed +as far as I am aware, by other nations.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Charles G. Leland, in a letter, tells that the English gypsies, at +a crossroad, drew the ordinary Latin cross with the long arm pointing +in the direction taken. Others pulled up three bunches of grass by the +roots and laid the green points in the direction. Others again, at the +present time, take a small stick and set it up inclining at an angle of +45 degrees in the line of travel.</p> + +<p>Dr. George M. Dawson (<i>a</i>) reports of the Shuswap people of British +<span class="lock">Columbia—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A rag of clothing, particularly a small piece or pieces of colored or other easily +recognizable material from a woman’s dress, left in a forked twig, indicates that a +person or party of persons has passed. If the stick stands upright, it means that +the hour was noon, if inclined it may either point to the direction of the sun at the +time or show the direction in which the person or party went. If it is desired to +show both, a larger stick points to the position of the sun, a smaller to that of the +route followed. If those for whose information the signs are left are likely to arrive +after an interval of several days, a handful of fresh grass or a leafy branch may be +left, from the condition of which an estimate of the time which has elapsed can be +formed. Such signs are usually placed near the site of the camp fire.</p></div> + +<p>The device to indicate the time of depositing the notice may be compared +with that shown in Fig. 446.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341">[341]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">DIRECTION BY DRAWING TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES.</span></h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp417_pg341.png" width="500" height="156" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 451.</span>—Micmac notice of direction.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 451 is a notice by Micmac scouts, which tribe was then at war +with the Passamaquoddy, erected on a tree, to warn the rest of the +tribe that ten Passamaquoddy Indians have been observed in canoes +on the lake going toward the outlet of the lake and probably down +the river. The Passamaquoddy tribal pictograph is shown and the +whole topography is correctly drawn.</p> + +<p>Notes in literature relating to the skill of the North American Indians +in delineating geographic features are very frequent. The following +are selected for reference:</p> + +<p>Champlain (<i>c</i>), in 1605, described how the natives on the coast drew +with charcoal its bays, capes, and the mouths of rivers with such +accuracy that Massachusetts bay and Merrimack river have been identified.</p> + +<p>Lafitau (<i>d</i>) says of the northeastern tribes of <span class="lock">Indians—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ils tracent grossierement sur des écorces, on sur le sable, des Cartes exactes, et +ausquelles il ne manque que la distinction des degrés. Ils conservent même de ces +sortes de Cartes Geographiques dans leur Trésor public, pour les consulter dans le +besoin.</p></div> + +<p>Sir Alexander Mackenzie, (<i>a</i>) in 1793, spoke of the skilled manner of +chart-making by an Athabascan tribe, in which the Columbia river was +drawn.</p> + +<p>An interesting facsimile of a map with which the treaty of Hopewell, +in 1875, made by the Cherokees, is connected, appears in American +State Papers, Indian Affairs, <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 40.</p> + +<p>Hind (<i>b</i>) writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On lake Tash-ner-nus-kow, Labrador, was found a “letter” stuck in a cleft pole +overhanging the bank. It was written on birchbark, and consisted of a small map +of the country, with arrows showing the direction the writer had taken, some crosses +indicating where he had camped, and a large cross to show where he intended to +make his first winter quarters. It was probably written by some Nasquapees as a +guide to others who might be passing up the river or hunting in the country.</p></div> + +<p>The Tegua Pueblos, of New Mexico, “traced upon the ground a +sketch of their country, with the names and locations of the pueblos +occupied in New Mexico,” a copy of which, “somewhat improved,” is +given by Lieut. Whipple (<i>c</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342">[342]</a></span></p> + +<p>A Yuma map of the Colorado river, with the names and locations of +tribes within its valley, is also figured in the last mentioned volume, +page 19. The map was originally traced upon the ground.</p> + +<p>A Piute map of the Colorado river, which was obtained by Lieut. +Whipple, is also figured in the same connection.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp418_pg342h.png"> +<img src="images/dp418_pg342.png" class="hires" width="500" height="295" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 452.</span>—Lean-Wolf’s map. Hidatsa.</div> +</div> + +<p>Lean-Wolf, of the Hidatsa, who drew the picture of which Fig. 452 +is a copy, made a trip on foot from Fort Berthold to Fort Buford, +Dakota, to steal a horse from the Dakotas encamped there. The returning +horse tracks show that he was successful and that he rode home. +The following is his explanation of the characters:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Lean-Wolf is represented at <i>a</i> by the head only of a man to which is attached +the outline of a wolf; <i>b</i>, Hidatsa earth lodges, circular in form, the spots representing +the pillars supporting the roof—Indian village at Fort Berthold, Dakota; <i>c</i>, +human footprints, the course taken by the recorder; <i>d</i>, the Government buildings +at Fort Buford (square); <i>e</i>, several Hidatsa lodges (round), the occupants of which +had intermarried with the Dakotas; <i>f</i>, Dakota lodges; <i>g</i>, a small square—a white +man’s house—with a cross marked upon it to represent a Dakota lodge, which +denotes that the owner, a white man, had married a Dakota woman, who dwelt +there; <i>h</i>, horse tracks returning to Fort Berthold; <i>i</i>, the Missouri river; <i>j</i>, Tule +creek; <i>k</i>, Little Knife river; <i>l</i>, White Earth river; <i>m</i>, Muddy creek; <i>n</i>, Yellowstone +river; <i>o</i>, Little Missouri river; <i>p</i>, Dancing Beard creek.</p></div> + +<p>The following illustration, Fig. 453, is the chart of the field of a battle +between Ojibwas and Sioux with its description. The illustration, +made by Ojibwa, the old Indian elsewhere mentioned, was drawn on +birch bark, while the details of the description were oral. The locality +referred to is above the mouth of Crow river, near Sauk rapids, Minnesota.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;"> +<a href="images/dp419_pg343h.png"> +<img src="images/dp419_pg343.png" class="hires" width="396" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 453.</span>—Chart of battle field.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>In the description <i>a</i> is the Mississippi river; <i>b</i>, Crow river; <i>c</i>, branch of Crow +river; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Crow lakes; <i>g</i>, Rice lake; <i>h</i>, Clear Water lake; <i>i</i>, Clear Water river; +<i>j</i>, Sauk river; <i>k</i>, Big Sauk lake; <i>l</i>, Big prairie lake; <i>m</i>, Osakis lake; <i>n</i>, Sauk rapids; +<i>o</i> and <i>p</i>, canoe and deer-hunting and fishing grounds; <i>q</i>, 1 man and 2 women killed +(Ojibwas); <i>r</i>, Sauk Center; <i>s</i>, copses of timber—known as timber islands—on the +prairie.</p> +</div> + +<p>The chart refers to an episode of war in 1854, when 3 Ojibwa were +pursued by 50 Dakota. Many of the lakes appear to be duplicated in +name, simply because no special name for them was known.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343">[343]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffman tells how at Grapevine springs, Nevada, in 1871, the +Paiute living at that locality informed the party of the relative position +of Las Vegas, the objective point. The Indian sat upon the sand and +with his hands formed an oblong ridge to represent Spring mountain, +and southeast of this ridge another gradual slope, terminating on the +eastern side more abruptly; over the latter he passed his fingers to +represent the side valleys running eastward. He then took a stick and +showed the direction of the old Spanish trail running east and west +over the lower portion of the last-named ridge. When this was completed, +with a mixture of English, Spanish, Paiute, and gesture signs, +he told that from where they were now they would have to go southward +east of Spring mountain to the camp of Paiute Charlie, where they +would have to sleep; then indicated a line southeastward to another +spring (Stump’s) to complete the second day; then he followed the line +representing the Spanish trail to the east of the divide of the second +ridge above named, where he left it, and passing northward to the first +valley he thrust the short stick into the ground and said, “Las Vegas.”</p> + +<p>Mr. W. von Streeruwitz, of the Geological Survey of Texas, contributes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344">[344]</a></span> +the copy of a map, evidently the work of Indians, which is received +too late for reproduction. The map is roughly scratched into the flat +surface of a large granite block, and is an approximately correct sketch +of a pass and the nearest surrounding. The rock is situated in the pass +above the so-called rattlesnake or mica tank, in a spur on the west side +of the Van Horn mountains, El Paso county, Texas. An Indian trail +passes near the very rough and weathered rear part of the rock, which +on this side shows weak traces of some scratched-in drawings, which +are nearly weathered off, made no doubt with the purpose to lead the +attention of passing parties to the other side of the rock upon which +the map is drawn. An old trail leads from the Rio Grande across the +Eagle mountains to this pass and in the shortest line from the Green +river valley to the northern main range of the Van Horn and from +there east to the Davis mountains, formerly Apache mountains, and +thence through the southern extension of the Guadeloupe mountains +to this range and into New Mexico; also through the Sierra Carrizo to +the Sierra Diablo; so that this trail must be regarded as one of the +best warpaths for raids across the Rio Grande. An arrowhead at the +upper end of the trail points out water (small or doubtful supply), as +far as could be ascertained from drawings made by Apaches.</p> + +<p>Following are modes of exhibiting pictographically topographic features, +Fig. 454:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp420_pg344.png" width="500" height="207" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 454.</span>—Topographic features.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, from Copway’s Ojibway Nation, p. 136, represents “mountains.”</p> + +<p><i>b</i> is the Chinese character for “mountain,” from Edkins, p. 14. “A +picture of the object. More anciently, two upright cones or triangles +connected at their bases.”</p> + +<p><i>c</i> is the representation by the Dakotas of a gap in the mountains, +taken from Red-Cloud’s census.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, from Copway, p. 135, represents “islands.”</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, from the same, p. 134, is a representation of the character for “sea” +or “water,” probably a large body of water, e. g., lake, such as the +Ojibwa were familiar with.</p> + +<p><i>f</i> is from the same authority, p. 134. It shows the character for +“river” or “stream.”</p> + +<p><i>g</i> gives two Chinese characters for “river,” “stream,” from Edkins, +p. 14. Three parallel lines drawn downward express “flowing” in all +cases.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345">[345]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>h</i> is the Chinese character for “flowing water,” from Edkins, p. 23. +“In the Chwen wen three strokes descending indicate the appearance +of flowing water as seen in a river. The two outside strokes are broken +in the middle.”</p> + +<p>The same authority, p. 155, gives another character, <i>i</i>, with the same +meaning as the last. The author says: “It is supposed to be turned +on end. It is better to regard the old form with its three descending +lines as a picture of water flowing downward.”</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, from Copway (<i>a</i>), represents the character for “land.” It is a turtle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346">[346]</a></span> +and refers to a common cosmologic myth concerning the recovery +of land after the deluge.</p> + +<p>G. Holm (<i>a</i>) gives the following account, translated and condensed, +descriptive of Fig. 455, a wooden map made by the natives of the east +coast of Greenland:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"> +<a href="images/dp421_pg345h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp421_pg345.jpg" class="hires" width="366" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 455.</span>—Greenland map.</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In reference to map making I will only remark that many are inclined to enlarge +the scale as they approach the better known places, which in fact is quite natural, +as they would not otherwise find room for all details. As a natural result, map drawing +in the form of ground plat is something quite new to them. Their mode of +representing their land is by carving it on wood. This has the advantage that not +only the contour of the land, but also its appearance and rock forms, can in a certain +degree be represented.</p> + +<p>The block of wood brought back represents the tract between Kangerdluarsikajik, +east of Sermiligak, and Sieralik, north of Kangerdlugsuatsiak. The mainland continues +from one side of the wooden block to the other, while the islands are located +on the accompanying block without regard to the distance between them in reference +to the mainland. All places where there are old ruins of houses, and therefore +good storage places, are marked on the wood map, which also shows the points +where a kayak can be carried over the ground between two fiords when the sea ice +blocks the headland outside. This kind of models serves to represent the route the +person in question has followed, inasmuch as during his recital he moves the stick, +so that the islands are shown in their relative positions. The other wooden map, +which was prepared by request, represents the peninsula between Sermiligak and +Kangerdluarsikajik.</p> + +<p>A and B represent the tract between Kangerdluarsikajik (immediately east of +Sermiligak) and Sieralik (slightly north of Kangerdlugsuatsiak). B represents the +coast of the mainland, and is continuous from one side of the block to the other, +while the outlying islands are represented by the wooden block of A, on which the +connecting pieces between the various islands must be imagined as being left out. +While the narrator explains the map he moves the stick to and fro, so as to get the +islands into the right position in reference to the mainland.</p> + +<p>Kunit explained the map to me. The names of the islands on A are: <i>a</i>, Sardlermiut, +on the west side of which is the site of an old settlement; <i>b</i>, Nepinerkit (from +napavok), having the shape of a pyramid; <i>c</i>, Ananak, having the site of an old settlement +on the southwest point. (<span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Others give the name Ananak to the cape +on the mainland directly opposite, calling the island Kajartalik.) <i>d</i>, Aputitek; <i>e</i>, +Itivdlersuak; <i>f</i>, Kujutilik; <i>g</i>, Sikivitik.</p> + +<p>For B I obtained the following names, beginning at the north, as in the case of +the islands: <i>h</i>, Itivdlek, where there are remains of a house; <i>i</i>, Sierak, a small fiord, +in which salmon are found; <i>k</i>, Sarkarmiut, where there are remains of a house; <i>l</i>, +Kangerdlugsuatsiak, a fiord of such length that a kayak can not even in a whole +day row from the mouth to the head of the fiord and back again; <i>m</i>, Erserisek, a +little fiord; <i>n</i>, Nutugat, a little fiord with a creek at the bottom; <i>o</i>, Merkeriak, +kayak portage from Nutugkat to Erserisek along the bank of the creek, when the +heavy ice blocks the headland between the two fiords; <i>p</i>, Ikerasakitek, a bay in +which the land ice goes straight out to the sea; <i>q</i>, Kangerajikajik, a cape; <i>r</i>, Kavdlunak, +a bay into which runs a creek; <i>s</i>, Apusinek, a long stretch where the land +ice passes out into the sea; <i>t</i>, Tatorisik; <i>u</i>, Iliartalik, a fiord with a smaller creek; +<i>v</i>, Nuerniakat; <i>x</i>, Kugpat; <i>y</i>, Igdluarsik; <i>z</i>, Sangmilek, a little fiord with a creek; +<i>aa</i>, Nutugkat; <i>bb</i>, Amagat; <i>cc</i>, Kangerdluarsikajik, a smaller fiord; <i>dd</i>, Kernertuarsik.</p> + +<p>C represents the peninsula between the fiords Sermiligak and Kangerdluarsikajik.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347">[347]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">NOTICE OF CONDITION.</span></h3> + +<p>In the curious manuscript of Gideon Lincecum, written with Roman +characters in the Choctaw language about 1818, and referring to the +ancient customs of that tribe, appears the following passage (p. 276):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They had a significant and very ingenious method of marking the stakes so that +each iksa could know its place as soon as they saw the stake that had been set +up for them. Every clan had a name, which was known to all the rest. It was a +species of heraldry, each iksa having its coat of arms. The iksas all took the name +of some animal—buffalo, panther, dog, terrapin, any race of animals—and a little +picture of whatever it might be, sketched on a blazed tree or stake, indicated the +clan to which it belonged. They could mark a tree when they were about to leave +a camp, in their traveling or hunting excursions, with a set of hieroglyphs, that any +other set of hunters or travelers who might pass that way could read, telling what +iksa they belonged to, how long they had remained at that camp, how many there +were in the company, if any were sick or dead, and if they had been successful or +otherwise in the hunt. Thus, drawn very neatly on a peeled tree near the camp, a +terrapin; five men marching in a row, with bows ready strung in their hands, large +packs on their backs, and one man behind, no pack, bow unstrung; one circle, +half circle, and six short marks in front of the half circle; below, a bear’s head, a +buffalo head, and the head of an antelope. The reading is, “Terrapin iksa, 6 men +in company, one sick; successful hunt in killing bear, buffalo, and antelope; that +they remained at the camp a moon and a half and six days, and that they have gone +home.”</p></div> + +<p>Among the Abnaki of the Province of Quebec, as reported by Masta, +their chief, cutting the bark off from a tree on one, two, three, or four +sides near the butt means “Have had poor, poorer, poorest luck.” +Cutting it off all around the tree means “I am starving.” Smoking a +piece of birch bark and hanging it on a tree means “I am sick.”</p> + +<p>Tanner’s Narrative (<i>c</i>) mentions regarding the Ojibwa that, in cases +where the information to be communicated is that the party mentioned +is starving, the figure of a man is sometimes drawn, and his mouth is +painted white, or white paint may be smeared about the mouth of the +animal, if it happens to be one, which is his totem.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp424_pg348h.png"> +<img src="images/dp424_pg348.png" class="hires" width="500" height="404" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 456.</span>—Passamaquoddy wikhegan.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 456 is a copy of a drawing incised on birch bark by the old +Passamaquoddy chief, Sapiel Selmo, who made comments upon it as +follows: Two hunters followed the river <i>a</i> until it branches off <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>. +Indian <i>d</i> takes one river and its lakes and small branches, and the +other hunter (not figured in the chart) follows the other branch and +also claims its small streams and lakes. Sometimes during the winter +they visit one another. If it happen that the other hunter was away +from his wigwam <i>e</i> and if the visiting hunter wishes to leave word with +his friend and wishes to inform him of his luck, he makes a picture on a +piece of birch bark and describes such animals he has killed with the +number of animals as seen in <i>f</i> and <i>g</i> (figure of moose’s head) which, +with two crosses to each, means 20 moose. He killed in each hunt +altogether 40. <i>h</i> is a whole moose, also with two crosses, and means +20, and also the figure of a caribou <i>i</i> with one cross means 10 caribou,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348">[348]</a></span> +and also a figure of a bear with four crosses <i>j</i> means 40 bears, and <i>k</i> +shows a figure of bear with one cross which means 10 bears, and also a +sable <i>l</i> with five crosses means 50 sables. If he wish to inform him +he is in poor luck and hungry, he marked a figure of an Indian with a +pot on one hand, the pot upside down; this means hunger. A figure +of an Indian in lying position means sickness.</p> + +<p>Fig. 457 was also incised on birch bark by Sapiel Selmo and described +by him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 477px;"> +<a href="images/dp425_pg349h.png"> +<img src="images/dp425_pg349.png" class="hires" width="477" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 457.</span>—Passamaquoddy wikhegan.</div> +</div> + +<p>Two Indian hunters follow the river to hunt. They go together as +far as the river’s forks and then separate. One went to the river <i>c</i>. +The other follows river <i>e</i> and kills a moose. They both build their +winter wigwams.</p> + +<p>Indian <i>b</i> went to hunt and found a bear’s den under the foot of a big +tree. He attempted to stab the bear, but missed the vital part. The +bear got hold of him, bit him severely, and mortally wounded him. He +went to his wigwam <i>h</i> and thinks he is going to die, so he makes his +mark or wikhegan on a birch-bark. He makes notches <i>j</i> on the bark +to mean his tracks and also marks a tree as in <i>f</i> and also a bear as in <i>g</i>. +His friend <i>d</i> came to visit him and found him lying dead in his wigwam, +and also found the marks on the piece of birch-bark, which he read and +knew at once his partner was killed by the bear, and he followed his +bear tracks, and he also found the bear dead.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>. Main river. <i>b</i>. One of the Indians who goes up <i>c</i>, branch of river.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349">[349]</a></span> +<i>d</i>. The other Indian who goes on <i>e</i>, another branch of river. <i>f</i>. Tree +above the bear’s den. <i>g</i>. Bear. <i>h</i>. Wigwam of Indian <i>b</i>. <i>i</i>. Moose +which Indian <i>d</i> killed. <i>j</i>. Tracks of Indian <i>b</i>. <i>k</i>. Bear’s den under the +tree. <i>l</i>. Indian <i>d</i>’s wigwam.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 491px;"> +<a href="images/dp426_pg350h.png"> +<img src="images/dp426_pg350.png" class="hires" width="491" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 458.</span>—Passamaquoddy wikhegan.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 458 originally scraped on birch bark tells its own story, but was +described by Sapiel Selmo, who drew it, thus:</p> + +<p>Two Indian hunters, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, went to hunt and follow river, <i>a</i>. They +continued together as far as <i>d</i>, where the river branches off. Indian +<i>c</i> follows the east branch <i>e</i>. He went as far as lake <i>f</i>, where he built +his wigwam <i>g</i>. Indian <i>c</i> is very unlucky; he doesn’t kill any bears or +moose, so he became very hungry. Indian <i>b</i>, who had followed the +north branch and built his wigwam, <i>l</i>, near lake <i>k</i>, went to visit Indian +<i>c</i>, who was away at the time, but <i>b</i> found mark on the birch bark, a +pot upside down, <i>h</i>; this means hunger. He also makes his own mark, +<i>i</i>, a moose’s head, showing success. He appoints lake <i>j</i>, where he killed +moose, and wants him, <i>c</i>, to come to his, <i>b</i>’s, wigwam <i>l</i>.</p> + +<p><i>o</i>, lower lake, not connected with the story, but doubtless drawn<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350">[350]</a></span> +to complete the topography. The two trails, <i>m</i> and <i>n</i>, are designated +by notches showing foot-path or snow-shoe tracks. The Abnaki have +footpaths or snow-shoe tracks where the line of kelhign sisel, or sable +dead falls, extends from one hunting camp to another, between two +lakes or rivers.</p> + +<p>The Ottawa and the Pottawatomi Indians indicate hunger and starvation +by drawing a black line across the breast or stomach of the figure +of a man. (See Fig. <a href="#page656">1046</a>.) This drawing is either incised upon a piece +of wood, or drawn on it with a mixture of powdered charcoal and glue +water, or red ocher. The piece of wood is then attached to a tree or +fastened to a pole, and erected near the lodge on a trail, where it will +be observed by passers by, who are thus besought to come to the rescue +of the sufferer who erected the notice.</p> + +<p>Fig. 459 illustrates information with regard to distress in another +village, which occasioned the departure of the party giving the notification. +The drawing was made in 1882 by the Alaskan, Naumoff, in +imitation of drawings used at his home. The designs are traced upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351">[351]</a></span> +a strip of wood, which is then stuck upon the roof of the house belonging +to the draftsman.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp427_pg351a.png" width="500" height="75" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 459.</span>—Alaskan notice of distress.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, the summer habitation, showing a stick leaning in the direction to +be taken; <i>b</i>, the baidarka, containing the residents of the house; the +first person is observed pointing forward, indicating that they “go by +boat to the other settlement”; <i>c</i>, a grave stick, indicating a death in +the settlement; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, summer and winter habitations, denoting a village.</p> + +<p>The drawing, Fig. 460, also made in 1882, by a native Alaskan, in +imitation of originals familiar to him in Alaska, is intended to be +placed in a conspicuous portion of a settlement which has been attacked +by a hostile force and finally deserted. The last one to leave prepares +the drawing upon a strip of wood to inform friends of the resort of the +survivors.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;"> +<img src="images/dp427_pg351b.png" width="299" height="75" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 460.</span> Alaskan notice of departure and refuge.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i> represents three hills or ranges, signifying that the course taken +would carry them beyond that number of hills or mountains; <i>b</i>, the +draftsman, indicating the direction, with the left hand pointing to the +ground, <i>one</i> hill, and the right hand indicating the number <i>two</i>, the +number still to be crossed; <i>c</i>, a circular piece of wood or leather, with +the representation of a face, placed upon a pole and facing the direction +to be taken from the settlement; in this instance the drawing of the +character denotes a hostile attack upon the town, for which misfortune +such devices are sometimes erected; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, winter and summer habitations; +<i>f</i>, storehouse, erected upon upright poles. The latter device is +used by Alaskan coast natives generally.</p> + +<p>The design shown in Fig. 461 is in imitation of drawings made by +natives of Southern Alaska to convey to the observer the information +that the draftsman had gone away to another settlement, the inhabitants +of which were in distress. The drawings were made on a strip +of wood which was placed at the door of the house, where it might be +seen by visitors or inquirers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"> +<img src="images/dp427_pg351c.png" width="470" height="75" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 461.</span>—Notice of departure to relieve distress. Alaska.</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352">[352]</a></span></p> + +<p>Naumoff gave the following explanation: <i>a</i>, a native making the +gesture of indicating <i>self</i> with the right hand and with the left indicating +direction of <i>going</i>; <i>b</i>, the native’s habitation; <i>c</i>, scaffold used +for drying fish; upon the top of a pole is placed a piece of wood tied +so that the longest end points in the direction to be taken by the relief +party; <i>d</i>, the baidarka conveying it; <i>e</i>, a native of the settlement +to be visited; <i>f</i>, summer habitation; <i>g</i>, “shaman stick,” or grave stick, +erected to the memory of a recently deceased person, the cause which +has necessitated the journey; <i>h</i>, winter habitation. This, together with +<i>f</i>, indicates a settlement.</p> + +<p>Fig. 462, also drawn by Naumoff, means “ammunition wanted.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp428_pg352a.png" width="250" height="193" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 462.</span>—Ammunition +wanted. Alaska.</div> +</div> + +<p>When a hunter is tracking game and exhausts his +ammunition, he returns to the nearest and most conspicuous +part of the trail and sticks his ihú<sup>n</sup>ŭk in the +ground, the top leaning in the direction taken. The +ihú<sup>n</sup>ŭk is the pair of sticks arranged like the letter +A, used as a gun-rest. This method of transmitting +the request to the first passer is resorted to by the coast people of +Southern Alaska.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Fig. 463, also drawn by Naumoff, means “discovery of bear; assistance +wanted.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp428_pg352b.png" width="149" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 463.</span>—Assistance +wanted in hunt. Alaska.</div> +</div> + +<p>When a hunter discovers a bear and requires assistance, +he ties together a bunch of grass, or other fibrous +matter, in the form of the animal and places it upon a +long stick or pole which is erected at a conspicuous +point. The head of the effigy is directed toward the +locality where the animal was last seen.</p> + +<p>This device is used by most of the Alaskan Indians.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Fig. 464 was also drawn by Naumoff, and signifies “starving hunters.”</p> + +<p>Hunters who have been unfortunate, and are suffering from hunger, +scratch or draw on a piece of wood characters similar to those figured, +and place the lower end of the stick in the ground on the trail where +there is the greatest chance of its discovery. The stick is inclined +toward their shelter. The following are the details of the information +contained in the drawing:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp428_pg352c.png" width="550" height="127" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 464.</span>—Starving hunters. Alaska.</div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, A horizontal line denoting a canoe, showing the persons to be +fishermen; <i>b</i>, a man with both arms extended signifying <i>nothing</i>, corresponding +with the gesture for negation; <i>c</i>, a person with the right hand +to the mouth, signifying <i>to eat</i>, the left hand pointing to the house +occupied by the hunters; <i>d</i>, the shelter.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353">[353]</a></span></p> + +<p>The whole signifies that there is <i>nothing to eat</i> in the <i>house</i>. This is +used by natives of Southern Alaska.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp429_pg353.png" width="550" height="143" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 465.</span>—Starving hunters. Alaska.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 465, with the same signification and from the same hand, is +similar to the preceding in general design. This is placed in the ground +near the landing place of the canoemen, so that the top points toward +the lodge. The following is the explanation of the characters:</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Baidarka, showing double projections at bow, as well as the two +men, owners, in the boat; <i>b</i>, a man making the gesture for <i>nothing</i> +(see in this connection Fig. <a href="#page638">983</a>); <i>c</i>, gesture drawn, denoting <i>to eat</i>, +with the right hand, while the left points to the lodge; <i>d</i>, a winter habitation.</p> + +<p>This is used by the Alaskan coast natives.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">WARNING AND GUIDANCE.</span></h3> + +<p>The following description of an Ojibwa notice of a murderer’s being +at large is extracted from Tanner’s Narrative: (<i>d</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>As I was one morning passing one of our usual encamping places I saw on shore a +little stick standing in the bank and attached to the top of it a piece of birchbark. +On examination I found the mark of a rattlesnake with a knife, the handle touching +the snake and the point sticking into a bear, the head of the latter being down. +Near the rattlesnake was the mark of a beaver, one of its dugs, it being a female, +touching the snake. This was left for my information, and I learned from it that +Wa-me-gon-a-biew, whose totem was She-she-gwah, the rattlesnake, had killed a +man whose totem was Muk-kwah, the bear. The murderer could be no other than +Wa-me-gon-a-biew, as it was specified that he was the son of a woman whose totem +was the beaver, and this I knew could be no other than Net-no-kwa.</p></div> + +<p>An amusing instance of the notice or warning, “No thoroughfare,” +is presented in Fig. 466. It was taken in 1880 from a rock drawing in +Canyon de Chelly, New Mexico, by Mr. J. K. Hillers, photographer of +the U. S. Geological Survey.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp430_pg354ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp430_pg354a.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="381" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 466.</span>—No thoroughfare.</div> +</div> + +<p>The design on the left is undoubtedly a notice in the nature of warning, +that, although a goat can climb up the rocky trail, a horse would +tumble down.</p> + +<p>During his connection with the geographic surveys west of the one +hundredth meridian, Dr. Hoffman observed a practice among the +Tivátikai Shoshoni, of Nevada, of erecting heaps of stones along or near +trails to indicate the direction to be taken and followed to reach springs<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354">[354]</a></span> +of water. Upon slight elevations of ground, or at points where a trail +branched into two or more directions, or at the intersection of two +trails, a heap of stones would be placed varying in height according to +the elevation requisite to attract attention. Upon the top of this would +be fixed an elongated piece of rock so placed that the most conspicuous +point projected and pointed in the course to be followed. This was +continued sometimes at intervals of several miles unless indistinct +portions of a trail or intersections demanded a repetition at shorter +distances. A knowledge of this custom proved very beneficial to the +early prospectors and pioneers.</p> + +<p>Fig. 467 is a copy, one-sixteenth actual size, of colored petroglyphs +found by Dr. Hoffman in 1884 on the North fork of the San Gabriel +river, also known as the Azuza canyon, Los Angeles county, California.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp430_pg354bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp430_pg354b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="194" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 467.</span>—Rock painting, Azuza canyon, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>The bowlder upon which the paintings occur measures 8 feet long, +about 4 feet high, and the same in width. The figures are on the +eastern side of the rock, so that the left arm of the human figure on the +right points toward the north.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355">[355]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fig. 468 is a map drawn on a scale of 1,000 yards to the inch, showing +the topography of the immediate vicinity and the relative positions +of the rocks bearing the paintings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp431_pg355ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp431_pg355a.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="346" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 468.</span>—Site of paintings in Azuza canyon, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>The stream is hemmed in by precipitous mountains, with the exception +of two points marked <i>c c</i>, over which the old Indian trail passed +in going from the Mojave desert on the north to the San Gabriel valley +below, this course being the nearest for reaching the mission settlements +at San Gabriel and Los Angeles. In attempting to follow the +water course the distance would be greatly increased and a rougher +trail encountered. Fig. 467, painted on the rock marked <i>b</i> on the map, +shows characters in pale yellow upon a bowlder of almost white granite +partly obliterated by weathering and annual floods, though still enough +remains to indicate that the right-hand figure is directing the observer +to the northeast, although upon taking that course it would be necessary +to round the point a short distance to the west. It may have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356">[356]</a></span> +placed as a notification of direction to those Indians who might have +come up the canyon instead of on the regular trail. Farther west, at +the spot marked <i>a</i> on the map, is a granite bowlder bearing a large +number of paintings, part of which have become almost obliterated. +These were drawn with red ocher (ferric oxide). A selection of these +is shown in Fig. 469.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp431_pg355b.png" width="500" height="214" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 469.</span>—Sketches from Azuza canyon, California.</div> +</div> + +<p>This is on the almost vertical western face of the rock. These characters +also appear to refer to the course of the trail, which might +readily be lost on account of the numerous mountain ridges and spurs. +The left-hand human figure appears to place its hand upon a series of +ridges, as if showing pantomimically the rough and ridged country +over the mountains.</p> + +<p>The middle figure is making a gesture which in its present connection +may indicate direction of the trail, i. e., toward the left, or northward +in an uphill course, as indicated by the arm and leg, and southward, +or downward, as suggested by the lower inclination of the leg +and lower forearm and hand on the right of the painting.</p> + +<p>These illustrations, as well as other pictographs on the same rock, +not now represented, exhibit remarkable resemblance to the general +type of Shoshonean drawing, and from such evidence as is now attainable +it is probable that they are of Chemehuevi origin, as that tribe at +one time ranged far to the west, though north of the mountains, and also +visited the valley and settlements at Los Angeles to trade. It is also +known that the Mojaves came at stated periods to Los Angeles as late +as 1845, and the trail indicated at point <i>a</i> of the map would appear to +have been their most practicable and convenient route. There is strong +evidence that the Moki sometimes visited the Pacific coast and might +readily have taken this same course, marking the important portions +of the route by drawings in the nature of guideboards.</p> + +<p>The following curious account is taken from The Redman, Carlisle, +October, 1888:</p> + +<p>A ranchman visiting a deserted camp of Piegans found the following +notice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>We called at this ranch at dinner time. They treated us badly, giving us no dinner +and sending us away. There is a head man who has two dogs, one of which has +no tail. There are two larger men who are laborers. They have two pairs of large +horses and two large colts, also another smaller pair of horses and two ponies which +have two colts.</p> + +<p>The notice was composed thus: A circle of round stones represented the horses +and ponies, the latter being smaller stones; the stones outside of the circle meant +there were so many colts. Near the center was a long narrow stone, upon the end +of which was a small one. This denoted the head man or owner, whose two dogs +were shown by two pieces of bark, one with a square end while the other had a twig +stuck in for a tail. Two other long narrow stones, larger than the first, stood for +the laborers; these had no small stones on them. Some sticks of wood, upon which +was a small pile of buffalo chips, meant that dinner was ready; and empty shells +turned upside down told they got nothing to eat, but were sent away.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Charles W. Cunningham, formerly of Phœnix, Arizona, reports<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357">[357]</a></span> +the finding of petroglyphs in Rowe canyon, one-half mile from the base +of Bradshaw mountain, Arizona. The characters are pecked upon its +vertical wall of hard porphyry, covering a space between 12 or 15 feet +in length and about 30 feet above the surface of the earth. They consist +of human figures with outstretched arms, apparently driving animals +resembling sheep or goats, while at the head of the procession +appears the figure of a bear. The explanation given seems to be a +notification to Indian herders that in going through the canyon they +should be careful to guard against bears or possibly other dangerous +animals, as the trail or canyon leads down to some water tanks where +the herders may habitually have driven the stock.</p> + +<p>D’Albertis (<i>b</i>) mentions of the Papuans that a warning not to enter a +dwelling is made by erecting outside of it a stick, on the top of which +is a piece of bark or a cocoanut, and in Yule island these warnings or +taboo sticks are furnished with stone heads.</p> + +<p>When a Tartar shaman wished to be undisturbed he placed a dried +goat’s-head, with its prominent horns, over a wooden peg outside of his +tent and then dropped the curtain. No one would dare to venture in.</p> + +<p>The following is quoted from Franz Keller (<i>b</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the immense primeval forests, extending between the Ivahy and the Paranapanama, +the Paraná and the Tibagy, the rich hunting grounds of numerous Coroado +hordes, one frequently encounters, chiefly near forsaken palm sheds, a strange collection +of objects hung up between the trees on thin cords or cipós, such as little +pieces of wood, feathers, bones, and the claws and jaws of different animals.</p> + +<p>In the opinion of those well versed in Indian lore these hieroglyphs are designed +as epistles to other members of the tribe regarding the produce of the chase, the +number and stay of the huntsmen, domestic intelligence, and the like; but this +strange kind of composition, reminding one of the quippus (knotted cords), of the +old Peruvians, has not yet been quite unraveled, though it is desirable that it should +be, for the naïve son of the woods also uses it sometimes in his intercourse with the +white man.</p> + +<p>Settlers in this country, on going in the morning to look after their very primitive +mills near their cottages, have frequently discovered them going bravely, but bruising +pebbles instead of the maize grains, while on the floor of the open shed names +and purposes of the unwelcome nocturnal visitors have been legibly written in the +sand. Among the well-drawn zigzag lines were inserted the magnificent long tail +feathers of the red and blue macaw, which are generally used by the Coroados for +their arrows; and, as these are the symbols of war and night attacks, the whole was +probably meant for a warning and admonition ad hominem: “Take up your bundle +and go or beware of our arrows.”</p></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358">[358]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">COMMUNICATIONS.</span></h2> + + +<p>Under this heading notes and illustrations are grouped of transmitted +drawings, which were employed as letters and missives now are by people +who possess the art of writing. To the drawings are added some +descriptions of objects sent for the same purposes. These are sometimes +obviously ideographic, but often appear to be conventional or arbitrary. +It is probable that the transmittal or exchange of such objects anteceded +the pictorial attempt at correspondence, so that the former should be +considered in connection with the latter. The topic is conveniently +divided by the purposes of the communications, viz, (1) declaration of +war, (2) profession of peace and friendship, (3) challenge, (4) social and +religious missives, (5) claim or demand.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">DECLARATION OF WAR.</span></h3> + +<p>Le Page du Pratz (<i>a</i>), in 1718, reported the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Natchez make a declaration of war by leaving a hieroglyphic picture against +a tree in the enemy’s country, and in front of the picture they place, saltierwise, two +red arrows. At the upper part of the picture at the right is the hieroglyphic sign +which designates the nation that declares war; next, a naked man, easy to recognize, +who has a casse-tête in his hand. Following is an arrow, drawn so as in its +flight to pierce a woman, who flees with her hair spread out and flowing in the air. +Immediately in front of this woman is a sign belonging to the nation against which +war is declared; all this is on the same line. That which is below is not so clear or +so much relied upon in the interpretation. This line begins with the sign of a moon +(<i>i. e.</i>, month) which will follow in a short time. The days that come afterward are +indicated by straight strokes and the moon by a face without rays. There is also a +man who has in front of him many arrows which seem directed to hit a woman who +is in flight. All that announces that when the moon will be so many days old they +will come in great numbers to attack the designated nation.</p></div> + +<p>Lahontan (<i>a</i>) writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The way of declaring war by the Canadian Algonquian Indians is this: They send +back to the nation that they have a mind to quarrel with a slave of the same country, +with orders to carry to the village of his own nation an axe, the handle of which is +painted red and black.</p></div> + +<p>The Huron-Iroquois of Canada sent a belt of black wampum as a +declaration of war.</p> + +<p>Material objects were often employed in declaration of war, some of +which may assist in the interpretation of pictographs. A few instances +are mentioned:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359">[359]</a></span></p> + +<p>Capt. Laudonnière (<i>a</i>) says: “Arrows, to which long hairs are attached, +were stuck up along the trail or road by the Florida Indians, +in 1565, to signify a declaration of war.”</p> + +<p>Dr. Georg. Schweinfurth (<i>a</i>) gives the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I may here allude to the remarkable symbolism by which war was declared against +us on the frontiers of Wando’s territory. * * * Close on the path, and in full +view of every passenger, three objects were suspended from the branch of a tree, viz, +an ear of maize, the feather of a fowl, and an arrow. * * * Our guides readily +comprehended and as readily explained the meaning of the emblems, which were +designed to signify that whoever touched an ear of maize or laid his grasp upon a +single fowl would assuredly be the victim of the arrow.</p></div> + +<p>In the Notes on Eastern Equatorial Africa, by MM. V. Jacques (<i>a</i>) +and É. Storms, it is stated that when a chief wishes to declare war he +sends to the chief against whom he has a complaint an ambassador +bearing a leaden bullet and a hoe. If the latter chooses the bullet, war +ensues; if the hoe, it means that he consents to enter into negotiations +to maintain peace.</p> + +<p>Terrien de Lacouperie, op. cit., pp. 420, 421, reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The following instance in Tibeto-China is of a mixed character. The use of material +objects is combined with that of notched sticks. When the Li-su are minded +to rebel they send to the Moso chief (who rules them on behalf of the Chinese Government) +what the Chinese call a muhki and the Tibetans a shing-tchram. It is a +stick with knife-cut notches. Some symbols are fastened to it, such, for instance, +as a feather, calcined wood, a little fish, etc. The bearer must explain the meaning +of the notches and symbols. The notches may indicate the number of hundreds or +thousands of soldiers who are coming; the feather shows that they arrive with the +swiftness of a bird; the burnt wood, that they will set fire to everything on their +way; the fish, that they will throw everybody into the water, etc. This custom is +largely used among all the savage tribes of the region. It is also the usual manner +in which chiefs transmit their orders.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PROFESSION OF PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP.</span></h3> + +<p>The following account of pictorial correspondence leading to peace +was written by Governor Lewis Cass, while on one of his numerous +missions to the Western tribes, before 1820:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some years before, mutually weary of hostilities, the chiefs of the Ojibwas and +the Dakotas met and agreed upon a truce. But the Sioux, disregarding the solemn +contract which they had formed, and actuated by some sudden impulse, attacked the +Ojibwas and murdered a number of them.</p> + +<p>On our arrival at Sandy lake I proposed to the Ojibwa chiefs that a deputation +should accompany us to the mouth of the St. Peters, with a view to establish a permanent +peace between them and the Sioux. The Ojibwas readily acceded to this, and +ten of their principal men descended the Mississippi with us. The computed distance +from Sandy lake to the St. Peters is 600 miles. As we neared this part of the country +we found our Ojibway friends cautious and observing.</p> + +<p>The Ojibwa landed occasionally to examine whether any of the Sioux had recently +visited that quarter. In one of these excursions an Ojibwa found in a conspicuous +place a piece of birch bark, made flat by fastening between two sticks at each end, +and about 18 inches long by 2 broad.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360">[360]</a></span></p> + +<p>This bark contained the answer of the Sioux nation. So sanguinary had been the +contest between these two tribes that no personal communication could take place. +Neither the sanctity of office nor the importance of the message could protect the +ambassador of either party from the vengeance of the other.</p> + +<p>Some time preceding, the Ojibwas, anxious for peace, had sent a number of their +young men into these plains with a similar piece of bark, upon which they represented +their desire. This bark had been left hanging to a tree, in an exposed situation, +and had been found and taken away by a party of Sioux.</p> + +<p>The proposition had been examined and discussed in the Sioux villages, and the +bark contained their answer. The Ojibwa explained to us with great facility the +intention of the Sioux.</p> + +<p>The junction of the St. Peters with the Mississippi, where the principal part of the +Sioux reside, was represented, and also the American fort, with a sentinel on duty, +and a flag flying.</p> + +<p>The principal Sioux chief was named The-Six, alluding, I believe, to the band of +villages under his influence. To show that he was not present at the deliberation +upon the subject of peace, he was represented on a smaller piece of bark, which +was attached to the other. To identify him, he was drawn with six heads and a +large medal. Another Sioux chief stood in the foreground, holding a pipe in his +right hand and his weapons in his left. Even we could not misunderstand that; +like our own eagle with the olive branch and arrows, he was desirous for peace, but +prepared for war.</p> + +<p>The Sioux party contained fifty-nine warriors, indicated by fifty-nine guns, drawn +upon one corner of the bark.</p> + +<p>The encampment of our troops had been removed from the low grounds upon the +St. Peters to a high hill upon the Mississippi. Two forts were therefore drawn upon +the bark, and the solution was not discovered until our arrival at St. Peters.</p> + +<p>The effect of the discovery of the bark upon the minds of the Ojibwas was visible +and immediate.</p> + +<p>The Ojibwa bark was drawn in the same general manner, and Sandy lake, the +principal place of their residence, was represented with much accuracy. To remove +any doubts respecting it, a view was given of the old northwestern establishment, +situated upon the shore, and now in the possession of the American Fur Company.</p> + +<p>No proportion was preserved in their attempt at delineation. One mile of the Mississippi, +including the mouth of the St. Peters, occupied as much space as the whole +distance to Sandy Lake, nor was there anything to show that one part was nearer +to the spectator than another.</p></div> + +<p>The above pictorially professed attitude of being ready for either +peace or war may be compared with the account in Champlain—Voyages +(<i>d</i>)—of the chief whose name was Mariston, but he assumed that of Mahigan +Atticq, translated as Wolf Deer. He thereby proclaimed that +when at peace he was mild as a deer, but when at war was savage as +a wolf.</p> + +<p>In Davis’ Conquest of New Mexico (<i>a</i>) it is stated that Vargas’ Expedition +in 1694 was met by the Utes, who hoisted a deerskin in token +of peace.</p> + +<p>The following “speech of an Ojibwa chief in negotiating a peace with +the Sioux, 1806,” from Maj. Pike’s (<i>a</i>) Expeditions, etc., shows the pictographic +use of the pipe as a profession of peace:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>My father, tell the Sioux on the upper part of the river St. Peters that they mark +trees with the figure of a calumet; that we of Red lake who may go that way should +we see them, that we may make peace with them, being assured of their pacific disposition +when we shall see the calumet marked on the trees.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361">[361]</a></span></p> + +<p>D’Iberville, in 1699, as printed in Margry, <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, 153, said that the +Indians met by him near the mouth of the Mississippi river indicated +their peaceful and friendly purposes by holding up in the air a small +stick of whitened wood. The same authority, in the same volume, p. +175, tells that the Oumas bore a white cross as a similar declaration; +and another journal, in the same volume, p. 239, describes a stick also +so borne as being fashioned like a pipe. The actual use of the pipe in +profession of peace and friendship is mentioned in several parts of the +present paper. See, also, the passport mentioned on p. <a href="#page214">214</a> and wampum, +p. <a href="#page225">225</a>.</p> + +<p>Lieut. Col. Woodthorpe, in Jour. Anthr. Inst. Gr. Br. and I., <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>, p. +211, says of the wild tribes of the Naga Hills, on the northeastern frontier +of India:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the road to Niao we saw on the ground a curious mud figure of a man in slight +relief presenting a gong in the direction of Senua. This was supposed to show that +the Niao men were willing to come to terms with Senua, then at war with Niao. +Another mode of evincing a desire to turn away the wrath of an approaching enemy +and induce him to open negotiations is to tie up in his path a couple of goats, sometimes +also a gong, with the universal symbol of peace, a palm leaf planted in the +ground hard by.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp437_pg361.png" width="500" height="329" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 470.</span>—West African message.</div> +</div> + +<p>G. W. Bloxam (<i>a</i>) gives the following description of Fig. 470:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It represents a message of peace and good news from the King of Jebu to the King +of Lagos, after his restoration to the throne on the 28th of December, 1851. It appears +complicated, but the interpretation is simple enough. First we find eight +cowries arranged in pairs, and signifying the people in the four corners of the world, +and it will be observed that, while three of the pairs are arranged with their faces +upwards, the fourth and uppermost, i. e., the pair in the most important position, +are facing one another, thus signifying that the correspondents, or the people of +Jebu and Lagos, are animated by friendly feeling towards each other; so, too, there +are two each of all the other objects, meaning, “you and I,” “we two.” The two +large seeds or warres, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, express a wish that “you and I” should play together as +intimate friends do, at the game of “warre,” in which these seeds are used and which +is the common game of the country, holding very much the same position as chess or +draughts with us; the two flat seeds, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, are seeds of a sweet fruit called “osan,” +the name of which is derived from the verb, “san,” to please [Mem. Notice the +rebus] they, therefore, indicate a desire on the part of a sender of the message to +please and to be pleased; lastly, the two pieces of spice, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, signify mutual trust. +The following is the full meaning of the hieroglyphic:</p> + +<p>Of all the people by which the four corners of the world are inhabited, the Lagos +and Jebu people are the nearest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362">[362]</a></span></p> + +<p>As “warre” is the common play of the country, so the Jebus and Lagos should +always play and be friendly with each other.</p> + +<p>Mutual pleasantness is my desire; as it is pleasant with me so may it be pleasant +with you.</p> + +<p>Deceive me not, because the spice would yield nothing else but a sweet and +genuine odor unto god. I shall never deal doubly with you.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CHALLENGE.</span></h3> + +<p>H. H. Bancroft (<i>a</i>), in Native Races, says that the Shumeias challenged +the Pomos (in central California) by placing three little sticks +notched in the middle and at both ends, on a mound which marked the +boundary between the two tribes. If the Pomos accept they tie a string +round the middle notch. Heralds then meet and arrange time and +place and the battle comes off as appointed.</p> + +<p>The sending of material objects was the earliest and most natural +mode for low cultured tribes to communicate when out of sight and +hearing. Such was the system in use among the Scythians at the time +of the invasion of their land by Darius. The version of the story in +Herodotus is that commonly cited, but there is another by Pherecydes +of Heros, who relates that Idanthuras, the Scythian king, when Darius +had crossed the Ister, threatened him with war, sending him not a +letter, but a composite symbol, which consisted of a mouse, a frog, a +bird, an arrow, and a plow. When there was much discussion concerning +the meaning of this message, Orontopagas, the chiliarch, maintained +that it was a surrender; for he conjectured the mouse to mean +their dwelling, the frog their waters, the bird their air, the arrow their +arms, and the plow their country. But Xiphodres offered a contrary +interpretation, thus: “Unless like birds we fly aloft, or like mice burrow +under the ground, or like frogs take ourselves to the water, we shall +never escape their weapons, for we are not masters of their country.”</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS MISSIVES.</span></h3> + +<p>Fig. 471 is a letter, one-half actual size, written by an Ojibwa girl, +the daughter of a Midē', to a favored lover, requesting him to call at +her lodge. This girl had taken no Midē' degrees, but had simply +acquired her pictographic skill from observation in her home.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp439_pg363h.png"> +<img src="images/dp439_pg363.png" class="hires" width="500" height="246" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 471.</span>—Ojibwa love letter.</div> +</div> + +<p>The explanation of the figure is as follows:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The writer of the letter, a girl of the Bear totem, as indicated by +that animal, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p><i>e</i> and <i>f</i>. The companions of <i>a</i>, the crosses signifying that the three +girls are Christians.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> and <i>g</i>. The lodges occupied by the girls. The lodges are near a +large lake, <i>j</i>, a trail leading from <i>g</i> to <i>h</i>, which is a well-traveled road.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363">[363]</a></span></p> + +<p>The letter was written to a man of the Mud Puppy totem, as indicated +in <i>d</i>.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i> The road leading to the lodge occupied by the recipient of the +letter.</p> + +<p><i>k</i> and <i>l</i>. Lakes near which the lodges are built.</p> + +<p>In examining <i>c</i>, the writer’s hand is seen protruding from an opening +to denote beckoning and to indicate which lodge to visit. The clear +indications of the locality serve as well as if in a city a young woman +had sent an invitation to her young man to call at a certain street and +number.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp440_pg364h.png"> +<img src="images/dp440_pg364.png" class="hires" width="500" height="446" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 472.</span>—Cheyenne letter.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 472 is a letter sent by mail from a Southern Cheyenne, named +Turtle-following-his-Wife, at the Cheyenne and Arapaho Agency, Indian +Territory, to his son Little-Man, at the Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota. +It was drawn on a half-sheet of ordinary writing paper, without a word +written, and was inclosed in an envelope, which was addressed to +“Little-Man, Cheyenne, Pine Ridge Agency,” in the ordinary manner, +written by some one at the first named agency. The letter was evidently +understood by Little-Man, as he immediately called upon Dr. V. T. +McGillycuddy, Indian agent at Pine Ridge Agency, and was aware +that the sum of $53 had been placed to his credit for the purpose of +enabling him to pay his expenses in going the long journey to his +father’s home in Indian Territory. Dr. McGillycuddy had, by the same +mail, received a letter from Agent Dyer, inclosing $53, and explaining +the reason for its being sent, which enabled him also to understand the +pictographic letter. With the above explanation it very clearly shows, +over the head of the figure to the left, the turtle following the turtle’s +wife united with the head of the figure by a line, and over the head of +the other figure, also united by a line to it, is a little man. Also over +the right arm of the last-mentioned figure is another little man in the act +of springing or advancing toward Turtle-following-his-Wife, from whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364">[364]</a></span> +mouth proceed two lines, curved or hooked at the end, as if drawing +the little figure toward him. It is suggested that the last mentioned +part of the pictograph is the substance of the communication, i. e., “come +to me,” the larger figures with their name totems being the persons addressed +and addressing. Between and above the two large figures +are fifty-three round objects intended for dollars. Both the Indian figures +have on breechcloths, corresponding with the information given +concerning them, which is that they are Cheyennes who are not all civilized +or educated.</p> + +<p>Sagard (<i>a</i>) tells of the Algonkins of the Ottawa river, that when a +feast was to be given, the host sent to each person whose presence was +desired a little stick of wood, peculiar to them (i. e., probably marked +or colored) of the length and thickness of the little finger, which he +was obliged to show on entering the lodge, as might be done with a +card of invitation and admission. The precaution was seemingly +necessary both for the host’s larder and the satisfaction of the guests, +as on an occasion mentioned by the good brother, each of the guests +was provided with a big piece of sturgeon and plenty of “sagamite +huylée.” There was probably some principle of selection connected +with totems or religious societies on such occasions, not told by the +narrator, as the ordinary custom among Indians is to keep open house<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365">[365]</a></span> +to all comers, who generally were the aboriginal “tramps,” with the +result of waste and subsequent famine.</p> + +<p>The Rev. Peter Jones (<i>b</i>), an educated Ojibwa missionary, in speaking +of the eastern bands of the Ojibwa says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Their method of imploring the favor or appeasing the anger of their deities is by +offering sacrifices to them in the following order: When an Indian meets with ill-luck +in hunting, or when afflictions come across his path, he fancies that by the +neglect of some duty he has incurred the displeasure of his munedoo, for which he +is angry with him; and in order to appease his wrath, he devotes the first game he +takes to making a religious feast, to which he invites a number of the principal men +and women from the other wigwams. A young man is generally sent as a messenger +to invite the guests, who carries with him a bunch of colored quills or sticks, about +4 inches long. On entering the wigwam he shouts out “Keweekomegoo;” that is, +“You are bidden to a feast.” He then distributes the quills to such as are invited; +these answer to the white people’s invitation cards. When the guests arrive at the +feast-maker’s wigwam the quills are returned to him; they are of three colors, red, +green, and white; the red for the aged, or those versed in the wahbuhnoo order; the +green for the media order, and the white for the common people.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. David Boyle (<i>b</i>) refers to the above custom, and quotes Rev. Peter +Jones, also giving as illustrations copies of the quills and sticks presented +by Dr. P. E. Jones which had been brought by his father, the +author above mentioned, from the Northwest fifty years ago. These +are reproduced in Fig. 473.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp441_pg365h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp441_pg365.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="202" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 473.</span>—Ojibwa invitations.</div> +</div> + +<p>When the ceremony of the Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa is +to be performed, the chief midē' priest sends out a courier to deliver to +each member an invitation to attend. These invitations consist of +sticks of cedar, or other wood when that can not be found, measuring +from 4 to 6 inches in length and of the thickness of an ordinary lead +pencil. They may be plain, though the former custom of having one +end painted red or green is sometimes continued. The colored band +is about the width of one-fifth of the length of the stick. It is stated +that in old times these invitation sticks were ornamented with colored +porcupine quills, or strands of beads, instead of with paint.</p> + +<p>The courier detailed to deliver invitations is also obliged to state the +day, and locality of the place of meeting. It is necessary for the invited +member to present himself and to deposit the invitation stick upon the +floor of the inclosure in which the meeting is held; should he be deprived<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366">[366]</a></span> +of the privilege of attending, he must return the stick with an explanation +accounting for his absence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;"> +<a href="images/dp442_pg366h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp442_pg366.jpg" class="hires" width="313" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 474.</span>—Ojibwa invitation sticks.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 474 exhibits the sticks without coloration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367">[367]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another mode of giving invitations for the same ceremony is by +sending around a piece of birch bark bearing characters similar to +those in Fig. 475, taken from Copway, p. 136.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp443_pg367ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp443_pg367a.png" class="hires" width="500" height="57" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 475.</span>—Summons to Midē' ceremony.</div> +</div> + +<p>The characters, beginning at the left hand, signify as follows: Medicine +house; great lodge; wigwam; woods; lake; river; canoe; come; +Great Spirit.</p> + +<p>Copway remarks as follows:</p> + +<p>“In the above, the wigwam and the medicine pale, or worship, represent +the depositories of medicine, record, and work. The lodge is +represented with men in it; the dots above indicate the number of days.</p> + +<p>“The whole story would thus read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>‘Hark to the words of the Sa-ge-mah'. The Great Medicine Lodge will be ready in +eight days. Ye who live in the woods and near the lakes and by streams of water +come with your canoes or by land to the worship of the Great Spirit.’”</p></div> + +<p>The above interpretation is too much adapted to the ideas and +language of Christianity. The more simple and accurate expression +would change the rendition from “worship” and “Great +Spirit” to the simple notice about holding a session of the +Grand Medicine Society.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp443_pg367b.png" width="136" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 476.</span>—Passamaquoddy +wikhegan.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 476, drawn by a Passamaquoddy, shows how the Indians +of the tribe would now address the President of the +United States, or the governor of Maine for help, and formerly +would have made wikhegan for transmittal to a great +chief having power over them. They say by this: “You +are at the top of the pole, so no one can be higher than +you. From this pole you can see the farthest of your +country and can see all your children, and when any of +your children come to see you they must work hard to get +where you are, on top of the high pole. They must climb +up this pole to reach you. You must pity them because they +come long ways to see you, the man of power on the high +pole.” This kind of wikhegan the old men called <i>kinjemeswi +waligoh</i>, homage or salutation to the great chief. It was +always in the old time accompanied by a belt of wampum.</p> + +<p>A highly interesting illustration and account of a diplomatic packet +from the pueblo of Tesuque appears in Schoolcraft (<i>g</i>), and in the same +series (<i>h</i>) is a pictograph from the Caroline islands still more in point.</p> + +<p>A. W. Howitt (<i>c</i>) reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Messengers in central Australia were sent to gather people together for dances +from distances even up to 100 miles. Such messengers were painted with red ocher +and wore a headdress of feathers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368">[368]</a></span></p> + +<p>In calling people together for the ceremonies of Wilyaru or Mindari the messengers +were painted with diagonal stripes of yellow ocher, and had their beards tied tightly +into a point. They carried a token shaped like a Prince of Wales feather, and made +of emu feathers tied tightly with string.</p> + +<p>The sending of a handful of red ocher tied up in a small bundle signifies the great +Mindari or peace festival. In giving notice of the intention to “make some young +men” the messenger takes a handful of charcoal and places a piece in the mouth of +each person present without saying a word. This is fully understood to mean the +“making of young men” at the Wilyaru ceremony.</p></div> + +<p>The following is a description of a Turkish love letter, which was +obtained by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (<i>a</i>) in 1717:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I have got for you a Turkish love letter. * * * The translation of it is literally +as follows. The first piece you should pull out of the purse is a little pearl, which +must be understood in this manner:</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Pearl</td><td>Fairest of the young.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Clove</td><td>You are as slender as the clove.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>You are an unblown rose.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>I have long loved you and you have not known it.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jonquil</td><td>Have pity on my passion.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Paper</td><td>I faint every hour.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pear</td><td>Give me some hope.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Soap</td><td>I am sick with love.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coal</td><td>May I die and all my years be yours.</td></tr> +<tr><td>A rose</td><td>May you be pleased and your sorrows mine.</td></tr> +<tr><td>A straw</td><td>Suffer me to be your slave.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cloth</td><td>Your price is not to be found.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cinnamon</td><td>But my fortune is yours.</td></tr> +<tr><td>A match</td><td>I burn, I burn! My flame consumes me.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gold thread</td><td>Don’t turn away your face from me.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hair</td><td>Crown of my head.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Grape</td><td>My two eyes.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gold wire</td><td>I die; come quickly.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>And, by way of postscript:</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Pepper</td><td>Send me an answer.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>You see this letter is all in verse, and I can assure you there is as much fancy +shown in the choice of them as in the most studied expressions of our letters, there +being, I believe, a million of verses designed for this use. There is no color, no +flower, no weed, no fruit, herb, pebble, or feather that has not a verse belonging to +it; and you may quarrel, reproach, or send letters of passion, friendship, or civility, +or even of news without ever inking your fingers.</p></div> + +<p>The use by Turks and Persians of flower letters or communications, +the significance of which is formed by the selection and arrangement +of flowers, is well known. A missive thus composed of flowers is called +sélam, but the details are too contradictory and confused to furnish +materials for an accurate dictionary of the flower language, though +dictionaries and treatises on it have been published. (See Magnat.) +Individual fancy and local convention, it seems, fix the meanings.</p> + +<p>A Japanese girl who decides to discourage the further attentions of +a lover sends to him, instead of the proverbial “mitten” of New England, +a sprig of maple, because the leaf changes its color more markedly than +any other. In this connection it is told that the Japanese word for love +also means color, which would accentuate the lesson of the changing leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369">[369]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>MESSAGE STICKS.</h4> + +<p>The following extracts are made from Curr’s (<i>a</i>) Australian Race:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I believe every tribe in Australia has its messenger, whose life, whilst he is in the +performance of his duties, is held sacred in peace and war by the neighboring tribes. +His duties are to convey the messages which the tribe desires to send to its neighbors, +and to make arrangements about places of meeting on occasions of fights or +corroborees. In many tribes it is the custom to supply the messenger when he sets +out with a little carved stick, which he delivers with his message to the most influential +man of the tribe to which he is sent. This carved stick he often carries whilst +traveling stuck in the netted band which the blacks wear round the head. I have +seen many of them, and been present when they were received and sent, and have +some from Queensland in my possession at present. They are often flat, from 4 to 6 +inches long, an inch wide, and a third of an inch thick; others are round, of the +same length, and as thick as one’s middle finger. When flat their edges are often +notched, and their surface always more or less carved with indentations, transverse +lines, and squares; in fact, with the same sort of figures with which the blacks +ornament their weapons throughout the continent; when round, fantastic lines are +cut around them or lengthwise. I have one before me at this moment which is a +miniature boomerang, carved on both sides, notched at the edges, and colored with +red ocher. Any black could fashion sticks of this sort in an hour or two. Some of +my correspondents have spoken of them as a sort of writing, but when pressed on +the subject have admitted that their surmise, all the circumstances weighed, was +not tenable. The flat sticks especially have that sort of regularity and repetition +of pattern which wall papers exhibit. That they do not serve the purpose of writing +or hieroglyphics I have no hesitation in asserting; and I may remark that in all +cases which have come under my notice the messenger delivered his message before +he presented the carved stick. That done the recipient would attempt to explain to +those about him how the stick portrayed the message. Still this eminently childish +proceeding leads one to consider whether the most savage mind does not contain the +germ of writing. Bernal Diaz del Castillo, in his Discovery and Conquest of New +Spain, relates that, when his country sent verbal messages by Mexican bearers to +distant tribes, the messengers who had seen the Spaniards write always asked to be +supplied with a letter, which, of course, neither they nor the people to whom they +were sent could read.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> +<a href="images/dp446_pg370h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp446_pg370.jpg" class="hires" width="398" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 477.</span>—Australian message sticks.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 477 reproduces the illustration of the message sticks published +in the work above mentioned.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 306.—In the Majanna tribe messengers are sent with a notched or carved +stick, and the bearer has to explain its meaning. If it be a challenge to fight, and +the challenge is accepted, another stick is returned.</p> + +<p>Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 183.—The bearer of an important communication from one party to another +often carries a message stick with him, the notches and lines on which he refers to +whilst delivering his message. This custom, which prevails from the north coast to +the south, is a very curious one. No black fellow ever pretends to be able to understand +a message from a notched stick, but always looks upon it as confirmatory of +the message it accompanies.</p> + +<p>Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 427.—Message sticks are in use, the marks carved on them being a guaranty +of the messenger, the same as a ring with us in former times.</p> + +<p>Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 263.—Message sticks are used by the Maranoa river tribe. An informant +has in his possession a reed necklace attached to a piece of flat wood about 5 +inches long; on the wood are carved straight and curved lines, and this piece of +wood was sent by one portion of the tribe to another by a messenger, the two parties +being about 60 miles apart. The interpretation of the carving was: “My wife +has been stolen; we shall have to fight; bring your spears and boomerangs.” The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370">[370]</a></span> +straight lines, it was explained, meant spears and the curved ones boomerangs; but +the stealing of the wife seems to have been left to the messenger to tell.</p></div> + +<p>A. W. Howitt (<i>a</i>) gives a further account on this topic:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The messenger carries with him as the emblems of his missions a complete set of +male attire, together with the sacred humming instrument, which is wrapped in a +skin and carefully concealed from women and children. It is, therefore, in such +cases, the totem which assembles the whole community.</p> + +<p>In the Adjadura tribe of South Australia the ceremonies are ordered to be held by +the headman of the whole tribe by his messenger, who carries a message stick +marked in such a manner that it serves to illustrate his message; together with this +there is also sent a sacred humming instrument.</p></div> + +<p>Drs. Houzé and Jacques (<i>a</i>) give a different view of the significance +of the marks on message sticks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It proves very difficult to discover the signification of the notched message sticks. +The Europeans have not succeeded in deciphering them. Some marks may represent +a whole history. The following anecdote on this subject is reported by M. +Cauvin (according to J. M. Davis, Aborigines of Victoria, v. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 356, note): A European, +having formed the project of establishing a new station, started from Edward +river with a herd of cattle and some Indians. When, all being arranged, the colonist +was on the point of returning home, one of the young blacks requested him to +take a letter to his father, and, on the consent of his patron, he gave him a stick +about a foot long covered with notches and signs. On arriving home the colonist +went to the camp of the blacks and delivered the letter to the father of his young +follower, who, calling around him the whole encampment, to the great surprise of +the European, read from this stick a daily account of the doings of the company +from the departure from Edward river until the arrival at the new station, describing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371">[371]</a></span> +the country which they had traversed and the places where they had camped +each night.</p></div> + +<p>The Queenslanders did not give Drs. Houzé and Jacques such a long +translation of their message sticks, but they informed them that one of +the sticks related to the crossing from Australia into America, which is +recounted by Tambo, the author of the message. An illustration of it +is presented on p. 93 of the above cited work of Houzé and Jacques, but +is not sufficiently distinct for reproduction.</p> + + +<h4>WEST AFRICAN AROKO.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp447_pg371a.png" width="400" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 478.</span>—West African aroko.</div> +</div> + +<p>G. W. Bloxam (<i>b</i>) says of the aroko, or symbolic letters, used by the +tribe of Jebu, in West Africa, describing Fig. 478:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is a message from a native general of the Jebu force to a native prince +abroad. It consists of six cowries. Six in the Jebu language is E-fà, which is derived +from the verb fà, to draw. They are arranged +two and two, face to face, on a long string; +the pairs of cowries set face to face indicate friendly +feeling and good fellowship; the number expresses +a desire to draw close to the person to whom the +message is sent [note the rebus]; while the long +string indicates considerable distance or a long +road. This is the message: “Although the road +between us be very long, yet I draw you to myself +and set my face towards you. So I desire you to set your face towards me and +draw to me.”</p></div> + +<p>On p. 298 he adds:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Jebu in West Africa odd numbers in their message are of evil import, +while even numbers express good will. Thus a single cowrie may be sent as an unfavorable +answer to a request or message.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp447_pg371b.png" width="550" height="312" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 479.</span>—West African aroko.</div> +</div> + +<p>The same author writes, on p. 297, describing Fig. 479:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is a message from His Majesty Awnjale, the King of Jebu, to his nephew abroad; +and here we find other substances besides cowries included in the aroko. Taking +the various articles in order, commencing from the knot, we observe four cowries +facing in the same direction, with their backs to the knot; this signifies agreement. +Next a piece of spice, <i>a</i>, which produces when burnt a sweet odor and is never unpleasant; +then come three cowries facing in the same direction; then a piece of mat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372">[372]</a></span> +<i>b</i>; then a piece of feather, <i>c</i>; and, lastly, a single cowrie turned in the same direction +as all the others. The interpretation is:</p> + +<p>“Your ways agree with mine very much. Your ways are pleasing to me and I +like them.</p> + +<p>“Deceive me not, because the spice would yield nothing else but a sweet and genuine +odor unto God.</p> + +<p>“I shall never deal doubly with you all my life long.</p> + +<p>“The weight of your words to me is beyond all description.</p> + +<p>“As it is on the same family mat we have been sitting and lying down together, I +send to you.</p> + +<p>“I am, therefore, anxiously awaiting and hoping to hear from you.”</p></div> + +<p>The following account of “African Symbolic Messages,” condensed +from the paper of the Rev. C. A. Gollmer, which appeared in Jour. +Anthrop. Inst. of Gr. Bn. and I., <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>, p. 169, et. seq., is highly interesting +as showing the ideography attached to the material objects transmitted. +The step in evolution by which the graphic delineation of +those objects was substituted for their actual presence was probably +delayed only by the absence of convenient material, such as birch bark, +parchment, or other portable rudimentary form of paper on which to +draw or paint, or at least by the want of a simple invention for the +application of such material:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The natives in the Yoruba country, West Africa, in the absence of writing, and as +a substitute for it, send to one another messages by means of a variety of tangible +objects, such as shells, feathers, pepper, corn, stone, coal, sticks, powder, shot, razors, +etc., through which they convey their ideas, feelings, and wishes, good and bad, and +that in an unmistakable manner. The object transmitted is seen, the import of it +known and the message verbally delivered by the messenger sent, and repeated by +one or more other persons accompanying the messenger for the purpose as the importance +of the message is considered to require.</p> + +<p>Cowry shells in the symbolic language are used to convey, by their number and +the way in which they are strung, a variety of ideas. One cowry may indicate +“defiance and failure;” thus: A cowry (having a small hole made at the back part, +so as to be able to pass a string through it and the front opening) strung on a short +bit of grass fiber or cord, and sent to a person known as a rival, or one aiming at +injuring the other, the message is: “As one finger can not take up a cowry (more +than one are required), so you one I defy; you will not be able to hurt me, your evil +intentions will come to nothing.”</p> + +<p>Two cowries may indicate “relationship and meeting;” thus: Two cowries strung +together, face to face, and sent to an absent brother or sister, the message is: “We +are children of one mother, were nursed by the same breasts.”</p> + +<p>Two cowries may indicate “separation and enmity;” thus: Two cowries strung +back to back and sent to a person gone away, the message is: “You and I are now +separated.”</p> + +<p>Two cowries and a feather may indicate “speedy meeting;” thus: Two cowries +strung face to face, with a small feather (of a chicken or other bird) tied between +the two cowries, and sent to a friend at a distance, the message is: “I want to see +you, as the bird (represented by the feather) flies straight and quickly, so come as +quickly as you can.”</p> + +<p>The following fivefold painful symbolic message was sent by D., whilst in captivity +at Dahomey, to his wife, who happened to be staying with Mr. Gollmer, at +Badagry, at the time. The symbols were a stone, a coal, a pepper, corn, and a rag. +During the attack of the King of Dahomey, with his great army of Amazons and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373">[373]</a></span> +other soldiers, upon Abeokuta in March, 1852, D., one of the native Christians and +defenders of his town, home, and family, was taken captive and carried to Dahomey, +where he suffered much for a long time. Whilst waiting for weeks to know the +result his wife received the symbolic letter which conveyed the following message:</p> + +<p>The stone indicated “health” (the stone was a small, common one from the street); +thus the message was: “As the stone is hard, so my body is hardy, strong—i. e., well.”</p> + +<p>The coal indicated “gloom” (the coal was a small piece of charcoal); thus the +message was: “As the coal is black, so are my prospects dark and gloomy.”</p> + +<p>The pepper indicated “heat” (the pepper was of the hot cayenne sort); thus the +message was: “As the pepper is hot so is my mind heated, burning on account of +the gloomy prospect—i. e., not knowing what day I may be sold or killed.”</p> + +<p>The corn indicated “leanness” (the corn was a few parched grains of maize or +Indian corn); thus the message was: “As the corn is dried up by parching; so my +body is dried up or become lean through the heat of my affliction and suffering.”</p> + +<p>The rag indicated “worn out;” thus (the rag was a small piece of worn and torn +native cloth, in which the articles were wrapped) the message was: “As the rag is, +so is my cloth cover—i. e., native dress, worn and torn to a rag.”</p> + +<p>A tooth brush may indicate “remembrance;” thus: It is a well-known fact that +the Africans in general can boast of a finer and whiter set of teeth than most other +nations. And those Europeans who lived long among them know from constant +observation how much attention they pay to their teeth, not only every morning, +but often during the day. The tooth brush made use of is simply a piece of wood +about 6 to 9 inches long, and of the thickness of a finger. One end of the stick, +wetted with the saliva, is rubbed to and fro against the teeth, which end after +awhile becomes soft. This sort of tooth brush is frequently given to friends as an +acceptable present, and now and then it is made use of as a symbolic letter, and in such +a case the message is: “As I remember my teeth the first thing in the morning, and +often during the day, so I remember and think of you as soon as I get up, and often +afterwards.”</p> + +<p>Sugar may indicate “peace and love;” in the midst of a war this good disposition +was made known from one party to another by the following symbol: A loaf of +white sugar was sent by messengers from the native church at A. to the native +church at I., and the message was: “As the sugar is white, so there is no blackness +(i. e., enmity) in our hearts towards you; our hearts are white (i. e., pure and free +from it). And as the sugar is sweet, so there is no bitterness among us against you; +we are sweet (i. e., at peace with you) and love you.”</p> + +<p>A fagot may indicate “fire and destruction;” when a fagot (i. e., a small bundle +of bamboo poles, burnt on one end) is found fastened to the bamboo fence inclosing +a compound, or premises, it conveys the message: “Your house will be burnt +down”—i. e., destroyed.</p> + +<p>Powder and shot are often made use of and sent as a symbolic letter; the message +is to either an individual or a people, viz: “As we can not settle the quarrel, we +must fight it out” (i. e., “we shall shoot you, or make war upon you”).</p> + +<p>A razor may indicate “murder.” A person suspected and accused of having by +some means or other been the cause of death of a member of a family, the representative +of that family will demand satisfaction by sending the symbolic objects, viz, a +razor or knife, which is laid outside the door of the house of the accused offender +and guilty party, and the message is well understood to be: “You have killed or +caused the death of N., you must kill yourself to avenge his death.”</p></div> + +<p>The following examples indicate a still further step in evolution by +which the names of the objects or of the numbers are of the same sound +as words in the language the significance of which constitutes the real +message. This objective rebus corresponds with the pictorial rebus so +common in Mexican pictographs, and which is well known to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374">[374]</a></span> +borne a chief part in the development of Egyptian and other ancient +forms of writing.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Three cowries with some pepper may indicate “deceit;” thus: Three cowries +strung with their faces all looking one way (as mentioned before) with an alligator +pepper tied to the cowries. Eru is the name of the pepper in the native language, +which in English means “deceit.” The message may be either a “caution not to +betray one another,” or, more frequently, an accusation of having deceived and defrauded +the company.</p> + +<p>Six cowries may indicate “attachment and affection;” thus: Efa in the native +language means “six” (cowries implied); it also means “drawn,” from the verb fa, +to draw. Mora is always implied as connected with Efa; this means “stick to you,” +from the verb mo, to stick to, and the noun ara, body—i. e. you. Six cowries +strung (as before mentioned) and sent to a person or persons, the message is: “I am +drawn (i. e. attached) to you, I love you,” which may be the message a young man +sends to a young woman with a desire to form an engagement.</p></div> + +<p>Rev. Richard Taylor (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Maori used a kind of hieroglyphical or symbolical way of communication; a +chief, inviting another to join in a war party, sent a tattooed potato and a fig of +tobacco bound up together, which was interpreted to mean that the enemy was a +Maori and not European by the tattoo, and by the tobacco that it represented +smoke; he therefore roasted the one and eat it, and smoked the other, to show he accepted +the invitation, and would join him with his guns and powder. Another sent a +waterproof coat with the sleeves made of patchwork, red, blue, yellow, and green, +intimating that they must wait until all the tribes were united before their force +would be waterproof, i. e., able to encounter the European. Another chief sent a +large pipe, which would hold a pound of tobacco, which was lighted in a large +assembly, the emissary taking the first whiff, and then passing it around; whoever +smoked it showed that he joined in the war.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 5.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CLAIM OR DEMAND.</span></h3> + +<p>Stephen Powers (<i>b</i>) states that the Nishinam of California have the +following mode of collecting debts:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When an Indian owes another, it is held to be in bad taste, if not positively insulting, +for the creditor to dun the debtor, as the brutal Saxon does, so he devises a +more subtle method. He prepares a certain number of little sticks, according to +the amount of the debt, and paints a ring around the end of each. These he carries +and tosses into the delinquent’s wigwam without a word and goes his way; whereupon +the other generally takes the hint, pays the debt, and destroys the sticks.</p></div> + +<p>The San Francisco (California) Western Lancet, <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>, 1882, p. 443, +thus reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When a patient has neglected to remunerate the shaman [of the Wikehumni tribe +of the Mariposan linguistic stock] for his services, the latter prepares short sticks +of wood, with bands of colored porcupine quills wrapped around them at one end +only, and every time he passes the delinquent’s lodge a certain number of them are +thrown in as a reminder of the indebtedness.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;"> +<img src="images/dp451_pg375a.png" width="442" height="204" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 480.</span>—Jebu complaint.</div> +</div> + +<p>G. W. Bloxam (<i>c</i>) describes Fig. 480 thus:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Jehu of West Africa two cowries facing one another signify two blood +relations; two cowries, however, back to back may be sent as a message of reproof<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375">[375]</a></span> +for nonpayment of debt, meaning: “You have given me the back altogether; after +we have come to an arrangement about the debt you have owed me, I will also turn +my back against you.”</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 565px;"> +<img src="images/dp451_pg375b.png" width="565" height="380" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 481.</span>—Jebu complaint.</div> +</div> + +<p>The same authority, p. 299, describes Fig. 481:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It consists of two cowries face to face, followed by one above facing upwards, and +is a message from a creditor to a bad debtor, meaning: “After you have owed me a +debt you kicked against me; I also will throw you off, because I did not know that +you could have treated me thus.”</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;"> +<img src="images/dp451_pg375c.png" width="218" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 482.</span>—Samoyed requisition.</div> +</div> + +<p>Prof. Anton Schrifner (<i>a</i>) describing Fig. 482, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On this plank the cuts marked <i>b</i> signify the number of reindeer required. Opposite +these cuts are placed the hand marks, <i>a</i>, of various Samoyeds of whom the reindeer +are demanded. At the bottom is found the official mark, <i>c</i>, of the Samoyed chief who +forwarded this board to the various Samoyed settlements in place of a written +communication.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376">[376]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">TOTEMS, TITLES, AND NAMES.</span></h2> + + +<p>The employment of pictographs to designate tribes, groups within +tribes, and individual persons has been the most frequent of all the +uses to which they have been applied. Indeed, the constant need +that devices to represent the terms styled by grammarians proper +names should be readily understood for identification has, more than +any other cause, maintained and advanced pictography as an art, and +in some parts of the world has evolved from it syllabaries and afterwards +alphabets. From the same origin came heraldry, which in time +designated with absolute accuracy persons and families for the benefit +of letterless people. Trade-marks have the same history.</p> + +<p>From the earliest times men have used emblems to indicate their +tribes or clans. Homer makes no clear allusion to their manifestation +at the poetic siege of Troy; but even if his Greeks did not bear them, +other nations of the period did. The earlier Egyptians carried images +of bulls and crocodiles into battle, probably at first with religious sentiments. +Each of the twelve tribes of Israel had a special ensign of its +own, which is now generally considered to have been totemic. The +subjects of Semiramis adopted doves and pigeons as their token in +deference to their queen, whose name meant “dove.”</p> + +<p>At later dates Athens chose an owl for her sign, as a compliment to +Minerva; Corinth, a winged horse, in memory of Pegasus and his +fountain; Carthage, a horse’s head, in homage to Neptune; Persia, the +sun, because its people worshiped fire; Rome, an eagle, in deference +to Jupiter. These objects appear to have been carved in wood or metal. +There is no evidence of anything resembling modern flags, except, perhaps, +in parts of Asia, until the Romans began to use something like +them about the time of Cæsar. But these small signs had no national +or public character so as to be comparable with the eagles on the Roman +standard; nor was any floating banner associated with ruling +power until Constantine gave a religious meaning to the labarum.</p> + +<p>Emblems also were often adopted by political and religious parties, +e. g., the cornstalks and slings of the Mazarinists and anti-Mazarinists +during the Fronde, the caps and hats in the Swedish diet in 1788, the +scarf of the Armagnacs, and the cross of the Burgundians. The topic +of emblems is further discussed in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page583">XVIII</a></span>.</p> + +<p>As with increased culture clans and tribes have become nations, +so there has been an evolution by which the ensigns of bands and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377">[377]</a></span> +orders have been discontinued and replaced by the emblems of +nationalities. Frederic Marshall (<i>a</i>) well says: “Images of animals, +badges, war cries, cockades, liveries, coats of arms, tokens, tattooing, +are all replaced practically by national ensigns.” This change is +toward the higher and nobler significance and employment, all members +of the community being protected and designated by the simple +exhibition of a single emblem.</p> + +<p>This chapter is naturally divided into (1) Pictorial tribal designations, +(2) Gentile and clan designations, (3) Significance of tattoo, (4) +Designations of individuals.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PICTORIAL TRIBAL DESIGNATIONS.</span></h3> + +<p>Capt. de Lamothe Cadillac (<i>a</i>) writing in the year 1696 of the Algonquians +of the Great Lake region near Mackinac, etc., describes the +emblems on their canoes as follows: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">On y voit la natte de guerre le +corbeau, l’ours on quelque autre animal * * * estant l’esprit qui +doit conduire cette enterprise.</span>”</p> + +<p>This, however, was a mistake as applicable to the time when it was +written. The animals used as emblems may originally have been regarded +as supernatural totemic beings, but had probably become tribal +designations.</p> + + +<h4>IROQUOIAN TRIBAL DESIGNATIONS.</h4> + +<p>Bacqueville de la Potherie (<i>c</i>) says that a treaty with the French in +Canada, about 1700, was “sealed” with the “proper arms,” pictorially +drawn, of the Indian tribes which were parties to it. The following is +a copy of the original statement in its archaic form:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monsieur de Callieres, de Champigni, & de Vaudreüil, en signerent le Traité, que +chaque Nation scella de ses propres armes. Les Tsonnontouans & les Onnontaguez +designerent une araignée, le Goyogouin un calumet, les Onneyouts un morceau de +bois en fourche, une pierre au milieu, un Onnontagué mit un Ours pour les Aniez, +quoi qu’ils ne vinrent pas. Le Rat mit un Castor, les Abenaguis un Chevreüil, les +Outaouaks un Liévre, ainsi des autres.</p></div> + +<p>From this it appears <span class="lock">that—</span></p> + +<p>The Seneca and Onondaga tribes were represented by a “spider.” +[This was doubtless a branching tree, so badly drawn as to be mistaken +for a spider.]</p> + +<p>The Cayuga tribe, by a calumet.</p> + +<p>The Oneida tribe, by a forked stick with a stone in the fork. [The +forked stick was really designed for the fork of a tree.]</p> + +<p>The Mohawk tribe, by a bear.</p> + +<p>Le Rat, who was a representative Huron of Mackinaw, by a beaver.</p> + +<p>The Abnaki, by a deer.</p> + +<p>The Ottawa, by a hare.</p> + +<p>Several other accounts of the tribal signs of the Iroquois are published,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378">[378]</a></span> +often with illustrations, e. g., in Documents relating to the Colonial +History of New York (<i>a</i>), with the following remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When they go to war, and wish to inform those of the party who may pass their +path, they make a representation of the animal of their tribe, with a hatchet in his +dexter paw; sometimes a saber or a club; and if there be a number of tribes together +of the same party, each draws the animal of his tribe, and their number, all +on a tree, from which they remove the bark. The animal of the tribe which heads +the expedition is always the foremost.</p></div> + +<p>Another account of interest, which does not appear to have been +published, was traced and contributed by Mr. William Young, of Philadelphia. +It is a deed from the representatives of the Six Nations (the +Tuscaroras then being admitted) to the King of Great Britain, dated +November 4, 1768, and recorded at the recorder’s office, Philadelphia, +in Deed Book <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, vol. 5, p. 241. Nearly all of these accounts and illustrations +are confused and imperfect. An instructive blunder occurs in +the translated signature representing the Mohawk tribe in the above +mentioned deed. It is called “The Steel,” which could hardly have +been an ancient tribal name, but after study it was remembered that +the Mohawks have sometimes been called by a name properly translated +the “Flint people.” By some confusion about flint and steel, +which were still used in the middle of the last century to produce sparks +of fire, perhaps assisted by the pantomime of striking those objects +together, the one intended to be indicated, viz, the flint, was understood +to be the other, the steel, and so these words were written under +the figure, which was so roughly drawn that it might have been taken +for a piece of flint or of steel or, indeed, anything else.</p> + + +<h4>EASTERN ALGONQUIAN TRIBAL DESIGNATIONS.</h4> + +<p>The illustrations in Fig. 483 were drawn in 1888 by a Passamaquoddy +Indian, in Maine, near the Canada border. The Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, +and Amalecite are tribal divisions of the Abnaki, who formerly +were also called Tarrateens by the more southern New England +tribes and Owenunga by the Iroquois. The Micmacs are congeners of +the Abnaki, but not classed in their tribal divisions. All the four +tribes belong to the Algonquian linguistic stock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp455_pg379h.png"> +<img src="images/dp455_pg379.png" class="hires" width="500" height="209" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 483.</span>—Eastern Algonquian tribal designations.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 483 <i>a</i> is the tribal emblem of the Passamaquoddy. It shows two +Indians in a canoe, both using paddles and not poles, following a fish, +the pollock. The variation which will appear in the represented use +of poles and paddles in the marks of the Algonquian tribes in Maine, +Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, etc., is said to have originated in the +differing character of the waters, shoal or deep, sluggish or rapid, of +the regions of the four bodies of Indians whose totems are indicated as +next follows, thus requiring the use of pole and paddle, respectively, in +a greater or less degree. The animals figured are in all cases repeated +consistently by each one of the several delineators, and in all cases +there is some device to show a difference between the four canoes, either +in their structure or in their mode of propulsion, but these devices are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379">[379]</a></span> +not always consistent. It is therefore probable that the several animals +designated constitute the true and ancient totemic emblems, and that +the accompaniment of the canoes is a modern differentiation.</p> + +<p><i>b</i> The Maresquite or Amalecite emblem. Two Indians in a canoe, +both with poles, following a muskrat.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> The Micmac emblem. Two Indians, both with paddles, in a canoe +built with high middle parts familiarly called “humpback,” following a +deer.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> The Penobscot emblem. Two Indians in a canoe, one with a paddle +and the other with a pole, following an otter.</p> + +<p>In Margry (<i>a</i>) is an account, written about 1722, of the “Principal +divisions of the Sioux and their distinctive marks,” thus translated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There are from twenty to twenty-six villages of Scioux and they comprise the +nations of the prairies:</p> + +<p>(1) The Ouatabatonha, or <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Scioux des Rivières</span>, living on the St. Croix river or +Lake de la Folle-Avoine which is below, and 15 leagues from the Serpent river. +Their distinctive sign is a bear wounded in the neck.</p> + +<p>(2) The Menesouhatoba, or <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Scioux des Lacs</span>, having for their mark a bear wounded +in the neck.</p> + +<p>(3) The Matatoba, or <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Scioux des Prairies</span>, having for their mark a fox with an +arrow in its mouth.</p> + +<p>(4) The Hictoba, or <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Scioux de la Chasse</span>, having for their symbol the elk.</p> + +<p>(5) The Titoba, or <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Scioux des Prairies</span>, whose emblem is the deer. It bears a bow +on its horns.</p> + +<p>We have as yet had no commerce save with five nations. The Titoba live 80 +leagues west of Sault Saint-Antoine.</p></div> + +<p>The above early, though meager, notice will serve as an introduction +to the following series of pictorial tribal signs, all drawn by Sioux +Indians, and many of them representing tribal divisions of the Siouan +linguistic stock. The history and authority of the several “Winter +Counts” mentioned are referred to supra, chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, section <a href="#page266">2</a>. Red-Cloud’s +census and the Oglala roster are also described below. Explanations +of some figures are added which have no reference to the +present topic, but which seemed necessary and could not be separated +and transferred to more appropriate division without undue multiplication +of figures and text.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380">[380]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>ABSAROKA OR CROW.</h5> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp456_pg380a.png" width="500" height="431" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 484.</span>—Absaroka.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 484.—Dakota and Crow, Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1819-’20. +In an engagement between the Dakotas and the Crows both sides +expended all of their arrows, and then threw dirt at each other. A +Crow is represented on the right, and +is distinguished by the manner in +which the hair is worn. Hidatsa +and Absaroka are represented with +striped or spotted hair, which denotes +the red clay they apply to it.</p> + +<p>The custom which prevails among +these tribes, and is said to have originated +with the Crows, is to wear a +wig of horse hair attached to the +occiput, thus resembling the natural +growth, but much increased in length. +These wigs are made in strands having the thickness of a finger, varying +from eight to fifteen in number, and held apart and in place by means of +thin cross strands, thus resembling coarse network. At every intersection +of strands of hair and crossties, lumps of pine gum are attached +to prevent disarrangement and as in itself ornamental, and to these +lumps dry vermilion clay is applied by the richer classes and red ocher +or powdered clay by the poorer people.</p> + +<p>Pictures drawn by some of the northern tribes of the Dakota show +the characteristic and distinctive features for a Crow Indian to be the +distribution of the red war paint which covers the forehead.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 198px;"> +<img src="images/dp456_pg380b.png" width="198" height="278" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 485.</span>—Absaroka.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 485.—Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1830-’31. The Crows were +approaching a village at a time when there was a great deal of snow +on the ground and intended to surprise it, but, some herders +discovering them, the Dakotas went out, laid in wait for +the Crows, surprised them, and killed many. A Crow’s +head is represented in the figure.</p> + +<p>The Crow is designated not only by the arrangement of +back hair, before mentioned, but by a topknot of hair extending +upward from the forehead, brushed upward and +slightly backward. See also the seated figure in the record of Running +Antelope, in Fig. <a href="#page574">820</a>, infra.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;"> +<img src="images/dp456_pg380c.png" width="236" height="348" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 486.</span>—Absaroka.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 486.—The Dakotas surrounded and killed ten +Crows. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1857-’58.</p> + +<p>The hair is somewhat shortened and not intentionally +foreshortened, which was beyond the artist’s skill.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381">[381]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp457_pg381a.png" width="184" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 487.</span>—Absaroka.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 487.—The Dakotas killed a Crow and his squaw +who were found on a trail. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1839-’40.</p> + +<p>This is a front view. The union line signifies husband +and wife.</p> + +</div> +<h5>ARAPAHO.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/dp457_pg381b.png" width="113" height="128" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 488.</span>—Arapaho.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 488.—Arapaho, in the Dakota language, magpi-yato, +blue cloud, is here shown by a circular cloud, drawn +in blue in the original, inclosing the head of a man. Red-Cloud’s +census.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>ARIKARA OR REE.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/dp457_pg381c.png" width="133" height="267" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 489.</span>—Arikara.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 489 is the tribal sign of the Arikara, made by the +Dakota, taken from the Winter Count of Battiste Good +for the year 1823-’24, which he calls “General-——-first-appeared-and-the-Dakotas-aided-in-an-attack-on-the-Rees +winter,” also “Much corn winter.”</p> + +<p>The gun and the arrow in contact with the ear of corn +show that both whites and Indians fought the Rees. The +ear of corn signifies “Ree” or Arikara Indians, who are +designated in gesture language as “corn shellers.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 80px;"> +<img src="images/dp457_pg381d.png" width="80" height="158" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 490.</span>—Arikara.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 490.—A Dakota kills one Ree. The-Flame’s Winter +Count, 1874-’75. Here the ear of corn, the conventional +sign for Arikara, has become abbreviated.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>ASSINIBOIN.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 64px;"> +<img src="images/dp457_pg381e.png" width="64" height="82" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 491.</span>—Assiniboin.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 491 is the tribal designation for Assiniboin or Hohe made by +the Dakota, as taken from the Winter Count of Battiste +Good for the year 1709-’10.</p> + +<p>The Hohe means the voice, or, as some say, the voice of +the musk ox, and the device is the outline of the vocal +organs, according to the Dakota concept, and represents +the upper lip and roof of the mouth, the tongue, the lower lip, and chin +and neck. The view is lateral, and resembles the sectional aspect of +the mouth and tongue.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382">[382]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>BRULÉ.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<img src="images/dp458_pg382a.png" width="242" height="347" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 492.</span>—Brulé.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 492.—A Brulé, who had left the village the night +before, was found dead in the morning outside the village, +and the dogs were eating his body. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1822-’23.</p> + +<p>The black spot on the upper part of the thigh shows +he was a Brulé.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 238px;"> +<img src="images/dp458_pg382b.png" width="238" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 493.</span>—Brulé.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 493.—A Brulé was found dead under a tree, which had fallen on +him. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1808-’10.</p> + +<p>Again the burnt thigh is suggested by the black spot.</p> + +<p>The significance of these two figures is explained by +the gesture sign for Brulé as follows: Rub the upper +and outer part of the right thigh in a small circle with +the open right hand, fingers pointing downward. These +Indians were once caught in a prairie fire, many burned +to death, and others badly burned about the thighs; +hence the name Si-ca<sup>n</sup>-gu, burnt thigh, and the sign. +According to the Brulé chronology, this fire occurred in +1763, which they call “The-people-were-burned winter.”</p> + +</div> + +<h5>CHEYENNE.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 424px;"> +<img src="images/dp458_pg382c.png" width="424" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 494.</span>—Cheyenne.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 494.—The Cheyenne who boasted that he was bullet and arrow +proof was killed by white soldiers, near Fort +Robinson, Nebraska, in the intrenchments +behind which the Cheyennes were defending +themselves after they had escaped from the +fort. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1878-’79.</p> + + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp458_pg382d.png" width="550" height="182" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 495.</span>—Cheyenne.</div> +</div> + +<p>The marks on the arm constitute the +tribal pictographic emblem. It is explained +by the gesture sign as follows: Pass the +ulnar side of the extended index finger +repeatedly across extended finger and back +of the left hand. Fig. 495 illustrates this +gesture sign. Frequently, however, the index +is drawn across the wrist or forearm, or +the extended index, palm upward, is drawn +across the forefinger of the left hand (palm +inward), several times, left hand stationary, right hand is drawn toward +the body until the index +is drawn clear off; then +repeat. Some Cheyennes believe +this to have reference +to the former custom of cutting +the arms as offerings to +spirits, while others think it refers to a more ancient custom of cutting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383">[383]</a></span> +off the enemy’s fingers for necklaces, and sometimes to cutting off the +whole hand or forearm as a trophy to be displayed as scalps more generally +are.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<img src="images/dp459_pg383a.png" width="222" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 496.</span>—Cheyenne.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 496 is from the Winter Count of Battiste Good +for the year 1785-’86. In that record this is the only +instance where the short vertical lines below the arrow +signify Cheyenne. In all others those marks are +numerical and denote the number of persons killed. +That these short lines here signify Cheyenne is explained +by the foregoing remarks.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 212px;"> +<img src="images/dp459_pg383b.png" width="212" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 497.</span>—Cheyenne.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 497.—Picket-Pin went against the Cheyennes. +A picket-pin is represented in front of him and is +connected with his mouth by the usual line. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1790-’91.</p> + +<p>The black band across his face denotes that he was +brave and had killed enemies. The cross is the symbol +for Cheyenne. This mark stands for the scars on +their arms or stripes on their sleeves, and also to the +gesture sign for this tribe. The cross is, therefore, +the conventionalized form both for the emblem and +the gesture.</p> +</div> + +<h5>DAKOTA OR SIOUX.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 213px;"> +<img src="images/dp459_pg383c.png" width="213" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 498.</span>—Dakota.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 498.—Standing-Bull, the great grandfather of the present Standing-Bull, +discovered the Black Hills. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1775-’76. He carried home with him +a pine tree of a species he had never seen before. In +this count the Dakotas are usually distinguished by +the braided scalp lock and the feather they wear at +the crown of the head, or by the manner in which +they brush back and tie the hair with ornamented +strips. Many illustrations are given in the present +paper in which this arrangement of the hair is shown +more distinctly.</p> + +<p>With regard to the designation of this tribe by +paint it seems that pictures made by the northern Dakotas represent +themselves as distinguished from other Indians by being painted red +from below the eyes to the end of the chin. But this is probably rather +a special war painting than a tribal design.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384">[384]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>HIDATSA, GROS VENTRE, OR MINITARI.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"> +<img src="images/dp460_pg384a.png" width="325" height="212" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 499.</span>—Hidatsa.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 499 shows the tribal designation of the Gros Ventres by the +Dakotas, on the authority of Battiste Good, 1789-’90.</p> + +<p>Two Gros Ventres were killed on the ice by the +Dakotas. The two are designated by two spots of +blood on the ice, and killed is expressed by a blood-tipped +arrow against the figure of the man above. +The long hair, with a red forehead, denotes the Gros +Ventre. In other Dakota records the same style of +painting the forehead red designates the Arikara and Absaroka Indians. +The horizontal band, which is blue in the original, signifies ice.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>KAIOWA.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 241px;"> +<img src="images/dp460_pg384b.png" width="241" height="413" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 500.</span>—Kaiowa.</div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 500 shows the tribal designation of the Kaiowa by the Dakota, +taken from the Winter Count of Battiste Good, +1814-’15. He calls the winter “Smashed-a-Kaiowa’s-head-in +winter.” The tomahawk with which it was +done is in contact with the Kaiowa’s head.</p> + +<p>The sign for Kaiowa is sometimes made by passing +one or both hands, naturally extended, in short horizontal +circles on either side of the head, together +with a shaking motion, the conception being “rattle-brained” +or “crazy heads.” The picture is drawn to +represent the man in the attitude of making this gesture, and not the +involuntary raising of the hands upon receiving the blow, such attitudes +not appearing in Battiste Good’s system.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;"> +<img src="images/dp460_pg384c.jpg" width="480" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 501.</span>—Kaiowa.</div> +</div> + +<p>This gesture is illustrated in Fig. 501.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385">[385]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>MANDAN.</h5> + + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/dp461_pg385a.png" width="129" height="111" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 502.</span>—Mandan.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 502.—Two Mandans killed by Minneconjous. +The peculiar arrangement of the hair distinguishes the +tribe. The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1789-’90.</p> +</div> + +<h5>MANDAN AND ARIKARA.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 76px;"> +<img src="images/dp461_pg385b.png" width="76" height="103" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 503.</span>—Mandan +and Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 503.—The Mandans and Rees made a charge on a Dakota village. +An eagle’s tail, which is worn on the head, +stands for Mandan and Ree. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1783-’84.</p> + +<p>The mark on the tipi, which represents a village, is +not, as it at first sight appears, a hatchet, but a conventional +sign for “it hit.” See Fig. <a href="#page640">987</a> and accompanying +remarks.</p> + +</div> +<h5>OJIBWA.</h5> + +<p>Carver (<i>a</i>), writing in 1776-’78, tells that an Ojibwa drew the designation +of his own tribe as a deer. The honest captain of provincial +troops may have mistaken a clan mark to be a tribal mark, but the +account is mentioned for what it is worth, and the context serves to +support the statement.</p> + + + +<h5>OMAHA.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/dp461_pg385c.png" width="65" height="85" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 504.</span>—Omaha.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 504 is the tribal designation of the Omahas +by the Dakotas, taken from the Winter Count of +Battiste Good, for the year 1744-’45. The pictograph +is a human head with cropped hair and red cheeks. +It is a front view. This tribe cuts the hair short and +uses red paint upon the cheeks very extensively. +This character is of frequent occurrence in Battiste +Good’s count.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;"> +<img src="images/dp461_pg385d.png" width="140" height="179" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 505.</span>—Omaha.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 505.—The Dakotas killed an Omaha in the +night. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1806-’07.</p> + +<p>This is a side view of the same. The illustration +does not show the color of the cheeks.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/dp461_pg385e.png" width="186" height="167" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 506.</span>—Omaha.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 506.—The Dakotas and Omahas made peace. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1791-’92.</p> + +<p>The Omaha is on the right and the Dakota on the +left.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386">[386]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>PAWNEE.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 123px;"> +<img src="images/dp462_pg386a.png" width="123" height="218" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 507.</span>—Pawnee.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 507 is the tribal designation of the Pawnee by +the Dakotas, taken from Battiste Good’s Winter +Count for the year 1704-’05.</p> + +<p>He says: The lower part of the legs are ornamented +with slight projections resembling the husks +on the bottom of an ear of corn.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 79px;"> +<img src="images/dp462_pg386b.png" width="79" height="190" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 508.</span>—Pawnee.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 508.—Brulés kill a number of Pawnees. +The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1873-’74.</p> + +<p>This is the abbreviated or conventionalized form +of the one preceding.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp462_pg386c.png" width="75" height="153" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 509.</span>—Pawnee.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 509.—They killed many Pawnees on the +Republican river. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1873-’74.</p> + +<p>Here the arrangement of the hair makes the distinction.</p> + +<p>In this connection it is useful to quote Dunbar (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The tribal mark of the Pawnees in their pictographic or historic painting was the +scalp lock dressed to stand nearly erect or curving slightly backwards, somewhat +like a horn. This, in order that it should retain its position, was filled with vermillion +or other pigment, and sometimes lengthened by means of a tuft of horse hair +skillfully appended so as to form a trail back over the shoulders. This usage was +undoubtedly the origin of the name Pawnee. * * * It is most probably derived +from <i>pá-rĭk-ĭ</i>, a horn, and seems to have been once used by the Pawnees themselves to +designate their peculiar scalp lock. From the fact that this was the most noticeable +feature in their costume, the name came naturally to be the denominative term of +the tribe.</p></div> + +</div> + +<h5>PONKA.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp462_pg386d.png" width="177" height="142" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 510.</span>—Ponka.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 510.—The Ponkas came and attacked a village, +notwithstanding peace had just been made with them. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1778-’79.</p> + +<p>Some elk hair which is used to form a ridge about +8 inches long and 2 in breadth, worn from the forehead +to the back of the neck, and a feather, represent Ponka. Horse +tracks are used for horses. Attack is indicated by marks which represent +bullet marks, and which convey the idea that the bullet struck. +The marks are derived from the gesture-sign “it struck.” See Chapter +<span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span>, section <a href="#page637">4</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387">[387]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/dp463_pg387a.png" width="169" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 511.</span>—Ponka.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 511.—An Indian woman, who had been unfaithful +to a white man to whom she was married, +was killed by an Indian named Ponka. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1804-’05.</p> + +<p>The emblem for Ponka is the straight elk hair +ridge.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 123px;"> +<img src="images/dp463_pg387b.png" width="123" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 512.</span>—Ponka.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 512.—A Ponka, who was captured when a boy +by the Oglalas, was killed while outside the village +by a war party of Ponkas. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1793-’94.</p> + +<p>The artificial headdress, consisting of a ridge of +elk hair, is again portrayed.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>SHOSHONI.</h5> + +<p>Dr. George Gibbs (<i>b</i>) describes a pictograph made by one of the +Indian tribes of Oregon and Washington, upon which “the figure of a +man with a long queue or scalp lock reached to his heels denoted a Shoshoni, +that tribe being in the habit of braiding horse or other hair into +their own in that manner.”</p> + +<p>This may be correct regarding the Shoshoni Indians among the +extreme northwestern tribes, but the mark of identification could not be +based upon the custom of braiding with their own hair that of animals, to +increase the length and appearance of the queue, as this custom also prevails +among the Absaroka, Hidatsa, and Arikaa Indians, respectively, +as before mentioned in this work.</p> + +<p>Tanner’s Narrative (<i>e</i>) gives additional information on this topic +regarding the absence of any tribal sign in connection with a human +figure.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The men of the same tribe are extensively acquainted with the totems which belong +to each, and if on any record of this kind the figure of a man appears without +any designatory mark, it is immediately understood that he is a Sioux or at least a +stranger. Indeed, in most instances the figures of men are not used at all, merely +the totem or surname, being given. * * * It may be observed that the Algonkins +believe all other Indians to have totems, though from the necessity they are +in general under of remaining ignorant of those hostile bands, the omission of the +totem in their picture writing serves to designate an enemy. Thus, those bands of +Ojibbeways who border on the country of the Dahcotah or Sioux, always understand +the figure of a man without totem to mean one of that people.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp463_pg387c.png" width="550" height="124" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 513.</span>—Tamga of Kirghise tribes.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Sketches of Northwestern Mongolia, (<i>a</i>) are the tamga or seals of +Kirghise tribes, of which Fig. 513 is a copy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388">[388]</a></span></p> + +<p>The explanation given is as follows: <i>a.</i> Kipchaktamga: letter alip. +<i>b.</i> Arguin tamga: eyes. <i>c.</i> Naiman tamga: posts (of door). <i>d.</i> Kong-rat, +Kirei, tamga: vine. <i>e.</i> Nak tamga: prop. <i>f.</i> Tarakti tamga: +comb. <i>g.</i> Tyulimgut tamga: pike.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">GENTILE AND CLAN DESIGNATIONS.</span></h3> + +<p>The clan and totemic system formerly called the gentile system undoubtedly +prevailed anciently in Europe and Asia, but first became +understood by observations of its existence in actual force among the +aborigines of America and Australia, and typical representations of it +are still found among them. In Australia it is called kobong. An animal +or a plant, or sometimes a heavenly body was mythologically at first +and at last sociologically connected with all persons of a certain stock, +who believe, or once believed, that it was their tutelar god and they +bear its name.</p> + +<p>Each clan or gens took as a badge or objective totem the representation +of the tutelar daimon from which it was named. As most Indian +tribes were zootheistic, the object of their devotion was generally an +animal—e. g., an eagle, a panther, a buffalo, a bear, a deer, a raccoon, a +tortoise, a snake, or a fish, but sometimes was one of the winds, a celestial +body, or other impressive object or phenomenon.</p> + +<p>American Indians once generally observed a prohibition against killing +the animal connected with their totem or eating any part of it. +For instance, most of the southern Indians abstained from killing the +wolf; the Navajo do not kill bears; the Osage never killed the beaver +until the skins became valuable for sale. Afterward some of the animals +previously held sacred were killed; but apologies were made to +them at the time, and in almost all cases the prohibition or taboo survived +with regard to certain parts of those animals which were not to +be eaten on the principle of synecdoche, the temptation to use the food +being too strong to permit entire abstinence. The Cherokee forbade the +use of the tongues of the deer and bear for food. They cut these members +out and cast them into the fire sacramentally. A practice still +exists among the Ojibwa as follows: There is a formal restriction +against members of the bear clan eating the animal, yet by a subdivision +within the same clan an arrangement is made so that sub-clans +may among them eat the whole animal. When a bear is killed, the +head and paws are eaten by those who form one branch of the bear +totem, and the remainder is reserved for the others. Other Indian +tribes have invented a differentiation in which some clansmen may +eat the ham and not the shoulder of certain animals, and others the +shoulder and not the ham.</p> + +<p>It follows, therefore, that sometimes the whole animal is designated +as a clan totem, and also that sometimes only parts of it is selected.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389">[389]</a></span> +Many of the devices given in this paper under the heading of personal +names have this origin. The following figures show a selection of parts +of animals that may further illustrate the subject. It must, however, +be borne in mind that some of the cases may be connected with individual +visions or with personal adventures and not directly with the +clan system. In the absence of detailed information in each instance +discrimination is impossible.</p> + +<p>Schoolcraft says that the Ojibwa always placed the totemic or clan<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390">[390]</a></span> +pictorial mark upon the <i>adjedatig</i> or grave-post, thereby sinking the +personal name which is not generally indicative of the totem. The +same practice is found in other tribes. The Pueblos depict the gentile +or totemic pictorial sign upon their various styles of ceramic work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a href="images/dp465_pg389h.png"> +<img src="images/dp465_pg389.png" class="hires" width="275" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 514.</span>—Dakota gentile designations.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 514, gives examples taken from Dakota drawings, which appear +to be pictured totemic marks of gentes or clans. If not in every instance +veritable examples, they illustrate the mode of their representation +as distinct from the mere personal designations mentioned below, +and yet without positive information in each case, it is not possible to +decide on their correct assignment to this section of the present chapter.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Bear-Back. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p>This and the six following figures exhibit respectively the portions +of the bear, viz, the back or chine, the ears, the head, the paw, the +brains, and the nostrils or muzzle, which are probably the subject of +taboo and are the sign of a clan or subclan.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Bear’s-Ears, a Brulé, was killed in an Oglala village by the Crows. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1785-’86.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Bear’s-Ears was killed in a fight with the Rees. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1793-’94.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391">[391]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is another and more graphic delineation of the animal’s ears.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Bear-Head. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Bear-Paw. Red-Cloud’s Census. The paws of the bear are considered +to be a delicacy.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Bear-Brains. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Bear-Nostrils. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> Hump. Red-Cloud’s Census. The hump of the buffalo has been +often praised as a delicious dish.</p> + +<p><i>i.</i> Elk-Head. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p>Fig. 515 represents carved uprights in a house of the Kwakiutl Indians, +British Columbia, taken from a work of Dr. Franz Boas (<i>b</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"> +<a href="images/dp466_pg390h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp466_pg390.jpg" class="hires" width="391" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 515.</span>—Kwakiutl carvings.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The author says that these uprights are always carved according to +the crest of the gens of the house owner, and represent men standing +on the heads of animals. This use of the term “crest” is not heraldically +correct, as literally it would require the men to be standing on +the coverings of their own heads, but the idea is plain, the word being +used for a device similar in nature and significance to the crest in +heraldry, and it was adopted by the ancestors of the Kwakiutl gentes in +relation to certain exploits that they had made. Both human figures +show painting and probably also tattooing on their faces.</p> + +<p>The character on the left hand also shows a design on the breast. +That on the right hand presents a curious artifice of carving by which +the legs and an arm are exhibited while preserving the solidity of the +upright.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SIGNIFICANCE OF TATTOO.</span></h3> + +<p>Tattooing proper is a permanent marking of the skin accomplished +by the introduction of coloring matter under the cutaneous epidermis. +In popular expression and often in literature it includes penetration +of the skin by cuts, gashes, or sometimes burns, without the insertion +of coloring matter, the cicatrix being generally whiter than the sound +skin of the people, most frequently of the dark races, among whom the +practice is found. This form of figuration is distinguished as scarification +and some examples of it are given below. The two varieties of +tattoo may, however, for the purpose of this paper, be considered +together and also in relation to painting the human body, which in its +early use differs from them only in duration.</p> + +<p>Mr. Herbert Spencer (<i>a</i>) considers all forms of tattoo to be originally +tribal marks, and draws from that assumption additional evidence for +his favorite theory of the deification of a dead tribal chief. Miss A. +W. Buckland (<i>a</i>), in her essay on tattooing, follows in the same track, +although recognizing modern deviations from the rule. A valuable +article in the literature of the subject entitled “Tattooing among +civilized people,” by Dr. Robert Fletcher should be consulted. Also <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">A +tatuagem em Portugal</span>, by Rocha Peixoto.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392">[392]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dr. C. N. Starcke (<i>a</i>) lays down the law still more distinctly, thus:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The tattoo-marks make it possible to discover the remote connection between +clans, and this token has such a powerful influence on the mind that there is no +feud between tribes which are tattooed in the same way. * * * Tattooing may +also lead to the formation of a group within the tribe.</p></div> + +<p>Prof. Frederick Starr (<i>a</i>) makes these remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>As a sign of war prowess the gash of the Kaffir warrior may be described. After +an act of bravery the priest cuts a deep gash in the hero’s thigh. This heals blue +and is a prized honor. To realize the value of a tribal mark think for a moment of +the savage man’s relation to the world outside. He is a very Ishmaelite. So long +as he remains on his own tribal territory he is safe; when on the land of another +tribe his life is the legitimate prey of the first man he meets. To men in such social +relations the tribal mark is the only safety at home; without it he would be slain +unrecognized by his own tribesmen. There must have been a time when the old +Hebrews knew all about this matter of tribe marks. By this custom only can we +fully understand the story of Cain (Gen. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, 14, 15), who fears to be sent from his +own territory lest he be slain by the first stranger he meets, but is protected by the +tribal mark of those among whom he is to wander being put upon him. But in +scarring, as in so many other cases, the original idea is often lost and the mark becomes +merely ornamental. This is particularly true among women. Among men +it more frequently retains its tribal significance.</p></div> + +<p>After careful study of the topic, less positive and conclusive authority +is found for this explanation of tattooing than was expected, considering +its general admission.</p> + +<p>The great antiquity of tattooing is shown by reference to it in the +Old Testament, and in Herodotus, Xenophon, Tacitus, Ammianus, and +Herodian. The publications on the topic are so numerous that the +notes now to be presented are by no means exhaustive. They mainly +refer to the Indian tribes of North America with only such comparatively +recent reports from other lands as seem to afford elucidation.</p> + + +<h4>TATTOO IN NORTH AMERICA.</h4> + +<p>G. Holm (<i>b</i>) says of the Greenland Innuit that geometric figures consisting +of streaks and points, are used in tattooing on the breasts, arms, +and legs of the females.</p> + +<p>H. H. Bancroft (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Eskimo females tattoo lines on their chins; the plebeian female of certain +bands has one vertical line in the center and one parallel to it on either side. The +higher classes mark two vertical lines from each corner of the mouth. * * * +Young Kadiak wives tattoo the breast and adorn the face with black lines. The +Kuskoquim women sew into their chin two parallel blue lines.</p></div> + +<p>William H. Gilder (<i>a</i>) reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Esquimau wife has her face tattooed with lampblack and is regarded as a +matron in society. * * * The forehead is decorated with the letter V in double +lines, the angle very acute, passing down between the eyes almost to the bridge of +the nose, and sloping gracefully to the right and left before reaching the roots +of the hair. Each cheek is adorned with an egg-shaped pattern, commencing near +the wing of the nose and sloping upward toward the corner of the eye; these lines +are also double. The most ornamented part, however, is the chin, which receives +a gridiron pattern; the lines double from the edge of the lower lip, and reaching to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393">[393]</a></span> +the throat toward the corners of the mouth, sloping outward to the angle of the +lower jaw. This is all that is required by custom, but some of the belles do not +stop here. * * * None of the men are tattooed.</p></div> + +<p>An early notice of tattooing in the territory now occupied by the +United States, mentioned in Hakluyt (<i>d</i>), is in the visit of the Florida +chief, Satouriona, in 1564, to Réné Laudonnière. His tattooed figure +was drawn by Le Moyne, Tabulæ <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII, IX</span>.</p> + +<p>Capt. John Smith (<i>a</i>) is made to say of the Virginia Indians:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They adorne themselues most with copper beads and paintings. Their women, +some haue their legs, hands, breasts and face cunningly imbrodered with divers +workes, as beasts, serpents, artificially wrought into their flesh with blacke spots.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp469_pg393h.png"> +<img src="images/dp469_pg393.png" class="hires" width="500" height="264" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 516.</span>—Virginian tattoo designs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Thomas Hariot (<i>a</i>), in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIII</span>, here reproduced as Fig. 516, Discoveries +of 1585, discussing “The Marckes of sundrye of the Chief +mene of Virginia,” says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The inhabitats of all the cuntrie for the most parte haue marks rased on their +backs, wherby yt may be knowen what Princes subiects they bee, or of what place +they haue their originall. For which cause we haue set downe those marks in this +figure, and haue annexed the names of the places, that they might more easelye be +discerned. Which industrie hath god indued them withal although they be verye +simple, and rude. And to confesse a truthe I cannot remember, that euer I saw a +better or quietter people than they.</p> + +<p>The marks which I observed amonge them, are heere put downe in order folowinge.</p> + +<p>The marke which is expressed by A. belongeth tho Wingino, the cheefe lorde of +Roanoac.</p> + +<p>That which hath B. is the marke of Wingino his sisters husbande.</p> + +<p>Those which be noted with the letters of C. and D. belonge vnto diverse chefe +lordes in Secotan.</p> + +<p>Those which haue the letters E. F. G. are certaine cheefe men of Pomeiooc, and +Aquascogoc.</p></div> + +<p>Frère Gabriel Sagard (<i>b</i>) says (about 1636) of the Hurons that they +tattooed by scratching with a bone of bird or fish, a black powder being +applied to the bleeding wounds. The operation was not completed at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394">[394]</a></span> +once, but required several renewals. The object was to show bravery +by supporting great pain as well as to terrify enemies.</p> + +<p>In the Jesuit Relation for 1641, p. 75, it is said of the Neuter Nation +that on their bodies from head to foot they marked a thousand diverse +figures with charcoal pricked into the flesh on which beforehand they +have traced lines for them.</p> + +<p>Lemoyne D’Iberville, in 1649, Margry (<i>b</i>), remarked among the Bayogoulas +that some of the young women had their faces and breasts +pricked and marked with black.</p> + +<p>In the Jesuit Relation for 1663, p. 28, there is an account that the head +chief of the Iroquois, called by the French Nero, had killed sixty enemies +with his own hand, the marks of which he bears printed on his thigh, +which, therefore, appears covered over with black characters.</p> + +<p>Joutel, in Margry (<i>c</i>), speaks of tattooing among the Texas Indians +in 1687. Some women make a streak from the top of the forehead to +chin, some make a triangle at the corners of their eyes, others on the +breast and shoulders, others prick the lips. The marks are indelible.</p> + +<p>Bacqueville de la Potherie (<i>b</i>) says of the Iroquois:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They paint several colors on the face, as black, white, yellow, blue, and vermillion. +Men paint snakes from the forehead to the nose, but they prick the greater part of +the body with a needle to draw blood. Bruised gunpowder makes the first coat to +receive the other colors, of which they make such figures as they desire and they are +never effaced.</p></div> + +<p>M. Bossu (<i>a</i>) says of tatooing among the Osages in 1756:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is a kind of knighthood to which they are only entitled by great actions; they +suffer with pleasure in order to pass for men of courage.</p> + +<p>If one of them should get himself marked without having previously distinguished +himself in battle he would be degraded, and looked upon as a coward, unworthy of +an honor. * * *</p> + +<p>I saw an Indian, who, though he had never signalized himself in defense of the +nation, got a mark made on his body in order to deceive those who only judged from +appearance. The council agreed that, to obviate such an abuse, which would confound +brave men with cowards, he who had wrongfully adorned himself with the +figure of a club on his skin, without ever having struck a blow at war, should have +the mark torn off; that is, the place should be flayed, and that the same should be +done to all who would offend in the same case.</p> + +<p>The Indian women are allowed to make marks all over their body, without any +bad consequences; they endure it firmly, like the men, in order to please them, and +to appear handsomer to them.</p></div> + +<p>James Adair (<i>a</i>) says of the Chikasas in 1720:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They readily know achievements in war by the blue marks over their breasts and +arms, they being as legible as our alphabetical characters are to us. Their ink is +made of the root of pitch pine, which sticks to the inside of a greased earthen pot; +then delineating the parts, they break through the skin with gairfish teeth, and rub +over them that dark composition, to register them among the brave, and the impression +is lasting. I have been told by the Chikasah that they formerly erased any +false marks their warriors proudly and privately gave themselves, in order to engage +them to give real proofs of their martial virtue, being surrounded by the French and +their red allies; and that they degraded them in a public manner, by stretching the +marked parts, and rubbing them with the juice of green corn, which in a great +degree took out the impression.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395">[395]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sir Alex. Mackenzie (<i>b</i>) tells that the Slave and Dog Rib Indians of +the Athabaskan stock practiced tatooing. The men had two double +lines, either black or blue, tattooed upon each cheek from the ear to the +nose.</p> + +<p>In James’s Long (<i>c</i>) it is reported <span class="lock">that—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Omahas are often neatly tattooed in straight lines, and in angles on the breast, +neck, and arms. The daughters of chiefs and those of wealthy Indians generally are +denoted by a small round spot tattooed on the forehead. The process of tattooing +is performed by persons who make it a business of profit.</p></div> + +<p>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In order that the ghost may travel the ghost-road in safety it is necessary for each +Dakota, during his life, to be tattooed either in the middle of the forehead or on the +wrists. In that event his spirit will go directly to the “Many Lodges.”</p></div> + +<p>The female Midē' of the Ojibwa frequently tattoo the temples, forehead, +or cheeks of sufferers from headache or toothache, which varieties +of pain are believed to be caused by some malevolent manido or spirit. +By this operation such demons are expelled, the ceremony being also +accompanied by songs and gesticulations of exorcism. Relief is sometimes +actually obtained through the counterirritant action of the tattooing, +which is effected by using a small bunch of needles, though +formerly several spicules of bone were tied together or used singly.</p> + +<p>One old Ojibwa woman who was observed in 1887 had a round spot +over each temple, made there to cure headache. The spots were of a +bluish-black color, and about five-eighths of an inch in diameter. Another +had a similar spot upon the nasal eminence, and a line of small +dots running from the nostrils, horizontally outward over either cheek, +two-thirds of the distance to the ears.</p> + +<p>The men of the Wichita wore tattoo lines from the lips downward, +and it is a significant fact that their tribal sign means “tattooed people,” +the same expression being used to designate them in the language +of several neighboring tribes. This would imply that tattooing was +not common in that region. The Kaiowa women, however, frequently +had small circles tattooed on their foreheads, and the Sixtown Choctaws +still are distinguished by perpendicular lines tatooed on the chin.</p> + +<p>Mr. John Murdoch (<i>b</i>) reports of the Eskimo:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The custom of tattooing is almost universal among the women, but the marks are +confined almost exclusively to the chin, and form a very simple pattern. This consists +of one, three, five, or perhaps as many as seven vertical lines from the under +lip to the tip of the chin, slightly radiating when there are more than one. When +there is a single line, which is rather rare, it is generally broad, and the middle line +is sometimes broader than the others. The women, as a rule, are not tattooed until +they reach a marriageable age, though there were a few little girls in the two +villages who had a single line on the chin. I remember seeing but one married +woman in either village who was not tattooed, and she had come from a distant +settlement, from Point Hope, as well as we could understand.</p> + +<p>Tattooing on a man is a mark of distinction. Those men who are, or have been, +captains of whaling umiaks that have taken whales have marks to indicate this tattooed +somewhere on their persons, sometimes forming a definite tally. For instance, +An̄oru had a broad band across each cheek from the corners of the mouth, made up<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396">[396]</a></span> +of many indistinct lines, which was said to indicate “many whales.” Amaiyuna +had the “flukes” of seven whales in a line across his chest, and Mû'n̄ialu had a +couple of small marks on one forearm. Niăksára, the wife of An̄oru, also had a little +mark tattooed in each corner of her mouth, which she said were “whale marks,” +indicating that she was the wife of a successful whaleman. Such marks, according +to Petitot (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monographie</span>, etc., p. 15), are a part of the usual pattern in the Mackenzie +district—“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">deux traits aux commissures de la bouche</span>.” One or two men at Nuwŭk +had each a narrow line across the face over the bridge of the nose, which were probably +also “whale marks,” though we never could get a definite answer concerning +them.</p> + +<p>The tattooing is done with a needle and thread, smeared with soot or gunpowder, +giving a peculiar pitted appearance to the lines. It is rather a painful operation, +producing considerable inflammation and swelling, which lasts several days. The +practice of tattooing the women is almost universal among the Eskimo from Greenland +to Kadiak, including the Eskimo of Siberia, the only exception being the +natives of Smith sound, though the custom is falling into disuse among the Eskimo +who have much intercourse with the whites.</p> + +<p>The simple pattern of straight, slightly diverging lines on the chin seems to prevail +from the Mackenzie district to Kadiak, and similar chin lines appear always to form +part of the more elaborate patterns, sometimes extending to the arms and other +parts of the body, in fashion among the eastern Eskimo and those of Siberia, St. +Lawrence island, and the Diomedes.</p></div> + +<h5>TATTOO ON THE PACIFIC COAST.</h5> + +<p>During the summer of 1884 Dr. Hoffman met, at Port Townsend, +Washington, a party of Haida Indians from Queen Charlottes island, +who were encamped there for a short time. Most of them were tattooed +after the manner of the Haidas, the breast, back, forearm, and legs +bearing partial or complete designs of animate forms relating to totems +or myths. Some of the persons had been tattooed only in part, the figures +upon the forearms, for instance, being incomplete, because the +operation at a previous “potlatch” or festival had to be suspended on +account of the great length of time required, or on account of an extra +inflammatory condition of the affected parts.</p> + +<p>Among this party of Haidas was Makdē'gos, the tattooer of the tribe, +whose work is truly remarkable. The designs made by him are symmetrical, +while the lines are uniform in width and regular and graceful +in every respect. In persons tattooed upon the breast or back the part +operated upon is first divided into halves by an imaginary vertical line +upon the breast through the middle of the sternum and upon the back +along the middle of the vertebral column. Such designs are drawn +double, facing outward from this imaginary line. One side is first +drawn and completed, while the other is merely a reverse transfer, +made immediately afterwards or at such future time as the operation +of tattooing may be renewed.</p> + +<p>The colors are black and red, the former consisting of finely powdered +charcoal, gunpowder, or India ink, while the latter is Chinese vermilion. +The operation was formerly performed with sharp thorns, spines +of certain fishes, or spicules of bone; but recently a small bunch of +needles is used, which serves the purpose to better effect.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397">[397]</a></span></p> + +<p>As is well known, the black pigments, when picked into the human +skin, become rather bluish, which tint, when beneath the yellowish tinge +of the Indian’s cuticle, appears of an olive or sometimes a greenish-blue +shade. The colors, immediately after being tattooed upon the skin, +retain more or less of the blue-black shade; but by absorption of the +pigment and the persistence of the coloring matter of the pigmentary +membrane the greenish tint soon appears, becoming gradually less conspicuous +as time progresses, so that in some of the oldest tattooed +Indians the designs are greatly weakened in coloration.</p> + +<p>Upon the bodies of some persons examined the results of ulceration +are conspicuous. This destruction of tissue is the result of inflammation +caused by the tattooing and the introduction under the skin of so +great a quantity of irritating foreign matter that, instead of designs in +color, there are distinct, sharply defined figures in white or nearly white +cicatrices, the pigmentary membrane having been totally destroyed by +the ulceration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398">[398]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;"> +<a href="images/dp473_pg397h.png"> +<img src="images/dp473_pg397.png" class="hires" width="345" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 517.</span>—Haida tattoo, sculpin and dragon fly.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The figures represented upon the several Indians met with, as above-mentioned, +were not all of totemic signification, one arm, for instance, +bearing the figure of the totem of which the person is a member, while +the other arm presents the outline of a mythic being, as shown in Fig. +517, copied from the arms of a woman. The left device is taken +from the left forearm, and represents kul, the skulpin, a totemic animal, +whereas the right hand device, taken from the right arm of the same +subject, represents mamathlóna, the dragon fly, a mythic insect.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"> +<a href="images/dp474_pg398h.png"> +<img src="images/dp474_pg398.png" class="hires" width="387" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 518.</span>—Haida tattoo, thunder-bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Fig. 518 two forms of the thunderbird are presented, copied from +the right and left forearms and hands, respectively, of a Haida woman. +The right hand device is complete, but that on the left, copied from the +opposite forearm and hand, is incomplete, and it was expected that the +design would be entirely finished at the “potlatch” which was to be +held in the autumn of 1884. In the completed design the transverse curve +in the body of the tail was red, as also the three diagonal lines upon the +body of the bird running outward from the central vertical toward the +radial side of the hand. The brace-shaped lines within the head ornament +had also been tattooed in red.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399">[399]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 207px;"> +<a href="images/dp475_pg399ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp475_pg399a.png" class="hires" width="207" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 519.</span>—Haida tattoo, thunder-bird and tshimō's.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In some instances the totem and mythic character are shown upon +the same member, as is represented in Fig. 519. This tattooing was copied +from the left arm of a woman, the complete figure upon the forearm +and hand being that of a thunder bird, while the four heads upon the +fingers represent that of the tshimō's, a mythic animal. The thunder-bird +had been tattooed upon the arms a number of years before the +heads were added, probably because the protracted and painful operation +of tattooing so large a figure deterred the sufferer from further +sitting. Sometimes, however, such, postponement or noncompletion of +an operation is the result of inability on the part of the subject to defray +the expense.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 212px;"> +<a href="images/dp475_pg399bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp475_pg399b.png" class="hires" width="212" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 520.</span>—Haida tattoo, bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Another instance of the interrupted condition of tattooed designs is +presented in Fig. 520. The figure upon the forearm and hand is that +of the bear totem, and was made first. At a subsequent festival the +bear heads were tattooed upon the fingers, and, last of all, the body +was tattoed upon the middle finger, leaving three yet to be completed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400">[400]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"> +<a href="images/dp476_pg400ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp476_pg400a.png" class="hires" width="220" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 521.</span>—Haida tattoo, mountain goat.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 521 shows tattoo designs upon the leg. These represent mēt, the +mountain goat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;"> +<a href="images/dp479_pg401ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp479_pg401a.png" class="hires" width="338" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 522.</span>—Haida tattoo, double thunder-bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It is seldom that double designs occur on the extremities, such being +reserved for the breast and back, but an instance was noted, represented +in Fig. 522, which is a representation of hélinga, the thunder-bird, +and was on the left arm of a man.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp479_pg401bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp479_pg401b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="384" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 523.</span>—Haida tattoo, double raven.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>One of the most conspicuous examples of the art observed among the +party of traveling Haidas mentioned, was that of a double raven tattooed +upon the breast of Makdē'gos, copied here as Fig. 523.</p> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/dp476_pg400bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp476_pg400b.png" class="hires" width="260" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 524.</span>—Haida tattoo, dogfish.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Upon the back of this Indian is also the figure of kahátta, the dog-fish, +Fig. 524. In addition to these marks he bears also upon his extremities +totemic and mythic animals.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp478_pg401ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp478_pg401p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="380" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIV<br />HAIDA DOUBLE THUNDERBIRD.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Sometimes the simple outline designs employed in tattooing are +painted upon property belonging to various persons, such as boats, +housefronts, etc. In such instances colors are employed that could +not be used in tattooing. One fine example of such is presented in Pl. +<span class="smcap lowercase">XXIV</span> and another of more elaborate design in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXV</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401">[401]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402">[402]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp482_pg403ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp482_pg403p.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="341" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXV<br />HAIDA DOG-FISH.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. James G. Swan made a valuable contribution on tattoo marks +of the Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte islands, British Columbia, +and the Prince of Wales archipelago, Alaska, published in the Fourth +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, which, much condensed, is +reproduced as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among all the tribes or bands belonging to the Haida family, the practice of tattooing +the person in some manner is common; but the most marked are the Haidas +proper, or those living on Queen Charlotte islands, and the Kaiganis, of Prince of +Wales archipelago, Alaska.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403">[403]</a></span></p> + +<p>I am of the opinion, judging from my own observation of over twenty years +among the coast tribes, that but few females can be found among the Indians, not +only on Vancouvers island, but all along the coast to the Columbia river, and perhaps +even to California, that are <i>not</i> marked with some device tattooed on their +hands, arms, or ankles, either dots or straight lines; but of all of the tribes mentioned, +the Haidas stand preeminent for tattooing, and seem to be excelled only by +the natives of the Fiji islands or the King’s Mills group in the south seas. The +tattoo marks of the Haidas are heraldic designs or the family totem, or crests of the +wearers, and are similar to the carvings depicted on the pillars and monuments +around the homes of the chiefs, which casual observers have thought were idols.</p> + +<p>These designs are invariably placed on the men between the shoulders just below +the back of the neck, on the breast, on the front part of both thighs, and on the +legs below the knee. On the women they are marked on the breast, on both shoulders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404">[404]</a></span> +on both forearms, from the elbow down over the back of the hands to the +knuckles, and on both legs below the knee to the ankle.</p> + +<p>Almost all of the Indian women of the northwest coast have tattoo marks on their +hands and arms, and some on the face; but as a general thing these marks are mere +dots or straight lines having no particular significance. With the Haidas, however, +every mark has its meaning; those on the hands and arms of the women indicate +the family name, whether they belong to the bear, beaver, wolf, or eagle totems, or +any of the family of fishes. As one of them quaintly remarked to me, “If you were +tattooed with the design of a swan, the Indians would know your family name.”</p> + +<p>In order to illustrate this tattooing as correctly as possible I inclose herewith +sketches of the tattoo marks on two women and their husbands, taken by me at Port +Townsend.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;"> +<a href="images/dp480_pg402h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp480_pg402.jpg" class="hires" width="338" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 525.</span>—Tattooed Haidas.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The man on the left hand of Fig. 525 is a tattooed Haida. On his +breast is the cod (kahátta), split from the head to the tail and laid open; +on each thigh is the octopus (noo), and below each knee is the frog +(flkamkostan).</p> + +<p>The woman in the same figure has on her breast the head and forepaws +of the beaver (tsching); on each shoulder is the head of the eagle +or thunder-bird (skamskwin); on each arm, extending to and covering +the back of the hand, is the halibut (hargo); on the right leg is the +skulpin (kull); on the left leg is the frog (flkamkostan).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 412px;"> +<a href="images/dp483_pg403h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp483_pg403.jpg" class="hires" width="412" height="500" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 526.</span>—Tattooed Haidas.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The woman in Fig. 526 has a bear’s head (hoorts) on her breast. On +each shoulder is the eagle’s head, and on her arms and legs are figures +of the bear.</p> + +<p>The back of the man in the same figure has the wolf (wasko), split in +halves and tattooed between his shoulders, which is shown enlarged in +Fig. 531. Wasko is a mythological being of the wolf species, similar +to the chu-chu-hmexl of the Makah Indians, an antediluvian demon supposed +to live in the mountains.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405">[405]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp484_pg404h.png"> +<img src="images/dp484_pg404.png" class="hires" width="500" height="312" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 527.</span>—Two forms of skulpin, Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 406px;"> +<img src="images/dp485_pg405a.png" width="406" height="412" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 528.</span>—Frog, Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"> +<img src="images/dp485_pg405b.png" width="436" height="384" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 529.</span>—Cod, Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"> +<img src="images/dp485_pg405c.png" width="355" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 530.</span>—Squid, Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp485_pg405d.png" width="500" height="367" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 531.</span>—Wolf, Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The skulpin, on the right leg of the woman in Fig. 525, is shown +enlarged in Fig. 527; the frog on the left leg in Fig. 528. The codfish +on the man in Fig. 525 is shown enlarged in Fig. 529; the octopus or +squid in Fig. 530.</p> + +<p>As the Haidas, both men and women, are very light-colored, some of +the latter—full blooded Indians, too—having their skins as fair as +Europeans, the tattoo marks show very distinct.</p> + +<p>The same author continues:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This tattooing is not all done at one time, nor is it everyone who can tattoo. Certain +ones, almost always men, have a natural gift which enables them to excel in +this kind of work. One of the young chiefs, named Geneskelos, was the best designer +I knew, and ranked among his tribe as a tattooer.</p> + +<p>He told me the plan he adopted was first to draw the design carefully on the person +with some dark pigment, then prick it in with needles, and then rub over the +wound with some more coloring matter till it acquired the proper hue. He had a +variety of instruments composed of needles tied neatly to sticks. His favorite one +was a flat strip of ivory or bone, to which he had firmly tied five or six needles, with +their points projecting beyond the end just far enough to raise the skin without +inflicting a dangerous wound, but these needle points stuck out quite sufficiently to +make the operation very painful, and although he applied some substance to deaden +the sensation of the skin, yet the effect was on some to make them quite sick for a few +days; consequently, the whole process of tattooing was not done at one time. As +this tattooing is a mark of honor, it is generally done at or just prior to a Tomanawos +performance and at the time of raising the heraldic columns in front of the chief’s +houses. The tattooing is done in open lodge and is witnessed by the company assembled. +Sometimes it takes several years before all the tattooing is done, but when +completed and the person well ornamented, then they are happy and can take their +seats among the elders.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406">[406]</a></span></p> + +<p>Other notices about the tattooing of the Indians of the Pacific slope +of North America are subjoined.</p> + +<p>Stephen Powers (<i>c</i>) says the Karok (California) squaws tattoo in blue +three narrow fern leaves perpendicularly on the chin, one falling from +each corner of the mouth and one in the middle.</p> + +<p>The same author reports, page 76:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Nearly every (Hupâ, California) man has ten lines tattooed across the inside of the +left arm about halfway between the wrist and the elbow; and in measuring shell +money he takes the string in his right hand, draws one end over his left thumb nail, +and if the other end reaches to the uppermost of the tattoo lines the five shells are +worth $25 in gold, or $5 a shell. Of course, it is only one in ten thousand that is long +enough to reach this high value.</p></div> + +<p>Also on page 96:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Pátawāt (California) squaws tattoo in blue three narrow pinnate leaves perpendicularly +on their chins, and also lines of small dots on the backs of their hands.</p></div> + +<p>On page 148, of the Kástel Pomo:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The women of this and other tribes of the Coast range frequently tattoo a rude +representation of a tree or other object covering nearly the whole abdomen and +breast.</p></div> + +<p>Of the Wintūns he says, page 233: “The squaws all tattoo three narrow +lines, one falling from each corner of the mouth and one between.”</p> + +<p>The same author says, on page 109:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Mattoal, of California, differ from other tribes in that the men tattoo. Their +distinctive mark is a round blue spot in the center of the forehead. The women +tattoo pretty much all over their faces.</p> + +<p>In respect to this matter of tattooing there is a theory entertained by some old +pioneers which may be worth the mention. They hold that the reason why the +women alone tattoo in all other tribes is that in case they are taken captives their +own people may be able to recognize them when there comes an opportunity of ransom. +There are two facts which give some color of probability to this reasoning. +One is that the California Indians are rent into such infinitesimal divisions, any +one of which may be arrayed in deadly feud against another at any moment, that the +slight differences in their dialects would not suffice to distinguish the captive squaws. +The second is that the squaws almost never attempt any ornamental tattooing, but +adhere closely to the plain regulation mark of the tribe.</p></div> + +<p>Blue marks tattooed upon a Mohave woman’s chin denote that she +is married. See Whipple (<i>f</i>).</p> + +<p>Mr. Gatschet reports that very few Klamath men now tattoo their +faces, but such as are still observed have but a single line of black running +from the middle of the lower lip to the chin. Half-breed girls +appear to have but one perpendicular line tattooed down over the chin +while the full-blood women have four perpendicular lines on the chin.</p> + +<p>In Bancroft’s Native Races (<i>c</i>), it is stated that the Modoc women +tattoo three blue lines, extending perpendicularly from the center and +corners of the lower lip to the chin.</p> + +<p>The same author on pages 117 and 127 of the same volume says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Chippewas have tattooed cheeks and foreheads. Both sexes have blue or +black bars or from one to four straight lines to distinguish the tribe to which they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407">[407]</a></span> +belong. They tattoo by entering an awl or needle under the skin and drawing it +out, immediately rubbing powdered charcoal into the wounds. * * * On the +Yukon river among the Kutchins, the men draw a black stripe down the forehead +and the nose, frequently crossing the forehead and cheeks with red lines and streaking +the chin alternately with red and black, and the women tattoo the chin with a +black pigment.</p></div> + +<p>Stephen Powers, in Overland Monthly, <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span>, 537, 1874, says of the +Normocs:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I saw a squaw who had executed on her cheeks the only representation of a living +object which I ever saw done in tattooing. It was a couple of bird’s wings, one on +each cheek, done in blue, bottom-edge up, the butt of the wing at the corner of the +mouth, and the tip near the ear. It was quite well wrought, both in correctness of +form and in delicateness of execution, not only separate feathers but even the filaments +of the vane, being finely pricked in.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Franz Boas (<i>c</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattooings are found on arms, breast, back, legs, and feet among the Haida; on +arms and feet among the Tshimshian, Kwakiutl and Bilqula; on breast and arms +among the Nootka; on the jaw among the Coast Salish women.</p> + +<p>Among the Nootka scars may frequently be seen running at regular intervals from +the shoulder down the breast to the belly, and in the same way down the legs and +arms. * * *</p> + +<p>Members of tribes practicing the Hamats'a ceremonies show remarkable scars produced +by biting. At certain festivals it is the duty of the Hamats'a to bite a piece +of flesh out of the arms, leg, or breast of a man.</p></div> + + +<h4>TATTOO IN SOUTH AMERICA.</h4> + +<p>Dr. im Thurn (<i>c</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattooing or any other permanent interference with the surface of the skin by +way of ornament is practiced only to a very limited extent by the Indians; is used, +in fact, only to produce the small distinctive tribal mark which many of them +bear at the corners of their mouths or on their arms. It is true that an adult Indian +is hardly to be found on whose thighs and arms, or on other parts of whose body +are not a greater or less number of indelibly incised straight lines; but these are scars +originally made for surgical, not ornamental purposes.</p></div> + +<p>Herndon and Gibbon (<i>a</i>), p. 319, report:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Following the example of the other nations of Brazil (who tattoo themselves with +thorns, or pierce their nose, the lips, and the ears,) and obeying an ancient law +which commands these different tortures, this baptism of blood, * * * the +Mahués have preserved * * * the great festival of the Tocandeira.</p></div> + +<p>Paul Marcoy (<i>b</i>) says of the Passés, Yuris, Barrés, and Chumanas, +of Brazil, that they mark their faces (in tattoo) with the totem, or emblem +of the nation to which they belong. It is possible at a few steps +distant to distinguish one nation from another.</p> + + +<h4>EXTRA-LIMITAL TATTOO.</h4> + +<p>Ancient monarchs adopted special marks to distinguish slaves; likewise +for vengeance as an indelible and humiliating brand, a certain +tattoo denounced him who had fallen into disgrace with a sovereign. +Two monks having censured the iconoclastic frenzy of the emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408">[408]</a></span> +Theophilus, he ordered to be imprinted on their foreheads eleven iambic +verses; Philip of Macedon, from whom a soldier had solicited the +possession of a man saved by him from shipwreck, ordered that on +his forehead should be drawn signs indicative of his base greed; Caligula, +without any object, commanded the tattooing of the Roman +nobles.</p> + +<p>In the period of the decline of Rome, tattooing was extensively practiced. +Regulative laws prescribed the adopted symbols which were a +proof of enlistment in the ranks and on which the military oath was +taken. The purpose of this ordinance, which continued in force for a +long time, was similar to that which authorized the marking of the +slaves, since, the spirit of the people having become degenerated, the +army was composed of mercenaries who, if they should run away, must +be recognized, pursued, and captured. Until recently the practice, +though more as a mark of manhood, was followed by the soldiers of +the Piedmontese army.</p> + +<p>Élisée Reclus (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattooing was in Polynesia widespread, and so highly developed that the artistic +designs covering the body served also to clothe it. In certain islands the operation +lasted so long that it had to be begun before the children were six years old, and +the pattern was largely left to the skill and cunning of the professional tattooers. +Still traditional motives recurred in the ornamental devices of the several tribes, +who could usually be recognized by their special tracings, curved or parallel lines, +diamond forms and the like. The artists were grouped in schools like the old masters +in Europe, and they worked not by incision as in most Melanesian islands, but by +punctures with a small comb-like instrument slightly tapped with a mallet. The +pigment used in the painful and even dangerous operation was usually the fine charcoal +yielded by the nut of Aleurites triloba, an oleaginous plant used for illuminating +purposes throughout eastern Polynesia.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409">[409]</a></span></p> + +<p>The following is from Rev. Richard Taylor (<i>c</i>) about the New Zealanders, +Te Ika a Maui:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Before they went to fight, the youth were accustomed to mark their countenances +with charcoal in different lines, and their traditions state that this was the beginning +of the tattoo, for their wars became so continuous, that to save the trouble of thus +constantly painting the face, they made the lines permanent by the moko; it is, however, +a question whether it did not arise from a different cause; formerly the grand +mass of men who went to fight were the black slaves, and when they fought side by +side with their lighter colored masters, the latter on those occasions used charcoal to +make it appear they were all one.</p> + +<p>Whilst the males had every part of the face tattooed, and the thighs as well, the +females had chiefly the chin and the lips, although occasionally they also had their +thighs and breasts, with a few smaller marks on different parts of the body as well. +There were regular rules for tattooing, and the artist always went systematically to +work, beginning at one spot and gradually proceeding to another, each particular +part having its distinguishing name.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp488_pg408h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp488_pg408.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="302" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 532.</span>—Australian grave and carved trees.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 532 is an illustration from the same work, facing page 378. It +shows the “grave of an Australian native, with his name, rank, tribe, +etc., cut in hieroglyphics on the trees,” which “hieroglyphics” are supposed +to be connected with his tattoo marks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp489_pg409ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp489_pg409a.jpg" class="hires" width="500" height="376" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 533.</span>—New Zealand tattooed head and chin mark.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 533 is a copy of a tattooed head carved by Hongi, and also of +the tattooing on a woman’s chin, taken from the work last cited.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/dp489_pg409bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp489_pg409b.png" class="hires" width="500" height="58" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 534.</span>—Tattoo design on bone, New Zealand.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The accompanying illustration, Fig. 534, is taken from a bone obtained +from a mound in New Zealand, by Prof. I. C. Russell, formerly +of the U. S. Geological Survey. He says that the Maori formerly +tattooed the bones of enemies, though the custom now seems to have +been abandoned. The work consists of sharp, shallow lines, as if made<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410">[410]</a></span> +with a sharp-pointed steel instrument, into which some blackish pigment +has been rubbed, filling up some of the markings, while in others +scarcely a trace remains.</p> + +<p>In connection with the use of the tattoo marks as reproduced on artificial +objects see Fig. <a href="#page525">734</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 342px;"> +<a href="images/dp490_pg410h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp490_pg410.jpg" class="hires" width="342" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 535.</span>—Tattooed woman, New Zealand.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 535 is a copy of a photograph obtained in New Zealand by Prof. +Russell. It shows tattooing upon the chin.</p> + +<p>Prof. Russell, in his sketch of New Zealand, published in the Am. +Naturalist, <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, 72, Feb., 1879, remarks, that the desire of the Maori +for ornament is so great that they covered their features with tattooing, +transferring indelibly to their faces complicated patterns of curved and +spiral lines, similar to the designs with which they decorated their +canoes and their houses.</p> + +<p>E. J. Wakefield (<i>a</i>) reports of a man observed in New Zealand that +he was a tangata tabu or sacred personage, and consequently was not +adorned with tatu. He adds, p. 155, that the deeds of the natives are +signed with elaborate drawings of the moko or tatu on the chiefs’ faces.</p> + +<p>Dr. George Turner (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Herodotus found among the Thracians that the man who was not tattooed was not +respected. It was the same in Samoa. Until a young man was tattooed he was considered +in his minority. He could not think of marriage, and he was constantly +exposed to taunts and ridicule, as being poor and of low birth, and as having no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411">[411]</a></span> +right to speak in the society of men. But as soon as he was tattooed he passed into +his majority, and considered himself entitled to the respect and privileges of mature +years. When a youth, therefore, reached the age of 16, he and his friends were +all anxiety that he should be tattooed. He was then on the outlook for the tattooing +of some young chief with whom he might unite. On these occasions six or a +dozen young men would be tattooed at one time, and for these there might be four +or five tattooers employed. Tattooing is still kept up to some extent and is a +regular profession, just as house-building, and well paid. The custom is traced to +mythologic times and has its presiding deities.</p></div> + +<p>In <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Révue d’Ethnographie</span> (<i>a</i>) (translated) it is published <span class="lock">that—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattoo marks of Papuan men in New Guinea can be worn on the chest only when +the man has killed an enemy. Fig. 26, p. 101, shows the marks upon the chest of +Waara, who had killed five men.</p> + +<p>Tattoo marks upon parts other than the chest of the bodies of men and women do +not seem to have significance. They are made according to the fancy of the designer. +Frequently the professional tattooers have styles of their own, which, being popular +and generally applied, become customary to a tribe.</p></div> + +<p>The illustration above mentioned is reproduced as Fig. 536.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp491_pg411.jpg" width="550" height="390" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 536.</span>—Tattoo on Papuan chief.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the same article, p. 112, is the following, referring to Fig. 537:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/dp492_pg412h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp492_pg412.jpg" class="hires" width="186" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 537.</span>—Tattooed Papuan +woman.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Papuans of New Guinea tattooing the chest of females denotes that +they are married, though all other parts of the body, including the face and legs, +may be tattooed long before; indeed the tattooing of girls may begin at 5 years of +age. Fig. 39, p. 112, gives an illustration of a married woman. * * * The different +forms of tattoo depend upon the style of the several artists. Family marks +are not recognizable, but exist.</p></div> + +<p>De Clercq (<i>a</i>) gives further particulars about tattooing among the +Papuans of New Guinea. Among the Sègèt it is only on women. +They call it “fadjan,” and the figures consist of two rows of little circles, +on each side of the abdomen toward the region of the arm-pit, with +a few cross strokes on the outer edge; it is done by pricking with a +needle and afterwards the spots are fumigated with the smoke of burning +resin. It is said to be intended as an ornament instead of dress, +and that young girls do it because young men like to see it.</p> + +<p>At Roembati tattooing is called “gomanroeri” and at Sĕkar “béti.” +They do it there with bones of fish, with which they prick many holes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412">[412]</a></span> +in the skin until the blood flows, and then smear on it in spots the soot +from pans and pots, which, after the staunching of the blood, leaves an +ineffaceable bluish spot or streak. Besides the breast and upper arm +they also tattoo in the same way the calf of the leg, and in some cases +the forehead, as a mere ornamentation, both of men and women—children +only in very exceptional cases.</p> + +<p>The Bonggose and Sirito are much tattooed over the breast and +shoulder. At Saoekorèm, a Doré settlement, a few women were seen +tattooed on the breast and in the face. At Doré it is called “pa,” and +is done with thorns, and charcoal is rubbed +over the bloody spots; only here and at Mansinam is +it a sign of mourning; everywhere else +it merely serves as ornamentation.</p> + +<p>At Ansoes it does not occur much, and is +principally in the face; it is there called “toi.” +It is found somewhat more commonly on Noord-Japèn, +and then on shoulder and upper arm. +In Tarfia, Tana-mérah, and Humboldt bay but +few persons were tattooed, mostly on the forehead.</p> + +<p>The tattooing is always the work of women, +generally members of the family, both on men +and on women. First the figure is drawn with +charcoal, and if it suits the taste then begins +the pricking with the thorn of a citrus or a fine +bone of some animal. It is very painful and +only a small spot can be pricked at one time, +so long as the tattooee can stand it. If the +pain is too violent, the wounds are gently pressed +with a certain leaf that has been warmed, in +order to soothe the pain, and the work is continued +only after three or four days. No special +names are given to the figures; those are chosen +which suit the taste. Children are never tattooed +at the wish of the parents; it is entirely +a matter of individual choice.</p> + +<p>Mr. Forbes, in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. G. B. +and I., August, 1883, p. 10, says that in Timor Laut, an island of the +Malay <span class="lock">archipelago—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Both sexes tattoo a few simple devices, circles, stars, and pointed crosses, on the +breast, on the brow, on the cheek, and on the wrists, and scar themselves on the +arms and shoulders with red-hot stones, in imitation of immense smallpox marks, +in order to ward off that disease. * * * I have, however, seen no one variola-marked, +nor can I learn of any epidemic of this disease among them.</p></div> + +<p>Prof. Brauns, of Halle, reports, Science, <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, No. 50, p. 69, that among +the Ainos of Yazo the women tattoo their chins to imitate the beards +of the men.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413">[413]</a></span></p> + +<p>Carl Bock (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>All the married women here are tattooed on the hands and feet and sometimes on +the thighs. The decoration is one of the privileges of matrimony and is not permitted +to unmarried girls.</p></div> + +<p>In Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, London, 1876, p. 94, it is +said that in Mangaia, of the Hervey group, the tattoo is in imitation of +the stripes on the two kinds of fish, avini and paoro, the color of which +is blue. The legend of this is kept in the song of Iná.</p> + +<p>Elisée Reclus (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Most of the Dayaks tattoo the arms, hands, feet, and thighs; occasionally also +breast and temples. The designs, generally of a beautiful blue color on the coppery +ground of the body, display great taste, and are nearly always disposed in odd numbers, +which, as among so many other peoples, are supposed to be lucky.</p></div> + +<p>In L’Anthropologie (<i>a</i>), 1890, T. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, No. 6, p. 693, it is thus reported:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tradition tells that the Giao chi, the alleged ancestors of the Annamites, were +fishermen and in danger from marine monsters. To prevent disasters from the genii +of the waters the king directed the people to tattoo their bodies with the forms of +the marine monsters, and afterwards the dragons, crocodiles, etc., ceased their persecution. +The custom became universal, and even the kings tattooed a dragon on +their thighs as a sign of power and nobility. The same idea was in the painting of +eyes, etc., on the prows of Annamite boats, which strongly resembled the sea monsters.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. O’Reilly, the professional tattooer of New York, in a letter, says +that he is familiar with the tattoo system of Burmah, and that, besides +the ruling principle of ordeal, the Burmese use special tattoo marks to +charm and to bring love. They also believe that tattooing the whole +person renders the skin impenetrable to weapons.</p> + +<p>In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span> (<i>a</i>) it is recounted of the Badagas in +the Nilgiri mountains, India:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>All the women are tattooed on the forehead. The following [Fig. 538] <i>a</i> is the +most usual form:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 116px;"> +<img src="images/dp493_pg413a.png" width="116" height="95" alt="" /> + +</div> + +<p>Besides this there occur the following (same Fig., <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>e</i>):</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 535px;"> +<img src="images/dp493_pg413b.png" width="535" height="85" alt="" /> + +</div> + +<p>Besides the forehead, the tattooing of which is obligatory for women, other parts +of the body are often tattooed thus (same Fig., <i>f</i>)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 548px;"> +<img src="images/dp493_pg413c.png" width="548" height="99" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 538.</span>—Badaga tattoo marks.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>on each shoulder. Other forms not infrequently found are variously grouped dots, +also those shown in the same Fig., <i>g</i>, on the forearm and the back of the hand.</p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414">[414]</a></span></p> + +<p>Nordenskiöld (<i>a</i>) gives the following account of tattooing among +the Chukchis of Siberia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is principally the women that tattoo. The operation is performed by means of +pins and soot; perhaps also graphite is employed, which the Chukchis gather. The +tattooing of the women seems to be the same along the whole Chukchi coast from Cape +Shelagskoy to Bering strait. The usual mode of tattooing is found represented in +Nordenskiöld’s “Voyage of the Vega around Asia and Europe,” second part, p. 104. +Still the tattooing on the cheek is not rarely more compound than is there shown. +The picture given below [Fig. 539] represents a design of tattooing on the cheek.</p> + +<p>Girls under nine or ten years are never tattooed. On reaching that age they +gradually receive the two streaks running from the point of the nose to the root of +the hair; next follow the vertical chin streaks and lastly the tattooing on the cheeks, +of which the anterior arches are first formed and the posterior part of the design +last. The last named in fact is the part of the design which is oftenest wanting.</p> + +<p>The accompanying picture (the left hand of the same Fig.) represents the tattooing +of the arms of a woman from the town of T’ápka. The design of the tattooing +extends from the shoulder joint, where the upper triple ring is situated, to the hand +joint at the bottom. As appears from the drawing, the tattooing on the right and +left arm is different.</p> + +<p>The men at the winter station of the Vega tattooed themselves only with two +short horizontal streaks across the root of the nose. Some of the men at Rerkaypiya +(C. North), on the other hand, had a cross tattooed on each cheek bone; others had +merely painted similar ones with red mold. Some Chukchis at the latter place had +also the upper lip tattooed.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp494_pg414.png" width="600" height="485" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 539.</span>—Chukchi tattoo marks.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Chukchi designs are much simpler than those of the Eskimo.</p> + +<p>Dr. Bazin, in “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Étude sur le Tatouage dans la Régence de Tunis</span>,” in +<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie</span> (<i>b</i>), tells that the practice of tattooing is very widespread +and elaborate in Tunisia, but chiefly among the natives of +Arab race, who are nomads, workmen in the towns, and laborers, and +also among the fellahs. The Berbers, on the contrary, who have remained +mountaineers, the merchants of the coast towns, and the rich +proprietors are little or not at all tattooed. In regard to the last class +this proves that tattooing has become nothing but an ornament, since +the members of this class are clothed in such a way that the legs and +arms are completely covered, so that it would be useless to draw figures +which would be invisible or almost entirely hidden. He adds<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415">[415]</a></span> +that the notables “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">du Tinge</span>” do not disfigure themselves by incisions. +The distinctive sign of the lower classes is the presence of three incisions +on the temples, three on the cheeks, and three also on the lower +part of the face.</p> + +<p>Notes on East-Equatorial Africa, in <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bull. Soc. d’Anthro. de Bruxelles</span> +(<i>a</i>) contains the following memoranda: Tattooing is done by +traveling artists. Perhaps at first it showed tribal characteristics, +but now it is difficult to distinguish more than fancy. The exception +is that Wawenba alone tattoo the face. The local fetiches bear marks +of tattoo.</p> + +<p>Gordon Cumming (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>One of the “generals” of Mosielely, King of the Bakatlas group of the Bechuana +tribe, had killed about twenty men in battle with his own hand, and bore a mark of +honor for every man. This mark was a line tattooed on his ribs.</p></div> + +<p>David Greig Rutherford (<i>a</i>) makes remarks on the people of Batanga, +West Tropical Africa, from which the following is extracted:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattooing evidently originated in certain marks being applied to the face and +other parts of the body in order to distinguish the members of one tribe from those +of another. The same marks would be used for both sexes, but as the tendency to +ornamentation became developed, they would be apt to observe some artistic method +in making them. Among the Dualles the custom at one time appears to have obtained +with both sexes, with a preponderance, however, in the practice of it on the +side of the women. The men did not always see the force of giving themselves +needless pain, but the women, with a shrewd idea that it added to their charms, +persisted in having it done. The men (and it is significant that in places where the +men have ceased to tattoo themselves they continue to do it for the women) tattooed +their children at an early age, but as the girls approached a marriageable age they +added, on their own account, various ornamentations to those already existing. As +an example that tattooing in its later stages is regarded as an increase of beauty, I +may mention an instance given me by the wife of a missionary here. A woman belonging +to some neighboring tribe having come to stay at the mission, was presented +with a dress of some showy material as an inducement to her to discard the loin +cloth she had been in the habit of wearing and as an introduction to the habits of +civilized life. She objected to wear the dress, however, upon the ground that if +she did so she would thereby hide her beauty. It appears certain that the unmarried +woman who is most finely tattooed wins most admiration from the men.</p></div> + +<p>Oscar Peschel (<i>a</i>) describes tattooing as another substitute for raiment +and remarks: “That it actually takes away from the impression +of nudity is declared by all who have seen fully tattooed Albanese.” +As bearing in the same direction Mr. Darwin, in “Voyage of the +Beagle,” may be quoted, who, when at New Zealand, speaking of the +clean, tidy, and healthy appearance of the young women who acted as +servants within the houses, remarks: “The wives of the missionaries +tried to persuade them not to be tattooed, but a famous operator having +arrived from the south they said: ‘We really must have a few +lines on our lips, else when we grow old our lips will shrivel, and we +shall be so very ugly.’”</p> + +<p>In September, 1891, a Zulu, claiming to be a son of the late Cetewayo, +gave to a reporter of the Memphis Avalanche the following account:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416">[416]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When some one expressed a doubt of his coming from Zululand he promptly rolled +up his sleeve and showed on his right arm the brand of the tribe. The brand is just +below the elbow-joint, and it is of a bright red color, showing conclusively that it +had been burned into the flesh. The design is very much on the principle of a double +heart with a cross running through the center. The same design has been branded +over his left eye in a somewhat smaller shape. When questioned about these brands +he said:</p> + +<p>“In our country all the men have to have the brand of their tribe burned into +their skin so that they can never desert us, and no matter where they are found, you +can always tell a Zulu by the brand. Always look for it just over the left eye and +on the inside of the right arm. Does it hurt? Oh, no: you see they just take the +skin together in their fingers and when the brand is red hot touch it once to the +skin and it is all done, and the brand can never wear away.”</p></div> + + +<h4>SCARIFICATION.</h4> + +<p>The following notes regarding scarification are presented:</p> + +<p>Edward M. Curr (<i>b</i>), p. 94, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The principal and most general ornament throughout Australia consists of a number +of scars raised on the skin. They are made by deep incisions with a flint or +shell, which are kept powdered with charcoal or ashes. The wounds thus made +remain open for about three months, and, when covered with skin, scars sometimes +almost as thick and long as one’s middle finger remain raised above the natural surface +of the skin. The incisions are made in rows on various parts of the body, principally +on the chest, back, and on the upper muscle of the arm, and less frequently +on the thighs and stomach. The breasts of the female are often surrounded with +smaller scars. In some tribes dots cut in the skin take the place of scars. The operation +is a very painful one, and is often carried out amidst yells of torture. Both +sexes are marked in this manner, but the male more extensively than the female.</p></div> + +<p>In the same volume, p. 338, is the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When, as often happens, a young man and girl of the Whajook tribe in Australia +elope and remain away from the tribe for a time, it is not unusual for them to scar +each other in the interim as a memorial of their illicit loves; a singular proceeding +when one remembers the agony caused by the operation and the length of time required +to get over it. This proceeding is a great aggravation of the original offense +in the eyes of husbands.</p></div> + +<p>In Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 414, the same author says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Men of the Cape river tribe scar their backs and shoulders in this way. Scars are +made generally on the left thigh both of the men and women, continues Mr. Chatfield, +but occasionally on the right, for the purpose of denoting the particular class +to which they belong; but as such a practice would conflict with the custom prevalent +throughout the continent as far as known, which is to make these marks for +ornament alone, the statement cannot be received without further evidence.</p></div> + +<p>Thomas Worsnop, in the Prehistoric Arts of the Aborigines of Australia, +says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This practice of tattooing by scarification was common all over the continent, +varying in character amongst the respective tribes, each having its own distinctive +marks, although all patterned upon one monotonous idea.</p></div> + +<p>This is far from evidence of distinct tribal marks, the slight varieties +of which may be only local or tribal fashions.</p> + +<p>Alfred C. Haddon (<i>a</i>), p. 366, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattooing is unknown, but the body used to be ornamented with raised cicatrices. +* * * The Torres strait islanders are distinguished by a large, complicated, oval<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417">[417]</a></span> +scar, only slightly raised and of neat construction. This, which I have been told +has some connection with a turtle, occupies the right shoulder and is occasionally +repeated on the left. I suspect that a young man was not allowed to bear a cicatrice +until he had killed his first turtle or dugong.</p></div> + +<p>The same author, op. cit., says of the Mabuiag of Torres straits:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The people were formerly divided up into a number of clans. * * * A man belonging +to one clan could not wear the badge of the totem of another clan. * * * +All the totems appear to have been animals—as the crocodile, snake, turtle, dugong, +dog, cassowary, shark, sting-ray, kingfish, etc.</p></div> + +<p>The same writer, in Notes on Mr. Beardsmore’s paper, in Jour. Anthrop. +Inst. of Gr. Br. and I. (<i>a</i>), says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A large number of the women of Mowat, New Guinea, have a Λ-shaped scar above +the breasts. * * * Maino of Tud told me that it was cut when the brother +leaves the father’s house and goes to live with the men; and another informant’s story +was that it was made when a brother harpooned his first dugong or turtle. Maino +(who, by the by, married a Mowat woman) said that a mark on the cheek recorded +the brother’s prowess.</p></div> + +<p>D’Albertis (<i>c</i>) tells that the people of New Guinea produced scars +“by making an incision in the skin and then for a lengthened period +irritating it with lime and soot. * * * They use some scars as a +sign that they have traveled, and tattoo an additional figure above the +right breast on the accomplishment of every additional journey. * * * +In Yuli island women have nearly the whole body covered with marks. +Children are seldom tattooed; slaves never. Men are hardly ever tattooed, +though they have frequently marks on the chest and shoulders; +rarely on the face. Tribes and families are recognized by tattoo marks.”</p> + +<p>Mr. Griffith, in his paper on Sierra Leone, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. of +Gr. Br. and I. (<i>b</i>), says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The girls are cut on their backs and loins in such a manner as to leave raised scars, +which project above the surface of the skin about one-eighth of an inch. They then +receive Boondoo names, and after recovery from the painful operation are released +from Boondoo with great ceremony and gesticulation by some who personate Boondoo +devils. They are then publicly pronounced marriageable.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Holub (<i>b</i>), speaking of three cuts on the breast of a Koranna of +Central South Africa, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They have among themselves a kind of freemasonry. Some of them have on their +chest three cuts. When they were asked what was the reason of it they generally +refused to answer, but after gaining their confidence they confessed that they belonged +to something like a secret society, and they said, “I can go through all the +valleys inhabited by Korannas and Griquas, and wherever I go when I open my coat +and show these three cuts I am sure to be well received.”</p></div> + +<p>Mr. H. H. Johnston (<i>a</i>) tells us that scarification is practiced right +along the course of the Congo up to the Stanley falls. The marks thus +made are tribal. Thus the Bateke are always distinguished by five or +six striated lines across the cheek bones, while the Bayansi scar their +foreheads with a horizontal or vertical band.</p> + +<p>E. Brussaux, in <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie</span> (<i>c</i>), reports that scarifications in +Congo, which are chiefly on the back, are made for therapeutic reasons.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418">[418]</a></span></p> + +<p>Julian Thomas (<i>a</i>) gives the following description of a New Hebrides +woman:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>She had a pattern traced over her throat and breast like a scarf. It was done +with a shark’s tooth when a child. The women’s skins are blistered up into flowers +and ferns. The skin is cut and earth and ashes placed inside the gashes, and the +flesh grows into these forms. Of course they do not cover up these beauties by +clothing.</p></div> + +<p>According to Mr. Man, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. of Gr. Br. and I. (<i>c</i>), +the Andamanese, who also tattoo by means of gashing, do so first by +way of ornament, and, secondly, to prove the courage of the individual +operated upon and his or her power of enduring pain.</p> + + +<h4>SUMMARY OF STUDIES ON TATTOOING.</h4> + +<p>Many notes on the topic are omitted, especially those relating mainly +to the methods of and the instruments used in the operation. But from +those presented above it appears that tattooing still is or very recently +was used in various parts of the world for many purposes besides the +specific object of designating a tribe, clan, or family, and also apart +from the general intent of personal ornament. The most notable of +those purposes are as follows: 1, to distinguish between free and slave +without reference to the tribe of the latter; 2, to distinguish between +a high and low status in the same tribe; 3, as a certificate of bravery +exhibited by supporting the ordeal of pain; 4, as marks of personal +prowess, particularly, 5, as a record of achievements in war; 6, to show +religious symbols; 7, as a therapeutic remedy for disease, and 8, as a +prophylactic against disease; 9, as a brand of disgrace; 10, as a token +of a woman’s marriage, or, sometimes, 11, of her marriageable condition; +12, identification of the person, not as tribesman or clansman, +but as an individual; 13, to charm the other sex magically; 14, to +inspire fear in the enemy; 15, to magically render the skin impenetrable +by weapons; 16, to bring good fortune; and 17, as the device of a +secret society.</p> + +<p>The use of tattoo marks as certificates and records of prowess in war +is considered to be of special importance in any discussion of their +origin. A warrior returns from the field stained with blood from an +honorable wound, the scars of which he afterwards proudly displays. +It would be strictly in the line of ideography to make artificial scars or +to paint the semblance of wounds on the person as designations of +honor, and from such origin quite as well as from a totemic representation +all other forms and uses may have been evolved. For instance, +the vigor of manhood being thus signified, the similar use would show +the maturity of women. Yet some of the practices of tattoo may have +originated independently of either totem or glory mark. The mere idea +of decoration as shown in what civilized people call deformations of +nose, lip, ear, teeth, and in fact all parts of the body, is sufficient to account +for the inception of any form of tattoo. Primitive man never<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419">[419]</a></span> +seemed to be content to leave the surface of his body in its natural condition, +and from recognition of that discontent studies of clothing and +of ornament should take their point of departure.</p> + +<p>In this paper many examples are presented of the use, especially by +the North American Indians, of tribal signs carved or painted on rock, +tree, bark, skin, and other materials, and suggestion is made of an +interesting connection between these designs and those of heraldry in +Europe. It would, therefore, seem natural that the same Indians who +probably for ages used such totemic and tribal devices should paint or +tattoo them on their own persons, and the meagerness of the evidence +that they actually did so is surprising. Undoubtedly the statement +has been made in a general way by some of the earlier explorers and +travelers, but when analyzed it is frequently little more than a vague +expression of opinion, perhaps based on a preconceived theory. Nearly +all the Indian tribes have peculiarities of arrangement of the hair and +of some article of apparel and accouterment by which they can always +be distinguished. These are not totemic, nor are they by design expressions +of a tribal character. They come under the heading of fashion, +and such fashions in clothing and in arrangement of the hair still exist +among civilized peoples, so that the people of one nation or province can +at once be distinguished from others. Very little appears from the +account of actual observers to show that the character of the tattoo +marks of the North American Indians, perhaps excluding those of the +northwest coast, was more than a tribal fashion. Such styles or +fashions with no intent or deliberate purpose that they should serve as +tribal signs prevail to-day in Africa and in some other regions, and +have been introduced by the professional artists who had several +styles. Besides the necessary influence of a school of artists, it is +obvious that people living together would contract and maintain the +same custom and fashion in their cutaneous decoration.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">DESIGNATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS.</span></h3> + +<p>These are divided into: (1) Insignia or tokens of authority. (2) Signs +of individual achievements. (3) Property marks. (4) Personal names.</p> + + +<h4>INSIGNIA OR TOKENS OF AUTHORITY.</h4> + +<p>Champlain (<i>e</i>) says of the Iroquois in 1609:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Those who wore three large “pannaches” [plumes] were the chiefs, and the three +chiefs delineated have their plumes much larger than those of their companions who +were simple warriors.</p></div> + +<p>In Travels of Lewis and Clarke (<i>a</i>) it is said:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420">[420]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Teton Sioux the interior police of a village is confided to two or three +officers who are named by the chief for the purpose of preserving order, and remain +in power some days, at least till the chief appoints a successor; they seem to be a +sort of constable or sentinel, since they are always on the watch to keep tranquility +during the day and guarding the camp in the night. * * * Their distinguishing +mark is a collection of two or three raven skins fixed to the girdle behind the back +in such a way that the tails stick out horizontally from the body. On the head too +is a raven skin split into two parts and tied so as to let the beak project from the +forehead.</p></div> + +<p>In James’s Long (<i>d</i>) it is reported <span class="lock">that—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Omaha on all occasions of public rejoicings, festivals, dances, or general +hunts, a certain number of resolute warriors are previously appointed to preserve +order and keep the peace. In token of their office they paint themselves entirely +black; usually wear the crow, and arm themselves with a whip or war-club with +which they punish on the spot those who misbehave, and are at once both judges +and executioners.</p></div> + +<p>Prince Maximilian of Wied (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In every numerous war party there are four leaders (partisans, karokkanakah) +sometimes seven, but only four are reckoned as the real partisans; the others are +called bad partisans (karokkanakah-chakohosch, literally, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">partisans galeux</span>). All +partisans carry on their backs a medicine pipe in a case which other warriors dare +not have. To become a chief (Numakschi) a man must have been a partisan and +then kill an enemy when he is not a partisan. If he follows another partisan for +the second time he must have first discovered the enemy, have killed one and then +possessed the hide of a white buffalo cow complete with the horns to pretend to the +title of chief (Numakschi). * * * All the warriors wear small war pipes round +their necks, which are often very elegantly ornamented with porcupine quills.</p></div> + +<p>Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVI</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVII</span> are illustrations specially relating to insignia of +office selected from an important and unique pictorial roster of the heads +of Oglala families, eighty-four in number, in the band of Chief Big-Road, +which were obtained by Rev. S. D. Hinman at Standing Rock Agency, +Dakota, in 1883, from the United States Indian agent, Maj. McLaughlin, +to whom the original had been delivered by Chief Big-Road when +brought to that agency and required to give an account of his followers. +Other selections from this Oglala Roster appear under the headings of +Ideography, Personal names, Comparisons, Customs, Gestures, Religion, +and Conventionalizing.</p> + +<p>Chief Big Road and his people belong to the northern Oglala, and at +the time mentioned had been lately associated with Sitting-Bull in various +depredations and hostilities against settlers and the United States +authorities. The translations of the names have been verified and the +Oglala name attached. At the date of the roster Chief Big-Road was +above 50 years old, and was as ignorant and uncompromising a savage +in mind and appearance, as one could well find.</p> + +<p>The drawings in the original are on a single sheet of foolscap paper, +made with black and colored pencils, and a few characters are in yellow-ocher +waters color paint. They were made for the occasion with the +materials procured at the agency.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVI</span> exhibits the five principal chiefs with their insignia. Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421">[421]</a></span> +has before him a decorated pipe and pouch, the design of each being +distinct from the others. The use of pipes as insignia for leaders is +frequently mentioned in this work. The five chiefs do not have the +war club, their rank being shown by pipe and pouch. Each of the +five chiefs has at least three transverse bands on the cheek, with differentiations +of the pattern.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;"> +<a href="images/dp501_pg420ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp501_pg420p.jpg" class="hires" width="369" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVI<br />OGLALA CHIEFS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVII</span> shows the subchiefs of the band. The three red bands +are the sign that they are Akicita-itacanpi, which means head soldiers—captains +in war, and captains of police in civil administration. Each +of them is decorated with three red transverse bands on the cheek and +carries a war club held vertically before the person.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;"> +<a href="images/dp505_pg422ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp505_pg422p.jpg" class="hires" width="369" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVII<br />OGLALA SUB-CHIEFS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The other male figures not represented in the plates have in general +each but a single red band on the cheek; others, two bands, red and +blue. These are merely ornamental and without significance.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that in this series the device indicating the name +is not generally connected by lines with the mouth but only when there +is a natural connection with it. It appears attached by a line to the +crown of the head, but sometimes without any connecting line.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVI</span> shows the five principal chiefs of the Oglala in 1883, who are +severally designated as follows:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Cankutanka, Big-Road. Big-Road is often called Good-Road because +a road that is big or broad and well traveled is good. The tracks +on both sides of the line indicating a mere path show that the road is +big. The bird flying through the dusk indicates the rapidity of travel +which the good road allows. This is the same chief as the following:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp503_pg421.png" width="250" height="188" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 540.</span>—Big-Road.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 540, Big-Road as appearing in Red-Cloud’s +Census, No. 96. The broad and big road is indicated +by the artist of that series as having distinctly marked +sides and horsetracks between these roadsides. In +this instance as in several others it is obvious that +the ideographic device was not fixed but elastic and +subject to variation, the intention being solely to preserve +the idea.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Sunka-kuciyela, Low-Dog. The dog figure is represented as “low” +by the shortness of the legs as compared with the next figure of Long-Dog.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Sunka-hanska, Long-Dog. This term “long” is in the pictography +of the Siouan tribes, but is differently translated as tall. There is a +marked variation in the length of the legs between this and the next +foregoing.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Kangi-maza, Iron-Crow. The term “iron” is explained above. +The color blue is always used in Dakotan pictography for the word +translated as iron.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Cetan-cigala, Little-Hawk.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVII</span> shows the subchiefs or partisans of the Oglala at the time +of the roster in 1883.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422">[422]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Represents Tatanka-he-luta, Red-horn-Bull. The bull’s horns have +been made bloody by goring.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Represents Cetan-watakpe, Charging-Hawk. This subchief also +appears with a slightly different form of “charging” in Red-Cloud’s +Census, in which the bird is represented head downward.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 84px;"> +<img src="images/dp504_pg422a.png" width="84" height="188" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 541.</span>—Charging-Hawk.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 541.—Charging-Hawk, from Red-Cloud’s Census, +No. 142. On careful examination the bird is seen to be +not erect, as at first appears, but is swooping down.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Represents Wiyaka-aopazan, Wears-the-Feather. The feather in +its conventional form is presented twice, once connected by a line with +the mouth and also over the war club as in common with other pictures +of this series. The same person is represented next below.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 89px;"> +<img src="images/dp504_pg422b.png" width="89" height="88" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 542.</span>—Feather-on-his-Head.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 542.—Feather-on-his-Head, from Red-Cloud’s Census, +No. 86. In this case the feather droops while it is +erect in the figure next above. No significance is indicated +in the slight variation.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Represents Pankeskahoksila, Shell-Boy. The shell is the circular +object over the head of the small human figure, which is without the +proper number of legs, showing perhaps that he can not march, and +his open, weaponless hands say that he is not a warrior, i. e., he is a +boy. The object, now translated shell, was originally a large excrescence +on the trunk of a tree which was often cut away by the Dakotas, +hollowed out and used as a bowl.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Mato-niyanpi, The-Bear-spares-him. The bear passing through +the marks of several tracks indicates an incident not explained, in +which the subchief was in danger.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Represents Cetan-maza, Iron-Hawk. The bird is colored blue, as +before explained.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Represents Kangi-luta, Red-Crow.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> Represents Situpi-ska, White-Tail. The bird is probably one of +the hawks, as is more distinctly indicated in the representation of the +same name as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423">[423]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 288px;"> +<img src="images/dp507_pg423a.png" width="288" height="396" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 543.</span>—White-Tail.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Fig. 543.—White-Tail; from Red-Cloud’s Census, +No. 190. This is inserted for convenient +comparison with the foregoing, being a slightly +variant device for the same person.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><i>i.</i> Represents Mato-ska, White-Bear.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<img src="images/dp507_pg423b.png" width="242" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 544.</span>—White-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 544.—White-Bear; from Red-Cloud’s Census, +No. 252. This is inserted here for comparison +of the drawings. The characteristics of the +animal appear in both.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><i>k.</i> Represents Mato-najin, Standing-Grizzly-Bear. The differentiations +of these and other similar positions of the same object remind one +of the heraldic devices “statant,” “regardant,” “passant,” and the like.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/dp507_pg423c.png" width="158" height="319" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 545.</span>—Standing-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p>Fig. 545.—Standing-Bear; from Red-Cloud’s Census, +No. 140. This is probably the same man as in the last-mentioned +figure, though the fancy of the artist has +blazoned the bear as demi. This was, however, for convenience +and without special significance, as the forequarters +are not indicated in the name. But that might +well have been done if the device were strictly totemic +and connected with the taboo. Some of the bear gens +are only allowed to eat the fore quarters of the animal, +others the hind quarters.</p> + +</div> + + + +<p><i>l.</i> Represents Tatanka-najin, Standing-Buffalo-Bull.</p> + +<p><i>m.</i> Represents Tasunke-inyanke, His-Running-Horse. This man was +probably the owner of a well known racing pony.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424">[424]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/dp508_pg424a.png" width="350" height="337" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 546.</span>—Four-Horn calumet.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 546.—A Minneconjou Dakota, named Red-Fish’s-Son, danced +the calumet dance. The-Swan’s Winter Count, +1856-’57.</p> + +<p>Maj. Bush says: “A Minneconjou, Red-Fish’s-Son, +The-Ass, danced the Four-Horn calumet.”</p> + +<p>The peculiarly ornamented pipe, frequently portrayed +and mentioned in the parts of the paper +relative to the Dakotas, is, at least for the time of +the duration of the ceremonies, the sign of the +person who leads them.</p> + +<p>In connection with the display of pipes as insignia of authority and +rank, Figs. 547 and 548 are introduced here.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;"> +<img src="images/dp508_pg424b.png" width="443" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 547.</span>—Two-Strike as partisan.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 547, drawn and explained by an Oglala Dakota, exhibits four +erect pipes, to show that he had led four war parties.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp509_pg425a.png" width="600" height="402" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 548.</span>—Lean-Wolf as partisan.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 548 is a copy of a drawing made by Lean-Wolf, when second +chief of the Hidatsa, to represent himself. The horns on his head-dress +show that he is a chief. The eagle feathers on his war bonnet, +arranged in the special manner portrayed, also show high distinction +as a warrior. His authority as “partisan,” or leader of a war party, is +represented by the elevated pipe. His name is also added, with the +usual line drawn from the head. He explained the outline character +of the wolf, having a white body with the mouth unfinished, to show +that it was hollow, nothing there; i. e., lean. The animal’s tail is drawn +in detail and dark, to distinguish it from the body.</p> + +<p>The character for “partisan” is also shown in Lone-Dog’s Winter +Count for the year 1842-’43.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp509_pg425b.png" width="600" height="293" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 549.</span>—Micmac head dress in pictographs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 549 gives three examples, actual size, of a large number of similar +designs scratched on the rocks of Kejimkoojik lake, Nova Scotia. +They were at first considered to be connected with the ceremonial or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425">[425]</a></span> +mystery lodges, many sketches of which appear on the same rocks, and +examples of which are given in Figs. <a href="#page509">717</a> and <a href="#page510">718</a>. Undoubtedly there +is some connection between the designs, but those now under consideration +are recognized by the Indians of the general locality as the elaborate +forms of head dress sometimes so extended as to become masks, which +are still worn by a few of the Micmac and Abnaki women. Those women +are or were of special authority and held positions in social and religious +ceremonies. Their ornamental head coverings therefore were insignia +of their rank. The modern specimens seen by the present writer are +elaborately wrought with beads, quills, and embroidery on fine cloth, +velvet or satin, but were originally of skin. The patterns still used +show some fantastic connection with those of the rock drawings of this +class, and again the latter reproduce some of the tracings on the ground +plans of the mystery lodges before mentioned. The feathery branches +of trees appearing on both of the two classes of illustrations are in the +modern head coverings actual feathers. The first of the three figures +shows the branch or feather inside of the pattern, and the other two +have them outside, in which variation the bushes or branches of the +medicine lodges show a similar proportion. The third sketch, in addition +to the exterior feathers, shows flags or streamers, which in the +ceremonial head gear in present use is imitated by ribbons.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426">[426]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 359px;"> +<img src="images/dp510_pg426.png" width="359" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 550.</span>—Micmac chieftainess in pictograph.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>If there had been any doubt remaining of the interpretation of this +class of drawing it would be removed by the presence of a number of +contiguous and obviously contemporary sketches of which Fig. 550 is an +example. Here the female chieftain or, perhaps, priestess appears in a +ceremonial robe, with her head completely covered by one of these +capote masks. The researches made not only establish the significance +of this puzzling class of designs, but also show that their authors were +of the Abnaki or Micmac branches of the Algonquian linguistic family.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;"> +<a href="images/dp511_pg427h.png"> +<img src="images/dp511_pg427.png" class="hires" width="441" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 551.</span>—Insignia traced on rocks, Nova Scotia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The two lower drawings in Fig. 551 were printed from the Kejimkoojik +slate rocks, Nova Scotia, and are recognized by Micmacs of that +peninsula as copies of insignia which they say their chiefs used to wear. +The designs show some marks suggesting the artistic devices used in +the Roman Catholic Church, though the figuration of the cross is by no +means conclusive of European origin. The use of gorgets and other +ornaments bearing special designs, as insignia of rank and authority, +was well established, and it is quite possible that some of the Micmac +designs were affected by the influence of the early missionaries, who +indeed may have issued to the chiefs of their flock medals which adopted +the general aboriginal style, but were redeemed by Christian symbols. +There is no intrinsic evidence to decide whether these particular drawings +were or were not made before the arrival of the earliest French +missionaries.</p> + +<p>The upper right-hand drawing of the three trees with peculiar devices<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427">[427]</a></span> +near their several roots was also printed from one of the Kejimkoojik +rocks. It became intelligible to the present writer after examination of a +silver disk in the possession of Mrs. W. Wallace Brown, of Calais, Maine, +which, not long before, had been owned by the head chief of the Passamaquoddy +tribe, whose title had been modernized into “governor.” +The disk, which is copied in the upper left-hand corner, was probably +not of Indian workmanship, but appeared to have been ordered from a +silversmith to be made from a Passamaquoddy design. It was known +to represent the three superior officers of the tribe mentioned and had +been worn by a former governor as a prized sign of his rank. The middle<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429">[429]</a></span> +device is for the governor and the right and left for the officers next +in rank to him. The devices at the roots of the trees of the drawing +before mentioned are noticeably similar. They may have been made, +as were most of the other characters on the Kejimkoojik rocks, by the +Micmacs, in which case it would seem that they designated their chiefs +by emblems similar to those used by their congeners of the Passamaquoddy +tribe or some member of the last-named tribe may have drawn +the emblem on the rocks in the Micmac territory. In any case there is +encouragement in the attempt to decipher petroglyphs from the fact that +the tree drawing in Nova Scotia, which seemed without significance, +was readily elucidated by a metal inscription found in Maine, the interpretation +being verified through living Indians, not only in the two +geographic divisions mentioned, but also by the Amalecites in New +Brunswick.</p> + +<p>Father P. J. De Smet (<i>b</i>), referring to the Piegan and Blackfeet or +Satsika, describes the great Tail-Bearer:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>His tail, composed of buffalo and horse hair, is about 7 or 8 feet long, and instead +of wearing it behind, according to the usual fashion, it is fastened above his forehead +and there formed into a spiral coil resembling a rhinoceros’s horn. Such a tail among +the Blackfeet is a mark of greater distinction and bravery—in all probability the +larger the tail the braver the person.</p></div> + +<p>The following description of a Chilkat ceremonial shirt, with the +illustration reproduced in Fig. 552, is taken from Niblack (<i>c</i>):</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;"> +<a href="images/dp512_pg428h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp512_pg428.jpg" class="hires" width="248" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 552.</span>—Chilkat ceremonial shirt.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The upper character in the figure represents the sea lion, and that +below is a rear view of the same shirt ornamented with a design of +wasko, a mythological animal of the wolf species. The edges and arm +holes are bordered with red cloth and the whole garment is neatly +made.</p> + +<p>The same authority describes a Chilkat cloak, with the illustration +reproduced as Fig. 553, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp513_pg429h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp513_pg429.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="308" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 553.</span>—Chilkat ceremonial cloak.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p>It represents a cloak with a neck opening, ornamented in red cloth +with the totemic design of the Orca or Killer. It is in the form of a +truncated cone, with no openings for the arms.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430">[430]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp514_pg430a.jpg" width="600" height="503" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 554.</span>—Chilkat ceremonial blanket.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The same author gives description accompanying Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, Figs. 33 and +34, of ceremonial blankets and coats. The first-mentioned drawing is +reproduced here as Fig. 554:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is worn by Indians of rank and wealth on the northwest coast, commonly called +a “Chilkat blanket,” because the best specimens come from the Chilkat country, +although other tribes are more or less expert in weaving them. The warp is composed +of twisted cord or twine of cedar bark fiber, and the woof of worsted spun +from the wool of the mountain goat. Brown, yellow, black, and white are the colors +used, and these are skillfully wrought into a pattern representing the totem or a +totemic legend of the owner.</p></div> + +<p>The design on the blanket shown represents Hoorts, the bear.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 564px;"> +<img src="images/dp514_pg430b.jpg" width="564" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 555.</span>—Chilkat ceremonial coat.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 555 is described thus: “A ceremonial shirt or coat of similar +workmanship as the blanket just described, is trimmed on the collar +and cuffs with sea-otter fur.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431">[431]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp515_pg431ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp515_pg431a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="372" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 556.</span>—Bella Coola Indians.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandl. der Berliner Gesellsch. für Anthrop.</span> (<i>a</i>) is the +illustration from which Fig. 556 is reproduced. It shows a group of +Bella Coola Indians, which is made interesting by the elaborate ceremonial +coat worn by the middle figure in the foreground.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp515_pg431b.jpg" width="600" height="414" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 557.</span>—Guatemala priest.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. S. Habel (<i>c</i>) gives the following description of Fig. 557, which +reproduces only the upper part of the sculpture:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The design represents in low relief an erect human figure in profile, with the head +and shoulders slightly inclined forward. The body is apparently naked, excepting +those portions which are concealed by elaborate ornaments, the most prominent of +which is a crab covering the head. Since there is every reason to believe the figure +to represent a priest, the crab may be taken as the emblem of priestly rank.</p></div> + +<p>Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">LXV</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">LXVI</span> of the Codex Mendoza, in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span> of Lord Kingsborough’s +Antiquities of Mexico, exhibit the devices and insignia of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432">[432]</a></span> +the soldiers who advanced step by step to higher command, according +to their military achievements. The chief criterion, indeed the only +one mentioned for these steps and promotions, was the number of prisoners +severally taken by the soldiers in war. From the large number +of degrees in rank and titles of valor expressed in the above-mentioned +plates, a number have been selected and copies of them, exact in drawing, +size, and coloration, are presented here in Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVIII</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIX</span>. +The quaint text relating to them is in Kingsborough (<i>p</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> +<a href="images/dp517_pg432ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp517_pg432p.jpg" class="hires" width="402" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVIII<br />MEXICAN MILITARY INSIGNIA.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVIII</span>.—<i>a</i> represents a young man who if he took any prisoners +was presented with a square mantle bearing a device of flowers as a +sign of valor. He holds a prisoner by the hair. <i>b</i>: This brave man +has been presented with a device of arms, which he wears, and with a +square orange-colored mantle with a scarlet fringe besides, as a sign +of valor, on account of his having taken prisoner two of the enemy, one +of whom he holds by the hair. <i>c</i>: This brave man, whose title is that +of Quachie, and device of arms such as he wears, bears proof that he +has captured five prisoners in war, besides having taken many other +prisoners from the enemy in other wars. He also is drawn holding a +prisoner. <i>d</i>: This brave man, whose title is Tlacatecatl and device +the robe which he wears, with his braided hair and the insignia of a +rich plume, declares by his presence that he has obtained the title of a +valiant and distinguished person, by merit surpassing that of the others +who are represented behind him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"> +<a href="images/dp521_pg434ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp521_pg434p.jpg" class="hires" width="395" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIX<br />MEXICAN MILITARY INSIGNIA.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIX</span>.—<i>a</i>: An Alfaqui or superior officer, who merits further +promotion and to whom has been presented as a reward for his valor, +on account of his having taken three prisoners in war, the device and +arms which he wears. He grasps a prisoner by the hair. <i>b</i>: The same +Alfaqui, who, as a sign of valor on account of his having captured four +of the enemy, has been presented with the device of arms which he +wears. He holds a prisoner as before.</p> + +<p>Each one of the remaining figures in the plate of Kingsborough declares +the titles which officers gained and acquired in the exercise of +arms, by which they rose to higher rank, the kings of Mexico creating +them captains and generals of their forces or as officers of dispatch +[similar to aids-de-camp] to execute their orders, whether they related +to the affairs of their own kingdom or to those of the other vassal +states, who promptly obeyed without in any manner deviating from +the commands which they had received. The two selected are shown +in the present Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIX</span>, viz: <i>c</i>, Ezguaguacatl, an officer of dispatch, +and <i>d</i>, Tocinltecatl, a man of distinguished courage in war and one of +the officers who filled the post of generals of the Mexican armies.</p> + +<p>Wiener (<i>b</i>), p. 763, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Passing in review the numerous delineations of men on the different tissues in the +Peruvian graves, it is to be remarked that a chief is always recognized by a panache, +which for the decurion has two plumes, for the centurion four, for the chief of a thousand +men six, and the colors of these plumes indicate civil or military functions.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433">[433]</a></span></p> + +<p>A. W. Howitt (<i>e</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Messengers in central Australia sent to form a Pinya to avenge a death wear a +kind of net on the head and a white frontlet in which is stuck a feather. The messenger +is painted with yellow ochre and pipeclay and bears a bunch of emu feathers +stuck in his girdle at the back, at the spine. He carries part of the deceased’s beard +or some balls of pipeclay from the head of one of those mourning for him. These +are shown at the destination of the messenger and are at once understood.</p></div> + +<p>The same author, p. 78, reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A third party which the Dieri sent out was the dreaded Pinya. It was the avenger +of the dead, of those who were believed to have been done to death by sorcery.</p> + +<p>The appearance at a camp of one or more men marked each with a white band +round the head, with diagonal white and red stripes across the breast and stomach, +and with the point of the beard tied up and tipped with human hair, is the sign of +a Pinya being about. These men do not converse on ordinary matters, and their +appearance is a warning to the camp to listen attentively and to reply truly to such +questions as may be put concerning the whereabouts of the condemned man. Knowing +the remorseless spirit of the Pinya, any and every question is answered in terror.</p></div> + + +<h4>SIGNS OF INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS.</h4> + +<p>Prince Maximilian of Wied, (<i>b</i>) gives an account explanatory of Figs. +558 and 559:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"> +<img src="images/dp519_pg433a.jpg" width="385" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 558.</span>—Mark of exploit. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 520px;"> +<img src="images/dp519_pg433b.jpg" width="520" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 559.</span>—Killed with fist. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Sioux highly prize personal bravery, and therefore constantly wear the marks +of distinction which they have received for their exploits; among these are, especially, +tufts of human hair attached to the arms and legs, and feathers on their heads. +He who, in the sight of the adversaries, touches a slain or living enemy places a +feather horizontally in his hair for this exploit.</p> + +<p>They look upon this as a very distinguished act, for many are killed in the attempt +before the object is attained. He who kills an enemy by a blow with his fist sticks +a feather upright in his hair.</p> + +<p>If the enemy is killed with a musket a small piece of wood is put in the hair, which +is intended to represent a ramrod. If a warrior is distinguished by many deeds he +has a right to wear the great feather-cap with ox-horns. This cap, composed of +eagle feathers, which are fastened to a long strip of red cloth hanging down the +back, is highly valued by all the tribes on the Missouri. * * * Whoever first<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434">[434]</a></span> +discovers the enemy and gives notice to his comrades of their approach is allowed to +wear a small feather which is stripped except towards the top.</p></div> + +<p>The following scheme, used by the Dakotas, is taken from Mrs. Eastman’s +Dahcotah. Colors are not given, but red undoubtedly predominates, +as is known from personal observation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434a.png" width="303" height="329" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 560.</span>—Killed an enemy. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A spot upon the larger web denotes that the wearer has killed an +enemy. Fig. 560.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 292px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434b.png" width="292" height="377" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 561.</span>—Cut throat and scalped. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 561 denotes that the wearer has cut the throat of his enemy and +taken his scalp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 253px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434c.png" width="253" height="341" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 562.</span>—Cut enemy’s throat. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 562 denotes that the wearer has cut the throat of his enemy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434d.png" width="331" height="364" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 563.</span>—Third to strike. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 563 denotes that the wearer was the third that touched the body +of his enemy after he was killed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434e.png" width="338" height="306" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 564.</span>—Fourth to strike. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 564 denotes that the wearer was the fourth that touched the +body of his enemy after he was killed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435">[435]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434f.png" width="322" height="270" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 565.</span>—Fifth to strike. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 565 denotes that the wearer was the fifth that touched the +body of his enemy after he was killed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;"> +<img src="images/dp520_pg434g.png" width="339" height="283" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 566.</span>—Many wounds. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 566 denotes that the wearer has been wounded in many places +by the enemy.</p> + +<p>The following variations in the scheme were noticed in 1883 among +the Mdewakantanwan Dakotas, near Fort Snelling, Minnesota.</p> + +<p>Feathers of the eagle are used as among the other bands of Dakotas.</p> + +<p>A plain feather is used to signify that the wearer has killed an +enemy, without regard to the manner in which he was slain.</p> + +<p>When the end is clipped transversely, and the edge colored red, it +signifies that the throat of the enemy was cut.</p> + +<p>A black feather denotes that an Ojibwa woman was killed. Enemies +are considered as Ojibwas, that being the tribe with which the +Mdewakantanwan Dakotas have been most in collision.</p> + +<p>When a warrior has been wounded a red spot is painted upon the +broad side of a feather. If the wearer has been shot in the body, arms, +or legs, a red spot is painted upon his clothing or blanket, immediately +over the locality of the wound. These red spots are sometimes worked +in porcupine quills, or in cotton fiber as now obtained from the traders.</p> + +<p>Belden (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Sioux an eagle’s feather with a red spot painted on it, worn by a warrior +in the village, denotes that on the last war-path he killed an enemy, and for +every additional enemy he has slain he carries another feather painted with an +additional red spot about the size of a silver quarter.</p> + +<p>A red hand painted on a warrior’s blanket denotes that he has been wounded by +the enemy, and a black one that he has been unfortunate in some way.</p></div> + +<p>Boller (<i>a</i>) in Among the Indians, p. 284, describes a Sioux as wearing +a number of small wood shavings stained with vermilion in his hair, +each the symbol of a wound received.</p> + +<p>Lynd (<i>c</i>) gives a device differing from all the foregoing, with an explanation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>To the human body the Dakotas give four spirits. The first is supposed to be a +spirit of the body, and dies with the body. The second is a spirit which always +remains with or near the body. Another is the soul which accounts for the deeds +of the body, and is supposed by some to go to the south, by others to the west, after +the death of the body. The fourth always lingers with the small bundle of the hair +of the deceased kept by the relatives until they have a chance to throw it into the +enemy’s country, when it becomes a roving, restless spirit, bringing death and disease +to the enemy whose country it is in.</p> + +<p>From this belief arose the practice of wearing four scalp-feathers for each enemy +slain in battle, one for each soul.</p></div> + +<p>It should be noted that all the foregoing signs of individual achievements +are given by the several authorities as used by the same body +of Indians, the Dakota or Sioux. This, however, is a large body, divided +into tribes, and it is possible that a different scheme was used in +the several tribes. But the accounts are so conflicting that error in +either observation or description or both is to be suspected.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436">[436]</a></span></p> + +<p>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey (<i>b</i>) explains the devices on the shield of a +Teton Dakota:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>* * * The three pipes on the shield, in a colored sketch prepared by Bushotter, +denote that on so many expeditions he carried a war pipe. The red stripes declare +how many of the enemy were wounded by him, and the human heads show the +number of foes that he killed. The half moon means that he shouted at his +foes on a certain night. Once he threw aside his arms and engaged in a hand-to-hand +struggle with a foe; this is shown by the human hand. The horse tracks indicate +that he ran off with so many horses. If his name was Black Hawk, for instance, +a black hawk was painted in the middle of his shield.</p></div> + +<p>Irving (<i>a</i>), in Astoria, says of the Arikara:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>He who has killed an enemy in his own land is entitled to drag at his heels a fox +skin attached to each moccasin; and he who has slain a grizzly bear wears a necklace +of his claws, the most glorious trophy that a hunter can exhibit.</p></div> + +<p>Prince Maximilian, of Wied (<i>c</i>), thus reports on the designations of +the Mandans connected with the present topic:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Mandans wear the large horned feather cap; this is a cap consisting of strips +of white ermine with pieces of red cloth hanging down behind as far as the calves of +the legs, to which is attached an upright row of black and white eagle feathers, +beginning at the head and reaching to the whole length. Only distinguished warriors +who have performed many exploits may wear this headdress.</p> + +<p>If the Mandans give away one or more of these headdresses, which they estimate +very highly, they are immediately considered men of great importance. * * * +On their buffalo robes they often represent this feather cap under the image of a +sun. Very celebrated and eminent warriors, when most highly decorated, wear in +their hair various pieces of wood as signals of their wounds and heroic deeds. Thus +Mato-Topé had fastened transversely in his hair a wooden knife painted red and +about the length of a hand, because he had killed a Cheyenne chief with his knife; +then six wooden sticks, painted red, blue, and yellow, with a brass nail at one end, +indicating so many musket wounds which he had received. For an arrow wound +he fastened in his hair the wing feather of a wild turkey; at the back of his head +he wore a large bunch of owl’s feathers, dyed yellow, with red tips, as the badge of the +Meniss-Ochata (the dog band). The half of his face was painted red and the other +yellow; his body was painted reddish-brown, with narrow stripes, which were produced +by taking off the color with the tip of the finger wetted. On his arms, from +the shoulder downwards, he had seventeen yellow stripes, which indicated his warlike +deeds, and on his breast the figure of a hand, of a yellow color, as a sign that +he had captured some prisoners.</p> + +<p>* * * A Mandan may have performed many exploits and yet not be allowed to +wear tufts of hair on his clothes, unless he carries a medicine pipe and has been the +leader of a war party. When a young man who has never performed an exploit is +the first to kill an enemy on a warlike expedition he paints a spiral line round his +arm, of whatever color he pleases, and he may then wear a whole wolf’s tail at the +ankle or heel of one foot. If he has first killed and touched the enemy he paints a +line running obliquely round the arm and another crossing it in the opposite direction, +with three transverse stripes. On killing the second enemy he paints his left +leg (that is, the leggin) a reddish-brown. If he kills the second enemy before +another is killed by his comrades he may wear two entire wolves’ tails at his heels. +On his third exploit he paints two longitudinal stripes on his arms and three transverse +stripes. This is the exploit that is esteemed the highest; after the third +exploit no more marks are made. If he kills an enemy after others of the party have +done the same he may wear on his heel one wolf’s tail, the tip of which is cut off.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437">[437]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Hidatsa scheme of designating achievements was obtained by +Dr. Hoffman, at Fort Berthold, North Dakota, during 1881, and now +follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/dp525_pg437a.png" width="450" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 567.</span>—Marks of exploits, Hidatsa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A feather, to the tip of which is attached a tuft of down or several +strands of horse hair, dyed red, denotes +that the wearer has killed an enemy +and that he was the first to touch or +strike him with the coup stick. Fig. +567 <i>a</i>.</p> + +<p>A feather bearing one red bar made +with vermillion, signifies the wearer to +have been the second person to strike +the fallen enemy with the coup stick. +Same Fig. <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>A feather bearing two red bars signifies +that the wearer was the third +person to strike the body. Same +Fig. <i>c</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;"> +<img src="images/dp525_pg437b.png" width="580" height="638" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 568.</span>—Marks of exploits, Hidatsa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A feather with three bars signifies +that the wearer was the fourth to +strike the fallen enemy. Fig. 568 <i>a</i>. Beyond this number honors are +not counted.</p> + +<p>A red feather denotes that the wearer was wounded in an encounter +with an enemy. Fig. 568 <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>A narrow strip of rawhide or buckskin +is wrapped from end to end +with porcupine quills dyed red, though +sometimes a few white ones are inserted +to break the monotony of color. +This strip is attached to the inner +surface of the rib or shaft of the quill +by means of very thin fibers of sinew, +and signifies that the wearer killed a +woman belonging to a hostile tribe. +It is shown in Fig. 568 <i>c</i>. In very +fine specimens the quills are directly +applied to the shaft without resorting +to the strap of leather.</p> + +<p>Similar marks denoting exploits are used by the Hidatsa, Mandan, +and Arikara Indians. The Hidatsa claim to have been the originators +of the devices.</p> + +<p>The following characters are marked upon robes and blankets, usually +in red or blue colors, and often upon the boat paddles. Frequently an +Indian has them painted upon his thighs, though this is generally +resorted to only on festal occasions or for dancing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438">[438]</a></span></p> +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 117px;"> +<img src="images/dp526_pg438a.png" width="117" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 569.</span>—Successful +defense. +Hidatsa, etc.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 569 denotes that the wearer successfully defended +himself against the enemy by throwing up a ridge of earth +or sand to protect the body. The manner of depicting this +mark upon the person or clothing is shown in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page440">XXX</a></span> upon +the shirt of the third figure in the lower row.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/dp526_pg438b.png" width="113" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 570.</span>—Two +successful defenses. +Hidatsa, +etc.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 570 signifies that the wearer has upon two different +occasions defended himself by hiding his body within low +earthworks. The character is merely a compound of two +of the preceding marks placed together. Both of the devices +shown in Figs. 569 and 570 are displayed on the clothing in +Fig. 575, drawn by a Hidatsa.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;"> +<img src="images/dp526_pg438c.png" width="85" height="85" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 571.</span>—Captured +a horse. +Hidatsa, etc.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 571 signifies that the one who carries this mark upon +his blanket, leggings, boat paddle, or any other property, +or upon his person, has distinguished himself by capturing +a horse belonging to a hostile tribe. This character appears +upon the garments and legs of several of the human figures +in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page440">XXX</a></span>, drawn by a Hidatsa, at Fort Berthold, North +Dakota.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp526_pg438d.png" width="500" height="367" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 572.</span>—Exploit marks, Hidatsa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Fig. 572, <i>a</i> signifies among the Hidatsa and Mandans that the +wearer was the first person to strike a fallen enemy with a coup stick. +It signifies among the Arikara simply that the wearer killed an enemy.</p> + +<p><i>b</i> represents among the Hidatsa and Mandans the second person to +strike a fallen enemy. It represents among the Arikara the first person +to strike the fallen enemy.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> denotes the third person to strike the enemy, according to the +Hidatsa and Mandan; the second person to strike him according to the +Arikara.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> shows among the Hidatsa and Mandan the fourth person to strike +the fallen enemy. This is the highest and last number; the fifth person +to risk the danger is considered brave for venturing so near the +ground held by the enemy, but has no right to wear a mark therefor.</p> + +<p>The same mark among the Arikara represents the person to be the +third to strike the enemy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439">[439]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>e</i>, according to the Arikara, represents the fourth person to strike +the enemy.</p> + +<p>According to the Hidatsa, the wearer of the mark <i>f</i> had figured in +four encounters; in those recorded by the marks in each of the two +lateral spaces he was the second to strike the fallen enemy, and the +marks in the upper and lower spaces signify that he was the third +person upon two other occasions.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp527_pg439a.png" width="150" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 573.</span>—Record of +exploits.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The marks at <i>c</i>, in Fig. 572, may be compared with Fig. +573. The head of the victim in this instance is a white +man. Such drawings are not made upon the person or +clothing of the hero, but upon buffalo robes or other substances +used for record of biographical events.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;"> +<img src="images/dp527_pg439b.png" width="101" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 574.</span>—Record of +exploits.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The marks at <i>d</i>, in Fig. 572, are drawn on records in +the mode shown in Fig. 574.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Illustrations of the actual mode of wearing several of the above +devices appear in Fig. 575, drawn by a Hidatsa.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp527_pg439ch.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp527_pg439c.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="464" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 575.</span>—Exploit marks as worn.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440">[440]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mark of a black hand, sometimes made by the impress of an +actually blackened palm or drawn of natural size, or less, signifies that +the person authorized to wear the mark has killed an enemy.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 138px;"> +<img src="images/dp528_pg440a.png" width="138" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 576.</span>—Scalp taken.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 576, drawn by a Hidatsa, means that the owner of the robe or +record on which it appears had taken a scalp. Fig. 577, also drawn by +a Hidatsa, means that the bearer struck the enemy in the order above +mentioned and took his scalp and his gun.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp528_pg440b.png" width="136" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 577.</span>—Scalp and gun taken.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The drawing reproduced on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXX</span> was made by a Hidatsa at Fort +Berthold, North Dakota. It represents several dancing figures, upon +which the several marks of personal achievements can be recognized. +The fourth figure of the upper row shows the wearer to have been the +second person to strike an enemy upon four different occasions. Upon +the right-hand figure of the lower row two distinct marks will be +observed; that upon the wearer’s left leg indicating him to have been +the second to strike an enemy upon two different occasions; and the +mark upon the right leg, that he was twice the second person to strike +enemies, and twice the third person to perform that exploit.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp530_pg441ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp530_pg441p.jpg" class="hires" width="600" height="404" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXX<br />HIDATSA DANCERS BEARING EXPLOIT MARKS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Miss Agnes Crane (<i>a</i>), in an article on Ancient Mexican Heraldry, +seems to assert that the evidence of emblems in the western hemisphere +as boastful records of individual achievements is confined to Mexico. +The present section may supply the evidence lacking.</p> + +<p>The following information regarding Winnebago devices of the +character now under consideration was given by St. Cyr, a mixed +blood Winnebago, in April, 1886.</p> + +<p>To show that the wearer killed a man, strike the muddy hand upon +the body or horse. Clay of any kind is used. When 20 men have +been killed, an otter skin is worn on the back. A skunk skin worn on +the calf signifies a man killed.</p> + +<p>Scented grass worn on the neck or the wrist shows that a prisoner +had been captured and tied with grass in the absence of other cords.</p> + +<p>To show that the wearer had been wounded, cover the part of the +body with white clay, and indicate the spot with red paint.</p> + +<p>Paul Kane (<i>a</i>) says that among the Cree Indians red earth was +spotted on a leg to indicate that the wearer had been wounded.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441">[441]</a></span></p> + +<p>Prof. Dall (<i>b</i>) tells of the Sitka-Kwan:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They perforate their noses, wearing a ring adorned with feathers. They make a +succession of perforations all around the edge of the ears, which are ornamented +with scarlet thread, shark’s teeth, or pieces of shell. Each hole is usually the record +of a deed performed or a feast given by the person so adorned.</p></div> + + +<h4>PROPERTY MARKS.</h4> + +<p>This topic, upon which much interesting material has been collected +in many geographic and ethnologic divisions of the earth, can not include +objectively or pictorially many genuine and distinctive illustrations +from the North American Indians. The reason for this paucity is that +the individual Indian had very little property. Nearly everything which +could be classed as personal property belonged to his tribe or, more generally, +to his clan or gens. Yet articles of a man’s personal manufacture, +such as arrows, were often marked in such a manner as to be distinguished. +Those marks, many examples of which are upon arrows in +the U. S. National Museum, are not of sufficient general interest to be +reproduced here. They are not valuable unless they are connected +with the makers or owners by a concurrence of the devices with the signs +adopted by persons or by classes, the evidence of which can not now +except in rare instances be procured. Most of the devices mentioned +seem to have degenerated into mere ornamentation, which might be +expected, because the arrows are not of great antiquity, and during +recent years the records which could have been used for their identification +have decayed as authorities even when they have remained in +the immediate family, having escaped sale and robbery.</p> + +<p>As a general rule neither a man nor a family, in the modern sense, +had any property in land, which belonged to a much larger sociologic +division, but on their arrival in California Europeans noticed among +the Indians there a device to assert rights in realty by the use of distinctive +marks. It is not clear whether these marks were merely personal +or were tribal or gentile.</p> + +<p>According to Mr. A. F. Coronel, of Los Angeles, California, the +Serrano Indians in that vicinity formerly practiced a method of marking +trees to indicate the corner boundaries of patches of land. The +Indians owning areas of territory of whatever size would cut lines upon +the bark of the tree corresponding to lines drawn on their own faces, +i. e., lines running outward and downward over the cheeks, or perhaps +over the chin only, tattooed in color. These lines were made on the +trees on the side facing the property, and were understandingly recognized +by the whole tribe. This custom still prevailed when Mr. Coronel +first located in southern California about the year 1843.</p> + +<p>Among the Arikara Indians a custom prevails of drawing upon the +blade of a canoe or bull-boat paddle such designs as are worn by the +chief and owner to suggest his personal exploits. This has to great +extent been adopted by the Hidatsa and Mandans. The marks are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442">[442]</a></span> +chiefly horseshoes and crosses, as in Fig. 578, referring to the capture of +the enemy’s ponies and to coups in warfare. The entire tribe being intimately +acquainted with the courage and +actions of all its members, imposition and +fraud in the delineation of any character +are not attempted, as such would surely +be detected, and the impostor would be ridiculed if not ostracised.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp532_pg442a.png" width="400" height="61" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 578.</span>—Boat paddle. Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The brands upon cattle in Texas and other regions of the United +States where ranches are common illustrate the modern use of +property marks. A collection of these brands made by the +writer compares unfavorably for individuality and ideography +with the genuine marks of Indians for similar purposes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 85px;"> +<img src="images/dp532_pg442b.png" width="85" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 579.</span>—African property mark.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The following translation from <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Kunst and Witz der Neger +in Das Ausland</span> (<i>a</i>), describing Fig. 579, is inserted for comparison:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Whenever a pumpkin of surprisingly fine appearance is growing, which +promises to furnish a desirable water vase, the proprietor hurries to distinguish +it by cutting into it some special mark with his knife, and probably +superstitious feelings may coöperate in this act. I have reproduced +herewith the best types of such property marks which I have been able to +discover.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 530px;"> +<img src="images/dp532_pg442c.png" width="530" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 580.</span>—Owner’s marks, Slesvick.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Sir John Lubbock (<i>a</i>) tells that many of the arrows found at +Nydam, Slesvick, had owner’s marks on them, now reproduced +in Fig. 580 as <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>, resembling those on the modern Esquimaux +arrows shown in the same figure as <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>Prof. Anton Schiefner (<i>b</i>) gives a remarkable parallel between +the Runic alphabet and the property marks of the Finns, +Lapps, and Samoyeds.</p> + + +<h4>PERSONAL NAMES.</h4> + +<p>The names of Indians as formerly adopted by or bestowed among themselves +were generally connotive. +They very often refer to some animal +and predicate an attribute or position +of that animal. On account of their +sometimes objective and sometimes +ideographic nature, they almost invariably +admit of being expressed in +sign language; and for the same reason +they can readily be portrayed in +pictographs. The device generally +adopted by the Dakotan tribes to signify +that an object drawn in connection +with a human figure was a totemic +or a personal name of the individual, +is to connect that object with +the figure by a line drawn to the head or, more frequently, to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443">[443]</a></span> +mouth of the latter. The same tribes make a distinction to manifest +that the gesture sign for an object gestured is intended to be the name +of a person and not introduced for any other purpose by passing the +index forward from the mouth in a direct line after the conclusion of +the sign for the object. This signifies “that is his name,” the name of +the person referred to.</p> + +<p>As a general rule, Indians were named in early infancy according to +a tribal system, but in later life each generally acquired a new name, or +perhaps several names in succession, from some special exploits or adventures. +Frequently a sobriquet is given which is not complimentary. +All of the names subsequently acquired as well as the original names +are so connected with material objects or with substantive actions as +to be expressible in a graphic picture and also in a pictorial sign. In +the want of alphabet or syllabary they used the same expedient to distinguish +the European invaders. A Virginian was styled Assarigoa, +“Big Knife.” The authorities of Massachusetts were called by the +Iroquois, Kinshon, “a fish,” doubtless in allusion to the cod industry +and the fact that a wooden codfish then hung, as it did long afterwards, +in the state house at Boston, as an emblem of the colony and state.</p> + +<p>The determination to use names of this connotive character is shown +by the objective translation, whenever possible, of such European +names as it became necessary for them to introduce frequently into +their speech. William Penn was called Onas, that being the word for +feather-quill in the Mohawk dialect. The name of the second French +governor of Canada was De Montmagny, erroneously translated to be +“great mountain,” which words were correctly translated by the Iroquois +into Onontio, and this expression becoming associated with the +title has been applied to all successive Canadian governors, though the +origin having been generally forgotten, it has been considered to be a +metaphorical compliment.</p> + +<p>The persistence of titles is shown by the fact that the Abnaki of +New Brunswick to-day call Queen Victoria, “King James,” with a feminine +addition.</p> + +<p>Gov. Fletcher was named by the Iroquois Cajenquiragoe, “the great +swift arrow,” not because of his speedy arrival at a critical time, as +has been supposed, but because they had somehow been informed of +the etymology of his name, “arrow-maker” (Fr. fléchier). A notable +example of the adoption of a graphic illustration from a similarity in +the sound of the name to known English words is given in the present +paper, in Fig. <a href="#page596">919</a>, where Gen. Maynadier is represented as “many +deer.”</p> + +<p>While, as before said, some tribes give names to children from considerations +of birth and kinship according to a fixed rule, others conferred +them after solemn deliberation. Even these were not necessarily +permanent. A diminutive form is frequently bestowed by the affection of +the parent. On initiation into one of the cult associations a name is +generally received. Until this is established a warrior is liable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444">[444]</a></span> +change his name after every fight or hunt. He will sometimes only +acknowledge the name he has himself assumed, perhaps from a +dream or vision, though he may be habitually called by an entirely +different name. From that reason the same man is sometimes known +under several different epithets. Personal peculiarity, deformity, or +accident is sure to fix a name against which it is vain to struggle. +Girls do not often change names bestowed in their childhood. The +same precise name is often given to different individuals in the same +tribe, but not so frequently in the same band, whereby the inconvenience +would be increased. For this reason it is often necessary +to specify the band, sometimes also the father. For instance, when +the writer asked an Indian who Black-Stone, a chief mentioned in +the Lone-Dog winter counts, was, the Indian asked, first, what tribe +was he; then, what band; then, who was his father; and, except in the +case of very noted persons, the identity is not proved without an answer +to these questions. A striking instance of this plurality of names +among the Dakotas was connected with the name Sitting-Bull, belonging +to the leader of the hostile band, while one of that name was almost +equally noted as being the head soldier of the friendly Dakotas at Red-Cloud +Agency.</p> + +<p>The northeastern tribes sometimes formally resurrected the name +of the dead and also revived it by adoption. See Jes. Rel., 1639, p. 45, +and 1642, p. 53.</p> + +<p>Among the peculiarities connected with Indian personal names, far +too many for discussion here, is their avoidance of them in direct address, +terms of kinship or relative age taking their place. Maj. J. W. +Powell states that at one time he had the Kaibab Indians, a small +tribe of northern Arizona, traveling with him. The young chief was +called by white men “Frank.” For several weeks he refused to give +his Indian name and Maj. Powell endeavored to discover it by noticing +the term by which he was addressed by the other Indians, but invariably +some kinship term was employed. One day in a quarrel his wife +called him Chuarumpik (“Yucca-heart”). Subsequently Maj. Powell +questioned the young chief about the matter, who explained and apologized +for the great insult which his wife had given him and said that +she was excused by great provocation. The insult consisted in calling +the man by his real name.</p> + +<p>Everard F. im Thurn (<i>g</i>) gives the following account of the name-system +of the Indians of Guiana, which might have been written with +equal truth about some tribes of North America:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The system under which the Indians have their personal names is intricate and +difficult to explain. In the first place, a name, which may be called the proper name, +is always given to a young child soon after birth. It is said to be proper that the +peaiman, or medicine-man, should choose and give this name, but, at any rate now, +the naming seems more often left to the parents. The word selected is generally the +name of some plant, bird, or other natural object. But these names seem of little +use, in that owners have a very strong objection to telling or using them, apparently<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445">[445]</a></span> +on the ground that the name is part of the man, and that he who knows the +name has part of the owner of that name in his power. +One Indian, therefore, generally addresses another only according to the relationship +of the caller and the called, as brother, sister, father, mother, and so on. These +terms, therefore, practically form the names actually used by Indians amongst themselves. +But an Indian is just as unwilling to tell his proper name to a white man +as to an Indian, and, of course, between the Indian and the white man there is no +relationship the term for which can serve as a proper name. An Indian, therefore, +when he has to do with a European, asks the latter to give him a name, and if one +is given to him always afterwards uses this. The names given in this way are generally +simple enough—John, Peter, Thomas, and so on.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp535_pg445a.png" width="160" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 581.</span>—Signature +of Running +Antelope, +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The original of Fig. 581 was made in 1873 by Running +Antelope, chief of the Uncapapa Dakota, in the style of +a signature instead of being attached to his head by a line +as is the usual method of the tribe in designating personal +names.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp535_pg445b.png" width="550" height="179" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 582.</span>—Solinger sword-makers’ marks.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 582 presents a curious comparison with Figs. <a href="#page424">548</a> and <a href="#page594">903</a> +showing the manner in which the wolf, proverbially a lean animal, was +delineated by Germans in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It +is taken from Rudolf Cronau (<i>b</i>), whose remarks are translated and +condensed as follows:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The oldest representation known to me of the “wolf” occurs on a +Gothic sword of the thirteenth century, in the Historical Museum of +Dresden.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Is more primitive, from a sword of the last half of the fourteenth +century, in the “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Berliner Zeughause</span>;” also similar to <i>c</i>, of the same +period, from a specimen in the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Züricher Zeughaus</span>.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> and <i>e</i>. Signatures on two specimens in the collection in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Feste Coburg</span>; +<i>e</i> is a rare representation of the figure of the wolf of 1490, in the +Germanic Museum at Nürnberg, and still more intricate (<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">verzwickter</span>) +is the drawing <i>f</i> on a Dresden specimen of the year 1559.</p> + +</div> + +<p>A large proportion of the pictographs of several names next to be +presented are from Red-Cloud’s Census, the history of which is as +follows:</p> + +<p>A pictorial census was prepared in 1884 under the direction of Red-Cloud, +chief of the Dakota at Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota Territory. +The 289 persons enumerated, many of whom were heads of families, +were the adherents of Red-Cloud and did not represent all the Indians<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446">[446]</a></span> +at that agency. Owing to a disagreement the agent refused to acknowledge +that chief as head of the Indians at the agency, and named another +as the official chief. Many of the Indians exhibited their allegiance to +Red-Cloud by having their names attached in their own pictorial style +to a document showing their votes and number. This filled seven +sheets of ordinary manila paper and was sent to Washington. While +in the custody of Dr. T. A. Bland, of that city, it was loaned by him to +the Bureau of Ethnology to be copied by photography. The different +sheets were apparently drawn by different persons, as the drawings of +human heads vary enough to indicate individuality. This arrangement +seems to imply seven bands or, perhaps, gentes.</p> + +<p>Dr. V. T. McGillicuddy, who at the time was Indian agent at Pine +Ridge Agency, Dakota, in correspondence gives the impression that the +several pictographs representing names were attached as signatures +by the several individuals to a subscription list for Dr. Bland, before +mentioned, who was the editor of The Council Fire, in support of that +publication and with an agreement that each should give 25 cents. +The document in that view would be a subscription list, but the subscribers +were, in fact, the adherents of Red-Cloud. Whatever was the +motive for this collection of pictured names, its interest consists in +the mode of their portrayal, together with the assurance that they were +the spontaneous and genuine work of the Indians concerned.</p> + +<p>In addition to the personal names which immediately follow, a considerable +number of the 289 pictographic names appear elsewhere in +this paper under the various heads of Tribal Designations, Ideography, +Conventionalizing, Customs, special Comparison, etc.</p> + +<p>Interspersed among the personal names taken from the above mentioned +list are others selected from the Oglala Roster, the origin of +which is explained above, and the several winter counts of The-Flame, +The-Swan, American-Horse, and Cloud-Shield, mentioned, respectively, +in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, Sec. <a href="#page266">2</a>. The authority is in each case attached to the pictograph +with the translation of the Indian name, and in some cases with +the name in the original.</p> + +<p>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXIV</span> of the Proceedings of the American +Association for the Advancement of Science and in the American +Anthropologist for July, 1890, gives valuable notes on the subject of +Indian personal names and also has made oral suggestions to the present +writer. Some of those may be considered with reference to the list +now presented. He thinks that the frequent use of color names is +from a mythical or symbolic significance attributed to the colors. +Also the word translated “iron,” or “metal,” is connected with the +color blue, the object called iron being always painted blue when +colors are used, and that color is mystically connected with the water +powers of the Dakotan mythology. The frequent use of the terms +“Little” and “Big,” with or without graphic differentiation, may be +as the terms young and old, junior and senior, are employed by civilized +people, but the expressions in other cases may refer to the size<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447">[447]</a></span> +of the animals seen in the visions of fasting which have determined +the names.</p> + +<p>Explanations on parts of the pictographs not strictly connected with +the personal name are annexed for the reason before indicated and the +objects connected by the names are to some extent arranged in classes.</p> + + +<h5>OBJECTIVE.</h5> + +<p>In the figures immediately following the delineation is objective. +It is sometimes interesting to note the different modes of representing +the same object or concept.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;"> +<img src="images/dp537_pg447a.png" width="170" height="192" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 583.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 583.—High-Back-Bone, a very brave Oglala, +was killed by the Shoshoni. They also shot +another man, who died after he reached home. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1870-’71.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<img src="images/dp537_pg447b.png" width="189" height="337" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 584.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 584.—High-Back-Bone was killed in a +fight with the Snakes (Shoshoni). Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1870-’71. White-Cow-Killer calls +it “High-Back-Bone-killed-by-Snake-Indians winter.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 288px;"> +<img src="images/dp537_pg447c.png" width="288" height="296" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 585.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 585.—A Minneconjou Dakota named +Broken-Back was killed by the Crow Indians at +Black Hills. Swan’s Winter Count, 1848-’49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/dp537_pg447d.png" width="113" height="290" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 586.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 586.—Long-Hair was killed. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1786-’87. To what tribe +he belonged is not known. The tribes, such as +the Crows, in which it is a tribal custom to wear +the hair to an enormous length, eke it out by +artificial means and ornament it with beads and +streamers. In this case the length of the hair +seems to have been a personal peculiarity, not a +tribal mark.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448">[448]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp538_pg448a.png" width="147" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 587.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 587.—They killed the long-haired man in a fight with the Cheyennes +while on an expedition to avenge the death +of The-Man-Who-Owns-The-Flute, who was killed +by the Cheyennes the year before. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1796-’97. This may be +the same man who is referred to in the last preceding +figure, as the expression “killed,” given +in translation by the interpreters, does not always +mean wounded to death, but severely wounded—Hibernicé +“kilt.” Here the scalp shows the length of the hair, and +the victim is called a Cheyenne.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;"> +<img src="images/dp538_pg448b.png" width="275" height="263" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 588.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 588.—The Stabber. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1783-’84. The man’s name +is suggested by the spear in the body over +his head, which is connected with his +mouth by a line.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<img src="images/dp538_pg448c.png" width="216" height="385" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 589.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 589.—Stabber. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This figure is substantially the same as the preceding, +though more rude.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;"> +<img src="images/dp538_pg448d.png" width="106" height="111" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 590.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 590.—Red-Shirt. Red-Cloud’s Census. This and +the following figure exhibit the name, the first showing +only the garment and the second exhibiting it as worn.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449">[449]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;"> +<img src="images/dp539_pg449a.png" width="138" height="255" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 591.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 591.—Red-Shirt, a Dakota, was killed by the +Crows while looking for his ponies near Old Woman’s +fork. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1810-’11. The +bow over the head and the absence of scalp-lock signifies +death by the arrow of enemies.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 267px;"> +<img src="images/dp539_pg449b.png" width="267" height="140" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 592.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 592.—Chief Red-Cloud. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This and the next figure give two +modes of expressing the name of the celebrated +chief, Red-Cloud.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> +<img src="images/dp539_pg449c.png" width="260" height="412" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 593.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 593.—Three-Stars (General Crook) +took Red-Cloud’s young men to help him +fight the Cheyennes. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1876-’77.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp539_pg449d.png" width="171" height="180" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 594.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 594.—Caught-the-Enemy. Red-Cloud’s Census. +The enemy seems to be caught by his hair.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 86px;"> +<img src="images/dp539_pg449e.png" width="86" height="130" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 595.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 595.—Black-Rock was killed by the Crows. +His brother, whose name he had taken, was killed by +the Crows three years before. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1809-’10.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450">[450]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/dp540_pg450a.png" width="158" height="308" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 596.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 596.—Bird, a white trader, was burned to death +by the Cheyennes. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1864-’65. He is surrounded by flames in the picture. +His name was probably Bird, which was pictorially +represented as usual.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 181px;"> +<img src="images/dp540_pg450b.png" width="181" height="140" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 597.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 597.—Red-Lake’s house, which he had recently +built, was destroyed by fire, and he was killed by +the accidental explosion of some powder. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1831-’32. This figure is introduced +here in connection with the simple fire on the +one preceding to show the artistic portrayal separately +of a steady flame and of an explosion.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/dp540_pg450c.png" width="115" height="153" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 598.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 598.—Two-Face, an Oglala, was badly burnt by +the explosion of his powder horn. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1860-’61. Here is another view of the +explosion of gunpowder.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp540_pg450d.png" width="93" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 599.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 599.—A Two-Kettle Dakota, named The-Breast, +died. Swan’s Winter Count, 1836-’37.</p> + +<p>Mato Sapa says: A Two-Kettle, named The-Breast, +died. This is the same character as is given elsewhere +for abundance, plenty of buffalo. But here it has a +wholly personal application.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp540_pg450e.png" width="107" height="163" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 600.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 600.—Left-Handed-Big-Nose was killed by the +Shoshoni. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1839-’40. +His left arm is represented extended, and his nose is +grotesquely conspicuous.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;"> +<img src="images/dp540_pg450f.png" width="139" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 601.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 601.—Roman-Nose. Red-Cloud’s Census. The +large and aquiline nose is exhibited, which was very +liberally translated “Roman Nose,” and the term became +the popular name of a celebrated chief of the +Dakotas.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451">[451]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 253px;"> +<img src="images/dp541_pg451a.png" width="253" height="407" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 602.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 602.—Torn-Belly. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp541_pg451b.png" width="96" height="136" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 603.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 603.—Spotted-Face. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/dp541_pg451c.png" width="142" height="205" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 604.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 604.—Licks-with-his-tongue. Red-Cloud’s +Census. The tongue is exaggerated as well as protruded, +and without explanation might be mistaken +for a large object bitten off for eating in a gluttonous +manner.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 246px;"> +<img src="images/dp541_pg451d.png" width="246" height="151" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 605.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 605.—Knock-a-hole-in-the-head. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 116px;"> +<img src="images/dp541_pg451e.png" width="116" height="149" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 606.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 606.—Broken-Leg-Duck, an Oglala, went to +a Crow village to steal horses and was killed. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1786-’87. A line connects +the bird, one of whose legs is out of order, with +the mouth of the man’s head, which is without scalp-lock.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<img src="images/dp541_pg451f.png" width="146" height="193" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 607.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 607.—Antelope-Dung broke his neck while surrounding +buffalo. American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1853-’54.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452">[452]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/dp542_pg452a.png" width="169" height="269" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 608.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 608.—Antelope-Dung broke his neck while +running antelope. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1853-’54. His head is the only part of his body that +is shown, and it is bleeding copiously. Without the +preceding figure this one would not be intelligible.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp542_pg452b.png" width="87" height="124" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 609.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 609.—Broken-Arrow fell from his horse while +running buffalo and broke his neck. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1859-’60.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<img src="images/dp542_pg452c.png" width="222" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 610.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 610.—Sits-like-a-Woman. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This person is also portrayed in a recent +Dakota record, where the character is represented +by the “woman seated” only. The name of this +man is not “Sits-like-a-Woman,” but High-Wolf—shunkmanitu +(wolf), wankantuya (up above). This +is an instance of giving one name in a pictograph +as if the correct or official name and retaining +another by which the man is known in camp to +his companions.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp542_pg452d.png" width="144" height="172" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 611.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 611.—The-Man-Who-Owns-the-Flute was +killed by the Cheyennes. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1795-’96. His flute is represented in +front of him with sounds coming from it. A bullet +mark is on his neck. In reference to this character, +see Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, Sec. <a href="#page692">2</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453">[453]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 278px;"> +<img src="images/dp543_pg453a.png" width="278" height="188" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 612.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 612.—Smoking-Bear. Red-Cloud’s +Census. The bear does not +appear to be smoking the pipe, but +the smoke of the latter is mounting +to the animal’s neck, so the bear is +smoking in a passive sense.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/dp543_pg453b.png" width="425" height="293" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 613.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 613.—Biting-Bear. Red-Cloud’s +Census. The bear seems to +be biting at the bark on the limb of +a tree, which shows the marks of +his claws. This animal, as is well +known, eats the bark of certain +trees.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + +<h5>METAPHORIC.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;"> +<img src="images/dp543_pg453c.png" width="229" height="333" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 614.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 614—Wolf-Ear. Red-Cloud’s Census. The +designation of the ear of a wolf probably refers to +size, and is substantially the same as big-ear.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 310px;"> +<img src="images/dp543_pg453d.png" width="310" height="454" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 615.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 615.—Fighting-Cuss. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This warrior appears, while only armed +with a lance, to be successfully fighting an +enemy who has a gun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454">[454]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp544_pg454a.png" width="184" height="271" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 616.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 616.—Man-with-hearts. Red-Cloud’s Census. +There is no information as to the significance +of this drawing, but it is conjectured that the warrior +had eaten the heart of one or more enemies, as +was frequently done. This was not cannibalism, +but a superstitious and sometimes ceremonial performance, +by which the eater acquired the qualities +of the victim, and in this case would be supposed +to have more than one heart, i. e., the courage +attributed to those hearts.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 102px;"> +<img src="images/dp544_pg454b.png" width="102" height="164" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 617.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 617.—Takes-the-Gun. Red-Cloud’s Census. +It appears from the name that the man is not +handling his own gun, but is on the point of grasping +and taking away the weapon of another person.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/dp544_pg454c.png" width="159" height="173" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 618.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 618.—Jola, Whistler. The Oglala Roster. +This is one of the instances where the usual rule +in the Oglala Roster, of representing the name +above the head, is abandoned, because it is essential +to connect it with the mouth to express the +whistle. Without this arrangement the musical +instrument would not be suggested.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp544_pg454d.png" width="125" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 619.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 619.—American-Horse’s Winter Count for +1872-’73 gives the pictograph of Whistler, also +named Little-Bull. Both of his names appear; +that of Whistler is expressed by the sounds blown +from the mouth. He whistles without an instrument.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;"> +<img src="images/dp544_pg454e.png" width="134" height="171" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 620.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 620.—Ceji, Tongue. The Oglala Roster. +This man was not necessarily an orator, but probably +the nickname was given in derision as orally +“tonguey” might be. Again the line is from the +crown of the head to the protruded tongue.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp544_pg454f.png" width="184" height="350" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 621.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 621.—Canku-sapa, Black-Road. The Oglala +Roster. This road, on which horse tracks are +shown, is distinguished from that of the head +chief Big-Road (<i>a</i>, on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVI</span>) as being much +more narrow and obscure, therefore black.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455">[455]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>ANIMALS.</h5> + +<p>The following figures are selected from a large number to show the +variety of animals, and the differentiation by marks and attitudes +found necessary to present the names. A similar multiplication of the +animals by different coloration is exhibited, but can not be repeated in +the text figures.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"> +<img src="images/dp545_pg455a.png" width="193" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 622.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 622.—Bob-tail-Horse. Red-Cloud’s Census. +The translation of the Indian’s name is rather +liberal, but the device is graphic.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<img src="images/dp545_pg455b.png" width="151" height="327" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 623.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 623.—Two-Eagles. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp545_pg455c.png" width="144" height="175" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 624.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 624.—Minneconjou Dakota chief, named +Swan, died. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1866-’67. +This bird is supposed to be swimming on the +water, its legs not being visible.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 369px;"> +<img src="images/dp545_pg455d.png" width="369" height="363" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 625.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 625.—Bear-Looks-Back. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456">[456]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp546_pg456a.png" width="144" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 626.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 626.—Mouse. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;"> +<img src="images/dp546_pg456b.png" width="236" height="359" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 627.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 627.—Badger, a Dakota, was killed by +enemies, as shown by the absence of his scalp. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1796-’97.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/dp546_pg456c.png" width="130" height="296" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 628.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 628.—Spider was killed (stabbed) in a fight +with the Pawnees. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1861-’62. An immense effusion of blood is +depicted flowing from the wound.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 167px;"> +<img src="images/dp546_pg456d.png" width="167" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 629.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 629.—Spotted-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457">[457]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;"> +<img src="images/dp547_pg457a.png" width="229" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 630.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 630.—Spotted-Horse. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 209px;"> +<img src="images/dp547_pg457b.png" width="209" height="304" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 631.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 631.—White-Goose was killed in an attack +made by some enemies. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1789-’90. White-Cow-Killer calls it, +“Goose-Feather-killed winter.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<img src="images/dp547_pg457c.png" width="189" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 632.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 632.—Maka-gleska, Spotted-Skunk. The +Oglala Roster. The special characteristic of the +animal is suggested.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp547_pg457d.png" width="185" height="362" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 633.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 633.—Hoka-qin, Carried-the-Badger. The Oglala +Roster. The design explains itself. The animal is exaggerated +in size and some of its features are accentuated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458">[458]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;"> +<img src="images/dp548_pg458a.png" width="224" height="425" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 634.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 634.—Kangi-topa, Four-Crows. The Oglala Roster. +The four crows are cawing forth such explanation as +they can give of the reasons, probably coming from visions, +why they were used to form a name for an Oglala.</p> + + +<h5>VEGETABLE.</h5> + +<p>The products of the vegetable kingdom are not often used by the +Dakotas in their personal designations. The three following figures, +however, are examples of such use.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 116px;"> +<img src="images/dp548_pg458b.png" width="116" height="291" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 635.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 635.—Tree-in-the-Face. Red-Cloud’s Census. This +man probably painted a tree on his face.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 183px;"> +<img src="images/dp548_pg458c.png" width="183" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 636.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 636.—Leaves. Red-Cloud’s Census. This and the +following figure represent two different men of the same +name and the devices are distinctly individual.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp548_pg458d.png" width="124" height="273" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 637.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 637.—Leaves. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<p>With regard to the errors arising from bad translation, an example +may be given, relating to a name the explanation of which has often +been asked. A former chief of the Oglala was called “Old-man-afraid-of-his-Horses,” +by the whites, and his son is known as “Young-man-afraid-of-his-Horses.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459">[459]</a></span> +A common interpretation about “afraid-of-his-horses” +is that the man valued his horses so much that he was afraid +of losing them. The representative of the name, however, stated to the +writer that the correct name was Ta-shunka Kokipapi, and that the +true meaning was “He-whose-horse-they-fear”; literally “His-horse-they-fear-it.”</p> + +<p>A large number of pictorially rendered Indian names attached to +deeds and treaties have been published, e. g., in Documents relating to +the Colonial History of New York (<i>b</i>). Few of them are of interest, +and they generally suggest the assistance of practiced penmen. In the +collections mentioned some of the Dutch marks are in the same general +style as those of the Indians.</p> + +<p>Mr. P. W. Norris, late of the Bureau of Ethnology, had a buffalo robe +containing a record of exploits, which was drawn by Black-Crow, a Dakota +warrior. The successful warrior is represented in each instance +upright, the accompanying figure being always in a recumbent posture, +representing the enemy who was slain. The peculiar feature of these +pictographs is that instead of depicting the victim’s personal name with +a connecting line, the object denoting his name is placed above the +head of the victor in each instance, and a line connects the character +with his mouth. The latter thus seems to proclaim the name of his +victim. A pipe is also figured between the victor and the vanquished, +showing that he is entitled to smoke a pipe of celebration.</p> + +<p>A copy of the whole record was shown to the Mdewakantanwan Dakotas, +near Fort Snelling, Minnesota, in 1883, and the character reproduced +in Fig. 638, about which there was the most doubt, was explained +as signifying “many tongues,” or Loud-Talker.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp549_pg459.png" width="600" height="593" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 638.</span>—Loud-Talker.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The circle at the end of the line running from the mouth contains a +number of lanceolate forms, one-half of each of which is black, the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460">[460]</a></span> +white. They have the appearance of feathers, but also may represent +tongues and signify voice, sound issuing from the mouth, and correspond +in some respect to those drawn by the Mexicans with that significance, +of which examples are given in this work, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, Sec. <a href="#page692">2</a>. +The considerable number of these tongue-like figures suggests intensity +and denotes loud voice, or, as given literally, “loud talker,” that being +the name of the victim.</p> + +<p>It is, however, to be noted that “Shield,” an Oglala Dakota, contends +that the character signifies Feather-Shield, the name of a warrior formerly +living at the Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota.</p> + +<p>Designation of an object, as a name, by means of a connecting line +is mentioned in Kingsborough (<i>a</i>). Pedro de Alvarado, one of the +companions of Cortez, was red-headed. Designating him, the Mexicans +called him Tonatihu, the “Sun,” and in their picture-writing his name +was represented by their conventional character for the sun attached +to his person by a line.</p> + +<p>Other examples are now presented both of the linear connection and +of the iconographic figuration by the old Mexicans.</p> + +<p>In Kingsborough (<i>b</i>) is a pictograph of Chimalpopoca, which name +signifies a smoking shield, here reproduced as Fig. 639 (<i>a</i>). The smoking +shield is connected with the head by a line, and the form of smoke +should be noticed in comparison with the representation of flame and +of voice by the same pictors.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp550_pg460.png" width="600" height="335" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 639.</span>—Mexican names.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The same authority and volume, p. 135 (illustration in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pt. 4, +Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>), gives the name and illustration (reproduced in the same Fig., +<i>b</i>) of Ytzcohuatl, the signification of which name is a serpent armed +with knives. The knives refer to the Itzli stone.</p> + +<p>In the same volume, p. 137, is the name Face of Water, with the corresponding +illustration in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pt. 4, Pl. 12 (here Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span> <i>c</i>). The +drops of water are falling profusely from the face.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461">[461]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIV.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">RELIGION.</span></h2> + + +<p>The most surprising fact relating to the North American Indians, +which until lately had not been realized, is that they habitually lived +in and by religion to a degree comparable with the old Israelites under +the theocracy. This was sometimes ignored, and sometimes denied in +terms, by many of the early missionaries and explorers. The aboriginal +religion was not their religion, and therefore was not recognized +to have an existence or was pronounced to be satanic. Many pictorial +representations are given in this chapter of concepts of the supernatural, +as operative in this world, which is popularly styled religion when +it is not condemned as superstition. The pictographic examples presented +from the Siouan stock are generally explained as they appear. +Those from the Ojibwa and other tribes are not so fully discussed. It +is therefore proper to mention explicitly that, in the several localities +where the tribes are now found which have been the least affected by +civilization, they in a marked degree live a life of religious practices, +and their shamans have a profound influence over their social character. +A careful study of these people has already given indication of +facts corresponding in interest with those which have recently surprised +the world as reported by Mr. Cushing from among the Zuñi and Dr. +Matthews from among the Navajo.</p> + +<p>The most extensive and important publications on the subject have +been made by Maj. J. W. Powell (<i>a</i>), Director of the Bureau of Ethnology. +These have been made at many times and in various shapes, +from the Outlines of the Philosophy of the North American Indians, +read in 1876, to the present year.</p> + +<p>A considerable amount of detail respecting religion appears in Chap. +<span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, Sections <a href="#page231">4</a> and <a href="#page250">5</a>, in the present work.</p> + +<p>The discussion of the religions and religious practices of the tribes +of America is not germane to the present work, except so far as it elucidates +their pictographs. In that connection it may be mentioned that +the tribes of Indians in the territory of the United States, which have +been converted to Christianity, seem not to have spontaneously turned +their pictographic skill to the representation of objects connected with +the religion to which they have been converted. This might be explained +by the statement, often true, that the converts have been taught<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462">[462]</a></span> +to read and write the languages of their teachers in religion, and therefore +ceased to be pictographers. But where they have not been so instructed, +indeed have been encouraged to retain their own language and to write +it in a special manner supposed to be adapted to their ancient methods, +the same result is observed. The Micmacs still with delight draw on +bark their stories of Glooscap and Lox, and scenes from the myths of +their old faith, but unless paid as for a piece of work, do not produce +Christian pictures. This assertion does not conflict with the account +of the “Micmac hieroglyphs” in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span>, Sec. <a href="#page664">2</a>. All the existing +specimens of these were made by Europeans, and the action of the first +Indian converts, which was imitated by Europeans, was the simple use +of their old scheme of mnemotechny to assist in memorizing the lessons +required of them by missionaries. It is also to be noted that some +tribes for convenience have adopted Christian emblems into their own +ceremonial pictographs (see Fig. <a href="#page208">159</a>).</p> + +<p>It has been found convenient to divide this chapter into the following +sections: (1) Symbols of the supernatural. (2) Myths and mythic +animals. (3) Shamanism. (4) Charms and amulets. (5) Religious +ceremonies. (6) Mortuary practices.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SYMBOLS OF THE SUPERNATURAL.</span></h3> + +<p>This group shows the modes of expressing the idea of the supernatural, +holy, sacred, or, more correctly, the mystic or unknown (perhaps +unknowable), that being the true translation of the Dakota word waka<sup>n</sup>. +The concept of “crazy,” in the sense of influenced by superior powers +or inspired, is in the same connection. Not only the North American +Indians, but many tribes of Asia and Africa, consider a demented person +to be sacred and therefore inviolable. The spiral line is but a +pictorial representation of the sign for waka<sup>n</sup>, which is: With its index +finger extended and pointing upward, or all the fingers extended, back +of hand outward, move the right hand from just in front of the forehead +spirally upward nearly to arm’s length from left to right.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;"> +<img src="images/dp552_pg462.png" width="211" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 640.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 640.—Crazy-Dog, a Dakota, carried the pipe +around and took the war path. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1838-’39.</p> + +<p>The waved or spiral lines denote crazy or mystic, +as above explained.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463">[463]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 233px;"> +<img src="images/dp553_pg463a.png" width="233" height="398" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 641.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 641.—Crazy-Horse says his prayers and goes on +the war-path. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1844-’45.</p> + +<p>The waved lines are used again for crazy. “Says +his prayers,” which are the words of the interpreter, +would be more properly rendered by referring to the +ceremonies of organizing a war party.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 219px;"> +<img src="images/dp553_pg463b.png" width="219" height="588" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 642.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 642.—Crazy-Horse’s band left the Spotted-Tail +agency (at Camp Sheridan, Nebraska) and went +north, after Crazy-Horse was killed at Fort Robinson, +Nebraska. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1877-’78.</p> + +<p>Hoofprints and lodge-pole tracks run northward +from the house, which represents the agency. That +the horse is “crazy” is shown by the waved or spiral +lines on his body, running from his nose, hoof, and +forehead. The band is named from its deceased +chief, and is designated by his personal device, a distinct +and unusual departure among Indians tending +towards the evolution of band or party emblems unconnected +with the gentile system.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 234px;"> +<img src="images/dp553_pg463c.png" width="234" height="430" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 643.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 643.—Medicine. Red-Cloud’s Census. The +full rendering should be medicine-man or shaman. +The waving lines above the head again signify mystic +or sacred, and are made in gesture in a similar manner +as that before described, with some differentiation, +for prayer or incantation. The shut or half-closed +eye may be noted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464">[464]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp554_pg464a.png" width="124" height="362" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 644.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 644.—Medicine-man. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This is a rude variant of the foregoing.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 111px;"> +<img src="images/dp554_pg464b.png" width="111" height="394" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 645.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 645.—Crazy-Head. Red-Cloud’s Census. +The wavy lines here form a circle around the head +to suggest the personal name as well as the +quality.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 289px;"> +<img src="images/dp554_pg464c.png" width="289" height="424" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 646.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 646.—Medicine-Buffalo. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This is probably an albino buffalo, +and may refer to the man who possessed +one who is venerated therefor. See Chap. +<span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page376">XIII</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465">[465]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<img src="images/dp555_pg465a.png" width="152" height="312" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 647.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 647.—Kangi-waka<sup>n</sup>, Sacred-Crow. The +Oglala Roster. The lines above the bird’s head +signify sacred, mystic, sometimes termed “medicine,” +as above.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/dp555_pg465b.png" width="168" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 648.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 648.—White-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This is an albino elk which partakes in sacredness +with the albino buffalo. The elk was an +important article of food, though not so much a +reliance as the buffalo, and the practices relating +to the latter would naturally, and in fact did, +measurably, apply to the former.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/dp555_pg465c.png" width="78" height="137" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 649.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 649.—The Dakotas had all the mini waka<sup>n</sup> +(spirit water, or whisky) they could drink. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1821-’22. A barrel with +a waved or spiral line running from it represents +the whisky, the waved line signifying waka<sup>n</sup>, or +spirit, in the double sense of the English word.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp555_pg465d.png" width="185" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 650.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 650.—Cloud-Bear, a Dakota, killed a Dakota, +who was a long distance off, by throwing a +bullet from his hand and striking him in the +heart. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1824-’25. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466">[466]</a></span>The spiral line is used for waka<sup>n</sup>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 268px;"> +<img src="images/dp556_pg466a.png" width="268" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 651.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 651.—A Minneconjou clown, well known to the Indians. The-Flame’s +Winter Count, 1787-’88. His accouterments are fantastic. The +character is explained by Battiste Good’s Winter +Count for the same year as follows:</p> + +<p>“Left-the-heyoka-man-behind winter.” A certain +man was heyoka, that is, in a disordered +frame of mind, and went about the village +bedecked with feathers singing to himself, and +while so joined a war party. On sighting the +enemy the party fled and called to him to turn +back also, but as he was heyoka he construed +everything that was said to him as meaning the +very opposite, and, therefore, instead of turning back he went forward +and was killed. This conception of a man under superhuman influence +being obliged to believe or speak the reverse of the truth is not uncommon +among the Indians. See Leland (<i>a</i>) Algonquin Legends.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 282px;"> +<img src="images/dp556_pg466b.png" width="282" height="98" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 652.</span>—Dream. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 652, from Copway (<i>b</i>), gives the representation of “dream”. +The recumbent human figure naturally suggests +sleep, and the wavy lines to the head indicate +the spiritual or mythic concept of a dream.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp557_pg467h.png"> +<img src="images/dp557_pg467.png" class="hires" width="550" height="160" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 653.</span>—Religious symbols.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 653: <i>a</i> is an Ojibwa pictograph taken from Schoolcraft representing +“medicine man,” “meda.” With these horns and spiral may be +collated <i>b</i> in the same figure, which portrays the ram-headed Egyptian +god Knuphis, or Chnum, the spirit, in a shrine on the boat of the sun, +canopied by the serpent goddess Ranno, who is also seen facing him +inside the shrine. This is reproduced from Cooper’s Serpent Myths (<i>a</i>). +The same deity is represented in Champollion (<i>a</i>) as reproduced in Fig. +653, <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> is an Ojibwa pictograph found in Schoolcraft (<i>i</i>) and given as +“power.” It corresponds with the Absaroka sign for “medicine man” +made by passing the extended and separated index and second finger +of the right hand upward from the forehead, spirally, and is considered +to indicate “superior knowledge.” Among the Otos, as part of the +sign with the same meaning, both hands are raised to the side of the +head and the extended indices pressing the temples.</p> + +<p><i>e</i> is also an Ojibwa pictograph from Schoolcraft, same volume, Pl. 59, +and is said to signify Meda’s power. It corresponds with another sign +made for “medicine man” by the Absaroka and Comanche, viz, the +hand passed upward before the forehead, with index loosely extended. +Combined with the sign for “sky” it means knowledge of superior +matters, spiritual power.</p> + +<p>In many parts of the United States and Canada rocks and large +stones are found which generally were decorated with paint and were +regarded as possessing supernatural power, yet, so far as ascertained, +were not directly connected with any special personage of Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467">[467]</a></span> +mythology. One of the earliest accounts of these painted stones was +made by the Abbé de Gallinée and is published in Margry (<i>d</i>). The +Abbé, with La Salle’s party in 1669, found on the Detroit river, six +leagues above Lake Erie, a large stone remotely resembling a human +figure and painted, the face made with red paint. All the Indians of +the region—Algonquian and Iroquoian—believed that the rock-image +could give safety in the passage of the lake, if properly placated, and +they never ventured on the passage without offering to it presents of +skins, food, tobacco, or like sacrifices. La Salle’s party, which had met +with misfortune, seems to have been so much impressed with the evil +powers of the image that they broke it into pieces.</p> + +<p>Keating’s Long (<i>e</i>) tells:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At one of the landing places of the St. Peters river, in the Sioux country, we observed +a block of granite of about eighty pounds weight; it was painted red and +covered with a grass fillet, in which were placed twists of tobacco offered up in +sacrifice. Feathers were stuck in the ground all round the stone.</p></div> + +<p>Mrs. Eastman (<i>a</i>) also describes a stone painted red, which the Dakotas +called grandfather, in reverence, at or near which they placed as +offerings their most valuable articles. They also killed dogs and horses +before it as sacrifices.</p> + +<p>In “A study of Pueblo Architecture,” by Victor Mindeleff, in the +Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, is an account of +the cosmology of the Pueblos as symbolized in their architecture and +figured devices, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the beginning all men lived together in the lowest depths, in a region of darkness +and moisture; their bodies were misshapen and horrible and they suffered +great misery, moaning and bewailing continually. Through the intervention of +Myuingwa (a vague conception known as the god of the interior) and of Baholikonga +(a crested serpent of enormous size, the genius of water) “the old man” obtained a +seed from which sprang a magic growth of cane. It penetrated through a crevice in +the roof overhead and mankind climbed to a higher plane. A dim light appeared in +this stage and vegetation was produced. Another magic growth of cane afforded +the means of rising to a still higher plane, on which the light was brighter; vegetation +was reproduced and the animal kingdom was created. The final ascent to this +present or fourth plane was effected by similar magic growths and was led by +mythic twins, according to some of the myths, by climbing a great pine tree, in +others by climbing the cane, <i>Phragmites communis</i>, the alternate leaves of which +afforded steps as of a ladder, and in still others it is said to have been a rush,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468">[468]</a></span> +through the interior of which the people passed up to the surface. The twins sang as +they pulled the people out, and when their song was ended no more were allowed to +come, and hence many more were left below than were permitted to come above; +but the outlet through which mankind came has never been closed, and Myuingwa +sends through it the germs of all living things. It is still symbolized by the peculiar +construction of the hatchway of the kiva and in the designs on the sand altars +in these underground chambers, by the unconnected circle painted on pottery, and +by devices on basketry and other textile fabrics.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">MYTHS AND MYTHIC ANIMALS.</span></h3> + +<p>Among the hundreds of figures and characters seen by the present +writer on the slate rocks that abound on the shores and islands of Kejimkoojik +Lake, Queen’s county, Nova Scotia, described in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, +Sec. <a href="#page037">1</a>, there appears a class of incised figures illustrating the religious +myths and folk lore of the Indian tribes which inhabited the neighborhood +within historic times. It is probable that in other parts of America, +and, indeed, in all lands, the pictographic impulses and habits of the +people have induced them to represent the scenes and characters of +their myths on such rocks as were adapted to the purpose, as they are +known to have done on bark, skins, and other objects. But these exhibitions +of the favorite or prevalent myths in the shape of petroglyphs, +though doubtless existing, have seldom been understood and deciphered +by modern students. Sometimes they have not originally been sufficiently +distinct or have become indefinite by age, and frequently their +artists have been people of languages, religions, and customs different +from the tribes now or lately found in the localities and from whom the +significance of the petroglyphs has been sought in vain. The conditions +of the characters at Kejimkoojik, now mentioned, are perhaps +unique. They are drawn with great distinctness and sufficient skill, so +that when traced on the rocks they immediately struck the present +writer as illustrative of the myths and tales of the Abnaki. Many of +these myths had been recently repeated to him by Mrs. W. Wallace +Brown, of Calais, Maine, the highest authority in that line of study, and +by other persons visited in Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and in +Cape Breton and Prince Edwards Islands, who were familiar with the +Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Amalecite, and Micmac tribes. A number +of these myths and tales had before been collected in variant forms by +Mr. Charles G. Leland (<i>a</i>). It is a more important and convincing fact +that the printed impressions of the figures now presented were at once +recognized by individual Indians of the several Abnaki tribes above +mentioned to have the signification explained below. It is also to be +noted that these Abnaki have preserved the habit of making illustrations +from their stories by scratchings and scrapings on birch bark. The +writer saw several such figures on bark ornaments and utensils which +exhibited parts of the identical myths indicated in the petroglyphs but +not the precise scenes or characters depicted on the rocks. The selection<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469">[469]</a></span> +of themes and their treatment were not conventional and showed some +originality and individuality both in design and execution. From the +appearance and surroundings of the rock drawings now specially under +discussion they were probably of considerable antiquity and suggested +that the Micmacs, who doubtless were the artists, had gained the idea of +practicing art for itself, not merely using the devices of pictography for +practical purposes, such as to record the past or to convey information.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp559_pg469.png" width="600" height="364" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 654.</span>—Myth of Pokinsquss.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 654 is one of the drawings mentioned, and indicates one episode +among the very numerous adventures of Glooscap, the Hero-God of the +Abnaki, several of which are connected with a powerful witch called by +Mr. Leland Pook-jin-skwess, or the Evil Pitcher, and by Mrs. W. +Wallace Brown, Pokinsquss, the Jug Woman. She is also called the +toad woman, from one of her transformations, and often appeared in a +male form to fight Glooscap after he had disdained her love proffered +as a female. Among the multitude of tales on this general theme, one +narrates how Glooscap was at one time a Pogumk, or the small animal +of the weasel family commonly called Fisher (Mustela Canadensis), also +translated as Black Cat, and was the son of the chief of a village of +Indians who were all Black Cats, his mother being a bear. Doubtless +these animal names and the attributes of the animals in the tales refer +to the origin of totemic divisions among the Abnaki. Pokinsquss was +also of the Black Cat village, and hated the chief and contrived long +how she could kill him and take his place. Now, one day when the +camp had packed up to travel, the witch asked the chief Pogumk to +go with her to gather gull’s eggs; and they went far away in a canoe +to an island where the gulls were breeding and landed there, and then +she hid herself to spy, and having found out that the Pogumk was +Glooscap, ran to the canoe and paddled away singing:</p> + +<p> +Nikhed-ha Pogumk min nekuk,<br /> +Netswil sāgāmawin!<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470">[470]</a></span></p> + +<p>Which being translated from the Passamaquoddy language <span class="lock">means—</span></p> + +<p> +I have left the Black Cat on an island,<br /> +I shall be chief of the Fishers now!<br /> +</p> + +<p>The continuation of the story is found in many variant shapes. +In one of them Glooscap’s friend the Fox came to his rescue, as +through Glooscap’s m’toulin or magic power he heard the song of +appeal though miles away beyond forests and mountains. In others the +Sea Serpent appears in answer to the Hero-God’s call, and the latter, +mounting the serpent’s back, takes a load of stones as his cargo to throw +at the serpent’s horns when the latter did not swim fast enough. In +the figure the island is shown at the lower right hand as a roundish +outline with Glooscap inside. The small round objects to the left are +probably the gull’s eggs, but may be the stimulating stones above mentioned. +Pokinsquss stands rejoicing in the stern of a canoe, which +points in the wavy water away from the island. The device to the +left of the witch may be the dismantled camp of the Black Cats, and +the one to her right is perhaps where the Fox “beyond forests and +mountains” heard Glooscap’s song of distress.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471">[471]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> +<img src="images/dp560_pg470.png" width="393" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 655.</span>—Myth of Atosis.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 655, another specimen of the same class, refers to one of the tales +about At-o-sis, the Snake, who was the lover of a beautiful Abnaki +woman. He appeared to her from out the surface of a lake as a young +hunter with a large shining silvery plate on his heart and covered with +brilliant white brooches as fish are covered with scales. He provided +her with all animals for food. The bow attached to the semi-human +head in the illustration may refer to this expertness in the chase. The +head of the female figure is covered or masked by one of the insignia of +rank and power mentioned in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, Sec. <a href="#page388">2</a>. She became the +mother of the Black Snakes.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp561_pg471.png" width="300" height="208" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 656.</span>—Myth of the Weasel girls.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 656, from the same locality, shows simply a crane, and a woman +who bears in her hand two branches; but this is a sufficient indication +of the tale of the Weasel girls, who had come +down from Star-land by means of a diminishing +hemlock tree, and flying from Lox had +come to a broad river which they could not +cross. But in the edge of the water stood +motionless a large crane, or the Tum-gwo-lig-unach, +who was the ferryman. “Now, truly, +this is esteemed to be the least beautiful of all +the birds, for which cause he is greedy of good words and fondest of +flattery. And of all beings there were none who had more bear’s oil +ready to annoint every one’s hair with—that is to say, more compliments +ready for everybody—than the Weasels. So, seeing the Crane, +they sang:</p> + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">Wa wela quis kip pat kasqu',<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Wa wela quis kip pat kasqu'.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The Crane has a very beautiful long neck,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The Crane has a very beautiful long neck.<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p>“This charmed the old ferryman very much, and when they said: +‘please, grandfather, hurry along,’ he came quickly. Seeing this, they +began to chant in chorus sweetly as the Seven Stars themselves:</p> + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">Wa wela quig nat kasqu',<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Wa wela quig nat kasqu'. +<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The crane has very beautiful long legs,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"> +The crane has very beautiful long legs.<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p>“Hearing this the good crane wanted more; so when they asked him +to give them a lift across he answered, slowly, that to do so he must be +well paid, but that good praise would answer as well. Now they who +had abundance of this and to spare for everybody were these very +girls. ‘Have I not a beautiful form?’ he inquired; and they both +cried aloud: ‘Oh, uncle, it is indeed beautiful!’ ‘And my feathers?’ +‘Ah, <i>pegeakopchu</i>.’ ‘Beautiful and straight feathers, indeed!’ ‘And +have I not a charming long, straight, neck?’ ‘Truly our uncle has it +straight and long.’ ‘And will ye not acknowledge, oh maidens, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472">[472]</a></span> +my legs are fine?’ ‘Fine! oh, uncle, they are perfection. Never in this +life did we see such legs!’ So, being well pleased, the crane put them +across, and then the two little weasels scampered like mice into the +bush.”</p> + +<p>Though but one woman figure is drawn, the two boughs borne by +her suggest the two weasel girls, who had come down the hemlock tree +and had also been water fairies until their garments were stolen by the +marten, and thereupon they had lost their fairy powers and become +women in a manner at once reminding of the Old World swan-maiden +myth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp562_pg472h.png"> +<img src="images/dp562_pg472.png" class="hires" width="550" height="497" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 657.</span>—The Giant Bird Kaloo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 657 is a sketch of the Giant Bird Kaloo, or, in the literation of +Mr. Leland, Culloo. He was the most terrible of all creatures. He it +was who caught up the mischievous Lox in his claws and, mounting to +the top of the sky among the stars, let him drop, and he fell from dawn +to sunset. Lox was often a badger in the Micmac stories, and was more +Puck-like than the devilish character he showed among the Passamaquoddy, +being then generally in the form of a wolverine, though sometimes +in that of a lynx. In the illustration Kaloo is soaring among the +stars, and appears to possess an extra pair of legs armed with claws. +Perhaps one of the objects beneath his beak represents Lox or some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473">[473]</a></span> +other victim falling through the air. There is another story of Lox’s +two feet talking and acting independently of the rest of his body, and +the two feet and legs without any body may be a symbol of the tricksy +demigod.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;"> +<a href="images/dp563_pg473h.png"> +<img src="images/dp563_pg473.png" class="hires" width="274" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 658.</span>—Kiwach, the Strong Blower.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 658 represents Kiwach, the Strong Blower, a giant who kills people +with his violent breath. Tales of him seem to be more current or +better preserved among the Amalecites than among the other Abnaki.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp564_pg474ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp564_pg474a.png" class="hires" width="550" height="122" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 659.</span>—Story of Glooscap.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 659 is an exact copy of the design on a birch-bark jewel box +made by the Passamaquoddy of Maine, amiably contributed by Mrs. +W. W. Brown, together with the description of that part of the myth +which is illustrated on the box. There are several variants of this +myth, the nearest to the form now presented +being published by Mr. J. Walter +Fewkes (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<p>The Sable and the Black Cat wanted +some maple sugar, and went to a wood +where the maple trees grew. Toward night +they lost their way and separated from each +other to find it, agreeing to call to each +other by <i>m’toulin</i> power. These animals +were as frequently in human form as in +that designated by their names, and could +change to the forms of other animals. It +is not certain, from anything in the present +version of the myth, which one of the +daimons was represented by the Sable, but +the Black Cat afterward appears as Glooscap. +Sable, in his wanderings, came to a +wigwam in which was a large fire with a +kettle boiling over it, tended by a great +Snake. The Snake said he was glad the +Sable had come, as he was very hungry +and would eat him, but in gratitude for his +coming would put him to as little pain as +was possible. The Snake told him to go into the woods and get a straight +stick, so that when he pierced him he would not tear open his entrails. +Sable then went out and sang in a loud voice a <i>m’toulin</i> song for the +Black Cat to hear and come to his aid. The Black Cat heard him and +came to him. Then the Sable told the Black Cat how the Snake was +going to kill him. The Black Cat told Sable not to be afraid, but that +he would kill the big Snake. He told him that he would lie down +behind the trunk of a hemlock tree which had fallen and that Sable +should search out a stick that was very crooked, only pretending to +obey the commands of the great Snake. After finding such a stick he +should carry it to the Snake, who would complain that the stick was +not straight enough, and then Sable should reply that he would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474">[474]</a></span> +straighten it in the fire, holding it there until the steam came out of the +end. Then while the Snake watched the new mode of straightening +sticks Sable should strike the Snake over the eyes. The Sable sought +out the most crooked stick he could find and then returned to the wigwam +where the Snake was. The Snake said the stick was too crooked. +The Sable replied as directed and held it in the fire. When it was +burning he struck the Snake with it over the eyes, blinded him, and ran +away. The Snake followed the Sable, and as he passed over the hemlock +trunk the Black Cat killed him and they cut him into small pieces.</p> + +<p>The two human figures on the left show the animals under the forest +trees in human form bidding good-bye before they parted in search of +the right trail. Their diminutive size gives the suggestion of distance +from the main scene. Next comes the great Snake’s wigwam, the stars +outside showing that night had come, and inside the kettle hung over +a fire, and on its right appear the wide-open jaws and an indication of +the head of the great Snake. The very crooked stick is on the other +side. Farther on the Black Cat comes responsive to the Sable’s call. +Next is shown, the Black Cat and the Sable, who is in human form, +near the hemlock tree. The fact that the tree is fallen is suggested, +without any attempt at perspective, by the broken-off branches and the +thick part of the trunk being upturned. The illustration ends with the +Black Cat sitting upon the Snake, clawing and throwing around pieces +of it.</p> + +<p>The illustration above presented gives an excellent example of the +art of the Passamaquoddy in producing pictures by the simple scraping +of birch bark.</p> + +<p>The characters in Fig. 660 are reproduced from Schoolcraft (<i>k</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp564_pg474bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp564_pg474b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="108" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 660.</span>—Ojibwa shamanistic symbols.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The first device, beginning at the left, is used by the Ojibwa to +denote a spirit or man enlightened from on high, having the head of +the sun.</p> + +<p>The second device is drawn by the Ojibwa for a “wabeno” or shaman.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475">[475]</a></span></p> + +<p>The third is the Ojibwa “symbol” for an evil or one-sided “meda” +or higher-grade shaman.</p> + +<p>The fourth is the Ojibwa general “symbol” for a meda.</p> + +<p>Mr. William H. Holmes, of the Bureau of Ethnology, gives the following +account (condensed from the American Anthropologist, July, +1890) of a West Virginia rock shelter (shown in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXI</span>). The copy +is in two rows of figures, but in the original there is only one row, the +parts marked <i>a</i> and <i>a</i> being united:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Harrison county, West Virginia, a small stream, Two-Lick creek, heading near +the Little Kanawha divide, descends into the west fork of the Monongahela about +4 miles west of Lost Creek station, on the Clarksburg and Weston railroad. Ascending +the stream for a little more than 2 miles and turning to the right up a tributary +called Campbells run, is a recess in the rocks, the result of local surface undermining +of an outcrop of sandstone assisted by roof degradation, which therefore is a +typical rock shelter. At the opening it is about 20 feet long and in the deepest part +extends back 16 feet.</p> + +<p>The rock sculptures, of which simplified outlines are given in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXI</span>, occupy the +greater part of the back wall of the recess, covering a space of some 20 feet long by +about 4 feet in height. At the left the line of figures approaches the outer face of +the rock, but at the right it terminates in the depths of the chamber, beyond which +the space is too low and uneven to be utilized. There are indications that engravings +have existed above and below those shown, but their traces are too indistinct +to be followed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp567_pg476ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp567_pg476p.jpg" class="hires" width="600" height="365" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXI<br />PICTOGRAPH IN ROCK SHELTER, WEST VIRGINIA.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The more legible designs comprise three heads, resembling death’s-heads, one human +head or face, one obscure human figure, three birds resembling cranes or turkeys +(one with outspread wings), three mountain lions or beasts of like character, two +rattlesnakes, one turtle, one turtle-like figure with bird’s head, parts of several unidentified +creatures (one resembling a fish), and four conventional figures or devices +resembling, one a hand, one a star, one the track of a horse, and the fourth the track +of an elk, buffalo, deer, or domestic cow.</p> + +<p>The serpents, placed above and toward the right of the picture, are much larger +than life, but the other subjects are represented somewhat nearly natural size. The +animal figure facing the two death’s-heads is drawn with considerable vigor and +very decidedly suggests the panther. A notable feature is the two back-curving +spines or spine-like tufts seen upon its shoulder; it is possible that these represent +some mythical character of the creature. Two of the animal figures, in accordance +with a widespread Indian practice, exhibit the heart and the life line, the latter +connecting the heart with the mouth; these features are, as usual, drawn in red.</p> + +<p>The human head or face is somewhat larger than life; it is neatly hollowed out to +the nearly uniform depth of one-fourth of an inch, and is slightly polished over most +of the surface. Ear lobes are seen at the right and left, and an arched line, possibly +intended for a plume, rises from the left side of the head. A crescent-shaped band +of red extends across the face, and within this the eyes are indistinctly marked. +The mouth is encircled by a dark line and shows six teeth, the spaces between being +filled in with red.</p> + +<p>Probably the most remarkable members of the series are the three death’s-heads +seen near the middle of the line. That they are intended to represent skulls and +not the living face or head is clear, and the treatment is decidedly suggestive of that +exhibited in similar work of the more cultured southern nations. The eye spaces +are large and deep, the cheek bones project, the nose is depressed, and the mouth is +a mere node depressed in the center.</p> + +<p>All the figures are clearly and deeply engraved, and all save the serpents are in +full intaglio, being excavated over the entire space within the outlines and to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476">[476]</a></span> +depth of from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch. The serpents are outlined in +deep unsteady lines, ranging from one-fourth of an inch to 1 inch in width, and +in parts are as much as one-half an inch in depth. The example at the left is +rather carefully executed, but the other is very rude. It is proper to notice a wing-like +feature which forms a partial arch over the larger serpent. It consists of a +broad line of irregular pick marks, which are rather new looking and may not have +formed a part of the original design; aside from this, there are few indications of +the use of hard or sharp tools, and, although picking or striking must have been +resorted to in excavating the figures, the lines and surfaces were evidently finished +by rubbing. The friable character of the coarse, soft sandstone makes excavation +by rubbing quite easy, and at the same time renders it impossible to produce any +considerable degree of polish.</p> + +<p>The red color used upon the large face and in delineating the life line and heart +of the animal figures is a red ocher or hematite, bits of which, exhibiting the effects +of rubbing, were found in the floor deposits of the recess. The exact manner of its +application is not known (perhaps the mere rubbing was sufficient), but the color is +so fixed that it can not be removed save by the removal of the rock surface.</p></div> + +<p>Regarding the origin and purpose of these sculptures, it seems probable +that they are connected with religious practices and myths. If +the inscriptions were mnemonic records or notices it is reasonable to +suppose that they would have been placed so as to meet the eye of +others than those who made or were acquainted with them. But these +works are hidden in a mountain cave, and even yet, when the forest is +cleared and the surrounding slopes are cultivated, this secluded recess +is invisible from almost every side. The spot was evidently the resort +of a chosen few, such as a religious society. Such sequestered art +gives evidence of a mystic purpose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp566_pg476a.png" width="600" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 661.</span>—Baho-li-kong-ya. Arizona.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In this connection it may be noted that a rock drawing in the Canyon +Segy, Arizona (Fig. 661), shows Baho li-kong-ya, a god, the genius of +fructification, worshipped by living Moki priests. It is a great crested +serpent with mammæ, which are the source of the blood of all the animals +and of all the waters of the land.</p> + +<p>The serpents in the last-mentioned plate and figure may be compared +with two Ojibway forms published by Schoolcraft (<i>l</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/dp566_pg476b.png" width="450" height="180" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 662.</span>—Mythic serpents, Innuits.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The upper design of Fig. 662 undoubtedly represents a mythical animal, +referred to in the myths of some of the Innuits. It is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477">[477]</a></span> +from a drawing on walrus ivory, bearing Museum No. 40054, obtained +at Port Clarence, Alaska. This form is not so close in detail to that +form usually described and more fully outlined in the lower design of +the same figure, which is reproduced from a specimen of reindeer horn +drill-bow, from Alaska, marked No. 24557, collected by L. Turner.</p> + +<p>Ensign Niblack, U. S. Navy (<i>d</i>), gives the following description of the +illustration reproduced here as Fig. 663.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp569_pg477a.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 663.</span>—Haida Wind Spirit.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It represents T’kul, the wind spirit, and the cirrus clouds, explaining the Haida +belief in the causes of the changes in the weather. The center figure is T’kul, the +wind spirit. On the right and left are his feet, which are indicated by long streaming +clouds; above are the wings, and on each side are the different winds, each +designated by an eye, and represented by the patches of cirrus clouds. When T’kul +determines which wind is to blow, he gives the word and the other winds retire. The +change in the weather is usually followed by rain, which is indicated by the tears +which stream from the eyes of T’kul.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp569_pg477bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp569_pg477b.jpg" class="hires" width="600" height="380" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 664.</span>—Orca. Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The same author, p. 322, thus describes Fig. 664:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It represents the orca or whale-killer, which the Haida believe to be a demon +called Skana. Judge Swan says that, according to their <span class="lock">belief—</span></p> + +<p>“He can change into any desired form, and many are the legends about him. One +which was related to me was that ages ago the Indians were out seal-hunting. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478">[478]</a></span> +weather was calm and the sea smooth. One of these killers, or blackfish, a species +of porpoise, kept alongside of a canoe, and the young men amused themselves by +throwing stones from the canoe ballast and hitting the fin of the killer. After +some pretty hard blows from these rocks the creature made for the shore, where it +grounded on the beach. Soon a smoke was seen, and their curiosity prompted them +to ascertain the cause, but when they reached the shore they discovered, to their +surprise, that it was a large canoe, and not the Skana that was in the beach, and +that a man was on shore cooking some food. He asked them why they threw stones +at his canoe. ‘You have broken it,’ he said, ‘and now go into the woods and get +some cedar withes and mend it.’ They did so, and when they had finished the +man said, ‘Turn your backs to the water and cover your heads with your skin +blankets and don’t look till I call you.’ They did so, and heard the canoe grate on +the beach as it was hauled down to the surf. Then the man said, ‘Look, now.’ They +looked, but when it came to the second breaker it went under and presently came +up outside of the breaker a killer and not a canoe, and the man or demon was in its +belly. This allegory is common among all the tribes on the Northwest Coast, and +even with the interior tribes with whom the salmon takes the place of the orca, +which never ascends the fresh-water rivers. The Chilcat and other tribes of Alaska +carve figures of salmon, inside of which is the full length figure of a nude Indian. +* * * Casual observers without inquiry will at once pronounce it to be Jonah in +the fish’s belly, but the allegory is of ancient origin, far antedating the advent of the +white man or the teachings of the missionary.”</p></div> + +<p>The same author, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLIX</span>, gives an explanation of Fig. 665, which +is a copy of a Haida slate carving, representing the “Bear-Mother.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp570_pg478h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp570_pg478.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="244" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 665.</span>—Bear-Mother. Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Haida version of the myth is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A number of Indian squaws were in the woods gathering berries when one of them, +the daughter of a chief, spoke in terms of ridicule of the whole bear species. The +bears descended on them and killed all but the chief’s daughter, whom the king of +the bears took to wife. She bore him a child half human and half bear. The carving +represents the agony of the mother in suckling this rough and uncouth offspring. +One day a party of Indian bear hunters discovered her up a tree and were about to +kill her, thinking her a bear, but she made them understand that she was human. +They took her home and she afterwards became the progenitor of all Indians belonging +to the bear totem. They believe that the bear are men transformed for the time +being. This carving was made by Skaows-ke'ay, a Haida. Cat. No. 73117, U. S. Nat. +Museum. Skidegate village, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Collected +by James G. Swan.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479">[479]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dr. F. Boas (<i>d</i>) gives the following account of a myth of the Kwakiut +Indians illustrated on a house front at Alert Bay, copied here as Fig. +666.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp571_pg479h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp571_pg479.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="434" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 666.</span>—Thunder-bird grasping whale.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The house front shows how Kunkunquilikya (the thunder-bird) tried to lift the +whale. The legend says that he had stolen the son of the raven, who in order to +recover him, carried a whale out of a huge cedar that he covered with a coating of +gum. Then he let all kinds of animals go into the whale, and they went to the land +of the thunder-bird. When the bird saw the whale he sent out his youngest son to +catch it. He was unable to lift it. He stuck to the gum and the animals killed him. +In this way the whole family was slaughtered.</p></div> + +<p>On Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXII</span> is shown a reproduction of a native Haida drawing, +representing the Wasko, a mythologic animal partaking of the characteristics +of both the bear and the orca, or killer. It is one of the totems +of the Haidas.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"> +<a href="images/dp573_pg480ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp573_pg480p.jpg" class="hires" width="475" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXII<br />WASCO AND MYTHIC RAVEN, HAIDA.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>On the same plate is a figure representing the Hooyeh, or mythic +raven. The character is also reproduced from a sketch made by a +Haida Indian. Both of these figures were obtained from Haida Indians +who visited Port Townsend, Washington, in the summer of 1884.</p> + +<p>The following is extracted from Mrs. Eastman’s (<i>b</i>) Dahcotah. The +picture, reproduced here in Fig. 667, is that of Haokah, the antinatural +god, one of the giants of the Dakotas, drawn by White-Deer, a Sioux +warrior, living near Fort Snelling about 1840.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"> +<a href="images/dp572_pg480ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp572_pg480a.png" class="hires" width="383" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 667.</span>—Haokah. Dakota giant.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Explanation of the drawing.</i>—<i>a</i>, the giant; <i>b</i>, a frog that the giant uses for an arrow +point; <i>c</i>, a large bird that the giant keeps in his court; <i>d</i>, another bird; <i>e</i>, an ornament<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480">[480]</a></span> +over the door leading into the court; <i>f</i>, an ornament over a door; <i>g</i>, part of +court ornamented with down; <i>h</i>, part of court ornamented with red down; <i>i</i>, a bear; +<i>j</i>, a deer; <i>k</i>, an elk; <i>l</i>, a buffalo; <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, incense-offering; <i>o</i>, a rattle of deer’s claws, +used when singing; <i>p</i>, a long flute, or whistle; <i>q</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, are meteors that the giant +sends out for his defense, or to protect him from invasion; <i>u</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>x</i>, the giant surrounded +with lightnings, with which he kills all kinds of animals that molest him; +<i>y</i>, red down in small bunches fastened to the railing of the court; <i>z</i>, the same. One +of these bunches of red down disappears every time an animal is found dead inside +the court; <i>aa</i>, <i>bb</i>, touchwood, and a large fungus that grows on trees. These are +eaten by any animal that enters the court, and this food causes their death; <i>cc</i>, a +streak of lightning going from the giant’s hat; <i>dd</i>, giant’s head and hat; <i>ee</i>, his bow +and arrow.</p></div> + +<p>Mrs. Eastman’s explanation of the drawing would have been better +if she had known more about the mystery lodges. It is given here in +her own words.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp572_pg480b.png" width="500" height="85" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 668.</span>—Ojibwa Ma'nidō.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 668, from Copway (<i>c</i>), shows the representations, beginning from +the left, of spirits above, spirits under water, and animals under ground, +all of which are called ma'nidōs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481">[481]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp575_pg481.png" width="600" height="411" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 669.</span>—Menomoni. White Bear Ma'nidō.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 669 is a reproduction of a drawing made by Niópet, chief of the +Menomoni Indians, and represents the white bear spirit who guards +the deposits of native copper of Lake Superior. According to the myth +the animal is covered with silvery hair, and the tail, which is of great +length and extends completely around the body, is composed of bright, +burnished copper. This spirit lives in the earth, where he guards the +metal from discovery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp576_pg482a.png" width="600" height="153" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 670.</span>—Mythic wild-cats. Ojibway.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In a midē' song, given by James Tanner (<i>f</i>), is the representation +of an animal resembling the preceding, viz, the middle character of Fig. +670, to which is attached the Ojibway phrase and explanation as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Che-be-gau-ze-naung gwit-to-i-ah-na maun-dah-ween ah-kee-ge neen-wa-nah gua-kwaik +ke-nah gwit-to-i-ah-na.</p> + +<p>I come to change the appearance of the ground, this ground; I make it look different +each season.</p> + +<p>This is a Manito who, on account of his immensity of tail, and other peculiarities, +has no prototype. He claims to be the ruler over the seasons. He is probably +Gitche-a-nah-mi-e-be-zhew (great underground wild-cat).</p></div> + +<p>The “underground wild-cat” is again mentioned in the same work, +page 377, with an illustration now presented as the left-hand character +of the same Fig. 670, slightly different from the above, described as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A-nah-me be-zhe ne-kau-naw.</p> + +<p>Underground wild-cat is my friend.</p> + +<p>At the fourth verse he exhibits his medicines, which he says are the roots of shrubs +and of We-ug-gusk-oan, or herbs, and from these he derives his power, at least in +part; but lest his claim, founded on a knowledge of these, should not be considered +of sufficient importance, he proceeds to say, in the fifth and sixth verses, that the +snakes and the underground wild-cat are among his helpers and friends. The ferocity +and cunning, as well as the activity of the feline animals have not escaped the notice +of the Indians, and very commonly they give the form of animals of this family to +those imaginary beings whose attributes bear, in their opinion, some resemblance to +the qualities of these animals. Most of them have heard of the lion, the largest of +the cats known to white men, and all have heard of the devil; they consider them +the same. The wild-cat here figured has horns, and his residence is under the +ground; but he has a master, Gitche-a-nah-mi-e-be-zhew (the great underground wild-cat), +who is, as some think, Matche-Manito himself, their evil spirit, or devil. Of +this last they speak but rarely.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482">[482]</a></span></p> + +<p>In another song from Tanner, p. 345, sung only by the midē', is the +drawing, the right hand character of the same figure, of a similar animal +with a bar across the throat, signifying, no doubt, its emerging or +appearance from the surface of the ground.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Nah-ne-bah o-sa ann neen-no ne-mah-che oos-sa ya-ah-ne-no. [Twice.]</p> + +<p>I walk about in the nighttime.</p> + +<p>This first figure represents the wild-cat, to whom, on account of his vigilance, the +medicines for the cure of diseases were committed. The meaning probably is that +to those who have the shrewdness, the watchfulness, and intelligence of the wild-cat, +is intrusted the knowledge of those powerful remedies, which, in the opinion of the +Indians, not only control life and avail to the restoration of health but give an +almost unlimited power over animals and birds.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp576_pg482b.jpg" width="600" height="339" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 671.</span>—Winnebago magic animal.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Schoolcraft, part <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 224, describes Fig. 671 as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It was drawn by Little Hill, a Winnebago chief of the upper Mississippi, west. He +represents it as their medicine animal. He says that this animal is seldom seen; that +it is only seen by medicine men after severe fasting. He has a piece of bone which +he asserts was taken from this animal. He considers it a potent medicine and uses +it by filing a small piece in water. He has also a small piece of native copper which +he uses in the same manner, and entertains like notions of its sovereign virtues.</p></div> + +<p>The four preceding figures are to be compared with those relating to +the Piasa rock. See Figs. <a href="#page078">40</a> and <a href="#page079">41</a>, supra.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 257px;"> +<img src="images/dp576_pg482c.png" width="257" height="216" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 672.</span>—Mythic +buffalo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 672.—A Minneconjou Dakota, having killed a +buffalo cow, found an old woman inside of her. The-Swan’s +Winter Count, 1850-’51.</p> + +<p>For remarks upon this statement see Lone-Dog’s Winter +Count for 1850-’51, supra.</p> + +<p>Graphic representations of Atotarka and of the Great +Heads are shown in Mrs. Erminie A. Smith’s Myths of the Iroquois, in +the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Several illustrations +of myths and mythic animals appear in the present work in +Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, Secs. <a href="#page231">4</a> and <a href="#page250">5</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483">[483]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>THUNDER BIRDS.</h4> + +<p>Some forms of the thunder bird are here presented:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 581px;"> +<img src="images/dp577_pg483a.png" width="581" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 673.</span>—Thunder-bird, Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp577_pg483b.png" width="400" height="352" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 674.</span>—Thunder-bird, Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Figs. 673 and 674 are forms of the thunder +bird found in 1883 among the Dakotas +near Fort Snelling, drawn and interpreted +by themselves. They are both winged, +and have waving lines extending from the +mouth downward, signifying lightning. It +is noticeable that Fig. 673 placed vertically, +then appearing roughly as an upright +human figure, is almost identically the +same as some of the Ojibwa meda or spirit +figures represented in Schoolcraft, and +also on a bark Ojibwa record in the possession +of the writer.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp577_pg483c.png" width="250" height="90" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 675.</span>—Wingless thunder-bird, +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 675 is another and more cursive form of the +thunder bird obtained at the same place and time +as those immediately preceding. It is wingless, +and, with changed position or point of view, would +suggest a headless human figure.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484">[484]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 243px;"> +<img src="images/dp578_pg484a.png" width="243" height="371" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 676.</span>—Thunder-bird, +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The thunder-bird, Fig. 676, is blue, with red breast +and tail. It is a copy of one worked in beads found +at Mendota, Minnesota.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> +<img src="images/dp578_pg484b.png" width="153" height="98" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 677.</span>—Dakota +thunder-bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Sioux believe that thunder is a large bird, and represent it thus, +Fig. 677, according to Mrs. Eastman (<i>c</i>), who adds details condensed +as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This figure is often seen worked with porcupine quills on their ornaments. U-mi-ne +wah-chippe is a dance given by some one who fears thunder and thus endeavors +to propitiate the god and save his own life.</p> + +<p>A ring is made of about 60 feet in circumference by sticking saplings +in the ground and bending their tops down, fastening them +together. In the center of this ring a pole is placed, about 15 feet in +height and painted red. From this swings a piece of birch bark cut +so as to represent thunder. At the foot of the pole stand two boys and two girls. +The boys represent war; they are painted red and hold war clubs in their hands. +The girls have their faces painted with blue clay; they represent peace.</p> + +<p>On one side of the circle a kind of booth is erected, and about 20 feet from it a +wigwam. There are four entrances. When all arrangements for the dance are concluded +the man who gives it emerges from his wigwam, dressed up hideously, crawling +on all fours toward the booth. He must sing four tunes before reaching it.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the medicine men, who are seated in the wigwam, beat time on +the drum, and the young men and squaws keep time to the music by hopping on one +foot and then on the other, moving around inside the ring as fast as they can. This +is continued for about five minutes, until the music stops. After resting a few +moments the second tune commences and lasts the same length of time, then the +third and the fourth; the Indian meanwhile making his way toward the booth. At +the end of each tune a whoop is raised by the men dancers.</p> + +<p>After the Indian has reached his booth inside the ring he must sing four more +tunes. At the end of the fourth tune the squaws all run out of the ring as fast as +possible, and must leave by the same way that they entered, the other three entrances +being reserved for the men, who, carrying their war implements, might be accidentally +touched by one of the squaws, and the war implements of the Sioux warrior +have from time immemorial been held sacred from the touch of woman. For +the same reason the men form the inner ring in dancing round the pole, their war +implements being placed at the foot of the pole.</p> + +<p>When the last tune is ended the young men shoot at the image of thunder, which is +hanging to the pole, and when it falls a general rush is made by the warriors to get +hold of it. There is placed at the foot of the pole a bowl of water colored with blue +clay. While the men are trying to seize the parts of the bark representation of their +god they at the same time are eagerly endeavoring to drink the water in the bowl, +every drop of which must be drank.</p> + +<p>The warriors then seize on the two boys and girls (the representations of war and +peace) and use them as roughly as possible, taking their pipes and war-clubs from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485">[485]</a></span> +them and rolling them in the dirt until the paint is entirely rubbed off from their +faces. Much as they dislike this part of the dance, they submit to it through fear, +believing that after this performance the power of thunder is destroyed.</p></div> + +<p>James’s Long (<i>f</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When a Kansas Indian is killed in battle the thunder is supposed to take him up +they do not know where. In going to battle each man traces an imaginary figure of +the thunder on the soil, and he who represents it incorrectly is killed by the thunder.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp579_pg485a.png" width="600" height="544" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 678.</span>—Thunder-bird. Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 678 is “Skam-son,” the thunder-bird, a tattoo mark copied from +the back of an Indian belonging to the Laskeek village of the Haida +tribe, Queen Charlotte islands, by Mr. James G. Swan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp579_pg485b.png" width="400" height="239" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 679.</span>—Thunder-bird. Twana.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 679 is a Twana thunder-bird, as reported by Rev. M. Eells in +Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey, <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 112.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There is at Eneti, on the reservation [Washington Territory], an irregular basaltic +rock, about 3 feet by 3 feet and 4 inches, and a foot and a half high. On one side +there has been hammered a face, said to be the representation of the face of the thunder-bird, +which could also cause storms.</p> + +<p>The two eyes are about 6 inches in diameter and 4 inches apart and the nose about +9 inches long. It is said to have been made by some man a long time ago, who felt +very badly, and went and sat on the rock and with another stone hammered out the +eyes and nose. For a long time they believed that if the rock was shaken it would +cause rain, probably because the thunder-bird was angry.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486">[486]</a></span></p> + +<p>The three following figures, taken from Red-Cloud’s Census, are connected +with the thunder-bird myth:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;"> +<img src="images/dp580_pg486a.png" width="487" height="398" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 680.</span>—Medicine bird. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 680.—Medicine bird. +Red-Cloud’s Census. The +word medicine is in the Indian +sense, before explained, +and would be more correctly +expressed by the word sacred +or mystic, as is also indicated +by the waving lines issuing +from the mouth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp580_pg486b.png" width="185" height="455" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 681.</span>—Five thunders. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 681.—Five thunders. Red-Cloud’s Census. The +thunder-bird is here drawn with five lines (voices) +issuing from the mouth, which may mean many voices +or loud sound, but is connected with the above mentioned +wavy or spiral lines, which form the conventional +sign for waka<sup>n</sup>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 191px;"> +<img src="images/dp580_pg486c.png" width="191" height="319" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 682.</span>—Thunder +pipe. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 682.—Thunder pipe. Red-Cloud’s Census. This +is a pipe to which are attached the wings of the thunder-bird.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487">[487]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 255px;"> +<img src="images/dp581_pg487a.png" width="255" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 683.</span>—Micmac thunder-bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 683, one of the drawings from the Kejimkoojik rocks of Nova +Scotia, may be compared with the other designs of the thunder-bird +and also with the Ojibwa type of device for woman. +As regards the head, which appears to have a non-human +form, it may also be compared with the many +totemic designations in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page376">XIII</a></span>, on Totems, +Titles, and Names.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 256px;"> +<img src="images/dp581_pg487b.png" width="256" height="283" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 684.</span>—Venezuelan +thunder-bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Marcano (<i>d</i>), describing Fig. 684, reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At Boca del Infierno (mouth of hell), on a plain, there are +found stones, separated from each other by spaces of 7 meters, +on which are found inscriptions nearly a centimeter in depth. +One of them represents a great bird similar to those which +the Oyampis (Crevaux) are in the habit of drawing. On its +left shoulder are seen three concentric circles arranged like +those that form the eyes of the jaguars of Calcara. This figure +is often reproduced in Venezuelan Guiana and beyond the Esequibo. +The bird is united at the right by a double connecting +stroke with another which is incomplete and much smaller. +Furthermore, three small circles are seen below the left wing; +three others, farther apart, separate its right wing from the +neck of the lower bird. The triangles which form the breast +and the tail of the two birds are worthy of note.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. A. Ernst (<i>b</i>) describes the same figure:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>From the same place (“Boca del Infierno,” a rapid of the +Orinoco, 35 kilometers below the mouth of the Caura) is easily +recognized a rough representation of two birds; from the +feathers of the larger one water seems to be dropping; above, +to the right, is seen a picture of the sun. This may be symbolic, +and would then remind one of the representation of the +wind and rain gods on the ruins of Central America.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 407px;"> +<img src="images/dp581_pg487c.jpg" width="407" height="458" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 685.</span>—Ojibwa thunder-bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 685 is a copy of four specimens of Indian workmanship in the +collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The +objects are depicted by porcupine quills worked on pieces of birch bark, +and represent various forms of the +thunder-bird. The specimens are reported +as having been obtained from a +northwestern tribe, which may safely be +designated as the Ojibwa, because the +figures relate to one of the most important +mythic animals of that tribe, and +also because birch bark is used, a material +exceedingly scarce in the country +of the Sioux, among whom also the +thunder-bird has a prominent religious +position.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Made of neutral-tinted quills upon +yellow bark, as is also <i>b</i>, which is without the projecting pieces to designate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488">[488]</a></span> +wings. In <i>c</i>, made of yellow quills on faded red bark, the head +is shown with the wings and legs beneath, while in the two preceding +figures the head takes the place of the bird’s body. <i>d.</i> Here is still +more abbreviation, the body and legs being absent, leaving only the +head and wings. This is made of neutral-tint quills on straw-yellow +bark.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp582_pg488a.jpg" width="250" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 686.</span>—Moki Rain bird.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 686 is a copy of a painting on a jar, probably of old Moki work, +thus described in the manuscript catalogue of Mr. T. V. Keam:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is the “Rain bird” (Tci-zur), the upper portion surrounded by inclosing cloud +symbols, arranged so as to convey the idea of the germinative symbol +implying the generative power of rain. The crosshatching, +still water, in the wings denotes rain water in volume. The body +or tail of the bird divided into two tapering prolongations is a +very common occurrence. As a cloud emblem in the modern ware, +the Tci-zur is not like the Um-tokina (Thunder-bird) in mythical +creation, but is the comprehensive name used by the women for +any small bird. Explained as a rain emblem by the fact that during +seasons of sufficient rainfall flocks of small birds surround the +villages and gardens, while during drought they take flight to the +distant water courses.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp582_pg488b.jpg" width="300" height="241" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 687.</span>—Ahuitzotl.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 687 is reproduced from Kingsborough (<i>c</i>). +It represents Ahuitzotl, which is the name of an +aquatic animal famous in Mexican mythology. The +conventional sign for water is connected with this +animal which Dr. Brinton (<i>c</i>) calls a hedgehog.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp582_pg488ch.png"> +<img src="images/dp582_pg488c.png" class="hires" width="550" height="211" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 688.</span>—Peruvian fabulous animals.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Wiener (<i>c</i>) gives a copy, here reproduced as the left-hand character in +Fig. 688, of a bas-relief found at Cabana, Peru, representing a fabulous +animal, a quadruped, the hair of which is floating and its tongue +hanging out of the mouth and ending in serpents’ heads. One-sixth +actual size.</p> + +<p>The same author, loc. cit., gives a copy, now reproduced as the right-hand +character in the same Fig. 688, of another bas-relief in granite +found at Cabana, Peru, representing a fabulous animal, perhaps the +alcoce, sitting like a dog. One-sixth natural size.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489">[489]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;"> +<a href="images/dp583_pg489h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp583_pg489.jpg" class="hires" width="246" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 689.</span>—Australian mythic personages.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Thomas Worsnop (<i>a</i>) gives an account of Fig. 689, abbreviated +as follows:</p> + +<p>Sir George Grey, between 1836 and 1839, saw on a sandstone rock a +most extraordinary large figure. Upon examination this proved to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490">[490]</a></span> +a drawing at the entrance to a cave, which he found to contain besides +many remarkable paintings. On the sloping roof the principal character, +i. e., the upper one of Fig. 689, was drawn. In order to produce +the greater effect the rock about it was painted black and the figure +itself colored with the most vivid red and white. It thus appeared to +stand out from the rock, and Sir George Grey says he was surprised at the +moment that he first saw this gigantic head and upper part of a body +bending over and staring grimly down at him. He adds that it +would be impossible to convey in words an adequate idea of this +uncouth and savage figure, and therefore he only gives such a succinct +account as will serve as a sort of description.</p> + +<p>Its head was encircled by bright red rays, something like the rays +one sees proceeding from the sun, when depicted on the signboard of a +public house; inside of this came a broad stripe of very brilliant red, +which was crossed by lines of white; but both inside and outside of +this red space were narrow stripes of a still deeper red, intended probably +to mark its boundaries; the face was painted vividly white and +the eyes black, being, however, surrounded by red and yellow lines; +the body, hands, and arms were outlined in red, the body being curiously +painted with red stripes and bars.</p> + +<p>Upon the rock which formed the left-hand wall of this cave, and +which partly faced you on entering, was a very singular painting, the +lower character of the same figure, vividly colored, representing four +heads joined together. From the mild expression of the countenances +they appeared to represent females, and to be drawn in such a manner, +and in such a position, as to look up at the principal figure, before +described; each had a very remarkable head-dress, colored bright blue, +and one had a necklace on. Both of the lower figures had a sort of +dress painted with red in the same manner as that of the principal +figure, and one of them had a band round her waist. In Sir George +Grey’s opinion each of the four faces was marked by a totally distinct +expression of countenance, and none of them had mouths.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SHAMANISM.</span></h3> + +<p>The term “shaman” is a corrupted form of the Sanscrit word meaning +ascetic. Its original application was to the religion of certain tribes +of northern Asia, but now shamanism is generally used to express +several forms of religion which are founded in the supposed communion +with and influence over supernatural beings by means of magic arts. +The shaman or priest pretends to control by incantations and ceremonies +the evil spirits to whom death, sickness, and other misfortunes are +ascribed. This form or stage of religion was so prevalent among the +North American Indians that the adoption of the term “shaman” here +is substantially correct, and it avoids both the stupid expression<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491">[491]</a></span> +“medicine man” of current literature and the indefinite title “priest,” +the associations with which are not appropriate to the Indian religious +practitioner. The statement that the Indians worship, or ever have +worshiped, one “Great Spirit” or single overruling personal god is +erroneous. That philosophical conception is beyond the stage of culture +reached by them, and was not found in any tribe previous to missionary +influence. Their actual philosophy can be expressed far more objectively +and therefore pictorially.</p> + +<p>The special feature of the notes now collected under the present heading +relates to the claims and practices of shamans, but the immediately +succeeding headings of “Charms and Amulets” and of “Religious +Ceremonies” are closely connected with the same topic. It must be +confessed that, as now presented, they have been arranged chiefly for +mechanical convenience, to which convenience also in other parts of the +present work scientific discrimination has sometimes been forced to +yield without, it is hoped, much injury. Individual intercomparison, +with or without cross references, is besought from any critical reader +of this paper.</p> + +<p>Feats of jugglery or pretended magic rivaling or surpassing the best +of spiritualistic séances have been recounted to the present writer in +many places by independent and intelligent Indian witnesses, not +operators, generally of advanced age. The cumulated evidence gives +an opportunity for spiritualists to argue for the genuineness of their +own manifestations or manipulations as, in accordance with the degree +of credence, they may be styled. Others will contend that these remarkable +performances in which this hemisphere was rich before the Columbian +discovery—the occidental rivaling the oriental Indians—belong +to a culture stage below civilization. They will observe that the age +of miracles among barbaric people has not expired, and that it still +exists among outwardly civilized persons who are yet subject to superstition +in its true etymologic sense of “remaining over from the past.”</p> + +<p>The most elaborate and interesting of these stories which are known +relate to a time about forty years ago, shortly before the Davenport +brothers and the Fox sisters had excited interest in the civilized portions +of the United States; but exhibitions of a magic character are +still given among the tribes, though secretly, from fear of the Indian +agents and missionaries. It is an important fact that the first French +missionaries in Canada and the early settlers of New England described +substantially the same performances when they first met the Indians, +all of whom belonged to the Algonquian or Iroquoian stocks. So +remarkable and frequent were these performances of jugglery that the +French, in 1613, called the whole body of Indians on the Ottawa River, +whom they met at a very early period, “The Sorcerers.” They were the +tribes afterwards called Nipissing, and were the typical Algonquians. +No suspicion of prestidigitation or other form of charlatanry appears +to have been entertained by any of the earliest French and English<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492">[492]</a></span> +writers on the subject. The severe Puritan and the ardent Catholic +both considered that the exhibitions were real, and the work of Satan. +It is also worth mentioning that one of the derivations of the name +“Micmac” is connected with the word meaning sorcerer. The early +known practices of this character, which had an important effect upon +the life of the people, extended from the extreme east of the continent +to the Great Lakes. They have been found later far to the south, and +in a higher state of evolution.</p> + +<p>It was obvious in cross-examining the old men of the Algonquians that +the performances of jugglery were exhibitions of the pretended miraculous +power of an adventurer whereby he obtained a reputation above +his rivals and derived subsistence and authority by the selling of +charms and pretended superhuman information. The charms and +fetiches which still are bought from the few shamans who yet have +a credulous clientele are of three kinds—to bring death or disease +on an enemy, to lure an enemy into an ambush, and to excite a return +to sexual love.</p> + +<p>Among the Ojibwa three distinct secret societies are extant, the members +of which are termed, respectively and in order of their importance, +the Midē', the Jĕs'sakīd, and the Wâbĕnō. The oldest and most influential +society is known as the Midē'wiwin', or Grand Medicine, and the +structure in which the ceremonies are conducted is called the Midē'wigân, +or Grand Medicine lodge.</p> + +<p>The following statement of the White Earth Midē' shaman presents +his views upon the origin of the rite and the objects employed in connection +with ceremonies, as well as in the practices connected with +medical magic and sorcery:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When Minabō'sho, the first man, had been for some time upon the earth, two great +spirits told him that to be of service to his successors they would give to him several +gifts, which he was to employ in prolonging life and extending assistance to +those who might apply for it.</p> + +<p>The first present consisted of a sacred drum, which was to be used at the side of +the sick and when invoking the presence and assistance of the spirits. The second +was a sacred rattle, with which he was enabled to prolong the life of a patient. The +third gift was tobacco, which was to be an emblem of peace; and as a companion he +also received a dog. He was then told to build a lodge, where he was to practice +the rites of which he would receive further instruction.</p> + +<p>All the knowledge which the Midē' have, and more, Minabō'sho received from the +spirits. Then he built a long lodge, as he had been directed, and now even at this +day he is present at the Sacred Medicine lodge when the Grand Medicine rite is performed.</p> + +<p>In the rite is incorporated most that is ancient amongst them, songs and traditions +that have descended, not orally alone, but by pictographs, for a long line of generations. +In this rite is also perpetuated the purest and most ancient idioms of their +language, which differs somewhat from that of the common, every-day use.</p></div> + +<p>It is desirable to explain the mode of using the Midē' and other bark +records of the Ojibwa and also those of other tribes mentioned in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493">[493]</a></span> +paper. A comparison made by Dr. Tyler of the pictorial alphabet to +teach children, “A was an archer,” etc., is not strictly appropriate in +this case. The devices are not only mnemonic, but are also ideographic +and descriptive. They are not merely invented to express or memorize +the subject, but are evolved therefrom. To persons acquainted with +secret societies a good comparison for the charts or rolls is what is +called the trestle board of the Masonic order, which is printed and published +and publicly exposed without exhibiting any of the secrets of the +order, yet through its ideography it is practically useful to the esoteric +members by assisting memory in details of ceremony and it also prevents +deviation from the established ritual.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp587_pg493a.png" width="250" height="94" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 690.</span>—Ojibwa Midē' +wigwam.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 690, from Copway (<i>d</i>), gives the Ojibway character +for Grand Medicine lodge.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Fig. <a href="#page254">171</a>, supra, is a reproduction, with description, of a birch-bark +record illustrating the alleged power of a Jĕssakkī'd, one who is also +a Midē' of the four degrees of the Medicine Society.</p> + +<p>Fig. <a href="#page254">172</a>, supra, represents, with explanations, a Jĕssakkī'd named +Niwi'kki, curing a sick woman by sucking the demon +through a bone tube.</p> + +<p>When the method of procedure of a Midē' goes beyond +the ordinary ceremonies, such as chanting prayers and +drumming, the use of the rattle, and the administration +of magic medicines and exorcisms, it overlaps the prescribed +formulæ of the Midē'win and partakes of the +rites of the Jĕssakkī'd or “Juggler.”</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp587_pg493b.png" width="125" height="232" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 691.</span>—Lodge of +a Midē'.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The lodge of the Midē' is represented as in Fig. 691, +the shaman himself being indicated as sitting inside.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp587_pg493c.png" width="177" height="283" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 692.</span>—Lodge of +Jĕssakkī'd.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Jĕssakkī'd represents his lodge or jugglery as +shown in Fig. 692, the shaman being represented as sitting +on the outside. The chief feature of the jugglery +lodge is that the branch is always seen projecting from the +top of one of the vertical poles, which peculiarity exists +in no other religious structure represented in pictorial +records.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The following group, including Figs. 693 to 697, gives several modes +of illustrating the “making buffalo medicine” by the Dakotas and other +tribes of the Great Plains. The main object was to bring the buffalo to +where they could be hunted successfully, and incantations, with dancing +and many ceremonies, were resorted to, as upon the buffalo the tribes depended +not only for food but for most of the necessaries and conveniences +of their daily life. The topic is referred to elsewhere in this +paper, especially in Lone-Dog’s Winter Count for the year 1810-’11.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494">[494]</a></span></p> +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/dp588_pg494a.png" width="161" height="149" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 693.</span>—Making +medicine. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p>Fig. 693.—A Minneconjou chief named Lone-Horn made medicine +with a white buffalo cow skin. The-Swan’s Winter +Count, 1858-’59.</p> + +<p>The horned head of the animal is connected with the +man figure. An albino buffalo was much more prized +for ceremonial purposes than any other. Lone-Horn, +chief of the Minneconjous, died in 1874, in his camp on +the Big Cheyenne.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;"> +<img src="images/dp588_pg494b.png" width="101" height="185" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 694.</span>—Making +medicine. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 694.—A Minneconjou Dakota named Little-Tail +first made “medicine” with white buffalo cow skin. +The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1810-’11. Again the head +of an albino buffalo.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;"> +<img src="images/dp588_pg494c.png" width="192" height="408" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 695.</span>—Making +medicine. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 695.—White-Cow-Man. Red-Cloud’s Census. The +mere possession of an albino buffalo conferred dignity +and honor. To have once owned such an animal, even +though it had died or been lost, gave specific rank.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp588_pg494d.png" width="164" height="164" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 696.</span>—Making +medicine. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 696.—Lone-Horn makes medicine. “At such +times Indians sacrifice ponies and fast.” The-Flame’s +Winter Count, 1858-’59. In this figure the buffalo head +is black.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/dp588_pg494e.png" width="168" height="227" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 697.</span>—Making +medicine.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 697. Buffalo is scarce; an Indian makes medicine +and brings a herd to the suffering. The-Flame’s Winter +Count, 1843-’44.</p> + +<p>Here the incantation is shown by a tipi with the buffalo +head drawn upon it. It is the “medicine” or sacred +tipi where the rites are held.</p> + +<p>A curious variant of divination with regard to the use of songs in the +removal of disease was found among the Choctaws. Each of the songs<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495">[495]</a></span> +of this class bore reference to some herb or form of treatment, each of +which was represented objectively or pictorially and produced simultaneously +with the chanting of the appropriate song by the shaman. The +remedy or treatment to be adopted was decided upon by the degree of +pleasure or relief afforded to the patient by the respective songs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp589_pg495a.png" width="300" height="251" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 698.</span>—Magic Killing.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 698. Cat-Owner was killed with a spider-web thrown at him by +a Dakota. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1824-’25. +The spider-web is shown reaching to the heart of +the victim from the hand of the man who threw it +and two spiral wakan lines are also shown. Blood +issuing from his nose, colored red in the original, +indicates that he bled to death. It is a common +belief among Indians that certain “medicine men” +possess the power of taking life by shooting needles, +straws, spider-webs, bullets, and other objects, however distant +the person may be against whom they are directed.</p> + +<p>It may be noted that the union line connecting the two figures at the +base signifies that they belong to the same tribe which the hair on the +figure of the left shows to be Dakota. The victim is not scalped, but +has no hair or other designation, being shown only in outline.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"> +<img src="images/dp589_pg495b.jpg" width="210" height="227" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 699.</span>—Held a ghost +lodge.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 699. Cannaksa-Yuha, Has-a-war-club; from the Oglala Roster. +This man has his father’s name “war-club,” and is +therefore set by the ghosts in his stead as a warrior. +He is supposed to be invulnerable to any mortal weapon, +and the children and even women fear him as they +would a ghost. He holds the war club before his face, +as it partakes of the nature of insignia. In the original +the whole of the man’s face is painted red. This is to +show that he has a wakicagapi-ecokicoupe, which means that he has +put up a ghost tent, concerning which there are many and complicated +ceremonies and details narrated by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey in the American +Anthropologist, <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 145 et seq.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;"> +<img src="images/dp589_pg495c.png" width="386" height="131" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 700.</span>—Muzzin-ne-neen. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>John Tanner (<i>g</i>) gives an account of sorcery among the Ojibwa, with +illustrations copied as Fig. 700, being nearly identical with those recently +obtained by Dr. Hoffman, and published in the Seventh Ann. Rep., +Bureau of Ethnology, as Figs. 20 and 21.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It was thought necessary to have recourse to a medicine hunt. Nah-gitch-e-gum-me +[a “medicine” maker] sent to me and O-ge-mah-we-ninne, the best two +hunters of the band, each a little leather sack of medicine, consisting of certain +roots pounded fine and mixed with red paint, to be applied to the little images or +figures of the animals we wish to kill. Precisely the same method is practiced in +this kind of hunting, at least as far as the use of medicine is concerned, as in those<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496">[496]</a></span> +instances where one Indian attempts to inflict disease or suffering on another. A +drawing or a little image is made to represent the man, the woman, or the animal on +which the power of the medicine is to be tried; then the part representing the heart +is punctured with a sharp instrument, if the design be to cause death, and a little +of the medicine is applied. The drawing or image of an animal used in this case is +called muzzin-ne-neen, and the same name is applicable to the little figures of a man +or women, and is sometime rudely traced on birch bark, in other instances more carefully +carved of wood. These little images or drawings, for they are called by the +same names, whether of carved wood or rags or only rudely sketched on birch +bark, or even traced in sand, are much in use among several and probably all the +Algonquin tribes. Their use is not confined to hunting, but extends to the making +of love, and the gratification of hatred, revenge, and all malignant passions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp590_pg496h.png"> +<img src="images/dp590_pg496.png" class="hires" width="550" height="266" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 701.</span>—Muzzin-ne-neen. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It is a prevailing belief that the necromancers, men or women of medicine, or +those who are acquainted with the hidden powers of their <i>wusks</i>, can, by practicing +upon the muzzin-ne-neence, exercise an unlimited control over the body and mind +of the person represented. Many a simple Indian girl gives to some crafty old squaw +her most valued ornaments, or whatever property she may possess, to purchase from +her the love of the man she is most anxious to please. The old woman, in a case of +this kind, commonly makes up a little image of stained wood and rags, to which she +gives the name of the person whose inclinations she is expected to control; and to +the heart, the eyes, or to some other part of this she, from time to time, applies her +medicines, or professes to have done so, as she may find necessary to dupe and encourage +her credulous employer.</p> + +<p>But the influence of these images and conjurations is more frequently tested in +cases of an opposite character, where the inciting cause is not love, but hatred, and +the object to be attained the gratification of a deadly revenge. In cases of this kind +the practices are similar to those above mentioned, only different medicines are used +Sometimes the muzzin-ne-neence is pricked with a pin or needle in various parts, +and pain or disease is supposed to be produced in the corresponding part of the person +practiced upon. Sometimes they blacken the hands and mouth of the image, +and the effect expected is the change which marks the near approach of death.</p></div> + +<p>The similarity, approaching identity, of these practices to those common +in Europe during the middle ages and continuing in some regions +until the present time will be noticed.</p> + +<p>The same author, pp. 197, 198, gives an account of Ojibwa divination +in the following address of a shaman, illustrated by Fig. 702.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp591_pg497a.png" width="400" height="280" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 702.</span>—Ojibwa divination.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497">[497]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"> + +<p>For you, my friends, who have been careful to regard and obey the injunctions of +the Great Spirit, as communicated by me, to each of you he has given to live to the +full age of man: this long and straight line a is the image of your several lives. For +you, Shaw-shaw-wa ne-ba-se, who have turned aside from the right path, and despised +the admonitions you have received, this short and crooked line <i>b</i> represents +your life. You are to attain only to half of the full age of man. This line, turning +off on the other side, is that which shows what is determined in relation to the young +wife of Ba-po-wash. As he said this, he showed us the marks he had made on the +ground, as below. The long, straight middle line represented, as he said, the life +of the Indians, Sha-gwaw-koo-sink, Wau-zhe-gaw-maish-koon, etc. The short, +crooked one below showed the irregular course and short continuance of mine; and +the abruptly terminating one on the other side showed the life of the favorite wife +of Ba-po-wash.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 703 was copied from a piece of walrus ivory in the museum of +the Alaska Commercial Company, of San Francisco, California, in 1882, +by Dr. Hoffman, and the interpretation is as obtained from a native +Alaskan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp591_pg497bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp591_pg497b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="87" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 703.</span>—Shaman exorcising demon. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. The shaman’s summer habitations, trees growing in the vicinity. +<i>c.</i> The shaman, who is represented in the act of holding one of his +“demons.” These are considered as under the control of the shaman, +who employs them to drive others out of the bodies of sick men. <i>d.</i> +The demon or aid. <i>e.</i> The same shaman exorcising the demons causing +the sickness. <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>. Sick men, who have been under treatment, and +from whose bodies the “evil beings” or sickness has been expelled. +<i>h.</i> Two “evil spirits” which have left the bodies of <i>f</i> and <i>g</i>.</p> + +<p>Fig. 704 was copied by Dr. Hoffman from an ivory bow in the same +museum. The interpretation was also obtained at the same time from +the same Alaskan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp593_pg499h.png"> +<img src="images/dp593_pg499.png" class="hires" width="550" height="276" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 704.</span>—Supplication for success. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The rod of the bow upon which the characters occur is here represented +in three sections, A, B, and C. A bears the beginning of the +narrative, extending over only one-half of the length of the rod. The +course of the inscription is then continued on the adjacent side of the +rod at the middle, and reading in both directions (sections B and C),<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498">[498]</a></span> +toward the two files of approaching animals. B and C occupy the +whole of one side.</p> + +<p>The following is the explanation of the characters:</p> + +<p>A. <i>a</i>, baidarka or skin boat resting on poles; <i>b</i>, winter habitation; +<i>c</i>, tree; <i>d</i>, winter habitations; <i>e</i>, storehouse; <i>f</i>, tree. Between this and +the storehouse is placed a piece of timber, from which is suspended fish +for drying. <i>g</i>, storehouse. The characters from <i>a</i> to <i>g</i> represent a +group of dwellings, which signifies a settlement, the home of the +person to whom the history relates. <i>h</i>, the hunter sitting on the +ground, asking for aid, and making the gesture for supplication. <i>i</i>, the +shaman to whom application is made by the hunter desiring success in +the chase. The shaman has just finished his incantations, and while +still retaining his left arm in the position for that ceremony, holds the +right toward the hunter, giving him the success requested. <i>j</i>, the shaman’s +winter lodge; <i>k</i>, trees; <i>l</i>, summer habitation of the shaman; +<i>m</i>, trees near the shaman’s home.</p> + +<p>B. <i>n</i>, tree; <i>o</i>, a shaman standing upon his lodge, driving back +game which had approached against his wish. To this shaman the +hunter had also made application for success in the chase, but was +denied, hence the act of driving back. <i>p</i>, deer leaving at the shaman’s +order; <i>q</i>, horns of a deer swimming a river; <i>r</i>, young deer, apparently, +from the smaller size of the body and unusually long legs.</p> + +<p>C. <i>s</i>, a tree; <i>t</i>, the lodge of the hunter (A. <i>h</i>), who, after having +been granted the request for success, placed his totem upon the lodge +as a mark of gratification and to insure greater luck in his undertaking; +<i>u</i>, the hunter in the act of shooting; <i>v-w</i>, the game killed, +consisting of five deer; <i>x</i>, the demon sent out by the shaman (A. <i>i</i>), to +drive the game in the way of the hunter; <i>y-bb</i>, the demon’s assistants.</p> + +<p>The following description and illustration, Fig. 705, is kindly contributed +by the Rev. M. Eells, of Skokomish, Washington:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp592_pg498.png" width="600" height="535" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 705.</span>—Skokomish tamahnous.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499">[499]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500">[500]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Your figure of a shaman’s lodge in Alaska [Fig. <a href="#page507">714</a> in this work] reminds me of a +drawing made of the same character on this reservation by one of our best educated +Indian boys. His description of it is as follows: “When I was at Dr. Charley’s +house (the shaman or medicine man), they tamahnoused [performed incantations] over +[my brother] Frank. They saw that he was under a kind of sickness. Dr. Charley +took it, and just a little after that Frank shook and became stiff, and while I sat I +heard my father say that his breath was gone. I went out, as I did not want to see +my brother lay dead before me. When I came back he was breathing a little and +his eyes were closed. Dr. Charley was taking care of his breath with his own +tamahnous [guardian spirit] and waiting for more folks to come, so as to have +enough folks to beat on sticks when he should tamahnous and see what was the +matter with Frank. So he went on and saw that there was another kind of sickness +besides the one he took first. The other one went over Frank and almost killed him. +Dr. Charley took it again and went (travel) [in spirit] with another kind of tamahnous +to see where Frank’s spirit was. He found him at Humahuma [18 or 20 miles +distant], where they had camped [some time previous]. So Frank got better after +a hard tamahnous. From the drawing you will see how Dr. Charley fixed the kind +of sickness. <i>b</i> shows the first sickness which Dr. Charley took. It has tails, +which, when they come close to the sick person, makes him worse. <i>a</i> is the way it +goes when it kills a person and stays in his home. <i>c</i> is the second one and is hanging +over Frank, <i>d</i>. <i>e</i> is another sickness which is in Frank.”</p></div> + +<p>In Kingsborough (<i>d</i>) is the following: “In the year of Eleven Houses, +or in 1529, Nuño de Guzman set out for Yalisco on his march to subdue +that territory. They pretend that a serpent descended from the sky, +exclaiming that troubles were preparing for the natives, since the +Christians were directing their course hither.” The illustration for this +account is presented as Fig. <a href="#page723">1224</a>, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, on Special Comparisons.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501">[501]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CHARMS AND AMULETS.</span></h3> + +<p>The use of material objects for the magic purposes suggested by this +title is well known. Their graphic representation is not so familiar, +though it is to be supposed that the objects of this character would be +pictorially represented in pictographs connected with religion. The +following is an instance where the +use of a charm or fetich in action +was certainly portrayed in a pictograph.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp594_pg500.png" width="600" height="595" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 706.</span>—Mdewakantawan fetich.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 706, drawn by the Dakota Indians, +near Fort Snelling, Minnesota, +exhibits the use as a charm or +talisman of an instrument fashioned +in imitation of a war club, though +it is not adapted to offensive employment. +The head of the talisman +is a grooved stone hammer from +an inch and a half to 5 inches in +length. A withe is tied about the +middle of the hammer, in the groove +binding on a handle of from 2 to 4 +feet in length. The latter is frequently +wrapped with buckskin or +rawhide to strengthen it, as well as +for ornamental purposes. Feathers +attached bear designs indicating +marks of distinction, perhaps sometimes +fetichistic devices not understood.</p> + +<p>It is believed that these objects +possess the charm of warding off an +enemy’s missiles when held upright +before the body, as shown in the +pictograph. The interpretation was +explained by the draftsman himself.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 237px;"> +<a href="images/dp595_pg501h.png"> +<img src="images/dp595_pg501.png" class="hires" width="237" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 707.</span>—Medicine bag as worn.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“Medicine bags,” as they are +termed by frontiersmen, are worn +as amulets. They are sometimes filled by the owner in obedience to the +suggestions of visions, but more frequently are prepared by the shaman. +They are carried suspended from the neck by means of string or buckskin +cords, as shown in Fig. 707, drawn in 1889 by I-teup'-de-tĭ, No-Shin-Bone, +a Crow Indian, to represent himself with his insignia, and +was extracted from a record kindly communicated by Dr. R. B. Holden, +physician at the Crow Agency, Montana.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502">[502]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/dp596_pg502.png" width="350" height="350" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 708.</span>—Medicine bag hung up.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 708, drawn by the same hand, shows +the same medicine bag temporarily hung on a +forked stick. When the bag is carried on a +war party it is never allowed to touch the +ground. Also among the Ojibwa some of the +bags which are considered to have the greatest +fetichistic power are not kept in the lodges, +as too dangerous, but are suspended from +trees.</p> + +<p>Capt. Bourke (<i>d</i>) gives the following account of the medicine hat of +the Apache:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The medicine hat of the old and blind Apache medicine man, Nan-ta-do-tash, was +an antique affair of buckskin, much begrimed with soot and soiled by long use. +Nevertheless it gave life and strength to him who wore it, enabled the owner to peer +into the future, to tell who had stolen ponies from other people, to foresee the approach +of an enemy, and to aid in the cure of the sick. * * * This same old man +gave me an explanation of all the symbolism depicted upon the hat, and a great +deal of valuable information in regard to the profession of medicine men, their +specialization, the prayers they recited, etc. The material of the hat, as already +stated, was buckskin. How that was obtained I can not assert positively, but from +an incident occurring under my personal observation in the Sierra Madre, in Mexico, +in 1883, where our Indian scouts and the medicine men with them surrounded a +nearly grown fawn and tried to capture it alive, as well as from other circumstances +too long to be here inserted, I am of the opinion that the buckskin to be used for +sacred purposes among the Apache must, whenever possible, be that of a strangled +animal, as is the case, according to Dr. Matthews, among the Navajo.</p> + +<p>The body of Nan-ta-do-tash’s cap was unpainted, but the figures upon it were in +two colors, a brownish yellow and an earthy blue, resembling a dirty Prussian blue. +The ornamentation was of the downy feathers and black-tipped plumes of the eagle, +pieces of abalone shell and chalchihuitl, and a snake’s rattle on the apex.</p> + +<p>Nan-ta-do-tash explained that the characters on the medicine hat meant: A, clouds; +B, rainbow; C, hail; E, morning star; F, the god of wind, with his lungs; G, the +black “kan;” H, the great stars or suns. “Kan” is the name given to their principal +gods. The appearance of the kan himself and of the tail of the hat suggest +the centipede, an important animal god of the Apache. The old man said that the +figures represented the powers to which he appealed for aid in his “medicine” and +the kan upon whom he called for help.</p></div> + +<p>The same author says, op. cit., p. 587:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Apache, both men and women, wear amulets, called tzidaltai, made of lightning-riven +wood, generally pine or cedar or fir from the mountain tops, which are +highly valued and are not to be sold. These are shaved very thin and rudely cut in +the semblance of the human form. They are in fact the duplicates, on a small scale, +of the rhombus. Like it they are decorated with incised lines representing the +lightning. Very often these are to be found attached to the necks of children or to +their cradles.</p></div> + +<p>Four of the several winter counts described in the present work unite +in specifying for the year 1843-’44 the recapture of a fetich called the +great medicine arrow.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503">[503]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/dp597_pg503a.png" width="78" height="383" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 709.</span>—Magic +arrow.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<p>Fig. 709.—In a great fight with the Pawnees the Dakotas +captured the great medicine arrow which had been taken +from the Cheyennes, who made it, by the Pawnees. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1843-’44.</p> + +<p>The head of the arrow projects from the bag which contains +it. The delicate waved or spiral lines show that it +is sacred.</p> + +<p>White-Cow-Killer calls it “The Great-medicine-arrow-comes-in +winter.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 165px;"> +<img src="images/dp597_pg503b.png" width="165" height="373" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 710.</span>—Magic +arrow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Battiste Good’s record gives the following for the same year:</p> + +<p>“Brought-home-the-magic-arrow winter. This arrow originally belonged +to the Cheyennes, from whom the Pawnees stole it. +The Dakotas captured it this winter from the Pawnees, and +the Cheyennes then redeemed it for one hundred horses.” +His sign for the year is shown in Fig. 710. An attempt +was made to distinguish colors by the heraldic scheme, +which in this cut did not succeed. The upper part of the +man’s body is sable or black, the feathers on the arrow are +azure or blue, and the shaft, gules or red. The remainder +of the figure is of an undecided color not requiring specification.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 73px;"> +<img src="images/dp597_pg503c.png" width="73" height="260" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 711.</span>—Magic +arrow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 711.—The great medicine arrow was taken from the +Pawnees by the Oglalas and Brulés, and returned to the +Cheyennes to whom it rightly belonged. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1843-’44. The arrow appears to be in a case +marked over with the lines meaning sacredness.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Another account of a magic arrow and illustrations of +other fetichistic objects are in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page223">IX</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> +<a href="images/dp599_pg504ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp599_pg504p.jpg" class="hires" width="448" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIII<br />MANTLE OF INVISIBILITY.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXIII</span> is a copy of a cloak or mantle made from the skin of a +deer, and covered with various mystic paintings. It was made and +used by the Apaches as a mantle of invisibility, that is, a charmed +covering for spies which would enable them to pass with impunity +through the country, and even through the camp of their enemies. In +this instance the fetichistic power depends upon the devices drawn. +A similar but not identical pictographic fetich or charm is described +and illustrated by Capt. Bourke (<i>e</i>) as obtained from a Chicarahua +Apache which told when his ponies were lost, and which brought rain. +The symbols show, inter alia, the rain cloud, and the serpent lightning, +the raindrops and the cross of the winds of the four cardinal points.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504">[504]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lewis and Clarke (<i>b</i>) say that the Chilluckittequaw, a Chinook tribe, +had a “medicine” bag colored red 2 feet long, suspended in the middle +of the lodge. It was held sacred, containing pounded dirt, roots, and +such mysterious objects. From the chief’s bag he brought out fourteen +forefingers of enemies—Snakes—whom he had killed.</p> + +<p>A remarkable drawing in an Australian cave, described by Sir George +Grey, in Worsnop, op. cit., was an ellipse, 3 feet in length and 1 foot +10 inches in breadth. The outside line of the painting was of deep +blue color, the body of the ellipse being of a bright yellow dotted over +with red lines and spots, whilst across it ran two transverse lines of +blue. The portion of the painting above described formed the ground, +or main part of the picture, and upon this ground was painted a kangaroo +in the act of feeding; two stone spear heads, and two black +balls; one of the spear heads was flying to the kangaroo, and one away +from it; so that the whole subject probably constituted a sort of charm +by which the luck of an inquirer in killing game can be ascertained. +This cave drawing is copied in Fig. 712.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp598_pg504h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp598_pg504.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="353" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 712.</span>—Hunter’s charm. Australia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>George Turner (<i>c</i>) gives account of hieroglyphic taboos, as he calls +them, which are connected with the present subject:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The sea-pike taboo. If a man wished that a sea-pike might run into the body of +the person who attempted to steal, say, his bread fruits, he would plait some cocoanut +leaflets in the form of a sea-pike, and suspend it from one or more of the trees +which he wished to protect.</p> + +<p>The white-shark taboo was another object of terror to a thief. This was done by +plaiting a cocoanut leaf in the form of a shark, adding fins, etc., and this they +suspended from the tree. It was tantamount to an expressed imprecation, that the +thief might be devoured by the white shark the next time he went to fish.</p> + +<p>The cross-stick taboo. This was a piece of any sort of stick suspended horizontally<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505">[505]</a></span> +from the tree. It expressed the wish of the owner of the tree, that any thief touching +it might have a disease running right across his body, and remaining fixed there +till he died.</p> + +<p>The ulcer taboo. This was made by burying in the ground some pieces of clam +shell, and erecting at the spot three or four reeds, tied together at the top in a bunch +like the head of a man. This was to express the wish and prayer of the owner that +any thief might be laid down with ulcerous sores all over his body.</p> + +<p>The death taboo. This was made by pouring some oil into a small calabash, and +burying it near the tree. The spot was marked by a little hillock of white sand.</p> + +<p>The thunder taboo. If a man wished that lightning might strike any who should +steal from his land, he would plait some cocoanut leaflets in the form of a small +square mat, and suspend it from a tree, with the addition of some white streamers +of native cloth flying. A thief believed that if he trespassed, he, or some of his +children, would be struck with lightning, or perhaps his own trees struck and +blasted from the same cause. They were not, however, in the habit of talking +about the effects of lightning. It was the thunder they thought did the mischief; +hence they called that to which I have just referred the thunder taboo.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 5.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES.</span></h3> + +<p>Many examples of masks, dance ornaments, and fetiches used in +ceremonies are reported and illustrated in the several papers of Messrs. +Cushing, Holmes, and Stevenson in the Second Annual Report of the +Bureau of Ethnology. Paintings or drawings of many of them have +been found on pottery, on shells, and on rocks.</p> + +<p>An admirable article by Mr. J. Walter Fewkes (<i>b</i>) on Tusayan Pictographs +explains many of the petroglyphs of that region as depicting +objects used in dances and ceremonies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;"> +<a href="images/dp602_pg506h.png"> +<img src="images/dp602_pg506.png" class="hires" width="449" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 713.</span>—Moki masks traced on rocks. Arizona.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 713 exhibits drawings of various masks used in dancing, the +characters of which were obtained by Mr. G. K. Gilbert from rocks +at Oakley springs and were explained to him by Tubi, the chief of the +Oraibi Pueblos. They are representations of masks as used by the +Moki, Zuñi, and Rio Grande Pueblos.</p> + +<p>Dr. W. H. Corbusier, U. S. Army, writing from Camp Verde, Arizona, +kindly furnished the following account of Yuman ceremonies, in which +the making of sand pictures was prominent:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>All the medicine men meet occasionally and with considerable ceremony “make +medicine.” They went through the performance early in the summer of 1874 on the +reservation for the purpose of averting the diseases with which the Indians were +afflicted the summer previous. In the middle of one of the villages they made a +round ramada, or house of boughs, some 10 feet in diameter, and under it, on the +sand, illustrated the spirit land in a picture about 7 feet across, made in colors by +sprinkling powdered leaves and grass, red clay, charcoal, and ashes on the smoothed +sand. In the center was a round spot of red clay about 10 inches in diameter, and +around it several successive rings of green and red alternately, each ring being an +inch and a half wide. Projecting from the outer ring were four somewhat triangular-shaped +figures, each one of which corresponded to one of the cardinal points of the +compass, giving the whole the appearance of a Maltese cross. Around this cross and +between its arms were the figures of men with their feet toward the center, some +made of charcoal, with ashes for eyes and hair, others of red clay and ashes, etc.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506">[506]</a></span> +These figures were 8 or 9 inches long, and nearly all of them lacked some portion of +the body, some an arm, others a leg or the head. The medicine men seated themselves +around the picture on the ground in a circle, and the Indians from the different +bands crowded around them, the old men squatting close by and the young men +standing back of them. After they had invoked the aid of the spirits in a number +of chants, one of their number, apparently the oldest, a toothless, gray-haired man, +solemnly arose and, carefully stepping between the figures of the men, dropped on +each one a pinch of the yellow powder which he took from a small buckskin bag which +had been handed to him. He put the powder on the heads of some, on the chests of +others, and on other parts of the body, one of the other men sometimes telling him +where to put it. After going all around, skipping three figures, however, he put up +the bag, and then went around again and took from each figure a large pinch of +powder, taking up the yellow powder also, and in this way collected a heaping +handful. After doing this he stepped back and another medicine man collected a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507">[507]</a></span> +handful in the same way, others following him. Some of the laymen, in their eagerness +to get some, pressed forward, but were ordered back. But after the medicine +men had supplied themselves the ramada was torn down and a rush was made by +men and boys; handfuls of the dirt were grabbed and rubbed on their bodies or +carried away. The women and children, who were waiting for an invitation, were +then called. They rushed to the spot in a crowd, and grabbing handfuls of dirt +tossed it up in the air so that it would fall on them, or they rubbed their bodies with +it, mothers throwing it over their children and rubbing it on their heads. This +ended the performance.</p></div> + +<p>According to Stephen Powers (in Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 140), +there is at the head of Potter valley, California, “a singular knoll of red +earth which the Tatu or Hūchnom believe to have furnished the material +for the erection of the original coyote-man. They mix this red +earth into their acorn bread, and employ it for painting their bodies +on divers mystic occasions.”</p> + +<p>Descriptions of ceremonies in medicine lodges and in the initiation +of candidates to secret associations have been published with and without +illustrations. The most striking of these are graphic ceremonial +charts made by the Indians themselves, a number of which besides those +immediately following appear in different parts of the present work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 461px;"> +<img src="images/dp603_pg507.png" width="461" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 714.</span>—Shaman’s lodge. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 714 was drawn and interpreted by Naumoff, a Kadiak native, in +San Francisco, California, in 1882. It represents the ground plan of a +shaman’s lodge, with the shaman curing a sick man.</p> + +<p>The following is the explanation:</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, the entrance to the lodge; <i>b</i>, the fireplace; <i>c</i>, a vertical piece of +wood upon which is placed a crosspiece, upon each end of which is a +lamp; <i>d</i>, the musicians upon the raised seats drumming and producing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508">[508]</a></span> +music to the movements of the shaman during his incantations +in exorcising the “evil spirit” supposed to have possession of the patient; +<i>e</i>, visitors and friends of the afflicted seated around the walls of +the lodge; <i>f</i>, the shaman represented in making his incantations; <i>g</i>, +the patient seated upon the floor of the lodge; <i>h</i> represents the shaman +in another stage of the ceremonies, driving out of the patient the +“evil being”; <i>i</i>, another figure of the patient—from his head is seen to +issue a line connecting it with <i>j</i>; <i>j</i>, the “evil spirit” causing the sickness; +<i>k</i>, the shaman in the act of driving the “evil being” out of the +lodge—in his hands are sacred objects, his personal fetich, in which the +power lies; <i>l</i>, the flying “evil one”; <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, are assistants to the shaman +stationed at the entrance to hit and hasten the departure of the evil +being.</p> + +<p>The writer in examination at three reservations in Wisconsin obtained +information concerning the Midē' ceremonies additional to the +details described by Dr. Hoffman (<i>a</i>) and by others quoted in the present +work. The full ceremonies of the Midē' lodges, which the more southern +Ojibwa, who speak English, translate as “grand medicine,” were +performed twice a year—in the fall and in the spring. Those in the +spring were of a rejoicing character, to welcome the return of the good +spirits; those in the fall were in lamentation for the departure of the +beneficent and the arrival of the maleficent spirits. The drums were +beaten four days and nights before the dance, which lasted for a whole +day. After the dance twelve selected persons built a lodge, about the +center of which they placed stones which had been heated, and dancing +went on around it until the stones were moistened and cooled by the +sweat of the performers. Singing, or more properly chanting, regulated +the rhythm of the dances, although, perhaps, in the order of +evolution the dance was prior to the chant. These ceremonies were +performed by the body of the people, and were independent of the +initiations in the secret order. With regard to the candidates who +passed the initiations, it was mentioned as an undisputed fact that they +always became stronger and better men, perhaps because only those +succeeded who had the requisite strength of mind and body to endure +the various ordeals and to pass examination in the mysteries. In +pictography the spring and the fall, the drums and the steaming stones, +the dancing forms and the open chanting mouth are shown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"> +<img src="images/dp605_pg509.png" width="470" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 715.</span>—Ah-tón-we-tuck.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Catlin (<i>a</i>) gives an account of Kee-an-ne-kuk, the foremost man, who, +though a Kickapoo, was commonly called the Shawnee Prophet, and +also the following description relating to Fig. 715, painted by that +author in 1831:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ah-tón-we-tuck, The-Cock-Turkey, is another Kickapoo of some distinction and a +disciple of the [Shawnee] Prophet, in the attitude of prayer, which he is reading off +from characters cut upon a stick that he holds in his hand. It was told to me in +the tribe by the traders (though I am afraid to vouch for the whole truth of it) that +while a Methodist preacher was soliciting him for permission to preach in his village, +the Prophet refused him the privilege, but secretly took him aside and supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509">[509]</a></span> +him until he learned from him his creed and his system of teaching it to +others, when he discharged him and commenced preaching amongst his people himself, +pretending to have had an interview with some superhuman mission or inspired +personage, ingeniously resolving that if there was any honor or emolument or influence +to be gained by the promulgation of it, he might as well have it as another +person; and with this view he commenced preaching and instituted a prayer, which +he ingeniously carved on a maple stick of an inch and a half in breadth, in characters +somewhat resembling Chinese letters. These sticks, with the prayers on them, +he has introduced into every family of the tribe and into the hands of every individual; +and as he has necessarily the manufacturing of them all, he sells them at his +own price and has thus added lucre to fame, and in two essential and effective +ways augmented his influence in his tribe. Every man, woman, and child in the +tribe, so far as I saw them, were in the habit of saying their prayer from this stick +when going to bed at night and also when rising in the morning, which was invariably +done by placing the forefinger of the right hand under the upper character +until they repeat a sentence or two, which it suggests to them, and then slipping it +under the next and the next, and so on to the bottom of the stick, which altogether +required about ten minutes, as it was sung over in a sort of a chant to the end.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 468px;"> +<img src="images/dp606_pg510a.png" width="468" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 716.</span>—On-sáw-kie.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 716, from the same volume, opposite page 100, is a portrait of +On-sáw-kie, The-Sac, a Pottawatomie, using one of these prayer sticks, +which had been procured from the Shawnee Prophet.</p> + +<p>Figs. 715 and 716 with their descriptions exhibit an intermediate +condition between the aboriginal mnemonic method and the Christian +formula of prayer by the use of printed books. They should be considered +in comparison with the remarks on the “Micmac Hieroglyphs,” +Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span>, Sec. <a href="#page664">2</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> +<img src="images/dp606_pg510b.png" width="420" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 717.</span>—Medicine lodge. Micmac.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 717, incised on the Kejimkoojik rocks in Nova Scotia, suggests +the midē' lodge, sometimes called the medicine lodge, of the Ojibwa,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510">[510]</a></span> +which is described above. The ground plan indicated in this figure +seems to be divided by partitions, which, together with the human +figures and designs, probably refer to the rites of initiation and celebration +performed in them. Some of the Micmacs examined had a vague +recollection of these ceremonies, which, at the time of the European discovery +of the northeastern part of North America, probably were as +widely prevalent, as they continued to be much later, among the +regions farther in the interior, also occupied by the Algonquian tribes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 476px;"> +<img src="images/dp607_pg511a.png" width="476" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 718.</span>—Juggler lodge. Micmac.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 718, from the same locality, is a +drawing of the ground plan of another +description of ceremonial wigwam or lodge +which is remarkably similar to that now +called by the Ojibwa “the jessăkân.” Its +distinguishing feature is the branch of a +tree erected on the outside, and it is the +wigwam of a juggler or wizard, and not the +lodge belonging to the regular order of the +Midē'. Such wigwams of jugglers, who +performed wonderful feats similar to those +of modern spiritualistic exhibitions, are +frequently mentioned by the early French +and English writers, who gave accounts +of the provinces of New France and New +England. The figure now presented is not suggestive without comparison, +and would not have been selected for the foregoing description<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511">[511]</a></span> +without the authority of living Micmac and Abnaki Indians, to +whom it was significant.</p> + +<p>Figs. 717 and 718, however, when studied, recall the use of branches +and prayer plumes in the descriptions of the houses, and especially +of the kivas of the Pueblos and the forms of their consecration mentioned +in the study of the Pueblo Architecture, by Mr. Victor Mindeleff, +in the Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is difficult to elicit intelligent explanation of the theory of the baho and the +prayer ceremonies in either kiva or house construction. The baho is a prayer token; +the petitioner is not satisfied by merely speaking or singing his prayer; he must +have some tangible thing upon which to transmit it. He regards his prayer as a +mysterious, impalpable portion of his own substance, and hence he seeks to embody +it in some object which thus becomes consecrated. The baho, which is inserted in +the roof of the kiva, is a piece of willow twig about 6 inches long, stripped of its +bark and painted. From it hang four small feathers suspended by short cotton +strings tied at equal distances along the twig. In order to obtain recognition from +the powers especially addressed, different colored feathers and distinct methods of +attaching them to bits of wood and string are resorted to.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp607_pg511b.png" width="500" height="151" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 719.</span>—Moki ceremonial.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The characters in Fig. 719 are copied from a drawing on the rocks<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512">[512]</a></span> +in the Canyon Segy. They have been submitted to the most intelligent +of the old Moki priests, and are said to represent the primitive sun +priests. They watched for the sunrise every morning and the chief +sun priest kept a reckoning of the equinoxes. The chief sun priest, <i>a</i>, +made the daily sacrifices to the sun by scattering consecrated meal +and singing a prayer to the sun just as it rose. His assistant, <i>b</i>, lit a +pipe of tobacco at the same time, and exhaled puffs of smoke, one +toward each of the cardinal points, one to the zenith, and one to the +nadir. The three other figures are flageolet priests, and the skins of +different kinds of foxes were attached to their reed flageolets. <i>c</i> played +to the morning star, typified by the skin of the gray fox. <i>d</i> played to +the dawn, typified by the skin of the red fox. <i>e</i> played to the daylight, +typified by the skin of the yellow fox.</p> + +<p>Dr. Franz Boas (<i>e</i>) reported as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Tsimshian have four secret societies, which have evidently been borrowed +from the Kwākiutl, the Olala or Wihalait, Nō'ntlem, Mē'itla, and Semhalait.</p> + +<p>The candidate is taken to the house of his parents and a bunch of cedar bark is +fastened over the door, to show that the place is tabooed, and nobody is allowed to +enter. The chief sings while it is being fastened. In the afternoon the sacred house +is prepared for the dance. A section in the rear of the house is divided off by means +of curtains; it is to serve as a stage, on which the dancers and the novice appear. +When all is ready messengers carrying large carved batons are sent around to invite +the members of the society, the chief first. The women sit down in one row, nicely +dressed up in button blankets and their faces painted red. The chief wears the +amhalait, a carving rising from the forehead, set with sea-lion barbs and with a +long drapery of ermine skins; the others, the cedar bark rings of the society. * * *</p> + +<p>The Mēitla have a red head ring and red eagle downs, the Nōntlem a neck ring +plaited of white and red cedar bark, the Olala a similar but far larger one. The +members of the societies receive a head ring for each time they pass through these +ceremonies. These are fastened one on top of the other.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. James W. Lynd (<i>d</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the worship of their deities paint (with the Dakotas), forms an important +feature. Scarlet or red is the religious color for sacrifices, whilst blue is used by +the women in many of the ceremonies in which they participate. This, however, is +not a constant distinction of sex, for the women frequently use red and scarlet. +The use of paints, the Dakotas aver, was taught them by the gods. Unktehi taught +the first medicine men how to paint themselves when they worshiped him and what +colors to use. Takushkanshkan (the moving god), whispers to his favorites what +colors are most acceptable to him. Heyoka hovers over them in dreams, and informs +them how many streaks to employ upon their bodies and the tinge they must have. +No ceremony of worship is complete without the wakan or sacred application of +paint. The down of the female swan is colored scarlet and forms a necessary part +of sacrifices.</p></div> + +<p>Wiener (<i>d</i>) gives a description of Peruvian ceremonies, with an illustration +reproduced here as Fig. 720.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp609_pg513h.png"> +<img src="images/dp609_pg513.png" class="hires" width="550" height="126" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 720.</span>—Peruvian ceremony.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The paintings on this vase, found by Dr. Macedo in the excavations at Pachacamac, +show the principal practices of the exoteric worship of the sun. In this painting there +are three entirely distinct groups. The central one is composed of the solar image +surrounded by nine rays, terminating in symbols of fecundity. Two men placed at its +right and left seem to play on pandean pipes. The group on the left is formed of four +individuals, two of whom have head-dresses of royal feathers. This group is performing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513">[513]</a></span> +a dance, while the third group represents the same solar disk and the sacrifice +accompanied by music performed in its honor. There are also vases of different +forms containing, probably, the sacred drink, and the officiator approaching one hand +to one of the great urns, while with the other he holds the vase or the bowl from +which he is about to drink the <i>chica</i> consecrated to the sun. The princely personages +who have the right to approach the sun wear casques with royal plumes, chemisettes +extending below the middle, and ornaments at the lower part of the legs and +on the feet. The musicians, four in number (two of whom play upon the pandean +pipes and two upon the henna), are distinguished by bonnets without feathers and +by a kind of cloak tied around the neck by a band which floats behind them. +Finally, the priests, one of whom is an officiator, and the other dancers in the suite +of the princely personages, wear bonnets like that of the musicians (who very probably +belong to the same class). They have their faces painted.</p></div> + +<p>A. W. Howitt, in MS. Notes on Australian Pictographs, contributes +the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the most interesting of the pictorial markings used by the aborigines are +those which are made in connection with the ceremonies of initiation. I now take +as an instance the Murring tribe of the southern coast of New South Wales, whose +ceremonies I have described elsewhere. The humming instrument, which is known +in England as a child’s toy called the bull roarer, has a sacred character with all +the Australian tribes. The Murring call it Mŭdji, and the loud roaring sound made +when it is swung around at the end of a cord is considered to be the voice of Daramūlŭn, +the great supernatural being by whom, according to their tradition, these +ceremonies were first instituted.</p> + +<p>On this instrument there are marked two notches, one at each end, representing +the gap left in the upper jaw of the novice after his teeth have been knocked out +during the rites; there is also figured on it the rude representations of Daramūlŭn.</p> + +<p>A similar rude outline of a man in the attitude of the magic dance, being also +Daramūlŭn, is cut by the old men (wizards) at the ceremonies, upon the bark of a +tree at the spot where one of them knocks out the tooth of the novice. This pictograph +is then carefully cut out and obliterated after the ceremonies are over.</p> + +<p>At a subsequent stage of the proceedings a similar figure is molded on the ground +in clay, and is surrounded by the native weapons which Daramūlŭn is said to have +invented. This figure, after having been exhibited to the novice, is also destroyed, +and they are strictly forbidden under pain of death to make them known in any manner +to “women or children;” that is to say, to the uninitiated.</p> + +<p>The Mŭdji is not destroyed, but is carefully and secretly preserved by the principal +headman who had caused the ceremonies to be held.</p> + +<p>The ceremonies of the Wirajuri tribe in New South Wales are substantially the +same as those of the Murring, although the tribes are several hundred miles apart. +The details, however, differ in some respects.</p> + +<p>For instance, at one part of the ceremonies certain carvings are made upon the +tree adjoining the place of the ceremonies and upon the ground, as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) A piece of bark is stripped off the tree from the branches spirally down the +bole to the ground. This represents the path along which Daramūlŭn is supposed +to descend from the sky to the place where the initiation is held.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514">[514]</a></span></p> + +<p>(2) The figure of Daramūlŭn is cut upon the ground, resembling that which the +Murring cut upon the tree at the place where in their ceremonies the tooth is knocked +out. The figure represents a naked black fellow dancing, his arms being slightly +extended and the legs somewhat bent outwards (sideways) at the knee, as in the +well known “corroboree” attitude.</p> + +<p>(3) The representation of his tomahawk cut on the ground, where he let it fall on +reaching the earth.</p> + +<p>(4) The footsteps of an emu of which Daramūlŭn was in chase.</p> + +<p>(5) The figure of the emu extended on the ground where it fell when struck down +by Daramūlŭn.</p></div> + +<p>The same author (<i>f</i>) remarks as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Speaking generally, it may be asserted with safety that initiation ceremonies of +some kind or other, and all having a certain fundamental identity, are practiced by +the aboriginal tribes over the whole of the Australian continent. * * *</p> + +<p>Here, then, the novices for the first time witness the actual exhibition of those +magical powers of the old men of which they have heard since their earliest years. +They have been told how these men can produce from within themselves certain +deadly things which they are then able to project invisibly into those whom they +desire to injure or to kill; and now the boys see during the impressive magical +dances these very things, as they express it, “pulled out of themselves” by the +wizards.</p></div> + +<p>Figs. 721, 722, and 723 are copies of the designs upon Tartar and +Mongol drums, taken from G. N. Potanin (<i>b</i>). They are used in religious +ceremonies with the belief that the sounds emanating from the +surface upon which the designs are made, or, to carry the concept a +little further, the sounds coming from the designs themselves, produce +special influences or powers. Some of these designs are notably similar +to some of those found in America and reproduced in the present +paper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"> +<a href="images/dp611_pg515h.png"> +<img src="images/dp611_pg515.png" class="hires" width="528" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 721.</span>—Tartar and Mongol drums.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The upper left-hand design (<i>a</i>) in Fig. 721, on the outside of the drum, +represents the sun and the moon in the form of circles with a central +dot. Below the crossbar were two other such figures with central +dot. Besides, were represented below, on the left side, two shamans, +and under them a wild goat and serpent in the form of wavy lines; on +the right side three shamans and a deer.</p> + +<p>The upper right-hand design (<i>b</i>) on the same figure is a group representing +the bringing of a horse to sacrifice. Under a rainbow, dots +represent stars, and two heavenly maidens who the shamans said were +the daughters of Ulgen and who were playing. They come down to the +mountains and rise up to the skies.</p> + +<p>A bow with a knob at each end is made to represent a rainbow in +the lower part of a shaman’s drum.</p> + +<p>The lower left-hand design (<i>c</i>) on the same figure on a drum of the +telengit shaman is the external delineation of a head without eyes and +nose. The lower end of the line coming from the head represents a bifurcation. +Under the head is a short horizontal line like an extended arm. +Above a line extending from side to side of the drum are two circles, +and below six circles, all empty. According to the owner of the drum<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515">[515]</a></span> +these circles are representations of drums, and the three human figures +are masters or spirits of localities.</p> + +<p>The lower right-hand design (<i>d</i>) in the same figure has in the upper +section five zigzag lines represented similar to those with which lightning +is often represented. According to the shaman these are serpents.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;"> +<a href="images/dp612_pg516h.png"> +<img src="images/dp612_pg516.png" class="hires" width="523" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 722.</span>—Tartar and Mongol drums.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The upper left-hand design (<i>a</i>) in Fig. 722 inside the drum has painted +two trees. On each of them sits the bird karagush, with bill turned to +the left. On the left of the trees are two circles, one dark (the moon), +the other light (the sun). Below a horizontal line are depicted a frog, +a lizard, and a serpent.</p> + +<p>The upper right-hand design (<i>b</i>) in the same figure has on the upper +half two circles, the sun and moon; on the left side four horsemen; +under them a bowman, also on horseback. The center is occupied by +a picture of a net and a sieve for winnowing the nuts and seeds of the +cedar tree. On the right side are two trees, baigazuin (literally the +rich birch), over which two birds, the karagush, are floating. Under a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516">[516]</a></span> +division on the right and on the left side are oval objects with latticed-figured +or scaly skin. These are two whales. In the middle, between +them, are a frog and a deer, and below a serpent. Above, toward the +hoop of the drum, is fastened an owl’s feather.</p> + +<p>The lower left hand design (<i>c</i>) in the same figure has represented in +the upper half seven figures reminding one of horses. These are the +horses, bura, going to heaven, i. e., their sacrifice. Above them are +two circles emitting light, the sun and the moon; on the right of the +horses are three trees; under a horizontal line on the left is a serpent; +on the right a fish, the kerbuleik, the whale according to Verbitski, +literally the bay-fish.</p> + +<p>The lower right-hand design (<i>d</i>) in the same figure has a drawing on +the outside, a circle divided by horizontal bars into halves. The field of +the upper half is divided into three strata, the first stratum of which +is heaven, the second the rainbow, and in the lower stratum the stars. +On the left side the sun, and the crescent moon on the right side; the +goat, trees, and an undefined figure, which is not given in the drawing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517">[517]</a></span> +underneath. The kam, a kind of shaman, called it the bura. Some +said that it meant a cloud; others that it meant heavenly horses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp613_pg517h.png"> +<img src="images/dp613_pg517.png" class="hires" width="550" height="278" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 723.</span>—Tartar and Mongol drums.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The left-hand design (<i>a</i>) in Fig. 723 shows four vertical and four +horizontal lines. The latter represent the rainbow; the vertical lines +borsui. Circles with dots in the center are represented in three sections, +and in the fourth one circle.</p> + +<p>The right-hand design in the same figure: On the upper sections are +represented a number of human figures. These, according to the shaman’s +own explanation, are heavenly maidens (in the original Turkish, +tengriduing kuiz). Below, under a rainbow, which is represented by +three arched lines, are portrayed two serpents, each having a cross +inside. These are kurmos nuing tyungurey, i. e., the drums are kurmos’s. +Kurmos is the Alti word for spirits, which the shamans summon.</p> + +<p>Bastian (<i>a</i>) makes remarks as follows concerning the magic drum of +the Shamans in the Altai, which should be considered in this connection:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Shamans admit three worlds (among the Yakuts), the world of the heavens +(hallan jurda), the middle one of the earth (outo-doidu) and the lower world or hell +(jedän tügara), the former the realm of light, the latter the realm of darkness, while +the earth has for a time been given over by the Creator (Jüt-tas-olbohtah Jürdän-Ai-Tojan) +to the will of the devil or tempter, and the souls of men at their death, +according to the measure of their merit, are sent into one or the other realm. When, +however, the earth world has come to an end, the souls of the two realms will wage +a war against each other, and victory must remain on the side of the good souls.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 6.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">MORTUARY PRACTICES.</span></h3> + +<p>Champlain (<i>f</i>) in his voyage of 1603, says of the Northeastern Algonquins +that their graves were covered with large pieces of wood, and +one post was erected upon them, the upper part of which was painted +red.</p> + +<p>The same author, in 1613, writing of the Algonquins of the Ottawa<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518">[518]</a></span> +river, at the Isle des Alumettes, gives more details of the pictures on +their grave posts:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On it the likeness of the man or woman who is buried there is roughly engraved. +If a man, they put on a buckler, a spear, war club, and bows and arrows. If he is a +chief he will have a plume on his head and some other designs or ornaments. If a +boy, they give him one bow and a single arrow. If a woman or girl, they put on a +kettle, an earthen pot, a wooden spoon, and a paddle. The wooden tomb is 6 or 7 +feet long and 4 wide, painted yellow and red.</p></div> + +<p>Some northern tribes—probably Cree—according to the Jesuit Relations +(<i>a</i>), gave a notice of death to absent relations or dear friends of +the deceased by hanging the object signifying his name on the path +by which the traveler must return, e. g., if the name of the deceased +was Piré (Partridge) the skin of a partridge was suspended. The main +object of the notice was that the traveler, thereby knowing of the death, +should not on his return to the lodge or village ask after or mention +the deceased. Perhaps this explains the custom of placing pictographs +of personal names and totemic marks on some prominent point or on +trails without any apparent incident.</p> + +<p>The same Relation describes a custom of the same Indians of shaping +out of wood a portraiture of the more distinguished dead and inserting +it over their graves, afterwards painting and greasing it as if it were +the live man.</p> + +<p>In Keating’s Long (<i>g</i>) it is told that the Sac Indians are particular +in their demonstrations of grief for departed friends. These consist in +darkening their faces with charcoal, fasting, abstaining from the use +of vermillion and other ornaments in dress, etc. They also make incisions +in their arms, legs, and other parts of the body; these are not +made for the purposes of mortification, or to create a pain which shall by +dividing their attention efface the recollection of their loss, but entirely +from a belief that their grief is internal and that the only way of dispelling +it is to give it a vent through which to escape.</p> + +<p>This is an explanation of the practice which has been verified in the +field work of the Bureau of Ethnology and corresponds with the concept +of finding relief from disease and pain by similar incisions, to let +out the supposed invading entity that causes distress.</p> + +<p>The same authority, p. 332, gives the following account of Dakota +burial scaffolds:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On these scaffolds, which are from 8 to 10 feet high, corpses were deposited in a +box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair was suspended which we at first +mistook for a scalp; but our guide informed us that these were locks of hair torn +from their heads by the relations to testify their grief. In the center, between the +four posts which supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the ground; it was +about 6 feet high, and bore an imitation of human figures; five of which had a design +of a petticoat, indicating them to be females; the rest, amounting to seven, were +naked, and were intended for male figures. Of the latter, four were headless, showing +that they had been slain; the three other male figures were unmutilated but +held a staff in their hands which, as our guide informed us, designated that they were +slaves. The post, which is an usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519">[519]</a></span> +warrior’s remains, does not represent the achievements of the deceased, but those of +the warriors that assembled near his remains, danced the dance of the post, and related +their martial exploits.</p></div> + +<p>Maximilian, Prince of Wied (<i>d</i>), tells that as a sign of mourning the +Sioux daub themselves with white clay.</p> + +<p>According to Powers, (<i>d</i>) “A Yokaia widow’s style of mourning is +peculiar. In addition to the usual evidence of grief she mingles the +ashes of the dead husband with pitch, making a white tar or ungent +with which she smears a band about two inches wide all around the +edge of her hair (which is previously cut off close to the head), so that +at a little distance she appears to be wearing a white chaplet.”</p> + +<p>Mr. Dorsey reports that mud is used by a mourner in the sacred-bag +war party among the Osages. Several modes of showing mourning by +styles of paint and markings are presented in this paper under the +headings of Color and of Tattooing. Other practices connected with the +present topic, and which may explain some pictographs, are described +in the work of Dr. H. C. Yarrow, acting assistant surgeon, U. S. Army, +on The Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians, in the First +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp615_pg519.png" width="300" height="196" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 724.</span>—Votive offering. +Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 724 is copied from a piece of ivory in the museum of the Alaska +Commercial Company, San Francisco, California, and was interpreted +by an Alaskan native in San Francisco in 1882.</p> + +<p>First is a votive offering or “shaman stick,” erected to the memory of +one departed. The “bird” carvings are considered typical of “good +spirits,” and the above was erected by the +remorse-stricken individual, who had killed +the person shown.</p> + +<p>The headless body represents the man who +was killed. In this respect the Ojibwa manner +of drawing a person “killed” is similar.</p> + +<p>The right hand Indian represents the homicide +who erected the “grave-post” or “sacred +stick.” The arm is thrown earthward, resembling the Blackfeet and +Dakota gesture for “kill.”</p> + +<p>That portion of the Kauvuya tribe of Indians in Southern California +known as the Playsanos, or <i>lowlanders</i>, formerly inscribed characters +upon the gravestones of their dead, relating to the pursuits or good +qualities of the deceased. Dr. W. J. Hoffman obtained several pieces +or slabs of finely-grained sandstone near Los Angeles, California, during +the summer of 1884, which had been used for this purpose. Upon +these were the drawings, in incised lines, of the fin back whale, with +figures of men pursuing them with harpoons. Around the drawings +were close parallel lines with cross lines similar to those made on ivory +by the southern Innuit of Alaska.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520">[520]</a></span></p> + +<p>Figs. 725 to 727 were procured from a native Alaskan by +Dr. Hoffman in 1882, and explained to him to be drawings +made upon grave posts.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp616_pg520a.png" width="160" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 725.</span>—Grave +post. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 725 commemorates a hunter, as land animals are +shown to be his chief pursuit. The following is the explanation +of the characters:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The baidarka, or boat, holding two persons; the occupants +are shown, as are also the paddles, which project +below the horizontal body of the vessel.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> A rack for drying skins and fish. A pole is added +above it, from which are seen floating streamers of calico or +cloth.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> A fox.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> A land otter.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> The hunter’s summer habitation. These are temporary +dwellings and usually constructed at a distance +from home. This also indicates the profession of a skin-hunter, +as the permanent lodges, indicated as winter +houses, i. e., with round or dome-like roof, are located near the seashore, +and summer houses are only needed when at some distance from +home, where a considerable length of time is spent in hunting.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 95px;"> +<img src="images/dp616_pg520b.png" width="95" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 726.</span>—Grave +post. +Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The following is the explanation of Fig. 726. It is another design +for a grave post, but is erected in memory of a fisherman:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The double-seated baidarka, or skin canoe.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The bow used in shooting seal and other marine animals.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> A seal.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> A whale.</p> + +<p>The summer lodge is absent in this, as the fisherman did +not leave the seashore in the pursuit of game on land.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp616_pg520c.png" width="600" height="110" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 727.</span>—Village and burial grounds. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 727 is a drawing of a village and neighboring burial-ground, +prepared by an Alaskan native in imitation of originals +seen by him among the natives of the mainland of +Alaska, especially the Aigalúqamut. Carvings are generally +on walrus ivory; sometimes on wooden slats. In the figure, <i>g</i> +is a representation of a grave post in position, bearing an +inscription similar in general character to those in the last two preceding +figures.</p> + +<p>The details are explained as follows:</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>. Various styles of habitations, denoting a settlement.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> An elevated structure used for the storage of food.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> A box with wrappings, containing the corpse of a child. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521">[521]</a></span> +small lines, with ball attached, are ornamental appendages consisting +of strips of cloth or skin, with charms, or, sometimes, tassels.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Grave post, bearing rude illustrations +of the weapons or implements +used by the deceased during his life.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> A grave scaffold, containing +adult. Besides the ornamental appendages, +as in <i>f</i> preceding, there is +a “Shaman stick” erected over the +box containing the corpse as a mark +of good wishes of a sorrowing survivor. +See object <i>a</i>, in Fig. 724.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Schoolcraft (<i>m</i>) gives a good account, +with illustration, of the burial +posts used by the Sioux and Chippewas. +It has been quoted so frequently +that it is not reproduced +here. The most notable feature connected +with the posts is that the totems +depicted on them are reversed, +to signify the death of the persons +buried.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 165px;"> +<a href="images/dp617_pg521h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp617_pg521.jpg" class="hires" width="165" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 728.</span>—Menomoni grave post.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 728 represents the grave post +of a Menomoni Indian of the bear +totem. The stick is a piece of pine +board 2½ inches wide at the top, +gradually narrowing down to a point; +three-fourths of an inch thick, and +about 2 feet long. On one side are +two sets of characters, the oldest +being incised with a sharp-pointed +nail, while over these are a later set +of drawings made with red ocher, represented +in the illustration by shading. +The figure of the bear, drawn +with head to the ground, denotes the +totem of which the deceased was a +member, the remaining incised figures +relating to some exploits the signification +of which was not known. +The red marks were put upon the +stick at the time of the holding of a +memorial service, when the father of +the deceased furnished a feast to the +medicine priests just previous to his +being received into the society of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522">[522]</a></span> +shamans to fill the vacancy caused by +the death. The number of red crosses +denote the number of speeches made +at the grave upon that occasion, +while the band at the top refers to +the person acting as master of ceremonies, +who had been requested to +make all the arrangements for the +medicine ceremonies and initiation. +So said some Menomoni in the neighborhood, +but later the Indian who +actually painted the red crosses came +to Washington and explained that +they signified the number of war +parties in which the deceased had +taken part.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;"> +<a href="images/dp618_pg522h.png"> +<img src="images/dp618_pg522.png" class="hires" width="157" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 729.</span>—Incised lines on Menomoni +grave post.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 729 shows the incised lines on +the front of the post before color was +applied. The manner of placing the +grave posts at the head of the grave +box is shown in Fig. 730, the left-hand +grave being that of Oshkosh, +the late head chief of the Menomoni +in Wisconsin, after whom the city of +Oshkosh was named.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp619_pg523ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp619_pg523a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="296" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 730.—Grave boxes and posts.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Before the grave is a small board, +upon which tobacco is placed to +gratify the taste of the dead, and +during the season of sugar making +pieces of that delicacy are pushed +through the small openings in the +head board, that the spirit of the deceased +may be gratified and give success +to the donors at future seasons.</p> + +<p>The right-hand grave box is that +of another member of the family of +Oshkosh, at which the board, with +tobacco, is also placed, as well as +the grave post. This, however, does +not bear any indications of characters, +which probably had been washed +off by the rain.</p> + +<p>Pieces of bark, stones, and sticks +are also placed upon the grave boxes, +but the signification of this practice +could not be ascertained.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523">[523]</a></span></p> + +<p>The next two figures come from the Dakotas.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/dp619_pg523b.png" width="133" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 731.</span>—Commemoration +of dead. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 731.—Held a commemoration of the dead. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1826-’27. The ceremonial +pipe-stem and the skull indicate the mortuary +practice, which is further explained by the next figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"> +<img src="images/dp619_pg523c.png" width="355" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 732.</span>—Ossuary ceremonial. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 732.—A white man made medicine over +the skull of Crazy-Horse’s brother. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1852-’53. He holds a +pipe-stem in his hand. This figure refers to +the custom of gathering periodically the bones +of the dead that have been placed on scaffolds +and burying them. It appears that a white +man made himself conspicuous by conducting +the ceremonies on the occasion noted.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Lewis and Clarke (<i>c</i>) mention the Chilluckittequaws, a division of +the Chinooks of the Columbia river, as having for burial purposes +vaults made of pine or cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet +square and 6 in height. The walls as well as the door were decorated +with strange figures cut and painted on them; besides these there +were several wooden images of men, some of them so old and decayed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524">[524]</a></span> +as to have almost lost their shape, which were all placed against +the sides of the vaults. These images do not appear to be at all the +objects of adoration, but were probably intended as resemblances of +those whose decease they indicate.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp620_pg524h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp620_pg524.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="271" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 733.</span>—Kalosh graves.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Whymper (<i>a</i>) reports that the Kalosh Indians of Alaska construct +grave boxes or tombs which contain only the ashes of the dead. These +people invariably burn the deceased. On one of the boxes he saw a +number of faces painted, long tresses of human hair depending therefrom. +Each head represented a victim of the deceased man’s ferocity. +Thus the pictures are not likenesses or totemic marks of the cremated +Kalosh, but of enemies whom he had killed, being in the nature of +trophies or proofs of valor. Fig. 733 is a reproduction of the illustration.</p> + +<p>Dall (<i>c</i>) says of the Yukon Indians:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some wore hoops of birch wood around the neck and wrists, with various patterns +and figures cut on them. These were said to be emblems of mourning for the dead.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Franz Boas (<i>f</i>) gives the following account of the funeral customs +practiced by the Snanaimuq, a Salish tribe:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The face of the deceased is painted with red and black paint. * * * A chief’s +body is put in a carved box and the front posts supporting his coffin are carved. His +mask is placed between these posts. The graves of great warriors are marked by a +statue representing a warrior with a war club. * * * After the death of husband +or wife, the survivor must paint his legs and his blanket red. * * * At the +end of the mourning period the red blanket is given to an old man, who deposits it +in the woods.</p></div> + +<p>Didron (<i>a</i>) speaks of emblems on tombstones:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Even today, at Constantinople, in the cemetery of the Armenians, every tombstone +is marked with the insignia of the profession followed by the defunct which +the stone covers. For an Armenian tailor there is a pair of shears, thread, and +needles; for a mason, hammer and trowel; for a shoemaker, a last, leather, and a +leather cutter; for a grocer, a pair of scales; for a banker, pieces of money. It is +the same with others. Among us [Frenchmen], in the middle ages, a compass, a +rule, and square are engraved on the tomb of Hugues Libergier. In the cemetery +of L’Est, at Paris, a palette indicates the grave of a painter, a chisel and hammer +mark that of a sculptor. Animals are represented as talking and acting, masks +grimace and smile, to announce in the same inclosure the tombs of La Fontaine and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525">[525]</a></span> +of Molière. Among the Romans it was the same: a fisher had a boat on his tomb; +a shepard, a sheep; a digger, a pickaxe; a navigator, an anchor or a trident; a vine-dresser, +a cask; an architect, a capital or the instruments of his art.</p></div> + +<p>Hewitt (<i>g</i>) says of the Dieri, a tribe of Central Australia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A messenger who is sent to convey the intelligence of a death is smeared all over +with white clay. On his approach to the camp the women all commence screaming +and crying most passionately. After a time the particulars of the death are made +known to the camp. The near relations and friends then only weep. Old men even +cry bitterly, and their friends comfort them as if they were children. On the following +day the near relations dress in mourning by smearing themselves over with white +clay. Widows and widowers are prohibited by custom from uttering a word until +the clay has worn off, however long it may remain on them. They do not, however, +rub it off, as doing so would be considered a bad omen. It must absolutely wear off +of itself. During this period they communicate by means of gesture language.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Dr. Ferdinand von Hochstetter (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The carved Maori figures which are met with on the road are the memorials of +chiefs who, while journeying to the restorative baths of Rotorua, succumbed to their +ills on the road. Some of the figures are decked out with pieces of clothing or kerchiefs; +and the most remarkable feature in them is the close imitation of the tattooing +of the deceased, by which the Maoris are able to recognize for whom the monument +has been erected. Certain lines are peculiar to the tribe, others to the family, +and again others to the individual. A close imitation of the tattooing of the face, +therefore, is to the Maori the same as to us a photographic likeness; it does not require +any description of name.</p></div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;"> +<a href="images/dp621_pg525h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp621_pg525.jpg" class="hires" width="472" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 734.</span>—New Zealand grave effigy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A representation of one of these carved posts is given in Fig. 734.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526">[526]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 298px;"> +<img src="images/dp622_pg526a.jpg" width="298" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 735.</span>—New Zealand +grave-post.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Another carved post of like character is represented +in Fig. 735, concerning which the same +author says, p. 338: “Beside my tent, at Tahuahu, +on the right bank of the Mangapu, there stood an +odd, half-decomposed figure carved of wood; it was +designated to me by the natives as a Tiki, marking +the tomb of a chief.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 319px;"> +<a href="images/dp622_pg526bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp622_pg526b.jpg" class="hires" width="319" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 736.</span>—Nicobarese mortuary tablet.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Ball, on Nicobarese Ideographs, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. of Gr. Br. +& I. (<i>d</i>), says, describing Fig. 736, which appears to be connected with +mortuary observances:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527">[527]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The example of Nicobarese picture writing in Fig. 736 was obtained in the year +1873 on the island of Kondul, where I found it hanging in the house of a man who +was said to have died a short time previously. * * *</p> + +<p>The material of which it is made is either the glume of a bamboo or the spathe of +a palm which has been flattened out and framed with split bamboos.</p> + +<p>It is about 3 feet long by 18 inches broad. The objects are painted with vermilion, +their outlines being surrounded with punctures, which allow the light to pass +through. * * *</p> + +<p>As in all such Nicobarese paintings, figures of the sun, moon, and stars occupy +prominent positions. Now, the sun and moon are stated, by those who have known +the Nicobarese best, to be especial objects of adoration, and therefore these paintings +may have some religious significance.</p> + +<p>At first it occurred to me that this was merely an inventory of the property of +the deceased, but as some of the objects are certainly not such as we should expect +to find in an enumeration of property, e. g., the lizard, while the figures of men appear +to portray particular emotions, it seems probable that the objects represented +have a more or less conventional meaning, and that we have here a document of as +bona fide and translatable a character as an Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription.</p> + +<p>My own efforts to discover an interpretation from the natives on the spot were +not crowned with success. * * *</p> + +<p>Mr. De Röepstorff, extra assistant superintendent of the Andamans and Nicobars, +to whom I applied for such information as he might be able to collect upon the subject, +assured me by letter, in 1873, that the screens had a religious significance and +were used to exorcise spirits, but he did not seem to regard them as capable of being +interpreted. * * *</p> + +<p>The following is a list of the objects depicted, besides animals; many of the common +utensils in use in a Nicobarese household are included:</p> + +<p>(1) The sun and stars; (2) the moon and stars; (3) swallows or (?) flying fish; +(4) impression of the forepart of a human foot; (5) a lizard (Hydrosaurus?); (6) +four men in various attitudes; (7) two dás for cutting jungle; (8) two earthen +cooking vessels; (9) two birds; (10) an ax; (11) two spears; (12) a ladder (?); +(13) dish for food; (14) cocoanut water-vessels; (15) palm tree; (16) a canoe; (17) +three pigs; (18) shed; (19) domestic fowl; (20) seaman’s chest; (21) dog; (22) fish +of different kinds; (23) turtle.</p></div> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528">[528]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XV.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CUSTOMS.</span></h2> + + +<p>The notes given under this heading are divided into (1) cult societies; +(2) daily life and habits; (3) games.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CULT SOCIETIES.</span></h3> + +<p>Voluntary associations, to be distinguished from those of an exclusively +religious character, have flourished among most Indian tribes +and are still found among those least affected by contact with civilization. +Maj. Powell, the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, has +named them cult societies. Their members are designated by special +paintings and marks entirely distinct from those relating to their clans +or gentes and their personal names. Travelers have frequently been +confused by the diversity of such designations.</p> + +<p>The translated names of some of these societies found among the +Sioux are “Brave Night Hearts,” “Owl Feathers,” and “Wolves and +Foxes.” They control tribes in internal affairs and strongly influence +their policy in external relations, and may be regarded as the substitute +both for regular soldiery and for police. It is necessary that a young +man proposing to be a warrior should be initiated into some one of +these societies. But in distinguishing them from the purely shamanistic +orders it must not be understood that their ceremonies and ties are +independent of the cult of religion, or that they disregard it, for this +among Indians would be impossible.</p> + +<p>The following account of these societies among the Blackfeet or +Satsika and their pictorial or objective devices is condensed from +Maximilian of Wied’s Travels (<i>e</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The bands, unions, or associations are found among the Blackfeet as well as all +the other American tribes. They have a certain name, fixed rules and laws, as well +as their peculiar songs and dances, and serve in part to preserve order in the camp, +on the march, in the hunting parties, etc. Seven such bands or unions among the +Blackfeet were mentioned to me. They are the following: (1) The band of the +mosquitos. This union has no police business to do, but consists of young people, +many of whom are only 8 or 10 years of age. There are also some young men among +them and sometimes even a couple of old men, in order to see to the observance of +the laws and regulations. This union performs wild, youthful pranks; they run +about the camp whenever they please; pinch, nip, and scratch men, women, and +children in order to give annoyance like the mosquitos. The young people begin<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529">[529]</a></span> +with this union and then gradually rise higher through the others. As the badge +of their band they wear an eagle’s claw fastened around the wrist with a leather +strap. They have also a particular mode of painting themselves, like every other +band, and their peculiar songs and dance. (2) The dogs. Its badge is not known +to me; it consists of young married men, and the number is not limited. (3) The +prairie dogs. This is a police union, which receives married men; its badge is a +long hooked stick wound round with otter skin, with knots of white skin at intervals, +and a couple of eagle’s feathers hanging from each of them. (4) Those who +carry the raven. Its badge is a long staff covered with red cloth, to which black +ravens’ feathers in a long thick row are fastened from one end to the other. They +contribute to the preservation of order and the police. (5) The buffalo, with thin +horns. When they dance they wear horns on their caps. If disorders take place +they must help the soldiers, who mark out the camp and then take the first place. +(6) The soldiers. They are the most distinguished warriors, who exercise the +police, especially in the camp and on the march; in public deliberations they have +the casting vote whether, for instance, they shall hunt, change their abode, make +war or conclude peace, etc. They carry as their badge a wooden club the breadth +of a hand, with hoofs of the buffalo cow hanging to the handle. They are sometimes +40 or 50 men in number. (7) The buffalo bulls. They form the first, that is, the +most distinguished, of all the unions, and are the highest in rank. They carry in +their hand a medicine badge, hung with buffalo hoofs, which they rattle when +they dance to their peculiar song. They are too old to attend to the police, having +passed through all the unions, and are considered as having retired from office. In +their medicine dance they wear on their head a cap made of the long forelock and +mane of the buffalo bull, which hangs down to a considerable length.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 221px;"> +<img src="images/dp625_pg529.png" width="221" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 737.</span>—The policeman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 737.—“The policeman” was killed by the +enemy. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1780-’81.</p> + +<p>The man here figured was probably one of the active +members of the associations whose functions are +above described to keep order and carry out the +commands of the chiefs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>These voluntary associations are not of necessity ancient or permanent. +An instance is given in Fig. 738 which is instructive in the +interpretation of pictographs. It is a copy of drawings on a pipe stem +which had been made and used by Ottawa Indians. On each side are +four spaces, upon each of which are various incised characters, three +spaces on one side being reserved for the delineation of human figures, +each having diverging lines from the head upward, denoting their +social status as chiefs or warriors and medicine men.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;"> +<a href="images/dp626_pg530h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp626_pg530.jpg" class="hires" width="138" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 738.</span>—Ottawa pipe stem.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Upon the space nearest the mouth is the drawing of a fire, the flames +passing upward from the horizontal surface beneath them. The cross +bands are raised portions of the wood (ash) of which the pipestem +is made; these show peculiarly shaped openings which pass entirely +through the stem, though not interfering with the tube necessary for +the passage of the smoke. This indicates considerable mechanical +skill.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530">[530]</a></span></p> + +<p>Upon each side of the stem are spaces +corresponding in length and position to +those upon the opposite side. In the lower +space of the stem is a drawing of a bear, +indicating that the two persons in the +corresponding space on the opposite side +belong to the bear gens. The next upper +figure is that of a beaver, showing the +three human figures to belong to the +beaver gens, while the next to this, the +eagle, means that the opposite persons are +members of the eagle gens. The upper +figure is that of a lodge which contains +a council fire, shown on the opposite side.</p> + +<p>The signification of the whole is that +two members of the bear gens, three members +of the beaver gens, and three members +of the eagle gens have united and +constitute a society living in one lodge, +around one fire, and smoke through the +same pipe.</p> + +<p>Reference may also be made to remarks +by Prof. Dall (<i>d</i>) upon the use of masks by +associations or special classes.</p> + +</div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">DAILY LIFE AND HABITS.</span></h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp627_pg531a.png" width="600" height="220" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 739.</span>—Shooting fish. Micmac.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 739, printed from the Kejimkoojik +rocks, in Nova Scotia, represents two Indians +in a canoe following a fish to shoot +it. This is not a pure example of the class +of totemic designs. Both Indians in the +canoe have paddles in which the device +resembles the Micmac tribal device, but +in that the hunters pursue a deer and not +a fish and the canoe is “humpback.” The +Passamaquoddy tribal pictographic sign +in which a fish is followed, requires both +Indians to have paddles, and, it may be +understood that the two Indians in the +canoe are Passamaquoddy, but in the figure +one of them has laid aside his paddle +and is shooting at the fish with a gun, +which departs from the totemic device, +and also shows that the drawing was made +since the Indians of the region had obtained<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531">[531]</a></span> +firearms from Europeans, but these were obtained three centuries +ago, quite long enough for hunting scenes on some of the petroglyphs +to exhibit the use of a gun instead of a bow.</p> + +<p>This kind of fish hunting by gunshot is one of daily occurrence in the +region during the proper season.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp627_pg531bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp627_pg531b.png" class="hires" width="600" height="151" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 740.</span>—Shooting fish. Micmac.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 740, from the same locality, is more ideographic. The line of +the gun barrel is exaggerated and prolonged so as nearly to touch the +fish, and signifies that the shot was a sure hit. The hunters are very +roughly delineated. Possibly this hunting was at night with fire on +a brazier and screens, a common practice which seems to be indicated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp627_pg531ch.png"> +<img src="images/dp627_pg531c.png" class="hires" width="600" height="160" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 741.</span>—Lancing fish. Micmac.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 741, also from Kejimkoojik, is more ancient, but less distinct. +The fish is larger, and the weapon may be a lance, not a gun.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp627_pg531d.png" width="600" height="98" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 742.</span>—Whale hunting. Innuit.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 742, copied from a walrus ivory drill-bow, from Cape Darley, +Alaska (Nat. Mus. No. 44211), illustrates the mode of whale-hunting by +the Innuit. The crosses over the whale and beneath the harpoon line +represent aquatic birds; the three, oval objects attached to the line +are floaters to support the line and to indicate its course after the +downward plunge of the harpooned cetacean.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532">[532]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp628_pg532a.png" width="600" height="137" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 743.</span>—Hunting in canoe. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A similar hunting scene by canoe, in which, however, the game was +deer, is given in Fig. 743. The drawing is on birch bark, and was made +by an old Indian named Ojibwa, now living at White Earth, Minnesota, +an intimate friend and associate of the late chief Hole-in-the-Day. +Ojibwa is supposed to be actor as well as depictor. He shows his +lodges in <i>a</i>, where he resided many years ago; <i>b</i> is a lake; <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i> +represent four deer, one of which is shown only by the horns protruding +above a clump of brush near the lake; <i>e</i> represents Ojibwa in +his canoe, <i>d</i>, floating on the river, <i>h</i>, <i>h</i>; <i>g</i> is a pine torch, giving light +and smoke, erected on the bow of the canoe, the light being thrown +forward from a curve slice of birch bark at <i>f</i>, its bright inner surface +acting as a reflector. The whole means that during one hunt, by night, +the narrator shot four deer at the places indicated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp628_pg532bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp628_pg532b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="299" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 744.</span>—Record of hunting. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The accompanying Fig. 744 is reproduced from a drawing also incised +on birch bark by Ojibwa, and relates to a hunting expedition made by +his father and two companions, all of whom are represented by three +human forms near the left-hand upper line. The circle at the left is +Red Cedar lake, Minnesota; a river is shown flowing northward, and +another toward the east, having several indications of lakes which this +river passes through or drains. The circle within the lake denotes an +island upon which the party camped, as is shown by the trail leading +from the human forms to the island. Around the lake are a number of +short lines which signify trees, indicating a wooded shore. The first +animal form to the right of the human figures is a porcupine; the next +a bittern. The two shelters in the right-hand upper corner indicate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533">[533]</a></span> +another camp made by the hunters, to which one of them dragged a +deer, as shown by the man in that act, just to the left of the shelter.</p> + +<p>Another camp of the same party of three is shown in the lower left-hand +corner; the bow and arrow directed to the right indicates that +there they shot a raccoon, a fisher, a duck (a man lying down decoyed +this bird by calling), a mink, and an otter. The line above the lower +row consists of the following animals, reading from the left to right, viz, +bear, owl, wolf, elk, and deer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp629_pg533a.jpg" width="600" height="564" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 745.</span>—Fruit gatherers. Hidatsa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 745 is a copy of a sketch made by Lean-Wolf, second chief of the +Hidatsa, and shows the manner in which the women carry baskets used<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534">[534]</a></span> +in gathering wild plums, bull-berries, and other small fruits. The baskets +are usually made of thin splints of wood, and very similar in manner +of construction to the well known bushel-basket of our eastern farmers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp629_pg533bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp629_pg533b.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="339" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 746.</span>—Hunting antelope. Hidatsa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 746 was also made by Lean-Wolf, and illustrates the old manner +of hunting antelope and deer. The hunter would disguise himself by +covering his head with the head and skin of an antelope, and so be +enabled to approach the game near enough to use his bow and arrow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp630_pg534ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp630_pg534a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="179" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 747.</span>—Hunting buffalo. Hidatsa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In a similar manner the Hidatsa would mask themselves with a wolf +skin to enable them to approach buffalo. This is illustrated in Fig. +747, which is a reproduction of a drawing made by the above-mentioned +chief.</p> + +<p>The next group of figures illustrates the custom of gaining and afterwards +counting coups or hits, the French expression, sometimes spelled +by travelers “coo,” being generally adopted. This is an honor gained +by hitting an enemy, whether dead or alive, with an ornamented lance, +or sometimes a stick, carried for the purpose as part of a warrior’s +equipment. These sticks or wands are about 12 feet long, often of willow, +stripped of leaves and bark, and each having some distinguishing +objects, such as feathers, bells, brightly-colored cloth, or else painted +in a special manner. Further remarks on this custom appear in Chapter +<span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, Section <a href="#page419">4</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp630_pg534bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp630_pg534b.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="266" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 748.</span>—Counting +coups. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, in Fig. 748, Kills-the-Enemy, from Red-Cloud’s +Census, exhibits the coup stick in contact with the +dead enemy’s head. <i>b</i> is taken from Bloody-Knife’s +robe and shows an Indian about to strike his prostrate enemy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535">[535]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 231px;"> +<img src="images/dp631_pg535a.png" width="231" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 749.</span>—Counting +coups. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p>Fig. 749.—Killed-First. Red Cloud’s Census. This +is the case where a warrior struck the enemy with his +coup stick first in order, which is the most honorable +achievement, greater than the actual killing. The +word translated kill or killed does not always imply +immediate death, but the infliction of a fatal wound.</p> + +<p>The apparent reason why the striking of the body +of a dead or disabled enemy, whether or not killed +or disabled by the striker, is more honorable than +the actual infliction of the wound, is because the +attempt to strike is vigorously resisted by the enemy, +the survivors of which assemble to prevent the successful +achievement; mere killing might be at a +distance in comparative safety.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 312px;"> +<img src="images/dp631_pg535b.png" width="312" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 750.</span>—Counting coups. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 750.—Enemies-hit-him. Red-Cloud’s +Census. In this case the Dakota +has been hit by the enemy’s lance +or coup stick.</p> + +<p>This group refers to the custom, east of the Rocky mountains, of +exhibiting scalps.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/dp631_pg535c.png" width="130" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 751.</span>—Scalp displayed. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 751.—A war party of Oglalas killed one Pawnee; +his scalp is on the pole. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1855-’56. This and the next figure +show the custom of a successful war party on returning +to the home village to display the scalps taken. +This display is the occasion of special ceremonies. +The marks on the foot signify that on their way +home the men of the war party froze their feet.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536">[536]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 102px;"> +<img src="images/dp632_pg536a.png" width="102" height="162" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 752.</span>—Scalp displayed. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 752.—Owns-the-Pole, the leader of an Oglala +war party, brought home many Cheyenne scalps. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1798-’99. The +cross stands for Cheyenne, as explained above.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/dp632_pg536b.png" width="104" height="148" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 753.</span>—Scalped head. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 753.—Black-Rock, a Dakota, was killed by the +Crows. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1806-’07. +A rock or, more correctly translated, a large stone +is represented above his head. He was killed with +an arrow and was scalped. The figure is introduced +here to show the designation of a scalped +head, which is colored red—that is, bloody—when +coloration is possible. It frequently appears in the +Winter Counts of the Dakotas.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"> +<img src="images/dp632_pg536c.png" width="397" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 754.</span>—Scalp taken.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 754 was drawn by a Dakota Indian +at Mendota, Minnesota, and represents +a man holding a scalp in one hand, +while in the other is the gun, the weapon +used in killing the enemy. The short +vertical lines below the periphery of the +scalp indicate hair. The line crossing +the leg of the Indian is only a suggestion +of the ground upon which he is supposed +to stand.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>The following group pictographically expresses the hunting of antelopes.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<img src="images/dp632_pg536d.png" width="187" height="204" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 755.</span>—Antelope hunting. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 755.—They drove many antelope into a corral +and then killed them. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1828-’29. This and the following two figures +show the old mode of procuring antelope and +other animals by driving them into an inclosure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp632_pg536e.png" width="162" height="183" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 756.</span>—Antelope hunting. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 756.—They provided themselves with a large +supply of antelope meat by driving antelope into a +corral, in which they were easily killed. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1828-’29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537">[537]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 311px;"> +<img src="images/dp633_pg537a.png" width="311" height="143" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 757.</span>—Antelope hunting. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 757.—They capture a great many antelope +by driving them into a pen. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1860-’61.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;"> +<img src="images/dp633_pg537b.png" width="211" height="214" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 758.</span>—Wife’s punishment.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 758.—A woman who had been given to a white +man by the Dakotas was killed because she ran away +from him. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1799-1800. +The gift of the woman was in fact a sale, and, in addition +to the crime of marital infidelity, the tribe was +implicated in a breach of contract. The union line +below the figures, mentioned before, means husband +and wife. This picture illustrates, as far as may be +done pictorially, a Dakotan custom as regards marriage +and the penalty connected with it.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>The following figures relate to several different forms:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 319px;"> +<img src="images/dp633_pg537c.png" width="319" height="365" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 759.</span>—Decorated horse.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 759.—They brought in a fine horse +with feathers tied to his tail. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1810-’11. White-Cow-Killer +calls it “Came-with-medicine-on-horse’s-tail +winter.” This illustrates the ornamentation +of specially valuable or favorite horses, which, +however, is not mere ornamentation, but +often connected with sentiments or symbols +of a religious character, and as often with +the totemic, which from another point of view +may also be regarded as religious.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp633_pg537d.png" width="75" height="127" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 760.</span>—Suicide. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 760.—A young man who was afflicted with smallpox and was +in his tipi by himself sang his death song and shot himself. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1784-’85. Suicide is more +common among Indians than is generally suspected, and +even boys sometimes take their own lives. A Dakota boy +at one of the agencies shot himself rather than face his +companions after his mother had whipped him; and a Paiute +boy at Camp McDermit, Nevada, tried to poison himself with the +wild parsnip because he was not well and strong like other boys. The +Paiutes usually eat the wild parsnip when bent on suicide.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/dp633_pg537e.png" width="158" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 761.</span>—Eagle +hunting. Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 761.—A Ree Indian hunting eagles from a hole in +the ground was killed by the Two-Kettle Dakotas. The +Swan’s Winter Count, 1806-’07. The drawing represents +an Indian in the act of catching an eagle by the legs in +the manner that the Arikaras were accustomed to catch +eagles in their earth-traps. They rarely or never shot war +eagles. The Dakotas probably shot the Arikara in his +trap just as he put his hand up to grasp the bird.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538">[538]</a></span></p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>In this connection Fig. 762 is properly inserted. It is a sketch made +by an Ojibwa hunter to illustrate the manner of catching eagles, the +feathers of which are highly prized by nearly all +Indians for personal decoration and for war bonnets.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/dp634_pg538a.png" width="300" height="218" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 762.</span>—Eagle hunting. +Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The upper character represents an eagle; +the curved line at the right denotes the covering of +branches and leaves of a temporary structure +placed over a hole in the ground in which the +Indian is secreted. He is depicted beneath +covering, while a line, extending toward the eagle, terminates in a +small oblong object, which is intended to represent the bait placed +upon the covering to attract the eagle. The bait may consist of a +young deer, a hare, or some other live animal of sufficient size to +attract the eagle. When the latter swoops down and seizes the prey +he is caught by the leg and held until assistants arrive, after which he +is carried back to camp and plucked and is then liberated.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;"> +<img src="images/dp634_pg538b.png" width="127" height="234" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 763.</span>—Gathering +pomme-blanche.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 763.—A Ree woman is killed by a Dakota while +gathering pomme-blanche. The-Flame’s Winter Count, +1797-’98. Pomme-blanche, or navet de prairie, is a +white root, somewhat similar in appearance to a white +turnip, botanically Psoralea esculenta (Nuttal) sometimes +P. argophylla. It is a favorite food of the Indians, +eaten boiled down to a sort of mush or hominy. +A forked stick is used in gathering these roots.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 218px;"> +<img src="images/dp634_pg538c.png" width="218" height="87" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 764.</span>—Moving tipi.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 764.—Lodge-Roll. Red-Cloud’s Census, No. 101. This figure +shows the mode of rolling up the skins forming the +tipi for transportation. It is attached to four lodge +poles, the ends of which trail on the ground and constitute +the “travail” which was dragged by dogs. +Horses are now used for this purpose, and canvas takes the place of skins.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 206px;"> +<img src="images/dp634_pg538d.png" width="206" height="181" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 765.</span>—Claiming +sanctuary.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 765.—An enemy came into Lone-Horn’s lodge during the medicine +feast and was not killed. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1852-’53. +The pipe is not in the man’s hand, and the head only +is drawn with the pipe between it and the tipi.</p> + +<p>An interesting custom of the Indians connected +with the rite of sanctuary is that called by English +writers “running the gauntlet.” When captives had +successfully run through a line of tormentors to a +post near the council-house they were for the time +free from further molestation. In the northeastern tribes this was in +the nature of an ordeal to test whether or not the captive was vigorous +and brave enough to be adopted into the tribe, but among other tribes +it appears in a different shape. Any enemy, whether a captive or not, +could secure immunity from present danger if he could reach a central +post, or if there were no post, the lodge or tipi of the chief. A similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539">[539]</a></span> +custom existed among the Arikaras, who kept a special pipe in a “bird-box.” +If a criminal or enemy succeeded in smoking the pipe contained +in the box he could not be hurt. This corresponds with the safety +found in laying hold of the horns of the Israelite altar.</p> + +<p>The position of the pipe is significant. Its mouthpiece points to the +entrance of the tipi. The visitor does not bring or offer peace, but +hopes that the tribe visited may grant it to him.</p> + +<p>The four figures next following refer to ceremonies by which a war +party was organized among some of the tribes of the Plains. A brief +account of the ceremonies specially relating to the pipe is as follows:</p> + +<p>When a warrior desires to make up a war party he visits his friends +and offers them a filled pipe as an invitation to follow him, and those +who are willing to go accept the invitation by lighting and smoking it. +Among the Dakotas this was succeeded by a muster feast and war dance. +Any man whose courage has been proved may become the leader of +a war party. The word leader has been generally translated “partisan,” +an expression originally adopted by the French voyageurs. Among the +Arapahos the would-be leader does not invite anyone to accompany +him, but publicly announces his intention of going to war. He fixes +the day for his departure, and states where he will camp the first +night, naming some place not far off. The morning on which he starts, +and before leaving the village, he invokes the aid of his guardian totem. +He rides off alone, carrying his bare pipe in his hand with the bowl +carefully tied to the stem to prevent it from slipping off. If the bowl +should at any time accidentally fall to the ground he considers it an +evil omen and immediately returns to the village, and nothing could +induce him to proceed, as he thinks that only misfortune would attend +him if he did. Sometimes he ties eagle or hawk plumes to the stem of +his pipe, and after quitting the village, repairs to the top of some hill +and makes an offering of them to the sun, taking them from his pipe +and tying them to a pole which he erects in a pile of stones. Those +who intend to follow him usually join him at the first camp, equipped +for the expedition; but often there are some who do not join him until +he has gone further on. He eats nothing before leaving the village, +nor as long as the sun is up; but breaks his fast at his first camp after +the sun sets. The next morning he begins another fast, to be continued +until sunset. He counts his party, saddles his horse, names some place +6 or 7 miles ahead, where he says he will halt for awhile, and again +rides off alone with his pipe in his hand. After awhile the party follow +him in single file. When they have reached his halting place he tells +them to dismount and let their horses graze. They all then seat themselves +on the ground on the left of the leader, forming a semicircle +facing the sun. The leader fills his pipe, all bow their heads, and, +pointing the stem of the pipe upward, he prays toward the sun, asking +that they may find an abundance of game, that dead shots may be made, +so that their ammunition will not be wasted, but reserved for their +enemies; that they may easily find their enemies and kill them; that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540">[540]</a></span> +they may be preserved from wounds and death. He makes his petition +four times, then lights his pipe, and after sending a few whiffs of smoke +skyward as incense to the sun, hands the pipe to his neighbor who +smokes and passes it on to the next. It is passed from one to another +toward the left, until all have smoked, the leader refilling it as often +as necessary. They then proceed to their next camp, where probably +others join them. The same programme is carried out for three or four +days before the party is prepared for action.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 287px;"> +<img src="images/dp636_pg540a.png" width="287" height="291" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 766.</span>—Raising war party. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 766.—Big Crow and Conquering-Bear had a +great feast and gave many presents. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1846-’47. The two chieftains +are easily recognized by the name characteristic +over their heads. They have between them +the war eagle pipe—specifically, but erroneously, +called calumet by some writers.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;"> +<img src="images/dp636_pg540b.png" width="163" height="261" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 767.</span>—Raising war party. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 767.—Feather-in-the-Ear made a feast to +which he invited all the young Dakota braves, +wanting them to go with him. The-Swan’s Winter +Count, 1842-’43. A memorandum is added that he +failed to persuade them.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp636_pg540c.png" width="147" height="298" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 768.</span>—Raising war party. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 768.—The Cheyennes carry the pipe around +to invite all the tribes to unite with them in a war +against the Pawnees. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1852-’53.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/dp636_pg540d.png" width="182" height="287" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 769.</span>—Raising war party. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 769.—Danced calumet dance before going to +war. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1804-’05. The +specially ornamented pipe becomes the conventional +symbol for the ceremonial organization of a +war party.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541">[541]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp637_pg541a.png" width="400" height="131" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 770.</span>—Walrus hunting. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 770 represents an Alaskan in the +water killing a walrus. The illustration +was obtained from a slab of walrus ivory +in the museum of the Alaska Commercial +Company of San Francisco.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp637_pg541bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp637_pg541b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="270" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 771.</span>—Records carved on ivory. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The carving, Fig. 771, made of a piece of walrus tusk, was copied +from the original in the same museum during the summer of 1882. +Interpretations were verified by Naumoff, a Kadiak half-breed.</p> + +<p><i>a</i> is a native whose left hand is resting against the house, while +the right hangs toward the ground. The character to his right represents +a “Shaman stick” surmounted by the emblem of a bird, a “good +spirit,” in memory of some departed friend. It was suggested that the +grave stick had been erected to the memory of his wife.</p> + +<p><i>b</i> represents a reindeer, but the special import in this drawing is +unknown.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> signifies that one man, the designer, shot and killed another with +an arrow.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> denotes that the narrator has made trading expeditions with a +dog sledge.</p> + +<p><i>e</i> is a sailboat, although the elevated paddle signifies that that was +the manner in which the voyage was best made.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, a dog sled, with the animal hitched up for a journey. The radiating +lines in the upper left hand corner, over the head of the man, are +the rays of the sun.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, a sacred lodge. The four figures at the outer corners of the square +represent the young men placed on guard, armed with bows and arrows, +to keep away those not members of the band, who are depicted as holding +a dance. The small square in the center of the lodge represents +the fireplace. The angular lines extending from the right side of the +lodge to the vertical partition line show in outline the subterranean +entrance to the lodge.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542">[542]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>h</i>, a pine tree upon which a porcupine is crawling upward.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, a pine tree, from which a bird (woodpecker) is extracting larvæ +for food.</p> + +<p><i>j</i>, a bear.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, the designer in his boat holding aloft his double-bladed paddle to +drive fish into a net.</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, an assistant fisherman driving fish into the net.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, the net.</p> + +<p>The figure over the man (<i>l</i>) represents a whale, with harpoon and +line attached, caught by the narrator.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Many customs, such, for instance, as the peculiar arrangement of +hair in any tribe, are embodied in their pictorial designation by other +tribes and often by themselves. Numerous examples are presented in +this paper.</p> + +<p>In Lord Kingsborough, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, p. 45 et seq., is the text relating to +the collection of Mendoza, in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">LVIII</span>, to <span class="smcap lowercase">LXII</span>, inclusive, here +presented as Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXIV</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXVIII</span>. The textual language is preserved +with some condensation.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXIV</span> exhibits the customs of the Mexicans at the birth of a male +or female infant; the right and ceremony of naming the children and +of afterwards dedicating and offering them at their temples or to the +military profession.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;"> +<a href="images/dp639_pg542ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp639_pg542p.jpg" class="hires" width="435" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIV<br />MEXICAN TREATMENT OF NEW-BORN CHILDREN.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>As soon as the mother was delivered of the infant they put it into a cradle and +when it was 4 days old the midwife took the infant in her arms, naked, and carried +it into the court of the mother’s house, in which court was strewed reeds, or rushes, +which they call tule, upon which was placed a small vessel of water in which the +midwife bathed the infant; and after she had bathed it 3 boys being seated near the +said rushes, eating roasted maize mixed with boiled beans, which kind of food they +named yxcue, which provision or paste they set before the said boys in order that +they might eat it. After the bathing, or washing, the midwife desired the boys to +pronounce the name aloud, bestowing a new name on the infant which had been +thus bathed; and the name that they gave it was that which the midwife wished. +They first carried out the infant to bathe it. If it was a boy they carried him, holding +his symbol in his hand, which symbol was the instrument which the father of +the infant employed either in the military profession or in his trade, whether it was +that of a goldsmith, jeweller, or any other; and the said ceremony having been gone +through, the midwife delivered the infant to his mother. But if the infant was a +girl the symbol with which they carried her to be bathed was a spinning wheel and +distaff, with a small basket and a handful of brooms which were the things which +would afford her occupation when she arrived at a proper age.</p> + +<p>They offered the umbilical cord of the male infant together with the shield and +arrows, the symbols with which they carried him to be bathed, in that spot and +place where war was likely to happen with their enemies, where they buried them +in the earth; and they did the same with that of the female infant, which they in +the same way buried beneath the metate or stone on which they ground meal.</p> + +<p>After these ceremonies, when twenty days had expired, the parents of the infant +went with it to the temple, or mesquita, which they called calmecac, and in the +presence of their alfaquis presented the infant with its offering of mantles and +maxtles, together with some provision; and after the infant had been brought up +by its parents, as soon as it arrived at the proper age, they delivered him to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543">[543]</a></span> +superior of the said mezquita, that he might be there instructed in order that he +might afterwards become an alfaqui; but if the parents resolved that when the +infant attained a fit age he should go and serve in the military profession, they immediately +offered him to the master, making a promise of him, which master of the +young men and boys was named Teachcauh or Telpuchtlato; which offering they +accompanied with a present of provisions and other things for its celebration; and +when the infant attained a fit age they delivered him up to the said master.</p></div> + +<p>In the plate <i>a</i> is a woman lately delivered; the four roses, <i>b</i>, signify +four days, at the completion of which period the midwife carried forth +the new born infant to be bathed; <i>c</i>, is the cradle with the infant; <i>d</i>, +the midwife; <i>e</i>, the symbols; <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, the three boys who named the +new-born infant; <i>i</i>, the rushes, with the small vessel of water; <i>j</i>, the +brooms, distaff, spinning wheel, and basket; <i>k</i>, the father of the infant; +<i>l</i>, the superior alfaqui; <i>m</i>, the infant in the cradle, whose parents are +offering it at the mezquita; <i>n</i>, the mother of the girl; <i>o</i>, the master of +the boys and young men.</p> + +<p>Kingsborough’s Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LIX</span>—here Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXV</span>, treats of the time and manner +in which the Mexicans instructed their children how they ought to +live.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"> +<a href="images/dp643_pg544ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp643_pg544p.jpg" class="hires" width="379" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXV<br />EDUCATION OF MEXICAN CHILDREN, THREE TO SIX YEARS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The first section shows how parents corrected their children of 3 +years old by giving them good advice, and the quantity of food which +they allowed them at each meal was half a roll.</p> + +<p>The three circles, <i>a</i>, indicate 3 years of age; <i>b</i>, denotes the father of +the boy; <i>c</i>, the boy; <i>d</i>, the half of a roll; <i>e</i>, the mother of the girl; <i>f</i>, +the half of a roll; <i>g</i>, the girl of 3 years of age.</p> + +<p>The second section represents the parents employed in the same way, +in instructing their children when they attained 4 years of age, when +they began to exercise them by bidding them to do a few slight things. +The quantity of food which they gave them at each meal was a roll.</p> + +<p>The father of the boy is shown at <i>h</i>; the boy, 4 years of age, at <i>i</i>; <i>j</i>, +a roll; <i>k</i>, the mother of the girl; <i>l</i>, a roll; <i>m</i>, the girl of 4 years.</p> + +<p>The third section shows how the parents employed and exercised +their sons of 5 years of age in tasks of bodily strength; for example, +in carrying loads of wood of slight weight, and in sending them with +light bundles to the tianquez or market place; and the girls of this age +received lessons how they ought to hold the distaff and the spinning +wheel. Their allowance of food was a roll.</p> + +<p>In this section, <i>n</i> shows the father of the boy; <i>o</i>, two boys of 5 years +of age; <i>p</i>, a roll; <i>q</i>, a roll; <i>r</i>, the mother of the girl; <i>s</i>, a roll; <i>t</i>, the +girl of 5 years of age.</p> + +<p>The fourth section shows how parents exercised and employed their +sons of 6 years in personal services, that they might be of some assistance +to their parents; as also in the tianquez, or market places, in picking +up from the ground the grains of maize which lay scattered about, +and the beans and other trifling things which those who resorted to +the market had dropped. The girls were set to spin, and employed in +other useful tasks that they might hereafter, through the said tasks and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544">[544]</a></span> +works, sedulously shun idleness in order to avoid the bad habits which +idleness is accustomed to cause. The allowance of food which was +given to the boys at each meal was a roll and a half.</p> + +<p>The father of the two boys appears at <i>u</i>; two boys of 6 years old at +<i>v</i>; <i>w</i>, a roll and a half; <i>x</i>, the mother of the girl: <i>y</i>, a roll and a half; +<i>z</i>, the girl of 6 years old.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LX</span>, here Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXVI</span>, treats of the time and manner in which the +native Mexicans instructed and corrected their sons, that they might +learn to avoid all kinds of sloth and to keep themselves constantly +exercised in profitable things. It is divided into four sections.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;"> +<a href="images/dp647_pg546ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp647_pg546p.jpg" class="hires" width="357" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVI<br />EDUCATION OF MEXICAN CHILDREN, SEVEN TO TEN YEARS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The first section shows how fathers employed their sons of 7 years +old in giving them nets to fish with; and mothers occupied their +daughters in spinning and in giving them good advice. The allowance +of food which they gave to their sons at each meal was a roll and a +half.</p> + +<p>The seven points, <i>a</i>, signify seven years; <i>b</i>, is the father of the boys; +<i>c</i>, a roll and a half; <i>d</i>, the boy of 7 years old whose father is instructing +him how to fish with the net which he holds in his hands; <i>e</i>, the +mother of the girls; <i>f</i>, a roll and a half; <i>g</i>, the girl of 7 years whom +her mother is teaching how to spin.</p> + +<p>The second section declares how fathers chastised their sons of 8 +years of age, threatening them with thorns of the aloe, that in case of +negligence and disobedience to their parents they should be punished +with the said thorns. The boys accordingly weep for fear. The quantity +of food which they allowed them consisted of a roll and a half.</p> + +<p>The eight points, <i>h</i>, signify eight years; <i>i</i>, the father of the boys; <i>j</i>, +a roll and a half; <i>k</i>, the boy of 8 years, whose father threatens him in +case of ill behavior to inflict public punishment upon him with thorns; +<i>l</i>, thorns of the aloe; <i>m</i>, the mother of the girls; <i>n</i>, a roll and a half; +<i>o</i>, the girl of 8 years of age, whose mother threatens her with thorns +of the aloe in case of ill behavior; <i>p</i>, thorns of the aloe.</p> + +<p>The third section declares how fathers punished with the thorn of +the aloe their sons of 9 years of age, when they were incorrigible and +rebellious toward their parents, by running the said thorns into their +shoulders and bodies. They also corrected their daughters by pricking +their hands with thorns. The allowance of food which they gave +them was a roll and a half.</p> + +<p>The nine points, <i>q</i>, signify nine years; <i>r</i>, a roll and a half; <i>s</i>, the +father of the boys; <i>t</i>, a boy of 9 years old being found to be incorrigible, +his father runs thorns of the aloe into his body; <i>u</i>, the mother +of the girls; <i>v</i>, a roll and a half; <i>w</i>, the girl of 9 years old and her +mother, who corrects her for her negligence by pricking her hands with +thorns.</p> + +<p>The fourth section shows how fathers chastised their sons of 10 +years of age, when they were refractory, by inflicting blows upon them +with a stick and threatening them with other punishments. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545">[545]</a></span> +quantity and allowance of food which they gave them was a roll and a +half.</p> + +<p>The ten points, <i>x</i>, signify ten years; <i>y</i>, a roll and a half; <i>z</i>, the father +of the boys; <i>aa</i>, the boy of 10 years old, whose father is correcting him +with a stick; <i>bb</i>, the mother of the girl; <i>cc</i>, a roll and a half; <i>dd</i>, the +girl of 10 years old, whose mother is correcting her with a stick.</p> + +<p>Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LXI</span>, here Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXVII</span>, is in three sections.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 409px;"> +<a href="images/dp651_pg548ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp651_pg548p.jpg" class="hires" width="409" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVII<br />EDUCATION OF MEXICAN CHILDREN, ELEVEN TO FOURTEEN YEARS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The first section explains that when a boy of 11 years of age disregarded +verbal reproof, his parents obliged him to inhale smoke of axi +through the nostrils, which was a cruel and severe punishment, that he +might be sorry for such conduct and not turn out worthless and abandoned, +but on the contrary employ his time in profitable things. They +gave boys of such an age bread, which consisted of rolls, only by +allowance, that they might learn not to be gormandizers or gluttons. +Girls received similar discipline.</p> + +<p>The eleven points, <i>a</i>, signify eleven years; <i>b</i>, a roll and a half; <i>c</i>, the +father of the boys; <i>d</i>, the boy of 11 years of age, whose father is punishing +him by obliging him to inhale through the nostrils the smoke of +dried axi; <i>e</i>, the smoke or vapor of axi; <i>f</i>, the mother of the girls; <i>g</i>, +the girl of 11 years, whose mother is punishing her by making her +breathe smoke of axi; <i>h</i>, a roll and a half; <i>i</i>, the smoke of axi.</p> + +<p>The second section represents that when boys or girls of 12 years of +age would not submit to the reproof or advice of their parents, the +father took the boy and tied his hands and feet and laid him naked on +the ground in some damp and wet place, in which situation he kept him +for a whole day, in order that by this punishment he might amend and +fear his displeasure. And the mother obliged the girl of the said age +to work by night before break of day, employing her in sweeping the +house and the street and continually occupying her in personal tasks. +They gave them food likewise by allowance.</p> + +<p>The points, <i>j</i>, indicate twelve years; <i>k</i>, a roll and a half; <i>l</i>, the +father of the boys; <i>m</i>, the boy of 12 years of age, stretched upon the +wet ground, with his hands and feet tied, for a whole day; the painting +at <i>n</i> signifies the night; <i>o</i>, the mother of the girls; <i>p</i>, a roll and a +half; <i>q</i>, the girl of 12 years of age, who is employed by night in sweeping.</p> + +<p>The third section of this plate represents that boys and girls of 13 +years of age were occupied by their parents, the boys in fetching wood +from the mountains and in bringing reed grass and other litter in +canoes for the use of the house; and the girls in grinding meal and +making bread, and preparing other articles of food for their parents. +They gave the boys for their allowance of food two rolls each at each +meal.</p> + +<p>The father of the boys is represented at <i>r</i>; the points, <i>s</i>, indicate +thirteen years; <i>t</i>, two rolls; <i>u</i>, the boy of 13 years old, who brings a +load of reed grass; <i>v</i>, the boy in a canoe, with bundles of canes; <i>w</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546">[546]</a></span> +mother of the girls; <i>x</i>, the girl of 13 years of age, who makes +cakes and prepares articles of food; <i>y</i>, two cakes; <i>z</i>, a bowl; <i>aa</i>, the +comali; <i>bb</i>, a pot for boiling provisions in and two cakes.</p> + +<p>The fourth section of this plate represents how their parents employed +and occupied a boy or girl of 14 years of age, the boy in going in a +canoe to fish in the lakes, and the girl in the task of weaving a piece of +cloth. Their allowance of food was two rolls.</p> + +<p>The fourteen points, <i>cc</i>, represent fourteen years; <i>dd</i>, two rolls; <i>ee</i>, +the father of the boys; <i>ff</i>, the boy of 14 years of age, who goes out +fishing with his canoe; <i>gg</i>, the mother of the girls; <i>hh</i>, two rolls; <i>ii</i>, +the girl of 14 years, who is occupied in weaving; <i>jj</i>, the web and occupation +of weaving.</p> + +<p>The figures of Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LXII</span>, here Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXVIII</span>, are in two sections.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 358px;"> +<a href="images/dp655_pg550ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp655_pg550p.jpg" class="hires" width="358" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVIII<br />ADOPTION OF PROFESSION AND MARRIAGE, MEXICAN.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Those contained in the first section signify that the father, who had +sons nearly grown up, carried them to the two houses represented in +the plate; either to the house of the master, who taught and instructed +the young men, or to the mezquita, accordingly as the lad was himself +inclined, and committed him to the care of the superior Alfaqui or to +the master of the boys, to be educated, which lads it was fit should +have attained the age of 15.</p> + +<p>In this section <i>a</i> is a youth of 15 years of age, whose father delivers +him up to the superior Alfaqui, that he might receive him as an Alfaqui; +<i>b</i> is the Tlamazqui, who is the superior Alfaqui; <i>c</i>, the mezquita, named +Calmecac; <i>d</i>, the father of these two youths; <i>e</i>, a young man of 15, +whose father delivers him up to the master that he might teach and +instruct him; <i>f</i>, the teachcauh or master; <i>g</i>, the seminary where +they educated and taught the young men, which was called cuincacali; +<i>h</i>, fifteen years.</p> + +<p>The second section of the plate signifies the laws and usages which +they followed and observed in marriages. The ceremony consisted in +the female negotiator, who arranged the nuptials, carrying on her back +on the first night of the wedding the betrothed woman, accompanied +by four women with blazing torches of resinous fir, who attended to +light her on the way; and having arrived at the house of the man to +whom she was engaged, the parents of the betrothed man went out to +receive her in the court of the house and conducted her to an apartment +where the man expected her; and seating the betrothed couple on a +mat on which were placed seats, near a hearth of fire, they took them +and tied them to each other by their clothes and offered incense of copal +to their gods. Two old men and two women afterward delivered a +separate discourse to the newly married couple and set food before +them, which they presently ate; and after their repast was over, the +two old men and women gave good advice to the married pair, telling +them how they ought to conduct themselves and to live, and by what +means they might pass their lives in tranquillity.</p> + +<p>The square inclosure, <i>i</i>, is the apartment; <i>j</i>, the old man; <i>k</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547">[547]</a></span> +hearth, of fire; <i>l</i>, the wife; <i>m</i>, copal (the latter is not shown in the drawing, +but the copal is between the marrying couple); <i>n</i>, the husband; <i>o</i>, +the old woman; <i>p</i>, the old man; <i>q</i>, food; <i>r</i>, a mat; <i>s</i>, food; <i>t</i>, an old woman; +<i>u</i>, a pitcher of pulque; <i>v</i>, a cup; <i>w</i>, <i>x</i>, the women lighting the +bride on her way with torches, when on the first night of the wedding +they accompany her to the house of the bridegroom; <i>y</i>, the female negotiator; +<i>z</i>, the bride; <i>aa</i>, <i>bb</i>, women lighting the bride and bridegroom +on the first night of their wedding.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">GAMES.</span></h3> + +<p>Many accounts of the games of the Indians have been published, but +they are not often connected with pictography. Those now presented +refer to the picturing connected with only three games.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp649_pg547a.png" width="400" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 772.</span>—Haka game. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 772.—A dead man was used in the +ring-and-pole game. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1779-’80.</p> + +<p>The figure represents the stick and ring +used in the game of haka, with a human +head in front to suggest that the corpse +took the place of the usual stick. This and the next figure illustrate +the game.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/dp649_pg547b.png" width="168" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 773.</span>—Haka game. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 773.—It was an intensely cold winter and a +Dakota froze to death. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1777-’78.</p> + +<p>The sign for snow or winter, i. e., a cloud with snow +falling from it, is above the man’s head. A haka-stick, +which is used in playing that game, is represented in +front of him.</p> + +<p>Battiste Good’s record further explains the illustration +by the account that the Dakota was killed in a +fight with the Pawnees, and his companions left his +body where they supposed it would not be found, but +the Pawnees found it, and, as it was frozen stiff, they +dragged it into their camp and played haka with it.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"> +<a href="images/dp650_pg548h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp650_pg548.jpg" class="hires" width="463" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 774.</span>—Haida gambling stick.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The characters <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Fig. 774, represent one point of view of two +of a set of Haida gambling sticks, real size. They are made of juniper +or some other similar wood, and neatly carved with diverse figures. +The game is played by any number of persons, and it would seem with +any number of marked sticks. A dealer sits on the ground with a pile +of shredded cedar bark in front of him, and with much ceremony draws +out the sticks one by one without looking at them and passes them to +the players, in turn, who sit in front of him.</p> + +<p>Each device counts a certain number, in a manner similar to the +devices on ordinary playing cards, and the winning is by the high and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548">[548]</a></span> +low or the definite and specific values of the sticks decided upon in +variations of the games. These sticks are cylindrical, and to illustrate +the characters on them, <i>c</i> is presented, which shows the whole round +of the character <i>b</i>. This exhibits the typical Haida style. An excellent +collection of these pictured sticks is in the U. S. National Museum, +No. 73552.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Dr. Fewkes (<i>c</i>) reports as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the very interesting games played by the Hopi Indians is one of ethnological +interest, which is allied to a game described by the early Spanish historians +of the Mexicans. This game, to-to-lós-pi, resembles somewhat the game of checkers +and can be played by two persons or by two parties. In playing the game a rectangular +figure, divided into a large number of squares, is drawn upon the rock, either +by scratching or by using a different colored stone as a crayon. (Figures of this +game formerly existed on the rocks near the village of Wál-pi.) A diagonal line, +tūh-ki-o-ta, is drawn across the rectangle from northwest to southeast, and the players +station themselves at each end of this line.</p> + +<p>When two parties play, a single person acts as player and the other members of +the party act as advisers. The first play is won by tossing up a leaf or corn husk +with one side blackened. The pieces which are used are bean or corn kernels, stones, +and wood, or small fragments of any substance of marked color. The players were +stationed at each end of the diagonal line, tūh-ki-o-ta. They move their pieces upon +this line, but never across it. The moves which are made are intricate and the +player may move one or more pieces successively. Certain positions entitle him to +this privilege. He may capture or, as he terms it, kill one or more of his opponent’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549">[549]</a></span> +pieces at one play. In this respect the game is not unlike checkers, and to capture +the pieces of the opponent seems to be the main object of the game. The checkers, +however, must be concentrated and always moved towards the southeast corner.</p> + +<p>This game is now rarely played on the East Mesa, but is still used at O-rai-be. It +is said to have been played in ancient times by the sun and moon or by other mythical +personages.</p> + +<p>Turning now to old Mexico, we find that the Spanish chronicles give an account +of a Mexican game called patolli, which was played with colored stones. The +squares were made of a cross-shaped figure, and the stones were moved according to +the throws of beans which were marked upon one side.</p></div> + +<p>A discussion of the “ghost gamble,” with many illustrations, some +of which show marks which, in a broad sense, may be classed as pictographic, +is published in the paper “Study of the mortuary customs +of the North American Indians,” by Dr. H. C. Yarrow (<i>a</i>), U. S. Army.</p> + +<p>Colored pebbles found in the grotto of Mas d’Azil, in the department +of the Ariège, France, have lately awakened some discussion. These +pebbles were selected as being narrow and flat, and, with rare exceptions, +are no more than 9 centimeters in length. They were colored +with red oxide of iron. Many of the designs could have been made by +the end of a finger anointed with the coloring matter, but others would +have required a small pencil. The coloring matter was thick and probably +fixed by grease or glue, which time has destroyed. The color now +disappears on the least rubbing. Its preservation until now has been +owing to the fact that the pebbles were left undisturbed in the cindery +layer where they were deposited. Only one of the faces of the pebbles +bears a design, and generally their border is ornamented by a narrow +band of red, resembling a frame to the design, the color being applied<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550">[550]</a></span> +in the same manner as to the latter. Fig. 775 gives examples though +without color of these pebbles. They are selected from a plate in +<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie</span> (<i>d</i>) illustrating the text by Émile Cartailbac, who +declines to offer any hypothesis concerning the use of these objects. +But to an observer familiar with the gambling games of the North +American Indians in which marked plum stones, and similar objects +are employed, these stained flat pebbles at once suggest their use to +decide the values in a game by the several designs and by the pebbles +falling on the figured or on the unmarked side.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551">[551]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp653_pg549h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp653_pg549.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="430" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 775.</span>—Pebbles from Mas d’Azil.</p></div> +</div> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XVI.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">HISTORY.</span></h2> + + +<p>It is seldom possible to distinguish by pictographs, or indeed to +decide from oral accounts obtained from Indians, whether those purporting +to be historical have a genuine basis or are merely traditions +connected with myths. This chapter may therefore be correlated with +Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, section <a href="#page250">5</a>, which has special relation to traditions as mnemonically +pictured. The notes now following are considered to refer +to actual events or to explain the devices used in the record of such +events.</p> + +<p>The account by Dr. Brinton (<i>c</i>) of the Walum-Olum or bark record +of the Lenni-Lenapé, as also some of Schoolcraft’s pictographic illustrations, +may with some propriety be regarded as historic, but are so +well known that their specific citation is needless.</p> + +<p>The American Indians have not produced detailed historic pictures, +such as appear on the Column of Trajan, and the Bayeux tapestry, with +such excellence in art as to be self-interpreting. Neither do they equal +in this respect the Egyptian and Assyrian sculptures, which portray +the ordering of battle, the engineering work of sieges, the plan of +camps, and the tactical moves of chieftains. Those sculptures also +depict the whole civil and domestic lives of the peoples of the several +nations. In some of these particulars the Mexicans approached these +graphic details, as is shown below, but, as a rule, in the three divisions +of America, history was noted and preserved by ideographic methods +supplementing the incompleteness of artistic skill.</p> + +<p>With regard to the advance gained by the Mexicans reference is +made, with regret that copious quotation is impossible, to the essay of +Henry Phillips, jr. (<i>a</i>), and to the monumental work of Eugène Boban, +before cited. It will be noticed by students that ideography and its +attendant conventionalism continually appear in the pictographic histories +mentioned. The original authors had not advanced very far in +art, but they had not lost the thought-language, which preceded art.</p> + +<p>The subject is here divided into: (1) Record of expedition; (2) Record +of battle; (3) Record of migration; (4) Record of sociologic events.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552">[552]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">RECORD OF EXPEDITION.</span></h3> + +<p>The following account from Lafitau (<i>a</i>) explains the device for prisoner, +under the heading of marked sticks, in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, section <a href="#page227">2</a>, +supra:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The most grievous time for them is at night; for every evening they are extended +on their backs almost naked, with no other bed than the earth, in which four stakes +are driven for each prisoner; to these their arms and legs are attached, spread apart +in the form of a St. Andrew’s cross. To a fifth stake a halter is tied, which holds +the prisoner by the neck and is wound around it three or four times. Finally, he is +bound around the middle of the body by another halter or girdle, the two ends of +which are taken by the person in charge of the captive and placed under his head +while he sleeps, so that he will be awakened if the prisoner makes any movement +to escape.</p></div> + +<p>With the same object of explaining pictographic devices, the following +is extracted from James’s Long (<i>h</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Returning war parties of the Omaha peel off a portion of the bark from a tree, and +on the trunk thus denuded and rendered conspicuous, they delineate hieroglyphics +with vermilion or charcoal, indicative of the success or misfortune of the party, in +their proceedings against the enemy. These hieroglyphics are rudely drawn, but +are sufficiently significant to convey the requisite intelligence [t]o another division of +the party, that may succeed them. On this rude chart the combatants are generally +represented by small straight lines, each surmounted by a head-like termination, +and are readily distinguishable from each other; the arms and legs are also represented +when necessary to record the performance of some particular act or to exhibit +a wound. Wounds are indicated by the representation of the dropping of blood +from the part; an arrow wound, by adding a line for the arrow, from which the +Indian is able to estimate with some accuracy its direction, and the depth to which +it entered. The killed are represented by prostrate lines; equestrians are also particularized, +and if wounded or killed they are seen to spout blood or to be in the act +of falling from their horses. Prisoners are denoted by their being led, and the number +of captured horses is made known by the number of lunules representing their +track. The number of guns taken may be ascertained by bent lines, on the angle of +which is something like the prominences of the lock. Women are portrayed with +short petticoats and prominent breasts, and unmarried females by the short queues +at the ears.</p></div> + +<p>In Margry (<i>e</i>) there is an account of La Salle’s finding in 1683 on the +bark of a tree a record of the party of Tonty’s pilot. The picture was +that of a man with the costumes and general appearance of the pilot who +had deserted, another man tied as a captive, and four scalps. This corresponded +with the facts afterwards learned. The pilot had been left +free, another man kept alive, and four killed, thus accounting for the +lost party of six. The record had been made by the captors.</p> + +<p>The figures in the following group, taken from several of the Winter +Counts of the Dakotas, picture a number of important expeditions, all +of which are independently known. Some of them are narrated in the +official documents of the United States.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553">[553]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp659_pg553a.png" width="160" height="112" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 776.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 776. The Oglalas, Brulés, Minneconjous, San Arcs, and Cheyennes +united in an expedition against the Crows. They +surprised and captured a village of thirty lodges, killed all +the men and took the women and children prisoners. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1801-’02.</p> + +<p>The three tipis stand for thirty; the spots in the original are red for +blood.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<img src="images/dp659_pg553b.png" width="146" height="194" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 777.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 777. The Oglalas and Minneconjous took the war-path +against the Crows and stole three hundred horses. The +Crows followed them and killed eight of the party. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1863-’64. Eight scalped heads +are portrayed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/dp659_pg553c.png" width="169" height="189" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 778.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 778. The Dakotas assaulted and took a Crow village +of a hundred lodges. They killed many and took many +prisoners. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1820-’21.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 326px;"> +<img src="images/dp659_pg553d.png" width="326" height="259" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 779.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 779. The Oglalas helped Gen. Mackenzie to whip the Cheyennes. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1876-’77. The +head of the Indian on which is the ornamented +war bonnet represents the man who was the +first to enter the Cheyenne village, which is +figured by the tipis in a circle. The hatted, i. e., +white man holding up three fingers is Gen. +Mackenzie, who, as was explained by the interpreter, +is placed upon the head of the Dakota to +indicate that the Dakotas backed or assisted him, but it may mean that +he commanded or was at the head of the party. The other white man +is Gen. Crook, or Three Stars, as indicated by the three stars above +him, and as he is called in another record. This designation might be +suggested from the uniform, but it is not accurate. Gen. Crook’s rank +as major-general of volunteers, or as brevet major-general in the Army, +did not entitle him to more than two stars on his shoulder straps. It is +possible that one of the stars in this figure belongs to Gen. Mackenzie.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<img src="images/dp659_pg553e.png" width="216" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 780.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 780. The Dakotas joined the whites in an expedition +up the Missouri river against the Rees. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1823-’24.</p> + +<p>White-Cow-Killer calls it “Old-corn-plenty-winter.”</p> + +<p>The union line between the Indian and the white +soldier shows that on this occasion they were allies.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554">[554]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/dp660_pg554.png" width="350" height="165" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 781.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 781. United States troops fought Ree +Indians. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1823-’24.</p> + +<p>This and the preceding figure are signs of a specially interesting expedition, +a condensed account of which follows taken from the annual +report of J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, November 29, 1823:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Gen. William H. Ashley, a licensed trader, was treacherously attacked by the +Arickaras at their village on the west bank of the Missouri river, about midway between +the present Fort Sully and Fort Rice. Twenty-three of the trading party +were killed and wounded, and the remainder retreated in boats and sent appeals for +succor to the commanding officer at Fort Atkinson, the present site of Council Bluffs. +This officer was Col. H. Leavenworth, Sixth United States Infantry, who marched +June 22, with 220 men of that regiment, 80 men of trading companies, and two +6-pound cannon, a 5½-inch brass howitzer, and some small swivels, nearly 700 miles +through a country filled with hostile or unreliable Indians, to the Ree villages, +which he reached on the 9th of August. The Dakotas were at war with the Arickara +or Rees, and 700 to 800 of their warriors had joined the United States forces on the +way; of these Dakotas 500 are mentioned as Yanktons, but the tribes of the remainder +are not designated. The Rees were in two villages, the lower one containing seventy-one +dirt lodges and the upper seventy, both being inclosed with palisades and a +ditch and the greater part of the lodges having a ditch around the bottom on +the inside. The enemy, having knowledge of the expedition, had fortified and made +every preparation for resistance. Their force consisted of over 700 warriors, most +of whom were armed with rifles procured from British traders. On the 9th of August +the Dakotas commenced the attack and were driven back until the regular +troops advanced, but nothing decisive resulted until the artillery was employed on +the 10th, when a large number of the Rees, including their chief, Gray Eyes, were +killed, and early in the afternoon the survivors begged for peace. They were much +terrified and humbled by the effect of the cannon, which, though small, answered the +purpose. During the main engagement the Dakotas occupied themselves in gathering +and carrying off all the corn to be found.</p></div> + +<p>See also the record of Lean-Wolf’s expedition in Fig. <a href="#page342">452</a>.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">RECORD OF BATTLE.</span></h3> + +<p>Lafitau (<i>b</i>) gives the following account, translated with condensation, +of the records of expedition, battle, etc., made by the Iroquois and +northeastern Algonquins:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The designs which the Indians have tattooed on their faces and bodies are employed +as hieroglyphics, writing, and records. When an Indian returns from war and +wishes to make his victory known to the neighboring nations through whose country +he passes, when he has chosen a hunting ground and wishes it to be known that he +has selected it for himself and that it would be an affront to him for others to establish +themselves there, he supplies the lack of an alphabet by those characteristic +symbols which distinguish him personally; he paints on a piece of bark, which is +raised on a pole by a place of passage [trail], or he cuts away some pieces from a +tree trunk with his hatchet, and, after having made a smooth surface, traces his +portrait and adds other characters, which give all the information that he desires to +convey.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555">[555]</a></span></p> + +<p>When I say that he draws his portrait, it will be understood that he is not skillful +enough to delineate all the features of his face in such a manner that it would be +recognized. They have, indeed, no other way of painting than that monogrammatic +or linear painting, which consists of little more than the mere outlines of the shadow +of the body rather than of the body itself—a picture so imperfect that it was often +necessary to add below the name of the object which was intended to be represented +in order to make it known.</p> + +<p>The Indian then, to represent his portrait, draws a simple outline in the form of a +head, adding scarcely any marks to indicate the eyes, nose, ears, or other features +of the face. In place of these he draws the designs which are tattoed upon his own +face, as well as those upon his breast, and which are peculiar to him and render him +recognizable not only to those who have seen him, but even to all who, knowing +him only by reputation, are acquainted with his hieroglyphic symbol, as formerly +in Europe an individual was distinguished by his device and as we to-day know a +family by its armorial bearings. About his head he paints the object which expresses +his name; the Indian, for example, called the Sun paints a sun; at the right +he traces the animals which are the symbols of the nation and family to which he +belongs. That of the nation is above the one representing the family, and the beak +or muzzle of the former is so placed that it corresponds to the place of his right ear, +as if this symbolic figure of his nation represented its spirit, which inspires him. If +this Indian is returning from war, he represents beneath his portrait the number of +warriors composing the party which he leads, and beneath the warriors the number +of prisoners made and those whom he has killed by his own hand. At the left side +are indicated his expeditions and the prisoners or scalps taken by those of his party. +The warriors are represented with their weapons or simply by lines; the prisoners +by the stick decorated with feathers and by the chichikoue or tortoise-shell rattle, +which are the marks of their slavery; the scalps or the dead by the figures of men, +women, or children without heads. The number of expeditions is designated by +mats. He distinguishes those which he has accompanied from those which he has +commanded by adding strings [of wampum] to the latter. If the Indian goes as an +ambassador of peace all the symbols are of a pacific nature. He is represented below +his portrait with the calumet in his hand; at the left is seen an enlarged figure +of the calumet, the symbolic figure of the nation with which he goes to treat, and +the number of those who accompany him on the embassy.</p></div> + +<p>The same author, on page 194 of the same volume, explains how the +mat or mattress came to mean war:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Iroquois and the Hurons call war n’ondoutagette and gaskenrhagette. The +final verb gagetton, which is found in the composition of these two words, and which +signifies to bear or to carry, shows, verily, that heretofore something was borne to +it [i. e., to war], which was a symbol of it [i. e., of war] to such a degree that it +[war] had assumed its [the symbol’s] designation. The term ondouta signifies the +down [the wool-like substance] which is taken from the ear [cat-tails] of marsh +reeds, and it also denotes the entire plant, which they use in making the mattresses +[nattes] upon which they lie; so that it appears that they applied this term to war +because every warrior in this kind of expeditions carried with him his own mattress; +in fact, the mattress is still to-day the symbol employed in their hieroglyphic picture-writing +to denote the number of their campaigns.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, in Science, April 1, 1892, has gone deeper into +the etymology of the words quoted, but coincides generally with Father +Lafitau in the explanation that they were denotive of the custom of the +Iroquoian warrior to carry his mattress when on the warpath.</p> + +<p>Figs. 782 and 783 are reproductions of Lafitau’s (<i>c</i>) illustrations, +which were explained as follows by him:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556">[556]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 491px;"> +<img src="images/dp662_pg556a.png" width="491" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 782.</span>—Record of battle.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 782 shows that the Indian called Two-Feathers, <i>a</i> <i>b</i>, of the Crane +nation <i>c</i>, and the Buffalo family <i>d</i>, accompanied by fifteen warriors <i>h</i>, +has made one prisoner <i>f</i>, and taken three scalps <i>g</i>, on his sixth expedition +<i>k</i>, and on the fourth, when he commanded it, <i>i</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 522px;"> +<img src="images/dp662_pg556b.png" width="522" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 783.</span>—Record of battle.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 783 relates that the Indian named Two-Arrows <i>a</i>, of the nation +of the Deer <i>c</i>, and the Wolf family <i>d</i>, has gone as an ambassador bearing +the calumet of peace to the Bear nation <i>e</i>, accompanied by thirty +persons <i>h</i>. In both figures the Indian is not only represented by his +“hieroglyph,” but he is also pictured at full length in the first with his +arms, and in the second holding the calumet and the rattle.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 308px;"> +<a href="images/dp663_pg557h.png"> +<img src="images/dp663_pg557.png" class="hires" width="308" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 784.</span>—Battle of 1797. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A historical record relating to a fight between the Ojibwa and the +Dakota ninety-one years ago is given in Fig. 784. The following narrative +was given by the draftsman of the record, an Ojibwa:</p> + +<p>Ninety-one winters ago (A. D. 1797) twenty-five Ojibwa were encamped +on a small lake, <i>o</i>, called Zi'zabe'gamik, just west of Mille Lacs, +Minnesota. The chief’s lodge, <i>a</i>, was erected a short distance from the +lake, <i>m</i>, where the Indians had been hunting, and as he felt unsafe on +account of the hostile Sioux he directed some of his warriors to reconnoiter +south of the lower lake, where they soon discovered a body of +three hundred of their enemies. The chief of the reconnoitering party, +<i>b</i>, sent back word for the women and children to be removed to a place +of safety, but three of the old women refused to go. Their lodges are +represented in <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>e</i>. Five Ojibwa escaped through the brush, in +a northwest direction (indicated in <i>f</i>).</p> + +<p>The Sioux surrounded the lake and the fight took place on the ice. +Twenty of the Ojibwa were killed, the last to die being the chief of the +party, who, from appearances, was beaten to death with a tomahawk; +<i>g</i> represents three bearskins; <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>j</i>, respectively, deer, grouse, and +turtle, the kinds of game hunted there during the several seasons.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557">[557]</a></span> +The canoe <i>k</i> indicates the manner of hunting along the shore and the +stream connecting the lakes, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, and <i>o</i>.</p> + +<p>The Ojibwa frequently spent part of a season at the middle lake, <i>m</i>, +and at another time had been engaged in a skirmish with the Sioux +farther north, on the small lake indicated at <i>o</i>. The Ojibwa had been +scattered about, but when the attack was made by the Sioux the former +rapidly came to the rescue both by boat, <i>p</i>, and on foot, <i>q</i>, so that the +enemy was gradually driven off. +In the first mentioned battle 70 Sioux were killed, their bodies being +subsequently buried in the lake by cutting holes through the ice. The +openings are shown at <i>r</i>, the lines representing bodies ready to be cast +down into the water.</p> + +<p>Baron Lahontan (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When a Party of (Algonkin) Savages have routed their enemies in any Place whatsoever, +the Conquerors take care to pull the Bark off the Trees for the height of five +or six Foot in all Places where they stop in returning to their own Country; and in +honour of their Victory paint certain images with Coal pounded and beat up with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558">[558]</a></span> +Fat and Oyl. These Pictures continue upon the peel’d Tree for ten or twelve Years, +as if they were Grav’d, without being defac’d by the Rain.</p></div> + +<p>The same author, on page 86, <i>et seq.</i>, of the same volume, gives an illustration, +with descriptive explanation, of a pictographic record supposed +to be made by the Canadian Algonquins. The explanation is useful as +indicating the principles of pictography adopted by the North American +Indians for a record of that character, but it is not deemed proper +to reproduce the illustration here. It has often been copied, but it is +misleading in its artistic details. It is obviously drawn by a European +artist as his own interpretation of a verbal description of the record.</p> + +<p>The more valuable parts of the explanation are condensed as follows, +the quaint literation of the early translation being retained:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Arms of France, with an Ax above. Now the Ax is a Symbol of War among +the Savages as the Calumet is the Bond of Peace: So that this imports that the +French have taken up the Ax, or have made a Warlike Expedition with as many +tens of Men as there are Marks or Points Round the Figure. These marks are eighteen +in number and so they signifie an Hundred and eighty Warriors.</p> + +<p>A Mountain that represents the City of Monreal and the Fowl upon the Wing at +the top signifies Departure. The Moon upon the Back of the Stag signifies the first +Quarter of the July Moon which is call’d the Stag-Moon.</p> + +<p>A Canow, importing that they have travel’d by Water as many Days as you see +Huts in the Figure, i. e., 21 Days [the huts undoubtedly mean stopping places for +night shelters].</p> + +<p>A foot, importing that after their Voyage by Water they march’d on Foot as many +Days as there are Huts design’d; that is, seven Days Journeys for Warriors, each +Days Journey being as much as five common French Leagues, or five of those which +are reckon’d to be twenty in a Degree.</p> + +<p>A Hand and three Huts, which signifie that they are got within three Days +Journey of the Iroquese Tsonnontouans [Senecas], whose Arms are a Hut with two +trees leaning downwards, as you see them drawn. The Sun imports that they were +just to the Eastward of the Village.</p> + +<p>Twelve marks, signifying so many times ten Men like those last mentioned. The +Hut with two Trees being the Arms of the Tsonnontouans, shows that they were of +that Nation; and the Man in a lying posture speaks that they were surpris’d.</p> + +<p>In this row there appears a Club and eleven Heads, importing that they had kill’d +eleven Tsonnontouans, and the five men standing upright upon the five Marks signifie +that they took as many times ten prisoners of War.</p> + +<p>Nine Heads in an Arch [i. e., Bow] the meaning of which is, that nine of the +Aggressors or of the Victorious side were kill’d; and the twelve Marks underneath +signifie that as many were Wounded.</p> + +<p>Arrows flying in the air, some to one side and some to the other, importing a +vigorous Defence on both sides.</p> + +<p>The arrows all point one way, which speaks the worsted Party either flying or +fighting upon a Retreat in disorder.</p></div> + +<p>The meaning of the whole is: A hundred and eighty French soldiers +set out from Montreal in the first quarter of the month of July and +sailed twenty-one days; after which they marched 35 leagues over land +and surprised 120 Senecas on the east side of their village, 11 of whom +were killed and 50 taken prisoners; the French sustaining the loss of +9 killed and 12 wounded, after a very obstinate engagement.</p> + +<p>Fig. 785 is a reproduction of a drawing by a Winnebago Indian of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559">[559]</a></span> +the battle of Hard river, fought against a large force of Sioux by +Gen. Sully’s command, with which was a company of Winnebagos.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp665_pg559ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp665_pg559a.png" class="hires" width="550" height="373" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 785.</span>—Battle of Hard river, Winnebago.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a.</i> Gen. Sully’s camp, on the left bank of Hard river, from which camp the company +of Winnebagos were sent across the river.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The Winnebagos skirmishing with a party of hostile Sioux. Two Winnebagos, +having gone ahead of the main party, came first upon about thirty Sioux, who immediately +gave chase. The two Winnebagos are represented endeavoring to escape +arrows from pursuing Sioux flying about them, and the blood from the horse of one +of them flowing over the ground. The rest of the Winnebagos are coming to rescue +their companions.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Gen. Sully’s entire force, after crossing Hard river, were assailed by a number of +Sioux. Gen. Sully’s forces formed in hollow square to repulse the Sioux, who with +loud yells went galloping about them, trying to stampede horses or throw his men +into confusion.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The camp of the Sioux, the women and children escaping over the hills. One +squaw was left in the camp and with her papoose is seen. One of the Sioux previously +wounded was found dead and was scalped, a representation of which operation +the artist has given.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp665_pg559bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp665_pg559b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="166" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 786.</span>—Battle between Ojibwa and Sioux.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 786 is a copy of a birch-bark record made and also explained by +the leader of the expedition referred to.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560">[560]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1858 a war party of Mille Lacs Ojibwa Indians, <i>a</i>, under the +leadership of Shahâsh'king, <i>b</i>, went to attack Shákopi’s camp, <i>c</i>, of +Sioux at St. Peter’s river, <i>d</i>. Shákopi is represented at <i>e</i>. The Ojibwa +lost one man, <i>f</i>, at the St. Peter’s river, while the Ojibwa killed five +Sioux, but succeeded in securing only one arm of an Indian, <i>g</i>.</p> + +<p>The line <i>h</i> is the trail followed between Mille Lacs, <i>a</i>, and Shákopi’s +camp, <i>c</i>. The spots at <i>c</i> designate the location of lodges, while the +vertical line with short ones extending from it, <i>i</i>, signifies the prairie +with trees growing near camp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp666_pg560h.png"> +<img src="images/dp666_pg560.png" class="hires" width="550" height="468" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 787.</span>—Megaque’s last battle.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 787 is the pictorial story of Megaque’s last battle, drawn on birch +bark by the Passamaquoddy chief, Sapiel Selmo, with his interpreted +description.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561">[561]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the old times there was a certain Indian chief and hunter. He was so cruel +and brave in time of war and his success in conquering his enemies and taking so +many scalps was so great that he was called Megaque, or the Scalping Man. In hunting +seasons he always went to his hunting grounds with his warriors to defend and +guard their hunting grounds from the trespassing of other hunters. He was well +known by other Indians for his bravery and his cruelty to his prisoners. He conquered +so many other warriors and tortured them that he was hated, and they tried +to capture him alive. Some of the warriors from other tribes gathered an army and +marched to his hunting grounds when they knew that he could not escape from their +hands. When they come near where he is they send messengers to him and notify +him of the approaching army; he is out hunting when they reach his camp, but they +make marks on a piece of birch bark, a figure of an Indian warrior with tomahawk +in one hand and spear in the other, similar to that seen in <i>g</i>, which is put up in a +village of wigwams, <i>i</i>. When Megaque returned from his hunt and found someone +had visited him during his absence, he also found the pieces of bark which read to +mean a band of warriors. He has no time. He was so brave and proud he did not +try to escape. In a day or two the band of warriors had reached him. After fighting, +when he killed many as usual, he was finally captured and taken to the enemy’s +country to be tortured. He can stand all the usual tortures bravely and sing his +usual war songs while he is tormented. Finally he was killed.</p> + +<p>The following is the explanation of the details: <i>a</i>, Megaque; <i>b</i>, his braves; <i>c</i>, the +course by which the enemy comes; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Megaque’s rivers and lakes; <i>g</i>, the enemy; +<i>h</i>, their warriors; <i>i</i>, their village; <i>j</i>, river boundary line.</p></div> + +<p>The figures now following are those notices of battle pictured in the +several Winter Counts which have been selected as being of more than +ordinary interest either from the importance and notoriety of the events +or from their mode of delineation:</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 388px;"> +<img src="images/dp667_pg561a.png" width="388" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 788.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 788.—The Oglalas killed three +lodges of Omahas. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1785-’86. The Omaha is +prostrate and scalped.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp667_pg561b.png" width="500" height="389" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 789.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 789.—The Omahas made an assault +on a Dakota village. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1802-’03. Bullets +are flying back and forth. The +single rider represents the whole of the +troop. He is partially covered by the +shield and the horse’s neck, behind +which he hangs in a manner common +among the Indian horsemen. The ornamented +shield with its device of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562">[562]</a></span> +displayed eagle, and the lance with eagle feather for a pennon, recalls +the equipments of chivalry.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 302px;"> +<img src="images/dp668_pg562a.png" width="302" height="298" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 790.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 790.—The Dakotas and Pawnees +fought on the ice on the North Platte +river. American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1836-’37. The Dakotas were on the +north side (the right-hand side in the +figure), the Pawnees on the south side +(the left in the figure). Horsemen and +footmen on the left are opposed to +footmen on the right. Both sides have +guns and bows, as shown by the bullet-marks +and the arrows. Blood-stains are on the ice.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 249px;"> +<img src="images/dp668_pg562b.png" width="249" height="296" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 791.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 791.—The Dakotas fought the +Pawnees across the ice on the North +Platte. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1836-’37. The man on the left is a +Pawnee. This is a variant of the preceding +figure, far less graphically expressed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 363px;"> +<img src="images/dp668_pg562c.png" width="363" height="310" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 792.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 792.—The Dakotas fought with +the Cheyennes. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1834-’35. The stripes on the +arm are for Cheyenne, as before explained.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 209px;"> +<img src="images/dp668_pg562d.png" width="209" height="124" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 793.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 793.—White-Bull and thirty +other Oglalas were killed by the Crows +and Shoshoni. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1845-’46.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 323px;"> +<img src="images/dp668_pg562e.png" width="323" height="232" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 794.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 794.—Mato-wayuhi, Conquering-Bear, +was killed by white soldiers, and +thirty white soldiers were killed by +the Dakotas, 9 miles below Fort Laramie. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1854-’55. The thirty black dots in three +lines stand for the soldiers, and a red +stain at the end of the line, starting +from the pictured discharge of a gun, means killed. The head covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563">[563]</a></span> +with a fatigue cap further shows the soldiers were white. Indian soldiers +are usually represented in a circle or semicircle. The gesture-sign +for white soldier means “all in line,” and is made by placing the +nearly closed hands, with palms forward and thumbs near together, in +front of the body and then separating them laterally about 2 feet.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp671_pg563.png" width="250" height="243" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 795.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 795.—The Dakotas killed one +hundred white men at Fort Phil. Kearny. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1866-’67. The hats and the cap-covered +head represent the whites; the red +spots, the killed; the circle of characters +around them, rifle or arrow shots; +the black strokes, Dakota footmen; +and the hoof-prints, Dakota horsemen. The Phil. Kearny massacre occurred +December 21, 1866, and eighty-two whites were killed, including +officers, citizens, and enlisted men. Capt. W. J. Fetterman was in command +of the party.</p> +</div> + +<h4>THE BATTLE OF THE LITTLE BIGHORN.</h4> + +<p>Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, U. S. Army, has +communicated a most valuable and unique account, both in carefully +noted gesture-signs and in pictographs, of the battle, now much discussed, +which was fought in Montana on June 25, 1876, and is popularly +but foolishly styled “Custer’s massacre.” If the intended surprise, +with the object of killing as many Indians as possible, had been successful +instead of being a disastrous defeat, any surviving Indians +might with some propriety have spoken of “Custer’s massacre.” The +account now presented in one of its forms, was given by Red-Horse, +a Sioux chief and a prominent actor in the battle. The form which gives +the relation in gesture-signs and shows the syntax of the sign-language +perhaps better than any published narrative, will be inserted in +a work now in preparation by the present writer to be issued by the +Bureau of Ethnology. The narrative, closely translated into simple +English, is given below. Accompanying the record of signs are forty-one +sheets of manila paper, besides one map of the battle ground, all +drawn by Red-Horse, which average 24 by 26 inches, most of them +being colored. These may either be considered as illustrations of the +signs or the signs may be considered as descriptive of the pictographs. +It is impossible to reproduce now this mass of drawing on any scale +which would not be too minute for appreciation. It has been decided +to present, with necessary reduction from the above-mentioned dimensions, +the map and nine of the typical sheets in Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXIX</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">XLVIII</span>. +Indeed, without considering the space required, there would be small +advantage in reproducing all of the sheets, as they are made objectionable +by monotonous repetitions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp670_pg563ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp670_pg563p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="404" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIX<br />MAP OF LITTLE BIG HORN BATTLE FIELD.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Here follows the story of Red-Horse. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXIX</span> is the map of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564">[564]</a></span> +Little-Bighorn battlefield and adjacent territory, embracing part of +Montana and the Dakotas, drawn at Cheyenne River agency, South +Dakota, in 1881. The map as now presented is reduced to one-sixteenth +from the original, which is drawn in colors on a sheet of manila paper. +The letters were not on the original and are inserted only for reference +from the descriptive text, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a</i>, Wind River mountains, called +by the Sioux “the Enemies’ mountains.”</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Bighorn mountains.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Missouri river.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, Yellowstone river.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, Bighorn river.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, Little Bighorn river, called +by the Sioux Greasy Grass creek +and Grass Greasy creek.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, Indian camp.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, battlefield.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, Dry creek.</p> + +<p><i>j</i>, Rosebud river.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, Tongue river.</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, Powder river.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, Little Missouri river.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Cheyenne river, called by the +Sioux Good river. The North and +South Forks are drawn but not +lettered.</p> + +<p><i>o</i>, Bear butte.</p> + +<p><i>p</i>, Black hills.</p> + +<p><i>q</i>, Cheyenne agency.</p> + +<p><i>r</i>, Moreau or Owl creek.</p> + +<p><i>s</i>, Thin butte.</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, Rainy butte.</p> + +<p><i>u</i>, White butte.</p> + +<p><i>v</i>, Grand or Ree river.</p> + +<p><i>w</i>, Ree village.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, White Earth river.</p> + +<p><i>y</i>, Fort Buford.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Five springs ago I, with many Sioux Indians, took down and packed up our tipis +and moved from Cheyenne river to the Rosebud river, where we camped a few days; +then took down and packed up our lodges and moved to the Little Bighorn river +and pitched our lodges with the large camp of Sioux.</p> + +<p>The Sioux were camped on the Little Bighorn river as follows: The lodges of the +Uncpapas were pitched highest up the river under a bluff. The Santee lodges were +pitched next. The Oglala’s lodges were pitched next. The Brulé lodges were +pitched next. The Minneconjou lodges were pitched next. The Sans Arcs’ lodges +were pitched next. The Blackfeet lodges were pitched next. The Cheyenne lodges +were pitched next. A few Arikara Indians were among the Sioux (being without +lodges of their own). Two-Kettles, among the other Sioux (without lodges). [Pl. +<span class="smcap lowercase">XL</span> shows the Indian camp.]</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp674_pg565ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp674_pg565p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="374" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XL<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN. INDIAN CAMP.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>I was a Sioux chief in the council lodge. My lodge was pitched in the center of +the camp. The day of the attack I and four women were a short distance from the +camp digging wild turnips. Suddenly one of the women attracted my attention to +a cloud of dust rising a short distance from camp. I soon saw that the soldiers were +charging the camp. [Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLI</span> shows the soldiers charging the Indian camp.] To +the camp I and the women ran. When I arrived a person told me to hurry to the +council lodge. The soldiers charged so quickly we could not talk (council). We +came out of the council lodge and talked in all directions. The Sioux mount horses, +take guns, and go fight the soldiers. Women and children mount horses and go, +meaning to get out of the way.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp678_pg567ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp678_pg567p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="368" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLI<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN. SOLDIERS CHARGING INDIAN CAMP.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Among the soldiers was an officer who rode a horse with four white feet. [From +Dr. McChesney’s memoranda this officer was Capt. French, Seventh Cavalry.] The +Sioux have for a long time fought many brave men of different people, but the Sioux +say this officer was the bravest man they had ever fought. I don’t know whether +this was Gen. Custer or not. Many of the Sioux men that I hear talking tell me it +was. I saw this officer in the fight many times, but did not see his body. It has<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565">[565]</a></span> +been told me that he was killed by a Santee Indian, who took his horse. This officer +wore a large-brimmed hat and a deerskin coat. This officer saved the lives of +many soldiers by turning his horse and covering the retreat. Sioux say this officer +was the bravest man they ever fought. I saw two officers looking alike, both having +long yellowish hair.</p> + +<p>Before the attack the Sioux were camped on the Rosebud river. Sioux moved +down a river running into the Little Bighorn river, crossed the Little Bighorn +river, and camped on its west bank.</p> + +<p>This day [day of attack] a Sioux man started to go to Red Cloud agency, but when +he had gone a short distance from camp he saw a cloud of dust rising and turned +back and said he thought a herd of buffalo was coming near the village.</p> + +<p>The day was hot. In a short time the soldiers charged the camp. [This was Maj. +Reno’s battalion of the Seventh Cavalry.] The soldiers came on the trail made by +the Sioux camp in moving, and crossed the Little Bighorn river above where the +Sioux crossed, and attacked the lodges of the Uncpapas, farthest up the river. The +women and children ran down the Little Bighorn river a short distance into a +ravine. The soldiers set fire to the lodges. All the Sioux now charged the soldiers +[Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLII</span>] and drove them in confusion across the Little Bighorn river, which was +very rapid, and several soldiers were drowned in it. On a hill the soldiers stopped +and the Sioux surrounded them. A Sioux man came and said that a different party +of soldiers had all the women and children prisoners. Like a whirlwind the word +went around, and the Sioux all heard it and left the soldiers on the hill and went +quickly to save the women and children.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp682_pg569ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp682_pg569p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="377" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLII<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN. SIOUX CHARGING SOLDIERS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>From the hill that the soldiers were on to the place where the different soldiers +[by this term Red-Horse always means the battalion immediately commanded by +General Custer, his mode of distinction being that they were a different body from +that first encountered] were seen was level ground with the exception of a creek. +Sioux thought the soldiers on the hill [i. e., Reno’s battalion] would charge them in +rear, but when they did not the Sioux thought the soldiers on the hill were out of +cartridges. As soon as we had killed all the different soldiers [Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLIII</span> shows the +fighting with Custer’s battalion] the Sioux all went back to kill the soldiers on the +hill. All the Sioux watched around the hill on which were the soldiers until a Sioux +man came and said many walking soldiers were coming near. The coming of the +walking soldiers was the saving of the soldiers on the hill. Sioux can not fight the +walking soldiers [infantry], being afraid of them, so the Sioux hurriedly left.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp686_pg571ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp686_pg571p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="373" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLIII<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN. SIOUX FIGHTING CUSTER’S BATTALION.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The soldiers charged the Sioux camp about noon. The soldiers were divided, one +party charging right into the camp. After driving these soldiers across the river, +the Sioux charged the different soldiers [i. e., Custer’s] below, and drove them in +confusion; these soldiers became foolish, many throwing away their guns and raising +their hands, saying, “Sioux, pity us; take us prisoners.” The Sioux did not take a +single soldier prisoner, but killed all of them; none were left alive for even a few +minutes. These different soldiers discharged their guns but little. I took a gun +and two belts off two dead soldiers; out of one belt two cartridges were gone, out +of the other five.</p> + +<p>The Sioux took the guns and cartridges off the dead soldiers and went to the hill +on which the soldiers were, surrounded and fought them with the guns and cartridges +of the dead soldiers. Had the soldiers not divided I think they would have killed +many Sioux. The different soldiers [i. e., Custer’s battalion] that the Sioux killed +made five brave stands. Once the Sioux charged right in the midst of the different +soldiers and scattered them all, fighting among the soldiers hand to hand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> +<a href="images/dp691_pg574ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp691_pg574p.jpg" class="hires" width="399" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLIV<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN. THE DEAD SIOUX.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;"> +<a href="images/dp695_pg576ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp695_pg576p.jpg" class="hires" width="419" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLV<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIG HORN. The Dead Sioux.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>One band of soldiers was in rear of the Sioux. When this band of soldiers charged, +the Sioux fell back, and the Sioux and the soldiers stood facing each other. Then +all the Sioux became brave and charged the soldiers. The Sioux went but a short +distance before they separated and surrounded the soldiers. I could see the officers +riding in front of the soldiers and hear them shouting. Now the Sioux had many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566">[566]</a></span> +killed. [Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLIV</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">XLV</span> show the dead Sioux.] The soldiers killed 136 and +wounded 160 Sioux. The Sioux killed all these different soldiers in the ravine. +[Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLVI</span> shows the dead cavalry of Custer’s battalion.]</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"> +<a href="images/dp699_pg578p1h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp699_pg578p1.jpg" class="hires" width="408" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVI<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIG HORN. Custer’s Dead Cavalry.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The soldiers charged the Sioux camp farthest up the river. A short time after the +different soldiers charged the village below. While the different soldiers and Sioux +were fighting together the Sioux chief said, “Sioux men, go watch the soldiers on the +hill and prevent their joining the different soldiers.” The +Sioux men took the clothing off the dead and dressed themselves +in it. Among the soldiers were white men who were +not soldiers. The Sioux dressed in the soldiers’ and white +men’s clothing fought the soldiers on the hill.</p> + +<p>The banks of the Little Bighorn river were high, and +the Sioux killed many of the soldiers while crossing. The +soldiers on the hill dug up the ground [i. e., made earthworks], +and the soldiers and Sioux fought at long range, +sometimes the Sioux charging close up. The fight continued +at long range until a Sioux man saw the walking soldiers +coming. When the walking soldiers came near the +Sioux became afraid and ran away. [Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLVII</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">XLVIII</span> +show the Indians leaving the battle ground.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp706_pg581ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp706_pg581p.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="365" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVII<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN. INDIANS LEAVING BATTLE GROUND.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp702_pg578p2h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp702_pg578p2.jpg" class="hires" width="600" height="406" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVIII<br />BATTLE OF LITTLE BIG HORN. Indians Leaving Battle Ground.</p></div> +</div> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">RECORD OF MIGRATION.</span></h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<a href="images/dp676_pg566h.png"> +<img src="images/dp676_pg566.png" class="hires" width="137" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 796.</span>—Record of Ojibwa +migration.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 796 is a pictorial account of the migrations +of the Ojibwa, being a reduced copy of a drawing +made by Sika'ssigĕ'. The account, especially in +its commencement, follows the rule of all ancient +history in being mixed with religion and myth. +The otter was the messenger of Mi'nabō'zho and +led the Âni'shinabē'g, who were the old or original +people, the ancestors of the Ojibwa, and also of +some other tribes which they knew, from an island, +which was the imagined center of the world as +bounded by the visible horizon, to the last seats +of the tribe before interference by Europeans. +The details of the figure were thus explained by +the draftsman:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a.</i> The circle signifies the earth’s surface, bounded by +the horizon, as before described, and the dot in the center +is the imagined island or original home of the human +race. <i>b.</i> A line separating the history of the Midē'wiwin, +that is, the strictly religious tradition from that of the +actual migration as follows: When the Otter had offered +four prayers, which fact is referred to by the spot <i>c</i>, he disappeared +beneath the surface of the water and went toward +the west, in which direction the Âni'shinabég followed +him, and located at Ottawa island, <i>d</i>. Here they +erected the Midē'wigân and lived for many years. Then the Otter again disappeared +beneath the water, and it a short time reappeared at A'wiat'ang (<i>e</i>), when the Midē'wiwin +was again erected and the sacred rites conducted in accordance with the teachings<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567">[567]</a></span> +of Mi'nabō'zho. Afterwards an interrupted migration was continued, the several +resting places being given below in their proper order, and at each of them the rites +of the Midē'wiwin were conducted in all their purity. The next place to locate at +was Mi'shenama'kinagung—Mackinaw (<i>f</i>); then Ne'mikung (<i>g</i>); Kiwe'winang' (<i>h</i>); +Bâ'wating—Sault Ste. Marie (<i>i</i>); Tshiwi'towi' (<i>j</i>); Nega'wadjĕ'ŭ—Sand mountain +(<i>k</i>), northern shore of Lake Superior; Mi'nisa'wik [Mi'nisa'bikkăng]—Island of +Rocks (<i>l</i>); Kawa'sitshĭŭwongk'—Foaming rapids (<i>m</i>); Mush'kisi'wi [Mash'kisi'bi]—Bad +river (<i>n</i>); Sha'gawâ'mikongk—“Long sand bar beneath the surface” (<i>o</i>); +Wikwe'dâ<sup>n</sup>wong'ga<sup>n</sup>—Sandy bay (<i>p</i>); Neâ'shiwĭkongk'—Cliff point (<i>q</i>); Neta-wa-ya-sink—Little +point of sand bar (<i>r</i>); Â<sup>n</sup>'nibis—Little elm tree (<i>s</i>); Wikup'bi<sup>n</sup>-mi<sup>n</sup>sh—Little +island basswood (<i>t</i>); Makubi<sup>n</sup>'-mi<sup>n</sup>sh—Bear island (<i>u</i>); Shage'skike'-dawan'ga +(<i>v</i>); Ne'wigwas'sikongk—The place where bark is peeled (<i>w</i>); Ta'pakwe'-ĭkak +[Sa'apakwe'shkwa'okongk]—The place where lodge-bark is obtained (<i>x</i>); +Ne'uwesak'kudĕze'bi [Ne'wisak'udĕsi'bi]—Point dead wood timber river (<i>y</i>); +A<sup>n</sup>ibi'kanzi'bĭ [modern name Ashkiba'gisi'bĭ] rendered by different authorities both +as Fish Spawn river, and “Green Leaf river” (<i>z</i>).</p> + +<p>This locality is described as being at Sandy lake, Minnesota, where the Otter +appeared for the last time, and where the Midē'wigân was finally established. The +Ojibwa say that they have dispersed in bands from La Pointe, as well as from +Sandy lake, over various portions of Minnesota and into Wisconsin, which final +separation into distinct bodies has been the chief cause of the gradual changes +found to exist in the ceremonies of the Midē'wiwin.</p></div> + +<p>Reference may be made to a highly interesting record of migration +in Kingsborough, Codex Boturini, being a facsimile of an original +Mexican hieroglyphic painting from the collection of Boturini, in twenty-three +plates.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">RECORD OF NOTABLE EVENTS.</span></h3> + +<p>In this group are presented some figures from the Dakota Winter +Counts, which record events of tribal or intertribal importance not included +under other heads.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp679_pg567.png" width="250" height="328" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 797.</span>—Origin of Brulé +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig 797.—The-people-were-burnt winter. Battiste Good’s Winter +Count 1762-’63. He explains the origin of the title +“Brulé” Dakota as follows:</p> + +<p>Some of the Dakotas were living east of their +present country, when a prairie fire destroyed their +entire village. Many of their children and a man +and his wife, who were on foot some distance away +from the village, were burned to death. Many of +their horses were also burned to death. All the +people that could get to a long lake which was near +by saved themselves by jumping into it. Many of +these were badly burned about the thighs and legs, and this circumstance +gave rise to the name, si-can-gu, translated properly in to English +as Burnt Thigh and by the French abbreviated as Brulé, by which latter +name they have since been generally known.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568">[568]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> +<img src="images/dp680_pg568a.png" width="131" height="189" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 798.</span>—Kiyuksas.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 798.—The Oglalas engaged in a drunken brawl, +which resulted in a division of the tribe, the Kiyuksas +(Cut-Offs) separating from the others. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1841-’42.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp680_pg568b.png" width="107" height="141" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 799.</span>—First +coming of traders.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 799.—Nine white men came to trade with the +Dakotas. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1800-’01.</p> + +<p>The hatted head stands for a white man and also indicates +that the eight dots over it are for white men. According +to this count the first whites came in 1794-’95, +and the party now depicted succeeded them and were the +first traders.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/dp680_pg568c.png" width="115" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 800.</span>—First +coming of traders.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 800.—The Good-White-Man came. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1800-’01.</p> + +<p>He was the first white man to trade and live with that +division of the Dakotas of which Cloud-Shield’s chart +gives the early records.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/dp680_pg568d.png" width="104" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 801.</span>—First +coming of traders.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 801.—A trader brought the Dakotas their first guns. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1801-’02.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp680_pg568e.png" width="149" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 802.</span>—First +coming of traders.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 802.—The Dakotas saw wagons for the first time. +Red-Lake, a white trader, brought his goods in them. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1830-’31.</p> + +<p>The earliest traders came by the river, in boats.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 293px;"> +<img src="images/dp680_pg568f.png" width="293" height="313" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 803.</span>—Boy scalped.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 803.—Some Crows came to the Dakota +camp and scalped a boy. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1862-’63.</p> + +<p>This is represented also in the next figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569">[569]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 109px;"> +<img src="images/dp683_pg569a.png" width="109" height="170" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 804.</span>—Boy scalped alive.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 804.—The Crows scalped an Oglala boy alive. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1862-’63.</p> + +<p>This unusually cruel outrage renewed the violence of warfare +between Dakota and Absaroka.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 380px;"> +<img src="images/dp683_pg569b.png" width="380" height="334" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 805.</span>—Horses killed.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 805.—All of Standing Bull’s horses were killed. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1832-’33.</p> + +<p>Hoof-prints, blood-stains, and arrows are +shown under the horse. It may be remarked +with regard to the name-device for Standing-Bull, +that the quadruped can stand on +two legs, but cannot run or even walk with +that limitation, so that the exhibition of two +legs only may properly signify standing, +though for convenience the fore legs are depicted.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 209px;"> +<img src="images/dp683_pg569c.png" width="209" height="182" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 806.</span>—Annuities +received.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 806.—They received their first annuities at the +mouth of Horse creek. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1851-’52.</p> + +<p>A one-point blanket is depicted and denotes dry +goods. It is surrounded by a circle of marks which +represent the people.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/dp683_pg569d.png" width="161" height="260" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 807.</span>—Annuities +received.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 807.—Many goods were issued to the Dakotas at Fort Laramie. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1851-’52.</p> + +<p>The goods were the first they received from the +United States Government. The blanket which is +represented stands for the whole issue.</p> + +<p>White-Cow-Killer calls it “Large-issue-of-goods-on-the-Platte-river-winter.”</p> + +<p>This is a more conventionalized form of the preceding +figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/dp683_pg569e.png" width="161" height="122" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 808.</span>—Annuities +received.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 808.—The Dakotas received annuities at Raw-Hide +Butte. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1856-’57.</p> + +<p>The house and the blanket represent the agency and +the goods.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;"> +<img src="images/dp683_pg569f.png" width="170" height="364" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 809.</span>—Mexican blankets bought.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 809.—The Dakotas bought Mexican blankets of +John Richard, who bought many wagon-loads of the +Mexicans. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1858-’59.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570">[570]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 221px;"> +<img src="images/dp684_pg570a.png" width="221" height="173" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 810.</span>—Wagon Captured.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 810.—They captured a train of wagons near +Tongue river. The men who were with it got away. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1867-’68.</p> + +<p>The blanket protruding from the front of the wagon +represents the goods found in the wagons.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/dp684_pg570b.png" width="161" height="117" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 811.</span>—Clerk killed.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 811.—The Oglalas killed the Indian agent’s +(Seville’s) clerk inside the stockade of the Red Cloud +agency at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1873-’74.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"> +<img src="images/dp684_pg570c.png" width="280" height="237" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 812.</span>—Flag staff cut down.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 812.—The Oglalas at the Red Cloud agency, near Fort Robinson, +Nebraska, cut to pieces the flagstaff which +had been cut and hauled by order of their agent, +but which they would not allow him to erect, as +they did not wish to have a flag flying over +their agency. American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1874-’75.</p> + +<p>This was in 1874. The flag which the agent +intended to hoist was lately at the Pine ridge +agency, Dakota.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 248px;"> +<img src="images/dp684_pg570d.png" width="248" height="256" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 813.</span>—Horses taken.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 813.—Horses taken by United States government. The Flame’s +Winter Count, 1876-’77.</p> + +<p>This figure refers to the action of the military +authorities of the United States toward the +Indian tribes which had been connected with or +suspected of favoring the outbreak which resulted +in the defeat of the force under Gen. Custer. +A body of troops swept the reservations on the +Missouri river and took away all the ponies of +the tribes, thereby depriving them of their means +of transportation for hostile purposes. The hatted man with a star +above his head is the brigadier-general in command of the United +States forces. The hoof prints without marks of horseshoes indicate +the Indian ponies as usual. The black blurs among them probably +refer to the considerable number of the ponies that fell and died before +they reached Bismark and other points of sale to which they were +driven. It was promised that the amount realized from the sale of the +drove should be returned to the owners, but the latter received little.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571">[571]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XVII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">BIOGRAPHY.</span></h2> + + +<p>Pictographs under this head may be grouped as: 1st. Continuous +record of events in life. 2d. Particular exploits or events. Pictographs +of both of these descriptions are very common. An excellent collection +is published in the George Catlin Indian Gallery in the U. S. National +Museum, with memoir and statistics by Thomas Donaldson, a part of +the Smithsonian Report for 1885, Pls. 100 to 110.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CONTINUOUS RECORD OF EVENTS IN LIFE.</span></h3> + +<p>An authentic and distinct example of a continuous record is the following +“autobiography,” which was prepared at Grand River, Dakota, +in 1873, in a series of eleven drawings, by Running-Antelope, chief of +the Uncpapa Dakotas. Seven of these, regarded as of most interest, +are now presented. The sketches were painted in water colors and +were made for Dr. W. J. Hoffman, to whom the following interpretations +were given by the artist.</p> + +<p>The record comprises the most important events in the life of Running-Antelope +as a warrior. Although frequently more than one person +is represented as slain, it is not to be inferred that all included in +the same figure were killed at one time unless it is so specified, but +that thus they were severally the victims of one expedition, of which +the warrior was a member or leader. The bird (<i>Falco cooperi?</i>) upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572">[572]</a></span> +shield always borne by him, refers to the clan or band totem, while the +antelope always drawn beneath the horses, in the act of running, identifies +his personal name.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp687_pg571.jpg" width="600" height="538" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 814.</span>—Killed two Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 814.—Killed two Arikara Indians in one day. The lance held in +the hand, thrusting at the foremost of the enemy, signifies that Running-Antelope +killed him with that weapon; the left-hand figure was shot, +as is shown by the discharging gun, and afterwards struck with the +lance. This occurred in 1853.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp688_pg572ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp688_pg572a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="404" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 815.</span>—Shot and scalped an Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 815.—Shot and scalped an Arikara Indian in 1853. It appears +that the Arikara attempted to inform Running-Antelope of his being +unarmed, as the right hand is thrown outward with distended fingers, +in imitation of making the gesture for <i>negation, having nothing</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp688_pg572bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp688_pg572b.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="377" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 816.</span>—Killed ten men and three women.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 816.—Killed ten men and three squaws in 1856. The grouping +of persons strongly resembles the ancient Egyptian method of drawing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573">[573]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp689_pg573ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp689_pg573a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="351" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 817.</span>—Killed two chiefs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 817.—Killed two Arikara chiefs in 1856. Their rank is shown by +the appendages to the sleeve and coat, which are made of white weasel +skins. The arrow in the left thigh of the victor shows that he was +wounded. The scars remained distinct upon the thigh of Running-Antelope, +showing that the arrow had passed through it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp689_pg573bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp689_pg573b.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="436" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 818.</span>—Killed one Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 818.—Killed one Arikara in 1857. Striking the enemy with a +bow is considered the greatest insult that can be offered. See for a +similar concept among the eastern Algonquians (Leland, <i>b</i>). The act +entitles the warrior to count one <i>coup</i> when relating his exploits in the +council chamber.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574">[574]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp690_pg574ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp690_pg574a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="421" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 819.</span>—Killed two Arikara hunters.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 819.—Killed two Arikara hunters in 1859. Both were shot, as +is indicated by the figure of a gun in contact with each Indian. The +cluster of lines drawn across the body of each victim represents the +discharge of the gun, and shows where the ball took effect. The upper +one of the two figures was in the act of shooting an arrow when he +was killed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp690_pg574bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp690_pg574b.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="430" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 820.</span>—Killed five Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 820.—Killed five Arikara in one day in 1863. The dotted line +indicates the trail which Running-Antelope followed, and when the +Indians discovered that they were pursued, they took shelter in an isolated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575">[575]</a></span> +copse of shrubbery, where they were killed at leisure. The five +guns within the inclosure represent the five persons armed.</p> + +<p>The Arikara are nearly always delineated in these pictures wearing +the topknot of hair, a fashion specially prevalent among the Absaroka, +though as the latter were the most inveterate enemies of the Sioux, and +as the word Palláni for Arikara is applied to all enemies, the Crow +custom may have been depicted as a generic mark.</p> + +<p>Wiener (<i>e</i>) gives the following account of the tablet found at Mansiche, +reproduced as Fig. 821, one-fifth actual size:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 549px;"> +<img src="images/dp693_pg575a.jpg" width="549" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 821.</span>—Peruvian biography.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It gives all the descriptive elements of the life of the deceased; in fact his biography. +He was a chieftain of royal blood (vide +the red planache with five double plumes). +He commanded an entire tribe. He had a +military command (<i>v.</i> the mace which he holds +in his right hand). He had taken part in +three battles (<i>v.</i> the three arms which three +times proved his strength). He was a judge +in his district (<i>v.</i> the sign of the speaking-trumpet +in the center). He had under him +four judges (<i>v.</i> the four signs of the speaking-trumpet +in the corners). He had during his +administration irrigated the country (<i>v.</i> the +designs which surround the painting); and he +had constructed great buildings (<i>v.</i> the checkers +surrounding the meanders). He had +busied himself besides all that in the raising +of cattle (<i>v.</i> the indications of llamas). He +had lived 42 years (<i>v.</i> the blocks, which indicate +years, just as the rings indicate the age +of trees). He had had five children, three sons and two daughters (indicated by +the little drops of sperm). Such is the life of this person, written by ideography on +a tablet, which at first would be taken as a fantasy of an infant painter.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">PARTICULAR EXPLOITS OR EVENTS.</span></h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp693_pg575b.png" width="600" height="321" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 822.</span>—Hunting record. Iroquois.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the Doc. Hist. N. Y. (<i>b</i>) is an illustration, presented here as Fig. +822, of an Iroquois “returning from hunting, who has slept two nights +on the hunting ground and killed three does; for when they are bucks +they add their antlers.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576">[576]</a></span></p> + +<p>From the same volume, page 9, the following extract is made, describing +Fig. 823:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp694_pg576ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp694_pg576a.png" class="hires" width="550" height="272" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 823.</span>—Martial exploits. Iroquois.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>b.</i> This is the way they mark when they have been to war, and when there is a +bar extending from one mark to the other it signifies that, after having been in battle, +he did not come back to his village, and that he returned with other parties +whom he met or formed.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> This arrow, which is broken, denotes that they were wounded in this expedition.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Thus they denote that the belts which they gave to raise a war party and to +avenge the death of some one, belonging to them or to some of the same tribe.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> He has gone back to fight without having entered his village.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> A man whom he killed on the field of battle, who had a bow and arrow.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> These are two men, whom he took prisoners, one of whom had a hatchet and +the other a gun in his hand.</p> + +<p><i>gg.</i> This is a woman who is designated only by a species of waistcloth.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 824 is taken from the Winter Count of Battiste Good for the +year 1853-’54.</p> + +<p>He calls the year Cross-Bear-died-on-the-hunt winter.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp694_pg576b.png" width="200" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 824.</span>—Cross-Bear’s death.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The character on the extreme left hand is a “travail,” and means +they moved; the buffalo, to hunt buffalo; the bear with +mouth open and paw advanced, cross-bear. The involute +character frequently repeated in Battiste’s record +signifies pain in the stomach and intestines, resulting +in death. In this group of characters there is not only +the brief story, an obituary notice, but an ideographic +mark for a particular kind of death, a noticeable name-totem, +and a presentation of the Siouan mode of transportation.</p> + +<p>The word “travail” may require explanation. It refers to the peculiar +sledge which is used by many tribes of Indians for the purpose of +transportation. It is used on the surface of the ground when not covered +with snow even more than when snow prevails. In print the +word is more generally found in the plural, where it is spelled “travaux”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577">[577]</a></span> +and sometimes “travois.” The etymology of this word has been +the subject of much discussion. It is probably one of the words which +descended in corrupted form from the language of the Canadian voyageurs, +and was originally the French word “traineau,” with its meaning +of sledge. The corrupt form “travail” was retained by English +speakers from its connection with the sound of the word “travel.”</p> + +<p>Fig. 825 is taken from a roll of birch bark, known to be more than seventy +years old, obtained in 1882 from the Ojibwa Indians at Red Lake, +Minnesota. The interpretation was given by an Indian from that +reservation, although he did not know the author nor the history of +the record. With one exception, all of the characters were understood +and interpreted to Dr. Hoffman, in 1883, by Ottawa Indians at Harbor +Springs, Michigan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp697_pg577h.png"> +<img src="images/dp697_pg577.png" class="hires" width="550" height="379" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 825.</span>—A dangerous trading trip.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i> represents the Indian who visited a country supposed to have been +near one of the great lakes. He has a scalp in his hand which he obtained +from the head of an enemy, after having killed him. The line +from the head to the small circle denotes the name of the person, and +the line from the mouth to the same circle signifies (in the Dakota +method), “That is it,” having reference to proper names.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, the enemy killed. He was a man who held a position of some consequence +in his tribe, as is indicated by the horns, marks used by the +Ojibwas among themselves for shaman, wabeno, etc. It has been suggested +that the object held in the hand of this figure is a rattle, though +the Indians, to whom the record was submitted for examination, are in +doubt, the character being indistinct.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, three disks connected by short lines signify, in the present instance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578">[578]</a></span> +three nights, i. e., three black suns. Three days from home was the +distance the Indian <i>a</i> traveled to reach the country for which he started.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> represents a shell, and denotes the primary object of the journey. +Shells were needed for making ornaments and to trade, and traffic between +members of the different and even distant tribes was common, +although attended with danger.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, two parallel lines are here inserted to mark the end of the present +record and the beginning of another.</p> + +<p>The following narrative of personal exploit was given to Dr. W. J. +Hoffman by “Pete,” a Shoshoni chief, during a visit of the latter to +Washington, in 1880. The sketch, Fig. 826, was drawn by the narrator, +who also gave the following explanation of the characters:</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp698_pg578ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp698_pg578a.png" class="hires" width="550" height="369" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 826.</span>—Shoshoni raid for horses.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, Pete, a Shoshoni chief; <i>b</i>, a Nez Percés Indian, one of the party +from whom the horses were stampeded, and who wounded Pete in the +side with an arrow; <i>c</i>, hoof-marks, showing course of stampede; <i>d</i>, lance, +which was captured from the Nez Percés; <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, saddles captured; +<i>f</i>, bridle captured; <i>g</i>, lariat captured; <i>h</i>, saddle-blanket captured; <i>i</i>, +body-blanket captured; <i>j</i>, pair of leggings captured; <i>k</i>, three single +legs of leggings captured.</p> + +<p>The figures in the following group represent some of the particular +exploits and events in life which have been considered by the recorders +of the Winter Counts of the Dakotas to be specially worthy of note:</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp698_pg578b.png" width="147" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 827.</span>—Life risked +for water.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 827.—While surrounded by the enemy (Mandans) +a Blackfeet Dakota Indian goes at the risk of his +life for water for the party. The-Flame’s Winter Count, +1795-’96. The interpreter stated that this was near +the present Cheyenne agency, Dakota. In the original +character there is a bloody wound at the shoulder,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579">[579]</a></span> +showing that the heroic Indian was wounded. He is shown bearing +a water vessel.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 253px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579a.png" width="253" height="270" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 828.</span>—Runs by the enemy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 828.—Runs-by-the-Enemy. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This figure suggests +a feat of special courage +and fleetness in making +a circuit of a hostile force.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 284px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579b.png" width="284" height="289" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 829.</span>—Runs around.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 829.—Runs-Around. +Red-Cloud’s Census. This +figure seems to indicate a +warrior surrounded and +shot at by a number of enemies, +who yet escapes by his swiftness.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 255px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579c.png" width="255" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 830.</span>—Goes through +the camp.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 830.—Goes-through-the-Camp. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This figure +notes the successful passage of +a spy through the enemy’s +camp.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 296px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579d.png" width="296" height="222" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 831.</span>—Cut through.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 831.—Cut-Through. +Red-Cloud’s Census. Here a +footman cuts his way through a line of hostile horsemen.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579e.png" width="195" height="207" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 832.</span>—Killed in tipi.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 832.—Paints-His-Face-Red, a Dakota, was +killed in his tipi by the Pawnees. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1837-’38. The right to paint the +face red was sometimes gained by providing the +ceremonial requirements for a commemoration +of the dead, which were very expensive. There +are two facts depicted by the figure. The man +and his tipi are surrounded by a ring of enemies, +who are shooting him, and, touched by the upper part of the ring, is +the bottom of another and more minute tipi, marked with the sign of +a fatal shot.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579f.png" width="124" height="179" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 833.</span>—Killed in tipi.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 833.—Paints-His-Cheeks-Red and his family, +who were camping by themselves, +were killed by Pawnees. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1837-’38. This character tells +the same story as the one preceding, +but is more conventional.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"> +<img src="images/dp703_pg579g.png" width="210" height="257" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 834.</span>—Took the warpath.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 834.—Spotted-Horse carried +the pipe around and took +the warpath against the Pawnees to avenge the death of his uncle, +Paints-His-Cheeks-Red. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1838-’39. +This figure is the sequel to those immediately preceding.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580">[580]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 221px;"> +<img src="images/dp704_pg580a.png" width="221" height="315" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 835.</span>—White-Bull killed.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 835.—White-Bull and many others were killed in a fight with +the Shoshoni. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1845-’46. +This warrior seems to have lost +more than the normal quantity +of scalp.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp704_pg580b.png" width="144" height="370" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 836.</span>—Brave-Bear +killed.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 836.—Brave-Bear was +killed in a quarrel over a calf. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1854-’55. He was killed by enemies; +hence his scalp is gone.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/dp704_pg580c.png" width="196" height="265" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 837.</span>—Brave-Man +killed.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 837.—The-Brave-Man +was killed in a great fight. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1817-’18. The fight is shown by the arrows flying +to and from him. He is also scalped.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<img src="images/dp704_pg580d.png" width="189" height="322" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 838.</span>—Crazy-Horse +killed.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 838.—A soldier ran a bayonet into Crazy-Horse and killed him. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1877-’78. This +was done in the guard-house +at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, +September 5, 1877. The horse +in this instance does not distinctly +exhibit the wavy lines +shown in several other representations +of the chief which +appear among the illustrations +of this paper. This omission +is doubtless due to carelessness +of the Indian artist.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 119px;"> +<img src="images/dp704_pg580e.png" width="119" height="160" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 839.</span>—Killed for whipping +wife.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 839.—Striped-Face stabbed and killed his +daughter’s husband for whipping +his wife. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1829-’30.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 241px;"> +<img src="images/dp704_pg580f.png" width="241" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 840.</span>—Killed for whipping +wife.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 840.—Spotted-Face +stabs his daughter’s husband +for whipping his wife. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1829-’30. This is another +form of the preceding figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;"> +<img src="images/dp707_pg581a.jpg" width="251" height="350" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 841.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 841.—Kaglala-kutepi, Shot-Close. The Oglala Roster. This may +refer to an incident in the warrior’s life in which he had a narrow escape, +or may, on the other hand, refer to his stealing upon and shooting +from near by at an enemy. The design, as often occurs, allows of double +interpretation. The close shooting is not accurate markmanship, +but with proximity as suggested by the arrow touching the head while +still near the bow. This figure may receive some interpretation from +the one following.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581">[581]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/dp707_pg581b.png" width="200" height="172" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 842.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 842.—The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1835-’36. A Minneconjou chief +named Lame-Deer shot an Assiniboin +three times with the same arrow. He +kept so close to his enemy that he never +let the arrow slip away from the bow +but pulled it out and shot it in again.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp707_pg581ch.png"> +<img src="images/dp707_pg581c.png" class="hires" width="550" height="370" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 843.</span>—Lean-Wolf’s exploits.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 843 consists of two stories pictured +by Lean-Wolf, a Hidatsa chief, +showing the attack made by Sioux Indians in search +of horses and the result of the raid. In the upper figure, +at the left end, is shown the Sioux camp from +which the trail of the horse thieves extends to near +the camp of the Hidatsa, at Fort Berthold, North Dakota. This +village is indicated by the circular dirt lodges within a square +inclosure. The Sioux captured some Indian horses and rode away, as +indicated by the prints of horse hoofs. A series of short lines from the +Hidatsa village indicates that Lean-Wolf and his companions followed +on foot, subsequently overtaking the Sioux, killing one and taking his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582">[582]</a></span> +scalp. The scalp is shown above the figure of the human head, while +the weapon with which he struck the Sioux is also shown. This is the +war club. The lower division of the figure is similar to the upper. +In the pursuit of the Sioux, who had come to Fort Berthold on another +occasion to steal horses, Lean-Wolf assisted in capturing and killing +three of the marauders. In the left-hand group of the three human +heads he is shown to have killed an enemy; in the second he was the +third to strike a Sioux after he was shot, but took his scalp, and in the +third, or right hand, he was the fourth to strike the fallen enemy.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp707_pg581dh.png"> +<img src="images/dp707_pg581d.png" class="hires" width="550" height="151" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 844.</span>—Record of hunt. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A record on ivory shown as Fig. 844 was obtained by Dr. Hoffman +in San Francisco, California, in 1882, and was interpreted to him by an +Alaskan native. The story represents the success of a hunt; the +animals desired are shown, as well as those which were secured.</p> + +<p>The following is the explanation of the characters:</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, deer; <i>c</i>, porcupine; <i>d</i>, winter, or permanent, habitation. The +cross-piece resting upon two vertical poles constitutes the rack, used +for drying fish; <i>e</i>, one of the natives occupying the same lodge with the +recorder; <i>f</i>, the hunter whose exploits are narrated; <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, beavers; +<i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, martens; <i>o</i>, a weasel, according to the interpretation, +although there are no specific characters to identify it as different +from the preceding; <i>p</i>, land otter; <i>q</i>, a bear; <i>r</i>, a fox; <i>s</i>, a walrus; <i>t</i>, +a seal; <i>u</i>, a wolf.</p> + +<p>By comparing the illustration with the text it will be observed that +all the animals secured are turned toward the house of the speaker, +while the heads of those animals desired, but not obtained, are turned +away from it.</p> + +<p>The following is the text in the Kiatéxamut dialect of the Innuit +language as dictated by the Alaskan, with his own literal translation +into English:</p> + +<p> +Huí-nu-ná-ga | huí-pu-qtú-a | pi-cú-qu-lú-a | mus'-qu-lí-qnut. | Pa-mú-qtu-līt'<br /> +I, (from) my place. (settlement.) | I went | hunting | (for) skins. (animals) | martens<br /> +<br /> +ta-qí-mĕn, | a-mí-da-duk' | a-xla-luk', | á-qui-á-muk | pi-qú-a | a-xla-luk';<br /> +five, | weasel | one, | land otter | caught | one;<br /> +<br /> +ku-qú-lu-hú-nu-mŭk' | a-xla-luk', | tun'-du-muk | tú-gu-qlí-u-gú | me-lú-ga-nuk',<br /> +wolf | one, | deer | (I) killed | two,<br /> +<br /> +pé-luk | pi-naí-u-nuk, | nú-nuk | pit'-qu-ní, | ma-klak-muk' | pit'-qu-ní,<br /> +beaver | three, | porcupine | (I) caught none, | seal | (I) caught none,<br /> +<br /> +a-cí-a-na-muk | pit'-qu-ni, | ua-qí-la-muk | pit'-qu-ní, | ta-gú-xa-muk | pit'-qu-ní.<br /> +walrus | (I) caught none, | fox | (I) caught none, | bear | (I) caught none.<br /> +</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583">[583]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">IDEOGRAPHY.</span></h2> + + +<p>The imagination is stimulated and developed by the sense of sight +more than by any other sense, perhaps more than by all of the other +senses combined. The American Indians, and probably all savages, +are remarkable for acute and critical vision, and also for their retentive +memory of what they have once seen. When significance is once +attached to an object seen, it will always be recalled, though often with +false deductions. Therefore, like deaf-mutes, who depend mainly on +sight, the American Indians have developed great facility in communicating +by signs, and also in expressing their ideas in pictures +which are ideographic though seldom artistic. This tendency has +likewise affected their spoken languages. Their terms express with +wonderful particularity the characters and relations of visible objects, +and their speeches, which are in a high degree metaphoric, become so +by the figurative presentation in words of such objects accompanied +generally by imitative signs for them, and often by their bodily exhibition.</p> + +<p>The statement once made that the aboriginal languages of North +America are not capable of expressing abstract ideas is incorrect, +but the tendency to use tangible and visible forms for such ideas is +apparent. This practice was most marked in reference to religious +subjects, which were often presented under the veil of symbols, as has +been the common expedient of most peoples who have emerged from +the very lowest known stages of human culture, but have not attained +the highest.</p> + +<p>Many instances appear in this work in which pictures expressive +of an idea present more than mere portraitures of objects, which latter +method has been styled imitative or iconographic writing.</p> + +<p>It is, however, impossible to classify with scientific precision the +pictured ideograms collected, for the reason that many of them occupy +intermediate points in any scheme that would be succinct enough to +be practically useful. In the arrangement of the present chapter the +division is made into: 1st. Abstract ideas expressed pictorially. 2d. +Signs, symbols, and emblems. 3d. Significance of colors. 4th. Gesture +and posture signs depicted. When any of the graphic representations +of ideas have become successful, i. e., commonly adopted, it soon becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584">[584]</a></span> +more or less conventionalized. Chapter <a href="#page649">XIX</a> is devoted specially to +that branch of the general subject.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">ABSTRACT IDEAS EXPRESSED PICTORIALLY.</span></h3> + +<p>The first stage of picture-writing, as considered in the present chapter, +was the representation of a material object in such style or connection +as determined it not to be a mere portraiture of that object, but figurative +of some other object or person. This stage is abundantly exhibited +among the American Indians. Indeed, their personal and tribal names +thus objectively represented constitute the largest part of their picture-writing +so far thoroughly understood.</p> + +<p>The second step was when a special quality or characteristic of an +object, generally an animal, became employed to express a general +quality, i. e., an abstract idea. It can be readily seen how, among the +Egyptians, a hawk with bright eye and lofty flight might be selected +to express divinity and royalty, and that the crocodile should denote +darkness, while a slightly further advance in metaphors made the ostrich +feather, from the equality of its filaments, typical of truth. All peoples +whose rulers used special objective designations of their rank, made +those objects the signs for power, whether they were crowns or umbrellas, +eagle feathers, or colored buttons. A horse meant swiftness, +a serpent life—or immortality when drawn as a circle—a dog was +watchfulness, and a rabbit was fecundity. It is evident from examples +given in the present paper that the American tribes at the time of the +Columbian discovery had entered upon this second step of picture-writing, +though with marked inequality between tribes and regions in +advance therein. None of them appear to have reached such proficiency +in the expression of connected ideas by picture, as is shown in the +sign-language existing among some of them, which may be accounted +for by its more frequent use required by the constant meeting of many +persons speaking different languages. There is no more necessary connection +between abstract ideas and sounds, the mere signs of thought +that strike the ear, than there is between the same ideas and signs addressed +only to the eye. The success and scope of either mode of +expression depends mainly upon the amount of its exercise, in which +oral language undoubtedly has surpassed both sign-language and picture-writing.</p> + +<p>The examples now following in this chapter are by no means all the +graphic representations of abstract ideas collected. Indeed many +others are contained in the work under other headings, but the following +are selected for grouping here with an attempt at order. In the +popular definition, or want of definition, some of them would be classed +as symbols.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585">[585]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>AFTER.</h4> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585a.png" width="156" height="398" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 845.</span>—Charge after.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 845.—Charge after; Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<p>Here is suggested the order in a charge upon an enemy, +apparently a Crow. The concept is not the general charge +of a number of warriors upon the Crows, but the succession +between themselves of the men who made that charge. The +person whose name is represented probably followed in +but did not lead some celebrated charge.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 123px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585b.png" width="123" height="185" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 846.</span>—Killed after.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 846.—John Richard shot and killed an +Oglala named Yellow-Bear, and the Oglalas +killed Richard before he could get out of the +lodge; American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1871-’72. +This occurred in the spring of 1872. +As the white man was killed after the Indian, +he is placed behind him in the figure. The +bear’s head is shown.</p> + +</div> + +<h4><i>AGE—OLD AND YOUNG.</i></h4> + +<h5>OLD.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585c.png" width="225" height="173" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 847.</span>—Old-Horse.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 847.—Old-Horse; +Red-Cloud’s Census. Here +the old age is shown by +the wrinkles and projecting +lips.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585d.png" width="132" height="288" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 848.</span>—Old-Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 848.—Old-Mexican; +Red-Cloud’s Census. The +man in European dress is bent and supported +by a staff, thus depicting the gesture-sign mentioned +in connection with Fig. <a href="#page641">994</a>. The Dakota +had probably received his name from killing an aged Mexican.</p> + +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586">[586]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>YOUNG.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 122px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585e.png" width="122" height="349" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 849.</span>—Young-Rabbit.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 849.—Young-Rabbit, a Crow, was killed in battle by Red-Cloud. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1861-’62. Here the youth of the Rabbit +is expressed by diminutive size and short legs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585f.png" width="127" height="411" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 850.</span>—Bad-Boy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 850.—Bad-Boy. Red-Cloud’s Census. The boyhood is expressed +by the short hair and short scalp lock.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>BAD.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp711_pg585g.png" width="150" height="369" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 851.</span>—Bad-Horn.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 851.—Bad-Horn. Red-Cloud’s Census. The bad quality of the +horn is expressed by its decayed and broken condition +and its distorted curve.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/dp712_pg586a.png" width="161" height="309" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 852.</span>—Bad-Face.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 852.—Bad-Face, a Dakota, was shot in the face. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1794-’95. The bad face +may have been broken out with blotches of disease before +the shot, or the scars may have been the result of the shot, +which gave occasion for a new name, as is common. +The idea of “bad” is often expressed by an abnormality, +especially one which disfigures.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/dp712_pg586b.png" width="172" height="109" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 853.</span>—Bad. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 853, taken from Copway (<i>d</i>), represents +“bad.” The concept appears to be +the preponderance of “below” to “above.”</p> + +</div> + +<h5>BEFORE.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 365px;"> +<img src="images/dp712_pg586c.png" width="365" height="291" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 854.</span>—Got there first.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 854.—Got there first. +Red-Cloud’s Census. The +figure portrays a successful +escape of an unmounted +Indian from a chase by enemies on horseback. The chased man gets +home to his tipi before being overtaken by his pursuers, +whose horses’ tracks are shown.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>BIG.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/dp712_pg586d.png" width="132" height="500" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 855.</span>—Big-Turnip.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 855.—Big-Turnip. Red-Cloud’s Census. The +plant is also known as the navet de prairie. The large +size of the specimen, as compared with the human head, +is apparent.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 207px;"> +<img src="images/dp712_pg586e.png" width="207" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 856.</span>—Big-Crow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 856.—A Minneconjou Dakota, named Big-Crow, +was killed by the Crow Indians. Swan’s Winter Count, +1859-’60. He had received his name from killing a +Crow Indian of unusual size. The bird +is portrayed much larger than similar +objects in the Winter Count, from which +it is taken.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp713_pg587a.png" width="150" height="405" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 857.</span>—Grasp.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 857.—Grasp. Red-Cloud’s Census. +Here the indication of size and +strength of the hand is suggested by one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587">[587]</a></span> +hand growing out from another, a species of duplication. To have +drawn two distinct hands would only have been +normal and not suggestive of unusual power of grip.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp713_pg587b.png" width="125" height="321" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 858.</span>—Big-Hand.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 858.—Big-Hand. From Red-Cloud’s Census. Here the fingers +are widely separated and displayed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 217px;"> +<img src="images/dp713_pg587c.png" width="217" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 859.</span>—Big-Thunder.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 859.—Big-Thunder. From Red-Cloud’s Census. +Here the size or power is suggested by implication. +The double or two-voiced thunder is big +thunder.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<img src="images/dp713_pg587d.png" width="141" height="220" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 860.</span>—Big-Voice.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 860.—Big-Voice. From Red-Cloud’s Census. +In this figure there are still more voices than in the +preceding.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>CENTER.</h5> + + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 286px;"> +<img src="images/dp713_pg587e.jpg" width="286" height="360" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 861.</span>—Center-Feather.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 861.—Upi-Yaslate. Center-Feather. The +Oglala Roster. This is the indication of a particular +feather, i. e., the middle tail feather of a +bird, probably of an eagle, the tail feathers of +which bird are represented in many pictographs +in this paper. There was some reason for the +selection of the center feather for +the name, and to indicate the +center three feathers were depicted +with a line touching the +middle one.</p> + + +<h5>DEAF.</h5> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;"> +<img src="images/dp713_pg587f.png" width="120" height="146" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 862.</span>—Deaf-Woman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 862.—Wi-nugin-kpa, Deaf-Woman. The Oglala Roster. The +ears are covered by a line, i. e., are closed, and the ear most in view is +connected with the crown of the head, to show that the name is expressed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588">[588]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>DIRECTION.</h5> + +<p>This title has been selected as being the most comprehensive one for +the five following figures. The first shows a moccasin with a serpentine +track, at the farthest end of which is an +angular design, indicating leadership as +well as the direction taken. This suggests +the leader of a war party conducting his +band over an uncertain trail. The second +is explanatory of the first. That the chief +goes in front is indicated in a manner the +reverse of that which would appear in the +designs common in our military text-books. +He is supposed to be in the opening in the +angle of the advance and not at its apex. +The third figure shows a steadfast leadership +in the determined straight direction of attack +against the enemy. This is still more ideographically +represented by the single strong straight line showing +that he “Don’t turn” in the fourth figure of this group.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/dp714_pg588a.png" width="129" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 863.</span>—Direction.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 863.—Warrior. Red-Cloud’s +Census. The name does not give any +idea of the design.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 203px;"> +<img src="images/dp714_pg588b.png" width="203" height="408" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 864.</span>—Goes-in-Front.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 864.—Goes-in-Front. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;"> +<img src="images/dp714_pg588c.png" width="211" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 865.</span>—Don’t-turn.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 865.—Don’t-turn. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This means that +the warrior don’t—that is, won’t—turn +from his direct course.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<img src="images/dp714_pg588d.png" width="216" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 866.</span>—Don’t-turn.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 866.—Don’t-turn. Red +Cloud’s Census. This figure is a +variant of the last, and a body of +mounted men following the leader, +all on horseback as shown by the lunules.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<img src="images/dp714_pg588e.png" width="151" height="215" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 867.</span>—Returning +Scout.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 867.—Tunweya-gli, Returning-Scout. The +Oglala Roster. The returning is ingeniously represented +by the line curving backward and returning to the point of +starting. The two balls above the head are simply two fixed points, +which establish the course of the line.</p> + +</div> + + +<h5>DISEASE.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/dp714_pg588f.png" width="142" height="177" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 868.</span>—Whooping +cough.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 868.—Many had the whooping +cough. American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1813-’14. The cough is represented by +the lines issuing from the man’s mouth, +but the characteristics of the disease +are better expressed in the three charts +of the Lone-Dog system, Figs. <a href="#page276">196</a>, <a href="#page276">197</a>, and <a href="#page276">198</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589">[589]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589a.png" width="60" height="145" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 869.</span>—Measles.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589b.png" width="164" height="230" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 870.</span>—Measles or +smallpox.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 869.—All the Dakotas had measles, very fatal. Swan’s Winter +Count, 1818-’19. Battiste Good says: +“Smallpox-used-them-up-again winter.” +They, i. e., the Dakotas, at this +time lived on the Little White river, +about 20 miles above the Rosebud +agency. The character in Battiste +Good’s chart is presented here in Fig. 870 as a variant.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589c.png" width="98" height="115" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 871.</span>—Ate buffalo +and died.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589d.png" width="197" height="284" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 872.</span>—Died of “whistle.”</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 871.—Dakota war party ate a buffalo and all +died. Swan’s Winter Count, 1826-’27. Battiste Good +calls the same year, “Ate-a-whistle-and-died +winter,” Fig. 872, and +explains that six Dakotas on the +warpath had nearly perished with +hunger, when they found and ate +the rotting carcass of an old buffalo, on which the +wolves had been feeding. They were seized soon after +with pains in the stomach, their bellies swelled, and +gas poured from the mouth and the anus, and they +“died of a whistle,” or from eating a whistle. The +sound of gas escaping from the mouth is illustrated in the figure. The +character on the abdomen and on its right may be considered to be the +ideograph for pain in that part of the body.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589e.png" width="65" height="121" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 873.</span>—Smallpox.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 873.—Many people died of smallpox. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1782-’83. The charts all record two successive winters of +smallpox, but American-Horse +makes the first year of the epidemic +one year later than that of Battiste +Good, and Cloud-Shield makes it +two years later.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 68px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589f.png" width="68" height="113" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 874.</span>—Smallpox.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 874.—Many died of smallpox. American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1780-’81. Here the smallpox marks are on the face and neck of a Dakota, +as indicated by the arrangement of the hair.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589g.png" width="185" height="394" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 875.</span>—Smallpox. +Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Kingsborough (<i>e</i>) explains Fig. 875 by these words in +the text: “In the year of Seven Rabbits, or in 1538, +many of the people died of the smallpox.” This may be +compared with the two preceding figures.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;"> +<img src="images/dp715_pg589h.png" width="145" height="216" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 876.</span>—Died of cramps.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 876.—Many died of the cramps. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1849-’50. The cramps +were those of Asiatic cholera, which +was epidemic in the United States at +that time, and was carried to the plains +by the California and Oregon emigrants. +The position of the man is very suggestive +of cholera.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;"> +<img src="images/dp716_pg590a.png" width="134" height="251" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 877.</span>—Died in +childbirth.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 877.—Many women died in childbirth. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1798-’99.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590">[590]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp716_pg590b.png" width="98" height="215" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 878.</span>—Died in +childbirth.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 878.—Many women died in childbirth. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1792-’93.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 71px;"> +<img src="images/dp716_pg590c.png" width="71" height="95" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 879.</span>—Sickness. +Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 879, from Copway (<i>e</i>), represents sickness. +It evidently refers to the loss of +flesh consequent thereon. The sick +man is a European.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 62px;"> +<img src="images/dp716_pg590d.png" width="62" height="95" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 880.</span>—Sickness. +Chinese.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Edkins (<i>a</i>) gives Fig. 880 as “sickness,” and calls it a picture of a +sick man leaning against a support. All words connected with diseases +are arranged under this head.</p> + +</div> + + +<h5>FAST.</h5> + +<p>The following figures clearly indicate rapidity of motion:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/dp716_pg590e.png" width="450" height="411" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 881.</span>—Fast-Horse.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 881.—Fast-Horse. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/dp716_pg590f.png" width="178" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 882.</span>—Fast-Elk.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 882.—Fast-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + + +<h5>FEAR.</h5> + +<p>The following ideograms for the concept of fear show respectively +an elk, a bear, and a bull surrounded by a circle of hunters. It would +seem that the latter were supposed to be afraid to attack the animals +when at bay in hand-to-hand fight, but stood off in a circle until they +had killed the enraged beast, or at least wounded it sufficiently to +allow of approach without danger.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591">[591]</a></span></p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/dp717_pg591a.png" width="178" height="365" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 883.</span>—Afraid-of-Elk.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 883.—Afraid-of-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;"> +<img src="images/dp717_pg591b.png" width="195" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 884.</span>—Afraid-of-Bull.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 884.—Afraid-of-Bull. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 213px;"> +<img src="images/dp717_pg591c.png" width="213" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 885.</span>—Afraid-of-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 885.—Afraid-of-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 274px;"> +<img src="images/dp717_pg591d.png" width="274" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 886.</span>—The Bear-stops.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 886.—Matokinajin, The-Bear-Stops. The +Oglala Roster. The bear is surrounded by a circle +of hunters, so is forced to stop. This figure +is in no essential respect different from the one +preceding, yet the name is suggestive of the converse +of the fact expressed. In this case the bear +is forced to stop, and doubtless fear is exhibited +by that animal and not his hunters. Each of the +ideas is appropriately expressed, the point of +consideration being changed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/dp717_pg591e.png" width="104" height="116" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 887.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 887 is taken from Copway, +loc. cit. It probably represents +“fear,” the concept being the imagined +sinking or depression of the +heart and vital organs, as is correspondingly expressed in several languages.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>FRESHET.</h5> + +<p>This small group shows the Dakotan modes of portraying the +freshets of the rivers on the banks of which they lived, which were +often disastrous. Each of the three figures pictures differently the +same event.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<img src="images/dp717_pg591f.png" width="152" height="111" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 888.</span>—River freshet.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 888.—“Many-Yanktonais-drowned winter.” The river bottom +on a bend of the Missouri river, where they were +encamped, was suddenly submerged, when the +ice broke and many women and children were +drowned. Battiste Good’s Winter Count +1825-’26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592">[592]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 311px;"> +<img src="images/dp718_pg592a.png" width="311" height="151" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 889.</span>—River freshet.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 889.—Many of the Dakotas were drowned in a flood caused by +a rise in the Missouri river, in a bend of which +they were encamped. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1825-’26. The curved line is the bend +in the river; the waved line is the water, above +which the tops of the tipis are shown.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/dp718_pg592b.png" width="196" height="207" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 890.</span>—River freshet.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 890.—Some of the Dakotas were living on +the bottom lands of the Missouri river, below +the Whetstone, when the river, which was filled +with broken ice, rose and flooded their village. +Many were drowned or else killed by the floating +ice. Many of those that escaped climbed on +cakes of ice or into trees. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1825-’26.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>GOOD.</h5> + + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 362px;"> +<img src="images/dp718_pg592c.png" width="362" height="327" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 891.</span>—Good weasel.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 891.—Good-Weasel. Red-Cloud’s Census. The character is +represented with two waving lines passing +upward from the mouth in imitation of +the gesture sign, good talk, as made by +passing two extended and separated fingers +(or all fingers separated) upward and forward +from the mouth. This gesture is +made when referring either to a shaman +or to a Christian clergyman. It is connected +with the idea of “mystic” frequently +mentioned in this work.</p> + + +<h5>HIGH.</h5> + +<p>Various modes of delineating this idea are represented as follows:</p> + + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 270px;"> +<img src="images/dp718_pg592d.png" width="270" height="374" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 892.</span>—Top-man.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 892.—Top-man. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This character for Top-man, or more properly +“man above,” is drawn a short distance above +a curved line, which represents the character +for sky inverted. The gesture for sky is sometimes +made by passing the hand from east to +west, describing an arc. Other pictographs +for sky are shown in Fig. +<a href="#page694">1117</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<img src="images/dp718_pg592e.png" width="242" height="114" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 893.</span>—High-Cloud.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 893.—High-Cloud. +Red-Cloud’s Census. The +light and horizontal character +of the cloud suggests that it is one of those classed by meteorologists<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593">[593]</a></span> +as belonging to the higher regions of the atmosphere. This +differs from all the +varieties of clouds +depicted in the Dakotan +system.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 307px;"> +<img src="images/dp719_pg593a.png" width="307" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 894.</span>—High-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 894—High-Bear. +Red-Cloud’s +Census. The length +of the line and the +animal’s stretch of +attitude suggest the +altitude.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 319px;"> +<img src="images/dp719_pg593b.png" width="319" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 895.</span>—High-Eagle.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 895.—High-Eagle. +Red-Cloud’s +Census. Here there +is an additional suggestion +of elevation from the upward angle or pointer delineated +below the eagle’s body and in front +of its legs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/dp719_pg593c.png" width="158" height="413" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 896.</span>—Wolf on +height.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 896.—Wolf-stands-on-a-hill. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This and the following +representation of the same name show +variation in execution. The first, which +is faint, as if distant vertically, is connected +with a straight line. The second +shows the hill, appearing from vertical +distance too small to be the support of +the wolf, which requires an imaginary +support for its hind legs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;"> +<img src="images/dp719_pg593d.png" width="251" height="374" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 897.</span>—Wolf on height.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 897.—Wolf-stands-on-hill. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>LEAN.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>In the five figures next following the leanness of the several animals +is objectively portrayed. In Fig. 903 the idea is conveyed of “nothing +inside.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;"> +<img src="images/dp719_pg593e.png" width="224" height="177" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 898.</span>—Lean-Skunk.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 898.—Lean-Skunk. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 394px;"> +<img src="images/dp719_pg593f.png" width="394" height="244" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 899.</span>—Lean-Dog.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 899.—Lean-Dog. +Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 496px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594a.png" width="496" height="458" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 900.</span>—Lean-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 900.—Lean-Bear. +Red-Cloud’s Census. +This bear being excessively +hungry is +rendered ferocious by devouring unpalatable provender.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594">[594]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 402px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594b.png" width="402" height="396" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 901.</span>—Lean-Elk.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 901.—Lean-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 314px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594c.png" width="314" height="334" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 902.</span>—Lean-Bull.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 902.—Lean-Bull. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 202px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594d.png" width="202" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 903.</span>—Lean-Wolf.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The original of Fig. 903 was made by Lean-Wolf, second chief of the +Hidatsa, in 1881, and represents the method +which he had employed to designate himself +for many years past. During +his boyhood he had another +name. This is a current, or +perhaps it may be called +cursive, form of the name, +which is given more elaborately +in Fig. <a href="#page424">548</a>.</p> + +</div> + + +<h5>LITTLE.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 254px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594e.png" width="254" height="306" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 904.</span>—Little-Ring.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 904.—Little-Ring. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This and the six following figures express smallness +by their minute size relative to the other +characterizing figures among nearly three hundred +in the census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 84px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594f.png" width="84" height="58" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 905.</span>—Little-Ring.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 905.—Little-Ring. +Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 181px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594g.png" width="181" height="383" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 906.</span>—Little-Crow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 906.—Little-Crow. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594h.png" width="196" height="314" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 907.</span>—Little-Cloud.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 907.—Little-Cloud. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;"> +<img src="images/dp720_pg594i.png" width="228" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 908.</span>—Little-Dog.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 908.—Little-Dog. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595">[595]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595a.png" width="187" height="380" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 909.</span>—Little-Wolf.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 909.—Little-Wolf. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595b.png" width="157" height="125" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 910.</span>—Little-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 910.—Little-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595c.png" width="162" height="398" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 911.</span>—Little-Elk.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 911.—Little-Elk. Red-Cloud’s +Census. Here there is an ideogram explained +by the sign-language for small, +little, as follows:</p> + +<p>Hold imaginary object between left +thumb and index; point (carrying right +index close to tips) to the last. In the +original appears a small round spot +over the back of the deer representing the imaginary point made in the +gesture.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595d.png" width="171" height="137" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 912.</span>—Little-Beaver.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 912.—Little-Beaver and three +other white men came to trade. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1797-’98. In +this figure the man is small and the +beaver abnormally large.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595e.png" width="143" height="142" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 913.</span>—Little-Beaver.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 913.—Little-Beaver’s trading +house was burned down. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1808-’09. +The beaver is not comparatively so large as in the preceding figure, +but still much too large for a proper +proportion with the human head. It is +indicated that the man is small.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595f.png" width="142" height="229" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 914.</span>—Little-Beaver.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 914.—Little-Beaver’s house was +burned. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1809-’10. White-Cow-Killer says, “Little-Beaver’s +(the white man) house-burned-down +winter.” This is a third +method of representing the same name.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595g.png" width="155" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 915.</span>—Little-Moon.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 915.—Little-Moon. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This figure shows a phase of +the moon when the bright part of its +disk is small.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>LONE.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/dp721_pg595h.png" width="104" height="205" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 916.</span>—Lone-woman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 916.—Winyan-isnala, Lone-Woman. +The Oglala Roster. It is possible that the single straight line +above the woman’s head shows unity, loneliness, or independence, as it +may be interpreted.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596">[596]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/dp722_pg596a.png" width="173" height="380" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 917.</span>—Lone-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 917.—Lone-Bear was killed in battle. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1866-’67. This figure is perhaps to be explained +by the one preceding. The bear is drawn +sitting upright and solitary, not standing as it would +be with the device turned, feet to ground, as might +be suspected to be the intended attitude +instead of that here shown.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>MANY, MUCH.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>In the two following figures the idea +of “many” is conveyed by repetition.</p> + +<p>In the third, Fig. 920, the representation +is that of a heap, for much.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/dp722_pg596b.png" width="166" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 918.</span>—Many-Shells.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 918.—Many-Shells. Red Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 215px;"> +<img src="images/dp722_pg596c.png" width="215" height="298" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 919.</span>—Many deer.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 919.—General Maynadier made peace with the +Oglalas and Brulés. American-Horse’s Winter Count, +1865-’66. The general’s name (the sound of which +resembles the words “many deer”) is indicated by the +two deer heads connected with his mouth by lines. The +pictographers represented his name in the same manner +as they do their own. It is not an example of rebus, +but of misunderstanding the significance of the word +as spoken and heard by such Indians as had some +knowledge of English. The official interpreters would be likely to +commit the error as they seldom understand more than the colloquial +English phrases.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<img src="images/dp722_pg596d.png" width="242" height="376" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 920.</span>—Much snow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 920 is taken from the winter count of Battiste Good for the year +1841-’42. He calls the year “Pointer-made-a-commemoration-of-the-dead +winter.” Also “Deep-snow winter.”</p> + +<p>The extended index denotes the man’s name, +“Pointer,” the circular line and spots, deep snow.</p> + +<p>The spots denoting snow occur also in other portions +of this count, and the circle, denoting much, is +in Fig. <a href="#page294">260</a> connected with a forked +stick and incloses a buffalo head to +signify “much meat.” That the circle +is intended to signify much is made +probable, by the fact that a gesture for “much” is made +by passing the hands upward from both sides and together before the +body, describing the upper half of a circle, i. e., showing a heap.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 108px;"> +<img src="images/dp722_pg596e.png" width="108" height="88" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 921.</span>-Great, much.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 921, from Copway, gives the character meaning “great,” really +“much.” See the above mentioned gesture.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597">[597]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>OBSCURE.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597a.png" width="192" height="156" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 922.</span>—Ring-Cloud.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 922.—Ring-Cloud. Red-Cloud’s Census. The semicircle for +cloud is the reverse in execution to +that shown in Fig. <a href="#page593">893</a>. The ring is +partially surrounded by the cloud.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 56px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597b.png" width="56" height="62" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 923.</span>—Cloud-Ring.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 923.—Cloud-Ring. Red-Cloud’s Census. Here +the outline of the ring is intentionally contorted and +blurred, thus becoming obscure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597c.png" width="147" height="184" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 924.</span>—Fog.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 924.—Fog. Red-Cloud’s Census. The obscurity here can only +be appreciated by comparison with the other figures of +the chart. The outline is drawn broad and with a blurred +and in part double line, and there is no distinguishing +mark of identity, as if to suggest that the man was so +much obscured in the fog as not to be recognizable.</p> + + +</div> + +<h5>OPPOSITION.</h5> + +<p>The following two figures, 925 and 926, are introduced to show the +opposition in attitude, which would not be understood without knowledge +of the fact that these are perhaps the only instances in a collection +of nearly three hundred in which the characterizing faces are turned +to the right, all others being turned to the left. This shows the opposite +of normality, i. e., opposition, as suggested in each case, with a +different shade of meaning.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 269px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597d.png" width="269" height="165" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 925.</span>—Kills-Back.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 925.—Kills-Back. Red-Cloud’s Census. +Here the backward concept is presented by the +unusual attitude. The coup stick or lance is +supposed to be wielded in the reverse manner.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 238px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597e.png" width="238" height="340" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 926.</span>—Keeps-the-Battle.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 926.—Keeps-the-Battle. +Red-Cloud’s +Census. The concept is +that of stubborn retreat +while fighting against +the advancing foe.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 205px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597f.png" width="205" height="217" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 927.</span>—Keeps-the-Battle.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 927.—Keeps-the-Battle. +Red-Cloud’s Census. This is the same +name as the preceding, +but the opposition suggested +is that which is +usual in pictographs of a +battle, with the important +addition of the opposed +arrow points being +attached together by +striking the same object, +and possibly being connected by an imaginary +knot. This keeps or continues the struggle.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp723_pg597g.jpg" width="177" height="246" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 928.</span>—His-Fight.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 928.—Okicize-tawa, His-Fight. The Oglala<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598">[598]</a></span> +Roster. The opposed guns and tracks indicate the fight in which +this warrior was conspicuous and probably victorious. This figure is +introduced here as typical of simple opposition in battle.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp724_pg598a.png" width="164" height="89" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 929.</span>—River fight.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 929.—Battiste Good’s Winter Count, +1836-’37. An encounter is represented between +two tribes, separated by the banks of a river, +from which arrows are fired across the water at +the opposing party. The vertical lines represent the banks, while the +opposing arrows denote a fight or an encounter.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>POSSESSION.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 165px;"> +<img src="images/dp724_pg598b.png" width="165" height="203" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 930.</span>—Owns the +arrows.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 930.—Owns-the-Arrows. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This is a common mode +of expressing possession by exhibition +in hand.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/dp724_pg598c.png" width="158" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 931.</span>—Has something +sharp.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 931.—Pesto-yuha, Has-something-sharp +(weapon). Oglala Roster. The +weapon or sharp utensil is held in front +to denote its possession.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>PRISONER.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>This group shows the several modes of expressing the idea of a +prisoner.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<img src="images/dp724_pg598d.png" width="194" height="187" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 932.</span>—Prisoner. +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 932.—The Ponkas attacked two lodges of Oglalas, killed some +of the people, and made the rest prisoners. The Oglalas went to the +Ponka village a short time afterward and took their people from the +Ponkas. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1802-’03.</p> + +<p>In the figure an Oglala has a prisoner +by the arm leading him +away. The arrow indicates +that they were +ready to fight. The +hand grasping the fore +arm is the ideogram of +prisoner.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp724_pg598e.png" width="250" height="232" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 933.</span>—Takes enemy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 933.—Takes-Enemy. +Red-Cloud’s +Census. This man is represented as not killed nor even wounded. +He is touched by the coup stick or feathered lance, when he can +not escape, and becomes a prisoner.</p> + +<p>Lafitau (<i>d</i>) gives the following account descriptive of Fig. 934, which +reminds of the classic Roman parade of prisoners in triumph:</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp725_pg599ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp725_pg599a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="382" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 934.</span>—Iroquois triumph.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Those who have charge of the prisoners prepare them for this ceremony, which is +a sort of triumph, having for them something of glory and of sorrow at the same +time; for, whether it is desired to do them honor or to enhance the triumph of the +conquerors, they paint their faces black and red as on a solemn feast day. Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599">[599]</a></span> +heads are decorated with a crown, embellished with feathers; in the left hand is +placed a white stick covered with swan skin, which is a sort of commander’s baton +or scepter, as if they represented the chief of the nation [sic] or the nation itself +which had been vanquished; in the right hand is placed the rattle, and around the +neck of the most prominent of the slaves the wampum necklace which the war chief +has given or received when he raised the party and on which the other warriors +have sealed their engagement. But if on one hand the prisoners are honored, on +the other, to make them feel their miserable situation, they are deprived of everything +else; so that they are left entirely naked and made to walk with the arms tied +behind the back above the elbow.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/dp725_pg599b.png" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 935.</span>—Prisoners. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p>Fig. 935 is taken from Mrs. Eastman (<i>d</i>), and shows a Dakota method +of recording the taking of prisoners. +<i>a</i> and <i>c</i> are the prisoners, <i>a</i> being +a female as denoted by the presence +of mammæ, and <i>c</i> a male; <i>b</i> is the +person making the capture. It is +to be noted that the prisoners are +without hands, to signify their helplessness.</p> + +<p>In Doc. Hist. New York (<i>c</i>) is the +following description of Fig. 936:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 577px;"> +<img src="images/dp726_pg600a.png" width="577" height="266" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 936.</span>—Prisoners. Iroquois.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On their return, the Iroquois, if they have prisoners or scalps, paint the animal of +the tribe to which they belong rampant (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">debout</span>), with a staff on the shoulder along +which are strung the scalps they may have and in the same number. After the animal +are the prisoners they have made, with a chichicois (or gourd filled with beans +which rattle) in the right hand. If they be women, they represent them with a +cadenette or queue and a waistcloth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600">[600]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>a.</i> This is a person returning from war who has taken a prisoner, killed a man +and woman, whose scalps hang from the end of a stick that he carries. <i>b.</i> The +prisoner. <i>c.</i> Chichicois (or a gourd), which he holds in the hand. <i>d.</i> These are +cords attached to his neck, arms, and girdle. <i>e.</i> This is the scalp of a man; what +is joined on one side is the scalp-lock. <i>f.</i> This is the scalp of a woman; they paint +it with the hair thin.</p></div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 203px;"> +<img src="images/dp726_pg600b.jpg" width="203" height="373" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 937.</span>—Prisoners. Mexico.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The expression prisoner and slave are often +convertible. The following from Kingsborough +(<i>f</i>), explaining this illustration reproduced as +Fig. 937, refers in terms to slavery. “The figures +are those of the wife and son of a cacique who +rebelled against Montezuma, and who, having +been conquered, was strangled. The ‘collars’ +upon their necks show that they have been +reduced to slavery.”</p> +</div> + +<h5>SHORT.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 118px;"> +<img src="images/dp726_pg600c.jpg" width="118" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 938.</span>—Short-Bull.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 938.—Short-Bull. Red-Cloud’s +Census, No. 16. The +buffalo is markedly short even +to distortion.</p> +</div> + +<h5>SIGHT.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 88px;"> +<img src="images/dp726_pg600d.png" width="88" height="175" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 939.</span>—Sees-the-Enemy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 939.—Sees-the-Enemy. Red-Cloud’s Census. In this collection the +eye is not indicated except where that organ is directly connected with +the significance of the name. Here +its mere presence suggests that vision +is the subject matter. But, in addition, +the object above the head is +probably a hand mirror, which by its +reflection is supposed to “see” the +objects reflected. The plains Indians +make use of such mirrors not only +in their face painting but in flash +signaling.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> +<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;"> +<img src="images/dp726_pg600e.png" width="155" height="207" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 940.</span>—Crier.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 940.—In a fight with the Mandans, Crier was shot in the head +with a gun. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1827-’28. This figure is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601">[601]</a></span> +introduced to present another rare +instance in which the eye is delineated. +Here the act is that of weeping.</p> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601a.png" width="168" height="51" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 941.</span>—Comes-in-Sight.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 941.—Comes-in-Sight. Red-Cloud’s +Census, No. 235. Distant objects, probably +buffalo or other animals of the chase, are observed +coming into the line of vision.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 208px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601b.png" width="208" height="311" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 942.</span>—Bear-comes-out.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 942.—Bear-comes-out. Red-Cloud’s Census. +Here the bear is supposed to come into sight through a +hole in the tipi.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 188px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601c.png" width="188" height="359" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 943.</span>—Bear-comes-out.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 943.—Bear-comes-out. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This figure is explained by the one preceding. Only +half of the bear—the fore part—is to be seen as if +emerging through some orifice. Heads and other +parts of animals are frequently portrayed as signifying +the whole, by synechdoche, but in this case the presentation +of the head and forequarters has special significance.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601d.png" width="146" height="106" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 944.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 944.—Taken from Copway, p. +136, is the character which is employed +to represent “see.”</p> + +</div> + +<h5>SLOW.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 327px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601e.png" width="327" height="260" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 945.</span>—Slow-Bear.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 945.—Slow-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census. In +this figure the bear seems to be in backing or retrograde +motion, which is slower than any normal +advance, and is therefore +ideographically suggestive +of slowness.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>TALL.</h5> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601f.png" width="186" height="457" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 946.</span>—Tall-Man.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 946.—Tall-Man. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This and +the five following animal +figures show length and individual +height objectively.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601g.png" width="177" height="415" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 947.</span>—Tall-White-Man.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 947.—Wasicun-wankatuya, Tall-White-Man. +The Oglala Roster. The hat shows +the man of European origin, but his +figure is large in the face and short +in the legs; so not tall in a usual +sense. He was probably killed by +the Oglala.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 97px;"> +<img src="images/dp727_pg601h.png" width="97" height="347" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 948.</span>—Tall-White-Man.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 948.—Tall-White-Man. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This expresses the +height much more graphically than +the one preceding.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602">[602]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<img src="images/dp728_pg602a.png" width="137" height="255" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 949.</span>—Long-Panther.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 949.—Long-Panther. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 239px;"> +<img src="images/dp728_pg602b.png" width="239" height="372" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 950.</span>—Tall-Panther.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 950.—Tall-Panther. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 122px;"> +<img src="images/dp728_pg602c.png" width="122" height="179" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 951.</span>—Tall-Bull.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 951.—Tall-Bull was killed by white soldiers and +Pawnees on the south side of the South Platte river. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1869-’70. The combined +arrangement of the human head and the buffalo +so as to produce the effect of abnormal height in the +latter is ingenious. The plan of this chart did not +allow of long lines above the head, so the effect is attained +by comparison of the standing buffalo with the +height of the man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<img src="images/dp728_pg602d.png" width="137" height="394" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 952.</span>—Tall-Pine.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 952.—Tall-Pine. Red-Cloud’s +Census. In this as in the two next +figures the length of the trunk of the +tree is apparent.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 79px;"> +<img src="images/dp728_pg602e.png" width="79" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 953.</span>—Long-Pine.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 953.—Long-Pine was killed in a fight with the +Crows. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1879-’80. +The absence of his scalp denotes that he was killed by +an enemy. The fatal wound was made with the bow +and arrow.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;"> +<img src="images/dp728_pg602f.png" width="138" height="275" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 954.</span>—Long-Pine.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 954.—Long-Pine, a Dakota, was +killed by Dakotas, perhaps accidentally +or perhaps in a personal quarrel. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1846-’47. He +was not killed by a tribal enemy, as he +has not lost his scalp.</p> + +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603">[603]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>TRADE.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 97px;"> +<img src="images/dp729_pg603a.png" width="97" height="212" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 955.</span>—Trade.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 955.—They were compelled to sell many mules and horses to enable +them to procure food, as they were in a starving condition. They +willingly gave a mule for a sack of flour. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1868-’69. The mule’s halter is +connected with two sacks of flour.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 503px;"> +<img src="images/dp729_pg603b.png" width="503" height="310" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 956.</span>—Trade.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 956 is taken from Prince Maximilian, of Wied’s +(<i>h</i>) Travels. The cross signifies, I will barter or trade. +Three animals are drawn on the right hand of the cross; +one is a buffalo (probably albino); the two others, a +weasel (<i>Mustela Canadensis</i>) and an otter. The pictographer +offers in exchange for the skins of these animals +the articles which he has drawn on the left side of the cross. He has +there, in the first +place, depicted a +beaver very plainly, +behind which +there is a gun; +to the left of the +beaver are thirty +strokes, each ten +separated by a +longer line; this +means: I will give +thirty beaver +skins and a gun for the skins of the three animals on the right hand of +the cross.</p> + +<p>The ideographic character of the design consists in the use of the +cross—being a drawing of the gesture-sign for “trade”—the arms being +interchanged in position. Of the two things each one is put in the +place before occupied by the other thing, the idea of exchange.</p> + +</div> + + +<h5>UNION.</h5> + + + +<p>The Dakotas often express this concept by uniting two or more figures +by a distinct inclusive line below the figures. This sometimes +means family relationship and sometimes common +membership in the same tribe.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 123px;"> +<img src="images/dp729_pg603c.png" width="123" height="120" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 957.</span>—Brothers.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 957.—Antoine Janis’s two boys were killed +by John Richard. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1872-’73. The line of union shows them to be intimately +connected; in fact, they were brothers.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;"> +<img src="images/dp729_pg603d.png" width="235" height="296" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 958.</span>—Same tribe.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 958.—The Oglalas got drunk +at Chug creek and engaged in a +quarrel among themselves, in +which Red-Cloud’s brother was +killed and Red-Cloud killed three +men. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1841-’42. The union line shows that the quarrel was in the tribe.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604">[604]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604a.png" width="220" height="246" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 959.</span>—Man and wife.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 959.—Torn-Belly and his wife were killed by some of their own +people in a quarrel. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1855-’56. Here the +man and wife are united by the inclusive line.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604b.png" width="87" height="66" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 960.</span>—Same +tribe.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 960.—Eight Minneconjou Dakotas +were killed by Crow Indians at +the mouth of Powder river. The-Swan’s +Winter Count, 1805-’06. This +device is very frequently used to denote the +death of the Dakotas. The black strokes indicate +the death of persons of the number delineated +and the union line shows that they were of +the same tribe.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604c.png" width="148" height="118" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 961.</span>—Same +tribe.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 961.—Blackfeet Dakotas kill three Rees. The-Flame’s Winter +Count for 1798-’99. Here the uniting line of death refers to others than +Dakotas, which does not often appear, +but the principle is maintained that the +dead are of the same tribe.</p> + +</div> + +<h5>WHIRLWIND.</h5> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604d.jpg" width="180" height="355" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 962.</span>—Bear-Whirlwind.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 962.—Mato-wamniyomni, Bear-Whirlwind. +The Oglala Roster. This figure shows over the bear’s +head a variant of the character given in Red-Cloud’s +Census, Fig. 963. The figure appears, according to the +explanation given by several Oglala Dakota Indians, +to signify the course of a whirlwind with the transverse +lines in imitation of the circular movement of +the air, conveying dirt and leaves, observed during +such aerial disturbances.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604e.png" width="199" height="229" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 963.</span>—White-Whirlwind.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 963.—Represents White-Whirlwind, +above referred to, from +Red-Cloud’s Census. In this the designating +character is more distinct.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604f.png" width="127" height="254" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 964.</span>—Leafing.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 964.—Leafing. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This seems to be of the +same description. It is said to be +drawn in imitation of a number of fallen leaves packed +against one another and whirled along the ground. It also has reference +to the season when leaves +fall—autumn.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Mr. Keam’s MS. describing Fig. +965, says:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 413px;"> +<img src="images/dp730_pg604g.png" width="413" height="239" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 965.</span>—Whirlwind.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is a decoration of great frequency and +consisting of the single and double spirals. +The single spiral is the symbol of Ho-bo-bo, +the twister, who manifests his power by +the whirlwind. It is also of frequent occurrence +as a rock etching in the vicinity of ruins, where also the symbol of the Ho-bo-bo<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605">[605]</a></span> +is seen. But the figure does not appear upon any of the pottery. The myth explains +that a stranger came among the people, when a great whirlwind blew all +the vegetation from the surface of the earth and all the water from its courses. With +a flint he caught these symbols upon a rock, the etching of which is now in Keam’s +Cañon, Arizona Territory. It is 17 inches long and 8 inches across. He told them +that he was the keeper of breath. The whirlwind and the air which men breathe +comes from this keeper’s mouth.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 207px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605a.png" width="207" height="209" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 966.</span>—Whirlwind.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 966 is a copy of part of the decoration on a pot +taken from a mound in Missouri, published in Second +Annual Report of the Bureau Ethnology, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LIII</span>, fig. +11. On the authority of Rev. S. D. Hinman, it is the +conventional device among the Dakotas to represent +a whirlwind.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>WINTER—COLD—SNOW.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 109px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605b.png" width="109" height="122" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig 967.</span>—Froze +to death.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 967.—Glue, an Oglala, froze to death on his way to a Brulé village. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1791-’92. A glue-stick is represented +back of his head. Glue, made from +the hoofs of buffalo, is used to fasten arrowheads +to the shaft and is carried about on sticks. +The cloud from which hail or snow is falling +represents winter.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 72px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605c.png" width="72" height="239" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 968.</span>—Froze +to death.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 968.—A Dakota, named Glue, froze to +death. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1820-’21. This figure +is introduced to corroborate of the preceding one as regards +the name Glue. It gives another representation of +the glue stick.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605d.png" width="139" height="184" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 969.</span>—Crows +froze.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 969.—A Dakota named Stabber froze to death. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1782-’83. The sign for +winter is the same as before, but doubled, as +if of twofold power or excessively severe.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605e.png" width="130" height="194" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 970.</span>—Froze +to death.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 970.—The winter was so cold that many +crows froze to death. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1788-’89. White-Cow-Killer says +“Many-black-crows-died winter.”</p> + +<p>The Crow falling stiff and motionless is a +good symbol for the effect of excessive cold.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 127px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605f.png" width="127" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 971.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 971.—The snow was very deep. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1827-’28. The piled-up snow +around the bottoms of the tipis is graphic; +no other material than snow could make that +kind of surrounding heap.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;"> +<img src="images/dp731_pg605g.png" width="106" height="69" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 972.</span>—Cold, +snow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 972.—From Copway, page 135, is the +representation of “cold,” “snow.”</p> + +</div> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606">[606]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> +<img src="images/dp732_pg606a.jpg" width="448" height="470" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 973.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Shoshoni and Banak sign for cold, winter, is: Clinch both hands +and cross the forearms before the breast with a trembling motion. It +is represented in Fig. 973. Cf. Battiste Good’s Winter count for 1747-’48 +and 1783-’84.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"> +<img src="images/dp732_pg606b.jpg" width="391" height="443" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 974.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Kingsborough (<i>g</i>) is the painting reproduced in +Fig. 974 with this description: “In the year of seven +Canes and 1447 according to our calculation, it +snowed so heavily that lives were lost.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 215px;"> +<img src="images/dp732_pg606c.jpg" width="215" height="277" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 975.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the same work and volumes, p. 146 and Pl. 26, is +the original of Fig. 975, with the explanation that: +“In this year of seven Flints, or 1512, there were +heavy falls of snow.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Wiener, op. cit., p. 762, gives the following description +(condensed) of Fig. 976, a remarkable example of ideography:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp733_pg607h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp733_pg607.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="527" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 976.</span>—Peruvian garrison.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is on a cloth on which the eight fortresses of Paramonga were presented. +Between these bridges are drawn; these forts are of three stages and on each stage +is a representation of a man or of two men. The men who are down on the plain +had clothing of another color and even another colored face from those who appear +on the different stages. Those who are on the plain at the foot of the fortress have +no arms, but they have highly developed ears. The same is true of those who appear +on the first stage. Those of the following stage are provided with arms, and the +ears are of normal size. On the highest platform appear individuals with arms and +they have ears like those on the second stage. In the middle a figure is provided +with one arm and only one developed ear, which are on opposite sides. The men +without arms are also without weapons. Those of the second stage carry at the +height of the belt a kind of hatchet and those of the upper platform have each a club.</p> + +<p>Considering the character of the locality where this cloth was found, the number +of forts there, the marshy land which prevented dry-shod communication between +them, it can not be doubted that the subject matter was the representation of that +region, but this representation is not a drawing on a plan, but is a description which +does not only treat of the nature of the place and of the work that man raised there, +but it also indicates the rôle that the inhabitants played there.</p></div> + +<p>The function of the men with exaggerated ears and no arms was that +of scouts. The armed men with normal ears were guards or warriors<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607">[607]</a></span> +bearing different weapons, ax and club, and differently uniformed. +The highest figure with one large ear was the chief of the garrison.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that the scouts have enormous feet which do not +rest on the ground. This in connection with their exaggerated ears +implies that their duty is to listen and when they hear the enemy not +to engage him, as they have no arms or weapons, but to fly to the headquarters +and make the report. The duty of the warriors is not to listen, +so their ears are not abnormal, but to fight, and therefore they have +arms, one of which is exposed and the other holds a weapon. Their +feet are attached to their several stations. The chief must both listen +and direct, wherefore he is drawn with one exaggerated ear and one +arm. His feet do not touch the platform, which signifies that he has +no special station, but must move wherever he is most needed.</p> + +</div> + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SIGNS, SYMBOLS, AND EMBLEMS.</span></h3> + +<p>The terms sign, symbol, and emblem are often used interchangeably +and therefore incorrectly. Many persons ascribe an occult and mystic +signification to symbols, probably from their general religious and +esoteric employment. All characters in Indian picture-writing have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608">[608]</a></span> +been loosely styled symbols, and, as there is no logical distinction +between the characters impressed with enduring form and when merely +outlined in the ambient air, all Indian gestures, motions, and attitudes, +intended to be significant, might with equal appropriateness be called +symbolic. But an Indian sign-talker or a deaf-mute represents a person +by mimicry, and an object by the outline of some striking part of its +form, or by the pantomime of some peculiarity in its actions or relations. +Their attempt is to bring to mind the person or thing through its +characteristics, not to distinguish the characteristics themselves, which +is a second step. In the same manner a simple pictorial sign attempts +to express an object, idea, or fact without any approach to symbolism. +Symbols are less obvious and more artificial than mere signs, are not +only abstract, but metaphysical, and often need explanation from +history, religion, and customs. They do not depict, but suggest subjects; +do not speak directly through the eye to the intelligence, but presuppose +in the mind knowledge of an event or fact which the sign +recalls. The symbols of the ark, dove, olive branch, and rainbow would +be wholly meaningless to people unfamiliar with the Mosaic or some +similar cosmology, as would the cross and the crescent be to those +ignorant of history.</p> + +<p>The loose classification by which symbols would include every gesture +or pictorial sign that naturally or conventionally recalls a corresponding +idea, only recognizes the fact that every action and object +can, under some circumstances, become a symbol. And indeed lovers of +the symbolic live in, on, and by the symbols which they manufacture.</p> + +<p>A curious instance of the successful manufacture of a symbol by the +ingenuity of one man is in the one now commonly pictured of a fish to +represent Christ. The fish for obvious reasons has been connected +with Eurasian mythology, and therefore was a heathen symbol many +centuries before the Christian era; indeed, probably before the creed +of the Israelites had become formulated. It was used metaphorically +or emblematically by the early Christians without the apparent propriety +of the lamb-bearing shepherd, the dove, and other emblems or +symbols found in the catacombs, and Didron (<i>b</i>) says that only in the +middle of the fourth century Optatus, bishop of Milesia, in Africa, declared +the significance of the letters of the Greek word for fish, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΙΧΘΥΣ</span>, +to be the initials of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς Θεοῦ Ὑιος Σωτηρ</span>, which acrostic was +received with acclamation, and new characteristics were from time to +time invented, adding force to the thenceforth commonly displayed +symbol. It may be noted that when symbols, which were generally +religious, received acceptance, they were soon used objectively as amulets +or talismans.</p> + +<p>This chapter is not intended to be a treatise on symbolism, but it is +proper to mention the distinction in the writer’s mind between a pictorial +sign, an emblem, and a symbol; though it is not easy to preserve +accurate discrimination in classification of ideographic characters. To +partly express the distinction, nearly all of the characters in the Winter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609">[609]</a></span> +Counts in this work are regarded as pictorial signs, and the class +represented by tribal and clan designations, insignia, etc., is considered +to belong to the category of emblems. There is no doubt, however, +that true symbols exist among the Indians, as they must exist to some +extent among all peoples not devoid of poetic imagination. Some of +them are shown in this work. The pipe is generally a symbol of peace, +although in certain positions and connections it signifies preparation +for war, and, again, subsequent victory. The hatchet is a common symbol +for war, and joined hands or approaching palms denote peace. +The tortoise has been clearly used as a symbol for land, and many +other examples can be admitted. Apart from the exaggerations of +Schoolcraft, true symbolism is found among the Ojibwa, of which illustrations +are presented. The accounts of the Zuñi, Moki, and Navajo, +before mentioned, show the constant employment of symbolic devices +by those tribes which are notably devoted to mystic ceremonies. +Nevertheless the writer’s personal experience is that when he has at +first supposed a character to be a genuine symbol, better means of +understanding has often proved it to be not even an ideograph, but a +mere objective representation. In this connection the remarks on the +circle, in Lone-Dog’s Winter Count for 1811-’12, and those on the cross +infra, may be in point.</p> + +<p>The connection, to the unlettered Indian, between printed words, +pictures, and signs, was well illustrated through the spontaneous copial, +by a Cheyenne, of the ornate labels on packages of sugar and coffee, +which he had seen at a reservation, and the lines of which he rather +skillfully and very ingeniously repeated on a piece of paper when sending +to a post-trader to purchase more of the articles. The printed +label was to him the pictorial sign for those articles.</p> + +<p>The following remarks are quoted from D’Alviella (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There is a symbolism so natural, that, like certain implements peculiar to the stone +age, it does not belong to any particular race, but constitutes a characteristic trait +of mankind at a certain phase of its development. Of this class are representations +of the sun by a disk or radiating face, of the moon by a crescent, of the air by birds, +of water by fishes or a broken line, of thunder by an arrow or a club, etc. We +ought, perhaps, to add a few more complicated analogies, as those which lead to +symbolizing the different phases of human life by the growth of a tree, the generative +forces of nature by phallic emblems, the divine triads by an equilateral triangle, +or in general by any triple combination the members of which are equal, and the +four principal directions of space by a cross. How many theories have been built +upon the presence of the cross as an object of veneration among nearly all the peoples +of the Old and New Worlds? Roman Catholic writers have justly protested, in +recent years, against attributing a pagan origin to the cross of the Christians, because +there were cruciform signs in the symbolism of religions anterior to Christianity. +It is also right, by the same reason, to refuse to accept the attempts to seek +for infiltrations of Christianity in foreign religions because they also possess the +sign of redemption. * * * Nearly all peoples have represented the fire from the +sky by an arm and, sometimes also, by a bird of strong and rapid flight. It was +symbolized among the Chaldeans by a trident. Cylinders going back to the most +ancient ages of Chaldean art exhibit a water jet gushing from a trident which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610">[610]</a></span> +is held by the god of the sky or of the storm. The Assyrian artist who first, on the +bas-reliefs of Nimroud or Malthai, doubled the trident or transformed it into a trifid +fascicle, docile to the refinements and elegancies of classic art, by that means +secured for the ancient Mesopotamian symbol the advantage over all the other +representations of thunder with which it could compete. The Greeks, like the other +Indo-European nations, seem to have represented the storm-fire under the features +of a bird of prey. When they received the Asiatic figure of the thunderbolt, they +put it in the eagle’s claws and made of it the scepter of Zeus, explaining the combination, +after their habit, by the story of the eagles bringing thunder to Zeus when +he was preparing for the war against the Titans. Latin Italy transmitted the +thunderbolt to Gaul, where, in the last centuries of paganism, it alternated on the +Gallo-Roman monuments with the two-headed hammer.</p></div> + +<p>The emblem writers, so designated, have furnished an immense body +of literature, and apparently have considered such pictures as those of +the Winter Counts in the present work and also all symbols to be included +in their proper scope. The best summary on the subject is by +Henry Greene (<i>a</i>), from which the following condensed extract is taken:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Of the changes through which a word may pass the word emblem presents one +of the most remarkable instances. Its present signification, type, or allusive representation +is of comparatively modern use, while its original meaning is obsolete. +Among the Greeks an emblem meant something thrown in or inserted after the +fashion of what we now call marquetry and mosaic work, or in the form of a detached +ornament to be affixed to a pillar, a tablet, or a vase, and put off or on as +there might be occasion.</p> + +<p>Quintilian (lib. 2, cap. 4), in enumerating the arts of oratory used by the pleaders +of his day, describes some of them as in the habit of preparing and committing +to memory certain highly finished clauses, to be inserted (as occasion might arise) +like emblems in the body of their orations. Such was the meaning of the term in +the classical ages of Greece and Rome; nor was its signification altered until some +time after the revival of literature in the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>Thus, in their origin, emblems were the figures or ornaments fashioned by the +tools of the artists, in metal or wood, independent of the vase, or the column, or the +furniture they were intended to adorn; they might be affixed or detached at the +promptings of the owner’s fancy. Then they were formed, as in mosaic, by placing +side by side little blocks of colored stone, or tiles, or small sections of variegated +wood. Raised or carved figures, however produced, came next to be considered as +emblems; and afterwards any kind of figured ornament or device, whether carved +or engraved or simply traced, on the walls and floors of houses or on vessels of wood, +clay, stone, or metal.</p> + +<p>By a very easy and natural step figures and ornaments of many kinds, when +placed on smooth surfaces, were named emblems; and as these figures and ornaments +were very often symbolical, i. e., signs or tokens of a thought, a sentiment, a +saying, or an event, the term emblem was applied to any painting, drawing, or +print that was representative of an action, of a quality of the mind, or of any peculiarity +or attribute of character. Emblems in fact were and are a species of hieroglyphics, +in which the figures or pictures, besides denoting the natural objects to +which they bear resemblances, were employed to express properties of the mind, +virtues and abstract ideas, and all the operations of the soul.</p></div> + +<p>The following remarks of the same author (<i>b</i>) are presented in this connection, +though they pass beyond the scope of either symbols or emblems +into other divisions of pictography, as classified in the present work:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Coins and medals furnish most valuable examples of emblematical figures; indeed +some of the emblem writers, as Sambucus, in 1564, were among the earliest to publish<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611">[611]</a></span> +impressions or engravings of ancient Roman money, on which are frequently +given very interesting representations of customs and symbolical acts. On Grecian +coins we find, to use heraldic language, that the owl is the crest of Athens, a wolf’s +head that of Argos, and a tortoise the badge of the Peloponnesus. The whole history +of Louis XIV and that of his great adversary, William III, is represented in +volumes containing the medals that were struck to commemorate the leading events +of their reigns, and, though outrageously untrue to nature and reality by the +adoption of Roman costumes and classic symbols, they serve as records of remarkable +occurrences.</p> + +<p>Heraldry throughout employs the language of emblems; it is the picture-history +of families, of tribes, and of nations, of princes and emperors. Many a legend and +many a strange fancy may be mixed up with it, and demand almost the credulity +of simplest childhood in order to obtain our credence; yet in the literature of chivalry +and honors there are enshrined abundant records of the glory that belonged +to mighty names.</p> + +<p>The custom of taking a device or badge, if not a motto, is traced to the earliest +times of history. It is a point not to be doubted that the ancients used to bear +crests and ornaments in the helmets and on the shields; for we see this clearly in +Virgil, when he made the catalogue of the nations which came in favor of Turnus +against the Trojans, in the eighth book of the Æneid; Amphiaraus then (as Pindar +says), at the war of Thebes, bore a dragon on his shield. Similarly Statius writes +of Capaneus and of Polinices that the one bore the Hydra and the other the Sphynx.</p></div> + +<p>Emblems do not necessarily require any analogy between the objects +representing and the objects or qualities represented, but may arise +from pure accident. They may bear any meaning that men may choose +to attach to them, so their value still more than that of symbols +depends upon extrinsic facts and not intrinsic features. After a scurrilous +jest the beggar’s wallet became the emblem of the confederated +nobles, the Gueux of the Netherlands; and a sling, in the early minority +of Louis XIV, was adopted from the refrain of a song by the Frondeur +opponents of Mazarin.</p> + +<p>The several tribal designations for Sioux, Arapaho, Cheyenne, +etc., are their emblems, precisely as the star-spangled flag is that of +the United States, but there is no intrinsic symbolism in them. So +the designs for individuals, when not merely translations of their +names, are emblematic of their family totems or personal distinctions, +and are no more symbols than are the distinctive shoulder-straps of an +army officer.</p> + +<p>The point urged is that while many signs can be used as emblems +and both can be converted by convention into symbols or be explained +as such by perverted ingenuity, it is futile to seek for that form of +psychological exuberance in the stage of development attained by the +greater part of the American tribes. All predetermination to interpret +their pictographs on the principles of symbolism as understood or pretended +to be understood by its admirers, and as are sometimes properly +applied not only to Egyptian hieroglyphics, but to Mexican, Maya, and +some other southern pictographs, results in mooning mysticism.</p> + +<p>The following examples are presented as being either symbols or +emblems, according to the definition of those terms, and therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612">[612]</a></span> +appropriate to this section. More will be found in Chapter <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page676">XX</a></span>, on +Special Comparisons, and indeed may appear under different headings; +e. g., Battiste Good symbolizes hunting by a buffalo head and arrow, +Fig. <a href="#page305">321</a>, and war by a special head-dress, Fig. <a href="#page321">395</a>.</p> + +<p>Sir A. Mackenzie (<i>c</i>) narrates that in 1793 he found among the Athabascans +an emblem of a country abounding in animals. This was a small +round piece of green wood chewed at one end in the form of a brush, +which the Indians use to pick the marrow out of bones.</p> + +<p>Mr. Frank H. Cushing, in notes not yet reduced to final shape for +publication, gives two excellent examples of symbols among the Zuñi:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(1) The circle or halo around the sun is supposed to be and is called by the Zuñi +the House of the Sun-God. This is explained by analogy. A man seeks shelter on +the approach of a rainstorm. As the sun circle almost invariably appears only with +the coming of a storm, the Sun, like his child, the man, seeks shelter in his house, +which the circle has thus come to be.</p> + +<p>The influence of this simple inference myth on the folklore of the Zuñi shows itself +in the perpetuation, until within recent generations, of the round sun towers and +circular estufas so intimately associated with sun worship, yet which were at first +but survivals of the round medicine lodge.</p> + +<p>(2) The rainbow is a deified animal having the attributes of a human being, yet +also the body and some of the functions of a measuring worm. Obviously, the +striped back and arched attitude of the measuring worm, its sudden appearance and +disappearance among the leaves of the plants which it inhabits, are the analogies +on which this personification is based. As the measuring worm consumes the +herbage of the plants and causes them to dry up, so the rainbow, which appears +only after rains, is supposed to cause a cessation of rains, consequently to be the +originator of droughts, under the influence of which latter plants parch and wither +away as they do under the ravages of the measuring worms. Here it will be seen +that the visible phenomenon called the rainbow gets by analogy the personality of +the measuring worm, while from the measuring worm in turn the rainbow gets its +functions as a god. Of this the cessation of rain on the appearance of the rainbow +is adduced as proof.</p></div> + +<p>The following is reported by Dr. W. H. Dall (<i>e</i>), and explains how +the otter protruding his tongue is the emblem of Shaman:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The carvings on the rattles of the Tlinkit are matters belonging particularly to +the shaman or medicine man, and characteristic of his profession. Among these +very generally, if not invariably, the rattle is composed of the figure of a bird, from +which, near the head of the bird or carved upon the back of the bird’s head, is represented +a human face with the tongue protruding.</p> + +<p>This tongue is bent downward and usually meets the mouth of a frog or an otter, +the tongue of either appearing continuous with that of the human face. In case it +is a frog it usually appears impaled upon the tongue of a kingfisher, whose head and +variegated plumage are represented near the handle in a conventional way. It is +asserted that this represents the medicine man absorbing from the frog, which has +been brought to him by the kingfisher, either poison or the power of producing evil +effects on other people.</p> + +<p>In case it is an otter the tongue of the otter touches the tongue of the medicine +man, as represented on the carving. * * *</p> + +<p>This carving is represented, not only on rattles, but on totem posts, fronts of +houses, and other objects associated with the medicine man, the myth being that +when the young aspirant for the position of medicine man goes out into the woods +after fasting for a considerable period, in order that his to be familiar spirit may<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613">[613]</a></span> +seek him, and that he may become possessed of the power to communicate with +supernatural beings; if successful he meets with a river otter, which is a supernatural +animal. The otter approaches him and he seizes it, kills it with the blow +of a club, and takes out the tongue, after which he is able to understand the +language of all inanimate objects, of birds, animals, and other living creatures. +* * *</p> + +<p>This ceremony or occurrence happens to every real medicine man. Consequently +the otter presenting his tongue is the most universal type of the profession as such, +and is sure to be found somewhere in the paraphernalia of every individual of that +profession.</p></div> + +<p>With this account from the Pacific coast a similar determination of +emblems by the Indians in the northeastern parts of the United States +may be compared. The objects seen by them in their fasting visions +not only were decisive of their names but were held to show the course +of their lives. If a youth saw an eagle or bear he was destined to be +a warrior; if a deer he would be a man of peace; and a turkey buzzard +or serpent was the sign that he would be a medicine man. The figures +of those animals therefore were respectively the emblems of the qualities +and dispositions implied. See Fig. <a href="#page208">159</a>, supra, for a drawing of the +Sci-Manzi or “Mescal Woman” of the Kaiowa as it appears on a sacred +gourd rattle used in the mescal ceremony of that tribe, with description.</p> + +<p>In Kingsborough (<i>h</i>) is the record that “in the year of Ten Houses, +or 1489, a very large comet, which they name Xihuitli, appeared.”</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 379px;"> +<img src="images/dp739_pg613a.jpg" width="379" height="117" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 977.</span>—Comet. Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The comet is represented in the +plate by the symbol of a caterpillar, +in allusion, perhaps, to its supposed +influence in causing blights. This +may be compared with the measuring +worm, symbol of the rainbow, supra. The character is reproduced in +Fig. 977.</p> + +</div> + +<p>In the same work and Codex, Pls. 10, 12, and 33, are three characters, +somewhat differing, representing earthquakes, which, according +to the text in Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, p. 137, et seq., occurred in Mexico in the years +A. D. 1461, 1467, and 1542. The concept appears to be that of the +disruption and change of the position of the several strata of soil, which +are indicated by the diverse coloration. These characters are reproduced +in the present work in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLIX</span> as the three on the right hand in +the lower line.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp739_pg613b.png" width="98" height="178" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 978.</span>—Robbery. +Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 978 is from the same work (<i>i</i>), Codex Mendoza, +and is the symbol for robbery, in allusion to the punishment +of the convicted robber.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>In the same work (<i>k</i>), Codex Vaticanus, is the following +description, in quaint language, of the plate +now reproduced in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLIX</span>:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"> +<a href="images/dp741_pg614ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp741_pg614p.jpg" class="hires" width="471" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLIX<br />MEXICAN SYMBOLS.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These are the twenty letters or figures which they employed in +all their calculations, which they supposed ruled over men, as +the figure shows, and they cured in a corresponding manner those who became ill or +suffered pains in any part of the body. The sign of the wind was assigned to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614">[614]</a></span> +liver; the rose to the breast; the earthquake to the tongue; the eagle to the right +arm; the vulture to the right ear; the rabbit to the left ear; the flint to the teeth; +the air to the breath; the monkey +to the left arm; the cane to the +heart; the herb, to the bowels; the +lizard to the womb of women; the +tiger to the left foot; the serpent +to the male organ of generation, as +that from which their diseases proceeded +in their commencement; +for in this manner they considered +the serpent, wherever it occurred, +as the most ominous of all their +signs. Even still physicians continue +to use this figure when they +perform cures, and, according to +the sign and hour in which the +patient became ill, they examined +whether the disease corresponded +with the ruling sign; from which +it is plain that this nation is not +as brutal as some persons pretend, +since they observed so much method +and order in their affairs and +employed the same means as our +astrologers and physicians use, as +this figure still obtains amongst +them and may be found in their +repertoires.</p></div> + +<p><i>a</i>, deer or stag; <i>b</i>, wind; <i>c</i>, +rose; <i>d</i>, earthquake; <i>e</i>, eagle; +<i>f</i>, eagle of a different species; +<i>g</i>, water; <i>h</i>, house; <i>i</i>, skull or +death; <i>j</i>, rain; <i>k</i>, dog; <i>l</i>, rabbit; +<i>m</i>, flint; <i>n</i>, air; <i>o</i>, monkey; +<i>p</i>, cane; <i>q</i>, grass or herb; +<i>r</i>, lizard; <i>s</i>, tiger; <i>t</i>, serpent.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Dr. S. Habel (<i>d</i>) gives the +description concerning Fig. +979, which is presented here +on account of the several symbols +and gestures exhibited:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;"> +<a href="images/dp740_pg614h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp740_pg614.jpg" class="hires" width="191" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 979.</span>—Guatemalan symbols.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is a block of dark gray +porphyry (vulcanite) 12 feet long, +3 feet broad and 2 feet thick, the +upper left corner of which is +slightly broken off. The sculpture +occupies 9 feet of its upper part. +The upper portion represents the +head and breast of a female, surrounded +by a circle, from which +the arms project. Besides the stereotyped +frill surrounding the forehead, the only ornament of the head consists of two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615">[615]</a></span> +entwined rattlesnakes. The hair is of medium length and descends in tresses to the +shoulders and breast. The ear is ornamented with circular disks inclosing smaller +ones. Around the neck is a broad necklace of irregularly-shaped stones of extraordinary +size. Below the necklace the breast is covered with a kind of scarf or textile +fabric, the upper ends of which are fastened by buttons. To the center of this +scarf seems to be attached a globe, the upper part of which is adorned by a knotted +band from which four others ascend. From the lower part of the globe descends +another band, with incisions characteristic of Mexican sculpture, while its sides are +adorned by wreaths like wings. The wrists of both hands are covered with strings +of large stones perforated in the center. From the semicircular bands emanate two +of the twining staves; to the staves are attached knots, leaves, flowers, and various +other emblems of a mythical character. The most conspicuous of these is the representation +of a human face in a circle resembling the ordinary pictures of the full +moon. The two central staves, originating from the neck, pass downward, and are +differently ornamented. The fact that the head and part of the breast are surrounded +by a circle, and that the image of the moon forms one of its ornaments, induces us +to believe that this is the figure of the moon goddess. In the lower part of the +sculpture appears, again, an individual imploring the deity with face upturned and +elevated hand. The supplication is indicated by a curved staff knotted on the sides. +Excepting a circular disk attached to the hair, the head is without ornament; the +long hair hangs down to the breast and back, ending in a complicated ornament +extending below the knees. In the lobe of the ear is a small ring from which a larger +one depends. The breast is adorned with a globe similar to that on the breast of +the goddess, only it is smaller. Around the wrist of the right hand is a plain cuff, +while the left hand is covered by a skull; a stiff girdle, with a boar’s head ornamenting +its back part, surrounds the waist. This girdle differs from the previous +ones by being ornamented with circular depressions. From the front of the girdle +descend two twisted cords surrounding the thigh, and a band tied in bow and ends. +Below the right knee is a kind of garter with a pear-shaped pendant. The left foot, +with the exception of the toes, is inclosed in a sort of shoe.</p> + +<p>In front of the adorer is a small altar, the cover of which has incisions similar to +those in the pendant of the globe on the breast of the deity. On the altar is a human +head, from the mouth of which issues a curved staff, while other staves in the shape +of arrows appear on the side of the head.</p></div> + +</div> + +<p>Fig. 980 is reproduced by permission from Lieut. H. R. Lemly (<i>a</i>), +U. S. Army, who calls it a “stone calendar.” It is the work of the +Chibcha Indians of the United States of Colombia, and its several +parts, some of which are to be compared with similar designs in other +regions, are explained as follows:</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a</i>, Ata, a small frog in the act of leaping. This animal was the base of the system, and +in this attitude denoted the abundance of water. <i>b</i>, Bosa, a rectangular figure with +various divisions, imitating cultivated fields. <i>c</i>, Mica, a bicephalous figure, with the +eyes distended, as if to examine minutely. It signified the selection and planting of +seed. <i>d</i>, Muihica, similar to the preceding, but with the eyes almost closed. It represented +the dark and tempestuous epoch in which, favored by the rain, the seed +began to sprout. <i>e</i>, Hisca, resembling <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> of the stone, but larger, with no division +between the heads. It was the symbol of the conjunction of the sun and moon, +which the Chibchas considered the nuptials or actual union of these celestial spouses—one +of the cardinal dogmas of their creed. <i>f</i>, Ta, almost identical with <i>b</i>. It represented +the harvest month. <i>g</i>, Cuhupcua, an earless human head upon one of the +lateral faces of the stone. It was the symbol of the useless or so-called deaf month +of the Chibchan year. <i>h</i>, Suhuza, perhaps a tadpole, and probably referred to the +generation of these animals. <i>i</i>, Aca, a figure of a frog, larger than <i>a</i>, but in a similar +posture. It announced the approach of the rainy season. <i>j</i>, Ulchihica, two +united rhomboids—a fruit or seed, and perhaps an ear. It referred to their invitations<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616">[616]</a></span> +and feasts. <i>k</i>, Guesa, a human figure in an humble attitude, the hands folded, and a +halo about the head. It is supposed to represent the unfortunate youth selected as the +victim of the sacrifice made every twenty Chibchan years to the god of the harvest.</p></div> + +<p>The characters <i>b</i> and <i>f</i> below, markedly resemble one given by Pipart +(<i>a</i>), with the same signification. It referred to the preparation of the +ground for sowing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp744_pg616a.jpg" width="550" height="458" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 980.</span>—Chibcha symbols.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Wiener (<i>f</i>) gives the +following summary of +prominent Peruvian +symbols:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the conventional system +of the Peruvians a bird +indicates velocity, a lion +strength, the lion and the +bird united in one figure +strength and velocity together, +and, deductively, +power. The meander indicates +fertility and the pyramid +with degrees or steps indicates +defense. A bird combined +with the meander indicates +rapid production. A +rectangular oblong figure (the mouth) indicates speech and discourse. A circle with +a depression almost in the form of a heart means a female child, a circle with a small +blade or stalk a male child. The circle with two stalks is the symbol of a man—the +worker. The circle with four stalks means a married couple, marriage, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> +<img src="images/dp744_pg616b.jpg" width="393" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 981.</span>—Syrian symbols.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 981 is presented to show another collection of engraved symbols, +some of which with different execution resemble some found in +North America. It is a bronze +tablet found in Syria in the +collection of M. Péretié, and is +described by Maj. Claude R. Conder, +R. F. (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It measures 4½ inches in height by 3¼ +in width. The design is supposed to +represent the fate of the soul according +to Assyrian or Phenician belief. The +tablet is divided into four compartments +horizontally, the lowest being the largest +and highest the most narrow. In the +top compartment various astronomical +symbols occur, many of which, as M. +Canneau points out, occur on other +Assyrian monuments. On the extreme +right are the seven stars, next to these +the crescent, next the winged solar disk, +then an eight-rayed star in a circle. +The remaining symbols are less easily +explained, but the last is called by M. +Canneau a “cidaris” or Persian tiara, +while another appears to approach most +nearly to the Trisul, or symbol of +“fire,” the emblem of the Indian Siva.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617">[617]</a></span></p> + +<p>Below these symbols stand seven deities facing to the right, with long robes, and +the heads of various animals. The first to the left resembles a lion, the second a +wolf or hound, the fourth a ram, the sixth a bird, the seventh a serpent, while the +third and fifth are less easily recognized. In the third compartment a body lies on +a bier, with a deity at the head, and another at the feet. These deities have the +right hand held up, and the left down (a common feature of Indian symbolism also +observable in the attitude of the Mâlawiyeh dervishes), and the figure to the left +appears to hold a branch or three ears of corn. Both are robed in the peculiar fish-headed +costume, with a scaly body and fish tail, which is supposed to be symbolical +of the mythical Oannes, who according to Berosus, issued from the Persian gulf and +taught laws and arts to the early dwellers on the Euphrates. Behind the left-hand +fish-god is a tripod stand, on which is an indefinite object; to the right of the other +fish-god are two lion-headed human figures with eagles’ claws, apparently contending +with one another, the right arms being raised, the left holding hand by hand. +To the right of these is another figure of Assyrian type, with a domed headdress +and beard.</p> + +<p>In the lowest compartment the infernal river fringed with rushes, and full of fish, +is represented. A fearful lion-headed goddess with eagles’ claws kneels on one knee +on a horse (the emblem of death) which is carried in a kneeling attitude on a boat +with bird-headed prow. The goddess crushes a serpent in either hand, and two lion +cubs are represented sucking her breasts. To the left is a demon bearing a close +resemblance to the one which supports the tablet itself, and which appears to urge on +the boat from the bank; to the right are various objects, mostly of an indefinite character, +among which M. Ganneau recognizes a vase, and a bottle, a horse’s leg with +hoof, etc.; possibly offerings to appease the infernal deities. The lion-headed goddess +might well be taken for the terrible infernal deity Kali or Durga, the worship of +whose consort, Yama, was the original source of that of the later Serapis, whose +dog was the ancestor of Cerberus. There is also a general resemblance between this +design and the well-known Egyptian picture representing the wicked soul conveyed +to hell in the form of a pig.</p> + +<p>The Oannes figures take the place of the two goddesses who in Egyptian designs +stand at either end of the mummy and who form the prototype of the two angels for +whom the pious Moslem provides seats at the head and foot of his tombstone. +Perhaps the miserable horse who stumbles under the weight of the gigantic lion +goddess may represent the unhappy soul itself, while the three ears of corn remind +us of the grains of corn which have been found in skulls dug up in Syria by Capt. +Burton. Corn is intimately connected with Dagon, the Syrian fish-god.</p> + +<p>As a tentative suggestion I may, perhaps, be allowed to propose that the seven +deities in the second compartment are the planets, and that the symbols above +belong to them as follows, commencing on the right:</p></div> + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th class="left">Planet.</th><th class="left"> Assyrian name.</th><th class="left"> Head of deity.</th><th class="left"> Symbol.</th></tr> +<tr><td class="left">1. Saturn</td><td class="left"> Chiun</td><td class="left"> Serpent</td><td class="left"> Seven stars.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">2. Moon</td><td class="left"> Nannar</td><td class="left"> Bird</td><td class="left"> Crescent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">3. Sun</td><td class="left"> Shamash</td><td class="left"> Boar (?)</td><td class="left"> Winged Disc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">4. Mars</td><td class="left"> Marduk</td><td class="left"> Ram</td><td class="left"> Rayed disc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">5. Mercury</td><td class="left"> Nebo</td><td class="left"> (?)</td><td class="left"> Two columns.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">6. Venus</td><td class="left"> Ishtar</td><td class="left"> Wolf (?)</td><td class="left"> Trisul.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">7. Jupiter</td><td class="left"> Ishn</td><td class="left"> Lion</td><td class="left"> Cidaris (?).</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The serpent is often the emblem of Saturn, who, as the eldest of the seven (“the +great serpent father of the gods”), naturally comes first and therefore on the right, +and has seven stars for his symbol.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618">[618]</a></span></p> + +<p>The moon, according to Lenormant, was always an older divinity than the sun.</p> + +<p>The boar is often an emblem of the sun in its strength.</p> + +<p>The disc (litu) was the weapon employed by Marduk, the warrior god, as mentioned +by Lenormant.</p> + +<p>The two pillars of Hermes are the proper emblem of the ancient Set or Thoth, the +planet Mercury.</p> + +<p>The trisul belongs properly to the Asherah, god or goddess of fertility—the planet +Venus.</p> + +<p>The Cidaris occurs in the Bavian sculptures in connection with a similar emblem. +In the Chaldean system, Jupiter and Venus occur together as the youngest of the +planets.</p> + +<p>It should also be noted that the position of the arms and the long robe covering +the feet resemble the attitudes and dress of the Mâlawîyeh dervishes in their sacred +dance, symbolic of the seven planets revolving (according to the Ptolemaic system) +round the earth.</p></div> + +<p>Didron (<i>c</i>) thus remarks upon the emblems in the Roman catacombs:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The large fish marks the fisher who catches it or the manufacturer who extracts +the oil from it. The trident indicates the sailor, as the pick the digger. The trade +of digger in the catacombs was quite elevated; the primitive monuments thus +represent these men who are of the lower class among us, and who in the beginning +of the Christian era, when they dug the graves of saints and martyrs, were interred +side by side with the rich and even beside saints, and were represented holding a +pickaxe in one hand and a lamp in the other; the lamp lighted them in their subterranean +labors. The hatchet indicates a carpenter, and the capital a sculptor or +an architect. As to the dove, it probably designates the duties of the mother of a +family who nourishes the domestic birdlings as would appear to be indicated by a +mortuary design in Bosis. It is possible, moreover, that it originated from a symbolic +idea, but this idea would be borrowed from profane rather than religious +sentiments, and I would more willingly see in it the memorial of the good qualities +of the dead, man or woman, the fidelity of the wife, or of the dove, which returning +to the ark after the deluge announced that the waters had retired and the land had +again appeared; from this we can not conclude that the fish filled a rôle analogous +to it, nor above all that it is the symbol of Christ; the dove is in the Old Testament, +the fish neither in the old nor in the new.</p></div> + +<p>Edkins (<i>b</i>) says respecting the Chinese:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is easy to trace the process of symbol-making in the words used for the crenelated +top of city walls, which are ya and c’hi, both meaning “teeth” and both being +pictures of the object, and further, when the former is found also to be used for +“tree buds” and “to bud.” Such instances of word creation show how considerable +has been the prevalence of analogy and the association of ideas. The picture writing +of the Chinese is to a large extent a continuation of the process of forming analogies +to which the human mind had already become accustomed in the earlier stages of +the history of language.</p></div> + +<p>D’Alviella (<i>b</i>) furnishes this poetical and truthful suggestion:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is not surprising that the Hindoos and Egyptians should both have adopted as +the symbol of the sun the lotus flower, which opens its petals to the dawn and +infolds them on the approach of night, and which seems to be born of itself on the +surface of the still waters.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SIGNIFICANCE OF COLORS.</span></h3> + +<p>The use of color to be considered in studies of pictography is probably +to be traced to the practice of painting on the surface of the human +body. This use is very ancient. The Ethiopians in the army of Xerxes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619">[619]</a></span> +applied vermillion and white plaster to their skins, and the German +tribes when first known in history inscribed their breasts with the figures +of divers animals. The North British clans were so much addicted +to paint (or perhaps tattoo) that the epithet Picti was applied +to them by the Romans. In this respect comparisons may be made +with the Wichita, who were called by the French Pawnees Piqués, +commonly rendered in English Pawnee Picts, and Marco de Niça, in Hakluyt, +(<i>e</i>) says that Indians in the region of Arizona and New Mexico were +called Pintados “because they painted their faces, breasts, and arms.” +The general belief with regard to the employment of paint in the above +and similar cases is that the colors had a tribal significance by which +men became their own flags; the present form of flag not having great +antiquity, as Clovis was the first among western monarchs to adopt it. +Then the theory became current that colored devices, such as appeared +on ensigns and on clothing, e. g., tartans, were imitated from the +painted marks on the skin of the tribesmen. In this connection remarks +made supra about tattoo designs are applicable. There is but little +evidence in favor of the theory, save that fashions in colored decorations +probably in time became tribal practices and so might have been evolved +into emblems. But it is proper to regard such colorations as primarily +ornamental, and to remember that even in England as late as the eighth +century some bands of men were so proud of their decorated bodies +that they refused to conceal them by clothes.</p> + +<p>This topic may be divided into: 1. Decorative use of color. 2. Idiocrasy +of colors. 3. Color in ceremonies. 4. Color relative to death +and mourning. 5. Colors for war and peace. 6. Colors designating +social status.</p> + + +<h4>DECORATIVE USE OF COLOR.</h4> + +<p>The following notes give instances of the use of painting which appear +to be purely decorative:</p> + +<p>Fernando Alarchon, in Hakluyt, (<i>f</i>) says of the Indians of the Bay +of California: “These Indians came decked after sundry fashions, some +came with a painting that couered their face all ouer, some had their +faces halfe couered, but all besmouched with cole and euery one as it +liked him best.”</p> + +<p>John Hawkins, in Hakluyt, (<i>g</i>) speaking of the Florida Indians, tells +of “Colours both red, blacke, yellow, and russet, very perfect, wherewith +they so paint their bodies and Deere skinnes which they weare about +them, that with water it neither faded away nor altereth in color.”</p> + +<p>Maximilian of Wied (<i>f</i>), reports:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Even in the midst of winter the Mandans wear nothing on the upper part of the +body, under their buffalo robe. They paint their bodies of a reddish brown colour, +on some occasions with white clay, and frequently draw red or black figures on their +arms. The face is, for the most part, painted all over with vermillion or yellow, in +which latter case the circumference of the eyes and the chin are red. There are,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620">[620]</a></span> +however, no set rules for painting, and it depends on the taste of the Indian dandy; +yet, still, a general similarity is observed. The bands, in their dances and also +after battles, and when they have performed some exploit, follow the established +rule. In ordinary festivals and dances, and whenever they wish to look particularly +fine, the young Mandans paint themselves in every variety of way, and each endeavors +to find out some new mode. Should he find another dandy painted just like +himself, he immediately retires and makes a change in the pattern, which may happen +three or four times during the festival. If they have performed an exploit, the +entire face is painted jet black.</p></div> + +<p>A colored plate in the report of the Pacific Railroad Expedition (<i>f</i>) +shows the designs adopted by the Mojave Indians for painting the +body. These designs consist of transverse lines extending around the +body, arms, and legs, or horizontal lines or different parts may partake +of different designs. Clay is now generally used.</p> + +<p>Everard F. im Thurn (<i>h</i>) describes the painting of the Indians of +Guiana as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The paint is applied either in large masses or in patterns. For example, a man, +when he wants to dress well, perhaps entirely coats both his feet up to the ankles with +a crust of red; his whole trunk he sometimes stains uniformly with blue-black, more +rarely with red, or covers it with an intricate pattern of lines of either color; he puts +a streak of red along the bridge of his nose; where his eyebrows were till he pulled +them out he puts two red lines; at the top of the arch of his forehead he puts a big +lump of red paint, and probably he scatters other spots and lines somewhere on his +face. The women, especially among the Ackawoi, who use more body-paint than +other ornament, are more fond of blue-black than of red; and one very favorite ornament +with them is a broad band of this, which edges the mouth, and passes from the +corners of that to the ears. Some women especially affect certain little figures, like +Chinese characters, which look as if some meaning were attached to them, but which +the Indians are either unable or unwilling to explain.</p></div> + +<p>Kohl (<i>a</i>) says of the Indians met by him around Lake Superior that +“The young men only paint—no women. When they become old they +stop and cease to pluck out their beards which are an obstacle in painting.” +It is probable that the custom of plucking the hairs originated in +the attempt to facilitate face and body painting.</p> + +<p>Herndon (<i>b</i>) gives the following report from the valley of the Amazon:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Met a Conibo on the beach. This man was evidently the dandy of his tribe. He was +painted with a broad stripe of red under each eye; three narrow stripes of blue were +carried from one ear, across the upper lip to the other—the two lower stripes plain, +and the upper one bordered with figures. The whole of the lower jaw and chin +were painted with a blue chain-work of figures, something resembling Chinese +figures.</p></div> + +<p>According to Dr. J. J. von Tschudi (<i>b</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The uncivilized Indians of Peru paint their bodies, but not exactly in the tattoo manner; +they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis women draw two stripes +from the shoulder, over each breast, down to the pit of the stomach; the Pirras women +paint a band in a form of a girdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker +color round each thigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed by +washing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacaceæ. Some +tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touch that part; but bedaub +with colors their arms, feet, and breasts.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621">[621]</a></span></p> + +<p>F. J. Mouat, M. D., in Jour. Roy. Geogr. Soc., (<i>a</i>) says that Andaman +Islanders rub red earth on the top of the head, probably for the +purpose of ornamentation. This fashion is similar to that of some +North American Indian tribes which rub red pigment on the parting +of the hair.</p> + +<p>Marcano (<i>e</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The present Piaroas of Venezuela are in the habit of painting their bodies, but by +a different process. They make stamps out of wood, which they apply to their skins +after covering them with coloring matter.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp749_pg621.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 982.</span>—Piaroa color stamps.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 982 shows examples of these stamps. The most noteworthy +thing about them is that they reproduce the types of certain petroglyphs, +particularly of those of the upper Cuchivero (see Figs. <a href="#page195">152</a> and +<a href="#page195">153</a>, supra).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Piaroas either copied the models they found carved on the rocks by peoples +who preceded them, or they are aware of their meaning and preserved the tradition of +it. The former hypothesis is the only tenable one. Not being endowed with inventive +faculties, it seems more natural that they should simply have copied the only +models they found. The Indians of French Guiana paint themselves in order to +drive away the devil when they start on a journey or for war, whence Crevaux concludes +that the petroglyphs must have been carved for a religious purpose. But +painting is to the Piaroas a question of ornamentation and of necessity. It is a sort +of garment that protects them against insects, and which, applied with extra care, +becomes a fancy costume to grace their feasts and meetings.</p></div> + +<p>It is to be noted that at least one instance is found of the converse +of the Piaroa practice, by which the face-marks are used as the designs +of pictographs on inanimate objects. The Serranos, near Los Angeles, +California, formerly cut lines upon the trees and posts marking boundaries +of land, these lines corresponding to those adopted by the owner +as facial decorations.</p> + +<p>A suggestion appropriate to this branch of the topic is presented in +the answer communicated in a personal conversation of a Japanese +lady who was asked why she blackened her teeth: “Any dog has white<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622">[622]</a></span> +teeth!” An alteration of the physical appearance is itself a distinction, +and the greater the difference between the decorated person and +the want of decoration in others the greater the distinction. Modern +milliners, dressmakers, tailors and hatters, and their patrons pursue the +same ends of fashionable distinction which are exhibited in rivalry for +priority and singularity. These arbitrary fluctuations of fashion, which +are seen equally in the Mandan and the millionaire, the Pueblan and the +Parisian, are to be considered with reference to the supposed tribal +significance of colors before mentioned. So far as they originated in +fashion they changed with fashion, and the studies made in the preparation +of this paper tend to a disbelief in their distinctness and stability. +The conservatism of religious and of other ceremonial practices +and of social customs preserved, however, a certain amount of consistency +and continuity.</p> + +<h4>IDEOCRASY OF COLORS.</h4> + +<p>It has often been asserted that there was and is an intrinsic significance +in the several colors. A traditional recognition of this among +the civilizations connected with modern Europe is shown by the associations +of death and mourning with black, of innocence and peace with +white, danger with red, and epidemic disease officially with yellow. +A comparison of the diverse conceptions attached to the colors will +show great variety in their several attributions.</p> + +<p>The Babylonians represented the sun and its sphere of motion by +gold, the moon by silver, Saturn by black, Jupiter by orange, Mars by +red, Venus by pale yellow, and Mercury by deep blue. Red was anciently +and generally connected with divinity and power both priestly +and royal. The tabernacle of the Israelites was covered with skins +dyed red, and the gods and images of Egypt and Chaldea were of that +color, which to this day is the one distinguishing the Roman Pontiff and +the cardinals.</p> + +<p>In ancient art each color had a mystic sense or symbolism, and its +proper use was an essential consideration. With regard to early +Christian art Mrs. Clement (<i>a</i>) furnishes the following account:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>White is worn by the Saviour after his resurrection; by the Virgin in representations +of the Assumption; by women as the emblem of chastity; by rich men to +indicate humility; and by the judge as the symbol of integrity. It is represented +sometimes by silver or the diamond, and its sentiment is purity, virginity, innocence, +faith, joy, and light.</p> + +<p>Red, the color of the ruby, speaks of royalty, fire, divine love, the holy spirit, creative +power, and heat. In an opposite sense it symbolized blood, war, and hatred. +Red and black combined were the colors of Satan, purgatory, and evil spirits. Red +and white roses are emblems of love and innocence or love and wisdom, as in the +garland of St. Cecilia.</p> + +<p>Blue, that of the sapphire, signified heaven, heavenly love and truth, constancy +and fidelity. Christ and the Virgin Mary wear the blue mantle; St. John a blue +tunic.</p> + +<p>Green, the emerald, the color of spring, expressed hope and victory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623">[623]</a></span></p> + +<p>Yellow or gold was the emblem of the sun, the goodness of God, marriage and +fruitfulness. St. Joseph and St. Peter wear yellow. Yellow has also a bad signification +when it has a dirty, dingy hue, such as the usual dress of Judas, and then +signifies jealousy, inconstancy, and deceit.</p> + +<p>Violet or amethyst signified passion and suffering or love and truth. Penitents, +as the Magdalene, wear it. The Madonna wears it after the crucifixion, and Christ +after the resurrection.</p> + +<p>Gray is the color of penance, mourning, humility, or accused innocence.</p> + +<p>Black with white signified humility, mourning, and purity of life. Alone, it spoke +of darkness, wickedness, and death, and belonged to Satan. In pictures of the +Temptation Jesus sometimes wears black.</p></div> + +<p>The associations with the several colors above mentioned differ widely +from those in modern folk-lore; for instance, those with green and yellow, +the same colors being stigmatized in the old song that “green’s +forsaken and yellow’s forsworn.”</p> + +<p>The <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Hist. de Dieu</span>, by Didron (<i>d</i>), contains the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The hierarchy of colors could well, in the ideas of the Middle Ages, have been allied +at the same time to symbolism. The most brilliant color is gold, and here it is given +to the greatest saints. Silver, color of the moon, which is inferior to the sun, but +its companion, however, should follow; then red, or the color of fire, attribute of +those who struggle against passion, and which is inferior to the two metals, gold +and silver, to the sun and moon, of which it is but an emanation; next green, which +symbolizes hope, and which is appropriate to married people; lastly, the uncertain +yellowish color, half white and half yellow, a modified color, which is given to saints +who were formerly sinners, but who have succeeded in reforming themselves and +are made somewhat bright in the sight of God by penitence.</p></div> + +<p>A note in the Am. Journal of Psychology, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, November, 1887, p. +190, gives another list substantially as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Yellow, the color of gold and fire, symbolizes reason.</p> +<p>Green, the color of vegetable life, symbolizes utility and labor.</p> +<p>Red, the color of blood, symbolizes war and love.</p> +<p>Blue, the color of the sky, symbolizes spiritual life, duty, religion. +</p> +</div> + +<h4>COLOR IN CEREMONIES.</h4> + +<p>The colors attributed to the cardinal points have been the subject of +much discussion. Some of these special color schemes of the North +American Indians are now mentioned.</p> + +<p>Mr. James Stevenson, in an address before the Anthropological Society +of Washington, D. C.; Dr. Washington Matthews, U. S. Army, +in the Fifth Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 449; and Mr. +Thomas V. Keam, in a MS. contribution, severally report the tribes +mentioned below as using in their ceremonial dances the respective +colors designated to represent the four cardinal points, viz:</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th> </th><th>N.</th><th>S.</th><th>E.</th><th>W.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Stevenson—Zuñi</td><td>Yellow.</td><td>Red.</td><td>White.</td><td>Black.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Matthews—Navajo</td><td>Black.</td><td>Blue.</td><td>White.</td><td>Yellow.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Keam—Moki</td><td>White.</td><td>Red.</td><td>Yellow.</td><td>Blue.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Mr. Stevenson, in his paper on the Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis, in +the Eighth Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Ethnology, agrees with Dr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624">[624]</a></span> +Matthews regarding the ceremonial scheme of the Navajo colors symbolic +of the cardinal points, as follows: “The eagle plumes were laid to +the east, and near by them white corn and white shell; the blue feathers +were laid to the south, with blue corn and turquoise; the hawk feathers +were laid to the west, with yellow corn and abalone shell; and to the +north were laid the whippoorwill feathers, with black beads and corn +of all the several colors.”</p> + +<p>In A Study of Pueblo Architecture, by Mr. Victor Mindeleff, in the +Eighth Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Ethnology, the prayers of consecration +by the Pueblos are addressed thus:</p> + +<div class="container"> +<div class="centred"> + +To the west: Siky’ak oma’uwu Yellow cloud.<br /> +To the south: Sa’kwa oma’uwu Blue cloud.<br /> +To the east: Pal’a oma’uwu Red cloud.<br /> +To the north: Kwetsh oma’uwu White cloud. +</div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Frank H. Cushing, in Zuñi Fetiches, Second Ann. Rep., Bureau +of Ethnology, pp. 16-17, gives the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In ancient times, while yet all beings belonged to one family, Po-shai-ang-k’ia, the +father of our sacred bands, lived with his children (disciples) in the City of the +Mists, the middle place (center) of the medicine societies of the world. When he +was about to go forth into the world he divided the universe into six regions, +namely, the North (Direction of the swept or barren place); the West (Direction of +the Home of the Waters); the South (Direction of the Place of the Beautiful Red); +the East (Direction of the Home of Day); the Upper Regions (Direction of the +Home of the High); and the Lower Regions (Direction of the Home of the Low).</p> + +<p>In the center of the great sea of each of these regions stood a very ancient sacred +place—a great mountain peak. In the North was the Mountain Yellow, in the West +the Mountain Blue, in the South the Mountain Red, in the East the Mountain +White, above the Mountain All-color, and below the Mountain Black.</p> + +<p>We do not fail to see in this clear reference to the natural colors of the regions referred +to—to the barren North and its auroral hues, the West with its blue Pacific, +the rosy South, the white daylight of the east, the many hues of the clouded sky, +and the black darkness of the “caves and holes of earth.” Indeed these colors are +used in the pictographs and in all the mythic symbolism of the Zuñis to indicate the +directions or regions respectively referred to as connected with them.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. A. S. Gatschet (<i>a</i>), in Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., gives the symbolic +colors of the Isleta Pueblo for the points of the compass, as “white for +the east; from there they go to the north, which is black; to the west, +which is blue; and to the south, which is red.”</p> + +<p>Mr. James Mooney, in Seventh Ann. Rep., Bureau Ethnology, p. 342, +says that the symbolic color system of the Cherokees is:</p> + +<div class="container"> +<div class="centred"> +East—red—success; triumph.<br /> +North—blue—defeat; trouble.<br /> +West—black—death.<br /> +South—white—peace; happiness. +</div></div> + +<p>In the ceremonies of the Indians of the plains it is common that the +smoke of the sacred pipe should be turned first directly upward, second +directly downward, and then successively to the four cardinal points, +but without absolute agreement among the several tribes as to the +order of that succession. In James’ Long (<i>i</i>), it is reported that in a +special ceremony of the Omaha regarding the buffalo the first whiff of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625">[625]</a></span> +smoke was directed to them, next to the heavens, next to the earth, +and then successively to the east, west, north, and south. The rather +lame explanation was given that the east was for sunrise, the west for +sunset, the north for cold country, and the south for warm country.</p> + +<p>The Count de Charencey, in <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Des Couleurs considérés comme symboles +des Pointes de l’Horizon</span>, etc., and in <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ages ou Soleils</span>, gives as +the result of his studies that in Mexico and Central America the original +systems were as follows:</p> + +<div class="container"> +<div class="centred"> +<p><i>Quaternary system.</i> <br /> +East—Yellow.<br /> +North—Black.<br /> +West—White.<br /> +South—Red.</p> +<p class="p2 centred"> +<i>Quinary system.</i><br /> +South—Blue.<br /> +East—Red.<br /> +North—Yellow.<br /> +West—White.<br /> +Center—Black.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>Mr. John Crawford (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Java the divisions of the horizon and the corresponding colors were named in +the following order: first, white and the east; second, red and the south; third, +yellow and the west; fourth, black and the north; and fifth, mixed colors and the +focus or center.</p></div> + +<p>Boturini (<i>a</i>) gives the following arrangement of the “symbols of the +four parts or angles of the world,” comparing it with that of Gemelli:</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="tdl" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="center"><i>Gemelli.</i></td><td class="center"><i>Boturini.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>1. Tochtli—South.</td><td>1. Tecpatl—South.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2. Acatl—East.</td><td>2. Calli—East.</td></tr> +<tr><td>3. Tecpatl—North.</td><td>3. Tochtli—North.</td></tr> +<tr><td>4. Calli—West.</td><td>4. Acatl—West.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="center">SYMBOLS OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center"><i>Gemelli.</i></td><td class="center"><i>Boturini.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>1. Tochtli—Earth.</td><td>1. Tecpatl—Fire.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2. Acatl—Water.</td><td>2. Calli—Earth.</td></tr> +<tr><td>3. Tecpatl—Air.</td><td>3. Tochtli—Air.</td></tr> +<tr><td>4. Calli—Fire.</td><td>4. Acatl—Water.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Herrera (<i>a</i>) speaks only of the year symbols and colors, and, although +he does not directly connect them, indicates his understanding in regard +thereto by the order in which he mentions them:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>They divided the year into four signs, being four figures; the one of a house, +another of a rabbit, the third of a cane, the fourth of a flint, and by them they +reckoned the year as it passed on. * * * They painted a sun in the middle from +which issued four lines or branches in a cross to the circumference of the wheel, and +they turned so that they divided it into four parts and the circumference and each +of them moved with its branch of the same color, which were four—green, blue, red, +and yellow.</p></div> + +<p>From this statement Prof. Cyrus Thomas, in Notes on certain Maya +and Mexican Manuscripts, Third Ann. Rep., Bureau of Ethnology, +concludes that Herrera’s arrangement would presumably be as follows:</p> + +<div class="container"> +<div class="centred"> + +Calli—Green.<br /> +Tochtli—Blue.<br /> +Acatl—Red.<br /> +Tecpatl—Yellow. +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626">[626]</a></span></p> + +<p>Combining these several lists it would appear that Calli, color green, +was Fire and West or Earth and East; Tochtli, color blue, was Earth +and South or Air and North; Acatl, color red, was Water and East or +Water and West; Tecpatl, color yellow, was Air and North or Fire +and South.</p> + +<p>The foregoing notes leave the symbolic colors of the cardinal points +in a state of confusion, and on calm reflection no other condition could +be expected. Taking the idea of the ocean blue, for instance, and recognizing +the impressive climatic effects of the ocean, the people examined +may be in any direction from the ocean and to each of them its +topographic as well as color relation differs. If it shall be called blue, +the color blue may be north, south, east, or west. So as to the concepts +of heat and cold, however presented in colors by the fancy, heat +being sometimes red and sometimes yellow, cold being sometimes considered +as black by the manifestation of its violent destruction of the +tissues and sometimes being more simply shown as white, the color of +the snow. Also the geographic situation of the people must determine +their views of temperature. The sun in tropical regions may be an +object of terror, in Arctic climes of pure beneficence, and in the several +seasons of more temperate zones the sun as fire, whether red or +yellow, may be destructive or life-giving. Regarding the symbols +of the cardinal points it seems that there is nothing intrinsic as to colors, +but that the ideograms connected with the topic are local and variant. +As the ancient assignments of color to the cardinal points are +not established and definite among people who have been long settled +in their present habitat, the hope of tracing their previous migration +by that line of investigation may not be realized.</p> + +<p>The following account of the degree posts of the Grand Medicine +Society of the Ojibwa is condensed from an article by Dr. Hoffman in +the Am. Anthropologist for July, 1889:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In constructing the inclosure in which the Midē' priests practice the rites and +ceremonies of initiation, a single post, from 4 to 5 feet in height and about 8 inches +thick, is planted at a point opposite the main entrance, and about three-fourths +the entire distance of the interior from it. This post is painted red, with a band of +green about the top, of the width of a palm.</p> + +<p>The red and green colors are used to designate the Midē' society, but for what reason +is not positively known. The green appears to have some connection with the south, +the sources of heat and abundance of crops; the thunder-bird also comes from that +direction in the springtime, bringing rain, which causes the grass and fruits to grow, +giving an abundance of food.</p> + +<p>For the second degree two posts are erected within the inclosure, the first being +like that for the first degree, the second being planted nearer the main entrance, +though not far from the opposite end of the structure; this post is painted red and +is covered with white spots made by applying white clay with the finger tip. These +spots are symbolical of the migis shell, the sacred emblem of the Grand Medicine +Society.</p> + +<p>The third degree contains three posts, the two preceding ones being used, to which +a third is added and planted in a line with them; this post is painted black.</p> + +<p>In the fourth degree the additional post is really a cross, a crosspiece of wood being<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627">[627]</a></span> +attached near the top; the lower part of the upright piece is squared, the side on +the east being painted white; on the south, green; on the west, red; and on the +north, black. The white is the source of light facing the direction of the rising sun, +the green, apparently the source of warmth, rains, and abundance of crops, while +the north is black, and pertains to the region from which come cold, disease, and +desolation. The red is placed upon the western side, but there is a diversity of +opinion regarding its significance. The most plausible theory appears to relate to the +“road of the dead,” referred to in the ritual of the Ghost Society, as the path upon +which the departed shadow partakes of the gigantic strawberry which he finds. +The upper portion of the cross is white, upon which are placed irregularly red spots.</p></div> + +<p>In the same article is the following account of face coloring in the +Midē' degrees:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In connection with the colors of the degree posts, there is a systematic arrangement +of facial ornamentation, each style to be characteristic of one of the four degrees, +as well as the degree of the Ghost Society.</p> + +<p>According to the White Earth (Minnesota) method, the arrangement is as follows:</p> + +<p>First degree. One red stripe across the face from near the ears across the tip of +the nose.</p> + +<p>Second degree. One stripe as above and another across the eyes, temples, and +root of the nose.</p> + +<p>Third degree. The upper half of the face painted green and the lower half red.</p> + +<p>Fourth degree. The forehead and the left side of the face from the outer canthus +of the eye downward is painted green; four spots of vermilion are made with the +tip of the finger upon the forehead and four upon the green surface of the left cheek.</p> + +<p>According to Sikassige, a Mille Lacs Midē' priest, the ornamentation practiced +during his youth was as follows:</p> + +<p>First degree. A broad band of green across the forehead and a narrow stripe of +vermilion across the face just below the eyes.</p> + +<p>Second degree. A narrow stripe of vermilion across the temple, eyelids, and the +root of the nose, a short distance above which is a similar stripe of green, then +another of vermilion, and above this again one of green.</p> + +<p>Third degree. Red and white spots are daubed all over the face, the spots averaging +three-fourths of an inch each in diameter.</p> + +<p>Fourth degree. Two forms are admissible; in the former the face is painted red, +with a stripe of green extended diagonally across it from the upper part of the left +temporal region to the lower part of the right cheek. In the latter the face is painted +red with two short, horizontal parallel green bars across the forehead.</p> + +<p>Either of these may be adopted as a sign of mourning by a man whose deceased +son had been intended for the priesthood of the Grand Medicine Society.</p></div> + +<p>The religious and ceremonial use of the color red by the New Zealanders +is mentioned by Taylor (<i>d</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Closely connected with religion, was the feeling they entertained for the Kura, or +Red Paint, which was the sacred color; their idols, Pataka, sacred stages for the +dead, and for offerings or sacrifices, Urupa graves, chief’s houses, and war canoes, +were all thus painted.</p> + +<p>The way of rendering anything tapu was by making it red. When a person died, +his house was thus colored; when the tapu was laid on anything, the chief erected a +post and painted it with the kura; wherever a corpse rested, some memorial was set +up, oftentimes the nearest stone, rock, or tree served as a monument; but whatever +object was selected, it was sure to be made red. If the corpse were conveyed by +water, wherever they landed a similar token was left; and when it reached its destination, +the canoe was dragged on shore, thus distinguished, and abandoned. When +the hahunga took place, the scraped bones of the chief, thus ornamented, and wrapped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628">[628]</a></span> +in a red-stained mat, were deposited in a box or bowl, smeared with the sacred color, +and placed in a tomb. Near his final resting place a lofty and elaborately carved +monument was erected to his memory; this was called he tiki, which was also thus +colored.</p> + +<p>In former times the chief anointed his entire person with red ocher; when fully +dressed on state occasions, both he and his wives had red paint and oil poured upon +the crown of the head and forehead, which gave them a gory appearance, as though +their skulls had been cleft asunder.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. S. Gason reports in Worsnop, op. cit.:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the Cooper, Herbert, and Diamentina rivers of the North there are no paintings +in caves, but in special corroborees the bodies of the leading dancers are beautifully +painted with every imaginable color, representing man, woman, animals, birds, +and reptiles, the outlines being nearly faultless, and in proportion, independent of +the blending of the colors.</p> + +<p>These paintings take about seven or eight hours’ hard tedious work for two men, +one in front, the other at the back of the man who is to be painted, and when these +men who are painted display themselves, surrounded by bright fires and rude torches, +it has an enchanting effect to the others. After the ceremony is over, the paintings +are allowed to be examined, and the artists congratulated or criticised.</p> + +<p>At the other ceremonies, after returning from “Bookatoo” (red ocher expedition), +they paint a few of their dancers with all the colors of the rainbow, the outlines +showing all the principal species of snakes. They are well drawn and colored, and +take many hours of labor to complete.</p> + +<p>These paintings of snakes are done for the purpose of having a good harvest of +snakes. The women are not allowed to attend at this ceremony, as it is one of their +strict secret dances.</p></div> + +<p>A few notes of other ceremonial and religious uses of color are presented.</p> + +<p>Capt. John G. Bourke (<i>f</i>) says that the Moki employ the colors in +prayers—yellow for pumpkins, green for corn, and red for peaches. +Black and white bands are typical of rain, and red and blue bands, of +lightning.</p> + +<p>In James’s Long (<i>k</i>), it is mentioned of the Omaha that the boy who +goes to fast on the hill top to see his guardian spirit, as a preparation rubs +his body over with whitish clay, but the same ceremonial among the +Ouenebigonghelins near Hudson bay is described by Bacqueville de la +Potherie (<i>d</i>), with the statement that the postulant paints his face black.</p> + +<p>Peter Martyr (<i>a</i>) says the natives of the Island of Hispaniola [Haiti] +when attending a festival at the religious edifice, go in a procession +having their bodies and faces painted in black, red, and yellow colors. +Some had feathers of the parrot and other birds, with which they +decorated themselves. The women had no decoration.</p> + +<p>Pénicaut’s Relation, A. D. 1704, in Margry (<i>f</i>), gives an account of +decorations of the victims who die with the grand chief, or Sun of the +Natchez. Their faces were painted vermilion, as the author says, “lest +they by paleness should show their fear.” Though the practice may +have thus originated as a mere expedient, red thus used would become +in time a sacrificial color.</p> + +<p>But the color red can not always be deduced from such an origin. It is +connected with the color of fire and of blood. The Romans on great festivals<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629">[629]</a></span> +painted the face of Jupiter Capitolinus with vermilion. They +painted in the same way all the statues of the gods, demi-gods, heroes, +fauns, and satyrs. Pan is described by Virgil in Ecl. X, line 27:</p> + +<p lang="la" xml:lang="la"> +Pan, deus Arcadiæ venit, quem vidimus ipsi<br /> +Sanguineis ebuli baccis minioque rubentem. +</p> + +<p>These verses are rendered with spirit by R. C. Singleton, Virgil in +English Rhythm, London, 1871, though the translator wrote “cinnabar” +instead of “red lead” and might as well have used the correct +word, “minium,” which has the same prosodial quantity as cinnabar.</p> + +<p> +Pan came, the god of Arcady, whom we<br /> +Ourselves beheld, with berries bloody red<br /> +Of danewort, and with cinnabar aglow.<br /> +</p> + +<p>In Chapman’s translation of Homer’s hymn to Pan the god is again +represented stained with red, but with the original idea of blood.</p> + +<p> +A lynx’s hide, besprinkled round about<br /> +With blood, cast on his shoulders.<br /> +</p> + +<p>By imitation of greatness and the semblance of divinity the faces of +generals when they rode in triumph, e. g., Camillus as mentioned by +Pliny, quoting Verrius, were painted red.</p> + +<p>On the tree which supports the Vatican figure of the Apollo +Belvedere are traces of an object supposed to be the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στέμμα δελφικόν</span>, +which was composed of bushy tufts of Delphian laurel bound with +threads of red wool into a series of knots and having at each end a +tassel. This is an old sign of consecration and is possibly connected +with the traditional gipsy sign of mutual binding in love signified by a +red knot, as mentioned in a letter from Mr. Charles G. Leland.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards distinguished red as the color par excellence, and +among many of the savage and barbaric peoples red is the favorite and +probably once was the sacred color.</p> + + +<h4>COLOR RELATIVE TO DEATH AND MOURNING.</h4> + +<p>Charlevoix (<i>a</i>) says of the Micmacs that “their mourning consisted +in painting themselves black and in great lamentations.”</p> + +<p>Champlain (<i>f</i>), in 1603, described the mourning posts of the northeastern +Algonquian tribes as painted red.</p> + +<p>Keatings’ Long (<i>g</i>) tells that the Sac Indians blackened themselves +with charcoal in mourning and during its continuance did not use any +vermilion or other color for ornamentation.</p> + +<p>Some of the Dakota tribes blackened the whole face with charcoal +for mourning, but ashes were also frequently employed.</p> + +<p>Col. Dodge (<i>a</i>) says that the Sioux did not use the color green in life, +but that the corpses were wrapped in green blankets. The late Rev. +S. D. Hinman, who probably was, until his death within the last year, +the best authority concerning those Indians, contradicts this statement +in a letter, declaring that the Sioux frequently use the color green in +their face-painting, especially when they seek to disguise themselves,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630">[630]</a></span> +as it gives so different an expression. If it is not used as generally as +blue or yellow the reason is that it is seldom found in the clays which +were formerly relied upon and therefore it required compounding. Also +they do not use green as painting or designation for the dead, but red, +that being their decoration for the “happy hunting ground.” But the +color for the mourning of the survivors is black.</p> + +<p>Thomas L. McKenny (<i>a</i>) says the Chippeway men mourn by painting +their faces black.</p> + +<p>The Winnebago men blacken the whole face with charcoal in mourning. +The women make a round black spot on both cheeks.</p> + +<p>Dr. Boas, in Am. Anthrop. (<i>a</i>), says of Snanaimuq, a Salish tribe:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The face of the deceased is painted red and black. After the death of husband or +wife the survivor must paint his legs and his blanket red. For three or four days +he must not eat anything; then three men or women give him food, and henceforth +he is allowed to eat.</p></div> + +<p>In Bancroft (<i>d</i>) it is mentioned that the Guatemalan widower dyed +his body yellow.</p> + +<p>Carl Bock (<i>b</i>) describes the mourning solemnities in Borneo as being +marked chiefly by white, the men and women composing the mourning +processions being enveloped in white garments, and carrying white +flags and weapons and ornaments, all of which were covered with white +calico.</p> + +<p>A. W. Howitt (<i>h</i>) says of the Dieri of Central Australia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A messenger who is sent to convey the intelligence of a death is smeared all over +with white clay. On his approach to the camp the women all commence screaming +and crying most passionately. * * * Widows and widowers are prohibited by +custom from uttering a word until the clay of mourning has worn off, however long +it may remain on them. They do not, however, rub it off, as doing so would be considered +a bad omen. It must absolutely wear off of itself. During this period they +communicate by means of gesture language.</p></div> + +<p>A. C. Haddon (<i>b</i>) tells that among the western tribes of Torres strait +plastering the body with gray mud was a sign of mourning.</p> + +<p>Elisée Reclus (<i>c</i>) says: “In sign of mourning the Papuans daub themselves +in white, yellow, or black, according to the tribes.”</p> + +<p>D’Albertis (<i>d</i>) reports that the women of New Guinea paint themselves +black all over on the death of a relation, but that there are degrees +of mourning among the men, e. g., the son of the deceased paints +his whole body black, but other less related mourners may only paint +the face more or less black. In Vol. II, p. 9, a differentiation is shown, +by which in one locality the women daubed themselves from head to +foot with mud. The same author says, in the same volume, p. 378, +that the skulls preserved in their houses are always colored red and +their foreheads frequently marked with some rough design.</p> + +<p>In Armenia, as told in The Devil Worshipers of Armenia, in Scottish +Geog. Mag., <span class="smcap">viii</span>, p. 592, widows dress in white.</p> + +<p>In Notes in East Equatorial Africa, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Brux.</span> +(<i>b</i>), it is told that in the region mentioned the women rub flour over +their bodies on the death or departure of the husband.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631">[631]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sir G. Wilkinson (<i>a</i>) writes that the ancient Egyptians in their mourning +ceremonies wore white fillets, and describes the same use of the +color white in the funeral processions painted on the walls of Thebes.</p> + +<p>Dr. S. Wells Williams (<i>a</i>) reports of the Chinese mourning colors +that “the mourners are dressed entirely in white or wear a white fillet +around the head. In the southern districts half-mourning is blue, +usually exhibited in a pair of blue shoes and a blue silken cord woven +in the queue, instead of a red one; in the northern provinces white is +the only mourning color seen.”</p> + +<p>Herr von Brandt, in the Ainos and Japanese, Journal of the Anthrop. +Inst. G. B. and I. (<i>e</i>), tells that the coffins of the deceased Mikados +were covered with red, that is, with cinnabar.</p> + + +<h4>COLORS FOR WAR AND PEACE.</h4> + +<p>These colors, respecting the Algonquian Indians, are mentioned in +1763, as published in Margry, to the effect that red feathers on the +pipe signify war, and that other colors [each of which may have a +modifying or special significance] mean peace.</p> + +<p>W. W. H. Davis (<i>b</i>) recounts that “in 1680 the Rio Grande Pueblos informed +the Spanish officers that they had brought with them two +crosses, one painted red, which signified war, and the other white, which +indicated peace, and they might take their choice between the two.”</p> + +<p>Capt. de Lamothe Cadillac (<i>b</i>), writing in the year 1696 of the Algonquians +of the Great Lake region near Mackinac, etc., describes +their decorations for war as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the day of departure the warriors dress in their best. They color their hair +red; they paint their faces red and black with much skill and taste, as well as the +whole of their bodies. Some have headdresses with the tail feathers of eagles or +other birds; others have them decorated with the teeth of wild beasts, such as the +wolf or tiger [wild cat]. Several adorn their heads, in lieu of hats, with helmets +bearing the horns of deer, roebuck, or buffalo.</p></div> + +<p>Schoolcraft (<i>r</i>) says that blue signifies peace among the Indians of +the Pueblo of Tesuque.</p> + +<p>The Dakota bands lately at Grand river agency had the practice of +painting the face red from the eyes down to the chin when going to war.</p> + +<p>The Absaroka or Crow Indians generally paint the forehead red +when on the warpath. This distinction of the Crows is also noted by +the Dakota in recording pictographic narratives of encounters with the +Crows.</p> + +<p>Haywood (<i>e</i>) says of the Cherokees:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When going to war their hair is combed and annointed with bear’s grease and the +red root, <i>Sanguinaria canadensis</i>, and they adorn it with feathers of various beautiful +colors, besides copper and iron rings, and sometimes wampum or peak in the ears; +and they paint their faces all over as red as vermilion, making a circle of black about +one eye and another circle of white about the other.</p></div> + +<p>H. H. Bancroft (<i>e</i>) tells that when a Modoc warrior paints his face +black before going into battle it means victory or death, and that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632">[632]</a></span> +will not survive a defeat. In the same volume, p. 105, he says that when +a Thlinkit arms himself for war he paints his face and powders his hair +a brilliant red. He then ornaments his head with a white eagle feather +as a token of stern, vindictive determination.</p> + +<p>Mr. Dorsey reports that when the Osage men go to steal horses from +the enemy they paint their faces with charcoal. [Possibly this may be +for disguise, on the same principle that burglars use black crape.] +The same authority gives the following description of the Osage paint +for war parties:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Before charging the foe the Osage warriors paint themselves anew. This is called +the death paint. If any of the men die with this paint on them the survivors do +not put on any other paint.</p> + +<p>All the gentes on the “Left” side use the “fire paint,” which is red. It is applied +by them with the left hand all over the face. And they use prayers about the fire: +“As the fire has no mercy, so should we have none.” Then they put mud on the +cheek, below the left eye, as wide as two or more fingers. The horse is painted with +some of the mud on the left cheek, shoulder, and thigh.</p></div> + +<p>The following extract is from Belden (<i>b</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The sign paints used by the Sioux Indians are not numerous, but very significant. +When the warriors return from the warpath and have been successful in bringing +back scalps, the squaws, as well as the men, paint with vermilion a semicircle in +front of each ear. The bow of the arc is toward the nose and the points of the half-circle +on the top and bottom of the ear; the eyes are then reddened and all dance +over the scalps.</p></div> + +<p>John Lawson (<i>a</i>) says of the North Carolina Indians:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When they go to war * * * they paint their faces all over red, and commonly +make a circle of black about one eye and another circle of white about the other, +while others bedaub their faces with tobacco-pipe clay, lampblack, black lead, and +divers other colors, etc.</p></div> + +<p>De Brahm, in documents connected with the History of South +Carolina (<i>a</i>), reports that the Indians of South Carolina “painted their +faces red in token of friendship and black in expression of warlike +intentions.”</p> + +<p>Rev. M. Eells (<i>a</i>) says of the Twana Indians of the Skokomish reservation +that when about to engage in war “they would tamanamus in +order to be successful and paint themselves with black and red, making +themselves as hideous as possible.”</p> + +<p>The U. S. Exploring Expedition (<i>b</i>), referring to a tribe near the Sacramento +river, tells that the chief presented them with a tuft of white +feathers stuck on a stick about 1 foot long, which was supposed to be +a token of friendship.</p> + +<p>Dr. Boas, in Am. Anthrop. (<i>b</i>), says of the Snanaimuq that before +setting out on war expeditions they painted their faces red and black.</p> + +<p>Peter Martyr (<i>b</i>) says of the Ciguaner Indians:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The natives came out of the forest painted and daubed with spots. For it is their +custom, when they go to war, to daub themselves from the face to the knee with black +and scarlet or purple color in spots, which color they [obtain] from some curious +fruits resembling “Pyren,” which they plant and cultivate in their gardens with the +greatest care. Similarly they also cause the hair to grow in a thousand very curious<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633">[633]</a></span> +shapes, if it is not by nature long or black enough, so that they look not otherwise +than if the similar devil or hellish Circe came running out of hell.</p></div> + +<p>Curr (<i>c</i>) tells that the Australians whitened themselves with white +clay when about to engage in war. Some African tribes, according to +Du Chaillu, also paint their faces white for war.</p> + +<p>Haddon (<i>c</i>) says of the western tribe of Torres straits:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When going to fight the men painted their bodies red, either entirely so or partially, +perhaps only the upper portion of the body and the legs below the knees, or +the head and upper part of the body only. The body was painted black all over by +those who were actually engaged in the death dance.</p></div> + +<p>Du Chaillu (<i>c</i>) tells that among the Scandinavians there were peace +and war shields, the former white and the latter red. When the white +was hoisted on a ship it was a sign for the cessation of hostility, in the +same manner that a flag of the same color is now used to procure or +mark a truce. The red shield displayed on a masthead or in the midst +of a body of men was the sign of hostility.</p> + + +<h4>COLOR DESIGNATING SOCIAL STATUS.</h4> + +<p>The following extract is translated, from Peter Martyr (<i>c</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>For the men are in body long and straight, possess a vivid and natural complexion +which compares somewhat with a red and genuine flesh color. Their whole body +and skin is lined over with sundry paints and curious figures, which they consider +as a handsome ornament and fine decoration, and the uglier a man’s painting or +lining over is the prettier he considers himself to be, and is also regarded as the +most noble among their number.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Dorsey reports of the Osages that all the old men who have +been distinguished in war are painted with the decorations of their +respective gentes. That of the Tsicu wactake is as follows: The face +is first whitened all over with white clay; then a red spot is made on +the forehead and the lower part of the face is reddened; then with the +fingers the man scrapes off the white clay, forming the dark figures by +letting the natural color of the face show through.</p> + +<p>H. H. Bancroft (<i>f</i>), citing authorities, says the central Californians +(north of San Francisco bay) formerly wore the down of Asclepias (?) +(white) as an emblem of royalty; and in the same volume, p. 691, it is +told that the natives of Guatemala wore red feathers in their hats, the +nobles only wearing green ones.</p> + +<p>The notes immediately following are about the significant use of +color, not readily divisible into headings.</p> + +<p>Belden (<i>c</i>) furnishes the following remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Yanktons, Sioux, Santees, and Cheyennes use a great deal of paint. A Santee +squaw paints her face the same as a white woman does, only with less taste. If she +wishes to appear particularly taking she draws a red streak half an inch wide from +ear to ear, passing it over the eyes, the bridge of the nose, and along the middle of +the cheek. When a warrior desires to be left alone he takes black paint or lampblack +and smears his face; then he draws zigzag lines from his hair to his chin by +scraping off the paint with his nails. This is a sign that he is trapping, is melancholy, +or in love.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634">[634]</a></span></p> + +<p>A Sioux warrior who is courting a squaw usually paints his eyes yellow and blue +and the squaw paints hers red. I have known squaws to go through the painful +operation of reddening the eye-balls, that they might appear particularly fascinating +to the young men. A red stripe drawn horizontally from one eye to the other means +that the young warrior has seen a squaw he could love if she would reciprocate his +attachment.</p></div> + +<p>As narrated by H. H. Bancroft, the Los Angeles county Indian girls +paint the cheeks sparingly with red ocher when in love. This also +prevails among the Arikara, at Fort Berthold, Dakota.</p> + +<p>La Potherie (<i>e</i>) says that the Indian girls of a tribe near Hudson bay, +when they have arrived at the age of puberty, at the time of its sign, +daub themselves with charcoal or a black stone, and in far distant +Yucatan, according to Bancroft (<i>h</i>), the young men restricted themselves +to black until they were married, indulging afterwards in varied +and bright colored figures.</p> + +<p>The color green is chiefly used symbolically as that of grass, with reference +to which Father De Smet’s MS. on the dance of the Tinton Sioux +contains these remarks: “Grass is the emblem of charity and abundance; +from it the Indians derive the food for their horses and it fattens the +wild animals of the plains, from which they derive their subsistence.”</p> + +<p>Brinton (<i>d</i>) gives the following summary:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Both green and yellow were esteemed fortunate colors by the Cakchiquels, the +former as that of the flourishing plant, the latter as that of the ripe and golden ears +of maize. Hence, says Coto, they were also used to mean prosperity.</p> + +<p>The color white, <i>zak</i>, had, however, by far the widest metaphorical uses. As the +hue of light, it was associated with day, dawn, brightness, etc.</p></div> + +<p>Marshall (<i>b</i>) gives as the explanation why certain gracious official documents +are sealed with green that the color expresses youth, honor, +beauty, and especially liberty.</p> + +<p>H. M. Stanley (<i>a</i>) gives the following use of white as a sign of innocence: +“Qualla drew a piece of pipeclay and marked a broad white +band running from the wrist to the shoulder along each arm of Ngalyema, +as a sign to all men present that he was guiltless.”</p> + +<p>H. Clay Trumbull (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Egyptian amulet of blood friendship was red, as representing the blood of the +gods. The Egyptian word for “red” sometimes stood for “blood.” The sacred +directions in the Book of the Dead were written in red; hence follows our word +“rubrics.” The rabbis say that, when persecution forbade the wearing of the phylacteries +with safety, a red thread might be substituted for this token of the covenant +with the Lord. It was a red thread which Joshua gave to Rahab as a token of her +covenant relations with the people of the Lord. The red thread, in China, to-day, +binds the double cup, from which the bride and bridegroom drink their covenant +draught of “wedding wine,” as if in symbolism of the covenant of blood. And it is +a red thread which, in India, to-day, is used to bind a sacred amulet around the arm +or the neck. * * * Upon the shrines in India the color red shows that worship +is still living there; red continues to stand for blood.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Mooney, in the Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, +shows that to the Cherokee the color blue signifies grief or depression of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635">[635]</a></span> +spirits, a curious parallel to the colloquial English phrase “has the +blues” and wholly opposite to the poetical symbol of blue for hope.</p> + +<p>The notes above collected on the general topic of color symbolism +might be indefinitely extended. Those presented, however, are typical +and perhaps sufficient for the scope of the present work. In regarding +ideography of colors the first object is to expunge from consideration +all merely arbitrary or fanciful decorations, which is by no means easy, +as ancient customs, even in their decadence or merely traditional, +preserve a long influence. But as a generalization it seems that all +common colors have been used in historic times for nearly all varieties +of ideographic expression by the several divisions of men, and that they +have differed fundamentally in the application of those colors. Yet +there was an intelligent origin in each one of those applications of color. +With regard to mourning the color black is now considered to be that +of gloom. It was still earlier expressed by casting ashes or earth over +the head and frame, and possibly the somber paint was adopted for +cleanliness, the concept being preserved and indeed intensified by +durable blackness instead of the mere transient dinginess of dirt, +although the actual defilement by the latter is thereby only symbolized. +This gloom is the expression of the misery of the survivors, perhaps of +their despair as not expecting any happiness to the dead or any hope +of a meeting in another world. Other lines of thought are shown by +blue, considered as the supposed sky or heavenly home of the future, +and by green, as suggesting renewal or resurrection, and those concepts +determine the mourning color of some peoples. Red or yellow may +only refer to the conceptions of the colors of flames, and therefore might +simply be an objective representation of the disposition of the corpse, +which very often was by cremation. But sometimes these colors are +employed as decoration and display to proclaim that the dead go to +glory. White, used as frequently by the populations of the world as +other funeral colors, may have been only to assert the purity and innocence +of the departed, an anticipation of the flattering obituary notices +or epitaphs now conventional in civilized lands.</p> + +<p>With regard to the color red, it may be admitted that it originally +represents blood; but it may be, and in fact is, used for the contradictory +concepts of war and peace. It is used for war as suggesting the blood +of the enemy, for peace and friendship to signify the blood relation or +blood covenant, the strongest tie of love and friendship.</p> + +<p>So it would seem that, while colors have been used ideographically, +the ideas which determined them were very diverse and sometimes +their application has become wholly conventional and arbitrary. A +modern military example may be in point which has no connection with +the well-known squib of an English humorist. One of the officers of the +U. S. Army of the last generation when traveling in Europe was much +disgusted to observe that a green uniform was used in some of the +armies for the corps of engineers and for branches of the service other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636">[636]</a></span> +than rifles or tirailleurs. He insisted that the color naturally and +necessarily belongs to the Rifles, because the soldiers of that arm when +clad with that color were most useful as skirmishers in wooded regions. +This reason for the selection of green for the riflemen who composed a +part of the early army of the United States is correct, but in the necessity +for the distinction of special uniforms for the several component +parts of a military establishment, whether in Europe or America, the +original and often obsolete application of color was wholly disregarded +and colors were selected simply because they were not then appropriated +by other branches of the service. So in the late formation of +the signal corps of the U. S. Army, the color of orange, which had +belonged to the old dragoons, was adopted simply because it was a +good color no longer appropriated.</p> + +<p>With these changes by abandonment and adoption comes fashion, +which has its strong effect. It is even exemplified where least +expected, i. e., in Stamboul. Every one knows that the descendants +of the Prophet alone are entitled to wear green turbans, but a late +Sultan, not being of the blood of Mohammed, could not wear the color, +so the emirs who could do so carefully abstained from green in his +presence and the color for the time was unfashionable.</p> + +<p>As the evolution of clothing commenced with painting and tattooing, +it may be admitted that what is now called fashion must have had its +effect on the earlier as on the later forms of personal decoration. +Granting that there was an ideographic origin to all designs painted +on the person, the ambition or vanity of individuals to be distinctive +and to excel must soon have introduced varieties and afterward imitations +of such patterns, colors, or combinations as favorably struck the +local taste. The subject therefore is much confused.</p> + +<p>An additional suggestion comes from the study of the Mexican +codices. In them color often seems to be used according to the fancy +of the scribe. Compare pages 108 and 109 of the Codex Vaticanus, in +Kingsborough, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, with pages 4 and 5 of the Codex Telleriano +Remensis, in part 4 of Kingsborough, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, where the figures and their +signification are evidently the same, but the coloration is substantially +reversed.</p> + +<p>A comparison of Henry R. Schoolcraft’s published coloration with +the facts found by the recent examination of the present writer is +set forth with detail on page <a href="#page202">202</a>, supra.</p> + +<p>In his copious illustrations colors were exhibited freely and with +stated significance, whereas, in fact, the general rule in regard to the +birch-bark rolls is that they were never colored at all; indeed, the bark +was not adapted to coloration. His colors were painted on and over the +true scratchings, according to his own fancy. The metaphorical coloring +was also used by him in a manner which, to any thorough student +of the Indian philosophy and religions, seems absurd. Metaphysical +significance is attached to some of the colored devices, or, as he calls<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637">[637]</a></span> +them, symbols, which could never have been entertained by a people in +the stage of culture of the Ojibwa, and those devices, in fact, were ideograms +or iconograms.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">GESTURE AND POSTURE SIGNS DEPICTED.</span></h3> + +<p>Among people where a system of ideographic gesture signs has prevailed +it would be expected that their form would appear in any mode +of pictorial representation used with the object of conveying ideas or +recording facts. When a gesture sign had been established and it +became necessary or desirable to draw a character or design to convey +the same idea, nothing could be more natural than to use the graphic +form or delineation which was known and used in the gesture sign. It +was but one more step, and an easy one, to fasten upon bark, skins, or +rocks the evanescent air pictures of the signs.</p> + +<p>In the paper “Sign language among the North American Indians,” +published in the First Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Ethnology, a large +number of instances were given of the reproduction of gesture lines in +the pictographs made by those Indians, and they appeared to be most +frequent when there was an attempt to convey subjective ideas. It +was suggested, therefore, that those pictographs which, in the absence +of positive knowledge, are the most difficult of interpretation were +those to which the study of sign-language might be applied with advantage. +The topic is now more fully discussed. Many pictographs +in the present work, the meaning of which is definitely known from +direct sources, are noted in connection with the gesture-signs corresponding +with the same idea, which signs are also understood from +independent evidence or legitimate deduction.</p> + +<p>Dr. Edkins (<i>c</i>) makes the following remarks regarding the Chinese +characters, which are applicable also to the picture-writing of the North +American Indians, and indeed to that of all peoples among whom it +has been cultivated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The use of simple natural shapes, such as the mouth, nose, eye, ear, hand, foot, as +well as the shape of branches, trees, grass, caves, holes, rivers, the bow, the spear, +the knife, the tablet, the leaf—these formed, in addition to pictures of animals, +much of the staple of Chinese ideographs.</p> + +<p>Attention should be drawn to the fact that the mouth and the hand play an exceptionally +important part in the formation of the symbols.</p> + +<p>Men were more accustomed then than now to the language of signs by the use of +these organs. Perhaps three-twentieths of the existing characters are formed by +their help as one element.</p> + +<p>This large use of the mouth and hand in forming characters is, as we may very +reasonably suppose, only a repetition of what took place when the words themselves +were made.</p> + +<p>There is likely to be a primitive connection between demonstratives and names for +the hand, because the hand is used in pointing.</p></div> + +<p>Fig. 983 is a copy of a colored petroglyph on a rock in the valley of +Tule river, California, further described on page <a href="#page052">52</a>, et seq., supra.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638">[638]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>a</i>, a person weeping. The eyes have lines running down to the breast, +below the ends of which are three short lines on either side. The arms +and hands are in the exact position for making the gesture for rain. +See <i>h</i> in Fig. <a href="#page642">999</a>, meaning eye-rain, and also Fig. <a href="#page643">1002</a>. It was probably +the intention of the artist to show that the hands in this gesture should be +passed downward over the face, as probably suggested by the short lines +upon the lower end of the tears. It is evident that sorrow is portrayed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp766_pg638h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp766_pg638.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="419" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 983.</span>—Rock painting. Tule river, California.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, six persons apparently making the gesture for “hunger” by +passing the hands towards and backward from the sides of the body, +suggesting a gnawing sensation. The person, <i>d</i>, shown in a horizontal +position, may possibly denote a “dead man,” dead of starvation, this +position being adopted by the Ojibwa, Blackfeet, and others as a common<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639">[639]</a></span> +device to represent a dead body. The varying lengths of head +ornaments denote different degrees of status as warriors or chiefs.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>. Human forms of various shapes making gestures for negation, +or more specifically “nothing, nothing here,” a natural and universal +gesture made by throwing one or both hands outward toward +either side of the body. The hands are extended, and, to make the +action apparently more emphatic, the extended toes are also shown on +<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, and <i>i</i>. The several lines upon the leg of <i>i</i> probably indicate +trimmings upon the leggings.</p> + +<p>The character at <i>j</i> is strikingly similar to the Alaskan pictographs +(see <i>b</i> of Fig. <a href="#page351">460</a>), indicating self with the right hand, and the left +pointing away, signifying to go.</p> + +<p><i>k.</i> An ornamented head with body and legs. It may refer to a Shaman, +the head being similar to the representations of such personages +by the Ojibwa and Iroquois.</p> + +<p>Similar drawings occur at a distance of about 10 miles southeast of +this locality as well as at other places toward the northwest, and it +appears probable that the pictograph was made by a portion of a tribe +which had advanced for the purpose of selecting a new camping place, +but failed to find the quantities of food necessary for sustenance, and +therefore erected this notice to inform their followers of their misfortune +and determined departure toward the northwest. It is noticeable +that the picture is so placed upon the rock that the extended arm of +<i>j</i> points toward the north.</p> + +<p>The following examples are selected from a large number that could +be used to illustrate those gesture signs known to be included in pictographs. +Others not referred to in this place may readily be noticed +in several parts of the present paper where they appear under other +headings.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;"> +<img src="images/dp767_pg639a.png" width="135" height="372" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 984.</span>—Coward.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 984.—Afraid-of-him. Red-Cloud’s Census. The following is the +description of a common gesture sign used +by the Dakotas for afraid, fear, coward:</p> + +<p>Crook the index, close the other fingers, +and, with its back upward, draw the right hand backward +about a foot, from 18 inches in front of the right +breast. Conception, “Drawing back.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 105px;"> +<img src="images/dp767_pg639b.png" width="105" height="53" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 985.</span>—Coward.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 985.—Afraid-of-him. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This is obviously the same device +without clear depiction of the arm, which +is explained by the preceding.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 97px;"> +<img src="images/dp767_pg639c.png" width="97" height="186" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 986.</span>—Little-Chief.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 986.—Little-Chief. Red-Cloud’s +Census. A typical gesture sign for chief +is as follows:</p> + +<p>Raise the forefinger, pointed upwards, in a vertical direction and +then reverse both finger and motion; the greater the elevation the +“bigger” the chief. In this case the elevation above the head is slight, +so the chief is “little.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640">[640]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 99px;"> +<img src="images/dp768_pg640a.png" width="99" height="136" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 987.</span>—Hit.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 987.—The Dakotas went out in search of the Crows in order to +avenge the death of Broken-Leg-Duck. They did not +find any Crows, but, chancing on a Mandan village, +captured it and killed all the people in it. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1787-’88.</p> + +<p>The mark on the tipi is not the representation of a +hatchet or tomahawk, but is explained by the gesture sign for “hit by +a bullet from a gun,” made by the Dakotas as follows:</p> + +<p>With the hands in the position of the completion of the sign for discharge +of a gun, draw the right hand back from the left, that is, in toward +the body; close all the fingers except the index, which is extended, +horizontal, back toward the right, pointing straight outward, and is +pushed forward against the center of the stationary left hand with a +quick motion. Conception, “Bullet comes to a stop. It struck.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<img src="images/dp768_pg640b.png" width="141" height="151" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 988.</span>—Cow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 988.—The first stock cattle were issued to them. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1875-’76. The figure represents a cow surrounded +by people. A common gesture +sign distinguishing the cattle brought by +Europeans from the buffalo is as follows:</p> + +<p>Make sign for buffalo, then extend the +left forefinger and draw the extended index +across it repeatedly at different places. +Literally, spotted buffalo.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp768_pg640c.png" width="177" height="475" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 989.</span>—Two.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 989.—Kills-two. Red-Cloud’s Census. In this +figure only the suggestion of number is in point. Two +fingers are extended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/dp768_pg640d.png" width="133" height="50" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 990.</span>—Sign for +Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 990.—Four Crow Indians killed by the Minneconjou +Dakotas. The-Swan’s Winter Count, +1864-’65.</p> + +<p>The four heads and necks are shown. +The pictograph shows the tribe of the conquerors and +not that of the victims. The gesture sign for Dakota is as follows:</p> + +<p>Forefinger and thumb of right hand extended (others +closed) are drawn from left to right across the throat +as though cutting it. The Dakotas have been named +the “cut-throats” by some of the surrounding tribes.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/dp768_pg640e.png" width="159" height="393" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 991.</span>—Noon.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 991.—Noon. Red-Cloud’s Census. A Dakotan +gesture sign for noon is as follows:</p> + +<p>Make a circle with the thumb and index for sun, and +then hold the hand overhead, the outer +edge uppermost.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 58px;"> +<img src="images/dp768_pg640f.png" width="58" height="150" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 992.</span>—Hard.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 992.—Hard. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This is the representation of a stone hammer +and coincides with the Dakotan gesture +sign for hard as follows:</p> + +<p>Same as the sign for stone, which is: With the back of the arched +right hand strike repeatedly in the palm of the left, held horizontal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641">[641]</a></span> +back outward, at the height of the breast and about a foot in front; the +ends of the fingers point in opposite directions. Refers to the time +when the stone hammer was the hardest pounding instrument the +Indians knew.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/dp769_pg641a.png" width="78" height="57" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 993.</span>—Moon.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 993.—Little-Sun. Red-Cloud’s Census. The moon is expressed +both in gestural and oral +language as sun-little.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"> +<img src="images/dp769_pg641b.png" width="325" height="370" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 994.</span>—Old-Cloud.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 994.—Old-Cloud. +Red-Cloud’s Census. Cloud +is drawn in blue in the original; old is signified +by drawing a staff in the hand of the +man. The Dakotan gesture for old is described +as follows:</p> + +<p>With the right hand held in front of right +side of body, as though grasping the head +of a walking-stick, describe the forward +arch movement, as though a person walking +was using it for support. “Decrepit +age dependent on a staff.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;"> +<img src="images/dp769_pg641c.png" width="192" height="154" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 995.</span>—Call-for.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 995.—Call-for. Red-Cloud’s Census. The gesture +for come or to call to one’s self is +shown in this figure. This is similar to +that prevalent among Europeans, and +so requires no explanation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"> +<img src="images/dp769_pg641d.png" width="124" height="319" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 996.</span>—Wise-Man.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 996.—The-Wise-Man was killed by enemies.</p> + +<p>Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1797-’98. The following +gesture sign explains this figure:</p> + +<p>Touch the forehead with the right index and then +make the sign for big directly in front of it. Conception, +“Big brain.”</p> + +<p>In this as in other delineations of gesture the whole +of the sign could not be expressed, but only that part of it which might +seem to be the most suggestive.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> +<img src="images/dp769_pg641e.png" width="143" height="122" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 997.</span>—Sign +for pipe.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 997 is taken from the winter count of Battiste Good and +is drawn to represent the sign for pipe, which it is intended to +signify. The sign is made by placing the right hand near the +upper portion of the breast, the left farther forward, and both +held so that the index and thumb approximate a circle, as +if holding a pipe-stem. The remaining fingers are closed.</p> + +<p>The point of interest in this character is that, instead +of drawing a pipe, the artist drew a human figure making +the sign for pipe, showing the intimate connection +between gesture-signs and pictographs. +The pipe, in this instance, was the +symbol of peace.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/dp769_pg641f.jpg" width="182" height="323" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 998.</span>—Searches-the-Heavens.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 998.—Mahpiya-wakita, Searches-the-Heavens; +from the Oglala Roster. The cloud is drawn in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642">[642]</a></span> +blue, the searching being derived from the expression of that idea in +gesture by passing the extended index of one hand (or both) forward +from the eye, then from right to left, as if indicating various uncertain +localities before the person, i. e., searching for something. The lines +from the eyes are in imitation of this gesture.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>WATER.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;"> +<img src="images/dp770_pg642a.jpg" width="394" height="177" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 999.</span>—Water symbols.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Chinese character for to give water is <i>a</i>, in Fig. 999, which may +be compared with the common Indian +gesture to drink, to give water, viz: +“Hand held with the tips of fingers +brought together and passed to the +mouth, as if scooping up water” (see +Fig. 1000), obviously from primitive +custom, as with Mojaves, who still +drink with scooped hands, throwing the water to the mouth.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/dp770_pg642b.jpg" width="104" height="233" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1000.</span>—Gesture +sign for drink.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Another common Indian gesture sign for water to drink—I want to +drink—is: “Hand brought downward past the mouth with loosely extended +fingers, palm toward the face.” This appears in the Mexican +character for drink, <i>b</i>, in Fig. 999, taken from Pipart (<i>a</i>). Water, i. e., +the pouring out of water with the drops falling or about to +fall, is shown in Fig. 999, <i>c</i>, taken from the same author +(<i>b</i>), being the same arrangement of them as in the Indian +gesture-sign for rain, shown in Fig. 1002, the hand, however, +being inverted. Rain in the Mexican picture-writing +is sometimes shown by small circles inclosing a dot, as in +the last two designs, but not connected together, each +having a short line upward marking the line of descent. +Several other pictographs for rain are given below.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;"> +<img src="images/dp770_pg642c.png" width="362" height="288" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1001.</span>—Water, Egyptian.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>With the gesture sign for drink may be compared Fig. 1001, the +Egyptian goddess Nu in the sacred sycamore +tree, pouring out the water of life +to the Osirian and his soul represented +as a bird, in Amenti, from a funereal +stelē in Cooper’s Serpent Myths (<i>b</i>).</p> + +</div> + +<p>The common Indian gesture for river +or stream—water—is made by passing the +horizontal flat hand, palm down, forward +and to the left from the right side in a +serpentine manner.</p> + + + +<p>The Egyptian character for the same is <i>d</i> in Fig. 999, taken from +Champollion’s Dictionary (<i>b</i>). The broken line is held to represent the +movement of the water on the surface of the stream. When made with +one line less angular and more waving it means water. It is interesting +to compare with this the identical character in the syllabary invented +by a West African negro, Mormoru Doalu Bukere, for water, <i>e</i>, in Fig. +999, mentioned by Dr. Tylor (<i>b</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643">[643]</a></span></p> + +<p>The abbreviated Egyptian sign for water as a stream is <i>f</i>, in Fig. 999, +taken from Champollion, loc. cit., and the Chinese for the same is as in +<i>g</i>, same figure.</p> + +<p>In the picture writing of the Ojibwa the Egyptian abbreviated +character, with two lines instead of +three, appears with the same signification.</p> + + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp771_pg643a.jpg" width="550" height="508" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1002.</span>—Gesture for rain.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Egyptian character for weep, +<i>h</i>, in Fig. 999, i. e., an eye with tears +falling, is also found in the pictographs +of the Ojibwa, published by +Schoolcraft (<i>o</i>), and is also made by +the Indian gesture of drawing lines by +the index repeatedly downward +from the eye, though perhaps more +frequently made by the full sign for +rain—made with the back of the hand +downward from the eye—“eye rain.” The sign is as follows, as made +by the Shoshoni, Apache, and other Indians: Hold the hand (or hands) +at the height of and before the shoulder, fingers pendent, palm down, +then push it downward a short distance, as shown in Fig. 1002. That +for heat is the same, with the difference that the hand is held above +the head and thrust downward toward the forehead; that for to weep +is made by holding the hand as in rain, and the gesture made from the +eye downward over the cheek, back of the fingers nearly touching the +face.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/dp771_pg643b.jpg" width="173" height="309" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1003.</span>—Water +sign. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The upper design in Fig. 1003, taken from the manuscript catalogue +of T.V. Keam, is water wrought into a meandering device, +which is the conventional generic sign of the Hopitus. +The two forefingers are joined as in the lower design in +the same figure.</p> + +<p>In relation to the latter, Mr. Keam says: “At the close +of the religious festivals the participants join in a parting +dance called the ‘dance of the linked finger.’ They form +a double line, and crossing their arms in front of them +they lock the forefingers of either hand with those of their neighbors, +in both lines, which are thus interlocked together, and then dance, +still interlocked by this emblematic grip, singing their parting song. +The meandering designs are emblems of this friendly dance.”</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>CHILD.</h4> + +<p>The Arapaho sign for <i>child</i>, <i>baby</i>, is the forefinger in the mouth, i. e., +a nursing child, and a natural sign of a deaf-mute is the same. The +Egyptian figurative character for the same is seen in Fig. 1004 <i>a</i>. Its +linear form is <i>b</i>, same figure, and its hieratic is <i>c</i>, Champollion (<i>c</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644">[644]</a></span></p> + +<p>These afford an interpretation to the ancient Chinese form for <i>son</i>, +<i>d</i> in same figure, given in Journ. Royal Asiatic Society, <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 1834, p. 219, +as belonging to the Shang dynasty, 1756-1112 B. C., and the modern +Chinese form, <i>e</i>, which, without the comparison, would not be supposed +to have any pictured reference to an infant with hand or finger at or +approaching the mouth, denoting the taking of nourishment. Having +now suggested this, the Chinese character for <i>birth</i>, <i>f</i> in same figure, +is understood as a parallel expression of a common gesture among +the Indians, particularly reported from the Dakota, for <i>born</i>, <i>to be born</i>; +viz, place the left hand in front of the body a little to the right, the +palm, downward and slightly arched, then pass the extended right +hand downward, forward, and upward, forming a short curve underneath +the left, as in Fig. 1005 <i>a</i>. This is based upon the curve followed +by the head of the child during birth, and is used generically. The +same curve, when made with one hand, appears in Fig. 1005 <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>It may be of interest to compare with the Chinese <i>child</i> the Mexican +abbreviated character for <i>man</i>, Fig. 1004 <i>g</i>, found in Pipart (<i>c</i>). The +character on the right is called the abbreviated form of the one by its +side.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp772_pg644a.png" width="550" height="330" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1004.</span>—Symbols for child and man.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Chinese character for <i>man</i> is +Fig. 1004 <i>h</i>, and may have the same +obvious conception as a Dakota sign +for the same signification: “Place +the extended index pointing upward +and forward before the lower portion +of the abdomen.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp772_pg644b.png" width="550" height="278" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1005.</span>—Gestures for birth.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A typical sign made by the Indians +for <i>no</i>, <i>negation</i>, is as follows:</p> + +<p>The hand extended or slightly curved is held in front of the body, a +little to the right of the median line; it is then carried with a rapid +sweep a foot or more farther to the right.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645">[645]</a></span></p> + +<p>The sign for <i>none</i>, <i>nothing</i>, sometimes used for simple negation, is +made by throwing both hands outward from the breast toward their +respective sides.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp773_pg645.png" width="150" height="115" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1006.</span>—Negation.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>With these compare the two forms of the Egyptian character for no, +negation, the two upper characters of Fig. 1006 taken from Champollion +(<i>d</i>). No vivid fancy is needed to see the hands +indicated at the extremities of arms extended symmetrically +from the body on each side.</p> + +<p>Also compare the Maya character for the same +idea of negation, the lowest character of Fig. 1006, +found in Landa (<i>a</i>). The Maya word for negation is +“<i>ma</i>,” and the word “<i>mak</i>,” a six-foot measuring rod, given by Brasseur +de Bourbourg in his dictionary, apparently having connection +with this character, would in use separate the hands as illustrated, +giving the same form as the gesture made without the rod.</p> + +<p>Another sign for <i>nothing</i>, <i>none</i>, made by the Comanche is: Flat +hand thrown forward, back to the ground, fingers pointing +forward and downward. Frequently the right hand is +brushed over the left thus thrown out.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp773_pg645a.png" width="100" height="280" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1007.</span>—Hand.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Compare the Chinese character for the same meaning, the +upper character of Fig. 1007. This will not be recognized +as a hand without study of similar characters, which generally +have a cross-line cutting off the wrist. Here the +wrist bones follow under the crosscut, then the metacarpal +bones, and last the fingers, pointing forward and downward.</p> + +<p>Leon de Rosny (<i>a</i>) gives the second and third characters in Fig. 1007 +as the Babylonian glyphs for “hand,” the upper being the later and the +lower the archaic form.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;"> +<img src="images/dp773_pg645b.png" width="125" height="73" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1008.</span>—Signal of +discovery.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1008 is reproduced from an ivory drill-bow +(U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 24543) from Norton sound, Alaska. +The figure represents the gesture sign or signal of discovery. +In this instance the game consists of whales, +and the signal is made by holding the boat paddle aloft +and horizontally.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;"> +<a href="images/dp774_pg646h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp774_pg646.jpg" class="hires" width="247" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1009.</span>—Pictured gestures. Maya.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1009, reproduced from Fig. 365, p. 308, Sixth Ann. Rep. Bureau +of Ethnology, is a copy of Pl. 53 of the Dresden Codex, and is a good +example of the use of gestures in the Maya graphic system. The main +figure in the upper division of the plate, probably that of a deity or +ruler, holds his right hand raised to the level of the head, with the +index prominently separated from the other fingers. This is the first +part of a sign common to several of the Indian tribes of North America +and signifies affirmation or assent. The Indians close the fingers other +than the index more decidedly than in the plate and, after the hand +has reached its greatest height, shake it forward and down, but these +details, which indeed are not essential, could not well be indicated pictorially.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647">[647]</a></span> +The human figure in the lower division is kneeling and holds +both hands easily extended before +the body, palms down and +index fingers straight, parallel, +and separated from the other +fingers, which are flexed or +closed. This in its essentials is +a common Indian gesture sign +for “the same,” “similar,” and +also for “companion.” A sign +nearly identical is used by the +Neapolitans to mean “union” +or “harmony.” If the two divisions +of the plate are supposed +to be connected, it might be inferred +through the principles of +gesture language that the kneeling +man was praying to the +seated personage for admission +to his favor and companionship, +and that the latter was responding +by a dignified assent.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/dp775_pg647h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp775_pg647.jpg" class="hires" width="186" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1010.</span>—Pictured gestures. Guatemala.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. S. Habel (<i>e</i>) thus describes +Fig. 1010, a sculpture in Guatemala:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The upper half represents the head, +arms, and part of the breast of a deity, +apparently of advanced age, as indicated +by the wrinkles in the face. +The right arm is bent at the elbow, +the finger tips of the outstretched +hand apparently touching the region +of the heart; the left upper arm is +drawn up, the elbow being almost as +high as the shoulder, and the fore +arm and hand hanging at nearly +right angles. From the head and +neck issue winding staves, to which +not only knots or nodes are attached, +but also variously-shaped leaves, +buds, flowers, and fruits. Apparently +these are symbols of speech, +replacing our letters and expressing +the mandate of the deity.</p> + +<p>The lower part represents an erect +human figure with the face turned up +toward the deity imploring, and from +the mouth emanates a staff with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648">[648]</a></span> +nodes variously arranged. The appeal is still further intensified by the raising of +the right hand and arm. A human head partly covers the head of the figure, from +which hang variously-shaped ribbons, terminating in the body and tail of a fish. +Above the right wrist is a double bracelet, apparently formed of small square stones. +The left hand is covered, gauntlet-like, by a human skull, and the wrist is ornamented +by a double scaly bracelet. The waist is encircled by a stiff projecting girdle, +which differs from the general style of this ornament by having attached to it +on the side a human head, with another human head suspended from it. From +the front of the girdle emanate four lines, which ascend towards the deity, uniting +at the top. They seem to symbolize the emotions of the person, not expressed by +words. From behind the image issue flames.</p></div> + +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649">[649]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIX.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CONVENTIONALIZING.</span></h2> + + +<p>Before writing was invented by a people there were attempts in its +direction which are mentioned in other chapters of this paper. Human +forms were drawn pictorially in the act of making gesture signs and in +significant actions and attitudes and combinations of them. Other +natural objects, as well as those purely artificial, which represented +work or the result of work, were also drawn with many differing significations. +When any of these designs had become commonly adopted +on account of its striking fitness or even from frequent repetition with +a special signification, it became a conventional term of thought-writing, +with substantially the same use as when, afterward, the combinations +of letters of an alphabet into words became the arbitrary signs of +sound-writing. While the designs thus became conventional terms, +their forms became more and more abbreviated or cursive until in many +cases the original concept or likeness was lost. Sometimes when a +specimen of the original form is preserved, its identity in meaning with +the current form can be ascertained by correlation of the intermediate +shapes.</p> + +<p>The original ideography is often exhibited by exaggeration. For +instance, a loud voice has been sometimes indicated by a human face +with an enormous mouth. Hearing, among the Peruvians, was early +expressed by a man with very large ears; then by a head with such ears, +and afterwards by the form of the ears without the head. Soon such +forms became so conventionalized as to be practically ideographic writing. +In the same manner a numeral cipher has become the representation +of a mathematical quantity, a written musical note shows a kind +and degree of sound, and other pictured signs give values of weights +and measures. All of these signs express ideas independent of any +language and may be understood by peoples speaking all diversities of +language.</p> + +<p>So also the idea of smallness and subjection may be conveyed by +drawing an object in an obviously diminished size, of which examples +are given in this chapter. Another expedient, illustrations of which +also appear, is by repetition and combination, with reference to which +the following condensed remarks of James Summers (<i>a</i>) are in point:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The earliest Chinese characters were pictorial; but pictures could not be made +which would clearly express all ideas. One of the means devised to express concepts +that could not be indicated by a simple sketch, was to combine two or more familiar +pictures. For instance, a man with a large eye represents “seeing;” two men, +“to follow;” three men, “many;” two men on the ground, “sitting.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650">[650]</a></span></p> + +<p>All other means failing, the present great mass of characters was formed by a +principle from which the class is called “phonetic;” because in the characters classed +under it, while one part (called the “radical”) preserves its meaning, the other part +(called the “phonetic” or “primitive”) is used to give its own sound to the whole +figure. This part does sometimes, however, convey also its symbolic meaning as +well as its sound.</p></div> + +<p>But while the original mode of expressing ideas required various +devices, when an idea had become established in pictography there +always appeared an attempt to simplify the figure and reduce it in +size, so as to require less space in the drafting surface and also to lessen +the draftsman’s labor. This was more obvious in the degree in which +the figure was complicated and of frequent employment.</p> + +<p>For convenience the subject is divided into: 1. Conventional devices. +2. Syllabaries and alphabets.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CONVENTIONAL DEVICES.</span></h3> + +<h4>PEACE.</h4> + +<p>Among the North American Indians and in several parts of the world +where, as among the Indians, the hand-grasp in simple salutation has +not been found, the junction of the hands between two persons of +different tribes is the ceremonial for union and peace, and the sign for +the same concept is exhibited by the two hands of one person similarly +grasped as an invitation to, or signification of, union and peace. The +ideogram of clasped hands to indicate peace and friendship is found in +pictographs from many localities. The exhibition and presentation of +the unarmed hand may have affected the practice, but the concept of +union by linking is more apparent.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"> +<img src="images/dp778_pg650a.png" width="210" height="54" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1011.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1011.—The Dakotas made peace with the Cheyenne Indians. +The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1840-’41. Here the hands shown with fingers +extended, and therefore incapable of grasping a +weapon, are approaching each other. The different +coloration of the arms indicates different +tribes. The device on the right is a rough form +of the forearm of the Cheyenne marked as mentioned several times in +this work.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 207px;"> +<img src="images/dp778_pg650b.png" width="207" height="167" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1012.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1012.—The Dakotas made peace with the Pawnees. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1858-’59. The man on the +left is a Pawnee.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp778_pg650c.png" width="150" height="130" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1013.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1013.—A Mandan and a Dakota met in the middle +of the Missouri River, each swimming +halfway across. They shook +hands there and made peace. The-Flame’s +Winter Count, 1791-’92.</p> + +<p>Mulligan, post interpreter at Fort Buford, says that this +was at Fort Berthold, and is an historic fact; also that the same Mandan +long afterwards, killed the same Dakota.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651">[651]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 389px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651a.jpg" width="389" height="361" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1014.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1014.—The Omahas came and made peace to get their people whom +the Dakotas held as prisoners. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1804-’05. The attitudes and expressions +are unusually artistic. The uniting +line may only intensify the idea of a treaty resulting +in peace, but perhaps recognizes the fact that +the Omaha (on the left) and Dakota belong to +the same Siouan stock. The marks on the Omaha +are not tribal, but refer to the prisoners—the +marks of their bonds.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 424px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651b.jpg" width="424" height="310" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1015.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1015.—The Dakotas made peace with the Crows at Pine Bluff. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1816-’17. The arrow shows they had +been at war. The Indian at the left is a Crow. +The distinctive and typical arrangement of the +hair of the several tribes in this and the preceding +figure are worthy of note.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 373px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651c.jpg" width="373" height="464" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1016.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1016.—The Dakotas +made peace with the Pawnees. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1814-’15. The +man with the marked forehead, +blue in the original, +is a Pawnee, the other is a +Dakota, whose body is smeared with clay. The four arrows show that +they had been at war, and the clasped hands denote peace.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 329px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651d.jpg" width="329" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1017.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1017.—They made peace +with the Gros Ventres. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, +1803-’04. But one arrow is +shown, indicating that the +subject in question was war, +but that it was not waged at +the time, as would have been shown by two opposed arrows.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 377px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651e.jpg" width="377" height="211" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1018.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1018.—Dakotas made peace with the Crow Indians. The-Swan’s +Winter Count, 1851-’52. Here the representatives of the two tribes +show their pipes crossed, indicating exchange as is expressed by a common +gesture sign.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651f.jpg" width="166" height="254" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1019.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1019.—Made peace with Gen. Sherman and others at Fort Laramie. +The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1867-’68. This is the adoption of the +white man’s flag, as the paramount symbol +on recognition of which peace was made.</p> + +</div> + + + +<h4>WAR.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 307px;"> +<img src="images/dp779_pg651g.jpg" width="307" height="292" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1020.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1020.—The Dakotas were at war +with the Cheyennes. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1834-’35. The Cheyenne is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652">[652]</a></span> +the man with stripes on his arm. The two arrows shot in opposite +directions form one of the conventional symbols for war.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"> +<img src="images/dp780_pg652a.jpg" width="199" height="295" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1021.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1021 is taken from the Winter Count of Battiste +Good for the year 1840-’41. He names it “Came-and-killed-five-of-Little-Thunder’s-brothers +winter.” +He explains that the five were killed in an encounter +with the Pawnees. The capote or headdress, always +but not exclusively worn by Dakota war parties, is +shown, and is the special symbol of war as also given +in several other places in the same record. The five +short vertical lines below the arrow signify that five +were killed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 58px;"> +<img src="images/dp780_pg652b.jpg" width="58" height="127" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1022.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1022.—War-Eagle. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This figure shows a highly abbreviated conventional symbol. +The pipe used in the ceremonial manner explained on +page <a href="#page539">539</a> et seq. means war and not peace, and the single eagle +feather stands for the entire bird often called the war-eagle.</p> + +<p>The adoption of a mat or mattress as an emblem of war or a military +expedition is discussed and illustrated, supra, p. <a href="#page553">553</a>, Fig. <a href="#page556">782</a>.</p> + +<p>In the Jesuit Relation for 1606, p. 51, it is narrated that “The Huron +and Northern Algonkin chiefs, when their respective war parties met +the enemy, distributed among their warriors rods which they carried +for the purpose, and the warriors stuck them in the earth as a token +that they would not retreat any more than the rods would.”</p> + +<p>In their pictographs the rods became represented by strokes which +were not only numerical, but signified warriors.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>CHIEF.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 165px;"> +<img src="images/dp780_pg652c.jpg" width="165" height="320" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1023.</span>—Chief-Boy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1023.—Naca-haksila, Chief-Boy. From the Oglala +Roster. The large pipe held forward with the outstretched +hand is among the Oglalas the conventional +device for chief. This is explained elsewhere by the ceremonies +attendant on the raising of war parties, in which +the pipe is conspicuous. That the human figure is a boy +is indicated by the shortness of the hair and the legs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 368px;"> +<img src="images/dp780_pg652d.jpg" width="368" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1024.</span>—War Chief. Passamaquoddy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1024, drawn by a Passamaquoddy Indian, shows +the manner of representing a war chief by that tribe:</p> + +<p>It signifies a chief with 300 braves. The relative magnitude +of the leading human figure indicates his rank. In this particular +compare Figs. <a href="#page174">137</a>, <a href="#page175">138</a>, and <a href="#page181">142</a>. The device is common in the +Egyptian glyphs.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Dr. Worsnop, op. cit., makes the following +remarks about a similar device +in Australia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At Chasm island, in the Gulf of Carpentaria, +indenting Australia, the third person of a file +of thirty-two painted on the rock was twice +the height of the others, and held in his hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653">[653]</a></span> +something resembling the waddy, or wooden sword, of the natives of Port Jackson, +and was probably intended to represent a chief. They could not as with us, indicate +superiority by clothing or ornament, since they wear none of any kind, and +therefore, with the addition of a weapon similar to the ancients, they seem to have +made superiority of persons the principal emblem of superior power, of which, indeed +power is usually a consequence in the very early stages of society.</p></div> + +<p>The exhibition of horns as a part of the head dress, or pictorially +displayed as growing from the head, is generally among the tribes of +Indians an emblem of power or chieftancy. It is distinctly so asserted +by Schoolcraft, vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 409, as regards the Ojibwa, and by Lafitau, +vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 21, both authors presenting illustrations. The same concept was +ancient and general in the eastern hemisphere. The images of gods +and heads of kings were thus adorned, as at a later day were the crests +of the dukes of Brittany. Some writers have suggested that this symbol +was taken from the crescent moon, others that it referred to the vigor +of the bull. Col. Marshall (<i>a</i>), however, gives an instance of special +derivation. He says that the Todas, when idle, involuntarily twist +and split branches of twigs and pieces of cane into the likeness of +buffalo horns, because they dream of buffalo, live on and by it, and +their whole religion is based on the care of the cow.</p> + + +<h4>COUNCIL.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"> +<img src="images/dp781_pg653a.png" width="190" height="164" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1025.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1025 is taken from the Winter Count of Battiste Good for the +year 1851-’52. In that year the first +issue of goods was made to the Dakotas, +and the character represents +a blanket surrounded by a circle to +show how the Indians sat awaiting +the distribution. The people are +represented by small lines running at right angles to the +circle.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;"> +<img src="images/dp781_pg653b.png" width="139" height="234" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1026.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1026.—The-Good-White-Man returned and gave +guns to the Dakotas. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1799-1800. The +circle of marks represents +the people sitting around +him, the flint-lock musket +the guns.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 288px;"> +<img src="images/dp781_pg653c.png" width="288" height="275" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1027.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1027.—Council at +Spotted-Tail agency. +The-Flame’s Winter +Count, 1875-’76. Here +the circle composed of +short lines pointing to +the center takes the conventional form frequently +used to designate a council.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 234px;"> +<img src="images/dp781_pg653d.png" width="234" height="430" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1028.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1028.—Surrounds-them. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This figure is introduced in this place to show the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654">[654]</a></span> +distinction made by an antagonistic “surround” and the peaceable ring +depicted immediately before.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;"> +<img src="images/dp782_pg654a.png" width="261" height="395" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1029.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1029.—The Dakotas had a council with the whites on the Missouri +river below the Cheyenne +agency, near the mouth +of Bad creek. They had many +flags which the Good-White-Man +gave them with their guns, +and they erected them on poles +to show their friendly feelings. +American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1805-’06. This was perhaps +their meeting with the +Lewis and Clarke expedition. +The curved line is drawn to +represent the council lodge, which they made by +opening several tipis and uniting them at their sides to form a semicircle. +The small dashes are for the people. This is a compromise between the +Indian and the European mode of designating an official assemblage.</p> + +</div> + +<h4>PLENTY OF FOOD.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 277px;"> +<img src="images/dp782_pg654b.png" width="277" height="455" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1030.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1030.—The Dakotas have an abundance of buffalo meat. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1856-’57. This is shown by the full drying pole +on which it was the usage after successful hunts to hang the pieces of +meat to be dried for preservation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/dp782_pg654c.png" width="174" height="228" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1031.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1031.—The Oglalas had an abundance of buffalo meat and shared +it with the Brulés, who were short of food. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1817-’18. The buffalo hide hung +on the drying pole, with the buffalo head above +it, indicates an abundance of meat, as in the +preceding figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;"> +<img src="images/dp782_pg654d.png" width="114" height="125" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1032.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1032 is taken from Battiste Good’s +Winter Count for the year 1745-’46, in which +the drying-pole is as usual supported by two forked sticks or poles. +This is a variant of the two preceding figures.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 337px;"> +<img src="images/dp782_pg654e.png" width="337" height="285" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1033.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1033.—Immense quantities of buffalo meat. The-Swan’s Winter +Count, 1845-’46. This is another form of drying-pole in which a tree +is used for one of the supports. The pieces of +meat would not be recognized as such without +explanation by the preceding figures.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/dp782_pg654f.png" width="149" height="211" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1034.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1034 is taken from the Winter +Count of Battiste Good for the year +1703-’04. The forked stick being one +of the supports of the drying pole or +scaffold, indicates meat. The irregular +circular object means “heap,”<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655">[655]</a></span> +i. e., large quantity, buffalo having been very plentiful that year. The +buffalo head denotes the kind of meat stored. This is an abbreviated +form of the device before presented, and affords a suggestive +comparison with some Egyptian hieroglyphics and Chinese letters, both +in their full pictographic origin and in their abbreviation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655a.png" width="87" height="135" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1035.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1035.—The Dakotas had unusual quantities +of buffalo. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1816-’17. +This representation of a buffalo hide or +side is another sign for abundance of meat, +and is the most abbreviated and conventional +of all, with the same significance, +in the collections now accessible.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 221px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655b.png" width="221" height="184" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1036.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1036.—The Dakotas had unusual abundance of buffalo. The-Swan’s +Winter Count, 1861-’62. This is another mode +of expressing the same abundance. The buffalo tracks, +shown by the cloven hoofs, are coming up close to the +tipi.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 62px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655c.png" width="62" height="171" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1037.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1037.—They had an abundance of corn, +which they got at the Ree villages. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1823-’24.</p> + +<p>The symbol shows the maize growing, and +also is the tribal sign for Arikara or Ree.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>FAMINE.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655d.png" width="164" height="272" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1038.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1038.—The Dakotas had very little buffalo meat, but plenty of +ducks in the fall. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1811-’12. The bare, drying pole is easily interpreted, +but the reversed or dead duck would not +be understood without explanation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655e.png" width="166" height="243" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1039.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1039.—Food was very scarce +and they had to live on acorns. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1813-’14. +The tree is intended for an oak +and the dots beneath it for acorns.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655f.png" width="166" height="299" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1040.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1040.—A year of famine. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1787-’88. They, i. e., the Dakotas, lived +on roots, which are represented in front of the tipi.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;"> +<img src="images/dp783_pg655g.png" width="103" height="116" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1041.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1041.—They could not hunt on account of the deep +snow, and were compelled to subsist on anything they could +get, as herbs (pézi) and roots. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1790-’91.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656">[656]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 248px;"> +<img src="images/dp784_pg656a.png" width="248" height="256" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1042.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1042.—They had to sell many mules and horses to get food, as +they were starving. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1868-’69. +White-Cow-Killer +calls it “Mules-sold-by-hungry-Sioux winter.” +The figure is +understood as a conventionalized +sign by +reference to the historic fact mentioned. +The line of union between the horses’ necks +shows that the subject-matter was not a +horse trade, but that both of the animals, +i. e., many, were disposed of.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/dp784_pg656b.jpg" width="250" height="368" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1043.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1043.—Kingsborough (<i>l</i>) gives the +pictograph recording that “In the year of +One Rabbit and A. D. 1454 so severe a famine occurred that the people +died of starvation.” It is reproduced in Fig 1043.</p> + +</div> + +<h4>STARVATION.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;"> +<img src="images/dp784_pg656c.png" width="235" height="213" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1044.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1044.—Many horses were lost by starvation, as the snow was so +deep they couldn’t get at the grass. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1865-’66.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp784_pg656d.png" width="164" height="338" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1045.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1045, from the record of Battiste Good for the year +1720-’21, signifies starvation, denoted by the bare ribs. +This design is abbreviated and +conventionalized among the Ottawa +and Pottawatomi Indians. +Among the latter a single line only +is drawn across the breast, shown +in Fig. 1046. This corresponds +also with one of the Indian gesture-signs +for the same idea.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 376px;"> +<img src="images/dp784_pg656e.png" width="376" height="263" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1046.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>See also the Abnaki sign of starvation, a pot upside +down, in Fig. <a href="#page347">456</a>, supra.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>HORSES.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 255px;"> +<img src="images/dp784_pg656f.png" width="255" height="208" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1047.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1047.—They caught many wild +horses south of the Platte river. +American-Horse’s +Winter +Count, 1811-’12. +This figure +shows a horse in +the process of +being caught by +a lasso.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657">[657]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657a.png" width="163" height="169" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1048.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1048.—Many wild horses caught. The-Flame’s Winter Count, +1812-’13.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 94px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657b.png" width="94" height="288" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1049.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1049.—Dakotas first used a lasso for catching wild +horses. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1812-’13. In these +two figures the lasso is shown without the animal, thus becoming +the conventional sign for wild horse.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657c.png" width="134" height="208" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1050.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1050.—Crow Indians stole 200 horses from +the Minneconjou Dakotas, near Black Hills. +The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1849-’50. This figure +is inserted to show in the present connection the +lunules, which signify unshod horses. The Indians +never shod their ponies, and the hoof +marks may be either of wild horses, herds of +which formerly roamed the prairies, or the common +horses brought into subjection.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 71px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657d.png" width="71" height="55" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1051.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1051.—Blackfeet Dakotas stole some American horses having +shoes on. Horseshoes seen for the first time. The-Swan’s +Winter Count, 1802-’03. The horseshoe here depicted is the +conventional sign for the white man’s horse.</p> + +</div> + +<h4>HORSE STEALING.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 294px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657e.png" width="294" height="251" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1052.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1052.—Runs-off-the-Horse. Red-Cloud’s Census. “Runs off” +in the parlance of the plains means stealing.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 336px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657f.png" width="336" height="362" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1053.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1053.—Runs-off-the-Horse. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This figure explains the +one preceding. The +man has in his +hand a lariat or +perhaps a lasso.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 313px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657g.png" width="313" height="388" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1054.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1054.—Drags-the-Rope. +Red-Cloud’s Census. +This is a variant +of the last figure, without, however, the +exhibition of anything, such as tracks, to +indicate horses.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 187px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657h.png" width="187" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1055.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658">[658]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fig. 1055.—Dog, an Oglala, stole seventy horses from the Crows. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1822-’23. Each of the seven tracks +stands for ten horses. A lariat, which serves the purpose among others +of a long whip, and is usually allowed to trail on the ground, is shown +in the man’s hand.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 211px;"> +<img src="images/dp785_pg657i.png" width="211" height="201" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1056.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1056.—Sitting-Bear, American-Horse’s father, and others, stole +two hundred horses from the Flat Heads. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1840-’41. A trailing lariat is in the man’s hand.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<img src="images/dp786_pg658a.png" width="126" height="161" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1057.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1057.—Brings-lots-of-horses. Red-Cloud’s Census. This is a +further step in conventionalizing. The lariat +is but slightly indicated as connected with +the horse track on the lower left-hand corner.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/dp786_pg658b.png" width="129" height="143" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1058.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1058.—The Utes stole all of the Brulé +horses. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1874-’75. +The mere indication of a number of +horse tracks without any qualifying or determinative object means +that the horses are run off or stolen. This becomes the most conventionalized +form of the group.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 109px;"> +<img src="images/dp786_pg658c.png" width="109" height="140" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1059.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1059.—Steals-Horses. Red-Cloud’s Census. In this figure the +horse tracks themselves are more rude and conventionalized.</p> + +<p>The Prince of Wied mentions, op. cit., p. 104, that +in the Sac and Fox tribes the rattle of a rattlesnake +attached to the end of the feather worn +on the head signifies a good horse stealer. +The stealthy approach of the serpent, +accompanied with latent power, is here +clearly indicated.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 176px;"> +<img src="images/dp786_pg658d.png" width="176" height="372" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1060.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1060.—Making-the-Hole stole many +horses from a Crow tipi. Such is the translation in +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1849-’50. +The man is cutting the hole with a knife. +Through the orifice thus made he obtains +access to the horse. But it is more probable +that the single tipi represents a village +into which the horse-thief +effected an entrance and ran off +the horses belonging to it.</p> + +</div> + +<h4>KILL AND DEATH.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/dp786_pg658e.png" width="98" height="171" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1061.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1061.—Male-Crow, an Oglala, was +killed by the Shoshoni. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1844-’45. The bow in contact +with the head of the victim is frequently the +conventional sign for “killed by an arrow.” +This is not drawn in the Winter Counts on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659">[659]</a></span> +same principle as the touching with a lance or coup stick, elsewhere +mentioned in this paper, but is generally intended to mean killed, +and to specify the manner of killing, though in fact before the use of +firearms the “coup” was often counted by striking with a bow.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 267px;"> +<img src="images/dp786_pg658f.png" width="267" height="313" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1062.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1062.—Kills-in-tight-place. Red-Cloud’s Census. This man +has evidently been enticed into an ambush, to which his tracks lead.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<img src="images/dp787_pg659a.png" width="194" height="112" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1063.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1063.—Uncpapas kill two Rees. The-Flame’s Winter Count, +1799-1800. The object over the heads of the two Rees, projecting +from the man figure, is a bow, showing the mode +of death. The hair of the Arickaras is represented. +This is clearly conventional +and would not be +understood from the mere delineation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 244px;"> +<img src="images/dp787_pg659b.png" width="244" height="195" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1064.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1064.—Kills-by-the-camp. +Red-Cloud’s Census. +The camp is shown by the tipi, and the idea of “kill” by the bow in +contact with the head of the victim.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 237px;"> +<img src="images/dp787_pg659c.png" width="237" height="363" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1065.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1065.—Kills-Two. Red-Cloud’s Census. Here is the indication +of number by upright lines united by a horizontal +line, as designating the same occasion +and the same people, two of whom are struck +by the coup stick.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/dp787_pg659d.png" width="128" height="184" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1066.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1066.—Feather-Ear-Rings was killed +by the Shoshoni. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1842-’43. The four lodges +and the many blood-stains intimate +that he was killed in a battle when +four lodges of Shoshoni were killed. +Again appears the character for +successful gunshot wound, before +explained in connection with Fig. +<a href="#page640">987</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 82px;"> +<img src="images/dp787_pg659e.png" width="82" height="60" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1067.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1067.—Kills-the-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census. +Here there appears to be a bullet mark in the middle +of the paw representing the middle of the whole animal. +The idea of death may be indicated by the +reverse attitude of the paws, which are turned up, +corresponding with the slang expression “toes up,” to +indicate death.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 205px;"> +<img src="images/dp788_pg660a.png" width="205" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1068.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1068.—They killed a very fat buffalo bull. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1835-’36. This figure is introduced to show an ingenious +differentiation. The rough outline of the buffalo’s forequarters is given<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660">[660]</a></span> +sufficiently to show that the arrow penetrates to an unusual depth, +which indicates the mass of fat, into the region of the +buffalo’s respiratory organs, and therefore there is a +discharge of blood not only from the point of entrance +of the arrow, but from the nostrils of the animal. No +device of an analogous character is +found among five hundred of the Dakotan +pictographs studied, so that the +designation of abnormal fat is made +evident.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/dp788_pg660b.png" width="185" height="164" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1069.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1069.—They killed many Gros Ventres in a village +which they assaulted. American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1832-’33. The single scalped head shows the killing. This +conventional sign is so common as hardly to require notice.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 321px;"> +<img src="images/dp788_pg660c.png" width="321" height="141" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1070.</span>—Killed. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1070, taken from Mrs. Eastman’s Dakota +(<i>e</i>), shows the Dakota pictograph for +“killed”: <i>a</i> is a woman and <i>b</i> a man killed, +and <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> a boy and girl killed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 177px;"> +<img src="images/dp788_pg660d.png" width="177" height="83" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1071.</span>—Life and +death. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1071, taken from Copway (<i>g</i>), gives two +characters which severally represent life and death, the +black disk representing death and the simple circle life.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 438px;"> +<img src="images/dp788_pg660e.png" width="438" height="143" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1072.</span>—Dead. Iroquois.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Doc. Hist. N. Y. (<i>d</i>), is the illustration now copied +as Fig. 1072 with the statement that it shows the fashion +of painting the dead among the Iroquois; the first two +are men and the third is a woman, +who is distinguished only by the +waistcloth that she wears.</p> + +<p>The device is further explained by +the following paragraphs from the +same volume, on p. 6, which add other details:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When they have lost any men on the field of battle they paint the men with the +legs in the air and without heads, and in the same number as they have lost; and to +denote the tribe to which they belonged, they paint the animal of the tribe of the deceased +on its back, the paws in the air, and if it be the chief of the party that is +dead, the animal is without the head.</p> + +<p>If there be only wounded, they paint a broken gun which, however, is connected +with the stock, or even an arrow, and to denote where they have been wounded, they +paint the animal of the tribe to which the wounded belong with an arrow piercing +the part in which the wound is located; and if it be a gunshot they make the mark +of the ball on the body of a different color.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 68px;"> +<img src="images/dp788_pg660f.png" width="68" height="75" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1073.</span>—Dead +man. Arikara.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1073.—This is drawn by the Arikara for “dead man” +and perhaps suggests the concept of nothing inside, i. e., no +life, with a stronger emphasis than given to “lean” in Fig. +<a href="#page594">903</a>, supra. It must be noted, however, that the Hidatsa +draw the same character for “man” simply.</p> + +<p>La Salle, in 1680, wrote that when the Iroquois had killed people they +made red strokes with the figure of a man drawn in black with bandaged<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661">[661]</a></span> +eyes. As this bandaging was not connected with the form of killing, +it may be conjectured that it ideographically meant death—the +light of life put out.</p> + +<p>For other devices to denote “Kill,” see Figs. <a href="#page128">93</a> and <a href="#page128">94</a>.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>SHOT.</h4> + +<p>In this group the figures show obvious similarity yet seem to be +graphic, or at least ideographic, but on examining the text of the several +records conventionality is developed.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 272px;"> +<img src="images/dp789_pg661a.png" width="272" height="210" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1074.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1074.—Shot-at. Red-Cloud’s Census. Here is shown the discharge +of guns and lines of passage of the bullets, one +of which is graphically displayed passing the neck of the +human figure, but without either graphic mark of wound +or the conventional sign for “hit” or “it struck.” He +was shot at by many enemies, but was not hit.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;"> +<img src="images/dp789_pg661b.png" width="195" height="143" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1075.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1075.—Shot. Red-Cloud’s Census. There is no +doubt that this man, a Dakota, was actually shot with +an arrow.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 269px;"> +<img src="images/dp789_pg661c.png" width="269" height="217" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1076.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1076.—Shot-at-his-horse. Red-Cloud’s Census. +Here again are the flashes made by the discharge of +guns and the horse tracks showing horses, but no specific +indication of hitting. The mark within the right-hand +horse track may be compared with the passing bullet +in Fig. 1074. The horse was shot at but not hit.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/dp789_pg661d.png" width="150" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1077.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1077.—Shot-his-horse. Red-Cloud’s Census. This +figure is to be correlated with the last one, as it shows +actual hitting and blood flowing from the wound.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 328px;"> +<img src="images/dp789_pg661e.png" width="328" height="243" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1078.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1078.—Shot-in-front-the-lodge. Red-Cloud’s Census. Without +explanation derived from the context this +figure would not be understood. The right hand +character means several bows united. +Between these and the tipi is the usual device +for blood flowing vertically downwards, +meaning a fatal shot, and the device displayed +horizontally and touching the tipi +means that the man shot belonged to that +tipi or lodge, in front of which he was shot.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662">[662]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>COMING RAIN.</h4> + + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp790_pg662.png" width="100" height="176" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1079.</span>—Coming +rain.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Keam in his MS. describes Fig. 1079 as two forms of +the symbol of Aloseka, which is the bud of the squash. The +form seen in the upper part of the figure, drawn in profile, +is also used by the Moki to typify the east peak of the +San Francisco mountains, the birthplace of the Aloseka; +when the clouds circle, it presages the coming rain. In +the rock carvings the curving profile is further conventionalized +into straight lines and assumes the lower form.</p> + +<p>The collection of characters given in Figs. 1080 and 1081 are selected +from a list published by Maj. C. R. Conder (<i>b</i>). That list includes all +the Hittite designs distinctly deciphered which are so far known, and +they are divided by the author into two plates, one giving the “Hittite +emblems,” as he calls them, “of known sound,” and which are all compared +with the Cypriote, and some with the cuneiform, Egyptian, and +other characters; and the other comprising the “Hittite emblems of +uncertain sound.” The collection is highly suggestive for comparison +of the significance of many forms commonly appearing in several lands +and also as a study of conventionalizing. In these respects its presentation +renders it unnecessary to dwell as much as would otherwise +be required upon the collections of Egyptian and cuneiform characters, +with which students are more familiar and which teach substantially +the same lessons.</p> + + +<h4>HITTITE EMBLEMS OF KNOWN SOUND.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp791_pg663.png" width="550" height="306" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1080.</span>—Hittite emblems of known sound.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>a</i>, a crook. Cypriote <i>u</i>.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, apparently a key. Cypriote <i>ke</i>. Compare the cuneiform emblem +<i>ik</i>, “to open.”</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, a tiara. Cypriote <i>ko</i>; Akkadian <i>ku</i>, “prince;” Manchu <i>chu</i>, “lord.”</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, another tiara, apparently a variant of <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, hand and stick. Cypriote <i>ta</i>, apparently a causative prefix, like +the Egyptian determinative; Chinese <i>ta</i>, “beat.”</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, an herb. Cypriote <i>te</i>; Akkadian <i>ti</i>, “live;” Turkish <i>it</i>, “sprout;” +<i>ot</i>, “herb.”</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, the hand grasping. Cypriote <i>to</i>. Compare the Egyptian, cuneiform +and Chinese signs for “touch,” “take,” “have.” Akkadian <i>tu</i>, +“have.”</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, apparently a branch. Cypriote <i>pa</i>. Compare Akkadian <i>pa</i>, “stick” +(Lenormant).</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, apparently a flower. Cypriote <i>pu</i>. Compare the Akkadian emblem +<i>pa</i>, apparently a flower. Akkadian <i>pu</i>, “long;” Tartar <i>boy</i>, +“long,” “growth,” “grass;” Hungarian <i>fu</i>, “herb.”</p> + +<p><i>j</i>, a cross. Cypriote <i>lo</i>; Carian <i>h</i>.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, a yoke. Cypriote <i>lo</i> and <i>le</i>; Akkadian <i>lu</i>, “yoke.”</p> + +<p><i>l</i> probably represents rain. Compare the Egyptian, Akkadian, and +Chinese emblems for “rain,” “storm,” “darkness.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663">[663]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>m</i> seems to represent drops of water equivalent to the last. Cypriote +<i>re</i>.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, possibly the “fire-stick.” Cypriote <i>ri</i>. Occurs as the name of a +deity. Akkadian <i>ri</i>, “bright,” the name of a deity.</p> + +<p><i>o</i>, two mountains. Cypriote <i>me</i> or <i>mi</i>. The emblem for “country.”</p> + +<p><i>p</i> resembles the cuneiform sign for “female.”</p> + +<p><i>q</i>, this is the sign of opposition in cuneiform, in Chinese and Egyptian. +Cypriote <i>mu</i> or <i>no</i> (<i>nu</i>, “not”).</p> + +<p><i>r</i>, a pot. Cypriote <i>a</i> or <i>ya</i>. Compare the Akkadian <i>a</i>, “water.”</p> + +<p><i>s</i>, a snake. Perhaps the Cypriote <i>ye</i>.</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, apparently a sickle. Cypriote <i>sa</i>. Compare the Tartar <i>sa</i>, <i>se</i>, +“knife.”</p> + +<p><i>u</i>, the open hand. Cypriote <i>se</i>. Akkadian <i>sa</i>, “give.” Tartar <i>saa</i>, +“take.”</p> + +<p><i>v</i> resembles the cuneiform and Chinese emblem for “breath,” “wind,” +“spirit.” Cypriote <i>zo</i> or <i>ze</i>. Occurs as the name of a god. Akkadian +<i>zi</i>, “spirit.”</p> + +<p><i>w</i> resembles the Chinese, cuneiform, and Egyptian emblem for heaven. +Akkadian <i>u</i>. It may be compared with the Carian letter <i>u</i> or <i>o</i>.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, the foot, used evidently as a verb, and resembles the cuneiform <i>du</i>. +Probably may be sounded as in Akkadian and used for the passive (<i>du</i>, +“come” or “become”).</p> + + +<p>HITTITE EMBLEMS OF UNCERTAIN SOUND.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp792_pg664.png" width="550" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1081.</span>—Hittite emblems of uncertain sound.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>y</i>, a serpent. Occurs in the name of a god.</p> + +<p><i>z</i>, perhaps a monument. It recalls the Cypriote <i>ro</i>.</p> + +<p><i>aa</i>, apparently a monument.</p> + +<p><i>bb</i>, probably the sun (<i>ud</i> or <i>tam</i>).</p> + +<p><i>cc</i>, apparently a house.</p> + +<p><i>dd</i>, perhaps the sole of the foot.</p> + +<p><i>ee</i>, a donkey’s head. Probably the god Set.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664">[664]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>ff</i>, a ram’s head. Probably with the sound <i>gug</i> or <i>guch</i> and the meaning +“fierce,” “mighty.”</p> + +<p><i>gg</i>, a sheep’s head. Probably <i>lu</i> or <i>udu</i>.</p> + +<p><i>hh</i>, a dog or fox head.</p> + +<p><i>ii</i>, a lion’s head. Only on seals.</p> + +<p><i>jj</i>, a demon’s head. Used specially in a text which seems to be a +magic charm.</p> + +<p><i>kk</i>, two legs. Resembles the cuneiform <i>dhu</i>, and means probably +“go” or “run.”</p> + +<p><i>ll</i>, two feet. Probably “stand;” or “send,” as in Chinese.</p> + +<p><i>mm</i>, apparently an altar.</p> + +<p><i>nn</i>, perhaps a bundle or roll.</p> + +<p><i>oo</i>, apparently a knife or sword; perhaps <i>pal</i>.</p> + +<p><i>pp</i>, apparently a tree.</p> + +<p><i>qq</i>, apparently the sacred artificial tree of Asshur.</p> + +<p><i>rr</i>, a circle. Compare the cuneiform <i>sa</i>, “middle.”</p> + +<p><i>ss</i>, twins. As in Egyptian.</p> + +<p><i>tt</i> resembles the Chinese emblem for “small.”</p> + +<p><i>uu</i>, a pyramid or triangle.</p> + +<p><i>vv</i>, apparently a hand or glove, pointing downwards. Possibly <i>tu</i> or +<i>dun</i> for “down.”</p> + +<p><i>ww</i>, apparently a ship, like the cuneiform <i>ma</i>. Appears only on +seals.</p> + +<p><i>xx</i>, only once found on the Babylonian bowl, and seems to represent +the inscribed bowl itself.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SYLLABARIES AND ALPHABETS.</span></h3> + +<p>It is worthy of observation that the Greeks used the same word, +γράφειν, to mean drawing and writing, suggesting their early identity. +Drawing was the beginning of writing, and writing was a conventionalized +drawing. The connection of both with gesture signs has been +noticed above. A gesture sign is a significant but evanescent motion, +and a drawing is produced by a motion which leaves significant marks. +When man became proficient in oral language, and desired to give permanence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665">[665]</a></span> +to his thoughts, he first resorted to the designs of picture-writing, +already known and used, to express the sounds of his speech.</p> + +<p>The study of different systems of writing—such as the Chinese, the +Assyrian, and the Egyptian—shows that no people ever invented an +arbitrary system of writing or originated a true alphabet by any fixed +predetermination. All the known graphic systems originated in picture-writing. +All have passed through the stage of conventionalism to +that commonly called the hieroglyphic, while from the latter, directly +or after an intermediate stage, sprang the syllabary which used modifications +of the old ideograms and required a comparatively small +number of characters. Finally, among the more civilized of ancient +races the alphabet was gradually introduced as a simplification of the +syllabary, and still further reduced the necessary characters.</p> + +<p>The old ideograms were, or may be supposed to have been, intelligible +to all peoples without regard to their languages. In this respect they +resembled the Arabic and Roman numerals which are understood +by many nations of diverse speech when written while the sound of +the words figured by them is unintelligible. Their number, however, +was limited only by the current ideas, which might become infinite. +Also each idea was susceptible of preservation in different forms, and +might readily be misinterpreted; therefore the simplicity and precision +of alphabetic writing amply compensated for its exclusiveness.</p> + +<p>The high development of pictorial writing in Mexico and Central +America is well known. Some of these peoples had commenced the +introduction of phonetics into their graphic system, especially in the +rendering of proper names, which probably also was the first step in +that direction among the Egyptians. But Prof. Cyrus Thomas (<i>b</i>) +makes the following remark upon the Maya system, which is of general +application:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is certain, and even susceptible of demonstration, that a large portion, perhaps +the majority, of the characters are symbols.</p> + +<p>The more I study these characters the stronger becomes the conviction that they +have grown out of a pictographic system similar to that common among the Indians +of North America. The first step in advance appears to have been to indicate, by +characters, the gesture signs.</p></div> + +<p>It is not possible now to discuss the many problems contained in the +vast amount of literature on the subject of the Mexican and Central +American writing, and it is the less necessary because much of the +literature is recent and easily accessible. With regard to the Indian +tribes north of Mexico, it is not claimed that more than one system of +characters resembling a syllabary or alphabet was invented by any of +them. The Cherokee alphabet, so called, was adopted from the Roman +by Sequoya, also called George Gist, about A. D. 1820, and was ingenious +and very valuable to the tribe, but being an imitation of an old invention +it has no interest in relation to the present topic. The same is manifestly +true regarding the Cree alphabet, which was of missionary origin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666">[666]</a></span> +The exception claimed is that commonly, but erroneously, called the +Micmac hieroglyphics. The characters do not partake of the nature of +hieroglyphs, and their origin is not Micmac.</p> + + +<h4>THE MICMAC “HIEROGLYPHICS.”</h4> + +<p>The Micmac was an important tribe, occupying all of Nova Scotia, +Cape Breton island, Prince Edward island, the northern part of New +Brunswick, and the adjacent part of the province of Quebec, and ranging +over a great part of Newfoundland. According to Rev. Silas T. +Rand, op. cit., Megum is the singular form of the name which the +Micmacs use for themselves. Rev. Eugene Vetromile (<i>a</i>) translates +“Micmacs” as “secrets practicing men,” from the Delaware and old +Abnaki word <i>malike</i>, “witchcraft,” and says the name was given them +on account of their numerous jugglers; but he derives Mareschite, +which is an Abnaki division, from the same word and makes it identical +with Micmac. The French called them Souriquois, which Vetromile +translates “good canoe men.” They were also called Acadians, from +their habitat in Acadie, now Nova Scotia.</p> + +<p>The first reference in literature with regard to the spontaneous use +by Indians of the characters now called the “Micmac hieroglyphs” +appears in the Jesuit Relations of the year 1652, p. 28. In the general +report of that year the work of Father Gabriel Druillettes, who had +been a missionary to the Abnaki (including under this term the Indians +of Acadia, afterwards distinguished as Micmacs), is dwelt upon in +detail. His own words, in a subordinate report, appear to have been +adopted in the general report of the Father Superior, and, translated, +are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some of them wrote out their lessons in their own manner. They made use of a +small piece of charcoal instead of a pen, and a piece of bark instead of paper. Their +characters were novel, and so <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">particuliers</i> [individual or special] that one could not +know or understand the writing of the other; that is to say, that they made use of +certain marks according to their own ideas as of a local memory to preserve the +points and the articles and the maxims which they had remembered. They carried +away this paper with them to study their lesson in the repose of the night.</p></div> + +<p>No further remark or description appears.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to notice that the abbé J. A. Maurault, (<i>a</i>) after his +citation of the above report of Father Druillettes, states in a footnote +translated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>We have ourselves been witnesses of a similar fact among the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Têtes-de-Boule</span> +Indians of the River St. Maurice where we had been missionaries during three years. +We often saw during our instructions or explanations of the catechism that the Indians +traced on pieces of bark, or other objects very singular hieroglyphs. These Indians +afterward passed the larger part of the following night in studying what they +had so written, and in teaching it to their children or their brothers. The rapidity +with which they by this manner learnt their prayers was very astonishing.</p></div> + +<p>The Indians called by the Abbé Maurault the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Têtes-de-Boule</span> or +Round Heads, are also known as Wood Indians, and are ascertained<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667">[667]</a></span> +to have been a band of the Ojibwa, which shows a connection between +the practice of the Ojibwa and that of the Micmacs, both being of the +Algonquian stock, to mark on bark ideographic or other significant inscriptions +which would assist them to memorize what struck them as of +special interest and importance, notably religious rites. Many instances +are given in the present paper, and the spontaneous employment of +prayer sticks by other persons of the same stock is also illustrated +in Figs. <a href="#page508">715</a> and <a href="#page509">716</a>.</p> + +<p>The next notice in date is by Père Chrétien Le Clercq (<i>a</i>), a member of +the Recollect order of Franciscans who landed on the coast of Gaspé +in 1675, learned the language of the Micmacs and worked with them +continuously for several years.</p> + +<p>It would appear that he observed and took advantage of the pictographic +practice of the Indians, which may have been continued from +that reported by Father Druillettes a few years earlier with reference to +the same general region, or may have been a separate and independent +development in the tribe with which Father Le Clercq was most closely +connected.</p> + +<p>His quaint account is translated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Our Lord inspired me with this method the second year of my mission, when, +being greatly embarrassed as to the mode in which I should teach the Indians to +pray, I noticed some children making marks on birch bark with coal, and they +pointed to them with their fingers at every word of the prayer which they pronounced. +This made me think that by giving them some form which would aid +their memory by fixed characters, I should advance much more rapidly than by +teaching on the plan of making them repeat over and over what I said. I was +charmed to know that I was not deceived, and that these characters which I had +traced on paper produced all the effect I desired, so that in a few days they learned all +their prayers without difficulty. I cannot describe to you the ardor with which these +poor Indians competed with each other in praiseworthy emulation which should be +the most learned and the ablest. It costs, indeed, much time and pains to make all +they require, and especially since I enlarged them so as to include all the prayers +of the church, with the sacred mysteries of the trinity, incarnation, baptism, penance, +and the eucharist.</p></div> + +<p>There is no description whatever of the characters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"> +<a href="images/dp796_pg668h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp796_pg668.jpg" class="hires" width="368" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1082.</span>—Title page of Kauder’s Micmac Catechism.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The next important printed notice or appearance of the Micmac characters +is in the work of Rev. Christian Kauder, a Redemptorist missionary, +the title page of which is given in Fig. 1082. It was printed in +Vienna in 1866 and therefore was about two centuries later than the first +recorded invention of the characters. During those two centuries the +French and therefore the Roman Catholic influences had been much of +the time dormant in the habitat of the Micmacs (the enforced exodus of +the French from Acadie being about 1755). Father Kauder was one of +the most active in the renewal of the missions. He learned the Micmac +language, probably gathered together such “hieroglyphs” on rolls of +bark as had been preserved, added to them parts of the Greek and +Roman alphabet and other designs, and arranged the whole in systematic +and grammatic form. After about twenty years of work upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668">[668]</a></span> +them he procured their printing in Vienna. A small part of the edition, +which was the first printed, reached the Micmacs. The main part, +shipped later, was lost at sea in the transporting vessel.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669">[669]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"> +<a href="images/dp797_pg669h.png"> +<img src="images/dp797_pg669.png" class="hires" width="388" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1083.</span>—The Lord’s Prayer in Micmac hieroglyphics.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1083 shows the version of the Lord’s Prayer, published by Dr. +J. G. Shea (<i>a</i>) in his translation of Le Clercq’s First Establishment of +the Faith in New France, this and the preceding figure being taken +from the Bibliography of the Languages of the N. A. Indians by Mr. +J. C. Pilling, of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<p>The publication of Father Kauder was a duodecimo in three parts: +Catechism, 144 pages; religious reflections, 109 pages; and hymnal, +208 pages. They are very seldom found bound together, and a perfect +copy of either of the parts or volumes is rare. On a careful examination +of the hieroglyphs, so called, it seems evident that on the original +substratum of Micmac designs or symbols, each of which represented +mnemonically a whole sentence or verse, a large number of arbitrary<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670">[670]</a></span> +designs have been added to express ideas and words which were not +American, and devices were incorporated with them intended to represent +the peculiarities of the Micmac grammar as understood by Kauder, +and it would seem of a universal grammar antedating Volapük. The +explanation of these additions has never been made known. Kauder +died without having left any record or explanation of the plan by which +he attempted to convert the mnemonic characters invented by the +Indians into what may be considered an exposition of organized words +(not sounds) in grammatical form. An attempt which may be likened +to this was made by Bishop Landa in his use of the Maya characters, +and one still more in point was that of the priests in Peru, mentioned +in connection with Figs. <a href="#page672">1084</a> and <a href="#page672">1085</a>, infra.</p> + +<p>The result is that in the several camps of Micmacs visited by the +present writer in Cape Breton island, Prince Edward island, and Nova +Scotia, fragments of the printed works are kept and used for religious +worship, and also many copies on various sheets and scraps of paper +have been made of similar fragments, but their use is entirely mnemonic, +as was that of their ancient bark originals. Very few of the Indians +who in one sense can “read” them currently in the Micmac language, +have any idea of the connection between any one of the characters and +the vocables of the language. When asked what a particular character +meant they were unable to answer, but would begin at the commencement +of the particular prayer or hymn, and when arrested at any point +would then for the first time be able to give the Micmac word or words +which corresponded with that character. This was not in any religious +spirit, as is mentioned by Dr. Washington Matthews, in his Mountain +Chant, Fifth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, with reference to the +Navajo’s repeating all, if any, of the chant, but because they only knew +that way to use the script. In that use they do as is mentioned of the +Ojibwa, supra. The latter often by their bark script keep the memory +of archaic words, and the Micmac keep that of religious phrases not well +understood. A few, and very few, of the characters, which were constantly +repeated, and were specially conspicuous, were known as distinct +from the other characters by one only of the Indians examined. It +apparently had never occurred to any of them that these same characters, +which in their special mnemonic connection represented Micmac words, +could be detached from their context and by combination represent the +same words in other sentences. Therefore, the expression “reading,” used +in reference to the operation, is not strictly correct. In most cases the +recitation of the script was in a chant, and the musical air of the Roman +Catholic Church belonging to the several hymns and chants was often +imitated. The object, therefore, which has been expressed in the above +quoted accounts of Fathers Druillettes and Le Clercq had been accomplished +regarding the then extant generation of Indians two hundred +years before Father Kauder’s publication. That object was for Indians +under their immediate charge to learn in the most speedy manner certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671">[671]</a></span> +formulæ of the church, by the use of which it was supposed that they +would gain salvation. The formation of an alphabet, or even a syllabary, +by which the structure of the language should be considered and +its vocal expression recorded, was not the object. It is possible that +there was an objection to the instruction of the Indians in a modern +alphabet by which they might more readily learn either French or +English, and at the same time be able to read profane literature and +thereby become perverted from the faith. These missionaries certainly +refrained, for some reason, not only from instructing the heathen +in any of the languages of civilization, but also from teaching them +the use of an alphabet for their own language.</p> + +<p>It is probable that Father Kauder had some idea of reducing the +language of the Micmacs to a written form, based not upon verbal or +even syllabic notation, but upon some anomalous compromise between +their ideographic original or substratum and a grammatic superstructure. +If so, he entirely failed. The interesting point with regard to +this remarkable and unique attempt is, that there is undoubtedly a +basis of Indian designs and symbols included and occluded among the +differentiated devices in the three volumes mentioned, which arbitrarily +express thoughts and words by a false pictographic method, instead of +sentences and verses. But the change from the pictorial forms to those +adopted, if not as radical as that from the Egyptian hieroglyphs to +the Roman text, resembles that from the archaic to the modern Chinese. +Therefore it would follow that the present form of the characters is not +one which the Indians would learn more readily than an alphabet or +a syllabary, and that is the ascertained fact. At Cow bay, a Micmac +camp, about 12 miles from Halifax, an aged chief who in his boyhood +at Cape Breton island was himself instructed by Father Kauder in +these characters, explained that Kauder taught them to the boys by +drawing them on a blackboard and by repetition, very much in the +manner in which a schoolmaster in civilized countries teaches the alphabet +to children. The actual success of the Cherokees in the free +and general use of Sequoya’s Syllabary, which was not founded on +pictographs, but on signs for sounds, should be noted in this connection.</p> + +<p>Among the thousands of scratchings on the Kejemkoojik rocks, many +of which were undoubtedly made by the Micmac, only two characters +were found resembling any in Kauder’s volumes, and those were common +symbols of the Roman Catholic Church, and might readily have +been made by the Frenchmen, who also certainly left scratchings there. +Altogether after careful study of the subject it is considered that the +devices in Father Kauder’s work are so intrinsically changed, both in +form and intent, from the genuine Micmac designs that they can not be +presented as examples of Indian pictography.</p> + +<p>Connected with this topic is the following account in the Jesuit Relations +of 1646, p. 31, relative to the Montagnais and other Algonquians of +the St. Lawrence river, near the Saguenay: “They confess themselves +with admirable frankness; some of them carry small sticks to remind<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672">[672]</a></span> +them of their sins; others write, after their manner, on small pieces of +bark.” This is but the application of the ideographic writing on birch +bark by the converts to the ceremonies and stories of the Christian +religion, as the same art had been long used for their aboriginal traditions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp800_pg672ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp800_pg672a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="342" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1084.</span>—Religious story. Sicasica.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Examples of pictographic work, done in a spirit similar to that above +mentioned, are given by Wiener (<i>g</i>), describing the illustrations of +which Figs. 1084 and 1085 are copies, one-fifth real size.</p> + +<p>In the most distant part of Peru, +in the valley of Paucartambo, +at Sicasica, the history of the passion +of Christ was found written +in the same ideographic system +that the Indians of Ancon and +the north of the coast were acquainted +with before the conquest. +(Fig. 1084.) The drawings +were made with a pencil, probably +first dipped in a mixture of +gum and mandioc flour. This +tissue is of a dark brown and +the designs are of a very bright +red.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;"> +<img src="images/dp800_pg672b.jpg" width="486" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1085.</span>—Religious story. Sicasica.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The second series, Fig. 1085, +which was found at Paucartambo, +was written in an analogous system +on old Dutch paper. The +designs are red and blue.</p> + +<p>In an article by Terrien de Lacouperie (<i>f</i>) is the following condensed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673">[673]</a></span> +account, part of which relates to Fig. 1086, and may be compared with +the priestly inventions above mentioned:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;"> +<a href="images/dp801_pg673h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp801_pg673.jpg" class="hires" width="443" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1086.</span>—Mo-so MS. Desgodins.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Père Desgodins was able, in 1867, to make a copy of eleven pages from a manuscript +written in hieroglyphics, and belonging to a tom-ba or tong-ba, a medicine +man among the Mo-sos. These hieroglyphics are not, properly speaking, a writing, +still less the current writing of the tribe. The sorcerers or tong-bas alone use it +when invited by the people to recite these so-called prayers, accompanied with +ceremonies and sacrifices, and also to put some spells on somebody, a specialty of +their own. They alone know how to read them and understand their meaning; +they alone are acquainted with the value of these signs, combined with the numbers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674">[674]</a></span> +of the dice and other implements of divination which they use in their witchcraft. +Therefore, these hieroglyphics are nothing else than signs more or less symbolical +and arbitrary, known to a small number of initiated who transmit their knowledge +to their eldest son and successor in their profession of sorcerers. Such is the exact +value of the Mo-so manuscripts; they are not a current and common writing; they +are hardly a sacred writing in the limits indicated above.</p> + +<p>However, they are extremely important for the general theory of writing, inasmuch +as they do not pretend to show in that peculiar hieroglyphical writing any survival +of former times. According to these views, it was apparently made up for the purpose +by the tom-bas or medicine men. This would explain, perhaps, the anomalous +mixture of imperfect and bad imitations of ancient seal characters of China, pictorial +figures of animals and men, bodies and their parts, with several Tibetan and Indian +characters and Buddhist emblems.</p> + +<p>It is not uninteresting to remark here that a kind of meetway or toomsah, i. e., +priest, has been pointed out among the Kakhyens of Upper Burma. The description +is thus quoted:</p> + +<p>“A formal avenue always exists as the entrance to a Kakhyen village. * * * +On each side of the broad grassy pathway are a number of bamboo posts, 4 feet high +or thereabouts, and every 10 paces or so, taller ones, with strings stretching across +the path, supporting small stars of split rattan and other emblems. There are also +certain hieroglyphics which may constitute a kind of embryo picture-writing but +are understood by none but the meetway or priest.”</p></div> + + +<h4>PICTOGRAPHS IN ALPHABETS.</h4> + +<p>Mr. W. W. Rockhill, in Am. Anthrop., <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, No. 1, p. 91, notices the +work of M. Paul Vial, missionary, etc., <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la langue et de l’écriture indigènes +au Yûnân</span>, with the following remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Père Vial has published a study upon the undeciphered script of the Lolos of +Western China, of which the first specimen was secured some twelve years ago by +E. Colborne Baber. Prof. Terrien de Lacouperie endeavored to establish a connection +between these curious characters and the old Indian script known as the +southern Ashoka alphabet. The present, Père Vial’s, work gives them a much less +glorious origin. He says of them: “The native characters were formed without +key, without method. It is impossible to decompose them. They are written +not with the strokes of a brush, but with straight, curved, round, or angular +lines, as the shape chosen for them requires. As the representation could not be +perfect, they have stopped at something which can strike the eye or mind—form, +motion, passion, a head, a bird’s beak, a mouth, right or left, lightness or heaviness; +in short, at that portion of the object delineated which is peculiarly characteristic +of it. But all characters are not of this expressive kind; some even have no connection +with the idea they express. This anomaly has its reason. The native characters +are much less numerous than the words of the language, only about thirty per +cent. Instead of increasing the number of ideograms, the Lolos have used one for +several words. As a result of this practice the natives have forgotten the original +meaning of many of their characters.”</p></div> + +<p>A summary of the original cuneiform characters, numbering one +hundred and seventy, gives many of them as recognizable sketches of +objects. The foot stands for “go,” the hand for “take,” the legs for +“run,” much as in the Egyptian and in the Maya and other American +systems. The bow, the arrow, and the sword represent war; the vase, +the copper tablet, and the brick represent manufacture; boats, sails, +huts, pyramids, and many other objects are used as devices.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675">[675]</a></span></p> + +<p>W. St. Chad Boscawen (<i>a</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Man’s earliest ventures in the art of writing were, as we are well aware, of a purely +pictorial nature, and even to this day such a mode of ideography can be seen among +some of the Indian tribes. * * * There is no reasonable doubt but that all the +principal systems of paleography now in vogue had their origin at some remote period +in this pictorial writing. In so primitive a center as Babylonia we should naturally +expect to find such a system had been in vogue, and in this we are not disappointed.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;"> +<a href="images/dp803_pg675h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp803_pg675.jpg" class="hires" width="367" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1087.</span>—Pictographs in alphabets.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1087 is presented as a brief exhibit of the pictographs in some +inchoate alphabets.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676">[676]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XX.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">SPECIAL COMPARISONS.</span></h2> + + +<p>The utility of the present work depends mainly upon the opportunity +given by the various notes and illustrations collected for students +to make their own comparisons and deductions. This chapter +is intended to assist in that study by presenting some groups of +comparisons which have seemed to possess special interest. For that +reason descriptions and illustrations are collected here which logically +belong to other headings.</p> + +<p>Many of the pictographs discussed and illustrated in this chapter +and in the one following are the representation of animals and other +natural objects. It would therefore seem that they could be easily +identified, but in fact the modes of representation of the same object +among the several peoples differed, and when conventionalizing has +also become a factor the objects may not be recognized without knowledge +of the typical style. Sometimes there was apparently no attempt +at the imitation of natural objects, but marks were used, such as points, +lines, circles, and other geometric forms. These were combined in +diverse modes to express concepts and record events. Those marks +and combinations originated in many centers and except in rare +instances of “natural” ideograms those of one people would not correspond +with those of other peoples unless by conveyance or imitation. +Typical styles therefore appear also in this class of pictographs and, +when established, all typical styles afford some indication with regard to +the peoples using them.</p> + +<p>This chapter is divided under the headings of: 1. Typical Style. +2. Homomorphs and Symmorphs. 3. Composite forms. 4. Artistic skill +and methods.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">TYPICAL STYLE.</span></h3> + +<p>Fig. 1088 is presented as a type of eastern Algonquian petroglyphs. +It is a copy of the “Hamilton picture rock,” contributed by Mr. J. Sutton +Wall, of Monongahela city, Pennsylvania. The drawings are on +a sandstone rock, on the Hamilton farm, 6 miles southeast from Morgantown, +West Virginia. The turnpike passes over the south edge of +the rock.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677">[677]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 591px;"> +<img src="images/dp805_pg677a.png" width="591" height="477" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1088.</span>—Algonquian petroglyph. Hamilton farm, West Virginia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Wall furnishes the following description of the characters:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>a</i>, outline of a turkey; <i>b</i>, outline of a panther; <i>c</i>, outline of a rattlesnake; <i>d</i>, outline +of a human form; <i>e</i>, a “spiral or volute;” <i>f</i>, impression of a horse foot; <i>g</i>, +impression of a human foot; <i>h</i>, outline of the top portion of a tree or branch; <i>i</i>, impression +of a human hand; <i>j</i>, impression of a bear’s forefoot, but lacks the proper +number of toe marks; <i>k</i>, impression of two turkey tracks; <i>l</i>, has some appearance of +a hare or rabbit, but lacks the corresponding length of ears; <i>m</i>, impression of a +bear’s hindfoot, but lacks the proper number of toe marks; <i>n</i>, outline of infant +human form, with two arrows in the right hand; <i>o</i>, <i>p</i>, two cup-shaped depressions; +<i>q</i>, outline of the hind part of an animal; <i>r</i> might be taken to represent the impression +of a horse’s foot were it not for the line bisecting the outer curved line; <i>s</i> represent +buffalo and deer tracks.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678">[678]</a></span></p> + +<p>The turkey <i>a</i>, the rattlesnake <i>c</i>, the rabbit <i>l</i>, and the “footprints” +<i>j</i>, <i>m</i>, and <i>q</i>, are specially noticeable as typical characters in Algonquian +pictography.</p> + +<p>Mr. P. W. Sheafer furnishes, in his Historical Map of Pennsylvania, +Philadelphia, 1875, a sketch of a pictograph on the Susquehanna river, +Pennsylvania, below the dam at Safe Harbor, part of which is reproduced +in Fig. 1089. This appears to be purely Algonquian, and has +more resemblance to Ojibwa characters than any other petroglyph in +the eastern United States yet noted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"> +<img src="images/dp805_pg677b.png" width="479" height="384" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1089.</span>—Algonquian petroglyphs. Safe Harbor, Pennsylvania.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>See also Figs. <a href="#page107">70</a>, et seq., supra, under the heading of Pennsylvania, +as showing excellent types of eastern Algonquian petroglyphs and +resembling those on the Dighton rock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp807_pg679h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp807_pg679.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="364" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>Fig. 1090.—Algonquian petroglyphs. Cunningham’s island, Lake Erie.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1090 is reproduced from Schoolcraft (<i>p</i>), and is a copy taken in +1851 of an inscription sculptured on a rock on the south side of Cunningham’s +island, Lake Erie. Mr. Schoolcraft’s explanation, given in +great detail, is fanciful. It is perhaps only necessary to explain that +the dotted lines are intended to divide the partially obliterated from +the more distinct portions of the glyph. The central part is the most +obscure.</p> + +<p>It is to be remarked that this petroglyph is in some respects similar +in general style to those before given as belonging to the eastern Algonquian +type, but is still more like some of the representations of the +Dighton rock inscription, one of them being Fig. <a href="#page086">49</a>, supra, and others, +which it still more closely resembles in the mode of drawing human +figures, are in the copies of Dighton rock on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page763">LIV</a></span>, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span>. In +some respects this Cunningham’s island glyph occupies a typical position +intermediate between the eastern and western Algonquian.</p> + +<p>A good type of western Algonquian petroglyphs was discovered by +the party of Capt. William A. Jones (<i>b</i>), in 1873, with an illustration +here reproduced as Fig. 1091, in which the greater number of the characters +are shown, about one-fifth real size.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp808_pg680a.png" width="550" height="195" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1091.</span>—Algonquian petroglyphs. Wyoming.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>An abstract of his description is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>* * * Upon a nearly vertical wall of the yellow sandstones, just back of Murphy’s +ranch, a number of rude figures had been chiseled, apparently at a period not +very recent, as they had become much worn. * * * No certain clue to the connected +meaning of this record was obtained, although Pínatsi attempted to explain +it when the sketch was shown to him some days later by Mr. F. W. Bond, who copied +the inscriptions from the rocks. The figure on the left, in the upper row, somewhat +resembles the design commonly used to represent a shield, with the greater part of +the ornamental fringe omitted, perhaps worn away in the inscription. We shall +possibly be justified in regarding the whole as an attempt to record the particulars of +a fight or battle which once occurred in this neighborhood. Pínatsi’s remarks conveyed +the idea to Mr. Bond that he understood the figure [the second in the upper +line] to signify cavalry, and the six figures [three in the middle of the upper line, +as also the three to the left of the lower line] to mean infantry, but he did not +appear to recognize the hieroglyphs as the copy of any record with which he was +familiar.</p></div> + +<p>Throughout the Wind river country of Wyoming many petroglyphs<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679">[679]</a></span> +have been found and others reported by the Shoshoni Indians, who +say that they are the work of the “Pawkees,” as they call the Blackfeet, +or, more properly, Satsika, an Algonquian tribe which formerly +occupied that region, and their general style bears strong resemblance +to similar carvings found in the eastern portion of the United States, +in regions known to have been occupied by other tribes of the Algonquian +linguistic stock.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680">[680]</a></span></p> + +<p>The four specimens of Algonquian petroglyphs presented here in +Figs. 1088-91 and those referred to, show gradations in type. In +connection with them reference may be made to the numerous Ojibwa +bark records in this work; the Ottawa pipestem, Fig. <a href="#page530">738</a>; and they +may be contrasted with the many Dakota, Shoshoni, and Innuit drawings +also presented.</p> + +<p>The petroglyphs found scattered throughout the states and territories +embraced within the area bounded by the Rocky mountains on +the east and the Sierra Nevada on the west, and generally south of +the forty-eighth degree of latitude, are markedly similar in the class of +objects represented and the general +style of their delineation, without reference +to their division into pecked +or painted characters; also in many +instances the sites selected for petroglyphic +display are of substantially +the same character. This type has +been generally designated as the +Shoshonean, though many localities +abounding in petroglyphs of the type +are now inhabited by tribes of other +linguistic stocks.</p> + +<p>Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. +Geological Survey, has furnished a +small collection of drawings of Shoshonean +petroglyphs from Oneida, +Idaho, shown in Fig. <a href="#page077">39</a>, supra.</p> + +<p>Five miles northwest from this +locality and one-half mile east from +Marsh creek is another group of +characters on basalt bowlders, apparently +totemic, and drawn by Shoshoni. +A copy of these, also contributed by Mr. Gilbert, is given in +Fig. 1092.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 364px;"> +<img src="images/dp808_pg680b.png" width="364" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1092.</span>—Shoshonean petroglyphs. Idaho.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>All of these drawings resemble the petroglyphs found at Partridge<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681">[681]</a></span> +creek, northern Arizona, and in Temple creek canyon, southeastern +Utah, mentioned supra, pages <a href="#page050">50</a> and <a href="#page116">116</a>, respectively.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 490px;"> +<img src="images/dp809_pg681b.png" width="490" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1093.</span>—Shoshonean petroglyphs. Utah.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. I. C. Russell, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has furnished +drawings of rude pictographs at Black Rock spring, Utah, represented +in Fig. 1093. Some of the other characters not represented in the +figure consist of several +horizontal lines, placed +one above another, above +which are a number of +spots, the whole appearing +like a numerical record +having reference to the +figure alongside, which +resembles, to a slight extent, +a melon with tortuous +vines and stems. The +left-hand upper figure +suggests the masks shown +in Fig. <a href="#page505">713</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/dp809_pg681a.jpg" width="333" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1094.</span>—Shoshonean rock-painting. +Utah.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Gilbert Thompson, +of the U. S. Geological +Survey, has discovered +pictographs at Fool creek +canyon, Utah, shown in +Fig. 1094, which strongly +resemble those still made +by the Moki of Arizona. +Several characters are identical with those last mentioned, and represent +human figures, one of which is drawn to represent a man, shown by +a cross, the upper arm of which is attached +to the perinæum. These are all drawn in red +color and were executed at three different +periods. Other neighboring pictographs +are pecked and unpainted, while others are +both pecked and painted.</p> + +<p>Both of these pictographs from Utah may +be compared with the Moki pictographs from +Oakley springs, Arizona, copied in Fig. <a href="#page748">1261</a>.</p> + +<p>Dr. G. W. Barnes, of San Diego, California, +has kindly furnished sketches of pictographs +prepared for him by Mrs. F. A. Kimball, +of National city, California, which were +copied from records 25 miles northeast of +the former city. Many of them found upon +the faces of large rocks are almost obliterated, +though sufficient remains to permit<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682">[682]</a></span> +tracing. The only color used appears to be red ocher. Many of the +characters, as noticed upon the drawings, closely resemble those in New +Mexico, at Ojo de Benado, south of Zuñi, and in the canyon leading +from the canyon at Stewart’s ranch, to the Kanab creek canyon, Utah. +This is an indication of the habitat of the Shoshonean stock apart from +the linguistic evidence with which it agrees.</p> + +<p>From the numerous illustrations furnished of petroglyphs found in +Owens valley, California, reference is here made to Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page058">II</a></span> <i>a</i>, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page058">III</a></span> <i>h</i>, +and Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page058">VII</a></span> <i>a</i> as presenting suggestive similarity to the Shoshonean +forms above noted, and apparently connecting them with others in New +Mexico, Arizona, Sonora, and Central and South America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp810_pg682h.png"> +<img src="images/dp810_pg682.png" class="hires" width="550" height="313" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1095.</span>—Arizona petroglyph.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mr. F. H. Cushing (<i>a</i>) figured three petroglyphs, now reproduced in +Figs. 1095 and 1096, from Arizona, and referred to them in connection +with figurines found in the ruined city of Los Muertos, in the Salado +valley, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/dp811_pg683a.jpg" width="333" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1096.</span>—Arizona petroglyph.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Beneath the floor of the first one of these huts which we excavated, near the +ranch of Mr. George Kay Miller, were discovered, disposed precisely as would be a +modern sacrifice of the kind in Zuñi, the paraphernalia of a Herder’s sacrifice, +namely, the paint line, encircled, perforated medicine cup, the Herder’s amulet stone +of chalcedony, and a group of at least fifteen remarkable figurines. The figurines +alone, of the articles constituting this sacrifice, differed materially from those which +would occur in a modern Zuñi “New Year Sacrifice” of the kind designed to propitiate +the increase and prosperity of its herds. While in Zuñi these figurines invariably +represent sheep (the young of sheep mainly; mostly also females), the figurines +in the hut at “Los Guanacos,” as I named the place, represented with rare fidelity +* * * some variety, I should suppose, of the auchenia or llama of South America.</p> + +<p>Summing up the evidence presented by the occurrence of numerous “bola stones” +in these huts and within the cities; by the remarkably characteristic forms of these +figurines; by the traditional statement of modern Zuñis regarding “small hairy +animals” possessed by their ancestors, no less than by the statements of Marcus +Nizza, Bernal Diaz, and other Spanish writers to the same effect, and adding to this +sum the facts presented in sundry ritualistic pictographs, I concluded, very boldly, +* * * that the ancient Pueblos-Shiwians, or Aridians, * * * must have had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683">[683]</a></span> +domesticated a North American variety of the auchenia more nearly resembling, it +would seem, the guanaco of South America than the llama.</p></div> + +<p>It is ascertained that the petroglyphs copied by Mr. Cushing as +above are pecked upon basaltic rock in the northern face of Maricopa +mountains, near Telegraph pass, south of Phœnix, Arizona.</p> + +<p>The following information is obtained +from Dr. H. Ten Kate (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In several localities in the sierra in the +peninsula of California and Sonora are rocks +painted red. These paintings are quite rude +and are inferior to many of the pictographs +of the North American Indians. Figs. 1097 +and 1098 were found at Rincon de S. Antonio. +The right-hand division of Fig. 1097 is +a complete representation, and the figures copied appear on the stone in the order in +which they are here given. The left-hand division of the same figure represents only +the most distinct objects, selected from among a large number of others, very similar, +which cover a block of marble several meters in height. The object in the upper +left-hand corner of Fig. 1097 measures 20 to 21 centimeters; the others are represented +in proportion.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 583px;"> +<img src="images/dp811_pg683b.jpg" width="583" height="312" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1097.</span>—Petroglyphs, Lower California.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 574px;"> +<img src="images/dp811_pg683c.jpg" width="574" height="405" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1098.</span>—Petroglyphs in Lower California.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>These two figures resemble petroglyphs reported from the Santa +Inez range, west of Santa Barbara, Lower California.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684">[684]</a></span></p> + +<p>The same author, op. cit., p. 324, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Fig. 1098 represents symbols which were the most easily distinguished among the +great number of those which cover two immense granite blocks at Boca San Pedro. +The rows of dots (or points) which are seen at the left of this figure measure 1.50 +meters, the parallel lines traced at the right are about 1 meter.</p></div> + +<p>This figure is like another found farther east (see Fig. <a href="#page069">31</a>) from Azuza +canyon, California.</p> + +<p>A number of Haida pictographs are reproduced in other parts of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685">[685]</a></span> +work. In immediate connection with the present topic Fig. 1099 is +presented. It shows the carved columns in front of the chief’s house +at Massett, Queen Charlotte island.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;"> +<a href="images/dp812_pg684h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp812_pg684.jpg" class="hires" width="418" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1099.</span>—Haida Totem Post.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The following illustrations from New Zealand are introduced here +for comparison.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp813_pg685h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp813_pg685.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="463" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1100.</span>—New Zealand house posts.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. F. von Hochstetter (<i>b</i>) writing of New Zealand, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The dwellings of the chiefs at Ohinemutu are surrounded with inclosures of pole +fences, and the Whares and Wharepunis, some of them exhibiting very fine specimens +of the Maori order of architecture, are ornamented with grotesque wood carvings. +Fig. 1100 is an illustration of some of them. The gable figure with the lizard +having six feet and two heads is very remarkable. The human figures are not idols, +but are intended to represent departed sires of the present generation.</p></div> + +<p>Niblack (<i>c</i>) gives a description of the illustration reproduced as Fig. +1101.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;"> +<img src="images/dp814_pg686a.jpg" width="236" height="548" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1101.</span>—New Zealand tiki.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tiki. At Raroera Pah, New Zealand. From Wood’s Natural History, page 180. +Of this he says: “This gigantic tiki stands, together with several others, near the +tomb of the daughter of Te Whero-Whero, and, like the monument which it seems +to guard, is one of the finest examples of native carving to be found in New Zealand. +The precise object of the tiki is uncertain, but the protruding tongue of the upper +figure seems to show that it is one of the numerous defiant statues which abound in +the islands. The natives say that the lower figure represents Maui the Auti who, +according to Maori tradition, fished up the islands from the bottom of the sea.”</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Bransford (<i>b</i>) gives an illustration, copied here as the left-hand +character of Fig. 1102, with the description of the site, viz: “On a hillside<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686">[686]</a></span> +on the southern end of the island of Ometepec, Nicaragua, about +a mile and a half east of Point San Ramon.” On a rough, irregular +stone of basalt, projecting 3 feet above ground, +was the following figure on the south side:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;"> +<img src="images/dp814_pg686b.png" width="501" height="301" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1102.</span>—Nicaraguan petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>This suggests comparison with some of the Moki +and British Guiana figures.</p> + +<p>The same authority gives on page 66, from the +same island and neighborhood, the illustration +copied as the right-hand character of the same +figure.</p> + +<p>By comparing some of the New Mexican, Zuñi, and Pueblo drawings +with the above figure the resemblance is obvious. This is most +notable in the outline of the square abdomen and the widespread legs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 586px;"> +<img src="images/dp814_pg686c.png" width="586" height="300" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1103.</span>—Nicaraguan petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1103, also mentioned and figured by Dr. Bransford as found +with the preceding in Nicaragua, resembles some of the petroglyphs +presented in the collection from Owens valley, California.</p> + +<p>The carvings in Fig. 1104 are from British Guiana, and are reproduced +from im Thurn (<i>i</i>):</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 411px;"> +<a href="images/dp815_pg687h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp815_pg687.jpg" class="hires" width="411" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1104.</span>—Deep carvings in Guiana.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Most of these figures so strongly resemble some from New Mexico, +and perhaps Arizona, as to appear as if they were made by the same +people. This is specially noticeable in the lowermost characters, and +more particularly so in the last two, resembling the usual Shoshonean +type for toad or frog.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687">[687]</a></span></p> + +<p>The petroglyph of Boca del Infierno, a copy of which is furnished by +Marcano (<i>f</i>), reproduced as Fig. 1105, is thus described:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 532px;"> +<img src="images/dp816_pg688a.png" width="532" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1105.</span>—Venezuelan petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the strange combination that surmounts it, <i>a</i>, there are seen at the lower part +two figures resembling the eyes of jaguars, but asymmetric. Still the difference is +apparent rather than real. These eyes are always formed of three circumferences, +the central one being at times replaced by a point, as in the eye at the left; the one +at the right shows its three circumferences, but the outermost is continuous with +the rest of the drawing. The two eyes are joined together by superposed arches, the +smallest of which touches only the left eye, while the larger one, which is not in +contact with the left eye, forms the circumference of the right eye. The whole is +surrounded by 34 rays, pretty nearly of the same size, except one, which is larger. +Is there question of a jaguar’s head seen from in front with its bristling mane, or is +it a sunrise? All conjecture is superfluous, and it is useless to search for the interpretation +of these figures, whose value, entirely conventional, is known only by those +who invented them.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688">[688]</a></span> +<p>In <i>b</i> of the same pictograph, alongside of a tangle of various figures, always formed +of geometric lines, we distinguished, at the left, three points; in the middle a collection +of lines representing a fish. Let us note, finally, the dots which, as in the +preceding case, run out from certain lines.</p> + +<p>The design of <i>c</i>, while quite as complex, has quite another arrangement. At the +left we see again the figure of the circumferences surrounding a dot, and these are +surmounted by a series of triangles; at the bottom there are two little curves +terminated by dots. At <i>d</i> two analogous objects are represented; they may be what +Humboldt took to be arms or household implements.</p></div> + +<p>In the above figure, the uppermost character, <i>a</i>, is similar to various +representations of the “sky,” as depicted upon the birch-bark midē' +records of the Ojibwa. The lower characters are similar to several +examples presented under the Shoshonean types, particularly to those +in Owens valley, California.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689">[689]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dr. A. Ernst in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandl. der Berliner, Anthrop. Gesell.</span> (<i>c</i>) gives a +description of Fig. 1106, translated and condensed as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp816_pg688b.png" width="600" height="312" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1106.</span>—Venezuelan petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The rock on which the petroglyph is carved is 41 kilometers WSW. of Caracas, +and 27 kilometers almost due north of La Victoria, in the coast mountains of Venezuela. +The petroglyph is found on two large stones lying side by side and leaning +against other blocks of leptinite, though resembling sandstone. The length of the +two stones is 3.5 m., their height 2 m. The stones lie beside the road from the colony +of Tovar to La Maya, on the border of a clearing somewhat inclined southward not +far from the woods. The surface is turned south. Concerning the meaning of the +very fragmentary figures I can not even express a conjecture.</p></div> + +<p>Araripe (<i>c</i>) furnishes the following description of Fig. 1107:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp817_pg689.png" width="600" height="395" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1107.</span>—Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In the district of Inhamun, on the road from Carrapateira to Cracará, at a distance +of half a league, following a footpath which branches off to the left, is a small +lake called Arneiros, near which is a heap of round and long stones; on one of the +round ones is an inscription, here given in the order in which the figures appear, on +the face toward the north, engraved with a pointed instrument, the characters being +covered with red paint.</p></div> + +<p>The same authority, p. 231, gives the following description of the +lower group in Fig. 1108. It is called Indian writing in Vorá, in Faxina, +province of São Paulo.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp818_pg690ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp818_pg690a.png" class="hires" width="550" height="470" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1108.</span>—Spanish and Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>From a rock which is more than 40 meters in height, a large mass has been detached +leaving a greater inclination of 10 meters. This incline, together with the +wall formed by the detached portion, constitutes a sheltered place which was used +by the Indians as a resting place for their dead.</p> + +<p>On the walls of this grotto are figures engraved in the stone and painted with +“indelible” colors in red and black. It would seem that the Indians had engraved +in these figures the history of the tribe. The designs are as follows:</p> + +<p>A human figure with ornaments of feathers on the head and neck; a palm tree +rudely engraved and painted; a number of circular holes, 24 or more or less, in a +straight line; a circle with a diameter of 15 inches, having dentated lines on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690">[690]</a></span> +edge; two concentric circles resembling a clock face, with 60 divisions; immediately +following this the figure of an idol, and various marks all painted in a very firm black; +a figure of the sun with a +; a T; six more circles; a human hand and foot well +carved, etc. In the wall are fragments of bones.</p></div> + +<p>The two upper groups are copies of petroglyphs in Fuencaliente, +Andalusia, Spain, which are described in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, sec. <a href="#page177">3</a>, and are<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691">[691]</a></span> +introduced here for convenient comparison with characters in the lower +group of this figure, and also with others in Figs. <a href="#page683">1097</a> and <a href="#page689">1107</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp818_pg690bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp818_pg690b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="313" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1109.</span>—Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Ladisláu Netto (<i>c</i>) gives an account of characters copied from the +inscriptions of Cachoeira Savarete, in the valley of the Rio Negro, here +reproduced as Fig. 1109. They represent men and animals, concentric +circles, double spirals, and other figures of indefinite form. The design +in the left hand of the middle line evidently represents a group of men +gathered and drawn up like soldiers in a platoon.</p> + +<p>The same authority, p. 552, furnishes characters copied from rocks +near the villa of Moura in the valley of the Rio Negro, here reproduced +as Fig. 1110. They represent a series of figures on which Dr. Netto +remarks as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp819_pg691ah.png"> +<img src="images/dp819_pg691a.png" class="hires" width="550" height="152" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1110.</span>—Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is singular how frequent are these figures of circles two by two, one of which +seems to simulate one of the meanders that in a measure represent the form of the +Buddhic cross. This character, represented by the double cross, is very common in +many American inscriptions. It probably signifies some idea which has nothing to +do with that of nandyavarta.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp819_pg691b.png" width="550" height="356" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1111.</span>—Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The same authority, p. 522, gives carvings copied from the rocks of +the banks of the Rio Negro, from +Moura to the city of Mañaus, some +of which are reproduced as Fig. +1111. The group on the left Dr. Netto +believes to represent a crowned +chief, having by his side a figure +which may represent either the sun +or the moon in motion, but which, +were it carved by civilized men, +would suggest nothing more remarkable +than a large compass.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/dp819_pg691c.png" width="350" height="131" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1112.</span>—Brazilian pictograph.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The same authority, p. 553, presents characters copied from stones +on the banks of the Rio Negro, Brazil, here reproduced as Fig. 1112.</p> + +<p>They are rather sketches or vague tracings and attempts at drawing +than definite characters. The human heads found in most of the figures +observed at this locality resemble the heads +carved in the inscriptions of Central America +and on the banks of the Colorado river. +The left-hand character, which here appears +to be simply a rude drawing of a nose and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692">[692]</a></span> +the eyes belonging to a human face, may be compared with the so-called +Thunderbird from Washington, contributed by Rev. Dr. Eels +(see Fig. <a href="#page485">679</a>).</p> + +<p>Dr. E. R. Heath (<i>b</i>), in his Exploration of the River Beni, introducing +Fig. 1113, says:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp820_pg692a.png" width="550" height="411" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1113.</span>—Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Periquitos rapids connects so closely with the tail of “Riberáo” that it is difficult +to say where one begins and the other ends. Our stop at the Periquitos rapids was +short yet productive of a few figures, one rock having apparently a sun and moon +on it, the first seen of that character.</p></div> + +<p>He further says:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp820_pg692b.png" width="550" height="362" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1114.</span>—Brazilian petroglyphs.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On some solid water-worn rocks, at the edge of the fall, are the following figures +[Fig. 1114]. There were many fractional parts of figures which we did not consider +of sufficient value to copy.</p></div> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">HOMOMORPHS AND SYMMORPHS.</span></h3> + +<p>It has already been mentioned that characters substantially the +same, or homomorphs, made by one set of people, have a different +signification among others. The class of homomorphs may also embrace +the cases common in gesture signs, and in picture writing, similar +to the homophones in oral language, where the same sound has several +meanings among the same people.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693">[693]</a></span></p> + +<p>It would be very remarkable if precisely the same character were not +used by different or even the same persons or bodies of people with +wholly distinct significations. The graphic forms for objects and ideas +are much more likely to be coincident than sound is for similar expressions, +yet in all oral languages the same precise sound, sometimes but +not always distinguished by different literation, is used for utterly +diverse meanings. The first conception of different objects could not +have been the same. It has been found, indeed, that the homophony +of words and the homomorphy of ideographic pictures is noticeable in +opposite significations, the conceptions arising from the opposition +itself. The same sign and the same sound may be made to convey different +ideas by varying the expression, whether facial or vocal, and by +the manner accompanying their delivery. Pictographs likewise may +be differentiated by modes and mutations of drawing. The differentiation +in picturing or in accent is a subsequent and remedial step not +taken until after the confusion had been observed and had become inconvenient. +Such confusion and contradiction would only be eliminated +from pictography if it were far more perfect than is any spoken language.</p> + +<p>This heading, for convenience, though not consistently with its definition, +may also include those pictographs which convey different ideas +and are really different in form of execution as well as in conception, +yet in which the difference in form is so slight as practically to require +attention and discrimination. Examples are given below in this section, +and others may be taken from the closely related sign-language, +one group of which may now be mentioned.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 272px;"> +<img src="images/dp821_pg693a.jpg" width="272" height="291" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1115.</span>—Tree.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The sign used by the Dakota, Hidatsa, and several +other tribes for “tree” is made by holding the right hand +before the body, back forward, fingers and thumb separated; +then pushing it slightly upward, Fig. 1115; that +for “grass” is the same, made near the ground; that for +“grow” is made like “grass,” though, instead of holding +the back of the hand near the ground, the hand is pushed +upward in an interrupted manner, Fig. 1116. For +“smoke” the hand (with the back down, fingers pointing +upward as in grow) is then thrown upward several +times from the same place instead of continuing the +whole motion upward. Frequently the fingers are thrown +forward from under the thumb with each successive upward +motion. For “fire” the hand is employed as in the +gesture for smoke, but the motion is frequently more +waving, and in other cases made higher from the ground.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 238px;"> +<img src="images/dp821_pg693b.jpg" width="238" height="550" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1116.</span>—Grow.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Symmorphs, a term suggested by the familiar “synonym,” +are designs not of the same form, but which are +used with the same significance or so nearly the same as +to have only a slight shade of distinction and which sometimes +are practically interchangeable. The comprehensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694">[694]</a></span> +and metaphorical character of pictographs renders more of them +interchangeable than is the case with words; still, like words, some +pictographs with essential resemblance of meaning have partial and +subordinate differences made by etymology or usage. Doubtless the +designs are purposely selected to delineate the most striking outlines +of an object or the most characteristic features of an action; but different +individuals and likewise different bodies of people would often +disagree in the selection of those outlines and features. In an attempt +to invent an ideographic, not an iconographic, design for “bird,” any +one of a dozen devices might have been agreed upon with equal appropriateness, +and, in fact, a number have been so selected by several +individuals and tribes, each one, therefore, being a symmorph of the +other. Gesture language gives another example in the signs for +“deer,” designated by various modes of expressing fleetness, also by his +gait when not in rapid motion, by the shape of his horns, by the color +of his tail, and sometimes by combinations of those characteristics. +Each of these signs and of the pictured characters corresponding with +them may be indefinitely abbreviated and therefore create indefinite +diversity. Some examples appropriate to this line of comparison are +now presented.</p> + + +<h4>SKY.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;"> +<img src="images/dp822_pg694a.png" width="516" height="71" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1117.</span>—Sky.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Indian gesture sign for sky, heaven, is generally made by passing +the index from east to west across the zenith. This curve is apparent +in the Ojibwa pictograph, the left-hand character of Fig. 1117, reported +in Schoolcraft (<i>q</i>), and is abbreviated in the Egyptian character with +the same meaning, the middle character of the same figure, from Champollion +(<i>e</i>). A simpler form of the Ojibwa picture sign for sky is the +right-hand character of the same figure, from Copway (<i>h</i>).</p> + + +<h4>SUN AND LIGHT.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> +<img src="images/dp822_pg694b.png" width="440" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1118.</span>—Sun. Oakley springs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1118 shows various representations of the sun taken from a +petroglyph at Oakley springs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695">[695]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 102px;"> +<img src="images/dp823_pg695a.jpg" width="102" height="160" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1119.</span>—Sun. +Gesture sign.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The common Indian gesture sign for sun is: Right +hand closed, the index and thumb curved, with tips touching, +thus approximating a circle, and held toward the sky, +the position of the fingers of the hand forming a circle +as is shown in Fig. 1119. Two of the Egyptian characters +for sun, the left-hand upper characters of Fig. 1120 +are the common conception of the disk. The rays emanating +from the whole disk appear in the two adjoining +characters on the same figure, taken from the rock etchings of the +Moki pueblos in Arizona. From the same locality are the two remaining +characters in the same figure, which may be distinguished from +several similar etchings for “star,” Fig. <a href="#page697">1129</a>, infra, by their showing +some indication of a face, the latter being absent in the characters +denoting “star.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 578px;"> +<img src="images/dp823_pg695b.jpg" width="578" height="139" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1120.</span>—Devices for sun.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>With the above characters for sun compare the left-hand character +of Fig. 1121, found at Cuxco, Peru, and taken from Wiener (<i>h</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"> +<img src="images/dp823_pg695c.jpg" width="410" height="84" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1121.</span>—Sun and light.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the pictorial notation of the Laplanders the sun bears its usual +figure of a man’s head, rayed. See drawings in Scheffer’s History of +Lapland, London, 1704.</p> + +<p>The Ojibwa pictograph for sun is seen in the second +character of Fig. 1121, taken from Schoolcraft (<i>r</i>). The +sun’s disk, together with indications of rays, as shown in +the third character of the same figure, and in its linear form, +the fourth character of that figure, from Champollion, Dict., +constitutes the Egyptian character for light.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;"> +<img src="images/dp823_pg695d.jpg" width="110" height="307" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1122.</span>—Light.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1122.—Light. Red-Cloud’s Census. This is to be +compared with the rays of the sun as above shown, but +still more closely resembles the old Chinese character for +light, or more specifically “light above man,” in the left-hand +character of Fig. 1123, reported by Dr. Edkins.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 530px;"> +<img src="images/dp824_pg696a.jpg" width="530" height="160" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1123.</span>—Light and sun.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The other characters of the same figure are given by +Schoolcraft (<i>s</i>) as Ojibwa symbols of the sun.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 357px;"> +<img src="images/dp824_pg696b.jpg" width="357" height="252" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1124.</span>—Sun. Kwakiutl.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The left-hand character of Fig. 1124, from Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696">[696]</a></span> +(<i>a</i>), shows the top of an heraldic column of the Sentlae (Sun) gens of +the Kwakiutl Indians in Alert bay, British Columbia, which represents +the sun surrounded by wooden +rays. A simpler form is seen +in the right character of the +same figure where the face of +the sun is also fastened to the +top of a pole. The author, Dr. +Boas, states that Fig. 1125 is the sun mask used by the same gens in +their dance. This presents another mode in which the common symbolic +connection of the eagle (the beak of which bird is apparently +shown) with the sun is indicated.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 311px;"> +<img src="images/dp824_pg696c.jpg" width="311" height="329" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1125.</span>—Sun mask. Kwakiutl.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Prof. Cyrus Thomas, in Aids to the Study of the Manuscript Troano, +Sixth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn., p. 348, gives the left-hand character in +Fig. 1126 as representing the sun.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp824_pg696d.jpg" width="550" height="146" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1126.</span>—Suns.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>General Forlong (<i>a</i>) states that the middle device of the same figure +represents the sun as Mihr, the fertilizer of the seed.</p> + +<p>Dr. Edkins (<i>e</i>) gives the right-hand device of the same figure as a +picture of the sun. Originally it was a circle with a stroke or dot +in the middle.</p> +</div> + +<h4>MOON.</h4> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 209px;"> +<img src="images/dp824_pg696e.jpg" width="209" height="188" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1127.</span>—Gesture +for moon.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A common Indian gesture sign for moon, month, is the right hand +closed, leaving the thumb and index extended, but +curved to form a half circle and the hand held toward +the sky, in a position which is illustrated in Fig. 1127, +to which curve the Moki drawing, the upper left-hand +device in Fig. 1128, and the identical form in the ancient +Chinese have an obvious resemblance.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697">[697]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/dp825_pg697a.jpg" width="350" height="170" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1128.</span>—Moon.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The crescent, as Europeans and Asiatics commonly figure the satellite, +appears also in the Ojibwa pictograph, +the lower left-hand character in +Fig. 1128, taken from Schoolcraft (t), +which is the same, with a slight addition, +as the Egyptian figurative character.</p> + +<p>The middle character in Fig. 1128 is +the top of an upright post of a house of the moon gens of the Kuakiutl +Indians taken from Boas (<i>g</i>). It represents the moon.</p> + +<p>Schoolcraft (<i>u</i>) gives the right-hand character of the same figure for +the moon, i. e., an obscured sun, as drawn by the Ojibwa.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>STARS.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp825_pg697b.png" width="550" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1129.</span>—Stars.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1129 shows various forms of stars, taken from a petroglyph at +Oakley Springs, Arizona. Most of them show the rays in a manner to +suggest the points of stars common in many parts of the world.</p> + + +<h4>DAYTIME AND KIND OF DAY.</h4> + +<p>Fig. 1130, copied from Copway (<i>h</i>), presents respectively the characters +for sunrise, noon, and sunset.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp825_pg697c.png" width="550" height="45" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1130.</span>—Day. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>An Indian gesture sign for “sunrise,” “morning,” is: Forefinger of +right hand crooked to represent half of the sun’s disk and pointed or extended +to the left, slightly elevated. In this connection it may be noted +that when the gesture is carefully made in open country the pointing +would generally be to the east, and the body turned so that its left +would be in that direction. In a room in a city, or under circumstances +where the points of the compass are not specially attended to, the left +side supposes the east, and the gestures relating to sun, day, etc., are +made with such reference. The half only of the disk represented in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698">[698]</a></span> +the above gesture appears in the Moki pueblo drawings for morning +and sunrise.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp826_pg698a.png" width="550" height="172" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1131.</span>—Morning. Arizona.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1131 shows various representations of sunrise from Oakley +Springs, Arizona.</p> + +<p>J. B. Dunbar (<i>b</i>), in The Pawnee Indians, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>As an aid to the memory the Pawnees frequently made use of notches cut in a +stick or some similar device for the computation of nights (for days were counted +by nights), or even of months and years. Pictographically a day or daytime was +represented by a six or eight pointed star as a symbol of the sun. A simple cross +(a star) was a symbol of a night and a crescent represented a moon or lunar month.</p></div> + +<p>A common Indian gesture for +day is when the index and thumb +form a circle (remaining fingers +closed) and are passed from east to +west.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 84px;"> +<img src="images/dp826_pg698b.png" width="84" height="82" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1132.</span>—Day.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1132 shows a pictograph found in +Owens valley, California, a similar one being +reported in the Ann. Rep. Geog. Survey West +of the 100th Meridian for 1876, Washington, +1876, pl. opp. p. 326, in which the circle may +indicate either day or month (both these gestures +having the same execution), the course of +the sun or moon being represented perhaps +in mere contradistinction to the vertical line, +or perhaps the latter signifies one.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 279px;"> +<img src="images/dp826_pg698c.png" width="279" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1133.</span>—Days. Apache.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1133 is a pictograph made by the Coyotèro +Apaches, found at Camp Apache, in +Arizona, reported in the Tenth Ann. Rep. U. +S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey of the Terr., Washington, +1878, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LXXVII</span>. The sun and the ten +spots of approximately the same shape represent the days, eleven, +which the party passed in traveling through the country. The separating +lines are the nights, and may include the conception of covering +over and consequent obscurity referred to in connection with +the pictographs for night.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 429px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699a.png" width="429" height="89" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1134.</span>—Clear, stormy. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The left-hand character in Fig. 1134, copied from Copway (<i>h</i>), represents +smooth water or clear day.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699">[699]</a></span></p> + +<p>The right-hand character in the same figure, from the same authority, +p. 135, represents storm or a windy day.</p> + +</div> + +<h4>NIGHT.</h4> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699b.png" width="194" height="213" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1135.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1135.—Kills-the-Enemy-at-Night. Red-Cloud’s Census. Night +is indicated by the black circle around the +head, suggesting the covering over with darkness, +as is shown in the common gesture for +night, made by passing both flat hands from +their respective sides, inward and downward, +before the body. The sign for kill is +denoted here by the bow in contact with the +head, in accordance with a custom among the +Dakota of striking the dead enemy with the bow or coup stick.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699c.png" width="216" height="260" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1136.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1136.—Kills-Enemy-at-Night. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This drawing is similar to +the preceding. The differentiation is sufficient +to allow of a distinction between the two characters, +each representing the +same name, though belonging +to two different men.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 310px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699d.jpg" width="310" height="401" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1137.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1137.—Smokes-at-Night. +Red-Cloud’s Census. +Again the concept is expressed +by the covering over +with darkness.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699e.jpg" width="251" height="165" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1138.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1138.—Kills-at-Night. +Red-Cloud’s Census. Night is here shown by the curve for sky and +the suspension, beneath it, of a star, or more probably +in Dakotan expression, a night +sun, i. e., the moon.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 188px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699f.jpg" width="188" height="211" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1139.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1139.—A Crow chief, Flat-Head, +comes into the tipi of a +Dakota chief, where a council was +assembled. Flame’s Winter +Count, 1852-’53. The night is +shown by the black top of the tipi.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 231px;"> +<img src="images/dp827_pg699g.jpg" width="231" height="72" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1140.</span>—Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1140 is taken from Copway (<i>f</i>). It +represents “night.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"> +<img src="images/dp828_pg700a.jpg" width="401" height="433" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1141.</span>—Sign for night.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A typical Indian gesture for night, illustrated +by Fig. 1141, is: Place the flat hands horizontally about 2 feet +apart, move them quickly in an upward curve toward one another until +the right lies across the left. “Darkness covers all.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700">[700]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 276px;"> +<img src="images/dp828_pg700b.png" width="276" height="57" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1142.</span>—Night. Egyptian.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The conception of covering executed by delineating the object covered +beneath the middle +point of an +arch or curve, appears +also clearly in the Egyptian characters +for night, Fig. 1142, Champollion +(<i>f</i>).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 321px;"> +<img src="images/dp828_pg700c.jpg" width="321" height="227" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1143.</span>—Night. Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Kingsborough (<i>m</i>) is the painting reproduced as Fig. 1143.</p> + +<p>This painting expresses the multitude of eyes, i. e., stars in the sky, +and signifies the night. Eyes in Mexican paintings are painted exactly +in this manner.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>CLOUD.</h4> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;"> +<img src="images/dp828_pg700d.jpg" width="137" height="236" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1144.</span>—Cloud +shield.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1144.—Cloud shield. Red-Cloud’s Census. This figure shows in +conjunction with the disk, probably a shield but possibly the sun, a dim +cloud, and below is a line apparently holding up clouds +from which the raindrops have not yet begun to fall. This +may be collated with the pictographs for rain and also for +snow, as figured below.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp828_pg700e.png" width="600" height="66" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1145.</span>—Clouds, Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A Cheyenne sign for cloud is as follows: (1) Both +hands partially closed, palms facing and near each other, +brought up to level with or slightly above but in front +of the head; (2) suddenly separated sidewise, describing +a curve like a scallop; this scallop motion is repeated for +“many clouds.” The same conception is in the Moki etchings, the +three left-hand characters of Fig. 1145 (Gilbert MS.), and in variants +from Oakley Springs, the two right-hand characters of the same figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp828_pg700f.jpg" width="162" height="124" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1146.</span>—Cloud, +Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Ojibwa pictograph for cloud, reported in Schoolcraft +(<i>n</i>), is more elaborate, Fig. 1146. It is composed of +the sign for sky to which that for clouds is added, the +latter being reversed, as compared with the Moki etchings, +and picturesquely hanging from the sky.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701">[701]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>RAIN.</h4> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 219px;"> +<img src="images/dp829_pg701a.png" width="219" height="95" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1147.</span>—Rain. Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1147.—From Copway, loc. cit., represents +rain, cloudy.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 292px;"> +<img src="images/dp829_pg701b.jpg" width="292" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1148.</span>—Rain. Pueblo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The gesture sign for rain is illustrated in Fig. <a href="#page653">1002</a>. The pictograph, +Fig. 1148, reported as found in +New Mexico, by Lieut. Simpson, in Ex. +Doc. No. 64, 31st Congress, 1st session, 1850, +p. 9, is said to represent Montezuma’s adjutants +sounding a blast to him for rain. The +small character inside the curve which represents +the sky, corresponds with the gesturing +hand, but may be the rain cloud appearing.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp829_pg701c.png" width="600" height="91" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1149.</span>—Rain. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Moki drawing for rain, i. e., a cloud from which the drops are falling, +is given in Fig. 1149, in six variants taken from a petroglyph at +Oakley Springs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 95px;"> +<img src="images/dp829_pg701d.png" width="95" height="98" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1150.</span>—Rain. Chinese.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Edkins (<i>f</i>) gives Fig. 1150 as the Chinese character for rain. It +is a picture of rain falling from the clouds. He adds, p. +155:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Rain was anciently without the upper line, and instead of the vertical +line in the middle there were four, but all shorter. Above +each of them and within the concave was a dot. These four dots +were raindrops, the four lines were the direction of their descent, +and the concave was the firmament.</p></div> + +</div> + +<h4>LIGHTNING.</h4> + +<p>Among the northern Indians of North America the concept of lightning +is included in that of thunder, and is represented by the thunder +bird, see Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>, sec. <a href="#page468">2</a>, supra.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 414px;"> +<img src="images/dp829_pg701e.png" width="414" height="154" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1151.</span>—Lightning. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1151 shows three ways in which lightning is represented by the +Moki. They are copied from +a petroglyph at Oakley +Springs, Arizona. In the +middle character the sky is +shown, the changing direction +of the streak and clouds +with rain falling. The part +relating specially to the streak is portrayed in an Indian gesture sign<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702">[702]</a></span> +as follows: Right hand elevated before and above the head, forefinger +pointing upward, brought down with great rapidity with a sinuous, +undulating motion, finger still extended diagonally downward toward +the right.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 382px;"> +<img src="images/dp830_pg702a.jpg" width="382" height="131" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1152.</span>—Lightning. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1152 is a copy from a vase in the collection of relics of the ancient +builders of the southwest table lands in +the MS. Catalogue of Mr. Thomas V. Keam, +and represents the body of the mythic Um-tak-ina, +the Thunder. This body is a rain +cloud with thunder [lightning] darting through +it, and is probably of ancient Moki workmanship.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp830_pg702b.jpg" width="550" height="411" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1153.</span>—Lightning. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1153, also from Keam’s MS., gives three other representations of +the Moki characters for lightning. +The middle one shows the lightning +sticks which are worked by +the hands of the dancers.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp830_pg702c.jpg" width="550" height="292" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1154.</span>—Lightning. Pueblo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1154 also represents lightning, +taken by Mr. W. H. Jackson, +photographer of the late U. S. +Geol. and Geogr. Survey, from +the decorated walls of an estufa +in the Pueblo de Jemez, New +Mexico. The former is blunt, for +harmless, and the latter terminates +in an arrow or spear point, for destructive or fatal lightning.</p> + +<p>Connected with this topic is the following extract from Virgil’s +Æneis, Lib. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, 429:</p> + +<div class="poem" lang="la" xml:lang="la"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"> +Tres imbris torti radios, tres nubis aquosæ<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Addiderant, rutili tres ignis et alitis austri.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The “radii” are the forks or spikes by which lightning is designated, +especially on medals. It +consisted of twelve +wreathed spikes or darts +extended like the radii of +a circle. The wings denote +the lightning’s rapid +motion and the spikes or +darts its penetrating +quality. The four different +kinds of spikes refer to +the four seasons. The “tres imbristorti radii” or the three spikes of +hail, are the winter when hail storms abound. The “tres nubis aquosæ +radii,” the three spikes of a watery cloud, denote the spring. The +“tres rutili ignis radii,” the three spikes of sparkling fire, are the summer +when lightning is frequent and the “tres alitis austri radii,” or +the three spikes of winged wind, are for autumn with its many wind +storms.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703">[703]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>HUMAN FORM.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;"> +<img src="images/dp831_pg703a.png" width="434" height="137" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1155.</span>—Human form.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1155.—<i>a</i> among the Arikara signifies men. The characters are +used in connection with horseshoes, +to denote “mounted men” <i>b</i>. +In other pictographs such spots or +dots are merely numerical. <i>c</i> is +drawn by the Kiatéxamut branch +of the Innuits for man. It is an +abbreviated form and rare. <i>d</i>, drawn by the Blackfeet, signifies “Man-dead.” +This is from a pictograph in Wind River mountains, taken +from Jones’s (<i>c</i>) Northwestern Wyoming. <i>e</i> is also a Kiatéxamut Innuit +drawing for man. This figure is armless; generally represents the person +addressed.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 341px;"> +<img src="images/dp831_pg703b.png" width="341" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1156.</span>—Human form.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1156.—<i>a</i> is also a Kiatéxamut Innuit drawing for man. The +person makes the gesture for negation. +<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, from a Californian +petroglyph, are men also gesturing +negation. <i>d</i>, from Schoolcraft +(<i>v</i>), is the Ojibwa “symbol” +for disabled man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 334px;"> +<img src="images/dp831_pg703c.png" width="334" height="147" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1157.</span>—Human form.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1157.—<i>a</i> is the Kiatéxamut +Innuit drawing for Shaman. <i>b</i>, +used by the same tribe, represents +man supplicating. <i>c</i>, reproduced +from Schoolcraft (<i>u</i>), is the Ojibwa +representative figure or man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 379px;"> +<img src="images/dp831_pg703d.png" width="379" height="106" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1158.</span>—Human form.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1158.—<i>a</i>, from Schoolcraft, loc. cit., is an Ojibwa drawing of a +headless body. <i>b</i>, from the same, +is another Ojibwa figure for a headless +body, perhaps female. <i>c</i>, contributed +by Mr. Gilbert Thompson, +is a drawing for a man, made +by the Moki in Arizona. <i>d</i>, reproduced from Schoolcraft (<i>w</i>), is a drawing +from the banks of the River Yenesei, Siberia, by Von Strahlenberg +(<i>a</i>). <i>e</i> is given by Dr. Edkins, op. cit., p. 4, as the Chinese character +for, and originally a picture of, a man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 579px;"> +<img src="images/dp832_pg704a.jpg" width="579" height="105" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1159.</span>—Human form. Alaska.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The representation of a headless body does not always denote death. +An example is given in Fig. 1159, <i>a</i>, taken from an ivory drill-bow in +the collection of the Alaska Commercial Company, of San Francisco, +California. It was made by the Aigaluxamut natives of Alaska. As +the explanation gives no suggestion of a fatal casualty, the concept +may be that the hunter got lost or “lost his head,” according to the +colloquial phrase.</p> + +<p>The figures of men in a canoe are represented by the Kiatéxamut +Innuit of Alaska, as shown in the same figure, <i>b</i>. The right-hand upward +stroke represents the bow of the boat, while the two lines below<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704">[704]</a></span> +the horizontal stroke denote the paddles used by the men, who are +shown as the first and second upward strokes above the canoe; in the +same figure, <i>c</i> shows the outline of human figures, copied from a walrus +ivory drill-bow (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 44398) from Cape Nome, Alaska. +The second pair closely resemble forms of the thunder-bird as drawn +by various Algonquian tribes and as found in petroglyphs upon rocks +in the northeastern portion of the United States; in the same figure, <i>d</i>, +selected from a group of human forms, is incised upon a walrus ivory +drill-bow obtained at Port Clarence, Alaska, by Dr. T. H. Bean, of the +National Museum. The specimen is numbered 40054. The fringe-like +appendages on the arms may indicate the garment worn by some of +the Kenai or other inland Athabascan Indians of Alaska.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/dp832_pg704b.jpg" width="100" height="96" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1160.</span>—Bird-man. +Siberia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1160, from Strahlenberg, op. cit., was found in +Siberia, and is identical with the character which, according +to Schoolcraft, is drawn by the Ojibwa to represent +speed and the power of superior knowledge by +exaltation to the regions of the air, being, in his opinion, +a combination of bird and man.</p> + +<p>It is to be noticed that some Ojibwa recently examined regard the +character merely as a human figure with outstretched +arms, and fringes pendent therefrom. +It has, also, a strong resemblance to some of the +figures in the Lone-Dog Winter Counts (those for +1854-’55 and 1866-’67, pages <a href="#page283">283</a> and <a href="#page285">285</a>, respectively), +in which there is no attempt understood +to signify anything more than a war-dress.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/dp832_pg704c.jpg" width="130" height="136" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1161.</span>—American. +Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1161, according to Schoolcraft (<i>t</i>), is the +Ojibwa drawing symbolic for an American.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;"> +<img src="images/dp832_pg704d.jpg" width="201" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1162.</span>—Man. Yakut.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Bastian (<i>a</i>), in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ethnologisches Bilderbuch</span>, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Upon a shaman’s drum, from the Yakuts of Siberia, is the +figure of a human form greatly resembling some forms of +the American types. The appendages beneath the arms, +given in Fig. 1162, suggest also some forms of the thunder-bird +as drawn by the Ojibwa.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp832_pg704e.jpg" width="550" height="168" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1163.</span>—Human forms. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1163 is a copy of human forms found by Mr. Dellenbaugh in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705">[705]</a></span> +petroglyphs in Shinumo canyon, Utah. They probably are of Moki +workmanship.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;"> +<img src="images/dp833_pg705a.png" width="156" height="221" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1164.</span>—Human +form. Navajo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1164, from Mr. Stevenson’s paper in the Eighth Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 283, is the form of a +man, drawn in the sand in the Hasjelti ceremony of +the Navajo.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 417px;"> +<img src="images/dp833_pg705b.jpg" width="417" height="158" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1165.</span>—Man and woman. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The left-hand character of Fig. 1165 is described in +Keam’s MS. as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is a conventional design of dragon flies, and is often found +among rock etchings throughout the plateau [Arizona]. The +dragon flies have always been held in great veneration by the +Mokis and their ancestors, as they have been often sent by +Oman to reopen springs which Muingwa had destroyed and to confer other benefits +upon the people.</p> + +<p>This form of the figure, with little vertical lines added to the transverse lines, +connects the Batolatci with the Ho-bo-bo emblems. The youth who was sacrificed +and translated by Ho-bo-bo reappeared a long time afterwards, during a season of +great drought, in the form of a gigantic dragon fly, who led the rain clouds over the +lands of Ho-pi-tu, bringing plenteous rains.</p></div> + +<p>Describing the middle character +of the figure, he says: “The figure +represents a woman. The breath +sign is displayed in the interior. +The simpler design in the right-hand +character consists of two triangles, +one upon another, and is called the ‘woman’s head and body.’”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 335px;"> +<img src="images/dp833_pg705c.jpg" width="335" height="317" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1166.</span>—Human form. Colombia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1166, reproduced by permission from the Century Magazine for +October, 1891, p. 887, is a representation of +a golden breastplate found in the United +States of Colombia, and now in the Ruiz-Randall +collection. The human figure is +nearly identical with some of those described +and illustrated in the present work as found +in other localities.</p> + +<p>Crevaux, quoted by Marcano, (<i>g</i>) in speaking +of the photographs of French Guyana, +makes these useful suggestions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The drawings of frogs found by Brown on the +Esesquibo are nothing else than human figures such as the Galihis, the Roucouyennes, +and the Oyampis represent them every day on their pagaras, their pottery, or +their skin. We ourselves, on examining these figures with legs and arms spread +out, thought that they were meant for frogs, but the Indians told us that that was +their manner of representing man.</p></div> + +<p>In Necropolis of Ancon in Peru, by W. Reiss and A. Stubel, (<i>a</i>) are +descriptions of figures <i>a</i> to <i>g</i> in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">L</span>, all being painted sepulcher tablets +one-seventh of the actual size. The descriptions are condensed. +The general characteristics of the tablets are that they are in a tabular +form, made of reeds, and covered with a white cotton fabric, the edges of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706">[706]</a></span> +which are stitched together behind and attached to a pole, short at top, +and projecting to a greater length downwards. On the front is a slightly +sketched design in red and black lines, while a winding or undulating +border usually runs around the sides. Nearly all the space within this +border is occupied by a human figure surrounded by isolated symbols or +ornaments. The head and features of the conventionalized figure is out +of all proportion to the small body, which is often merely suggested by +a few strokes.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;"> +<a href="images/dp835_pg706ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp835_pg706p.jpg" class="hires" width="418" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. L<br />TABLETS AT ANCON, PERU.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>a.</i> The features and high headdress of a human figure, represented by +concentric black and red lines. To the short arms are attached outstretched +three-fingered hands, the right holding some object, while +body and legs are arbitrarily indicated. The legs are twice reproduced +in black and red lines. The space between the figure and border is +occupied by six simple designs, two black and one red on either side.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The human figure, comparatively simple and distinct, distinguished +by large ear ornaments, with designs similar to those of the preceding +figure, but varying in number and disposition.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Highly fantastic figure with diverse ornamentations; the space in +the corners cut off by designs, of which the upper two show a bird +motive, such as frequently occurs on earthenware and woven fabrics.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> This is doubtless meant to represent a figure clothed down to the +feet.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Here the human figure is formed of black lines, connected at right +angles with complementary red lines. A wide top-piece covers the +head, which consists of two small rectangles, leaving room only to indicate +the eyes, while the mouth, placed rather too low down, is suggested +by a red stroke. The arms are bent downwards; hands and feet with +triple articulation. Within the red and black frame the figure is encircled +by crosses, dots, and a conventional star.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Human figure filling most of the space, which is inclosed only by a +narrow edging. Surface painting distinguishes the wide body, which +is rounded off below and to which the triangular head is fitted above. +Hands with five, feet with three, articulations; crenelled head gear; +necklace suggested by dots; the corners of the ground-surface filled in +with rectangular sharply-edged ornaments.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Human figure consisting of two disconnected parts; triangular head +and body; hands and feet with two articulations; frame of red and black +dovetailed teeth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"> +<a href="images/dp837_pg707h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp837_pg707.jpg" class="hires" width="502" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1167.</span>—Human form. Peru.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Wiener (<i>i</i>), describing illustrations reproduced here as Fig. 1167, +says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The tissue found at Moché, <i>a</i>, represents a man with flattened head, exaggerated +ears, and the thumb of the right hand too much developed. When correlated with +that from Ancon, <i>b</i>, with its coarse paintings, it becomes a sort of caligraphy in which +all the letters are traced with the greatest care, while <i>b</i>, and also the sepulchral inscription +<i>c</i>, found at the same place, become cursive.</p></div> + +<p>The design <i>a</i> of this series presents peculiarities found in Zuñi drawings +on pottery. The appendages from the side of the head among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707">[707]</a></span> +latter denote large coils of hair so arranged by tying. Their significance +is that the wearer is an unmarried woman. The remaining designs +also resemble types of human figures found upon Zuñi and Pueblo +pottery, being rather of a decorative character than having special +significance.</p> + + +<h4>HUMAN HEAD AND FACE.</h4> + +<p>A large number of human faces as drawn by members of different +tribes and stocks of North American Indians appear in the present +paper. Some of them are iconographic and others are highly conventionalized. +Other examples from other regions of the world are also +presented under various headings.</p> + +<p>In the present connection it may be useful to examine a series of +drawings from the prehistoric pottery of Brazil in the National Museum<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708">[708]</a></span> +at Rio de Janeiro. Although the U. S. National Museum contains many +specimens of a similar character, some of which have been copied +and published, the Brazilian types show an instructive peculiarity in +the reduction of the face to certain main lines and finally to the eyes, +so that the latter are placed apart and independent in a symmetric +field.</p> + +<p>The following Figs. 1168 to 1174 are reproduced from Dr. Ladisláu +Netto (<i>d</i>), all of them being from Brazil and from +paintings and carvings on Marajo ware.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 245px;"> +<img src="images/dp838_pg708a.png" width="245" height="133" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1168.</span>—Human face. +Brazil.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1168 shows broken lines without the aid of +curves, but gracefully attached to an instrument, +either lance or trident, which present the outline +of the contours of a face.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp838_pg708b.jpg" width="550" height="223" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1169.</span>—Human faces. Brazil.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The characters in Fig. 1169 are somewhat more elaborate. The eyes +are decorated with lines and the contour of the face is round.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp838_pg708c.jpg" width="550" height="161" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1170.</span>—Human faces. Brazil.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The characters in Fig. 1170 are carved human faces, some of which +would not be recognized as such unless shown in the series.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 247px;"> +<img src="images/dp838_pg708d.jpg" width="247" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1171.</span>—Double-faced head. Brazil.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The face in Fig. 1171 represents the horizontal projection or plan of +a double-faced head. The central H represents +in this case the top of the head, each of the shafts +of the H being neither more nor less than the +double arch of the eyebrows, joined to which the +representation of the nose in a triangular figure +may be recognized. The most noticeable point +is that if this surface be applied in imagination to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709">[709]</a></span> +the cranium of the bifrontal head, of which it seems to be the covering +or skin, the features of the double-faced heads of the Marajo idols are +immediately recognized, including the orifices by which those idols are +hung on cords, which orifices are seen in the dividing line of the two +faces.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 444px;"> +<img src="images/dp839_pg709a.jpg" width="444" height="600" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1172.</span>—Funeral urn. Marajo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1172 presents the general +form of decoration found upon +vases bearing figures of the face +as above mentioned. It is a funeral +urn, carved and engraved, +from Marajo, reduced to one-fifth.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 273px;"> +<img src="images/dp839_pg709b.jpg" width="273" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1173.</span>—Marajo vase.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Frequently the face is produced in relief, in which a larger portion +of a vessel is taken to produce more lifelike imitation, as in Fig. 1173. +It is the neck of an anthropomorphic vase of Marajo ornamented with +grooves and lines, red on a white ground, reduced to one-half.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/dp840_pg710h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp840_pg710.jpg" class="hires" width="600" height="544" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1174.</span>—Marajo vases.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1174 <i>a</i>, real size, is the neck of a Marajo vase, representing a +human head. The nose and chin are very prominent, the eyes horizontal +and slit in the same direction. This head is remarkable for the +relief of the eyebrows which, after reaching the height of the ears, form +these organs, describing above a second curve in the inverse direction +of the curve of the brow, each brow thus forming an S. There are +other heads in which the eyebrows are prolonged to form the relief of +the ears at the outer extremity. In these cases the whole relief represents +a semicircle more or less irregular, while on the contrary this +relief forms the figure S.</p> + +<p>Same figure, <i>b</i>, real size, is the neck of an ornithomorphic, anthropocephalous +vase. It has on the face the classic and conventional T to +represent the nose and brows. The eyes are formed by the symbolic +figure equally conventional in the ceramics of the mound-builders of +Marajo, and the ears differ very little from the characters seen in other +figures.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710">[710]</a></span></p> + +<p>Same figure, <i>c</i>, four-fifths real size, is the neck of a Marajo vase representing, +by engraving and painting, all the conventional characters +of the different parts of the human face employed by the mound-builders +of Marajo. This vase preserves perfectly the primitive colors, which +show vermilion lines on a white ground. A double protuberance from +each ear, the design which forms the eyes, and that which surrounds +and outlines the mouth, the nose, and the ears, are characteristic traces +of the decorative art of the human face which few heads present in +such perfection.</p> + +<p>Same figure, <i>d</i>, four-fifths real size, is the neck of a Marajo vase more +simple than the preceding one, but with more regular and distinct +features.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The Brazilian system above illustrated, which reduces the face to +certain main lines and finally to the eyes, in such manner that the eyes +are placed apart and each is put by itself in a symmetric field, has its +parallel in North America. This is the practice of the Bella Coola Indians +and their neighbors at the present day. They divide the surface, +to be ornamented into zones and fields, by means of broad horizontal +and vertical lines, each field containing, according to its position, now +a complete face, now only an indication of it, the especial indication<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711">[711]</a></span> +being made by the eye. The eyes themselves are given different shapes, +according to the different animals represented, being now large and +round, now oblong and with pointed angles. These peculiarities, which +have become conventional, are retained when the eye is represented +alone, so that by this method it may still be easy to recognize which +animal—for example, a raven or a bear, is intended to be portrayed.</p> + +<p>The left-hand character in Fig. 1175, from Champollion (<i>g</i>), is the +Egyptian character for a human face. The predominance +of the ears probably has some special +significance.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp841_pg711a.jpg" width="184" height="99" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1175.</span>—Human heads.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Schoolcraft (<i>u</i>) gives the right-hand character +of the same figure as a man’s head, with ears open to conviction, as +made by the Ojibwa.</p> + +<p>Both of these may be compared with the exaggerated ears in Fig. <a href="#page706">1167</a>.</p> + + +<h4>HAND.</h4> + +<p>The impression, real or represented, of a human hand is used in several +regions in the world with symbolic significance.</p> + +<p>Among the North American Indians the mark so readily applied is +of frequent occurrence, with an ascertained significance, which, however, +differs in several tribes.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1176, taken from Copway (<i>b</i>), represents the hand, and also expresses +“did so.” This signification of “do,” or action, +and hence “power,” is also given to the same character +in the Egyptian and Chinese ideograms.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 56px;"> +<img src="images/dp841_pg711b.png" width="56" height="85" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1176.</span>—Hand. +Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Among several Indian tribes a black hand on a garment +or ornament means “the wearer of this has killed +an enemy.” The decoration appears upon Ojibwa bead belts, and the +Hidatsa and Arikara state that it is an old custom of showing bravery. +The character was noticed at Fort Berthold, and the belt bearing it had +been received from Ojibwa Indians of northern Minnesota. The mark of +a black hand drawn of natural size or less, and sometimes made by the +impress of an actually blackened palm, was also noticed, with the same +significance, on articles among the Hidatsa and Arikara in 1881.</p> + +<p>Schoolcraft (<i>x</i>) says of the Dakota on the St. Peters river that a red +hand indicates that the wearer has been wounded by his enemy, and a +black hand that he has slain his enemy.</p> + +<p>Irving (<i>b</i>) remarks, in Astoria, of the Arikara warriors: “Some had +the stamp of a red hand across their mouths, a sign that they had +drunk the life-blood of a foe.”</p> + +<p>In other parts of the present paper the significance of the mark is +mentioned and may be briefly summarized here.</p> + +<p>Among the Sioux a red hand painted on a warrior’s blanket or robe +means that he has been wounded by the enemy, and a black hand that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712">[712]</a></span> +he has been in some way unfortunate. Among the Mandan a yellow +hand on the breast signifies that the wearer had captured prisoners.</p> + +<p>Among the Titon Dakota a hand displayed meant that the wearer +had engaged in a hand-to-hand struggle with an enemy. The impress +of a hand, stained or muddy, upon the body or horse was the Winnebago +mark that the wearer had killed a man.</p> + +<p>The drawing of linked fingers or joined hands has been before discussed, +p. <a href="#page643">643</a>, and in several petroglyphs illustrated in this paper the +single hand appears. It is a common device on rocks, and doubtless +with varieties of signification, as above mentioned in other forms of +pictograph.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"> +<img src="images/dp842_pg712.png" width="199" height="100" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1177.</span>—Joined hands. +Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It will suffice now to add that the figure of a hand with extended +fingers is very common in the vicinity of ruins in Arizona as a rock +etching, and is also frequently seen daubed on the rocks with colored +pigments or white clay. But Mr. Thomas V. Keam +explains the Arizona drawings of hands on the authority +of the living Moki. In his MS., in describing +Fig. 1177, he says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The outline of two outstretched hands joined at the wrists +and figure of a hand with extended fingers is very common as a rock etching.</p> + +<p>These are vestiges of the test formerly practiced among young men who aspired +for admission to the fraternity of Salyko. The Salyko is a trinity of two women +and a woman from whom the Hopitu obtained the first corn. The first test above +referred to was that of putting their hands in the mud and impressing them upon +the rock. Only those were chosen as novices the imprints of whose hands had dried +on the instant.</p></div> + +<p>Le Plongeon (<i>a</i>) tells that the tribes of Yucatan have the custom of +printing the impress of the human hand, dipped in a red-colored liquid, +on the walls of certain sacred edifices.</p> + +<p>A. W. Howitt, in manuscript notes on Australian pictographs, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In very many places there are representations of a human hand imprinted or delineated +upon the rocks or in caverns. In the mountains on the western side of the Darling +river, in New South Wales, I have observed such, and the aborigines whom I questioned +upon the subject said that these representations were made in sport. This +reply would, however, be also given were any white man to find and draw their attention +to one of the figures which are made in connection with the initiation ceremonies. +The representations of hands are made in two ways. In one the hand is +smeared with red ocher and water, and impressed upon the rock surface. In the +other the hand, being placed upon the rock, a mouthful of red ocher or pipe-clay and +water is squirted over it. The hand being then removed there remains its representation +surrounded and marked out by the colored wash.</p></div> + +<p>Thomas Worsnop (<i>b</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 388px;"> +<a href="images/dp843_pg713h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp843_pg713.jpg" class="hires" width="388" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1178.</span>—Cave painting, Australia.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Mr. Winnecke, in 1879, saw several drawings on rocks and in caves, [Fig. 1178], +and describes them as follows:</p> + +<p>There are found in several large caves near Mount Skinner and Ledans hill, in +latitude 22° 30′ south and longitude 134° 30′ east. The natives appear to have +selected the smooth surface of granite rocks inside several large caves, which spots +are not subject to the influence of wind or rain. These caves are resorted to by the +natives during excessive rainy seasons, as indicated by their camp preparations, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713">[713]</a></span> +it is beyond doubt that these drawings have been performed during these periods of +forced inactivity by some artistically inclined native. Those I am alluding to are +somewhat numerous in these particular localities and present a uniform appearance.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, apparently represents a heart pierced in the center by a spear. The outline of +the object representing the heart has been delineated with red ocher, whilst the spear +has been drawn with a burnt stick or piece of coal. I have only seen this particular +sketch in one instance, where four distinct drawings of the same object exactly below +and equidistant from each other have been made in anything but a crude manner, +the outline having been carefully and very distinctly traced on the rocks, showing +a degree of perfection scarcely to be anticipated from these wild inhabitants. The +breadth of the heart is about 5 inches and its length about 6 inches. The length of +the spear portion is about 3 feet. [The device reminds of St. Valentine’s day.]</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, consists of two parallel lines about 6 inches apart, with regular marks between, +and probably represents the native’s notion of a creek with emu tracks traversing +its bed. This drawing has been made with a coal, and is found depicted on smooth +rocks in various localities.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, has been drawn both with coal and red ocher. It is found in many places, and +seems to be a favorite drawing of the natives. I have found it depicted in several +localities in the interior of Australia. It is generally supposed to represent a hand.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> This figure is made by the natives in the following manner: Placing their extended +hand against a smooth rock, after having previously moistened the same, they +fill their mouths with powdered charcoal, which they then blow violently along the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714">[714]</a></span> +outline of their extended hand, thus leaving the portions of rock covered perfectly +clean, whilst the space between their fingers and elsewhere around about becomes +covered with the black substance. This drawing is not very common. I found several +specimens near the Sabdover river. I have, however, been informed that it has +been seen in other and distant parts of Australia.</p></div> + +<p>Renan (<i>a</i>) says in the chapter on the Nomad Semites:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The real monuments of the period were, as in the case with all people who can not +write, the stones which they reared, the columns erected in memory of some event, +and upon which was often represented a hand, whence the name of <i>iad</i> [finger post].</p></div> + +<p>Major Conder (<i>c</i>) writes that in Jerusalem a rough representation of +a hand is marked by the native races on the wall of every house while +building. Some authorities connect it with the five names of God, and +it is generally considered to avert the evil eye. The Moors generally, +and especially the Arabs in Kairwan, apply paintings of red hands +above the doors and on the columns of their houses as talismans to +drive away the envious. Similar hand prints are found in the ruins of +El Baird near Petra. Some of the quaint symbolism connected with +horns is supposed to originate from such hand marks. The same people +make the gesture against the evil eye by extending the five fingers of +the left hand.</p> + +<p>H. Clay Trumbull (<i>b</i>) gives the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is a noteworthy fact that among the Jews in Tunis, near the old Phenician +settlement of Carthage, the sign of a bleeding hand is still an honored and a sacred +symbol as if in recognition of the covenant-bond of their brotherhood and friendship. +“What struck me most in all the houses,” says a traveler (Chevalier de Hesse-Wartegg) +among these Jews, “was the impression of an open bleeding hand on every +wall of each floor. However white the walls, this repulsive (yet suggestive) sign +was to be seen everywhere.”</p></div> + +<p>The following is extracted from Panjab Notes and Queries, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, +No. 1 (October, 1883), p. 2:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>At the Temple of Balasundarí Deví at Tilokpúr, near Náhan, the priests stamp a +red hand on the left breast of the coat of a pilgrim who visits the temple for the first +time to show that he has, as it were, paid for his footing. If the pilgrim again visits +the temple and can show the stamp he pays only 4 annas as his fee to the priests.</p></div> + +<p>Gen. A. Hontum-Schindler, Teheran, Persia, in a letter of December +19, 1888, tells:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>All through Persia, principally in villages though, a rough representation of a +hand, or generally the imprint of a right hand, in red, may be seen on the wall or +over the door of a house whilst in building, or on the wall of a mosque, booth, or +other public building. It is probably an ancient custom, although the Persians connect +it with Islam, and they say that the hand represents that of Albas, a brother of +Husain (a grandson of the prophet Mohammed), who was one of the victims at the +massacre of Kerbela in 680, and who had his right hand cut off by el Abrad ibu +Shaibân. In India I have noticed similar marks, hands, or simply red streaks.</p></div> + +<p>In Journal of the Proc. Royal Soc. Antiq., Ireland, <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 3, fifth series, +1890, p. 247, is the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The hand an emblem of good luck in Ireland.—In Maj. Conder’s “Syrian Stone +Lore,” published for the Palestine Exploration Committee by Bentley & Son (1886), +p. 71, occurs the following passage: “Among other primitive emblems used by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715">[715]</a></span> +Phenicians is the hand occurring on votive steles at Carthage, sometimes in connection +with the sacred fish. This hand is still a charm in Syria, called Kef Miriam, +‘the Virgin Mary’s hand,’ and sovereign against the evil eye. The red hand is +painted on walls, and occurs, for instance, in the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople +and elsewhere. It is common also in Ireland and in India (Siva’s hand) and on early +scepters, always as an emblem of good luck.” What actual foundation is there for the +above statement as regards Ireland? About twenty years ago the first Monday in +January was known in the south of Ireland as “Handsel Monday,” and looked upon +as in some way indicating the prosperity the year succeeding was to bring forth. But +whether, as the name would seem to imply, this had any connection with the hand +as an emblem of good luck I am unaware.—J. C.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 337px;"> +<img src="images/dp845_pg715a.png" width="337" height="334" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1179.</span>—Irish cross.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Gen. Forlong (<i>b</i>) makes the following remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The “red hand of Ireland” is known alike to Turanians, Shemites, and Aryans, +and from the Americas to farthest Asia. The hand, +being an organ peculiar to man, is in the East a +sign of Siva, and seems to have been identified +with his emblem even by the Medes. All men have +usually worshiped and plighted their troth or +sworn by manual signs, so the hand naturally +stands as the sign of man himself; but more than +this, Easterns attach a significance to it as an +organ without which the procreating one is useless. +In Germany, says J. Grimm, the hand was +<i>Tyr</i>, or the son of Odin, “the one-handed,” for he +lost one limb by the biting wintry wolf—that is, +he became powerless to produce.... He +was then the “golden-handed,” fertilizer, whom +ancient Irans denoted by their name Zerdosht, and Irish Kelts placed as a talisman +on their Ulster shield.... The Irish solo-phalik idea is seen in the “crosses” +of Clon-Mac-Noise and Monasterboise, where, as in Fig. 1179, all the fingers are carefully +placed in the center of the circle of fertility. The Vedas constantly speak of +Savatar as “the golden-handed sun,” who lost this limb owing to his efforts when +at sacrifice, and who remained impotent until the deity restored to him a hand of +gold.</p> + +<p>Hindus, like the high Asian tribes and the old Mexicans, usually +impress a hand covered with blood or vermilion on the door posts +of their temple—that is, on the Delpheus or “door of life;” and the +great Islamite, Mahmood, when he captured Constantinople, rode up +to the holy feminine shrine of St. Sophia, and reaching up as high as +he could, there unwittingly imprinted this bloody sign of Great Siva. +We must remember how often the hand appears with other significant +objects on the arms of men and nations, and notably so on Roman +standards.... Fig. 1180.</p> + +<p>In the old shrines of America, Leslie says, the “sacred hand was +a favorite subject of art,” and Stevens in his Yucatan says, “The red +hand stared us in the face over all the ruined buildings of the country, ... +not drawn or printed, but stamped by the living hand, the +pressure of the palm upon the stone being quite distinct, the thumb +and fingers being extended as we see in the Irish and Hindu hands.”</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;"> +<img src="images/dp845_pg715b.png" width="67" height="343" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1180.</span>—Roman +standard.</p></div> +</div> + + +<h4>FEET AND TRACKS.</h4> + +<p>In the two first illustrations of this group the respective figures of +the man and the eagle are in the act of forming tracks on the ground. +Such tracks are shown in the next two figures, but without the context<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716">[716]</a></span> +might not be recognized as such. The fifth figure is more distinctly +ideographic, showing the +foot and leg as in the act +of making the impress, and the eagle’s feather to +indicate the kind of track which would have been +made by a running eagle.</p> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 192px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716a.png" width="192" height="231" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1181.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1181.—Goes-Walking. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 338px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716b.png" width="338" height="219" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1182.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1182.—Running-Eagle. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 249px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716c.png" width="249" height="159" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1183.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1183.—Tracks. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716d.png" width="174" height="63" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1184.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1184.—Walking-Bull-Track. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 203px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716e.png" width="203" height="450" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1185.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1185.—Eagle-Track. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 411px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716f.png" width="411" height="112" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1186.</span>—Feet.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1186, copied from Copway (<i>b</i>), gives three +characters of which the first represents “ran,” +the second “walked” or “passed,” and the third +“stand,” characters similar both to the tracks and +the feet found on many petroglyphs in North +America.</p> + +<p>They are also found in the terraces +of temples of Thebes, of Karnak, +and especially at Nakhaur in +South Bihar.</p> + +<p>P. le Page Renouf (<i>a</i>), in An Elementary +Grammar of the Ancient +Egyptian Language, gives the +right-hand character of the same +figure as the generic determinative implying motion.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>BROKEN LEG.</h4> + +<p>This group gives several modes of expressing, pictorially, broken legs.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716g.png" width="128" height="192" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1187.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1187.—Many were thrown from their +horses while surrounding buffalo, and some +had their legs broken. Cloud-Shield’s Winter +Count, 1847-’48. The legs are distorted +and the line may refer to the slippery ice +touched by the toes.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp846_pg716h.png" width="87" height="179" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1188.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1188.—Lone-Horn’s father broke his +leg. The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1832-’33. This is a strongly marked +representation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717">[717]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp847_pg717a.png" width="147" height="192" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1189.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> +<img src="images/dp847_pg717b.png" width="147" height="333" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1190.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1189.—A Minneconjou Dakota named Broken-Leg died. The-Flame’s +Winter Count, 1846-’47. The-Flame’s representation +is objective, but Battiste Good gives another more +ideographic. The arm in his character, given in Fig. 1190, +is lengthened so as nearly to touch the broken leg, +which is shown distorted, instead of indicating +the injury by the mere distortion of the +leg itself. The bird over the head, and connected +by a line with it, probably represents +the teal as a name-totem. Perhaps he was +called Broken-Leg after the injury.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 74px;"> +<img src="images/dp847_pg717c.png" width="74" height="155" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1191.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1191.—There were a great many accidents +and some legs were broken, the ground being covered with ice. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1847-’48. +Here the fracture is very obvious—too much +so to be intended as objective—rather delineating +the idea of the breaking and separation +of the bone.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;"> +<img src="images/dp847_pg717d.png" width="101" height="226" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1192.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1192.—Broken-Leg was killed by the +Pawnees. His leg had been broken by a bullet +in a previous fight with the Pawnees. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1807-’08. Here the leg +is entirely removed from its normal position.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/dp847_pg717e.png" width="87" height="281" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1193.</span>—Broken +leg. Chinese.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Edkins (<i>g</i>) gives Fig. 1193, <i>a</i>, as a picture of a bent +leg broken, and adds, “The true radical and phonetic for +which this stands as representative is rather <i>b</i>, ‘fault,’ +‘move.’”</p> + +</div> + +<h4>VOICE AND SPEECH.</h4> + +<p>This group relates to sounds issuing from the mouth, +that is, to voice and speech:</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/dp847_pg717f.png" width="186" height="92" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1194.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1194.—The-Elk-that-Holloes-Walking. The-Swan’s Winter +Count, 1860-’61. Interpreter A. Lavary said, in 1867, +that The-Elk-that-Holloes-Walking, then chief of the +Minneconjous, was then at Spotted-Tail’s camp. His +father was Red-Fish. He was the elder brother of +Lone-Horn. His name is given as A-hag-a-hoo-man-ie, +translated The-Elk’s-Voice-Walking, compounded of he-ha-ka, elk, and +omani, walk; this according to Lavary’s literation. The correct literation +of the Dakota word meaning elk is heqaka; voice, ho; and to walk, +walking, mani. Their compound would be heqaka ho mani, the translation +being the same as above given.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 207px;"> +<img src="images/dp848_pg718a.png" width="207" height="422" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1195.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1195.—Elk-walking-with-his-Voice. Red-Cloud’s Census: This +is explained by the following figure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 419px;"> +<img src="images/dp848_pg718b.jpg" width="419" height="434" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1196.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1196 is taken from the manuscript drawing book of an Indian +prisoner at St. Augustine, Florida, now in the Smithsonian Institution,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718">[718]</a></span> +No. 30664. It represents an antelope and the whistling sound produced +by the animal on being surprised or alarmed. It also shows the +tracks, and supplies the idea of walking not exhibited by the preceding +two figures.</p> + + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 271px;"> +<img src="images/dp848_pg718c.png" width="271" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1197.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1197.—Dog-with-good-voice. Red-Cloud’s Census. The peculiar +angular divisions of the line may indicate the explosive character +of a dog’s bark as distinct from a long-drawn howl. Among the many +lines indicating voice which appear in the Dakota pictographs none has +been found identical with this, and therefore it probably has special +significance.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 332px;"> +<img src="images/dp848_pg718d.png" width="332" height="391" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1198.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1198.—Bear-that-growls. Red-Cloud’s Census. This figure gives +a marked differentiation. The sound of growling does not appear to +come from the mouth, but from the lower part of the neck or the +upper part of the chest, from which the lines here are drawn to emanate. +They are also confined by a surrounding line, to suggest the +occluded nature of the sound.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719">[719]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 248px;"> +<img src="images/dp849_pg719a.png" width="248" height="166" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1199.</span>—Speech. +Ojibwa.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1199, from Copway (<i>b</i>), represents “speak.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp849_pg719bh.png"> +<img src="images/dp849_pg719b.png" class="hires" width="550" height="318" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1200.</span>—Talk. Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Mexican pictograph, Fig. 1200, taken from Kingsborough (<i>n</i>), is +illustrative of the sign made by the Arikara and Hidatsa +for “tell” and “conversation.” “Tell me” is: +Place the flat right hand, palm upward, about 15 +inches in front of the right side of the face, fingers +pointing to the left and front; then draw the hand +inward toward and against the bottom of the chin. For “conversation,” +talking between two persons, both hands are held before the +breast, pointing forward, palms up, the edges being moved several +times toward one another. Perhaps, however, the picture in fact only +means the common poetical image of “flying words.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/dp849_pg719c.png" width="172" height="162" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1201.</span>—Talk. +Maya.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1201 is from Landa (<i>b</i>) and suggests one of the gestures for +“talk,” and more especially that for “sing,” in which the +extended and separated fingers are passed forward and +slightly downward from the mouth—“many voices.” +Although late criticisms of the bishop’s work are unfavorable +to its authenticity, yet even if it were prepared +by a Maya, under his supervision, the latter would probably have given +him some genuine native conceptions, and among them gestures would +be likely to occur.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Gustav Eisen (<i>a</i>), in describing Fig. 1202, says:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;"> +<a href="images/dp850_pg720ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp850_pg720a.jpg" class="hires" width="523" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1202.</span>—Talk. Guatemala.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The original, from near Santa Lucia, Guatemala, represents a sepulchral tablet, +on which are seen the portraits of perhaps man and wife, their different headdresses, +etc., indicating decidedly their different sexes. From the mouths of the respective +portraits extend as usual curved figures with notes or nodes.</p></div> + +</div> + + +<h4>DWELLINGS.</h4> + +<p>Irving (<i>c</i>) noticed fifty years ago that each tribe of Indians has a different +mode of shaping and arranging lodges, and especially that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720">[720]</a></span> +Omaha make theirs gay and fanciful with undulating bands of red +and yellow or with dressed and painted buffalo skins.</p> + +<p>The left-hand upper characters of Fig. 1203 represents Dakota lodges +as drawn by the Hidatsa. These characters when carelessly or rudely +drawn can only be distinguished from personal marks by their position +and their relation to other characters.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 270px;"> +<img src="images/dp850_pg720b.png" width="270" height="250" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1203.</span>—Dwellings.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The right-hand upper characters of the same figure signify, among +the Hidatsa, earth lodges. The circles represent the ground plan of +the lodges, while the central markings are +intended to represent the upright poles, +which support the roof on the interior. +Some of these are similar to the Kadiak +drawing for island, Fig. <a href="#page322">439</a>.</p> + +<p>The left-hand lower character of the figure +represents buildings erected by civilized +men; the character is generally used by the +Hidatsa to designate government buildings +and traders’ stores.</p> + +<p>The remaining character is the Hidatsati, the home of the Hidatsa; +an inclosure having earth lodges within it.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721">[721]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721a.png" width="222" height="161" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1204.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1204.—Dakotas and Rees meet in camp together and are at +peace. The-Flame’s Winter Count, 1792-’93. +The two styles of dwellings, viz, the tipi of the +Dakotas and the earth lodge of the Arikaras, +are depicted.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 282px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721b.png" width="282" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1205.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1205.—The Dakotas +camped on the Missouri river, +near the Gros Ventres, and +fought with them a long time. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, +1792-’93. The Dakota tipi and the Gros Ventre lodge are shown in +the figure. The gun shows that war +was raging.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 213px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721c.png" width="213" height="229" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1206.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1206.—The Dakotas camped +near the Rees and fought with them. +Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1795-’96. +This figure is a variant of the +one foregoing.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721d.png" width="184" height="251" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1207.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1207.—Some of the Dakotas +built a large house and lived in it during the winter. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1815-’16. White-Cow-Killer calls it “Made-a-house-winter.” +It would seem to be a larger +dwelling than the ordinary tipi, and that wood +entered into its construction. This is made more +clear by the figure next following.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721e.png" width="106" height="137" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1208.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1208.—They lived in the same house that +they did last winter. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1816-’17.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721f.png" width="153" height="188" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1209.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1209.—Adobe houses were built by Maj. +J. W. Wham, Indian agent (afterwards paymaster, +U. S. Army), on the Platte river, about +30 miles below Fort Laramie. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1871-’72. White-Cow-Killer calls +it “Major-Wham’s-house-built-on-Platte-river +winter.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721g.png" width="107" height="102" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1210.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1210.—American-Horse’s Winter +Count, 1815-’16. The figure is intended +to represent a white man’s +house. Other forms are shown in Lone-Dog’s Winter Count, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, +sec. <a href="#page273">2</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 281px;"> +<img src="images/dp851_pg721h.png" width="281" height="302" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1211.</span>—Dwelling. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1211 shows different representations of Moki houses copied from +a petroglyph at Oakley Springs, Arizona.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Prof. Cyrus Thomas, in A Study of the Manuscript Troano, Contrib. +N. A. Ethn., Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, p. 128, gives the following description of Fig. 1212:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 351px;"> +<img src="images/dp852_pg722a.png" width="351" height="433" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1212.</span>—Dwelling. Maya.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The side wall in Fig. 1212 appears to be composed of blocks of some kind placed +one upon another, probably of stone, each bearing the <i>Muluc</i> character. The character +at the top of the wall with a cross in it, somewhat resembling that in the symbol<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722">[722]</a></span> +for <i>Ezanab</i>, is very common in these figures. +This probably marks the end of the beam which +was placed on the wall to support the roof. +The curved line running from this to the top +portion probably represents the rafter; the +slender thread-like lines (yellow in the original) +the straw or grass with which the roof was +thatched.</p> + +<p>The checkered part may represent a matting +of reeds or brushwood on which the straw was +placed.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 234px;"> +<img src="images/dp852_pg722b.png" width="234" height="154" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1213.</span>—House. Egyptian.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Champollion (<i>h</i>) +gives the Egyptian +characters for house, +reproduced in Fig. +1213.</p> + +</div> + + +<h4>ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.</h4> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/dp852_pg722c.png" width="107" height="167" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1214.</span>—Eclipse of the sun.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1214.—Dakotas witnessed eclipse of the sun; they were terribly +frightened. The sun is a dark globe and the stars appear. The-Swan’s +Winter Count, 1869-’70.</p> + +<p>The left-hand design on the lower line of Pl. +<span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page613">XLIX</a></span> is reproduced from Kingsborough. “In +this year there was a great eclipse of the sun.”</p> + +<p>Humboldt infers from this painting that the +Mexicans were informed of the real cause of the +eclipses; which would not be at all surprising +considering the many other curious things with +which they were acquainted, the knowledge of which they must have +derived from the West. It is proper to observe that on the 127th page +of the Vatican MS., where a representation of the same eclipse occurs, +the disk of the moon does not appear to be projecting over that of the +sun. The Vatican MS. appears to have been copied from a Mexican +painting similar to but not the same as that which Pedro de los Rios +copied, whose notes and interpretations the Italian interpreter had +before his eyes and strictly followed.</p> + + +<h4>METEORS.</h4> + +<p>This group shows the pictorial representation of meteors by the +Dakotas. The translations as well as the devices are suggestive.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/dp852_pg722d.png" width="75" height="233" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1215.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1215.—A large roaring star fell. It came from the east +and shot out sparks of fire along its course. Cloud-Shield’s +Winter Count, 1821-’22. Its track and the sparks are +shown in the figure. White-Cow-Killer says “One-star-made-a-great-noise +winter.”</p> + +<p>This and the three following figures evidently +refer to the fall of a single large meteor in the land +of the Dakotas some time in the winter of 1821-’22. +The fact can not be verified by scientific records.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723">[723]</a></span> +There were not many correspondents of scientific institutions in the +upper Missouri region at the date mentioned.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 93px;"> +<img src="images/dp852_pg722e.png" width="93" height="171" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1216.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1216.—Large ball of fire with hissing noise (aerolite). The-Flame’s +Winter Count, 1821-’22.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723a.png" width="191" height="273" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1217.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1217.—Dakota Indians saw an immense meteor passing from +southeast to northwest, which exploded +with great noise. The-Swan’s Winter +Count, 1821-’22.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723b.jpg" width="173" height="297" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1218.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Battiste Good says for the same phenomenon: +“Star-passed-by-with-loud-noise +winter.” His device is shown +in Fig. 1218, showing the meteor, its +pathway, and the clouds from which it +came.</p> + +<p>The five winter counts next cited all +undoubtedly refer to the magnificent meteoric display of the morning +of November 13, 1833, which was witnessed throughout +North America and which was correctly +assigned to the winter corresponding with +that of 1833-’34. All of them represent +stars having four points, except The-Swan, +who draws a globular object followed +by a linear track.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723c.jpg" width="159" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1219.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1219.—It rained stars. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1833-’34. +White-Cow-Killer calls it “Plenty-stars winter.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 163px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723d.jpg" width="163" height="165" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1220.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1220.—The stars moved around. American-Horse’s +Winter Count, 1833-’34. This shows one large four-pointed +star as the characterizing object and many small +stars, also four-pointed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723e.jpg" width="132" height="195" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1221.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1221.—Many stars fell. The-Flame’s Winter Count, +1833-’34. The character shows six stars above the concavity +of the moon.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 286px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723f.png" width="286" height="326" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1222.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1222.—Dakotas witnessed magnificent meteoric showers; much +terrified. The-Swan’s Winter Count, 1833-’34.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 191px;"> +<img src="images/dp853_pg723g.jpg" width="191" height="350" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1223.</span></p></div> +</div> + + + +<p>Battiste Good calls it “Storm-of-stars winter,” and gives as the device +a tipi with stars falling around +it. This is presented in Fig. 1223. +The tipi is colored yellow in the +original and so represented in the +figure according to the heraldic +scheme.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp854_pg724h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp854_pg724.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="267" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1224.</span>—Meteors. Mexican.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1224 is taken from Kingsborough, +<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIX</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">XXX</span>. +The description, given in Codex +Tell.-Rem., <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, p. 148, et seq., is as +follows: Regarding the left-hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724">[724]</a></span> +device figure, “In the year of Three Rabbits, or in 1534, Don Antonio +de Mendoça arrived as Viceroy of New Spain. They say that the star +smoked.”</p> + +<p>Regarding the lower figure: “In the year of Eleven Houses, or in +1529, Nuño de Guzman set out for Yalisco on his march to subdue that +territory; they pretend that a serpent descended from the sky, exclaiming +that troubles were preparing for the natives since the Christians +were directing their course thither.”</p> + +</div> + +<h4>THE CROSS.</h4> + +<p>Referring to the numerous forms of cross delineated in the work of +Mr. W. H. Holmes (<i>d</i>), it is to be noted that most of them are equilateral +or the Greek pattern, and that similar ornaments or instruments +now used by the Dakotas are always worn so that the cross upon them +stands as if resting on one foot only and not on two, as is the mode in +which St. Andrew’s cross is drawn.</p> + +<p>The “Greek” cross represents to the Dakota the four winds, which +issue from the four caverns in which the souls of men existed before +their incarnation in the human body. All “medicine-men,” i. e., conjurers +and magicians, recollect their previous dreamy life in those +places and the instructions then received from the gods, demons, and +sages. They recollect and describe their preexistent life, but only +dream and speculate as to the future life beyond the grave.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;"> +<img src="images/dp855_pg725a.png" width="222" height="233" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1225.</span>—Cross. Dakota.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The top of the cross is the cold all-conquering giant, the North-wind, +most powerful of all. It is worn on the body nearest the head, the seat +of intelligence and conquering devices. The left arm covers the heart; +it is the East-wind, coming from the seat of life and love. The foot is +the melting burning South-wind, indicating, as it is worn, the seat of +fiery passion. The right arm is the gentle West-wind, blowing from +the spirit land, covering the lungs, from which the breath at last goes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725">[725]</a></span> +out, gently, but into unknown night. The center of the cross is the +earth and man, moved by the +conflicting influences of the +gods and winds. This cross is +often illustrated as in Fig. 1225. +It is sometimes drawn and depicted +in beadwork and also on +copper, as in Fig. 1226, extracted +from the Second Ann. +Rep. Bur. Ethn., Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LII</span>, Fig. 4, where it appears cut out of a copper +plate found in an Ohio mound.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> +<img src="images/dp855_pg725b.jpg" width="492" height="490" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1226.</span>—Cross. Ohio mound.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But among some of the Indian tribes the true Latin cross is found, +viz, upright with three members of equal length, and the fourth, the +foot, much longer. The use of this symbol antedates the discovery of +America, and is carried far back in tradition and myth. When a missionary +first asked a Dakota the name of this figure, which he drew for +him in the sand, wishing to use the information in his translation of +Bible and Creed, the Dakota promptly replied Sus-be-ca, and retraced +the figure saying “That is a Sus-be-ca.” It was therefore promptly +transferred to Scripture and Creed where it still reads “He was nailed +to the Susbeca,” etc. “God forbid that I should glory save in the +Susbeca of our Lord Jesus Christ.” To the good missionary this was +plain and satisfactory; for the Dakota had demonstrated by tracing it +in the sand that Susbeca was the name of the figure called in English, +“cross.” The foregoing statement is made on the excellent authority +of Rev. S. D. Hinman.</p> + +<p>But when the Dakota read his new Bible or Creed, he must have +been puzzled or confused to find, “He was nailed to a mosquito-hawk,” +or, “God forbid that I should glory save in the mosquito-hawk of our +Lord Jesus Christ.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> +<img src="images/dp855_pg725c.png" width="153" height="208" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1227.</span>—Dragon +fly.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The same disposition of straight lines which is called the Latin cross +was and is used by the Dakota to picture or signify both in pictograph +and gesture sign, the mosquito-hawk, more generally called +dragon fly. The Susbeca or mosquito-hawk is a supernatural +being. He is gifted with speech. He warns men +of danger. He approaches the ear of the man moving +carelessly or unconcernedly through the deep grass of the +meadow or marsh—approaches his ear silently and at right +angles, as shown in Fig. 1227<i>a</i>, and says to him, now +alarmed, “Tci”-“tci”-“tci!”—which is an interjection<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726">[726]</a></span> +equivalent to “Look out!” “You are surely going to destruction!” +“Look out!” “Tci”-“tci”-“tci!”</p> + +<p>Now the mosquito-hawk is easily knocked down and caught and has +a temptingly small neck. But woe to the man or woman or child who +with the cruelty commonly practiced on all living things by Indians of all +ages and states, dares to wring off his head. Whoever shall do this +before the winter comes shall be beheaded by the detested Ojibwa. It +is true, for long ago a reckless young warrior feeling annoyed or +insulted by the infernal “Tci”-“tci”-“tci!” so unceremoniously uttered +in explosive breaths near his ear, tried it, and his headless trunk was +found ere he escaped from the swamp.</p> + +<p>The cross has its proper significance in this use not only in representing +quite faithfully the shape of the insect but also the angle of +his approach. It is variously drawn, but usually as in Fig. 1227, <i>a</i>, or +<i>b</i>, and in painting or embroidery, <i>c</i>, and sometimes <i>d</i>.</p> + +<p>One reason for the adoption of the dragon fly as a mysterious and +supernatural being, is on account of its sudden appearance in large +numbers. When in the still of the evening, before the shades of darkness +come, there is heard from the meadow a hum as of the sound of +crickets or frogs, but indistinct and prolonged; on the morrow the +Susbeca will be hovering over it; it is the sound of their coming, but +whence no man kens. See also Fig. <a href="#page705">1165</a> and remarks.</p> + +<p>Among the Ojibwa of northern Minnesota the cross is one of the +sacred symbols of the society of the Midē or shamans, and has +special reference to the fourth degree. A neophyte who has been +advanced to the third initiation or degree, is instructed in ritualistic +chants purporting to relate the struggle between Mi'nabō'zho, the +mediator between the Ojibwa and Ki'tshi Ma'nidō, and the malevolent +Bear spirit, which contest occurred when Mi'nabō'zho entered the +fourth degree structure at the time when the first Indian was inducted +therein for initiation.</p> + +<p>The structure as erected at this day is built in the form of an oblong +square having openings or doors at the four cardinal points. At these +openings Mi'nabō'zho appeared and shot into the inclosure charmed +arrows, to expel the horde of demons occupying the sacred place, and the +Bear spirit was the last to yield to his superior powers. The openings +being opposite to one another, north and south and east and west, suggested +to Mi'nabō'zho the cross, which is now erected whenever a third +degree Midē receives this last and highest honor.</p> + +<p>The cross is made of saplings, the upright pole reaching the height +of 4 to 6 feet, the transverse arms being somewhat shorter, each being +of the same length as that part of the pole between the arms and the +top. The upper parts are painted white, or besmeared with white clay, +over which are spread small spots of red, the latter suggesting the +sacred shell or mēgis, the symbol of the order. The lower arm or pole +is squared, the surface toward the east being painted white, to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727">[727]</a></span> +the source of light and warmth. The face on the south is green, denoting +the source of the thunder bird who brings the rains and causes the +appearance of vegetation; the surface toward the west is covered with +vermilion and relates to the land of the setting sun, the abode of the +dead. The north is painted black, as that faces the direction from which +come affliction, cold, and hunger.</p> + +<p>Illustrations and additional details on this topic are presented in the +paper of Dr. Hoffman (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<p>In the chart presented in that paper, Pl. B, a midē' structure is also +shown, within which are a number of crosses, each of which designates +the spirit of a deceased midē priest.</p> + +<p>Upon several birch-bark scrolls received from Ojibwa midē priests +are characters resembling rude crosses, which are merely intended to +designate wigwams, resembling in this respect similar characters made +by Hidatsa to designate Sioux lodges as shown in Fig. <a href="#page720">1203</a>.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/dp857_pg727a.png" width="113" height="194" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1228.</span>—Crosses. +Eskimo.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Groups of small crosses incised upon ivory bow drills +and representing flocks of birds, occur on Eskimo specimens, +Nos. 45020 and 44211, in the collection of the U. S. +National Museum. They are reproduced in Fig. 1228. +In Figs. 429 and <a href="#page697">1129</a>, representing petroglyphs at Oakley +Springs, Arizona, are crosses which are mentioned by +Mr. G. K. Gilbert as signifying stars. The simple cross +appears to be the simplest type of character to represent +stellar forms. See Figs. 1219, 1220, 1221 and 1223.</p> + +<p>Fig. <a href="#page068">28</a>, supra, represents a cross copied from the Najowe Valley group +of colored pictographs, 40 miles west of Santa Barbara, California. +The cross measures 10 inches in length, the interior portion being +painted black, while the outside or border is of a dark red tint. This +drawing, as well as numerous others in close connection, is painted on +the walls of a shallow cave or rock-shelter in the limestone formation.</p> + +<p>Fourteen miles west of Santa Barbara, on the summit of the Santa +Ynez mountains, are caverns having a large opening, facing the northwest +and north, in which crosses occur of the types given in Fig. <a href="#page071">33</a>, +supra.</p> + +<p>The interior portion of the cross is of a dull, earthy red, while the +outside line is of a faded black tint. +The cross measures nearly a foot in +extent.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> +<img src="images/dp857_pg727b.jpg" width="260" height="311" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1229.</span>—Cross. Tulare valley, California.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>At Tulare Indian agency, Tulare +valley, California, is an immense +bowlder of granite which has become +broken in such a manner that one of +the lower quarters has moved away +from the larger mass sufficiently to +leave a passageway 6 feet wide and +nearly 10 feet high. The interior walls are well covered with large,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728">[728]</a></span> +painted figures, while upon the ceiling are numerous forms of animals, +birds, and insects. Among this latter group is a white cross +measuring about 18 inches in length, Fig. 1229, presenting a unique +appearance, for the reason +that white coloring matter +applied to petroglyphs is, +with this single exception, +entirely absent in that +region.</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting +series of rock sculpturings +in groups is that in +Owens valley, south of Benton, +California. Among +these various forms of +crosses occur, and circles +containing crosses of various +simple and complex types, as shown in Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page058">I</a></span> to <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page059">XI</a></span> and in Mojave +desert, California, illustrated in Fig. <a href="#page061">19</a>, but the examples of most interest +in the present connection are the two shown herewith in Fig. +1230, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 515px;"> +<img src="images/dp858_pg728.png" width="515" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1230.</span>—Crosses. Owens valley, California</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The larger one, <i>a</i>, occurs upon a large bowlder of trachyte, blackened +by exposure, located 16 miles south of Benton, at a locality known as +the Chalk Grade. The circle is a depression about 1 inch in depth, +the cross being in high relief within. Another smaller cross, <i>b</i>, found +3 miles north of the one above-mentioned, is almost identical, each of +the arms of the cross, however, extending to the rim of the circle.</p> + +<p>In this locality occurs also the form of the cross <i>c</i>, in the same figure, +and some examples having more than two cross arms. Other simple +forms clearly represent the human form, but by erosion the arms and +body have become partially obliterated so as to lose all trace of resemblance +to humanity.</p> + +<p>In the same figure, <i>d</i>, from a rock in the neighborhood, exhibits the +outline of the human form, while in <i>e</i> parts of the extremities have +been removed by erosion so that the resemblance is less striking; in +<i>f</i> a simple cross occurs, which may also have been intended to represent +the same, but through disintegration the extremities have been so +greatly changed or erased that their original forms can not be determined.</p> + +<p>Rev. John McLean (<i>a</i>) says: “On the sacred pole of the sun lodge of +the Blood Indians two bundles of small brushwood taken from the birch +tree were placed in the form of a cross. This was an ancient symbol +evidently referring to the four winds.”</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Among the Kiatéxamut, an Innuit tribe, a cross placed on the head, +as in Fig. 1231, signifies a Shaman’s evil spirit or demon. This is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729">[729]</a></span> +imaginary being under control of the Shaman to execute the wishes of +the latter.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/dp859_pg729a.png" width="78" height="117" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1231.</span>—Cross. +Innuit.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Many of the mescal eaters at the Kaiowa mescal ceremony +wear the ordinary Roman Catholic crucifixes, which +they adopt as sacred emblems of the rite, the cross representing +the cross of scented leaves upon which the consecrated +mescal rests during the ceremony, while the human +figure is the mescal goddess.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Concerning Fig. 1232, Keam, in his MS., says:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 286px;"> +<img src="images/dp859_pg729b.png" width="286" height="144" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1232.</span>—Crosses. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Maltese cross is the emblem of a virgin; still so recognized by the Moki. It +is a conventional development of a more common emblem of maidenhood, the form +in which the maidens wear their hair arranged as a disk of 3 or 4 inches in diameter +upon each side of the head. This discoidal arrangement of their hair is typical of +the emblem of fructification worn by the virgin in the Muingwa festival, as exhibited +in the head-dress illustration <i>a</i>. Sometimes the hair, instead of being worn in +the complete discoid form, is dressed from two curving twigs and presents the form +of two semicircles upon each side of the head. The partition of these is sometimes +horizontal and sometimes vertical. A combination of both of these styles, <i>b</i>, presents +the form from which the Maltese cross was conventionalized. The brim decorations +are of ornamental locks of hair which a maiden trains to grow upon the +sides of the forehead.</p></div> + +</div> + +<p>The ceremonial employment of the cross by +the Pueblo is detailed in Mr. Stevenson’s paper +entitled Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis and +Mythical Sand-painting of the Navajo Indians, +in the Eighth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., +p. 266, where it denotes the scalp-lock.</p> + +<p>In the present paper the figure of the cross among the North American +Indians is presented under other headings with many differing +significations. Among other instances it appears on p. <a href="#page383">383</a> as the tribal +sign for Cheyenne; on p. <a href="#page582">582</a> as Dakota lodges; on p. <a href="#page613">613</a> as the character +for trade or exchange; on p. <a href="#page227">227</a> as the conventional sign for +prisoner; on p. <a href="#page438">438</a> for personal exploits; while elsewhere it is used in +simple numeration.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>But, although this device is used with a great variety of meanings, +when it is employed ceremonially or in elaborate pictographs by the +Indians both of North and South America, it represents the four winds. +The view long ago suggested that such was the significance +of the many Mexican crosses, is sustained by Prof. +Cyrus Thomas, in his Notes on Maya and Mexican MSS., +Second Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn., p. 61, where strong confirmatory +evidence is produced by the arms of the crosses +having the appearance of conventionalized wings, similar +to some representations of the thunder-bird by more +northern tribes. Yet the same author, in his paper on the +Study of the MS. Troano, Contrib. N. A. Ethn., <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, 144, gives Fig. +1233 as the symbol for wood, thus further showing the manifold concepts +attached to the general form.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 99px;"> +<img src="images/dp859_pg729c.png" width="99" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1233.</span>—Crosses. Maya.</p></div> +</div> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730">[730]</a></span></p> + +<p>Bandelier (<i>a</i>) thinks that the crosses which were frequently used before +the conquest by the aborigines of Mexico and Central America +were merely ornaments and were not objects of worship, while the so-called +crucifixes, like that on the “Palenque tablet,” were only the +symbol of the “new fire” or close of a period of fifty-two years. He +believes them to be merely representations of “fire-drills,” more or less +ornamented.</p> + +<p>Mr. W. H. Holmes (<i>e</i>) shows by a series representing steps in the +simplification of animal characters that +in Chiriqui a symmetrical cross was developed +from the design of an alligator.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 386px;"> +<img src="images/dp860_pg730a.png" width="386" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1234.</span>—Crosses. Nicaragua.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Carl Bovallius (<i>a</i>) gives an illustration, +copied here as Fig. 1234, of pictographs +in the island of Ceiba, Nicaragua.</p> + +<p>Zamacois (<i>a</i>) says that “the cross figured in the religion of various +tribes of the peninsula of Yucatan and that it represented the god of +rain.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp860_pg730bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp860_pg730b.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="290" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1235.</span>—Cross. Guatemala.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. S. Habel (<i>f</i>), describing Fig. 1235, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On it is a person in a reclining position, with a single band tied around his forehead, +forming a knot with two pendent tassels. From his temple rises an ornament resembling +the wing of a bird. The emaciated face, as well as the recumbent position of +the body, indicates a state of sickness. The hair is interwoven behind with many +ribbons forming loops, which are bound together by a clasp, and then spread out in +the shape of a fan. The ear is ornamented with a circular disk, to the center of +which are attached a plume and a twisted ornament similar to a queue. On the +breast is a kind of brooch, which is hollow like a shell, and in which are imbedded +seven pearls. Around the waist are three rows of a twisted fabric, which is knotted +in front in a bow, the ends descending between the thighs. Another band, of a different +texture, stretches out horizontally from the region of the above-mentioned +knot. Attached to this girdle is another fabric, of a scaly texture, which surrounds +the thighs. The right leg, below the knee, is encircled with a ribbon and a rosette.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731">[731]</a></span> +This would seem to be the undress substitute for the band and pendant. In front +of the recumbent person stands the representation of a skeleton, quite well executed. +Other points noticeable about this skeleton are the hair on the head and the fact +that its hands are fleshy and the fingers and toes have nails. Like all representations +by these sculptures, the skeleton is also embellished with ornaments.</p> + +<p>From the back of the head emanate two objects similar to horns, which, if they +were not differently ribbed, might represent flames. The ear is ornamented with a +circular disk, with a pendant from its center. A double-ruffled collar surrounds the +neck and a serpent encircles the loins. Both the shoulders and arms are enveloped +in flames. From the mouth emanates a bent staff, touching the first of a row of ten +circles. Beneath the second and third circles are five bars, three of which are horizontal. +The lowest one is the longest, while the two upper ones are shorter and of +different lengths. On the uppermost of these bars rest two others, crossing each +other obliquely, and touching with their upper ends two of the aforesaid circles. +From the last of these circles descend serpentine lines, which touch the ground behind +the recumbent person.</p></div> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p>Gustav Eisen, op. cit., describing Fig. 1236, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>From near Santa Lucia, Guatemala, is a stone tablet, most likely a sepulchral +tablet, having in its center a forced dead head, with outstretched tongue. Above +the same are seen two crossed bars, perhaps meant to represent two crossed bones.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp861_pg731.jpg" width="600" height="528" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1236.</span>—Cross. Guatemala.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>W. F. Wakeman (<i>a</i>) makes the following remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A cross was used by the people of Erin as a symbol of some significance at a period +long antecedent to the mission of St. Patrick or the introduction of Christianity +to this island. It is found, not unfrequently, amongst the scribings picked or carved +upon rock surfaces and associated with a class of archaic designs, to the meaning +of which we possess no key. * * * It may be seen on prehistoric monuments in +America, on objects of pottery found by Dr. Schliemann at Hissarlik and at Mycenæ, +and, in more than one form, on pagan Roman altars still preserved in Germany and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732">[732]</a></span> +Britain. With the Chinese it was for untold ages a symbol of the earth. The Rev. +Samuel Beal, <span class="smcap lowercase">B. A.</span>, rector of Flastone, North Tyrone, professor of Chinese in University +College, London, writes: “Now, the earliest symbol of the earth was a plain +cross, denoting the four cardinal points; hence we have the word chaturanta, i. e., +the four sides, both in Pâli and Sanscrit, for the earth; and on the Nestorian tablet, +found at Siganfu some years ago, the mode of saying “God created the earth” is +simply this: “God created the +.””</p></div> + +<p>A writer in the Edinburgh Review in an article entitled “The Pre-Christian +Cross,” January, 1870, p. 254, remarks: “The Buddhists and +Brahmins who together constitute nearly half the population of the +world, tell us that the decussated figure of the cross, whether in a +simple or complex form, symbolizes the traditional happy abode of +their primeval ancestors.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;"> +<img src="images/dp862_pg732.png" width="496" height="200" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1237.</span>—Crosses. Sword-maker’s marks.</p></div> +</div> + + +<p>Rudolf Cronau (<i>c</i>), describing Fig. 1237, says that in the Berlin +<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeughause</span> are swords of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, bearing +the marks shown in <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, +and <i>d</i>, while those having the +marks <i>e</i> and <i>f</i> are from swords +in the Historical Museum at +Dresden.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The remarkable resemblance +of some of these characters +to forms on petroglyphs in the three Americas, presented in this +paper, will at once be noticed.</p> + +<p>D’Alviella (<i>c</i>), remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>One of the most frequent forms of the cross is called the gamma cross, because its +four arms are bent at a right angle so as to form a figure like that of four Greek +gammas turned in the same direction and joined at the base. We meet it among +all the peoples of the Old World, from Japan to Iceland, and it is found in the two +Americas. There is nothing to prevent us from supposing that in the instance it +was spontaneously conceived everywhere, like the equilateral crosses, circles, triangles, +chevrons, and other geometrical ornaments so frequent in primitive decoration. +But we see it, at least among the peoples of the Old Continent, invariably passing for +talisman, appearing in the funeral scenes or on the tombstones of Greece, Scandinavia, +Numidia, and Thibet, and adorning the breasts of divine personages—of Apollo +and Buddha—without forgetting certain representations of the Good Shepherd +in the Catacombs.</p></div> + +<p>It is, however, impossible within the present limits, to attempt even +a summary of the vast amount of literature on this topic. Perhaps one +symbolic use of the form which is not commonly known is of sufficient +interest to be noted. Travelers say that crosses are exhibited in the +curtains of the monasteries of the Thibetan Buddhists, to mean peace +and quietness. With the same conception the loopholes of the Japanese +forts were in time of peace covered with curtains embroidered with +crosses, which when war broke out were removed.</p> + +<p>It is also impossible to refrain from quoting the following, translated +with condensation, from de Mortillet (<i>a</i>). The illustration referred to +is reproduced in the present paper by Fig. 1238, the right-hand figure<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733">[733]</a></span> +being from the vase, and that on the left the recognized monogram of +Christ:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 265px;"> +<img src="images/dp863_pg733.jpg" width="265" height="120" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1238.</span>—Cross. Golasecca.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There can no longer be any doubt as to the use of +the cross as a religious symbol long before the advent +of Christianity. The worship of the cross, extensive +throughout Gaul before the conquest, already existed +during the bronze age, more than a thousand years +before Christ.</p> + +<p>It is especially in the sepulchres of Golasecca that +this worship is revealed in the most complete manner, and there, strange to say, has +been found a vessel bearing the ancient monogram of Christ, designed perhaps 1,000 +years before the coming of Jesus Christ. Is the isolated presence of this monogram +of Christ in the midst of numerous crosses, an entirely accidental coincidence?</p> + +<p>Another curious fact, very interesting to prove, is that this great development of +the worship of the cross before the coming of Christ seems to coincide with the +absence of idols and indeed of any representation of living objects. Whenever such +objects appear, it may be said that the crosses become more rare and finally disappear +altogether. The cross has then been, in remote antiquity, long before Christ, +the sacred emblem of a religious sect which repudiated idolatry.</p></div> + +<p>The author, with considerable naiveté, has evidently determined that +the form of the cross was significant of a high state of religious culture, +and that its being succeeded by effigies, which he calls idols, showed a +lapse into idolatry. The fact is simply that, next after one straight +line, the combination of two straight lines forming a cross is the easiest +figure to draw, and its use before art could attain to the drawing of +animal forms, or their representation in plastic material, is merely an +evidence of crudeness or imperfection in designing. It is worthy of remark +that Dr. Schliemann, in his “Troja,” page 107, presents as his +Fig. 38 a much more distinct cross than that given by M. de Mortillet, +with the simple remark that it is “a geometrical ornamentation.”</p> + +<p>Probably no cause has more frequently produced archeologic and +ethnologic blunders than the determination of Christian explorers and +missionaries to find monograms of Christ in every monument or inscription +where the cross figure appears. The early missionaries to America +were obliged to explain the presence of this figure there by a miraculous +visit of an apostle, St. Thomas being their favorite. Other generations +of the same good people were worried in the same manner by the +cross pattée or Thor hammer of the Scandinavians, and by the conventionalized +clover leaf of the Druids. This figure often has been a symbol +and as often an emblem or a mere sign, but it is so common in +every variety of application that actual evidence is necessary to show +in any special case what is its real significance.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Gen. G. P. Thruston (<i>a</i>) gives the following account of Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LI</span>, which +suggests several points of comparison with figures under other headings +in this paper:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp865e_pg734p3h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp865e_pg734p3.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="464" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LI<br />THRUSTON TABLET, TENNESSEE.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>There has been discovered in Sumner county, Tennessee, near the stone graves and +mounds of Castalian springs, a valuable pictograph, the ancient engraved stone +which we have taken the liberty to entitle a Group of Tennessee Mound Builders.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734">[734]</a></span></p> + +<p>This engraved stone, the property of the Tennessee Historical Society, is a flat, +irregular slab of hard limestone, about 19 inches long and 15 inches wide. It bears +every evidence of very great age. * * * The stone was found on Rocky creek, in +Sumner county, and was presented, with other relics, to the Tennessee Historical +Society about twelve years ago. * * *</p> + +<p>It is evidently an ideograph of significance, graven with a steady and skillful hand, +for a specific purpose, and probably records or commemorates some important treaty +or public or tribal event. * * * Indian chiefs fully equipped with the insignia +of office, are arrayed in fine apparel. Two leading characters are vigorously shaking +hands in a confirmatory way. The banner or shield, ornamented with the double +serpent emblem and other symbols, is, doubtless, an important feature of the occasion. +Among the historic Indians, no treaty was made without the presence or presentation +of the belt of wampum. This, the well-dressed female of the group appears +to grasp in her hand, perhaps as a pledge of the contract. The dressing of the +hair, the remarkable scalloped skirts, the implements used, the waistbands, the +wristlets, the garters, the Indian leggings and moccasins, the necklace and breastplates, +the two banners, the serpent emblem, the tattoo stripes, the ancient pipe, +all invest this pictograph with unusual interest. * * * The double serpent emblem +or ornament upon the banner may have been the badge or totem of the tribe, +clan, or family that occupied the extensive earthworks at Castalian springs in +Sumner county, near where the stone was found. The serpent was a favorite emblem +or totem of the Stone Grave race of Tennessee, and is one of the common devices +engraved on the shell gorgets taken from the ancient cemeteries. * * * The +circles or sun symbol ornaments on the banners and dresses are the figures most +frequently graven on the shell gorgets found near Nashville.</p></div> + +<p>The following summary of the translation, kindly furnished by Mr. +Pom K. Soh of an article, “Pictures of Dokatu or so-called bronze +bell,” by Mr. K. Wakabayashi (<i>a</i>), in the Bulletin of the Tōkyō Anthropological +Society, refers to Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LII</span>. The author saw the bell +described at the town of Takoka, Japan, in August, 1891. The “pictures” +on it were fourteen in number, cast in the metal of the bell, +each one occupying a separate compartment and running around the +bell in several bands. The author took rubbings of the pictures, lithographs +of which are published as illustrations of his article, and from +these the eight pictures now presented in actual size are selected, the +remainder being of the same general character, and some of them nearly +identical with those selected. The information obtained is that the +bell, which is iron and not bronze, was procured before, and perhaps long +before, the present century from Jisei, in the village of Sasakura in the +state of Yetsin, and had been excavated from a mountain at Samki. +Copies of the markings upon it were taken in 1817 to a high authority +at Yedo, now Tōkyō. It is believed that the markings illustrate or +are related to a national story, “Kanden Ko Hitsu,” written by Ban +Kokei. A few similar bells or fragments of them, some being bronze, +have been found in various parts of the Japanese empire. One, which +is bronze, height about 3½ feet, and diameter somewhat more than 1 +foot, was dug up in Hanina in the year A. D. 821.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"> +<a href="images/dp868_pg736ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp868_pg736p.jpg" class="hires" width="378" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LII<br />PICTURES ON DŌTAKU, JAPAN.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The interest of the drawings on Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LII</span>, in the present connection, +consists in their remarkable similarity, both in form and apparent motive, +with several of those found in the western continent and figured<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735">[735]</a></span> +in the present work. Thus, <i>a</i> is to be compared with characters on +Figs. <a href="#page330">437</a> and <a href="#page726">1227</a> and others referring to the human form, the cross, +and the dragon-fly; <i>b</i> with Figs. <a href="#page096">57</a>, <a href="#page232">165</a> <i>b</i> and <a href="#page748">1261</a> <i>l</i>; the two characters +in <i>c</i>, respectively, with Fig. <a href="#page749">1262</a>; the mantis, and Fig. <a href="#page697">1129</a>, one +form of star; <i>d</i> with a common turtle form, as in Fig. <a href="#page087">50</a>; <i>e</i> with Fig. +<a href="#page248">166</a>, an Ojibwa human form, and also exhibiting gesture, and Fig. <a href="#page152">113</a> a +Brazilian petroglyph; and <i>f</i> with Fig. <a href="#page472">657</a>, a north-eastern Algonquian +drawing. The three last-mentioned pictures, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i> and <i>g</i>, exhibit the +peculiar internal life organ (often the conventionalized heart), noticed +in Figs. <a href="#page087">50</a>, <a href="#page495">700</a>, and <a href="#page496">701</a>, and it is to be remarked that the largest +quadruped in <i>g</i> has the life organ connected with the mouth, while the +other quadrupeds, and those in <i>h</i>, show no depiction of internal organs. +The human figure in <i>g</i> is noticeable for the American form of bow, and +the upper character of <i>h</i> is to be compared with Figs. <a href="#page141">104</a> and <a href="#page193">148</a>.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">COMPOSITE FORMS.</span></h3> + +<p>The figures in this group are selected from a larger number in which +the union of two animals of different kinds or that of an animal and +another object indicates the union of the several +qualities or attributes +supposed +to belong to those +animals or objects. +The form and use +of such composite +figures are familiar +from the publication +of the inscriptions +on Egyptian monuments and papyri.</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 315px;"> +<img src="images/dp866_pg735a.png" width="315" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1239.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1239.—Eagle-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census. Here are the branching +antlers of the elk and the tail of the eagle.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"> +<img src="images/dp866_pg735b.png" width="280" height="280" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1240.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1240.—Eagle-Horse. Red-Cloud’s Census. +Eagle feathers replace the horse’s mane.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;"> +<img src="images/dp866_pg735c.png" width="139" height="359" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1241.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1241.—Eagle-Horse. Red-Cloud’s +Census. This is a variant of the preceding, +the change being shown in the tail.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 213px;"> +<img src="images/dp866_pg735d.png" width="213" height="422" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1242.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1242.—Eagle-Swallow. Red-Cloud’s +Census. The characteristics of +the two birds are obvious.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736a.jpg" width="148" height="318" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1243.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1243.—Eagle-Bear. Red-Cloud’s +Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736b.jpg" width="140" height="359" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1244.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1244.—Weasel-Bear. Red-Cloud’s +Census. With only hasty view the really +characteristic form of the weasel might +be mistaken for a rudely drawn gun.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736">[736]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736c.jpg" width="235" height="280" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1245.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1245.—Horned-Horse. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 337px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736d.jpg" width="337" height="298" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1246.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1246.—Bull-Lance. Red-Cloud’s Census. The object attached +to the bull’s muzzle is the common ornamented lance of the Plains +tribes.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 312px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736e.jpg" width="312" height="365" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1247.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1247.—Shield-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census. The ornamented +shield is borne on the bear’s body.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736f.jpg" width="156" height="242" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1248.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1248.—Ring-Owl. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736g.jpg" width="160" height="331" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1249.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1249.—Sunka-wanbli, Dog-Eagle; from the Oglala Roster. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737">[737]</a></span> +mingling of the attributes of the dog and the eagle with special reference +to swiftness may be suggested.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736h.jpg" width="164" height="308" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1250.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1250.—Zintkala-wicasa, Bird-Man; also from the Oglala Roster. +An indication of a bird gens is suggested without information, but perhaps +it is only a representation of the usual vision required from and +therefore obtained by boys before reaching manhood.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/dp867_pg736i.jpg" width="158" height="301" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1251.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1251.—Sunkakan-heton, Horse-with-horns; also from the Oglala +Roster. Perhaps this is not intended as a composite animal, but as a +horse possessing special and mystic power, as is indicated by the gesture +sign for wakan, and, as elsewhere in pictographs, by lines extending +from each side of the head. The same sub-chief appears in Red-Cloud’s +Census with the name translated into English as Horned-Horse.</p> + +<p>This union of the human figure with that of other animals is of interest +in comparison with the well-known forms of similar +character in the art of Egypt and Assyria.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/dp870_pg737a.jpg" width="160" height="479" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1252.</span>—Wolf-man. +Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The feet of the accompanying Fig. 1252, reproduced +from Bastian (<i>b</i>) on the Northwest Coast of America, +can not be seen, being hidden in the head of the figure +beneath. It is squatting, with its hands on its knees, +and has a wolf’s head. Arms, legs, mouth, jaws, nostrils, +and ear-holes are scarlet; eyebrows, irises, and +edges of the ears black.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp870_pg737b.jpg" width="600" height="195" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1253.</span>—Panther-man. Haida.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The drawing Fig. 1253 was made by Mr. J. G. +Swan while on a visit to the Prince of Wales archipelago, +where he found two carved figures with panthers’ +heads, and claws upon the fore feet, and human +feet attached to the hind legs. These mythical animals +were placed upon either side of a corpse which +was lying in state, awaiting burial.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians represented the evil Typhon by the +hippopotamus, the most fierce and savage of their animals; the hawk +was the symbol for power, and the serpent that for life. Plutarch, in +Isis and Osiris, 50, says that in Hermopolis these symbols were united, +a hawk fighting with a serpent being placed on the hippopotamus, thus +accentuating the idea of the destroyer. The Greeks sometimes substituted +the eagle for the hawk, and pictured it killing a hare, the most +prolific of quadrupeds, or fighting a serpent, the same attribute of destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738">[738]</a></span> +being portrayed. But the eagle when alone meant simply +power, as did the hawk in Egypt. The Scandinavians posited the +eagle on the head of their god Thor and the bull on his breast to express +a similar union of attributes.</p> + +</div> + + +<h3>SECTION 4.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">ARTISTIC SKILL AND METHODS.</span></h3> + +<p>Dr. Andree (<i>d</i>), in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Zeichnen bei den Naturvölkern</span>, makes the +following remarks, translated with condensation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The great ability of the Eskimo and their southern neighbors, the natives of northwest +America (Koliushes, Thlinkits, etc.), in representative art is well known and +needs no further insisting. Among all primitive peoples they have made the greatest +advances in the conventionalization of figures, which indicates long practice in painting. +The totem figures, carved both in stone and in wood and tattooed on the body, +show severe conventionalization and have perfect heraldic value. Ismailof, one of +the earliest Russian explorers that came in contact with the Koliushes, relates that +European paintings and drawings did not strike them with the least awe. When a +chief was shown portraits of the Russian imperial family he manifested no astonishment. +That chief was accompanied by his painter, who examined everything +very closely, in order to paint it afterward. He was able in particular “to paint +all manner of objects on wooden tablets and other material (leather),” using blue +iron earth, iron ocher, colored clays, and other mineral colors. Among these peoples, +too, painting is employed as a substitute for writing, in order to record memorable +things.</p> + +<p>Far below the artistic achievements of the Eskimo and of the natives of the +American northwest (Haida, Thlinkit, etc.) are those of the redskins east of the Rocky +mountains. They are, however, very productive in figure drawing; nay, that art +has advanced to a kind of picture writing, which, it is true, is not distinguished by +artistic finish. That “fling” which, depending on good observation of nature, appears +in the drawings of Australians, Bushmen, etc., and the good characterization of +the figures, are lacking among the Indians; and though, as is frequently the case, +their animals are better represented than the men, yet they can not compare with +the animal figures of the Eskimo or Bushmen. Dr. Capitan, who had drawings +made by the Omahas shown in 1883 in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin d’acclimatation</span> of Paris, says concerning +them: “It is singular to note that by the side of very rudimentary representations +of human figures the pictures of horses are drawn with a certain degree +of correctness. If the Indians take pains in anything it is in the painting of their +buffalo skins, which are often worn as mantles. On red-brown ground are seen +black figures, especially of animals; on others, on white ground, the heroic deeds +and life events of distinguished Indians, represented in black or in other colors. +You see the wounded enemies, the loss of blood, the killed and the captives, stolen +horses, all executed in the peculiar manner of an art of painting still in the stage of +infancy, with earth colors black, red, green, and yellow. Almost all the Missouri +tribes practice painting on buffalo skins; the most skillful are the Pawnees, Mandans, +Minitaris, and Crows. Among the Mandans, Wied met individuals who possessed +“a very decided talent” for drawing.”</p></div> + +<p>The same author, in the same connection, reasserts the old statement +that there is an established difference in artistic capacity between the +so-called mound-builders and the present Indians, so great that it +either shows a genetic difference between them or that the Indians had +degenerated in that respect. This statement is denied by the Bureau<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739">[739]</a></span> +of Ethnology, but the point to be now considered is whether it is true +that the historic North American Indians are as low in artistic skill +as is alleged.</p> + +<p>The French traveler Crevaux, as quoted by Marcano (<i>g</i>), says that +he had the happy idea of giving pencils to the Indians, in order to see +whether they were capable of producing the same drawings. The +young Yumi rapidly drew for him sketches of man, dog, tiger; in brief, +of all the animals of the country. Another Indian reproduced all sorts +of arabesques, which he was wont to paint with genipa. Crevaux saw +that these savages, who are accused of being absolutely ignorant of the +fine arts, all drew with extraordinary facility.</p> + +<p>The same idea, i. e., of testing the artistic ability of Indians in several +tribes, occurred to the present writer and to many other travelers, +who generally have been surprised at the skill in free-hand drawing +and painting exhibited. It would seem that the Indians had about the +same faults and decidedly more talent than the average uninstructed +persons of European descent who make similar attempts. An instance +of special skill in portrait painting is given by Lossing (<i>a</i>), where a +northern tribe in 1812 made a bark picture of Joseph Barron, a fugitive, +to obtain his identification by sending copies of it to various tribes. +The portrait given as an illustration in the work cited is very distinct +and lifelike. This, however, was a special task prompted by foreign +influence. While the Indians had no more knowledge of perspective +than the Japanese, they were unable or indisposed to attempt the accurate +imitation of separate natural objects in which the Japanese +excel. Before European instruction or example they probably never +produced a true picture. Some illustrations in the present work, which +show a continuous series of men, animals, and other objects, are no more +pictures than are the consecutive words of a printed sentence, both +forms, indeed, being alike in the fact that their significance is expressed +by the relation between the separate parts. The illustration +which at a first glance seems to be most distinctively picturesque<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740">[740]</a></span> +is Fig. <a href="#page473">659</a>, but it will be noticed that the personages are repeated, the +scene changed, and the time proceeds, so that there is no view of specified +objects at any one time and place.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp872_pg739h.png"> +<img src="images/dp872_pg739.png" class="hires" width="550" height="249" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1254.</span>—Moose, Kejimkoojik.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1254 shows two drawings from Kejimkoojik, N. S., reduced to +one-fourth, each supposed to represent a moose, though possibly one +of them is a caribou, and the mode of execution vividly suggests some +of the examples of prehistoric art found in Europe and familiar by +repeatedly published illustrations.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/dp873_pg740.jpg" width="400" height="424" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1255.</span>—Hand, Kejimkoojik.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1255 is the etching of a hand from the Kejimkoojik rocks, reduced +one-half. Its peculiarity consists +in the details by which the lines +of the palm and markings on the balls +of the thumb and fingers are shown. +If this is the real object of the design +it shows close observation, though it +is not suggested that any connection +with the pseudo-science of palmistry +is to be inferred.</p> + +<p>In connection with this drawing the +following translated remarks in <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandl. +Berlin. Gesellsch. für Anthrop.</span> +(<i>d</i>), may be noted:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The frequency with which partial representations +of the eye are met with appeared to +me so striking that I requested Mr. Jacobson to ask the Bella Coola Indians whether +they had any special idea in employing the eye so frequently. To my great surprise +the person addressed pointed to the palmar surface of his finger tips and to the fine +lineaments which the skin there presents; in his opinion a rounded or longitudinal +field, such as appears between the converging or parallel lines, also means an eye, +and the reason of this is that originally each part of the body terminated in an organ +of sense, particularly an eye, and was only afterward made to retrovert into such +rudimentary conditions.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;"> +<a href="images/dp874_pg740ph.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp874_pg740p.jpg" class="hires" width="443" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LIII<br />GERMAN KNIGHTS AND APACHE WARRIORS.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The lower character in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LIII</span> is copied from Rudolph Cronau (<i>c</i>) +<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte der Solinger Klingenindustrie</span>, where it is presented as an +illustration of the knights of the thirteenth century, after a sketch in +a MS. of the year 1220, in the library of the University of Leipsig.</p> + +<p>The upper character in the same plate is a copy of a drawing made +in 1884 by an Apache Indian at Anadarko, although the insignia of the +riders are more like those used by the Cheyenne than those of the +Apache. A striking similarity will be noticed in the motive of the two +sketches of the mounted warriors and their steeds as well as in their +decorations, from which in Europe the devices called heraldic were +differentiated. Doubtless still better examples could be obtained to +compare the degree of artistic skill attained by the several draftsmen, +but these are used as genuine, convenient, and typical. See also the +Mexican representation of horses and riders under the heading of +meteors, Fig. <a href="#page723">1224</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741">[741]</a></span></p> + +<p>These horses are far less skillfully portrayed than they are by the +Plains tribes, which may be explained by the fact that the Mexicans +had not yet become familiar with the animal.</p> + +<p>A story told by Catlin to the general effect that the Siouan stock of +Indians did not understand the drawing of human faces in profile has +been repeated in various forms. The last is by Popoff (<i>a</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When Catlin was drawing the profile of a chief named Matochiga, the Indians +around him seemed greatly moved, and asked why he did not draw the other half of +the chief’s face. “Matochiga was never ashamed to look a white man square in the +face.” Matochiga had not till then seemed offended at the matter, but one of the Indians +said to him sportively, “The Yankee knows that you are only half a man, +and he has only drawn half of your face because the other half is not worth anything.”</p></div> + +<p>Another variant of the story is that Catlin was accused of practicing +magic, by which the half of the subject’s head should get into his power, +and he was forced to stop his painting and flee for his life. The explorer +and painter who tells the story is not considered to be altogether +free from exaggeration, and he may have invented the tale to amuse +his auditors in his lectures and afterwards his readers, or he may have +been the victim of a practical joke by the Indians, who are fond of such +banter, and the well-known superstitions about sorcerers gaining possession +of anything attached to the person would have rendered their +anger plausible. But certain it is that the people referred to, before +and after and at the time of the visit of Catlin to them, were in the +habit of drawing the human face in profile, and, indeed, much more +frequently than the full or front face. This is abundantly proved by +many pictures in existence at that time and place which have been seen +by this writer, and a considerable number of them are copied in the +present work. Thus much for one of the oft-cited fictions on which the +allegation of the Indian’s stupidity in drawing has been founded.</p> + +<p>Another false statement is copied over and over again by authors, to +the effect that from a similar superstition the Indians are afraid to, and +therefore do not, make delineations of the whole human figure. The +present work shows their drawing of front, side, and rear views of the +whole human figure, presenting as each view may allow, all the limbs +and features. This, however, is rare, not from the fear charged, but +because the artists directed their attention, not to iconography, but to +ideography, seizing some special feature or characteristic for prominence +and disregarding or intentionally omitting all that was unnecessary +to their purpose.</p> + +<p>On the other hand the Indians have sometimes been unduly praised +for acumen in observation and for skill in their iconography. For instance, +in the lectures of Mr. Edward Muybridge, explaining the highly +interesting photographs of consecutive movements of animals from +which he formulates the novel science of zoöpraxography, the lecturer +attributes to the Indians a scientific and artistic method of drawing +horses in motion which has excelled in that respect all the most famous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742">[742]</a></span> +painters and sculptors. But Mr. Muybridge bases his statement upon +a small number of Indian drawings, apparently seen by him in Europe, +the characteristics of which do not appear in the many drawings of +horses in the possession of the present writer, a considerable number +of which are published in this work. The position of the legs in the +drawings praised is doubtless fortuitous. The Indian in his delineation +of horses cared little more than to show an animal with the appropriate +mane, tail, and hoofs, and the legs were extended without the slightest +regard to natural motion. The drawing of the Indians closely resembles +the masterly abstractions of the living forms devised by the early +heraldic painters which later were corrupted by an attempt to compromise +with zoölogy, resulting in a clumsy naturalism if not caricature.</p> + +<p>A comparison of artistic rather than of pictographic skill may frequently +be made, for instance the art of the Haida in carving, which +shows remarkable similarity to that in Central and South America, +and made public by Habel, op. cit., and H. H. Bancroft (<i>i</i>).</p> + +<p>The style of drawing is strongly influenced by the material on which +it is made. This topic must receive some consideration here, though +too extensive for full treatment. The substances on which and the instruments +by which pictographs are made in America are discussed in +Chaps. <a href="#page205">VII</a> and <a href="#page218">VIII</a> of this work, and the remarks and illustrations +there presented apply generally to other forms of drawing and painting. +Examples of drawing on every kind of material known to the +American aborigines appear in this work. Carving, pecking, and +scratching of various kinds of rock are illustrated, also paintings on +skins and on wood. The Innuit carving on walrus ivory, of which +numerous illustrations are furnished, is notable for its minuteness as +well as distinctness. The substance was precious, the working surface +limited, and the workmanship required time and care. Birch bark, common +in the whole of the northern Algonquian region, was an attractive +material. It was used much more freely and was worked more easily +than walrus ivory, and in two modes, one in which outlines are drawn +by any hard-pointed substance on the inner side of the bark when it +is soft and which remain permanent when dry, the other made by +scraping on the rough outer surface, thus producing a difference in color. +Many examples of the first-mentioned method are shown throughout +this work, and of the latter in Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page225">XVI</a></span> and Fig. <a href="#page473">659</a>. Having before +them this large collection of varied illustrations readers can judge for +themselves of the effect of the material in determining the style among +people who had substantially the same concepts.</p> + +<p>It is universally admitted that the material used, whether papyrus +or parchment, stone or wood, palm leaves or metal, wax or clay, and +the appropriate instruments, hammer, knife, graver, brush or pen, decided +the special style of incipient artists throughout the world. The +Chinese at first worked with knives on bamboo and stone, and even +after they had obtained paper, ink, and fine hair pencils, the influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743">[743]</a></span> +of the old method continued. The cuneiform characters are due to the +shape of the wooden style used to impress the figures on unbaked clay. +It may generally be remarked that in materials having a decided +“grain,” of which bamboo is the most obvious instance, the early stage +of art with its rude implements was forced to work in lines running +with the grain.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 510px;"> +<img src="images/dp878_pg743.jpg" width="510" height="477" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1256.</span>—Engravings on bamboo, New Caledonia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Andree (<i>e</i>) gives the illustration presented here as Fig. 1256 with +these remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The advances made by the Kanakas of New Caledonia in drawing are illustrated +by the bamboo staves covered with engraved drawings, which they carry about as +objects of fashion, somewhat as we +do our walking sticks, and a number +of which are preserved in the +ethnographic museum of Paris +(Trocadero). They have been described +by E. T. Hamy. In these +finely incised drawings ornaments +of the simplest kind (straight lines +and zigzag models) are combined +with figures and tree groups. The +artistic execution is a rather primitive +one, yet the figures by no +means lack character and vividness. +There are seen on the bamboo +the pointed-roofed huts of the +chieftains, turtles, fowl, lizards, +and between them scenes from the +life of the Kanakas. A man beats +his wife, men discharge their bows, +others stand idle in rank and file, adorned with the cylindric straw hat described +by Cook, which at this day has almost entirely disappeared.</p></div> + +<p>The explanation of many peculiar forms of Indian drawing and painting +is to be found in the stage of mythologic sophiology reached by the +several tribes. For instance, Mr. W. H. Holmes, op. cit., discovered that +in Chiriqui all the decorations originated in life forms of animals, none +being vegetal and none clearly expressive of the human figure or attempting +the portrayal of physiognomy. This peculiarity doubtless +arose from the exclusively zoomorphic character of the religion of the +people. Other mythologic concepts have given a special trend to the +art of other tribes and peoples. This results in conventionalism. The +sculptures of Persia chiefly express the power and glory of the God-King, +and the Egyptian statues are canonical idealizations of an abstract +human being, type of the race. It is to be noticed that Indians +also show conservatism and conventionalization in their ordinary pictures. +Within what may be called a tribal, or more properly stock, +system, every Indian draws in precisely the same manner. The figures +of a man, of a horse, and of every other object delineated are made by +everyone who attempts to make any such figure, with seeming desire +for all the identity of which their mechanical skill is capable, thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744">[744]</a></span> +showing their conception and motive to be the same. In this respect +the drawing of the Indians may be likened to that of boys at a public +school, who are always drawing, and drawing the same objects and with +constant repetition of the same errors from one school generation to +another.</p> + +<p>In discussing artistic skill only in its relation to picture-writing the +degree of its excellence is not intrinsically important, though it may be +so for comparison and identification. The figures required were the +simplest. Among these were vertical and horizontal straight lines and +their combinations, circles, squares, triangles, a hand, a foot, an ax or +a bow, a boat or a sledge. Both natural and artificial objects were +drawn by a few strokes without elaboration. The fewer the marks the +more convenient was the pictograph, if it fulfilled its object of being +recognized by the reader. The simple fact without esthetic effect was +all that the pictographic artists wanted to show, and when an animal +was represented it was not by imitation of its whole form, but by emphasis +of some characteristic which must be made obvious, even if it +distorted the figure or group and violated every principle of art as now +developed.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745">[745]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXI.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">MEANS OF INTERPRETATION.</span></h2> + + +<p>The power of determining the authorship of pictographs made on +materials other than rocks, by means of their general style and type, +can be estimated by a comparison of those of the Abnaki, Ojibwa, +Dakota, Haida, Innuit, Shoshoni, Moki, etc., presented in various parts +of this paper.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;"> +<img src="images/dp880_pg745.png" width="225" height="332" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1257.</span>—Typical character. +Guiana.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Everard F. im Thurn (<i>k</i>), in reference to Fig. 1257, remarks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Wherever a peculiar, complex, and not very obvious figure occurs in many +examples it is legitimate to assume that this had some ulterior object and meaning. +Now this figure, occurring in the shallow engravings of Guiana, is of such kind. +It is not a figure which an Indian would be likely to invent +in an idle moment even once, for such a man very seldom, +probably never, except in these particular figures, has been +known to draw straight lines. Moreover, even if it were a +figure that one Indian might idly invent, it is certainly highly +improbable that this would be copied by many other Indians +in various places. And, lastly, a figure strikingly like the +one in question, if, indeed, it is not identical, occurs in certain +Mexican picture writings. For example, in the Mexican +MSS. [reproduced in Kingsborough, <i>op. cit.</i>, <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, from Sir +Thomas Bodley’s MSS., pp. 22, 23, and from the Selden MSS., +also in the Bodleian, p. 3] several figures occur so like that of +the shallow engravings of Guiana that there can be but little +doubt of their connection. The recurrence of this peculiar +figure in these writings is surely sufficient evidence of the +fact that they are not without intention. If it were possible to obtain a clue to the +meaning of the Mexican figures it might serve as a key to decipher the hieroglyphic +writings of Guiana.</p></div> + +<p>With regard to the study of the individual characters themselves to +identify the delineators of pictographs, the various considerations of +fauna, religion, customs, tribal signs, indeed most of the headings of +this paper, will be applicable.</p> + +<p>It is convenient to divide this chapter into: 1. Marked characters +of known significance. 2. Distinctive costumes, weapons, and ornaments. +3. Ambiguous characters, with ascertained meaning.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">MARKED CHARACTERS OF KNOWN SIGNIFICANCE.</span></h3> + +<p>It is obvious that before attempting the interpretation of pictographs +concerning which no direct information is to be obtained, there should +be a collection, as complete as possible, of known characters, in +order that through them the unknown may be learned. When any +considerable number of objects in a pictograph are actually known the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746">[746]</a></span> +remainder may be ascertained by the context, the relation, and the +position of the several designs, and sometimes by the recognized principles +of the art.</p> + +<p>The present writer has been engaged, therefore, for a considerable +time in collating a large number of characters in a card-catalogue +arranged primarily by similarity in forms, and in attaching to each +character any significance ascertained or suggested. As before explained, +the interpretation upon which reliance is mainly based is that +which has been made known by direct information from Indians who +themselves were actually makers of pictographs at the time of giving +the interpretation. Apart from the comparisons obtained by this collation, +the only mode of ascertaining the meaning of the characters, in +other words, the only key yet discovered, is in the study of the gesture +sign included in many of them.</p> + +<p>A spiral line frequently seen in petroglyphs is explained by the +Dakota to be a snail shell, and, furthermore, this device is seen in Pl. +<span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page266">XX</a></span>, and fully described in that connection as used in the recording +and computation of time.</p> + +<p>The limits of this paper do not allow of presenting a complete list of +the characters in the pictographs which have become known. But some +of the characters in the petroglyphs, +Figs. 1258, 1259, and 1260, which are not +discussed under various headings, supra, +should be explained. The following +is a selection of those which were interpreted +to Mr. Gilbert.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 329px;"> +<img src="images/dp881_pg746a.png" width="329" height="160" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1258.</span>—Moki devices.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The left hand device of Fig. 1258 is an inclosure, or pen, in which +ceremonial dances are performed. That on the right is a headdress +used in ceremonial dances.</p> + +<p>Compare the drawing from Fairy Rocks, N. S., Fig. 549.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp881_pg746b.png" width="600" height="124" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1259.</span>—Frames and arrows. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1259 gives sketches of the frames or sticks used in carrying +wood on the back; also shows different forms of arrows.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp881_pg746c.png" width="600" height="103" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1260.</span>—Blossoms. Moki.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1260 represents the blossoms of melons, squashes.</p> + +<p>The appearance of objects showing the influence of European civilization +and christianization should always be carefully noted. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747">[747]</a></span> +instance where an object of that character is found among a multitude +of others not liable to such suspicion is in the heart surmounted by a +cross, in the upper line of Fig. <a href="#page330">437</a>. This suggests missionary teaching +and corresponding date.</p> + +<p>Maximilian of Wied (<i>g</i>) says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Another mode of painting their robes by the Dakotas is to represent the number +of valuable presents they have made. By these presents, which are often of great +value, they acquire reputation and respect among their countrymen. On such robes +we observed long red figures with a black circle at the termination placed close to +each other in transverse rows; they represent whips, indicating the number of +horses given, because the whip belonging to the horse is always bestowed with the +animal. Red or dark-blue transverse figures indicate cloth or blankets given; +parallel transverse stripes represent firearms, the outlines of which are pretty correctly +drawn.</p></div> + +<p>It may be desirable also to note, to avoid misconception, that where, +throughout this work, mention is made of particulars under the headings +of customs, religion, etc., which might be made the subject of +graphic illustration in pictographs, and for that reason should be known +as preliminary to the attempted interpretation of the latter, the suggestion +is not given as a mere hypothesis. Such objective marks and +conceptions of the character indicated which can readily be made +objective, are in fact frequently found in pictographs and have been +understood by means of the preliminary information to which reference +is made. When interpretations obtained through this line of study +are properly verified, they can take places in the card catalogue little +inferior to those of interpretations derived directly from aboriginal +pictographers.</p> + +<p>The interpretation by means of gesture-signs has already been discussed, +Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVIII</span>, Sec. <a href="#page637">4</a>.</p> + +<p>Capt. Carver (<i>b</i>) describes how an Ojibwa drew the emblem of his +own tribe as a deer, a Sioux as a man dressed in skins, an Englishman +as a human figure with a hat on his head, and a Frenchman as a man +with a handkerchief tied around his head.</p> + +<p>In this connection is the quotation from the Historical Collections +of Louisiana, Part <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, 1851, p. 124, describing a pictograph, as follows: +“There were two figures of men without heads, and some entire. The +first denoted the dead and the second the prisoners. One of my conductors +told me on this occasion that when there are any French +among either, they set their arms akimbo, or their hands upon their +hips, to distinguish them from the savages, whom they represent with +their arms hanging down. This distinction is not purely arbitrary; it +proceeds from these people having observed that the French often put +themselves in this posture, which is not used among them.”</p> + +<p>It is also said suggestively, by C. H. Read (<i>f</i>) in Jour. of the Anthrop. +Inst. of Gr. Br. and I., that in the carvings of the West African negroes, +the typical white man is constantly figured with a brandy bottle in one +hand and a large glass in the other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748">[748]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 433px;"> +<a href="images/dp883_pg748h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp883_pg748.jpg" class="hires" width="433" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1261.</span>—Moki characters. The following is the explanation:</p> + +<div class="captionlist"> +<i>a.</i> A beaver.<br /> +<i>b.</i> A bear.<br /> +<i>c.</i> A mountain sheep (<i>Ovis montana</i>).<br /> +<i>d.</i> Three wolf heads.<br /> +<i>e.</i> Three jackass rabbits.<br /> +<i>f.</i> Cottontail rabbit.<br /> +<i>g.</i> Bear tracks.<br /> +<i>h.</i> An eagle.<br /> +<i>i.</i> Eagle tails.<br /> +<i>j.</i> A turkey tail.<br /> +<i>k.</i> Horned toads (<i>Phryosoma</i> sp. ?).<br /> +<i>l.</i> Lizards.<br /> +<i>m.</i> A butterfly.<br /> +<i>n.</i> Snakes.<br /> +<i>o.</i> A rattlesnake.<br /> +<i>p.</i> Deer track.<br /> +<i>q.</i> Three bird tracks.<br /> +<i>r.</i> Bitterns (wading birds). +</div> +</div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749">[749]</a></span></p> + +<p>Instructive particulars regarding pictographs may be discovered in +the delineation of the fauna in +reference to its present or former +habitat in the region where the +representation of it is found.</p> + +<p>As an example of the number +and kind of animals pictured as +well as of their mode of representation, +the foregoing Fig. 1261, +comprising many of the Moki +inscriptions at Oakley Springs, +Arizona, is presented by Mr. G. +K. Gilbert. These were selected +by him from a large number of +etchings for the purpose of obtaining +the explanation, and they were explained to him by Tubi, an Oraibi +chief living at Oraibi, one of the Moki villages.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 484px;"> +<img src="images/dp884_pg749a.png" width="484" height="452" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1262.</span>—Mantis. Kejimkoojik.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The large object in Fig. 1262, scratched on the Kejimkoojik rocks, +Nova Scotia, is probably intended for a mantis or “rear-horse,” but +strongly reminds the observer of the monkey forms in the petroglyphs +of Central and South America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/dp884_pg749b.png" width="600" height="423" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1263.</span>—Animal forms. Sonora.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Ten Kate (<i>b</i>) shows in Fig. 1263 those animal forms which were not +obliterated from the face of the rock of El-Sauce, Sonora; they were +very nearly in the order in which they are represented. The fish at +the upper right hand is 20 centimeters long.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">DISTINCTIVE COSTUMES, WEAPONS, AND ORNAMENTS.</span></h3> + +<p>On examining the relics of ancient peoples or their modern representatives, +the instruments and arms accompanying them and the +clothing upon them mark the social status of the individual. In the +social life of past generations, and still to-day, certain garments with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750">[750]</a></span> +their adjuncts indicate certain functions. The lawyer, the mechanic, +the priest, and the soldier are easily recognizable. These garments do +not only give general indications, but minute details, so in looking upon +a certain soldier it is known what country he serves, how many men +are under his orders, and how many chiefs are above him. It is known +if he marches on horseback or afoot, if he handles the rifle or the saber, +works the cannon, designs fortifications, or builds bridges. Also, by +looking on his decorated breast, it is shown if he has made campaigns +and participated in historic battles, and whether or not he has gained +distinction. This is told by the color, cut, and ornaments of his clothes +and by the weapon he bears. Some details are also furnished by the +cut of the hair, and even the style of foot-gear. The above remarks +apply to the highest civilization, but all kinds of personal and class +designations by means of distinctive costumes, weapons, and adornments +were and still are most apparent and important among the less +cultured peoples.</p> + +<p>The American Indians seldom clothed themselves, except in very +cold weather, save for purposes of ornament. They habitually wore +no other garment than the breech-cloth, but in their ceremonies and +social dances they bedecked themselves with full and elaborate costumes, +often regulated with special punctilio for the occasion. The boreal +tribes, such as the Alaskan, Athapascan, and Chippewayan, who were +obliged to protect themselves for a large part of the year by furs and +skins, developed characteristic forms of dress which in pictography +take the place occupied by painting and tattooing among tribes where +the person was more habitually exposed. Among the southern tribes +there was need of protection against the rays of the sun, as in Mexico, +where cotton and other fibers were used. In general some of the forms +of wearing apparel, if only varieties in the make of moccasins or sandals, +designated the tribe of the wearers, and therefore often became +adopted as pictorial signs. Ceremonial clothing is often elaborately +decorated with beads, porcupine quills, claws and teeth of animals, +shells, and feathers. Many of these garments are further ornamented +with paintings of a totemic or mythologic character, or bear the insignia +of the wearer’s rank and social status. +Metal ornaments, such as armlets, bracelets, +anklets, earrings and bells, were also worn, +the material and quantity being in accordance +with the wearer’s ability and pecuniary +condition. Upon both social and ceremonial +occasions the headgear displayed +eagle feathers and the plumes of other species +of birds, and tufts of hair dyed in red or +other colors. Necklaces were made of claws, +shells, deer and antelope hoofs, the teeth of +various animals, snake-skins, and even human fingers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751">[751]</a></span></p> + +<p>Immediately following are some of the Dakota designations in the +particulars mentioned:</p> + + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;"> +<img src="images/dp885_pg750a.jpg" width="155" height="308" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1264.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1264.—Shield. Red Cloud’s +Census. The shield here is without +device, though frequently one is painted +on the war shields. Such painting may +be the pictograph of the gens or of the +personal designation, or may show the +marks of rank.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/dp885_pg750b.jpg" width="166" height="319" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1265.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1265.—Wahacanka, Shield. The +Oglala Roster. The marks or bearings +on the shield probably are personal and +similar to those commonly called heraldic, +but in this drawing are too minute +for accurate blazonry.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751a.jpg" width="171" height="410" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1266.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1266.—Black-Shield “says his +prayers” (in the interpreter’s phrase; +that is, he performed the rites elsewhere explained); and takes the war-path +to avenge the death of two of his sons who had been +killed by the Crows. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1859-’60.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751b.jpg" width="189" height="422" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1267.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1267.—Eagle-Feather. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This is probably the same name as translated +Lone-Feather in the following figure, in +which the feather also comes from an eagle’s tail:</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 118px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751c.jpg" width="118" height="326" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1268.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1268.—Lone-Feather said his prayers and +took the warpath to avenge the death of some +relatives. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1842-’43.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751d.jpg" width="128" height="294" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1269.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1269.—Feathers. Red-Cloud’s Census. +This figure and the next refer to some special +ornamentation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751e.png" width="186" height="316" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1270.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1270.—Feathers. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751f.png" width="96" height="135" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1271.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1271.—Bone-Necklace. Red-Cloud’s Census. This figure and +the three following show special kinds of neck ornaments.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 308px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751g.jpg" width="308" height="291" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1272.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1272—Beads. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/dp886_pg751h.jpg" width="162" height="311" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1273.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1273.—Stone-Necklace. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752">[752]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 231px;"> +<img src="images/dp887_pg752a.jpg" width="231" height="374" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1274.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1274.—Feather-Necklace. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 288px;"> +<img src="images/dp887_pg752b.jpg" width="288" height="199" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1275.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1275.—Wolf-Robe was killed by the Pawnees. +American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1850-’51.</p> + +<p>He is killed and scalped while wearing a robe of +wolf-skin.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;"> +<img src="images/dp887_pg752c.jpg" width="201" height="206" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1276.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1276.—Wears-the-Bonnet. Red-Cloud’s Census. This is the +ornamented war bonnet of the Dakotas.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/dp887_pg752d.jpg" width="136" height="358" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1277.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1277.—Garter. Red-Cloud’s Census.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="parallel"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> +<img src="images/dp887_pg752e.jpg" width="153" height="261" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1278.</span></p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1278.—Wicanapsu-owin, Wears-human-fingers as earrings. +The Oglala Roster.</p> + +<p>The place for the fingers to be worn is indicated +by the line terminating in a loop.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The Indian accumulated no wealth except in +things useful during his life. His ornaments +were made from shells which in their natural +shape are innumerable; from the skins of animals +which require only skill to take and dress +them; and from stone and copper, demanding +only strength to procure and transport them. +The value of an Indian ornament is in the skill, care and patience required +in making it. Thus the wampum-bead became of intrinsic value, +similar in that to gold and silver in civilization; the stone carefully +wrought into the fashion of a pipe became the emblem of authority +and the instrument of worship; and copper, slowly and toilfully delved +and fashioned with the rudest of tools and appliances, became almost +a fetich of superstition. So likewise the quill of the porcupine, worked +into a design in embroidery with the most exquisite care, was an ornament +fit for warriors and chiefs. But on the cradle or basket-nest for +the expected or new-born child, upon the gown or woman’s dress of the +favorite daughter, and upon the moccasins and trappings for the growing +son, hand and head and heart were employed for months and even years.</p> + +<p>The Dakotan bride, swayed by the yearning of expectant maternity, +perhaps also by ambition to excel in the sole permitted mode of its +display, adorned her lodge with ornamented cradles, each new one +becoming in design more beautiful and intricate than the last, until +her yearning was answered, when the cradles not needed were exchanged +for horses and ornaments, which became the endowment of +the new-born child.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753">[753]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some note should be made of the sense of correspondence and contrast +of colors which the Dakota, at least, exhibits; the rules which +he originates and observes forming that which is called artistic taste. +The Indian’s use of colors corresponds more nearly than that of most +barbarians with that common in high civilization, except that he perceives +so little distinction between blue and green that but one name +generally suffices for both colors. It is remarkable that among the +wilder and plains tribes of Dakotas dead colors in beads are preferred +and arranged with good effect, and that among these, specially, the use +of neutral tints is common. Probably both of these results were produced +from the old and exclusive employment of clays for pigments—clays +of almost all colors and shades being found in the country over +which the Dakotas roamed.</p> + +<p>The peculiarities of dress or undress would seem to have first struck +the people of the eastern hemisphere as well adapted to pictorial representation. +Singularly enough to modern ideas, the braccæ or trousers +were to the Romans the symbol of barbarism, whereas now the absence +of the garments, called even “indispensable,” has the same significance. +Maj. C. R. Conder (<i>d</i>) gives this good lesson literally “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">a propos de bottes</span>:”</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A curious peculiarity of dress also serves to indicate the racial connection. In +Cappadocia and in Anatolia the monuments represent figures with a boot or shoe +curled up in front. An Assyrian representation of an Armenian merchant shows the +same boot. Sir C. Wilson first compared it with the boot now worn by the peasantry +of Asia Minor. Perrot compares it with the cavalry boot worn +in Syria and with what we call a Turkish slipper. The Etruscans +wore a similar shoe called <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">calceus repandus</span> by the Romans. On +the monuments at Karnak the Hittites are represented wearing +the same shoe, and although it is not of necessity a mark of race, +it is still curious that this curly-toed boot was common to the +various Turanian peoples of Syria, Asia Minor, Armenia, and +Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/dp888_pg753.jpg" width="132" height="240" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1279.</span> Weapons.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Schoolcraft (<i>t</i>) gives the characters on the left hand +of Fig. 1279 as two Ojibwa war clubs, and the right-hand +character in the same figure is represented in a Wyoming +petroglyph as a bow.</p> + +<p>Many other weapons distinctive to their draughtsmen are shown in +this paper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;"> +<a href="images/dp889_pg754h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp889_pg754.jpg" class="hires" width="386" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1280.</span> Australian wommeras and clubs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It may be well to insert here Fig. 1280, showing the wommeras and +clubs of the Australians, taken from Curr (<i>d</i>), not only on account of +their forms but of the pictorial designs on some of them, which should +be compared with those of the Moki and other Indian tribes.</p> + +<p>A large number of pictographic figures distinguishing bodies of Indians +by different mode of head dress have already been given. Some +additional detail may be added about the Absaroka who have in this +regard been imitated by the Hidatsa and Arikara.</p> + +<p>They wear horse hair taken from the tail, attached to the back of their +heads and allowed to hang down their backs. It is arranged in eight +or ten strands, each about as thick as a finger and laid parallel with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754">[754]</a></span> +spaces between them of the width of a single strand. Pine gum is then +mixed with red ocher or vermilion and by means of other hair, or +fibers of any kind laid crosswise, the strands are secured and around +each intersection of hair a ball of gum is plastered to hold it in place, +secured to the real growth of hair on the back of the head. About four +inches further down a similar row of gum balls and cross strings is +placed, and so on down to the end. The Indians frequently incorporate +the false hair with their own so as to lengthen the latter without +any marked evidence of the deception. Nevertheless the transverse +fastenings with their gum attachments are present. In picture-writing +this is shown upon the figure of a man by parallel lines drawn downward +from the back of the head, intersected by cross lines, the whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755">[755]</a></span> +appearing like small squares or a piece of net. See Figs. <a href="#page380">484</a> and <a href="#page380">485</a>, +supra.</p> + +<p>A quaint account of social designation by the arrangement of the +hair among the Northeastern Algonquins is recorded in the Jesuit Relations +of 1639, pp. 44-5:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>When a girl or woman favors some one who seeks her, she cuts the hair in the +fashion adopted by the maidens of France, hanging over the forehead, which is an +ugly style as well in this country as in France; St. Paul forbidding women to show +their hair. The women here wear their hair in bunches at the back of the head, in +the form of a truss, which they decorate with beads when they have them. If, after +marrying some one, a woman leaves him without cause, or if, being promised and +having accepted some present, she fails to keep her word, the presumptive husband +sometimes cuts her hair, which renders her very despicable and prevents her from +getting another spouse.</p></div> + +<p>There is a differentiation of this usage among the Pueblos generally, +who, when accurate and particular in delineation, designate the women +of that tribe by a huge coil of hair over either ear. This custom prevails +also among the Coyotèro Apaches, the women wearing the hair +in a coil to denote a virgin, while the coil is absent in the case of a +married woman.</p> + +<p>Regarding the apparent subject matter of pictographs an obvious +distinction may be made between hunting and land scenes such as +would be familiar to interior tribes and those showing fishing and +aquatic habits common to seaboard and lacustrine peoples. Similar +and more perspicuous modes of discrimination are available. The general +scope of known history, traditions, and myths may also serve in +identification. Known habits and fashions of existing or historically-known +tribes have the same application, e. g., the portrayal on a drawing +of a human face of labrets or nose rings limits the artist to defined +regions, and then other considerations may further specify the work.</p> + +<p>When the specific pictorial style of distinctive peoples is ascertained +its appearance on rocks may give evidence of their habitat and migrations, +and on the other hand their authorship of the petroglyphs being +received as a working hypothesis, the latter may be confirmed and the +characters interpreted through the known practices and habits of the +postulated authors.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">AMBIGUOUS CHARACTERS WITH ASCERTAINED MEANING.</span></h3> + +<p>Under this heading specimens of the card catalogue before mentioned +are presented. The characters would not probably be recognized for +the objects they are intended to represent and many of them might be +mistaken for attempts to delineate other objects. A much larger number +of similar delineations are to be found under other headings in this +work, especially in Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase"><a href="#page376">XIII</a></span> on Totems, titles, and names.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/dp891_pg756a.png" width="550" height="363" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1281.</span>—Turtle. Maya.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Prof. C. Thomas (<i>c</i>) gives <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>d</i>, in Fig. 1281 as representing +the turtle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756">[756]</a></span></p> + +<p>That they do so is shown by the head of the animal, <i>e</i>, taken from +the Cortesian Codex. This is one of the many examples in which the +significance of drawings can be ascertained from a series of conventionalized +forms. Other instances are given in the present paper, and +more in the works of Mr. W. H. Holmes, published in several of the +Annual Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<img src="images/dp891_pg756b.png" width="144" height="110" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1282.</span>—Armadillo. +Yucatan.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1282 is given in the last cited volume and page +as the symbol of the armadillo of Yucatan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp891_pg756ch.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp891_pg756c.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="295" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1283.</span>—Dakota drawings.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The drawings of which Fig. 1283 presents copies were +made by Dakota tribesmen: <i>a</i>, fox; <i>b</i>, black fox; <i>c</i>, wolf; +<i>d</i>, black deer; <i>e</i>, beaver; <i>f</i>, spotted horse; <i>g</i>, porcupine; <i>h</i>, white hawk; +<i>i</i>, bald eagle; <i>k</i>, crow; <i>l</i>, swallow; <i>m</i> and <i>n</i>, war bonnet; <i>o</i>, leggins; <i>p</i>, +gun; <i>q</i>, pipe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp892_pg757h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp892_pg757.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="354" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1284.</span>—Ojibwa drawings.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The characters in Fig. 1284 are Ojibwa drawings. With the exception<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757">[757]</a></span> +of the last one they are copies of selected sketches made by Gaga +Sindebi at White Earth, Minn., in 1891, as parts of a Midē' song.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, a wolf. The dark chest markings and the large tail are in imitation +of those parts of the timber wolf. The coyote is not now found +in the region where the author of the song lives; but is more particularly +a prairie animal.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, a wolf. The pronounced jaw indicates his carnivorous nature.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, a badger. Although the form resembles that of the bear the difference +is shown by the darkened body to imitate the gray fur.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, a bear.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, a bear. This style of drawing is not common, it being rather short +and stout, while the legs and ears are unusually pronounced.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, the figure of a bear manido, to which is attached a feather denoting +the mythic character of the animal.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, the figure represents a “lean bear,” as is specified by the appearance +of the ribs showing his lean condition.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, a lizard. The ribs are ridges, which are found upon some forms +of <i>Siredon</i>, one species of which occurs in the ponds and small lakes +of Minnesota.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, a toad.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, a raccoon. The bands of color are indicated in the drawing.</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, a porcupine. Resembles some forms of the sacred bear manido as +the latter is sometimes drawn.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, the crane. The three round spots over the head represent three +songs sung by the midē' to the crane manido.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, the thunder-bird or eagle, having four heads. This character +appears to be unique, as it has at no time been noticed upon any of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758">[758]</a></span> +numerous midē' records in the possession of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<p><i>o</i>, the character represents a man using the rattle, as in the ceremony +of incantation. The projections above the head denote his superior +powers.</p> + +<p><i>p</i>, a midē', holding in his right hand a bear’s paw medicine bag, and +in his left hand an arrow. The character resembles similar drawings +to denote vessels in which herbs are boiled and from the top of which +vapor is issuing.</p> + +<p><i>q</i>, a midē' medicine sack. The character appears like similar drawings +of the otter; in the present instance, however, the ornamentation +upon the skin shows it to be not a living animal.</p> + +<p><i>r</i>, a beaver’s tail, from Schoolcraft (<i>y</i>). Many other illustrations of +this general nature are given by Mr. Schoolcraft, nearly all colored +according to his fancy.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759">[759]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">CONTROVERTED PICTOGRAPHS.</span></h2> + + +<p>No large amount of space need be occupied in the mention of +detected pictographic frauds, their present and future importance +being small, but much more than is now allowed would be required +for the full discussion of controverted cases.</p> + +<p>There is little inducement, beyond the amusement derived from +hoaxing, to commit actual frauds in the fabrication of petroglyphs. +It must, however, be remembered that coloration and carving of a +deceptive character are sometimes produced by natural causes, e. g., +pictured rocks on the island of Monhegan, Maine, figured by Schoolcraft +(<i>z</i>), are classed in “Science” VI, No. 132, p. 124, as freaks of +surface erosion. Mica plates were found in a mound at Lower Sandusky, +Ohio, which, after some attempts at interpretation, proved to belong to +the material known as graphic or hieroglyphic mica, the discolorations +having been caused by the infiltration of mineral solution between the +laminæ.</p> + +<p>The instances where inscribed stones from mounds have been ascertained +to be forgeries or fictitious drawings are to be explained as +sometimes produced by simple mischief, sometimes by craving for personal +notoriety, and in other cases by schemes either to increase the +marketable value of land supposed to contain more of the articles or +to sell those exhibited.</p> + +<p>With regard to more familiar and more portable articles, such as +engraved pipes, painted robes, and like curios, it is well known that +the fancy prices paid for them by amateurs have stimulated their +unlimited manufacture by Indians at agencies who make a business of +sketching upon ordinary robes or plain pipes the characters in common +use by them, without regard to any real event or person, and +selling them as significant records. Some enterprising traders have +been known to furnish the unstained robes, plain pipes, paints, and +other materials for the purpose, and simply pay a skillful Indian for +his work, when the fresh antique or imaginary chronicle is delivered.</p> + +<p>As the business of making and selling archæologic frauds has become +so extensive in Egypt and Palestine, it can be no matter of surprise +that it has been attempted by enterprising people of the United States, +about whom the wooden-nutmeg imputation still clings. The Bureau +of Ethnology has discovered several centers of the manufacture of antiquities.</p> + +<p>It was once proclaimed that six inscribed copper plates had been +found in a mound near Kinderhook, Pike county, Illinois, which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760">[760]</a></span> +reported to bear a close resemblance to Chinese. This resemblance +seemed not to be extraordinary when it was ascertained that the plate +had been engraved by the village blacksmith, copied from the lid of a +Chinese tea-chest.</p> + +<p>The following recent notice of a case of alleged fraud is quoted from +Science, Vol. III, No. 58, March 14, 1884, page 334:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Dr. N. Roe Bradner exhibited [at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, +Pennsylvania] an inscribed stone found inside a skull taken from one of the ancient +mounds at Newark, Ohio, in 1865. An exploration of the region had been undertaken, +in consequence of the finding of stones bearing markings somewhat resembling +Hebrew letters, in the hope of finding other specimens of a like character. +The exploration was supposed to have been entirely unproductive of such objects +until Dr. Bradner had found the engraved stone, now exhibited, in a skull which +had been given to him.</p></div> + +<p>This was supplemented by an editorial note in No. 62 of the same +publication, page 467, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A correspondent from Newark, Ohio, warns us that any inscribed stones said to +originate from that locality may be looked upon as spurious. Years ago certain +parties in that place made a business of manufacturing and burying inscribed +stones and other objects in the autumn, and exhuming them the following spring in +the presence of innocent witnesses. Some of the parties to these frauds afterwards +confessed to them; and no such objects, except such as were spurious, have ever +been known from that region.</p></div> + +<p>The correspondent of Science probably remembered the operations of +David Wyrick, of Newark, who, to prove his theory that the Hebrews +were the mound-builders, discovered in 1860 a tablet bearing on one +side a truculent “likeness” of Moses with his name in Hebrew, and on +the other a Hebrew abridgment of the ten commandments. A Hebrew +bible afterwards found in Mr. Wyrick’s private room threw some light +on the inscribed characters.</p> + +<p>A grooved stone ax or maul, first described by the late Dr. John +Evans, of Pemberton, New Jersey, was reproduced by Dr. Wilson (<i>a</i>). +Several characters are cut in the groove and on the blade. They are +neither Runic, Scandinavian, nor Anglo-Saxon. It was found near +Pemberton, New Jersey, prior to 1859. Dr. E. H. Davis, who saw the +stone, does not regard the inscription as ancient. The characters had +been retouched before he saw them.</p> + +<p>A grooved stone ax or maul, sent to Col. Whittlesey in 1874, from +Butler county, Ohio, about the size of the Pemberton ax, was covered +with English letters so fresh as to deceive no one versed in antiquities. +The purport of this inscription is that in 1689 Capt. H. Argill passed +there and secreted two hundred bags of gold near a spring.</p> + +<p>It was claimed that an inscribed stone had been plowed up on the +eastern shore of Grand Traverse bay, Michigan, and an imperfect cast +of it was among the collections of the state of Michigan at the Centennial +Exhibition. The original is or was in the cabinet of the Kent +county Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan. It is imperfectly executed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761">[761]</a></span> +probably with a knife, and evidently of recent make, in which +Greek, Bardic, and fictitious letters are jumbled together without order.</p> + +<p>In 1875 a stone maul was discovered in an ancient mine pit near +Lake Desor, Isle Royal, Lake Superior, on which were cut several +lines that were at first regarded as letters.</p> + +<p>An instructive paper by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes “On Some Spurious +Mexican Antiquities and their Relation to Ancient Art,” is published +in the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1886, Pt. 1, pp. 319-334.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 1.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">THE GRAVE CREEK STONE.</span></h3> + +<p>An inscribed stone found in Grave creek mound, near the Ohio +river, in 1838, has been the subject of much linguistic contention among +persons who admitted its authenticity. Twenty-four characters on it +have been considered by various experts to be alphabetic, and one is +a supposed hieroglyphic sign. Mr. Schoolcraft says that twenty-two +of the characters are alphabetic, but there has been a difference of opinion +with regard to their origin. One scholar finds among them four characters +which he claims are ancient Greek; another claims that four are +Etruscan; five have been said to be Runic; six, ancient Gaelic; seven, +old Erse; ten, Phenician; fourteen, old British; and sixteen, Celtiberic. +M. Levy Bing reported at the Congress of Americanists at Nancy, +in 1875, that he found in the inscription twenty-three Canaanite letters, +and translated it: “What thou sayest, thou dost impose it, thou shinest +in thy impetuous clan and rapid chamois.” (!) M. Maurice Schwab in +1857 rendered it: “The Chief of Emigration who reached these places +(or this island) has fixed these statutes forever.” M. Oppert, however, +gave additional variety by the translation, so that all tastes can be +suited: “The grave of one who was assassinated here. May God to +avenge him strike his murderer, cutting off the hand of his existence.”</p> + +<p>Col. Chas. Whittlesey (<i>a</i>) gives six copies of the Grave creek stone, +all purporting to be facsimiles, which have been published and used +in the elaborate discussions held upon its significance. Of these, three +are here reproduced with Col. Whittlesey’s remarks, as follows:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"> +<img src="images/dp896_pg761.jpg" width="280" height="225" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1285.</span>—Grave creek stone.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Copy No. 1 is reproduced as Fig. 1285, drawn by Capt. Eastman.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Capt. Seth Eastman was a graduate and teacher of drawing at West Point. He +was an accomplished draftsman and painter detailed +by the War Department to furnish the illustrations +for “Schoolcraft’s Indian Tribes,” published by the +Government. This copy was made in his official capacity, +with the stone before him, and therefore takes the +first rank as authority. There are between the lines +twenty-two characters, but one is repeated three times +and another twice leaving only twenty. The figure, if +it has any significance, is undoubtedly pictorial.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762">[762]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 231px;"> +<img src="images/dp897_pg762a.jpg" width="231" height="176" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1286.</span>—Grave creek stone.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Copy No. 3, now Fig. 1286, was used by Monsieur Jomard at Paris, +1843.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>From this copy M. Jomard considered the letters to +be Lybian, a language derived from the Phenician. At +the right of the upper line one is omitted and another +bears no resemblance to the original. The fifth character +of the second line is equally defective and objectionable. +The second, fifth, and sixth of the lower line +are little better. In the rude profile of a human face +beneath an eye has been introduced and the slender +cross lines attached to it have assumed the proportions +of a dagger or sword. For the linguist or ethnologist +this copy is entirely worthless.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 232px;"> +<img src="images/dp897_pg762b.jpg" width="232" height="180" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1287.</span>—Grave creek stone.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Copy No. 4, now Fig. 1287, was sent to Prof. Rafn, Copenhagen, 1843.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is so imperfect and has so many additions that it is little better than a burlesque +upon the original. No one will be surprised that the learned Danish antiquarian +could find in it no resemblance to the Runic, +with which he was thoroughly familiar.</p></div> + +<p>A mere collocation of letters from various +alphabets is not an alphabet. Words can not +be formed or ideas communicated by that artifice. +When a people adopts the alphabetical +signs of another it adopts the general style +of the characters and more often the characters +in detail. Such signs had already an +arrangement into syllables and words which had a vocalic validity as +well as known significance. A jumble of letters from a variety of +alphabets bears internal evidence that the manipulator did not have an +intelligent meaning to convey by them, and did not comprehend the languages +from which the letters were selected. In the case of the Grave +creek inscription the futile attempts to extract a meaning from it on +the theory that it belongs to an intelligent alphabetic system show +that it holds no such place. If it is genuine it must be treated as +pictorial and ideographic, unless, indeed, it is cryptographic, which is +not indicated.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 2.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">THE DIGHTON ROCK.</span></h3> + +<p>In this connection some allusion must be made to the learned discussions +upon the Dighton rock before mentioned, p. <a href="#page086">86</a>. The originally +Algonquian characters were translated by a Scandinavian antiquary as +an account of the party of Thorfinn, the Hopeful. A distinguished +Orientalist made out clearly the word “melek” (king). Another scholar +triumphantly established the characters to be Scythian, and still +another identified them as Phenician. But this inscription has been +so manipulated that it is difficult now to determine the original details.</p> + +<p>An official report made in 1830 by the Rhode Island Historical +Society and published by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763">[763]</a></span> +in “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiquitates Americanæ</span>,” by C. C. Rafn (<i>e</i>), presents the best +account known concerning the Dighton rock and gives copies made +from time to time of the inscription, which are here reproduced, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LIV</span>. +The text is condensed as follows, but in quoting it the statement that +the work was not done by the Indians is without approval.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;"> +<a href="images/dp898b_pg762p1ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp898b_pg762p1a.jpg" class="hires" width="386" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> + +<a href="images/dp898c_pg762p2bh.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp898c_pg762p2b.jpg" class="hires" width="386" height="600" alt="" /> +</a> + +<div class="caption"> +<p>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LIV</p> +<div class="captionlist"> +I. <i>Dr. Danforth’s Drawing 1680</i><br /> +II. <i>Dr. Cotton Mather’s 1712</i><br /> +III. <i>Dr. Greenwood’s 1730</i><br /> +IV. <i>Mr. Stephen Sewell’s 1768</i><br /> +V. <i>Mr. James Winthrop’s 1788</i><br /> +VI. <i>Mr. Kendall’s 1807</i><br /> +VII. <i>Mr. Job Gardner’s 1812</i><br /> +VIII. <i>Dr. Baylies and Mr. Goodwin’s 1790</i><br /> +IX. <i>The Rhode Island Historical Society’s 1830</i></div> +<p>DIGHTON ROCK.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is situated about 6½ miles south of Taunton, on the east side of Taunton river, +a few feet from the shore, and on the west side of Assonet neck, in the town of +Berkley, county of Bristol, and commonwealth of Massachusetts; although probably +from the fact of being generally visited from the opposite side of the river, which is +in Dighton, it has always been known by the name of the Dighton Writing Rock. +It faces northwest toward the bed of the river, and is covered by the water 2 or 3 +feet at the highest, and is left 10 or 12 feet from it at the lowest tides; it is also +completely immersed twice in twenty-four hours. The rock does not occur in situ, +but shows indubitable evidence of having occupied the spot where it now rests since +the period of that great and extensive disruption which was followed by the transportation +of immense bowlders to, and a deposit of them in, places at a vast distance +from their original beds. It is a mass of well characterized, fine grained graywacke. +Its true color, as exhibited by a fresh fracture, is a bluish gray. There is no rock in +the immediate neighborhood that would at all answer as a substitute for the +purpose for which the one bearing the inscription was selected, as they are aggregates +of the large conglomerate variety. Its face, measured at the base is 11½ +feet, and in height it is a little rising 5 feet. The upper surface forms with the +horizon an inclined plane of about 60 degrees. The whole of the face is covered to +within a few inches of the ground with unknown hieroglyphics. There appears +little or no method in the arrangement of them. The lines are from half an inch to +an inch in width; and in depth, sometimes one-third of an inch, though generally +very superficial. They were, inferring from the rounded elevations and intervening +depressions, pecked in upon the rock and not chiseled or smoothly cut out. The +marks of human power and manual labor are indelibly stamped upon it. No one +who examines attentively the workmanship will believe it to have been done by +the Indians. Moreover, it is a well attested fact that nowhere throughout our +widespread domain is a single instance of their recording or having recorded their +deeds or history on stone.</p> + +<p>“The committee also examined the various drawings that have been made of this +inscription.</p> + +<p>“The first was made by Cotton Mather as early as 1712; and may be found in No. +338, vol. 28, of the Philosophical Transactions, pp. 70 and 71; also in vol. 5, Jones’s +abridgment, under article fourth.</p> + +<p>“Another was made by James Winthrop in 1788, a copy of which may be found in +the Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. 2, part 2, p. 126.</p> + +<p>“Dr. Baylies and Mr. Goodwin made another drawing in 1790, a copy of which is +inclosed.</p> + +<p>“Mr. E. A. Kendall in 1807 took another which may be found in the Memoirs of the +American Academy, vol. 3, part 1, p. 165.</p> + +<p>“And one has been more recently [1812] made by Mr. Job Gardner, a lithograph +from which is also inclosed.</p> + +<p>“Dr. Isaac Greenwood exhibited a drawing of the inscription before the Society of +Antiquarians of London bearing the date of 1730. The drawing by the Historical +Society of Rhode Island bears the date of 1830.</p> + +<p>“We send you a copy of the inscription, as given on said representation of the rock, +being what you probably desire; but having made an accurate drawing of the rock +itself for your special use, we have not deemed it necessary to forward the one above +referred to. We also send a copy of Judge Winthrop’s drawing contained in the same +work, and of one taken by Stephen Sewell in 1768.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764">[764]</a></span></p> + +<p>“You will likewise find among the drawings a copy of what purports to be ‘a +faithful and accurate representation of the inscription,’ taken by Dr. Danforth in +1680. This is not sent with any idea that it will prove serviceable in your present +inquiry, but simply to show what strange things have been conjured up by travelers +and sent to Europe for examination. We are, indeed, at times almost compelled to +believe there must have been some other inscription rock seen; and yet from the +accompanying accounts it would appear that all refer to the same one; besides, there +is a degree of similarity in the complicated triangular figures which appear on all.”</p></div> + +<p>See, also, the illustration from Schoolcraft, Fig. <a href="#page086">49</a>, supra, with further +account. The fact was mentioned on p. <a href="#page087">87</a> that the characters on +the Dighton Rock strongly resembled those on the Indian God Rock, +Pennsylvania, and some others specified. Lately some observers have +noticed the same fact with a different deduction. They presuppose +that the Dighton inscription is Runic, and therefore that the one in +Pennsylvania was carved by the Norsemen. This logic would bring +the Vikings very far inland into West Virginia and Ohio.</p> + + +<h3>SECTION 3.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">IMITATIONS AND FORCED INTERPRETATIONS.</span></h3> + +<p>From considerations mentioned elsewhere, and others that are obvious, +any inscriptions purporting to be pre-Columbian, showing apparent +use of alphabetic characters, signs of the zodiac, or other evidences of +a culture higher than that known among the North American Indians, +must be received with caution, but the pictographs may be altogether +genuine, and their erroneous interpretation may be the sole ground for +discrediting them.</p> + +<p>The course above explained, viz, to attempt the interpretation of all +unknown American pictographs by the aid of actual pictographers +among the living Indians, should be adopted regarding all remarkable +“finds.” This course was pursued by Mr. Horatio N. Rust, of Pasadena, +California, regarding the much-discussed Davenport Tablets, in +the genuineness of which he believes. Mr. Rust exhibited the drawings +to Dakotas with the result made public at the Montreal meeting +of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and also +in a letter, an extract from which is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>As I made the acquaintance of several of the older and more intelligent members +of the tribe, I took the opportunity to show them the drawings. Explaining that +they were pictures copied from stones found in a mound, I asked what they meant. +They readily gave me the same interpretation (and in no instance did either interpreter +know that another had seen the pictures, so there could be no collusion). In +Plate I, of the Davenport Inscribed Tablets [so numbered in the Proceedings of the +Davenport Academy, vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>], the lower central figure represents a dome-shaped +lodge, with smoke issuing from the top, behind and to either side of which appears a +number of individuals with hands joined, while three persons are depicted as lying +upon the ground. Upon the right and left central margins are the sun and moon, +the whole surmounted by three arched lines, between each of which, as well as above +them, are numerous unintelligible characters. * * * The central figure, which +has been supposed by some to represent a funeral pile, was simply the picture of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765">[765]</a></span> +dirt lodge. The irregular markings apparently upon the side and to the left of the +lodge represent a fence made of sticks and brush set in the ground. The same style +of fence may be seen now in any Sioux village.</p> + +<p>The lines of human figures standing hand-in-hand indicate that a dance was being +conducted in the lodge. The three prostrate forms at right and left sides of the lodge +represent two men and a woman who, being overcome by the excitement and fatigue +of the dance, had been carried out in the air to recover. The difference in the shape +of the prostrate forms indicates the different sexes.</p> + +<p>The curling figures or rings above the lodge represent smoke, and indicate that +the dance was held in winter, when fire was used.</p></div> + +<p>An amusing example of forced interpretation of a genuine petroglyph +is given by Lieut. J. W. Gunnison (<i>a</i>), and is +presented in the present work in connection with +Fig. <a href="#page117">81</a>, supra.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> +<a href="images/dp901_pg765h.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp901_pg765.jpg" class="hires" width="129" height="550" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1288.</span>—Imitated pictograph.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 1288 is a copy of a drawing taken from +an Ojibwa pipestem, obtained by Dr. Hoffman +from an officer of the United States Army, who +had procured it from an Indian in St. Paul, +Minnesota. On more minute examination, it appeared +that the pipestem had been purchased at +a shop in St. Paul, which had furnished a large +number of similar objects—so large as to awaken +suspicion that they were in the course of daily +manufacture. The figures and characters on +the pipestem were drawn in colors. In the +present figure, which is without colors, the horizontal +lines represent blue and the vertical red, +according to the heraldic scheme. The outlines +were drawn in a dark neutral tint, in some lines +approaching black; the triangular characters, +representing lodges, being also in a neutral tint, +or an ashen hue, and approaching black in +several instances. The explanation of the figures, +made before there was any suspicion of their +authenticity, is as follows:</p> + +<p>The first figure is that of a bear, representing +the person to whom the record pertains. The +heart above the line, according to an expression +in gesture language, would signify a brave heart, +increased numbers indicating much or many, so +that the three hearts mean a large brave heart.</p> + +<p>The second figure, a circle inclosing a triradiate +character, refers to the personal totem. The +character in the middle somewhat resembles +the pictograph sometimes representing stars, +though in the latter the lines center upon the +disks and not at a common point.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766">[766]</a></span></p> + +<p>The seven triangular characters represent the lodges of a village to +which the person referred to belongs.</p> + +<p>The serpentine lines immediately below these signify a stream or river, +near which the village is situated.</p> + +<p>The two persons holding guns in their left hands, together with +another holding a spear, appear to be the companions of the speaker +or recorder, all of whom are members of the turtle gens, as shown by +that animal.</p> + +<p>The curve from left to right is a representation of the sky, the sun +having appeared upon the left or eastern horizon. The drawing, so +far, might represent the morning when a female member of the crane +gens, was killed—shown by the headless body of a woman.</p> + +<p>The lower figure of a bear is the same apparently as the upper, +though turned to the right. The hearts are drawn below the line, i. e., +down, to denote sadness, grief, remorse, as it would be expressed in +gesture language, and to atone for the misdeed committed the pipe +is brought and offering made for peace.</p> + +<p>Altogether the act depicted appears to have been accidental, the +woman belonging to the same tribe, as can be learned from the gens of +which she was a member. The regret or sorrow signified in the bear, +next to the last figure, corresponds with that supposition, as such +feelings would not be manifested on the death of an enemy.</p> + +<p>The point of interest in this drawing is, that the figures are very +skillfully copied from the numerous characters of the same kind representing +Ojibwa pictographs, and given by Schoolcraft. The arrangement +of these copied characters is precisely what would be common in +the similar work of Indians. In fact, the group constitutes an intelligent +pictograph and affords a good illustration of the manner in which +one can be made. The fact that it was sold under false representations +is its objectionable feature.</p> + +<p>Another case brought officially to the Bureau of Ethnology shows +evidence of a more determined fraud. In 1888 and earlier a so-called +“Shawnee doctor” had displayed as a chart in the nature of an aboriginal +diploma, a brightly colored picture 36 by 40 inches, a copy of +which was sent, to be deciphered, to the Bureau by a gentleman who is +not supposed to have been engaged in fraud or hoax. The mystic chart +is copied in Fig. 1289. There was little difficulty in its explanation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/dp903_pg767ah.jpg"> +<img src="images/dp903_pg767a.jpg" class="hires" width="550" height="463" alt="" /> +</a> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1289.</span>—Fraudulent pictograph.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The large figures on the border can not be pretended to be of Indian +origin. The smaller interior figures constituting the body of the chart +are all, with trifling exceptions, exact copies of figures published and +fully explained in G. Copway’s “Traditional History, etc., of the +Ojibway Nation,” op. cit. Several of the same figures appear above in +the present work. The principal exceptions are, first, a modern knife; +second, a bird with a decidedly un-Indian human head, and, third, a +cross with two horizontal arms of equal length. The figures from +Copway are not in the exact order given in his list and it is possible<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767">[767]</a></span> +that they may have been placed in their present order to simulate the +appearance of some connected narrative or communication, which could +readily be done in the same manner as the words of a dictionary could +be cut out and pasted in some intelligent sequence.</p> + +<p>Among the curiosities of literature in connection with the interpretation +of pictographs may be mentioned <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Vèritè sur le Livre des +Sauvages, par L’Abbé Em. Domenech</span>, Paris, 1861, and Researches into +the Lost Histories of America, by W. S. Blacket, London and Philadelphia, +1884.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 294px;"> +<img src="images/dp903_pg767b.png" width="294" height="120" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1290.</span>—Chinese characters.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The following remarks of Dr. Edkins (<i>h</i>) are also in point:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The early Jesuits were accustomed to interpret Chinese characters on the wildest +principles. They detected religious mysteries in the most unexpected situations. +Kwei “treacherous,” is written with Kieu “nine,” and above it one of the covering +radicals, Fig. 1290<i>a</i>. This, then, was Satan at the +head of the nine ranks of angels. The character, same +Fig., <i>b</i>, c’hwen “a boat,” was believed to contain an +allusion to the deluge. On the left side is the ark and on +the right are the signs for eight and for persons. The +day for this mode of explaining the Chinese characters +has gone by.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768">[768]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIII.<br /> + +<span class="subhead">GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.</span></h2> + + +<p>The result of the writer’s studies upon petroglyphs as distinct from +other forms of picture writing may now be summarized.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most important lesson learned from these studies is that +no attempt should be made at symbolic interpretation unless the symbolic +nature of the particular characters under examination is known, +or can be logically inferred from independent facts. To start with a +theory, or even a hypothesis, that the rock writings are all symbolic +and may be interpreted by the imagination of the observer or by translation +either from or into known symbols of similar form found in other +regions, were a limitless delusion. Doubtless many of the characters +are genuine symbols or emblems, and some have been ascertained +through extrinsic information to be such. Sometimes the more modern +forms are explained by Indians who have kept up the pictographic +practice, and the modern forms occasionally throw light upon the more +ancient. But the rock inscriptions do not evince mysticism or esotericism, +cryptography, or steganography. With certain exceptions they +were intended to be understood by all observers either as rude objective +representations or as ideograms, which indeed were often so imperfect +as to require elucidation, but not by any hermeneutic key. While +they often related to religious ceremonies or myths, such figures were +generally drawn in the same spirit with which any interesting matter +was portrayed.</p> + +<p>While the interpretation of petroglyphs by Indians should be obtained +if possible, it must be received with caution. They very seldom +know by tradition the meaning of the older forms, and their inferences +are often made from local and limited pictographic practices. There +is no more conscientious and intelligent Indian authority than Frank +La Flêche, an Omaha, and he explains the marks on a rock in Nebraska +as associated with the figures of deceased men and exhibiting +the object which caused their death, such as an arrow or ax. This may +be a local or tribal practice, but it certainly does not apply to similar +figures throughout the Algonquian and Iroquoian areas, where, according +to the concurrent testimony for more than two centuries, +similar figures are either designations of tribes and associations, or in +their combinations are records of achievements.</p> + +<p>Lossing (<i>b</i>) gives the following explanation of markings on a well +known rock:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the brave warriors in the battle [of Maumee] who were the last to flee before +Wayne’s legion, was Me-sa-sa, or Turkey-foot, an Ottawa chief, who lived on +Blanchards Fork of the AuGlaize River. He was greatly beloved by his people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769">[769]</a></span> +His courage was conspicuous. When he found the line of dusky warriors giving +way at the foot of Presque Isle hill, he leaped upon a small bowlder, and by voice +and gesture endeavored to make them stand firm. He almost immediately fell, +pierced by a musket ball, and expired by the side of the rock. * * * They carved +many rude figures of a turkey’s foot on the stone, as a memorial of the English name +of the lamented Me-sa-sa. The stone is still there, by the side of the highway at the +foot of Presque Isle hill, within a few rods of the swift-flowing Maumee. Many of +the carvings are still quite deep and distinct, while others have been obliterated by +the abrasion of the elements.</p></div> + +<p>This tale may be true, but it surely does not account for the turkey-foot +marks which are so common in the northeastern Algonquian region, +extending from Dighton rock to Ohio, that they form a typical +characteristic of its pictographs. They have been considered to be the +sign for the bird, the turkey, which was a frequent totem. Lossing’s +story is an example of the readiness of an Indian, when in an amiable +and communicative mood, to answer queries in a manner which he supposes +will be satisfactory to his interviewer. He will then give any +desired amount of information on any subject without the slightest +restriction by the vulgar bounds of fact. It is dangerous to believe +explanations on such subjects as are now under consideration, unless +they are made without leading questions by a number of Indian authorities +independently.</p> + +<p>Specially convenient places for halting and resting on a journey, either +by land or water, such as is mentioned supra, on Machias bay, generally +exhibit petroglyphs if rocks of the proper character are favorably situated +there. The markings may be mere graffiti, the product of leisure +hours, or may be of the more serious descriptions mentioned below.</p> + +<p>Some points are ascertained with regard to the motives of the +painters and sculptors on rocks. Some of the characters were mere +records of the visits of individuals to important springs or to fords on +regularly established trails. In this practice there may have been in +the intention of the Indians very much the same spirit which induces +the civilized man to record his name or initials upon objects in the +neighborhood of places of general resort. But there was real utility +in the Indian practice, which more nearly approached to the signature +in a visitor’s book at a hotel or public building, both to establish the +identity of the traveler and to give the news to friends of his presence +and passage. At Oakley springs, Arizona territory, totemic marks +have been found, evidently made by the same individual at successive +visits, showing that on the number of occasions indicated he had +passed by those springs, probably camping there, and the habit of +making such record was continued until quite recently by the neighboring +Indians. The same repetition of totemic names has been found +in great numbers in the pipestone quarries of Minnesota, on the rocks +near Odanah, Wisconsin, and also at some old fords in West Virginia. +These totemic marks are so designed and executed as to have intrinsic +significance and value, wholly different in this respect from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770">[770]</a></span> +names in alphabetic form, which grammatically are proper but practically +may be common.</p> + +<p>Rock carvings are frequently noticed at waterfalls and other points +on rivers and on lake shores favorable for fishing, which frequency is +accounted for by the periodical resort of Indians to such places. Sometimes +they only mark their stay, but occasionally there also appear to +be records of conflict with rival or inimical tribes which sought to use +the same waters.</p> + +<p>Evidence is presented in the present work that the characters on +rock pictures sometimes were pointers or “sign-posts” to show the +direction of springs, the line of established trails, or of paths that +would shorten distances in travel. It has been supposed that similar +indications were used guiding to burial mounds and other places of +peculiar sanctity or interest, but the evidence of this employment is +not conclusive. Many inquiries have been made of the Bureau of +Ethnology concerning Indian marks supposed to indicate the sites of +gold, silver, and copper mines and buried treasure generally, which +inquiries were answered only because it was recognized as the duty of +an office of the government to respond, so far as possible, to requests +for information, however silly, which are made in good faith.</p> + +<p>Petroglyphs are now most frequently found in those parts of the +world which are still, or recently have been, inhabited by savage or +barbarian tribes. Persons of these tribes when questioned about the +authorship of the rock drawings have generally attributed them to +supernatural beings. Statements to this effect from many peoples of +the three Americas and of other regions, together with the names of +rockwriting deities, are abundantly cited in the present work. This is +not surprising, nor is it instructive, except as to the mere fact that the +drawings are ancient. Man has always attributed to supernatural action +whatever he did not understand. Also, it appears that in modern +times shamans have encouraged this belief and taken advantage of it +to interpret for their own purposes the drawings, some of which have +been made by themselves. But notwithstanding these errors and +frauds, a large proportion of the petroglyphs in America are legitimately +connected with the myths and the religious practices of the authors. +The information obtained during late years regarding tribes +such as the Zuñi, Moki, Navajo, and Ojibwa, which have kept up on the +one hand their old religious practices and on the other that of picture +writing, is conclusive on this point. The rites and ceremonies of these +tribes are to some extent shown pictorially on the rocks, some of the +characters on which have until lately been wholly meaningless, but are +now identified as drawings of the paraphernalia used in or as diagrams +of the drama of their rituals. Unless those rituals, with the creeds +and cosmologies connected with them had been learned, the petroglyphs +would never have been interpreted. The fact that they are now +understood does not add any new information, except that perhaps in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771">[771]</a></span> +some instances their age may show the antiquity and continuity of the +present rites.</p> + +<p>A potent reason for caution in making deductions based only on +copies of figures published incidentally in works of travel is that it can +seldom be ascertained with exactness what is the true depiction of those +figures as actually existing or as originally made. The personal equation +affects the drawings and paintings intended to be copies from the +rock surfaces and also the engravings and other forms of reproductions, +and the student must rely upon very uncertain reproductions for most +of his material. The more ancient petroglyphs also require the aid of +the imagination to supply eroded lines or faded colors. Travelers and +explorers are seldom so conscientious as to publish an obscure copy of +the obscure original. It is either made to appear distinct or is not +furnished at all, and if the author were conscientious the publisher +would probably overrule him.</p> + +<p>Thorough knowledge of the historic tribes, including their sociology, +sophiology, technology, and especially their sign language, will probably +result in the interpretation of many more petroglyphs than are +now understood, but the converse is not true. The rock characters +studied independently will not give much primary information about +customs and concepts, though it may and does corroborate what has +been obtained by other modes of investigation. A knowledge of Indian +customs, costumes, including arrangement of hair, paint, and all +tribal designations, and of their histories and traditions, is essential +to the understanding of their drawings; for which reason some of those +particulars known to have influenced pictography have been set forth +in this work and objects have been mentioned which were known to +have been portrayed graphically with special intent.</p> + +<p>Other objects are used symbolically or emblematically which, so far +as known, have never appeared in any form of pictographs, but might +be found in any of them. For instance, Mr. Schoolcraft says of the +Dakotas that “some of the chiefs had the skins of skunks tied to their +heels to symbolize that they never ran, as that animal is noted for its +slow and self-possessed movements.” This is one of the many customs +to be remembered in the attempted interpretations of pictographs. The +present writer does not know that a skunk skin or a strip of skin which +might be supposed to be a skunk skin attached to a human heel has +ever been separately used pictorially as the ideogram of courage or +steadfastness, but with the knowledge of this objective use of the skins, +if they were found so represented pictorially, the interpretation would +be suggested without any direct explanation from Indians.</p> + +<p>A partial view of petroglyphs has excited hope that by their correlation +the priscan homes and migrations of peoples may be ascertained. +Undoubtedly striking similarities are found in regions far apart from as +well as near to each other. A glance at the bas-reliefs of Boro Boudour +in Java, now copied and published by the Dutch authorities, at once recalls +figures of the lotus and uræus of Egypt, the horns of Assyria, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772">[772]</a></span> +thunderbolt of Greece, the Buddhist fig tree, and other noted characters +common in several parts of the world. If the petroglyphs of America +are considered as the texts with which all others may be compared, it is +believed that the present work shows illustrations nearly identical with +many much-discussed carvings and paintings on the rocks of the eastern +hemisphere, those in Siberia being most strongly suggestive of +connection. But from the present collection it would seem that the +similarity of styles in various regions is more worthy of study than is +the mere resemblance or even identity of characters, the significance +of which is unknown and may have differed in the intent of the several +authors. Indeed it is clear that even in limited areas of North America, +diverse significance is attached to the same figure and differing +figures are made to express the same concept.</p> + +<p>The present work shows a surprising resemblance between the typical +forms among the petroglyphs found in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, +Guiana, part of Mexico, and those in the Pacific slope of North America. +This similarity includes the forms in Guatemala and Alaska, +which, on account of the material used, are of less assured antiquity. +Indeed it would be safe to include Japan and New Zealand in this general +class. In this connection an important letter from Mr. James G. +Swan, respecting the carved wooden images of the Haidas, accentuates +the deduction derived only from comparison. Mr. Swan says that he +showed to the Indians of various coast tribes the plates of Dr. Habel’s +work on sculptures in Guatemala, and that they all recognized several +of the pictures which he notes. They also recognized and understood +the pictures of the Zuñi ceremonials, masks, and masquerades scenes +published by Mr. F. H. Cushing.</p> + +<p>Without entering upon the discussion whether America was peopled +from east to west, or from either, or from any other part of the earth, +it is for the present enough to suggest that the petroglyphs and other +pictographs in the three Americas indicate that their pre-Columbian +inhabitants had at one time frequent communication with each other, +perhaps not then being separated by the present distances of habitat. +Styles of drawing and painting could thus readily be diffused, and, indeed, +to mention briefly the extralimital influence, if as many Japanese +and Chinese vessels were driven upon the west American coast in +prehistoric times as are known by historic statistics to have been so +driven, the involuntary immigrants skilled in drawing and painting +might readily have impressed their styles upon the Americans near +their landing place to be thence indefinitely diffused. This hypothesis +would not involve migration.</p> + +<p>Interest has been felt in petroglyphs, because it has been supposed +that if interpreted they would furnish records of vanished peoples or +races, and connected with that supposition was one naturally affiliated +that the old rock sculptures were made by peoples so far advanced +in culture as to use alphabets or at least syllabaries, thus supporting<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773">[773]</a></span> +the theory about the mythical mound builders or some other supposititious +race. All suggestions of this nature should at once be abandoned. +The practice of pictography does not belong to civilization +and declines when an alphabet becomes popularly known. Neither is +there the slightest evidence that an alphabet or syllabary was ever +used in pre-Columbian America by the aborigines, though there is +some trace of Runic inscriptions. The fact that the Maya and Aztec +peoples were rapidly approaching to such modes of expressing thought, +and that the Dakota and Ojibwa had well entered upon that line of +evolution, shows that they had proceeded no farther, and it is admitted +that they were favorable representatives of the tribes of the continent +in this branch of art. The theory mentioned requires the assumption, +without a particle of evidence, that the rock sculptures are alphabetic, +and therefore were made by a supposititious and extinct race. Topers +of the mysterious may delight in such dazing infusions of perverted +fancy, but they are repulsive to the sober student.</p> + +<p>The foregoing remarks apply mainly to rock inscriptions and not to +pictographs on other substances, the discussion and illustration of +which occupy the greater part of the present work. In that division +there is no need of warning against wild theories or uncertain data. +The objects are in hand and their current use as well as their significance +is understood. Their description and illustration by classes is +presented in the above chapters with such detail that further discussion +here would be mere repetition.</p> + +<p>One line of thought, however, is so connected with several of the +classifications that it may here be mentioned with the suggestion that +the preceding headings, with the illustrations presented under each, may +be reviewed in reference to the methodical progress of pictography +toward a determined and convenient form of writing. This exhibition +of evolution was arrested by foreign invasion before the indirect signs +of sound had superseded the direct presentments of sight for communication +and record. Traces of it appear throughout the present paper, +but are more intelligently noticed on a second examination than in +cursory reading. In the Winter Counts of Battiste Good there are +many characters where the figure of a human being is connected with +an object, which shows his tribal status or the disease of which he +died, and the characters representing the tribe or disease are purely +determinative.</p> + +<p>The discrimination which is made between animals and objects portrayed +simply as such, and as supernatural or mystic, is shown in the +many illustrations of Ojibwa and Zuñi devices, in which the heart is connected +with a line extending to the mouth, and those of the Ojibwa and +the Dakota, where the spirals indicate spirit or wakan. Animals are +often portrayed without such lines, in which cases it is understood that +they are only the animals in natural condition, but with the designations +or determinatives they are intended to be supernatural. Among<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774">[774]</a></span> +the Ojibwa animals connected with certain ceremonies are represented +as encircled by a belt or baldric, an ornamented baldric of the same +character being used by the participants in the ceremonial chant +dance; so that the baldric around the animal determines that the figure +is that of a supernatural and mystic, not an ordinary, animal. +This is an indication of the start from simple pictography towards an +alphabet by the use of determinatives as was done by the Chinese.</p> + +<p>It is not believed that much information of historical value will be +obtained directly from the interpretation of the petroglyphs in America. +The greater part of those already known are simply peckings, +carvings, or paintings connected with their myths or with their every-day +lives. It is, however, probable that others were intended to commemorate +events, but the events, which to their authors were of +moment, would be of little importance as history, if, as is to be expected, +they were selected in the same manner as is done by modern +Indian pictographers. They referred generally to some insignificant +fight or some season of plenty or of famine, or to other circumstances +the interest in which has long ago died away.</p> + +<p>The question may properly be asked, why, with such small prospect +of gaining historic information, so much attention has been directed +to the collection and study of petroglyphs. A sufficient answer might +be submitted, that the fact mentioned could not be made evident until +after that collection and study, and that it is of some use to establish +the limits of any particular line of investigation, especially one largely +discussed with mystical inferences to support false hypotheses. But +though the petroglyphs do not and probably never will disclose the +kind of information hoped for by some enthusiasts, they surely are +valuable as marking the steps in one period of human evolution and +in presenting evidence of man’s early practices. Also though the +occurrences interesting to their authors and therefore recorded or +indicated by them are not important as facts of history, they are proper +subjects of examination, simply because in fact they were the chief +objects of interest to their authors, and for that reason become of +ethnologic import. It is not denied that some of the drawings on rocks +were made without special purpose, for mere pastime, but they are of +import even as mere graffiti. The character of the drawings and the +mode of their execution tell something of their makers. If they do +not tell who those authors were, they at least suggest what kind of people +they were as regards art, customs, and sometimes religion. But +there is a broader mode of estimating the quality of known pictographs. +Musicians are eloquent in lauding of the great composers +of songs without words. The ideography, which is the prominent feature +of picture writing, displays both primordially and practically the +higher and purer concept of thoughts without sound.</p> + +<p>The experience of the present writer induces him to offer the following +suggestions for the benefit of travelers and other observers who +may meet with petroglyphs which they may desire to copy and describe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775">[775]</a></span></p> + +<p>As a small drawing of large rock inscriptions must leave in doubt +the degree of its finish and perhaps the essential objects of its production, +it is requisite, in every instance, to affix the scale of the drawing, +or to give a principal dimension to serve as a guide. A convenient +scale for ordinary petroglyphs is one-sixteenth of actual size. The +copy should be with sufficient detail to show the character of the work. +It is useful to show the lithologic character of the rock or bowlder +used; whether the drawing has been scratched into the face of the rock, +or incised more deeply with a sharp implement, and the depth of +such incision; whether the design is merely outlined, or the whole +body of the figures pecked out, and whether paint has been applied to +the pecked surface, or the design executed with paint only. The composition +of paint should be ascertained when possible. The amount of +weathering or erosion, together with the exposure, or any other feature +bearing on the question of antiquity, might prove important. If +actual colors are not accessible for representation the ordinary heraldic +scheme of colors can be used.</p> + +<p>That sketches, even by artists of ability, are not of high value in +accuracy, is shown by the discrepant copies of some of the most carefully +studied pictographs, which discrepancies sometimes leave in +uncertainty the points most needed for interpretation. Sketches, or +still better, photographs are desirable to present a connected and general +view of the characters and the surface upon which they are found. +For accuracy of details “squeezes” should be obtained when practicable.</p> + +<p>A simple method of obtaining squeezes of petroglyphs, when the lines +are sufficiently deep to receive an impression, is to take ordinary manilla +paper of loose texture, and to spread the sheet, after being thoroughly +wetted, over the surface, commencing at the top. The top edge may +be temporarily secured by a small streak of starch or flour paste. The +paper is then pressed upon the surface of the rock by means of a soft +bristle brush, so that its texture is gently forced into every depression. +Torn portions of the paper may be supplied by applying small patches +of wet paper until every opening is thoroughly covered. A coating of +ordinary paste, as above mentioned, is now applied to the entire surface, +and a new sheet of paper, similarly softened by water, is laid over +this and pressed down with the brush. This process is continued until +three or four thicknesses of paper have been used. Upon drying, the +entire mold will usually fall off by contraction. The edge at the top, +if previously pasted to the rock, should be cut. The entire sheet can +then be rolled up, or if inconveniently large can be cut in sections and +properly marked for future purposes. This process yields the negative. +To obtain the positive the inner coating of the negative may be +oiled, and the former process renewed upon the cast.</p> + +<p>The characters when painted with bright tints and upon a light-colored +surface, may readily be traced upon tracing linen, such as is +employed by topographers. Should the rock be of a dark color, and +the characters indistinct, a simple process is to first follow the characters<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776">[776]</a></span> +in outline with colored crayons, red chalk, or dry colors mixed with +water and applied with a brush, after which a piece of muslin is placed +over the surface and pressed so as to receive sufficient coloring matter +to indicate general form and relative position. After these impressions +are touched up, the true position may be obtained by painting +the lines upon the back of the sheet of muslin, or by making a true +tracing of the negative.</p> + +<p>An old mode of securing the outline was to clear out the channels of +the intaglios, then, after painting them heavily, to press a sheet of +muslin into the freshly painted depressions. The obvious objection +to this method is the damage to the inscription. Before such treatment, +if the only one practicable, all particulars of the work to be +covered by paint should be carefully recorded.</p> + +<p>The locality should be reported with detail of State (or territory), +county, township, and distance and direction from the nearest post-office, +railway station, or country road. In addition the name of any +contiguous stream, hill, bluff, or other remarkable natural feature +should be given. The name of the owner of the land is of temporary +value, as it is liable to frequent changes. The site or station should +be particularly described with reference to its natural characteristics +and geological history. When petroglyphs are in numbers and groups, +their relation to each other to the points of the compass or to topographical +features, should be noted, if possible, by an accurate survey, +otherwise by numeration and sketching.</p> + +<p>The following details should be carefully noted: The direction of +the face of the rock; the presence of probable trails and gaps which +may have been used in shortening distances in travel; localities of +mounds and caves, if any, in the vicinity; ancient camping grounds, +indicated by fragments of pottery, flint chips or other refuse; existence +of aboriginal relics, particularly flints which may have been used +in pecking (these may be found at the base of the rocks upon which +petroglyphs occur); the presence of small mortar-holes which may +have served in the preparation of colors.</p> + +<p>With reference to pictographs on other objects than rock it is important +to report the material upon which they appear and the implements +ascertained to be used in their execution examples of which are +given in other parts of this work.</p> + +<p>With reference to all kinds of pictographs, it should be remembered +that mere descriptions without graphic representations are of little +value. Probable age and origin and traditions relating to them should +be ascertained. Their interpretation by natives of the locality who +themselves make pictographs or who belong to people who have lately +made pictographs is most valuable, especially in reference to such designs +as may be either conventional, religious, or connected with lines +of gesture-signs.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777">[777]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>LIST OF WORKS AND AUTHORS CITED.</h2> + + +<p>The object of this alphabetical list is to permit convenient reference to authorities +without either deforming the pages of the present work by footnotes or cumbering +the text with more or less abbreviated indications of editions, volumes, and pages, as +well as titles and names, which in some cases would have required many repetitions. +The list is by no means intended as a bibliography of the subject, nor even as a statement +of the printed and MS. works actually studied and consulted by the present +writer in the preparation of his copy. The details and niceties of bibliographic +description are not attempted, the titles being abbreviated, except in a few instances +where they are believed to be of special interest. The purpose is to include only the +works which have been actually quoted or cited in the text, and, indeed, not all of +those, as it was deemed unnecessary to transfer to the list some well-known works +of which there are no confusing numbers of editions. When a publication is cited +in the text but once, sufficient reference is sometimes made at the place of citation. +When it would seem that the reference should be more particular the work is mentioned +in the text, generally by the name of the author, followed by an italic letter +of the alphabet in a parenthesis, which letter is repeated in the same form under +the author’s name in the alphabetical list followed by mention of the edition from +which the citation was taken, the number of the volume when there is more than +one volume of that edition, and the page; also a reference, when needed, to the +illustration reproduced or described.</p> + +<p>Example: When the voluminous official publication of Schoolcraft is first quoted +on p. <a href="#page035">35</a>, the reference is to p. 351 of his first volume, and the name “Schoolcraft” is +followed by (<i>a</i>). On turning to that name in the list there appears under it a note of +the work and the letter (<i>a</i>) is followed by “<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 351.” The references to this author +are so many that all the letters of the alphabet are successively employed—indeed, +some of them do duty several times, as several references in the text are to the same +page or plate. The references to this single author would therefore have required at +least thirty footnotes, or corresponding words in the text, instead of thirty italic +letters divided between the several places of citation.</p> + +<p>The abbreviation and simplicity of the plan is shown where there are many editions +of the work cited. One of the most troublesome for reference of all publications +is that of the Travels, etc., of Lewis and Clarke. The letter (<i>a</i>) after those +names on p. <a href="#page419">419</a>, repeated under the same names in the list, refers to p. 66 of the +edition specified.</p> + +<p>When the italic letter in parenthesis precedes the title of a work in the list, +reference is made to that work as a whole without specific quotation. So also +when no such italic letter appears. Occasionally the title and imprint of a magazine +or other continuous publication appears in the list without note of volume +and page. This occurs where the authority is noted elsewhere, generally more than +once, with only curt reference to the serial publication, and is intended to avoid repetition.</p> + +<p>The simple scheme is designed, while avoiding bibliographic prolixity, to give +practical assistance to the reader in finding the authorities cited, when desired. +Scientific pretense has sometimes been sacrificed for simplicity and convenience.</p> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778">[778]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>LIST.</h2> + + +<p><b>ADAIR</b> (<span class="smcap">James</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The History of the American Indians; particularly those Nations adjoining to the +Mississippi, East and West Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, and +Virginia. * * * By James Adair, Esquire, a Trader with the Indians, and +Resident in their Country for Forty Years. London; 1775. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 389.</p></div> + +<p><b>AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The American Anthropologist, published quarterly under the auspices of the +Anthropological Society of Washington. Washington, D. C. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-VI]</span>. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 1889, No. 4, p. 323. (<i>b</i>) ibid., p. 524.</p></div> + +<p><b>AMERICAN NATURALIST.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The American Naturalist, a monthly journal devoted to the natural sciences in +their widest sense. Philadelphia. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-XXVII]</span>. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for +promoting useful knowledge. Philadelphia (Penna.). Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-XXX]</span>. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIX</span>, p. 216.</p></div> + +<p><b>ANDREE</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Richard</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Zeichnen bei den Naturvölkern. Separatabdruck aus den Mittheilungen +der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Bd. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, der neuen Folge Bd. +<span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>. Wien; 1887.</span> 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 6. (<i>b</i>) p. 4. (<i>c</i>) ib. (<i>d</i>) p. 8. (<i>e</i>) p. 5.</p> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, von Richard Andree. Mit 6 Tafeln +und 21 Holzschnitten.</span> Stuttgart; 1878. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 260. (<i>b</i>) p. 194.</p></div> + +<p><b>ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. +London; 1872[-1892]. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span>, May, 1890, p. 368. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XVI</span>, Feb., 1887, p. 309. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 1872, p. 334. +(<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, Feb., 1880, p. 104. (<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, Feb., 1873, p. 131. (<i>f</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, Nov., 1887, +p. 86.</p></div> + +<p><b>ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF TŌKYŌ.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Tōkyō Anthropological Society of.</i></p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>ANTHROPOLOGIE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie</span>.</i></p></div> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de"><b>ANTHROPOLOGISCHE GESELLSCHAFT IN BERLIN.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie.</i></p></div> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de"><b>ANTHROPOLOGISCHE GESELLSCHAFT IN WIEN.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. In Commission bei +Alfred Hölder, k.k. Hof- und Universitäts-Buchhändler. Wien; 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XVI</span>, iii. and iv. Heft, 1886, Tafel <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>APPUN</b> (C. F.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Südamerikanischen, mit Sculpturen bedeckten Felsens.</span> In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen der +Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Berlin; +Mai, 1877.</span></p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 6 and 7, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVI</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>ARARIPE</b> (<span class="smcap">Tristão de Alencar</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Cidades Petrificades e Inscripções Lapidares no Brazil. By Tristão de Alencar +Araripe. In Revista Trim. do Inst. Hist. e Geog. Brazil, Tome <span class="smcap lowercase">L</span>, 2<sup>o</sup> folheto. +Rio de Janeiro; 1887.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 275 et seq. (<i>b</i>) p. 291. (<i>c</i>) p. 277.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779">[779]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>ARCHAIC ROCK INSCRIPTIONS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Archaic Rock Inscriptions; an Account of the Cup and Ring Markings on the +Sculptured Stones of the Old and New Worlds. * * * A Reader, Orange Street, +Red Lion Square, London; 1891. Sm. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de"><b>AUSLAND</b>, <i>Das</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Ausland. Wochenschrift für Erd- und Völkerkunde. Herausgegeben von +Siegmund Günther. Stuttgart. Verlag der J. G. Cotta’schen Buchhandlung, +Nachfolger. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) 1884, No. 1, p. 12.</p></div> + + +<p><b>BANCROFT</b> (<span class="smcap">Hubert Howe</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. By Hubert Howe +Bancroft. San Francisco; 1882. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-V]</span>. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 379. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 48. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 332. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 802. (<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 333. (<i>f</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, +p. 387. (<i>g</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 403. (<i>h</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 374. (<i>i</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, pp. 40-50.</p></div> + +<p><b>BANDELIER</b> (A. F.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico in 1881. By A. F. Bandelier. Papers +of the Archæological Institute of America. American Series, <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>. Boston; +1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 184.</p></div> + +<p><b>BARTLETT</b> (<span class="smcap">John Russell</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, +Sonora, and Chihuahua, connected with the United States and Mexican +Boundary Commission, during the years 1850, ’51, ’52, and ’53. By John Russell +Bartlett, United States Commissioner during that period. New York; +1854. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, pp. 192-206. (<i>b</i>) ibid., pp. 170-173.</p></div> + +<p><b>BASTIAN</b> (A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Amerika’s Nordwest-Küste. Neueste Ergebnisse ethnologischer Reisen. Aus +den Sammlungen der königlichen Museen zu Berlin. Herausgegeben von der +Direction der ethnologischen Abtheilung.</span> Berlin; 1884. Folio.</p> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ethnologisches Bilderbuch (mit erklärendem Text), 25 Tafeln. Von Adolf Bastian.</span> +Berlin; 1887. Folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>BELDEN</b> (G. P.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Belden, the White Chief, or Twelve Years among the Wild Indians of the Plains. +From the diaries and manuscripts of George P. Belden. * * * Edited by +Gen. James S. Brisbin, U. S. A. Cincinnati and New York; 1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 277. (<i>b</i>) p. 145. (<i>c</i>) p. 144.</p></div> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de"><b>BERLINER GESELLSCHAFT FÜR ANTHROPOLOGIE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und +Urgeschichte. Redigirt von Rud. Virchow. Berlin.</span> 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) No. 20, March, 1886. (<i>b</i>) Sitzung 16, November, 1889, p. 655. (<i>c</i>) ibid., +p. 651. (<i>d</i>) March 20, 1886, p. 208.</p></div> + +<p><b>BERTHELOT</b> (S.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Notice sur les Caractères Hiéroglyphiques Gravés sur les Roches Volcaniques +aux îles Canaries. In Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, rédigé avec le +Concours de la Section de Publication par les Secrétaires de la Commission +Centrale. Sixième Série, Tome Neuvième, année 1875. Paris; 1875.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 117 et seq. (<i>b</i>) p. 189.</p></div> + +<p><b>BERTHOUD</b> (<i>Capt.</i> E. L.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) In Kansas City Review of Science and Industry, <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>, 1883, No. 8, pp. 489, 490.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780">[780]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>BLOXAM</b> (G. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Aroko, or Symbolic Letters. In Journal Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland. +1887.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 291 et seq. (<i>b</i>) p. 295. (<i>c</i>) p. 298.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOAS</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Franz</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report on the Northwestern Tribes of the Dominion of Canada. In Report of +the Fifty-ninth Annual Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement +of Science. London; 1889.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) p. 12. (<i>e</i>) pp. 852, 853. (<i>f</i>) p. 841.</p> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Felsenzeichnung von Vancouver Island.</span> In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft +für Anthropologie, ausserordentliche Sitzung am 14. Februar 1891.</span></p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 160. Fig. p. 161.</p> + +<p>The Houses of the Kwakiutl Indians, British Columbia. In Proceedings of the +U. S. National Museum for 1888. Washington. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) pp. 197 et seq. (<i>d</i>) p. 212, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XL</span>. (<i>g</i>) p. 208.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOBAN</b> (<span class="smcap">Eugène</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Documents pour servir à l’Histoire du Mexique. Catalogue raisonné de la Collection +de M. E.-Eugène Goupil (Ancienne coll. J.-M.-A. Aubin). Manuscrits +figuratifs et autres sur papier indigène d’agave Mexicana et sur papier européen +antérieurs et postérieurs à la Conquête du Mexique. (<span class="smcap lowercase">XVI</span><sup>e</sup> siècle). Avec +une introduction de M. E.-Eugène Goupil et une lettre-préface de M. Auguste +Génin.</span> Paris; 1891. 2 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>, and atlas folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 273. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, pp. 331, 342.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOCK</b> (<span class="smcap">Carl</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Head-Hunters of Borneo: A narrative of travel up the Mahakkam and down +the Barrito; also journeyings in Sumatra. By Carl Bock. London; 1881. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 67. (<i>b</i>) p. 41.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOLLER</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry A.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Indians. Eight years in the Far West: 1858-1866. Embracing +sketches of Montana and Salt Lake. By Henry A. Boller. Philadelphia; +1868. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 284.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOSCAWEN</b> (<span class="smcap">W. St. Chad</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Prehistoric Civilization of Babylonia. In Journal of the Anthropological +Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, No. 1; August, 1878.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 23.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOSSU</b> (<i>Capt.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels through that part of North America formerly called Louisiana. By Mr. +Bossu, captain in the French marines. Translated from the French by John +Rheinhold Forster. Illustrated with Notes, relative chiefly to Natural History. +London; 1771. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 164.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOTURINI</b> (<span class="smcap">Benaduci</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Idea de una Nueva Historia General de la América Septentrional, fundada sobre +material copioso de Figuras, Symbolos, Caracteres y Geroglíficos, Cantares y +Manuscritos de Antores Indios, ultimamente descubiertos. Dedicada al Rey +N<sup>tro</sup> Señor en su real y supremo consejo de las Indias el Cavallero Lorenzo Boturini +Benaduci, Señor de la Torre, y de Pono.</span> Madrid; 1746. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 54-56.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781">[781]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>BOURKE</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">John G.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona; being a Narrative of a Journey from +Santa Fé, New Mexico, to the Villages of the Moqui Indians of Arizona, etc. +By John G. Bourke, Captain, Third U. S. Cavalry. New York; 1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) p. 120.</p> + +<p>The Medicine Men of the Apaches. By John G. Bourke, Captain, Third Cavalry, +U. S. Army. In the Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 550 et seq. (<i>b</i>) p. 562. (<i>c</i>) ib. (<i>d</i>) p. 580. (<i>e</i>) p. 588. (<i>f</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOVALLIUS</b> (<span class="smcap">Carl</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Nicaraguan Antiquities. By Carl Bovallius; pub. by Swed. Soc. Anthrop. and +Geog. Stockholm; 1886. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. 39.</p></div> + +<p><b>BOYLE</b> (<span class="smcap">David</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>4th Ann. Rep. Canadian Institute, 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 23. (<i>b</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><b>BRANSFORD</b> (<i>Dr.</i> J. F.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Archæological Researches in Nicaragua. By J. F. Bransford, M. D., Passed Assistant +Surgeon, U. S. Navy. [Constitutes No. 383, Smithsonian Contributions +to Knowledge.] Washington; 1881.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 64, fig. 123. (<i>b</i>) p. 65.</p></div> + +<p><b>BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG</b> (<i>Abbé</i> <span class="smcap">Charles Étienne</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Landa</i>.</p></div> + +<p lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><b>BRAZILEIRO, REVISTA TRIMENSAL.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Revista Trimensal do Instituto Hist. e Geog. Brazileiro</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>BRINTON</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Daniel G.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the “Stone of the Giants.” In Report of the Proceedings of the Numismatic +and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia for the years 1887-1889. Philadelphia; +1891.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 78 et seq. (<i>c</i>) ib.</p> + +<p>On the Ikonomatic Method of Phonetic Writing, with special reference to American +Archæology. Read before the Am. Philosoph. Soc. Oct. 1, 1886.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 3.</p> + +<p>The Names of the Gods in the Kiche Myths, Central America. By Daniel G. Brinton, +M. D. Separate and in Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span>, p. 613.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) The Maya Chronicles. Edited by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. Philadelphia; +1882. 8<sup>o</sup>. Number 1 of Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature.</p> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) The Lenape and their Legends, with the complete text and symbols of the +Walam Olum. By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. Philadelphia; 1885. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>g</i>) The Myths of the New World. A treatise on the symbolism and mythology of +the red race of America. By D. G. Brinton. New York; 1876. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>BROWN</b> (<span class="smcap">Chas. B.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Indian Picture Writing in British Guiana. By Charles B. Brown. In Journal +of the Anthropological Inst. of Gt. Britain and Ireland.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 1873, pp. 254-257.</p></div> + +<p><b>BROWN</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Pictured Cave of La Crosse Valley, near West Salem, Wisconsin. In Report +and Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin for the years 1877, +1878, and 1879, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, Madison; 1879.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 174-181, Figs. 2, 5, 9, 14.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>BRUXELLES, SOCIÉTÉ D’ANTHROPOLOGIE DE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Société d’Anthropologie de Bruxelles</i>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782">[782]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>BUCKLAND</b> (<i>Miss</i> A. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On Tattooing. In Journal Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Britain and Ireland, <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, No. 4. +May, 1888.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 318 et seq.</p></div> + +<p><b>BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Annual Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian +Institution. Washington. Roy. 8<sup>o</sup>. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-X].</span></p> + +<p>First Annual Report [for 1879-’80]. 1881. Sign Language among North +American Indians compared with that among other peoples and deaf +mutes. By Garrick Mallery. pp. 263-552.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 498.</p> + +<p>Same Report. A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mortuary Customs +of the North American Indians. By Dr. H. C. Yarrow, Act. Asst. Surg. U. S.</p> + +<p>A. pp. 87-203.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 195.</p> + +<p>Fourth Annual Report [for 1882-’83]. 1886. Pictographs of North American +Indians. A Preliminary Paper. By Garrick Mallery. pp. 3-256.</p> + +<p>References to other authors in this series appear under their respective names.</p></div> + +<p><b>CADILLAC</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">de Lamothe</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Collier qui doit être porté à Montréal.</span> In Margry, Part <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, pp. 290-291.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) In Margry, Part <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, p. 90.</p></div> + +<p><b>CANADA, ROYAL SOCIETY OF.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-IX].</span> Montreal +and Toronto. Large 4<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><b>CANADA</b>, Report of the Deputy Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs of. +Ottawa; 1879. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 113.</p></div> + +<p><b>CANADIAN INSTITUTE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Proceedings of the Canadian Institute of Toronto, being a continuation of the +Canadian Journal of Science, Literature, and History. 20 vols. in 3 series, +commencing 1852. Toronto. First series 4<sup>o</sup>, last series 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>CARNE</b> (<span class="smcap">Perrier du</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) In <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie</span>, <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 1891, No. 2, p. 269.</p></div> + +<p><b>CARPENTER</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>From Adam’s Peak to Elephanta. Sketches in Ceylon and India. By Edward +Carpenter. London; 1892. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 129.</p></div> + +<p><b>CARTAILHAC</b> (<span class="smcap">Émile</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La France préhistorique d’après les sépultures et les monuments. Par Émile +Cartailhac.</span> Paris; 1889. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 234.</p></div> + +<p><b>CARVER</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">Jonathan</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, in the years 1766, 1767, and +1768. By J. Carver, esq., captain of a company of Provincial troops during +the late war with France. Illustrated with copper plates. London; 1778. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 418. (<i>b</i>) ib. (<i>c</i>) p. 357.</p></div> + +<p><b>CATLIN</b> (<span class="smcap">George</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American +Indians. Fourth edition. London; 1844. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 98.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783">[783]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>CHAMPLAIN</b> (<i>Le Sieur</i> <span class="smcap">Samuel de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les voyages de la Novvelle France occidentale, dicte Canada, faits par le S<sup>r</sup> de +Champlain Xainctongeois, Capitaine pour le Roy en la Marine du Ponant, & +toutes les Descouuertes qu’il a faites en ce païs depuis l’an 1603 iusques en l’an +1629. Où se voit comme ce pays a esté premierement descouuert par les François, +sous l’authorité de nos Roys tres-Chrestiens, iusques au regne de sa Majesté à +present regnante Lovis XIII. Roy de France & de Nauarre. Auec vn traitté +des qualitez & conditions requises à vn bon & parfaict Nauigateur pour cognoistre +la diuersité des Estimes qui se font en la Nauigation; Les Marques & +enseignments que la prouidence de Dieu a mises dans les Mers pour redresser +les Mariniers en leur routte, sans lesquelles ils tomberoient en de grands dangers, +Et la maniere de bien dresser Cartes marines auec leurs Ports, Rades, +Isles, Sondes & autre chose necessaire à la Nauigation. Ensemble vne Carte +generalle de la description dudit pays faicte en son Meridien selon la declinaison +de la guide Aymant, & vn Catechisme ou Instruction traduicte du François au +langage des peuples Sauuages de quelque contree, auec ce qui s’est passé en +ladite Nouuelle France en l’année 1631. Paris; 1632. Sm. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Œuvres de Champlain publiées sous le patronage de l’Université Laval par l’abbé +C. H. Laverdière, M. A., professor d’histoire à la faculté des arts et bibliothécaire +de l’université; Seconde édition. Québec; 1870.</span> [6 vols. Sm. 4<sup>o</sup> (the +fifth in two parts), paged consecutively at bottom. 2 p. ll., pp. i-lxxvi, 1-1478, +1 l. The pagination of the original edition appears at the top. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span> is +a reprint in facsimile as to arrangement, of the 1632 edition of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Voyages</span>].</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, 1st pt., p. 159. (<i>b</i>) ib. 157. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 57. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, 2d pt., p. 40. (<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, +p. 194. (<i>f</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 19.</p></div> + +<p><b>CHAMPOLLION</b> (<span class="smcap">Jean Francois</span>, <i>le jeune</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Grammaire Egyptienne, ou principes généraux de l’écriture sacrée égyptienne +appliquées à la représentation de la langue parlée. Publiée sur le manuscrit +autographe.</span> Paris; 1836-’41. Sm. folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 113. (<i>d</i>) p. 519. (<i>g</i>) p. 91. (<i>h</i>) p. 57.</p> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire Egyptien, en écriture hiéroglyphique; publié d’après les manuscrits +autographes, par M. Champollion-Figeac.</span> Paris; 1842-’44. Folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 429. (<i>c</i>) p. 31. (<i>e</i>) p. 1. (<i>f</i>) p. 3.</p></div> + +<p><b>CHARENCEY</b> (<i>Count</i> <span class="smcap">Hyacinthe de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Des Couleurs considérées comme Symboles des points de l’Horizon chez les +Peuples.</span> From <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Actes de la Société Philologique.</span> Tome <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, No. 3, Oct., 1876; +Paris; 1877.</p> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai sur la symbolique des points de l’horizon dans l’extrême orient. Hyacinthe +de Charencey.</span> Caen; 1876. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>CHARLEVOIX</b> (<i>Père</i> <span class="smcap">F. X. de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History and General Description of New France. By the Rev. Père François +Xavier de Charlevoix. Translated with Notes by John Gilmary Shea. New +York; 1866-1872. 2 vols. Imperial 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 266.</p></div> + +<p><b>CHAVERO</b> (<span class="smcap">Alfredo</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">La piedra del Sol. Estudio arqueológico por Alfredo Chavero.</span> In <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Anales del +Museo Nacional de México.</span></p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 124.</p></div> + +<p><b>CLEMENT</b> (<span class="smcap">Clara Erskine</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art. By Clara Erskine Clement. +Boston; 1883. Small 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 7.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784">[784]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>COALE</b> (<span class="smcap">Charles B.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Life and Adventures of William Waters. By Charles B. Coale. Richmond; +1878. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 136.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>COMMISSION SCIENTIFIQUE AU MEXIQUE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mexique, Mission Scientifique au</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>CONDER</b> (<i>Maj.</i> <span class="smcap">Claude R.</span>)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Hittite Ethnology. In Journal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and +Ireland, <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, pt. 2, Nov., 1887.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) p. 141.</p> + +<p>Palestine Exploration Fund. Quarterly Statement for July, 1881. London; +1881.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 214-218. (<i>c</i>) p. 16.</p> + +<p>On the Canaanites. In Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, +Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIV</span>, No. 93. London; 1889, pp. 56-62.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 57.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>CONGRÈS INTERNATIONAL DES AMÉRICANISTES.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Compte-rendu de la cinquiéme session, Copenhague, 1883. Copenhague, 1884.</span> 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>CONTRIBUTIONS TO NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-VI]</span>. Washington. Government Printing Office; 1877[-1890]. 4<sup>o</sup>. +(Department of the Interior. U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the +Rocky Mountain Region. J. W. Powell in charge.)</p></div> + +<p><b>COOPER</b> (W. R.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Serpent Myths of Ancient Egypt. By W. R. Cooper, <span class="smcap lowercase">F. R. S. L.</span> London; +1873. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 24. (<i>b</i>) p. 43.</p></div> + +<p><b>COPE</b> (<i>Prof.</i> E. D.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report on the Remains of Population observed in Northwestern New Mexico. +By Prof. E. D. Cope. In Report upon United States Geographical Surveys +west of the one hundredth meridian, in charge of First Lieut. Geo. M. +Wheeler. 7 vols. Washington, 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>, 1879, p. 358.</p></div> + +<p><b>COPWAY</b> (G.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Traditional History and characteristic sketches of the Ojibway Nation. By +G. Copway, or Kah-gi-ga-gah-bowh, chief of the Ojibway Nation. London; +1850. Sm. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 134. (<i>b</i>) p. 136. (<i>c</i>) pp. 135, 136. (<i>d</i>) p. 135. (<i>e</i>) p. 134. (<i>f</i>) p. 135. +(<i>g</i>) p. 134. (<i>h</i>) ibid.</p></div> + +<p><b>CRANE</b> (<i>Miss</i> <span class="smcap">Agnes</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ancient Mexican Heraldry. By Agnes Crane. In Science, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, No. 503.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 175.</p></div> + +<p><b>CRAWFURD</b> (<span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History of the Indian Archipelago. By John Crawford * * *. Edinburgh; +1820. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 290.</p></div> + +<p><b>CRONAU</b> (<span class="smcap">Rudolf</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte der Solinger Klingenindustrie. Von Rudolf Cronau.</span> Stuttgart; +1885. Folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 17. (<i>c</i>) pp. 18, 19.</p> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de">Im Wilden Westen. Eine Künstlerfahrt durch die Prairien und Felsengebirge +der Union. Von Rudolf Cronau. * * * Braunschweig; 1889. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 85.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785">[785]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>CUMMING</b> (<span class="smcap">R. Gordon</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Sporting Adventures in South Africa. By Gordon Cumming. London; 1856. +2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 207.</p></div> + +<p><b>CURR</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward M.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Australian Race. By Edward M. Curr. London; 1886. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>, and +folio atlas.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 149 et seq. (<i>b</i>) ibid., p. 94. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 544. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, plate facing p. 145.</p></div> + +<p><b>CUSHING</b> (<span class="smcap">Frank Hamilton</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Preliminary Notes on the origin, working hypothesis and primary researches of +the Hemenway Southwestern Archæological Expedition. In <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Congrès International +des Américanistes. Compte-rendu de la septième session.</span> Berlin; 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 151.</p></div> + + +<p><b>D’ALBERTIS</b> (L. M.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>New Guinea; What I did and what I saw. By L. M. D’Albertis. Boston; 1881. +2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 66. (<i>b</i>) ibid., p. 301. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, pp. 213, 215, 519. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 262 and 264.</p></div> + +<p><b>DALL</b> (<span class="smcap">William H.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On Masks, Labrets and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the +bearing of their geographical distribution. In Third Annual Report of the +Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1885; pp. 67-202.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) p. 75. (<i>e</i>) p. 111.</p> + +<p>Contributions to North American Ethnology, <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 79. (<i>f</i>) p. 86.</p> + +<p>Alaska and its Resources. London; 1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 142. (<i>b</i>) p. 412. (<i>c</i>) p. 95.</p></div> + +<p><b>D’ALVIELLA</b> (<i>Count</i> <span class="smcap">Goblet</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Migration of symbols. By the Count Goblet D’Alviella. In Popular Science +Monthly; 1890. (Sept. and Oct.) (Trans. from <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Révue des Deux Mondes</span>; +Paris; May 1, 1890, p. 121.)</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 674, 779. (<i>b</i>) p. 676. (<i>c</i>) p. 677.</p></div> + +<p><b>DAVIDSON</b> (<span class="smcap">Alexander</span>) <span class="smcap lowercase">AND</span> <b>STRUVÉ</b> (<span class="smcap">Bernard</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History of Illinois from 1673 to 1884, by Alexander Davidson and Bernard Struvé. +Springfield, Ill.; 1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 62.</p></div> + +<p><b>DAVIS</b> (W. W. H.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Spanish Conquest of New Mexico. By W. W. H. Davis. Doylestown, Pa.; +1869. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 405. (<i>b</i>) p. 292.</p></div> + +<p><b>DAWSON</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">George M.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Notes on the Shuswap people of British Columbia. By George M. Dawson, <span class="smcap lowercase">LL. D., +F. R. S.</span>, Assistant Director Geological Society of Canada. In Transactions +of Royal Soc. of Canada, Section <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 1891.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 14.</p></div> + +<p><b>DE CLERCQ</b> (F. S. A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Ethnographische Beschrijving van de West- en Noordkust van Nederlandsch +Nieuw-Guinea door F. S. A. De Clercq, met medewerking van J. D. E. Schmeltz.</span> +Leiden; 1893. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 31.</p></div> + +<p><b>DELLENBAUGH</b> (F. S.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Shinumos. A Prehistoric People of the Rocky Mountain Region. By F. S. +Dellenbaugh. In Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sciences; Buffalo, N. Y.; Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, +1875-1877.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 172.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786">[786]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>DE SMET</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">Peter</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Smet</i> (<i>Père</i> Peter <i>de</i>).</p></div> + +<p><b>DE SCHWEINITZ</b> (<i>Bishop</i> <span class="smcap">Edmund</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The life and times of David Zeisberger, the western pioneer and apostle of the +Indians. By Edmund De Schweinitz. Philadelphia; 1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 160.</p></div> + +<p><b>DETROIT</b> (<span class="smcap">Siege of, Diary of the</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Diary of the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac. Albany; 1860. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 29.</p></div> + +<p><b>DIDRON</b> (M.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Iconographie Chrétienne. Histoire de Dieu. Par M. Didron, de la Bibliothèque +Royale, Secrétaire du Comité Historique des Arts et Monuments. Paris; 1843. +4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 338. (<i>b</i>) p. 330. (<i>c</i>) p. 343. (<i>d</i>) p. 145.</p></div> + +<p><b>DODGE</b> (<i>Col.</i> R. I.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Our Wild Indians; Thirty-three years’ personal experience among the Red Men +of the Great West. * * * By Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, U. S. Army. +Hartford; 1882. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 163.</p></div> + +<p><b>DORMAN</b> (<span class="smcap">Rushton M.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Origin of Primitive Superstitions and their development into the worship +of spirits and the doctrine of spiritual agency among the aborigines of America. +By Rushton M. Dorman. Philadelphia; 1881. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>DORSEY</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">J. Owen</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Teton Folk-lore. In American Anthropologist, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, No. 2. Washington; 1889.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 144. (<i>b</i>) p. 147.</p></div> + +<p><b>DU CHAILLU</b> (<span class="smcap">Paul B.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Viking Age. The early history, manners, and customs of the ancestors of the +English-speaking nations. By Paul B. Du Chaillu. * * * New York; 1889. +2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 116 et seq. (<i>b</i>) ibid., p. 133. (<i>c</i>) ibid., p. 10.</p></div> + +<p><b>DUNBAR</b> (<span class="smcap">John B.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Pawnee Indians. Their History and Ethnology. In Magazine of American +History. New York and Chicago; 1881.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, No. 4, p. 259. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, p. 744.</p></div> + +<p><b>DUPAIX</b> (M.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Kingsborough’s Mexican Antiquities. See <i>Kingsborough</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, p. 241. Pl. in <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, Pt. 2, No. 44.</p></div> + +<p><b>DURAN</b> (<i>Fr.</i> <span class="smcap">Diego</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de Tierra Firma. Por El Padre +Fray Diego Duran.</span> México; 1867. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + + +<p><b>EASTMAN</b> (<span class="smcap">Mary</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling. By Mrs. +Mary Eastman; with Preface by Mrs. C. M. Kirkland. New York; 1849. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 72. (<i>b</i>) p. 207. (<i>c</i>) p. 262. (<i>d</i>) p. xxvi. (<i>e</i>) p. xxviii.</p></div> + +<p><b>EDKINS</b> (<i>Rev. Dr.</i> J.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Introduction to the Study of the Chinese Characters. By J. Edkins, <span class="smcap lowercase">D.D.</span> London; +1876. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 26. (<i>b</i>) p. 42. (<i>c</i>) p. 41. (<i>d</i>) Append. A, p. 3. (<i>e</i>) p. 20. (<i>f</i>) p. 35. +(<i>g</i>) p. 14. (<i>h</i>) p. viii.</p></div> + +<p><b>EDWARDS</b> (<i>Mrs.</i> A. B.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Thousand Miles up the Nile. By Mrs. A. B. Edwards. London; 1889. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 205.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787">[787]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>EELLS</b> (<i>Rev.</i> M.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Twana Indians of the Skokomish Reservation in Washington Terr. In Bull. +U. S. Geolog. Survey, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, pp. 57-114. Washington; 1877. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>EISEN</b> (<span class="smcap">Gustav</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some Ancient Sculptures from the Pacific Slope of Guatemala. In Mem. of the +California Academy of Sciences, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, No. 2. San Francisco; July, 1888.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 17.</p></div> + +<p><b>EMORY</b> (<i>Lt. Col.</i> <span class="smcap">William Helmsley</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Notes of a Military Reconnoissance from Fort Leavenworth, in Missouri, to San +Diego, in California, etc. By Lieut. Col. W. H. Emory, made in 1846-’47. +[Thirtieth Congress, first session; Ex. Doc. No. 41.] Washington; 1848. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 89. (<i>b</i>) p. 63.</p></div> + +<p><b>ETHERIDGE</b> (R., <i>jr.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Aboriginal Rock-Carvings at the Head of Bantry Bay. In Records of the +Geological Survey of New South Wales, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, Pt. 1; 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 26 et seq.</p></div> + +<p><b>ETHNOLOGY, CONTRIBUTIONS TO NORTH AMERICAN.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Contributions to North American Ethnology</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>ETHNOLOGY (BUREAU OF).</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Bureau of Ethnology</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>EWBANK</b> (<span class="smcap">Thomas</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>North American Rock-writing and other aboriginal modes of recording and +transmitting thought. By Thomas Ewbank, Vice-President of the Ethnological +Society. Morrisania, N. Y.; 1866. Pamph., pp. 49.</p></div> + +<p><b>EXPLORING EXPEDITION</b> (United States).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Wilkes</i> (<i>Commodore</i> Charles).</p></div> + + +<p><b>FABER</b> (<span class="smcap">Ernest</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Prehistoric China. By Ernest Faber. In Journal of the China Branch of the +Royal Asiatic Society, n. s., <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIV</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>FEWKES</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">J. Walter</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Journ. of American Folk Lore; Oct.-Dec., 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 10.</p> + +<p>Am. Anthrop., <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, No. 1, 1892.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 9.</p> + +<p>Journ. Am. Ethnol. and Archæol., <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) p. 159.</p></div> + +<p><b>FLETCHER</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Robert</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tattooing among civilized people. In Transactions of the Anthropological +Society of Washington, <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 411.</p></div> + +<p><b>FORLONG</b> (<i>Gen.</i> J. G. R.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>River of Life, or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in all Lands. * * * +By Maj.-Gen. J. G. R. Forlong. London; 1883. 2 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 509. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 434.</p></div> + +<p><b>FRAZER</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Persifor</span>, <i>jr.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Geology of Lancaster County. In Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania: +Report of Progress in 1877. CCC, Harrisburg; 1880.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 92, 94, 95. (<i>b</i>) p. 62.</p></div> + +<p><b>GATSCHET</b> (<span class="smcap">Albert S.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, with a linguistic, historic, and ethnographic +introduction. By Albert S. Gatschet. * * * Philadelphia; 1884. +2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Printed in Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature. +No. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>.]</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788">[788]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>GIBBS</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">George</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tribes of Western Washington and Northern Oregon. In Contributions to North +American Ethnology, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, pp. 159-240. Washington; 1877. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 222. (<i>b</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><b>GILDER</b> (<span class="smcap">William H.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Schwatka’s Search. Sledging in the Arctic in quest of the Franklin records. +By William H. Gilder. New York; 1881. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 250.</p></div> + +<p><b>GONGORA Y MARTINEZ</b> (<span class="smcap">Manuel de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Antiguedades Prehistóricas de Andalucía, monumentos, inscripciones, armas, +utensilios y otros importantes objetos pertenecientes á los tiempos mas remotos +de su poblacion. Por Don Manuel de Gongora y Martinez.</span> * * * Madrid; +1868. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 64.</p></div> + +<p><b>GREEN</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Shakespeare and the Emblem Writers; an exposition of their similarities of +thought and expression. Preceded by a view of emblem-literature down to +A. D. 1616. By Henry Green, M. A. London; 1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 4-12. (<i>b</i>) p. 13.</p></div> + +<p><b>GREGG</b> (<span class="smcap">Josiah</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Commerce of the Prairies, or the Journal of a Santa Fé Trader, during eight +expeditions across the Great Western Prairies and a residence of nearly nine +years in Northern Mexico. By Josiah Gregg. Second ed. New York; 1845. +2 vols. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 286.</p></div> + +<p><b>GUNNISON</b> (<i>Lieut.</i> J. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Mormons, or Latter-Day Saints in the Valley of the Great Salt Lake; a +History of the Mormons. By Lieut. J. W. Gunnison of the Topographical +Engineers. Philadelphia; 1852. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 62-63.</p></div> + +<p><b>GÜNTHER</b> (C.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die anthropologische Untersuchung der Bella-Coola.</span> In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen der +Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Sitzung +vom 20. März 1886. Berlin; 1886.</span></p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 208, 209.</p></div> + + +<p><b>HAAST</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Julius von</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some Ancient Rock Paintings in New Zealand. Journal Anthropological Institute +of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>. 1878.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 50 et seq.</p></div> + +<p><b>HABEL</b> (<i>Dr.</i> S.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumal-Whuapa in Guatemala. By S. Habel. +Washington; 1879. Constitutes No. 269 of Smithsonian Contributions to +Knowledge, 1878, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXII</span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 64-66. (<i>b</i>) p. 85. (<i>c</i>) p. 66. Sculp. No. 1, Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>. (<i>d</i>) Sculp. No. 4. +Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 68. (<i>e</i>) pp. 67-68. (<i>f</i>) p. 77.</p></div> + +<p><b>HABERLANDT</b> (<span class="smcap lowercase">M.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber Schrifttafeln von der Osterinsel. In Mittheilungen der anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien. XVI. Band (der neuen Folge <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>. Band), <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>. und <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>. +Heft. 1886.</p></div> + +<p><b>HADDON</b> (<span class="smcap">Alfred C.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits. In Journal of the +Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span>, No. 3. +1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 366. (<i>b</i>) p. 365. (<i>c</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789">[789]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>HAKLUYT</b> (<span class="smcap">Richard</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Collection of the Early Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries of the English Nation. +A new edition, with additions. London; 1809[-1812]. 5 vols. and supplement. +4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, 1810, p. 372. (<i>b</i>) ib., p. 276. (<i>c</i>) ib., p. 415. (<i>d</i>) ib., p. 369. (<i>e</i>) ib., +p. 40. (<i>f</i>) ib., p. 508. (<i>g</i>) ib., p. 615.</p></div> + +<p><b>HARIOT</b> (<span class="smcap">Thomas</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A brief and true report of the new found land of Virginia, of the commodities +and of the nature and manners of the naturall inhabitants. * * * By +Thomas Hariot. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frankfurti ad Mœnvm. De Bry, anno 1590.</span> Reprinted in +facs. by J. Sabin & Sons. New York; 1872. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIII</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>HARTMAN</b> (<i>Prof.</i> R.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 6 of the session of May 26, 1877, of the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>HAYWOOD</b> (<span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee up to the first Settlements +therein by the White People in the year 1768. By John Haywood. Nashville; +1823. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 113. (<i>b</i>) p. 160. (<i>c</i>) p. 169. (<i>d</i>) pp. 322-323. (<i>e</i>) p. 228.</p></div> + +<p><b>HEATH</b> (<i>Dr.</i> E. R.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Exploration of the River Benī. In Journal of the American Geographical +Society of New York, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIV</span>. pp. 157-164. New York; 1882.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 157. (<i>b</i>) p. 161.</p></div> + +<p><b>HERNDON</b> (<i>Lieut.</i> <span class="smcap">Wm. Lewis</span>) <span class="smcap">and Gibbon</span> (<i>Lieut.</i> <span class="smcap">Lardner</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, made under direction of the Navy +Department. By Wm. Lewis Herndon and Lardner Gibbon, Lieutenants +United States Navy. Washington; 1853. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Ex. Doc. 36, Senate, +32d Cong., 2d Sess.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 319. (<i>b</i>) ibid., p. 201.</p></div> + +<p><b>HERRERA</b> (<span class="smcap">Antonio de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America Commonly +call’d the West-Indies, from the First Discovery thereof; with the best Account +the People could give of their Antiquities. Collected from the Original +Relations sent to the Kings of Spain. By Antonio de Herrera, Historiographer +to his Catholic Majesty. Translated into English by Capt. John Stevens. +* * * Second edition, London; 1740. 6 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Decade <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, B. 10, Chap. 4.</p></div> + +<p><b>HIND</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry Youle</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Explorations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula, etc. By Henry Youle +Hind. London; 1863; 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 105. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 270.</p></div> + +<p><b>HOCHSTETTER</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Ferdinand von</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>New Zealand, its physical geography, geology and natural history. By Dr. +Ferdinand von Hochstetter, Professor at the Polytechnic Inst. of Vienna, etc. +Stuttgart; 1867. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 437. (<i>b</i>) p. 423.</p></div> + +<p><b>HOFFMAN</b> (<i>Dr.</i> W. J.)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The Midewiwin or “Grand Medicine Society” of the Ojibwa. In Seventh +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology; Washington; 1891; pp. 143-300.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Pictography and Shamanistic Rites of the Ojibwa. In The American Anthropologist; +Washington; July, 1888; pp. 209-229.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790">[790]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>HOLM</b> (G.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="da" xml:lang="da">Ethnologisk Skizze af Angmagsalikerne (Særtryk af Meddelelser om Grønland. X.) +Kjøbenhavn; 1887.</span> 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 101. (<i>b</i>) p. 108.</p></div> + +<p><b>HOLMES</b> (<span class="smcap">William Henry</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report on the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, examined during the +summers of 1875 and 1876. Washington; 1879. [Extract from 10th Ann. Rep. +of U. S. Geological Survey, 1879.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 401-405, Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XLII</span> and <span class="smcap lowercase">XLIII</span>.</p> + +<p>Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui, United States of Colombia, by William +H. Holmes. Washington; 1888. 8<sup>o</sup>. In the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau +of Ethnology.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 21. (<i>e</i>) p. 181.</p> + +<p>Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans. In Second Ann. Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) p. 253 et seq. (<i>d</i>) Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LII</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>HOLUB</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Emil</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the Central South African Tribes from the South Coast to the Zambesi. In +Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, +No. 1. August, 1880.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 6. (<i>b</i>) p. 7.</p></div> + +<p><b>HOUZÉ</b> (<i>Dr.</i> E.) <span class="smcap lowercase">AND</span> <b>JACQUES</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Victor</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Étude d’anthropologie. Les Australiens du Musée du Nord.</span> By Dr. E. Houzé +and Dr. Victor Jacques. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bruxelles; 1885.</span> 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 92.</p></div> + +<p><b>HOWITT</b> (<span class="smcap">Alfred W.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On Some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation. By A. W. Howitt, <span class="smcap lowercase">F. G. S.</span> London; +1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 17. (<i>d</i>) p. 8. (<i>f</i>) p. 2.</p> + +<p>Notes on Songs and Song Makers of Some Australian Tribes. By A. W. Howitt, +<span class="smcap lowercase">F. G. S.</span> London; 1887. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 328.</p> + +<p>The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central Australia. In Journal of the Anthrop. +Inst. of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XX</span>, No. 1. 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) p. 71. (<i>e</i>) p. 72. (<i>g</i>) ib. (<i>h</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><b>HUMBOLDT</b> (<span class="smcap">Alexander</span> <i>von</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Aspects of Nature. By Alexander von Humboldt. London; 1850. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, pp. 196-201.</p></div> + + +<p><b>IMPERIAL</b> <span class="smcap">Academy of Sciences</span>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Scientific papers of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, pt. 5. St. Petersburg; +1855.</p></div> + +<p><b>IM THURN</b> (<span class="smcap">Everard F.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Among the Indians of Guiana; being Sketches chiefly Anthropologic from the +Interior of British Guiana. London; 1883. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 391 et seq. (<i>b</i>) p. 410. (<i>c</i>) p. 316. (<i>d</i>) p. 39. (<i>e</i>) p. 319. (<i>f</i>) p. 195. +(<i>g</i>) p. 219. (<i>h</i>) p. 196. (<i>i</i>) pp. 392, 393, Figs. 25 and 26. (<i>k</i>) p. 405.</p></div> + +<p><b>INDIAN AFFAIRS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Canada, Report of the Deputy Superintendent-General of. (See <i>Canada</i>.)</p></div> + +<p><b>IRVING</b> (<span class="smcap">Washington</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Astoria; or Anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains. By Washington +Irving. Philadelphia; 1836. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 226. (<i>b</i>) ib., p. 227. (<i>c</i>) ib., p. 169.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791">[791]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>JACQUES</b> (V.) <span class="smcap lowercase">AND</span> <b>STORMS</b> (É.)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Notes sur l’Ethnologie de la Partie Orientale de l’Afrique Équatoriale.</span> By V. +Jacques and É. Storms. In. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Bruxelles. Tome <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>. +Bruxelles; 1887.</span></p></div> + +<p><b>JAGOR</b> (F.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Badagas im Nilgiri-Gebirge.</span> In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft +für Anthropologie, etc. Jahrgang 1876.</span> p. 195.</p> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über die Hieroglyphen der Osterinsel und über Felseinritzungen in Chile.</span> In +<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandl. der Berliner Gesellsch. für Anthrop., etc. Jahrgang 1876</span>, pp. 16, +17, Figs. 2, 3.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandl. der Berliner Gesellsch. für Anthrop., etc., Jahrgang 1882</span>, p. 170.</p></div> + +<p><b>JAMES</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Edwin</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Tanner</i> (John).</p></div> + +<p><b>JAMES’ LONG’S EXPEDITION.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Long</i> (<i>Major</i> Stephen Harriman).</p></div> + +<p><b>JAPAN.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Yokohama. * * * Tōkyō. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>JEMISON</b> (<span class="smcap">Mary</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Seaver</i> (James E.).</p></div> + +<p><b>JESUIT RELATIONS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Relations des Jésuites; contenant ce qui s’est passé de plus remarquable dans +les Missions des pères de la Compagnie de Jésus, dans la Nouvelle France.</span> +Québec; 1858; 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 1646, p. 48.</p></div> + +<p><b>JOHNSTON</b> (H. H.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The River Congo, from its mouth to Bolobo; with a general description of the +natural history and anthropology of its western basin. By H. H. Johnston, +<span class="smcap lowercase">F. F. S., F. R. G. S.</span> * * * Second ed. London; 1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 420.</p></div> + +<p><b>JONES</b> (A. D.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Illinois and the West. By A. D. Jones. Boston; 1838. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 59.</p></div> + +<p><b>JONES</b> (<span class="smcap">Charles C.</span>, <i>jr.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Antiquities of the Southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia Tribes. By +Charles C. Jones, jr. New York, 1873. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 377-379. (<i>b</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><b>JONES</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">Peter</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History of the Ojebway Indians. By Rev. Peter Jones. London; 1861. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 121. (<i>b</i>) p. 94.</p></div> + +<p><b>JONES</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">William A.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report upon the Reconnaissance of Northwestern Wyoming. By William A. +Jones, U. S. A. Washington; 1875. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 268. (<i>b</i>) p. 269. (<i>c</i>) p. 207, fig. 33.</p></div> + + +<p><b>KANE</b> (<span class="smcap">Paul</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Wanderings of an artist among the Indians of North America. * * * London; +1859.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 393.</p></div> + +<p><b>KEATING’S LONG’S EXPEDITION.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Long</i> (<i>Major</i> Stephen Harriman).</p></div> + +<p><b>KELLER</b> (<span class="smcap">Franz</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Amazon and Madeira Rivers. Sketches and descriptions from the note-book +of an explorer. By Franz Keller, engineer. Philadelphia; 1875. Large 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 65 et seq. (<i>b</i>) p. 159 et seq.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792">[792]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>KENDALL</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward Augustus</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels through the northern parts of the United States, in the years 1807 and +1808. By Edward Augustus Kendall, Esq. New York; 1809. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>KINGSBOROUGH</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward King</span>, <i>Lord</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Antiquities of Mexico: Containing fac-similes of Ancient Mexican Paintings and +Hieroglyphics * * * together with the Monuments of New Spain, by M. +Dupaix. London; 1831-’48. 9 vols. Imp. folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex Telleriano Remensis, p. 150 (vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, +Pl. 33). (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex T. R., p. 135 (vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 4). (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, +Codex T. R., p. 141 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 19). (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex T. R., p. 148 +(<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 29). (<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex T. R., p. 150 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, +Pl. 32). (<i>f</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Coll. Mendoza, p. 74 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Coll. Mendoza, Pl. 67). (<i>g</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, +Codex T. R., p. 136 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 7). (<i>h</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex T. R., p. 141 +(<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 20). (<i>i</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Coll. Mend., p. 86 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Coll. Mend., +Pl. 71, Fig. 30). (<i>k</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex Vaticanus, p. 222 (<span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, Codex Vat., Pl. 75). +(<i>l</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex T. R., p. 136 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 7). (<i>m</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Coll. +Mend., p. 69 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Coll. Mend., Pl. 64, Fig. 5). (<i>n</i>) (<span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, Codex Vat., Pl. 100.) +(<i>o</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Codex T. R., p. 142 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Codex T. R., pt. 4, Pl. 22). (<i>p</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, Coll. +Mend., p. 71 (<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Coll. Mend., Pl. 75).</p></div> + +<p>In the above citations the double references, one in and one not in parentheses, +are necessary because the text and the copies of paintings are in different volumes. +The above references not in parentheses refer to the text alone. The several parts +of the volumes containing the plates are mentioned because the pagination of those +volumes is not continuous.</p> + +<p><b>KOHL</b> (J. G.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Kitchi-Gami. Wanderings round Lake Superior. By J. G. Kohl. London; +1860. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 18.</p></div> + + +<p><b>LACOUPERIE</b> (<i>Prof. Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Terrien de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Beginnings of Writing in and around Thibet. In Journ. Royal Asiatic Society. +New series, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XVII</span>, Pt. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>. London; 1885.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 442 et seq. (<i>b</i>) ib. (<i>c</i>) p. 443. (<i>d</i>) p. 424. (<i>e</i>) p. 428. (<i>f</i>) p. 459.</p></div> + +<p><b>LAFITAU</b> (<i>Père</i> <span class="smcap">Joseph François</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquaines, Comparées aux Mœurs des Premiers Temps.</span> +By le Père Lafitau. Paris; 1724. 2 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 261. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 43. (<i>c</i>) ib. (<i>d</i>) ib., p. 266.</p></div> + +<p><b>LAHONTAN</b> (<i>Baron</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>New Voyages to North America. Containing an Account of the Several Nations +of that vast continent, etc. By the Baron Lahontan, Lord Lieutenant of the +French Colony at Placentia in Newfoundland. * * * London; 1703. 2 +vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 82. (<i>b</i>) ib., p. 84. (<i>c</i>) ib., p. 246. (<i>d</i>) ib., p. 225.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap lowercase">LAMOTHE.</span> See <i>Cadillac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>LANDA</b> (<span class="smcap">Diego</span> <i>de</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Relation des Choses de Yucatan de Diego de Landa; Texte Espagnol et Traduction +Française en regard, comprenant les Signes du Calendrier et de l’Alphabet +Hiéroglyphique de la Langue Maya, accompagné de documents divers historiques +et chronologiques, avec une Grammaire et un Vocabulaire Abrégés Français-Maya, +précédés d’un essai sur les sources de l’histoire primitive du Mexique +et de l’Amérique Centrale, etc., d’après les monuments Égyptiens et de l’Histoire +primitive de l’Égypte d’après les monuments Américains. Par l’Abbé +Brasseur de Bourbourg, Ancien Administrateur ecclésiastique des Indians de +Rabinal (Guatemala), Membre de la Commission scientifique du Mexique, etc.</span> +Paris and Madrid; 1864. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 316. (<i>b</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793">[793]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>LANDRIN</b> (<span class="smcap">Armand</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Écriture figurative et Comptabilité en Bretagne; par Armand Landrin, +Conservateur du Musée d’Ethn.</span> In <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue d’Ethnographie. Tome premier,</span> +No. 5, Sept.-Oct. Paris; 1882.</p></div> + +<p><b>LANGEN</b> (A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Key-Inseln und die dortigen Geistergrotten.</span> In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner +Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Sitzung vom +17. October 1885.</span> 1885.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 407-409. Taf. <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>L’ANTHROPOLOGIE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie. Paraissant tous les deux mois sous la direction de MM. Cartailhac, +Hamy, Topinard.</span> * * * Paris; 1890. 8<sup>o</sup>. [The present journal +is a consolidation of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Matériaux pour l’histoire de l’homme</span>,” “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue d’Anthropologie</span>,” +and “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue d’Ethnographie</span>.”]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, No. 6, p. 693. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, No. 5, p. 566. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>. No. 2, 1891, p. 150. (<i>d</i>) <i>II</i>, No. 2, +Mar.-Avr. 1891, p. 148.</p></div> + +<p><b>LA PLATA.</b> See <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">Museo de la Plata</i>.</p> + +<p><b>LAUDONNIÈRE</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">Réné</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Second voyage into Florida made and written by Captain Laudonnière, +which fortified and inhabited there two summers and one whole winter. In +Hakluyt’s Collection of the Early Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries of the +English nation, q. v.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, pp. 384-419.</p></div> + +<p><b>LAWSON</b> (A. C.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ancient Rock Inscriptions on the Lake of the Woods. In The American Naturalist, +Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span>, Philadelphia, 1885. pp. 654-657.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIX</span> and Fig. 1.</p></div> + +<p><b>LAWSON</b> (<span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The History of Carolina, containing the exact Description and Natural History +of that country, together with the Present State thereof and a Journal of a +Thousand miles traveled through several Nations of Indians. Giving a particular +Account of their Customs, Manners, etc. By John Lawson, Gent., Surveyor-General +of North Carolina. London; 1714. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 190.</p></div> + +<p><b>LE CLERCQ</b> (<i>Père</i> <span class="smcap">Chrétien</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Relation de la Gaspesie, qui contient les Mœurs & la Religion des Sauvages +Gaspesiens Porte-Croix, adorateurs du Soleil, & d’autres Peuples de +l’Amérique Septentrionale, dite le Canada. Dediée à Madame la Princesse +d’Epinoy. Par le Père Chrétien Le Clercq, Missionnaire Recollet de la Province +de Saint Antoine de Pade en Artois, & Guardian du Convent de Lens.</span> Paris; +1691. 16<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 139.</p></div> + +<p><b>LELAND</b> (<span class="smcap">Charles G.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Algonquin Legends of New England. * * * By Charles G. Leland. Boston; +1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 40. (<i>b</i>) p. 44.</p></div> + +<p><b>LEMLY</b> (<i>Lieut.</i> H. R.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Who was El Dorado? By Lieut. H. R. Lemly, U. S. Army. In Century Magazine +for October, 1891.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 889.</p></div> + +<p><b>LE PAGE DU PRATZ.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de la Louisiane. Contenant la Découverte de ce vaste Pays. Par M. +Le Page du Pratz.</span> Paris; 1758. 3 vols. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 432. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 241.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794">[794]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>LE PLONGEON</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Augustus</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Vestiges of the Mayas; or, Facts tending to prove that communications and intimate +relations must have existed in very remote times between the inhabitants +of Mayab and those of Asia and Africa. By Augustus Le Plongeon, <span class="smcap lowercase">M. D.</span> New +York; 1881. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 29.</p></div> + +<p><b>LEWIS</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">Meriwether</span>) <span class="smcap lowercase">AND</span> <b>CLARKE</b> (<i>Capt.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels to the source of the Missouri River, etc., and across the American Continent +to the Pacific Ocean, * * * in the years 1804, 1805, and 1806. By +Captains Lewis and Clarke. Published from the Official Report. * * * +London; 1814. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 66. (<i>b</i>) p. 375. (<i>c</i>) p. 379.</p></div> + +<p><b>LEWIS</b> (T. H.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Incised Bowlders in the upper Minnesota Valley. In The American Naturalist +for July, 1887.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 642. (<i>b</i>) p. 639 et seq. (<i>c</i>) ib.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Sculptured Rock at Trempeleau, Wisconsin. By T. H. Lewis. In The American +Naturalist for September, 1889, pp. 782, 783.</p></div> + +<p><b>LONG</b> (<span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader, Describing the Manners +and Customs of the North American Indians; with an Account of the +Posts situated on the river St. Lawrence, Lake Ontario, etc. To which is +added, A Vocabulary of the Chippeway Language. * * * By J. Long, +London; 1791. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 47.</p></div> + +<p><b>LONG</b> (<i>Maj.</i> <span class="smcap">Stephen Harriman</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains in 1819 and +1829, under command of Major Stephen H. Long. Compiled by Edwin James. +Phila.; 1823. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Commonly known as James’ Long’s Expedition].</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 478. (<i>c</i>) ib., p. 287. (<i>d</i>) ib., p. 207. (<i>f</i>) ib., p. 125. (<i>h</i>) ib., p. 296. (<i>i</i>) +ib., p. 208. (<i>k</i>) ib., p. 240.</p> + +<p>Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter’s River, etc., performed in +the year 1823 under the command of Stephen H. Long, Major U. S. T. E. Compiled +by William H. Keating. Phila.; 1824. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Commonly called +Keating’s Long’s Expedition.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 217. (<i>e</i>) ib., p. 334. (<i>g</i>) ib., p. 226.</p></div> + +<p><b>LOSSING</b> (<span class="smcap">Benson J.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The American Revolution and the war of 1812; or, Illustrations by pen and pencil +of the History, Biography, Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of our wars with +Great Britain. By Benson J. Lossing. New York Book Concern; 1875. 3 +vols. Large 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 55.</p> + +<p>The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812. * * * By Benson J. Lossing. +New York; 1868.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 191, footnote.</p></div> + +<p><b>LUBBOCK</b> (<i>Sir</i> <span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Prehistoric Times as illustrated by ancient remains and the manners and customs +of modern savages. By Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M. P., etc. London; +1878. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 11.</p></div> + +<p><b>LYND</b> (<span class="smcap">James W.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Religion of the Dakotas. In Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society. +St. Paul; 1860. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, pt. 2, pp. 79, 80. (<i>b</i>) ib., pp. 59, 60. (<i>c</i>) ib., p. 68. (<i>d</i>) ib., p. 80.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795">[795]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>MACKENZIE</b> (<i>Sir</i> <span class="smcap">Alexander</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Voyages from Montreal on the River St. Lawrence, through the Continent of +North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the years 1789 and 1793. +* * * By Sir Alexander Mackenzie. Philadelphia; 1802. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 236. (<i>b</i>) p. 33. (<i>c</i>) p. 173.</p></div> + +<p><b>MADISON</b> (<i>Rt. Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">James</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the supposed fortifications of the western country. In Transactions of the +American Philosophical Society, <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, pt. 1, 1804.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 141. 142.</p></div> + +<p><b>MAGNAT</b> (<span class="smcap">Casimir</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité du Langage Symbolique, emblématique et religieux des Fleurs. Par +Casimir Magnat.</span> Paris; 1855. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>MAINE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Collections of the Maine Historical Society. * * * Portland [and Bath;] +1831[-1876]. 7 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>, p. 393.</p></div> + +<p><b>MALLERY</b> (<i>Col.</i> <span class="smcap">Garrick</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Bureau of Ethnology</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>MARCANO</b> (<i>Dr.</i> G.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ethnographic Précolombienne du Vénézuéla. Région des Raudals de l’Orénoque. +In Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris; 2<sup>e</sup> Série, Tome Quatrième, +Deuxième Fascicule.</span> Paris; 1890. pp. 99-218.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 197. (<i>b</i>) p. 203. (<i>c</i>) p. 199. (<i>d</i>) p. 210. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXX</span>, Fig. 25. (<i>e</i>) p. 200. +(<i>f</i>) p. 210.</p></div> + +<p><b>MARCOY</b> (<span class="smcap">Paul</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels in South America. By Paul Marcoy. New York; 1875. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 353. (<i>b</i>) <i>ib.</i></p></div> + +<p><b>MARGRY</b> (<span class="smcap">Pierre</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l’ouest et dans le sud de l’Amérique +septentrionale (1614-1754). Mémoires et documents originaux recuillis et +publiés par Pierre Margry.</span> Paris; 1875-1886. 6 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, p. 518. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, p. 172. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 363. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 159. (<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 325. (<i>f</i>) +<span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, p. 454. (<i>g</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 264.</p></div> + +<p><b>MARSHALL</b> (<span class="smcap">Frederic</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Curiosities of Ceremonies. By Frederic Marshall. London; 1880. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 190. (<i>b</i>) p. 65.</p></div> + +<p><b>MARSHALL</b> (<i>Lieut.-Col.</i> <span class="smcap">William E.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels amongst the Todas, or the Study of a Primitive Tribe in South India. +By William E. Marshall, Lieutenant-Colonel of her Majesty’s Bengal Staff +Corps. London; 1873. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 109. (<i>b</i>) p. 65.</p></div> + +<p><b>MARTYR</b> (<span class="smcap">Peter</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The History of the West Indies, * * * By Peter Martyr. Benzoni’s trans. +Basel; 1582.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Lib. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Chap. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXVI</span>. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. <span class="smcap lowercase">CCCX</span>.</p> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de">Histori von der Franzosen Zug in die Landschafft Floridam.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Cap. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, Die Neue Welt, Basel; 1583.</p></div> + +<p><b>MASON</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Otis T.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Basket-work of the North American aborigines. In Report of the Smithsonian +Institution, for 1884. Washington; 1885. Pt. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, pp. 291-306.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 296.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>MATÉRIAUX</b> pour l’Histoire primitive et naturelle de l’Homme. Revue Mensuelle +Illustrée dirigée par M. Émile Castailhac. Toulouse et Paris. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796">[796]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>MATTHEWS</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Washington</span>, U. S. A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Mountain Chant. A Navajo ceremony. By Dr. Washington Matthews, U. S. A. +In the Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 379-467.</p></div> + +<p><b>MAURAULT</b> (<i>Abbé</i> J. A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire des Abenaquis depuis 1605 jusqu’à nos jours. Par l’Abbé J. A. Maurault.</span> +Quebec. Gazette de Sorel; 1866. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 138.</p></div> + +<p><b>MAXIMILIAN</b> (<span class="smcap">Prince of Wied</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Wied-Neuwied</i> (Maximilian, Prince of).</p></div> + +<p><b>McADAMS</b> (<span class="smcap">Wm.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Records of Ancient Races in the Mississippi Valley; being an account of some +of the pictographs, sculptured hieroglyphics, symbolic devices, emblems, and +traditions of the prehistoric races of America, with some suggestions as to +their origin. * * * By Wm. McAdams. St. Louis; 1887. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>McGUIRE</b> (<span class="smcap">Joseph D.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Materials, Apparatus, and Processes of the Aboriginal +Lapidary. By Joseph B. McGuire. In The American Anthropologist, April, +1892, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, No. 2.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 165.</p></div> + +<p><b>McKENNEY</b> (<span class="smcap">Thomas L.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Sketches of a Tour to the Lakes; of the Character and Customs of the Chippeway +Indians; and of the Incidents connected with the Treaty of Fond du Lac. +By Thomas L. McKenney, of the Indian Department. * * * Baltimore; +1827. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 293.</p></div> + +<p><b>McLEAN</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The Blackfoot Sun Dance. By Rev. John McLean. Toronto; 1889. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>MEMOIRES DE LA SOCIETE D’ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Paris</i> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de</span>).</p></div> + +<p><b>MEXICO</b> (<span class="smcap" lang="es" xml:lang="es">Anales del Museo Nacional de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="es" xml:lang="es">Anales del museo nacional de México. Mexico. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-V]</span> 1887 ? 4<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>MEXICO</b> (<span class="smcap" lang="es" xml:lang="es">Documentos para la Historia de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Memorias para la Historia Natural de California; escritas por un religioso de la +Provincia del Santo Evangelio de México.</span> In <span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Documentos para la Hist. de +México; Tomo</span> <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, p. 220. Mexico; 1857. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 254.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>MEXIQUE</b> (<span class="smcap">Mission Scientifique au.</span>)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans l’Amérique Centrale. Publiée par ordre +du Ministre de l’Instruction Publique</span> [France]. Paris and Madrid; 1864. Folio.</p></div> + +<p><b>MILNE</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Notes on stone implements from Utaru and Hakodate, with a few general +remarks on the prehistoric remains of Japan. In Trans. of the Asiatic Society, +Japan; <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, Pt. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 64.</p></div> + +<p><b>MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS.</b> San Francisco, Cal.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Nov. 29, 1880. p. 247.</p></div> + +<p><b>MONTAGU</b> (<i>Lady</i> <span class="smcap">Mary Wortley</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Letters and Works of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; edited by Lord +Wharncliffe. London; 1837. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 31.</p></div> + +<p><b>MORE</b> (<span class="smcap">James F.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The History of Queen’s County, N.S. By James F. More, Esq. Halifax; 1873. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 213.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797">[797]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>MORENO</b> (F. P.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Esploracion Arqueologica de la Provincia de Catamarca. Estracto del informe +anual correspondiente, Museo de la Plata, á 1890-’91.</span> q. v.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 8.</p></div> + +<p><b>MORSE</b> (<i>Prof.</i> Edward S.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some recent Publications on Japanese Archeology. In the American Naturalist, +September, 1880.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 658.</p></div> + +<p><b>MORTILLET</b> (<span class="smcap">Gabriel</span> <i>de</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme.</span> By Gabriel de Mortillet. Paris; +1866. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 173.</p></div> + +<p><b>MÜLLER</b> (<span class="smcap">F. Max</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion. London and New York; 1879. +8<sup>o</sup>. Hibbert Lectures for 1878.</p></div> + +<p><b>MURDOCH</b> (<span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition. In Ninth Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 390. (<i>b</i>) p. 138.</p></div> + +<p lang="es" xml:lang="es"><b>MUSEO DE LA PLATA.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Revista del Museo de la Plata. Dirijida por Francisco P. Moreno, Fundador y +Director del Museo. Tomo <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>. La Plata. Talleres de publicaciones del Museo.</span> +1890-’91. Large 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + + +<p><b>NATIONAL MUSEUM</b> (<span class="smcap">Proceedings of</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Vols. 1[-13], 1875[-1890]. +Washington. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>NATIONAL MUSEUM</b> (<span class="smcap">Reports of</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report of the National Museum under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. +With Ann. Reports Smithsonian Institution, 1881, pub. 1883[-1889, pub. +1891]. Washington. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>NEBEL</b> (<i>Don</i> <span class="smcap">Carlos</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Viaje Pintoresco y Arqueolojico sobre la parte mas interesante de la República +Mejicana, en los años transcurridos desde 1829 hasta 1834. Por el arquitecto +Don Carlos Nebel. Paris y Mejico; 1840.</span> Fol.</p></div> + +<p><b>NETTO</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Ladisláu</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Investigações sobre a Archeologia Brazileira.</span> In <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Archives do Museu Nacional +do Rio de Janeiro</span>; Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">1º, 2º, 3º, e 4º Trimestres, Correspondente a 1881, +Consagrado a Exposição Anthropologica Brazileira, realisada no Museu +Nacional a 29 de Julho de 1882.</span> Rio de Janeiro; 1885. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 551. (<i>b</i>) p. 552. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>. (<i>c</i>) p. 551. (<i>d</i>) p. 306.</p></div> + +<p><b>NEW YORK</b> (<span class="smcap">The Documentary History of the State of</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>O’Callahan</i> (E. B.).</p></div> + +<p><b>NEW YORK</b> (<span class="smcap">Documents relating to the Colonial History of the State of</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Albany; irregularly issued; 1853 to 1883. 14 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>, pp. 46 and 385. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span>, p. 49, and <span class="smcap lowercase">XIII</span>, p. 398.</p></div> + +<p><b>NIBLACK</b> (<i>Ensign</i> <span class="smcap">Albert P.</span>, <i>U. S. N.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia. By Albert +P. Niblack, Ensign, U. S. Navy. In Report of the U. S. Nat. Museum, 1887-’88, +pp. 225-386. Washington; 1890. Pll. <span class="smcap lowercase">I-LXX</span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 321. (<i>b</i>) p. 272. (<i>c</i>) p. 278. (<i>d</i>) p. 324. (<i>e</i>) Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">LV</span>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798">[798]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>NORDENSKJÖLD</b> (<span class="smcap">Adolf Erick</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="sv" xml:lang="sv">Vega-Expeditionens Vetenskapliga Iakttagelser.</span> By A. E. Nordenskjöld. +Stockholm; 1882-87. 5 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains:</p> + +<p>Nordqvist (Oscar). <span lang="sv" xml:lang="sv">Bidrag till Kännedomen om Tschuktscherna.</span></p></div> + +<p><b>NORDQVIST</b> (<span class="smcap">Oscar</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="sv" xml:lang="sv">Bidrag till Kännedomen om Tschuktscherna.</span> In Nordenskjöld (Adolf Erick). +<span lang="sv" xml:lang="sv">Vega-Expeditionens Vetenskapliga Iakttagelser.</span></p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 241.</p></div> + +<p><b>NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA</b> (<span class="smcap">The</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Being results of recent ethnological researches from the Collections of the +Royal Museums at Berlin; published by the Directors of the Ethnological +department. Translated from the German. New York; 1884. Fol.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. 7, Fig. 3.</p></div> + + +<p><b>O’CALLAGHAN</b> (<i>Dr.</i> E. B.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Documentary History of the State of New York; arranged under the direction +of the Hon. Christopher Morgan, Secretary of State. By E. B. O’Callaghan, +M. D. Albany; 1849. 4 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 1849, pp. 4, 5. (<i>b</i>) ibid., p. 7. (<i>c</i>) ib., p. 5. (<i>d</i>) ib., p. 78.</p></div> + +<p><b>OHIO STATE BOARD OF CENTENNIAL MANAGERS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Final Report of the Ohio State Board of Centennial Managers to the General +Assembly of the State of Ohio. Columbus; 1877. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + + +<p><b>PACIFIC RAILROAD EXPEDITION.</b></p> + +<p>See <i>Whipple</i> (Lieut. A. W.).</p> + +<p><b>PARIS</b> (<span class="smcap" lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Paris; 1873-1892. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Publié par la Société d’Anthropologie.</span> 7 vols. in two series. +Large 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris.</span> Paris. 8<sup>o</sup>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Publiés par fascicules +trimestriels.</span></p></div> + +<p><b>PARKMAN</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Francis</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian war after the conquest of Canada. +By Francis Parkman. Boston; 1883. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 265.</p> + +<p>La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. By Francis Parkman. Twelfth +edition. Boston; 1883. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 59.</p></div> + +<p><b>PATTIE</b> (<span class="smcap">James O.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The personal narrative of James O. Pattie, of Kentucky, during an expedition +from St. Louis through the vast regions between that place and the Pacific +Ocean, and thence back through the City of Mexico to Vera Cruz, during +journeyings of six years; in which he and his father, who accompanied him, +suffered unheard-of hardships and dangers; had various conflicts with the +Indians, and were made captives, in which captivity his father died. * * * +Cincinnati; 1833. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 15 and 22.</p></div> + +<p><b>PEET</b> (<i>Rev.</i> S. D.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The Emblematic Mounds of Wisconsin; Animal effigies, their shapes and +attitudes. [A paper read before the American Association for the Adv. of +Science.] In Am. Antiquarian. Chicago; 1884. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>PEIXOTO</b> (<span class="smcap">Rocha</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">A tatuagem em Portugal. Por Rocha Peixoto.</span> In <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Revista de Sciencias Naturales +e Sociaes</span>, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, No. 708. Porto; 1892. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799">[799]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>PERROT</b> (<i>Père</i> <span class="smcap">Nicolas</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire sur les Mœurs, Coutumes et Religion des Sauvages de l’Amérique Septentrionale. +Par Nicolas Perrot; publié pour la première fois par le R. P. J. +Tailhau de la Compagnie de Jésus.</span> Leipsig and Paris; 1864. [Bibliotheca +Americana, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Collection d’ouvrages inédits ou rares sur l’Amérique</span>.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 172.</p></div> + +<p><b>PESCHEL</b> (<span class="smcap">Oscar</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution. Translated from the +German of Oscar Peschel. New York; 1876. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 175.</p></div> + +<p><b>PHILLIPS</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry</span>, <i>jr.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) History of the Mexicans as told by their Paintings. In Proc. Amer. Philos. +Soc., <span class="smcap lowercase">XXI</span>, p. 616.</p></div> + +<p><b>PIKE</b> (<i>Maj.</i> Z. M.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the +Western Parts of Louisiana to the Sources of the Arkansaw, Kans., La Platte +and Pierre Jaun Rivers. By Maj. Z. M. Pike. Philadelphia; 1810. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) App. to Pt. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 22.</p></div> + +<p><b>PINART</b> (<span class="smcap">Alphonse L.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Note sūr les Pétroglyphes et Antiquités des Grandes et Petites Antilles. Par A. +L. Pinart.</span> Paris; 1890. Folio. Fac-simile of MS.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 3 et seq.</p> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Aperçu sur l’Ile d’Aruba, ses Habitants, ses Antiquités, ses Pétroglyphes. Par +A. L. Pinart.</span> Paris; 1890. Folio. Fac-simile of MS.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 1 et seq.</p></div> + +<p><b>PIPART</b> (<i>Abbé</i> <span class="smcap">Jules</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Éléments Phonétiques dans les Écritures figuratives des Anciens Mexicains. In +Compte Rendu du Cong. Inter. des Américanistes, 2<sup>me</sup> Session; Paris; 1878.</span> +Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 551. (<i>b</i>) p. 349. (<i>c</i>) p. 359.</p></div> + +<p><b>PLENDERLEATH</b> (<i>Rev.</i> W. C.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The White Horses of the West of England, with notices of some other ancient +Turf-monuments. By the Rev. W. C. Plenderleath, M. A., Rector of Cherhill, +Wilts. London; (no year). 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 5-35. (<i>b</i>) pp. 7-17. (<i>c</i>) pp. 33-34. (<i>d</i>) pp. 35-36.</p></div> + +<p><b>POPOFF</b> (<span class="smcap">M. Lazar</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The origin of painting. In Popular Science Monthly, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XL</span>, No. 1, Nov., 1891. +[Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Scientifique</span>.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 103.</p></div> + +<p><b>POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY</b>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Popular Science Monthly. Edited by W. J. Youmans, Vols. 1 [<span class="smcap lowercase">XLIII</span>]. +New York. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>PORTER</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward G.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Aborigines of Australia. In Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society. +New series, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, pt. 3. Worcester; 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 320.</p></div> + +<p><b>POTANIN</b> (G. N.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Sketches of North Western Mongolia. In Ethnologic Material, No. 4. St. Petersburg; +1883. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>. (<i>b</i>) Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800">[800]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>POTHERIE</b> (<span class="smcap">Bacqueville de la</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de l’Amérique Septentrionale Divisée en Quatre Tomes. Tome Premier, +contenant le Voyage du Fort de Nelson, dans la Baye d’Hudson, à l’Extrémité +de l’Amérique. Par M. de Bacqueville de la Potherie, né à la Guadeloupe, +dans l’Amérique Méridionale, Aide Major de la dite Isle.</span> Paris; 1753. 4 vols. +16<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 43. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, p. 174. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 129. (<i>e</i>) ib., p. 128.</p></div> + +<p><b>POWELL</b> (<i>Maj.</i> J. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Outlines of the Philosophy of the North American Indians. By J. W. Powell. +N. Y. 1877. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>POWELL</b> (<i>Dr.</i> J. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report on British Columbia. In Rep. of the Deputy Superintendent-General of +Indian Affairs [Canada] for 1879. Ottawa. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>POWERS</b> (<span class="smcap">Stephen</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Tribes of California. By Stephen Powers. In Contributions to North American +Ethnology, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>. Washington; 1877.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 244. (<i>b</i>) p. 321. (<i>c</i>) p. 20. (<i>d</i>) p. 166.</p> + +<p>Northern Californian Indians. In Overland Monthly, San Francisco. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, +1872, and Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span>, 1874.</p></div> + +<p><b>PRATZ</b> (<span class="smcap">Le Page du</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Le Page du Pratz</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>PUTNAM</b> (A. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History of Middle Tennessee; or Life and Times of Gen. James Robertson. By +A. W. Putnam. Nashville; 1859. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 321.</p></div> + +<p><b>PUTNAM</b> (<i>Prof.</i> F. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Serpent Mound of Ohio. In The Century Illus. Monthly Magazine, April, +1890. New York. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 871.</p></div> + + +<p><b>RAFN</b> (<span class="smcap">Charles Christian</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiquitates Americanæ. Edidit Societas Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. +Studio et opera Charles Christian Rafn.</span> Copenhagen; 1845. Folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 359. (<i>b</i>) p. 360. (<i>c</i>) p. 397. (<i>d</i>) p. 401. (<i>e</i>) p. 357.</p></div> + +<p><b>RAND</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">Silas</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A First Reading Book in the Micmac Language; comprising the Micmac +numerals and the names of the different kinds of beasts, birds, fishes, trees, +etc., of the maritime Provinces of Canada. Also some of the Indian names of +places and many familiar words and phrases, translated literally into English. +By Rev. Silas Rand. Halifax; 1875. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 91.</p></div> + +<p><b>RAU</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Charles</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Observations on Cup-shaped and other Lapidarian Sculptures in the Old World +and in America. By Charles Rau. In Contributions to North American Ethnology. +Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>. Washington; 1882; pp. 1-112. Figs. 1-161. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 60. (<i>b</i>) p. 65. (<i>c</i>) p. 64. (<i>d</i>) p. 9.</p></div> + +<p><b>REBER</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">Franz von</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History of Ancient Art. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Franz von</span> Reber. Translated and augmented +by Joseph Thacher Clarke. New York; 1882. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>RECLUS</b> (<span class="smcap">Élisée</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Earth and its Inhabitants. By Élisée Reclus. Edited by A. H. Keane, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.A.</span> +New York; 1890. Large 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Oceanica, p. 476. (<i>b</i>) ib. p. 134. (<i>c</i>) ib. p. 304.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801">[801]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>REISS</b> (W.) <span class="smcap lowercase">AND</span> <b>STUBEL</b> (A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Necropolis of Ancon in Peru. By W. Reiss and A. Stubel. London and Berlin. +1880-1887. Large folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pls. 33 and 33a.</p></div> + +<p><b>RENAN</b> (<span class="smcap">Ernest</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>History of the People of Israel till the time of King David. By Ernest Renan. +Boston; 1889. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 19.</p></div> + +<p><b>RENOUF</b> (<span class="smcap">P. Le Page</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An Elementary Grammar of the Ancient Egyptian Language, in the hieroglyphic +type. By P. Le Page Renouf, one of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of +Schools. London and Paris; date of dedication, 1875. [No publication date.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><b>REVISTA TRIMENSAL</b> do Instituto Historico e Geographico Braziliero. +Fundado no Rio de Janeiro. Debaixo da immediata protecção de S. M. I. O. Sr. +D. Pedro II.</span> Vols. I[-L]. Rio de Janeiro. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>REVUE D’ETHNOGRAPHIE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Lately incorporated with two other serials and published under the title of +<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Anthropologie</span>, q.v.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, No. 2; 1886.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>REVUE GÉOGRAPHIQUE INTERNATIONALE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal mensuel illustré des sciences géographiques. Paris; 1884; 9<sup>e</sup> année.</span> +Editorial notice of report made to the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Société de Géographie de Tours</span>, by +General Colonieu.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) No. 110, p. 197.</p></div> + +<p><b>RIVERO</b> (<span class="smcap">Mariano Edward</span>) <span class="smcap lowercase">AND VON</span> <b>TSCHUDI</b> (<span class="smcap">John James</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Peruvian Antiquities. By Mariano Edward Rivero, * * * and John James +von Tschudi. Translated into English, from the original Spanish, by Francis +L. Hawkes, <span class="smcap lowercase">D. D. LL. D.</span> New York and Cincinnati; 1855. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 105-109.</p></div> + +<p><b>RIVETT-CARNAC</b> (J. H.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Archæological Notes on Ancient Sculpturings on Rocks in Kumaon, India, similar +to those found on monoliths and rocks in Europe. By J. H. Rivett-Carnac, +Esq., Bengal Civil Service. * * * Reprinted from the Journal of the Asiatic +Society of Bengal. Calcutta; 1883.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 1. (<i>b</i>) p. 15.</p></div> + +<p><b>ROCK INSCRIPTIONS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Archaic Rock Inscriptions</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>ROEDIGER</b> (<span class="smcap">Fritz</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Prehistoric Sign Stones, as boundary stones, milestones, finger posts, and maps. +In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandl. der Berlin. Gesellschaft für Anthrop.</span>; 1890.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 526.</p></div> + +<p><b>ROGERS</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">Charles</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Social Life in Scotland from early to recent times. By the Rev. Charles Rogers. +Edinburgh; 1884. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 35.</p></div> + +<p><b>ROSNY</b> (<span class="smcap">Léon de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archives Paléographiques, * * * Par Léon de Rosny.</span> Paris; 1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tom. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 2<sup>me</sup> liv. Avril-juin,</span> p. 93.</p></div> + +<p><b>ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vols. I[-L?] London. +8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXII</span>, 1862, p. 125.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802">[802]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>RUTHERFORD</b> (<span class="smcap">David Greig</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Notes on the People of Batanga, West Tropical Africa. In Jour. of Anthrop. +Inst. G. B. & I., <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>, 1881, p. 466.</p></div> + +<p><b>SAGARD</b> (<span class="smcap">Gabriel</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire du Canada et Voyages que les frères Mineurs recollet y ont faicts pour +conversion des infidèles depuis l’an 1615. Par Gabriel Sagard Theodat, avec +un dictionnaire de la langue Huronne. Nouvelle edition publiée par M. Edwin +Tross.</span> Paris; 1866. 4 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 724. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 347.</p></div> + +<p><b>SAYCE</b> (<i>Prof.</i> A. H.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Address to the Anthropological Section of the British Association at Manchester. +By Prof. A. H. Sayce. In Journal of the Anthropological Institute of +Great Britain and Ireland.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Nov., 1887, p. 169.</p></div> + +<p><b>SCHOOLCRAFT</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry R.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Historical and Statistical Information respecting the History, Condition, and +Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States. Collected and prepared +under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, per act of Congress of +March 3d, 1847. By Henry R. Schoolcraft. Illustrated by S. Eastman, Capt. +U. S. Army. Published by authority of Congress. Philadelphia; 1851-1857. +6 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 351. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, 119. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, 73 et seq. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 409, Pl. 58, Fig. 67. +(<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">IV</span>, 253, Pl. 32. (<i>f</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, 649. (<i>g</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 306. (<i>h</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 336, Pl. 47, Fig. c. +(<i>i</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 58, op. p. 408. (<i>k)</i> ib. (<i>l</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 59, Figs. 79 and 103, text on +pp. 409, 410. (<i>m</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 356. (<i>n</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, p. 306. (<i>o</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 54, Fig. 27. (<i>p</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, +p. 85. (<i>q</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 18, Fig. 21. (<i>r</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 56, Fig. 67. (<i>s</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pls. 58, 59, Figs. +8, 9, and 98. (<i>t</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 58. (<i>u</i>) ib. (<i>v</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 59, No. 91. (<i>w</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Pl. 64. (<i>x</i>) +<span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 58. (<i>y</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 410, Pl. 59, Fig. 102. (<i>z</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>, p. 610.</p></div> + +<p><b>SCHWATKA’S SEARCH.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(See <i>Gilder, Wm. H.</i>)</p></div> + +<p><b>SCHWEINFURTH</b> (<span class="smcap">Georg</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Heart of Africa. By Georg Schweinfurth. New York; 1874. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 23.</p></div> + +<p><b>SEAVER</b> (<span class="smcap">James E.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Narrative of the life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, who was taken by the Indians in +the year 1755, when only about twelve years of age, and has continued to reside +amongst them to the present time. Carefully taken from her own words. +Nov. 29, 1823. By James E. Seaver. London; 1826. 24<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 70.</p></div> + +<p><b>SHEA</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">John Gilmary</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>First establishment of the Faith in New France. Now first translated by John +Gilmary Shea. New York; 1881. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. (See also <i>Le Clercq</i> (<i>Père</i> Chrétien).</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>. p. 19.</p></div> + +<p><b>SHRIFNER</b> (<span class="smcap">Anton</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ethnographic Importance of Property Marks. In Scientific Treatises of the Imperial +Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg; 1855. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 601. (<i>b</i>) ib.</p></div> + +<p><b>SHTUKIN</b> (N. S.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An Explanation of Certain Picture-writings on the Cliffs of the Yenesei River. +In No. 4 of Quarterly Isvestia of the Imp. Geogr. Soc., St. Petersburg; 1882.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803">[803]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>SIMPSON</b> (<i>Lieut.</i> <span class="smcap">James H.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fé, New Mexico, to the Navajo +Country in 1849. By Lt. James H. Simpson, U. S. T. Engineers. Phila.; +1852. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pl. 72.</p></div> + +<p><b>SIMPSON</b> (<i>Sir</i> <span class="smcap">James Y.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On Ancient Sculpturings of Cups and Concentric Rings, * * * In Proceedings +of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Appendix to Volume VI. Edinburgh; +1867. pp. 1-147. Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">I-XXXII</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>SIMPSON</b> (<span class="smcap">Thomas</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Narrative of the Discoveries of the North Coast of America; effected by the +officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company during the years 1836-’39. By Thomas +Simpson, Esq. London; 1843. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>SMET</b> (<i>Père</i> <span class="smcap">Peter de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Missions de l’Orégon et Voyages aux Montagnes Rocheuses, aux sources de la +Colombie, de l’Athabasco et du Sascatschawin, en 1845-’46. Par le Père P. de +Smet de la Société de Jésus.</span> English translation, New York; 1847. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 288. (<i>b</i>) p. 320.</p></div> + +<p><b>SMITH</b> (<i>Capt.</i> <span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The True Travels, Adventures and Observations of Captain John Smith, in +Europe, Asia, Africke and America; beginning about the yeere 1593 and continued +to this present 1629. From the London edition of 1629. Richmond; +1819. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 230.</p></div> + +<p><b>SMITHSONIAN REPORTS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. 1847[-1892]. +Washington. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>SOCIÉTÉ D’ANTHROPOLOGIE DE BRUXELLES.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Bruxelles. Bruxelles.</span> 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, 1886-’87, p. 109. (<i>b</i>) ib., p. 108.</p></div> + +<p lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><b>SOCIÉTÉ D’ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(See <i>Paris</i>.)</p></div> + +<p><b>SOUCHÉ</b> (B.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Notes sur quelques découvertes d’archéologie préhistorique aux environs de +Pamproux.</span> Niort; 1879. 8<sup>o</sup>. Partly reported in <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Matériaux pour l’Histoire +Prim.</span>, etc.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> série</span>, xi. 1880, p. 147.</p></div> + +<p><b>SOUTH CAROLINA, DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE HISTORY +OF.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Edited by P. C. J. Weston. London; 1856.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 220.</p></div> + +<p><b>SPENCER</b> (<span class="smcap">Herbert</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Principles of Sociology. By Herbert Spencer. New York; 1884. 2 vols. +12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 72 et seq.</p></div> + +<p><b>SPROAT</b> (<span class="smcap">Gilbert Malcomb</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Scenes and Studies of Savage Life. By Gilbert Malcomb Sproat. London; +1868. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 269.</p></div> + +<p><b>STANLEY</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry M.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Congo and the Founding of its Free State. A story of work and exploration. +By Henry M. Stanley. New York; 1885. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 373.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804">[804]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>STARCKE</b> (<i>Dr.</i> C. N.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Primitive Family in its origin and development. By Dr. C. N. Starcke. +New York; 1889. 8<sup>o</sup>. [International Scientific Series.]</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 42.</p></div> + +<p><b>STARR</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Frederick</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Dress and Adornment. In Popular Science Monthly, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XL</span>, Nos. 1 and 2; 1891.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 499.</p></div> + +<p><b>STEARNS</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Robert E. C.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ethnoconchology; a Study of Primitive Money. In the Report of the U. S. +National Museum; 1886-’87.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 304.</p></div> + +<p><b>STEPHENSON</b> (<i>Dr.</i> M. F.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Geology and Mineralogy of Georgia. By Dr. M. F. Stephenson. Atlanta; 1871. +16<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 199.</p></div> + +<p><b>STEVENSON</b> (<span class="smcap">James</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis and Mythical Sand Painting of the Navajo Indians. +By James Stevenson. In the Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, +for 1886-87, pp. 229-285. Washington; 1891.</p></div> + +<p><b>STRAHLENBERG</b> (<span class="smcap">Philip John von</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) An Historico-Geographical Description of the north and eastern parts of +Europe and Asia, but more particularly of Russia, Siberia, and Great Tartary. +By Philip John von Strahlenberg. London; 1738. 2 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>SUMMERS</b> (<span class="smcap">James</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Handbook of the Chinese Language. By James Summers. Oxford; 1863. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Part <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 16.</p></div> + + +<p><b>TANNER</b> (<span class="smcap">John</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner * * * during +Thirty Years’ Residence among the Indians in the interior of North America. +Prepared for the press by Edwin James, <span class="smcap lowercase">M. D.</span> New York; 1830. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 341-344. (<i>b</i>) p. 193. (<i>c</i>) p. 176. (<i>d</i>) p. 174. (<i>e</i>) pp. 176 and 314. +(<i>f</i>) p. 367. (<i>g</i>) pp. 174 and 189.</p></div> + +<p><b>TAYLOR</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">Richard</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Te Ika a Maui; or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. By Rev. Richard Taylor. +<span class="smcap lowercase">M. A., F. G. S.</span> London; 1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 379. (<i>b</i>) Ib. (<i>c</i>) p. 320. (<i>d</i>) p. 209.</p></div> + +<p><b>TEN KATE</b> (<i>Dr.</i> H. F. C.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Some Ethnographic Observations in the California Peninsula and in Sonora. +In <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue d’Ethnographie</span>, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, 1888.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 321. (<i>b</i>) p. 324.</p></div> + +<p><b>THOMAS</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Cyrus</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices. In Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau +of Ethnology. Washington; 1888. pp. 253-371. Figs. 359-388.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 371. (<i>c</i>) p. 348.</p> + +<p>Burial Mounds of the Northern Section of the United States. In Fifth Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington; 1888. pp. 3-119. Pll. +<span class="smcap lowercase">I-VI</span>, Figs. 1-49.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 100.</p></div> + +<p><b>THOMAS</b> (<span class="smcap">Julian</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Cannibals and Convicts in the Western Pacific. By Julian Thomas. London; +1886. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 37.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805">[805]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>THOMSON</b> (<i>Paymaster</i> <span class="smcap">William J.</span>, <i>U. S. N.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Te Pito Te Henua; or Easter Island. In Report U. S. National Museum for +1888-’89; Washington; 1891. pp. 447-552. Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span>-<span class="smcap lowercase">LX</span>, Figs. 1-20. +(<i>a</i>) p. 480. Pl. <span class="smcap lowercase">XXIII</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>THURN</b> (<span class="smcap">Everard F. im</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>im Thurn</i> (E. F.).</p></div> + +<p><b>THRUSTON</b> (<span class="smcap">Gates P.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Antiquities of Tennessee and the adjacent States, and the state of aboriginal +society in the scale of civilization represented by them. By Gates P. +Thruston. Cincinnati; 1890. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 90-96.</p></div> + +<p><b>TOKYO</b> (<b>Anthropological Society of.</b>)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Bulletin of the Tōkyō Anthropological Society. Tōkyō Anthrop. Society +office, Hongo, Tōkyō. Vols. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>-[<span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>]. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VII.</span> No. 67. Oct. 1891, p. 30.</p></div> + +<p><b>TREICHEL</b> (A.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Verbreitung des Schulzenstabes und verwandter Geräthe.</span> In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen +der Berliner Gesellschafft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. +Sitzung vom 20. März 1886.</span> Berlin; 1886. 8<sup>o</sup>. p. 251.</p></div> + +<p><b>TRUMBULL</b> (<span class="smcap">Henry Clay</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Blood Covenant a Primitive Rite and its Bearings on Scripture. By H. Clay +Trumbull. New York; 1885. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 236-7. (<i>b</i>) p. 342.</p></div> + +<p><b>TSCHUDI</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">J. J. von</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels in Peru. By Dr. J. J. von Tschudi. New York; 1847. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pt. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, pp. 344, 345. (<i>b</i>) p. 284.</p> + +<p>See also <i>Rivero</i> (Mariano Edward) and <i>von Tschudi</i> (<i>Dr.</i> J. J.).</p></div> + +<p><b>TURNER</b> (<span class="smcap">George</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Samoa a hundred years ago and long before. By George Turner. London; 1884. +8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 302. (<i>b</i>) p. 88. (<i>c</i>) p. 185.</p></div> + +<p><b>TYLOR</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Edward Burnett</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Researches into the Early History of Mankind. By Edward Burnett Tylor. +New York; 1878. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) p. 103.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Notes on Powhatan’s Mantle. In <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</span>, +<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 1888, p. 215.</p></div> + +<p><b>TYOUT ET DE MOGHAR</b> (<span class="smcap" lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Dessins des Roches de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Géographique Internationale, 9<sup>e</sup> année, Paris; décembre 1884.</span> No. 110, +p. 197. Editorial.</p></div> + + +<p><b>UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>National Museum</i>.</p></div> + + +<p><b>VETROMILE</b> (<i>Rev.</i> <span class="smcap">Eugene</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Dictionary of the Abnaki Language. English-Abnaki and Abnaki-English. +By the Rev. Eugene Vetromile. MS. in the Library of the Bureau of Ethnology. +3 vols. Folio.</p></div> + +<p><b>VICTORIA INSTITUTE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society +of Great Britain. London; published by the Institute. Vols. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>[-<span class="smcap lowercase">XXVI</span> ?]. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>VINING</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward P.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>An Inglorious Columbus, or Evidence that Hwui Shan and a Party of Buddhist +Monks from Afghanistan discovered America in the Fifth Century A. D. By +Edward P. Vining. New York; 1885. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806">[806]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>WAKABAYASHIA</b> (K.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Pictures on Dotaku or so-called Bronze Bell. By Mr. K. Wakabayashia. In +Bulletin of the Tōkyō Anthropological Society, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>, No. 67, Oct., 1891, with +illustrations continued in No. 69. Tōkyō. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>WAKEFIELD</b> (<span class="smcap">Edward Jerningham</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Adventures in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844. By Edward Jerningham Wakefield. +London; 1845. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 64.</p></div> + +<p><b>WAKEMAN</b> (W. F.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On the Earlier Forms of Inscribed Christian Crosses found in Ireland. In Journal +of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, +5th ser. 1st quar. 1891. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 350.</p></div> + +<p><b>WALLACE</b> (<i>Prof.</i> <span class="smcap">Alfred R.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro. * * * By Alfred R. +Wallace. London; 1853. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>WARREN</b> (<span class="smcap">Wm. F.</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Paradise Found; the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole; a Study of +the Prehistoric World. By Wm. F. Warren. Boston; 1885. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>WARREN</b> (W. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Memoir of W. W. Warren; a History of the Ojibwa. In Coll. of the Minnesota +Historical Society, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, St. Paul; 1885. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 89-90.</p></div> + +<p><b>WESTON</b> (P. C. J.). See <i>South Carolina</i>.</p> + +<p><b>WEITZECKER</b> (<span class="smcap">Giacomo</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Bushman Pictograph. In <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Bollet. della Società, Geografica Ital.</span> Ser. <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">XII</span>. +Fasc. Apr., 1887. Roma; 1887.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 297-301.</p></div> + +<p><b>WHIPPLE</b> (<i>Lieut.</i> A. W.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Report upon the Indian Tribes. By Lieut. A. W. Whipple, Thomas Ewbank, +Esq., and Prof. Wm. W. Turner. Washington; 1855. Forms Pt. <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span> of Reports +of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical +route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Washington; +1856. Senate Ex. Doc. No. 78. 33d Cong. 2d session.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 42. (<i>b</i>) ib., pl. 36. (<i>c</i>) pp. 36-37, pls. 28, 29, 30. (<i>d</i>) p. 39, pl. 32. (<i>e</i>) +pp. 9, 10. (<i>f</i>) p. 33.</p></div> + +<p><b>WHITFIELD</b> (J.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Journ. of Anthrop. Inst. of Gt. Br. and I.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>, 1874, p. 114.</p></div> + +<p><b>WHITTLESEY</b> (<i>Col.</i> <span class="smcap">Charles</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Antiquities of Ohio. Report of the Committee of the State Archæological Society. +In Final Report of the Ohio State Board of Centennial Managers to the +General Assembly of the State of Ohio. Columbus; 1877. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Archæological Frauds. Western Reserve and Northern Ohio Historical Society, +Cleveland, Ohio. Tracts 1 to 36, 1870-1877. Cleveland; 1877, 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) No. 33, Nov., 1876, pp. 1-7; Ills. 1, 3, and 4.</p></div> + +<p><b>WHYMPER</b> (<span class="smcap">Frederick</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels and Adventures in the Territory of Alaska, formerly Russian American—now +ceded to the United States—and in various other parts of the North +Pacific. New York; 1869. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 101.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807">[807]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>WIED-NEUWIED</b> (<span class="smcap">Maximilian Alexander Phillip</span>, <i>Prinz von</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Travels in the Interior of North America. By Maximilian, Prince of Wied. +London; 1843. Imp. folio.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 387. (<i>b</i>) p. 149, et seq. (<i>c</i>) pp. 339, 386. (<i>d</i>) p. 153. (<i>e</i>) p. 255. +(<i>f</i>) p. 340. (<i>g</i>) p. 341. (<i>h</i>) p. 352.</p></div> + +<p><b>WIENER</b> (<span class="smcap">Charles</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pérou et Bolivie, récit de voyage, suivi d’études archéologiques et ethnographiques +et de notes sur l’écriture et les langues des populations indiennes. +Par Charles Wiener.</span> Paris; 1880. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) p. 759. (<i>b</i>) p. 763. (<i>c</i>) p. 167. (<i>d</i>) p. 705. (<i>e</i>) p. 770. (<i>f</i>) p. 763. (<i>g</i>) p. +77. (<i>h</i>) p. 706. (<i>i</i>) p. 669. Ill. on pp. 772 and 773.</p></div> + +<p><b>WILKES</b> (<i>Commodore</i> <span class="smcap">Charles</span>, <i>U. S. N.</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1839, +1840, 1841, 1842. By Charles Wilkes, U. S. N. Philadelphia; 1850. 5 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">V</span>, p. 128. (<i>b</i>) ib., p. 185.</p></div> + +<p><b>WILKINSON</b> (<i>Sir</i> <span class="smcap">J. Gardner</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. By Sir Gardner Wilkinson, +<span class="smcap lowercase">D. C. L., F. R. S., F. R. G. S.</span> A new edition, revised and corrected by Samuel +Birch, <span class="smcap lowercase">LL. D., D. C. L.</span> Boston; 1883. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, Ch. <span class="smcap lowercase">X</span>.</p></div> + +<p><b>WILLIAMS</b> (<i>Dr.</i> <span class="smcap">S. Wells</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, +Social Life, Arts and History of the Chinese Empire and its Inhabitants. By +S. Wells Williams, <span class="smcap lowercase">LL. D.</span> New York; 1883. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 248.</p></div> + +<p><b>WILSON</b> (<i>Sir</i> <span class="smcap">Daniel</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Prehistoric Man. Researches into the Origin of Civilization in the Old and the +New World. By Daniel Wilson, <span class="smcap lowercase">LL. D.</span> Cambridge and London; 1862. 2 +vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>, p. 185.</p> + +<p>The Huron-Iroquois of Canada; a Typical Race of American Aborigines. In +Proceedings of the Royal Society of Canada.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>., 1884, p. 82.</p></div> + +<p><b>WINCHELL</b> (<i>Prof.</i> N. H.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Geology of Minnesota. Vol. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span> of the final report. By N. H. Winchell. Minneapolis, +Minn.; 1884. Imp. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 555-561, Pls. I, J, K, and L.</p></div> + +<p><b>WISCONSIN</b> (Annual Reports and Collections of the State Historical Society of).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Madison, Wis. Vols. <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, 1854 [<span class="smcap lowercase">-XI</span>]. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p></div> + +<p><b>WORSNOP</b> (Thomas).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Pre-Historic Arts of the Aborigines of Australia. By Thos. Worsnop. Adelaide; +1887.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) pp. 7-9. (<i>b</i>) p. 22.</p></div> + + +<p><b>YARROW</b> (<i>Dr.</i> H. C.).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>See <i>Bureau of Ethnology</i>.</p></div> + + +<p><b>ZAMACOIS</b> (<i>D.</i> <span class="smcap">Niceto de</span>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Historia de México. Barcelona and Mexico; 1877-’80. 11 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, p. 238.</p></div> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de"><b>ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR ETHNOLOGIE.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p lang="de" xml:lang="de">Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. +Unter Mitwirkung des Vertreters desselben R. Virchow herausgegeben +von A. Bastian und R. Hartmann. Berlin. <span class="smcap lowercase">I[-XXV]</span>. 1869-92.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, 1876, p. 195.</p></div> + + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808">[808]</a></span><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809">[809]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + +<p>[The names of authors and works which appear in the List of Works and Authors cited (pp. +777-808) are not included in this index.]</p> + + +<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">A.</li> + +<li>Abacus, a mnemonic device of Chinese and Greeks, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> + +<li>Abiqui, New Mexico, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page097">97</a></li> + +<li>Abnaki Indians, study of pictographs of, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs of, <a href="#page032">32</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gods of, presiding over petroglyphs, <a href="#page032">32</a></li> +<li class="isub1">birch-bark pictographs of, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page213">213-214</a>, <a href="#page468">468-469</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wikhegan, or birch-bark letter of, <a href="#page330">330-331</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notices of direction and time used by, <a href="#page334">334</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of condition used by, <a href="#page347">347</a></li> +<li class="isub1">masks worn as insignia of authority by women of, <a href="#page425">425</a></li> +<li class="isub1">designation of Queen Victoria by, <a href="#page443">443</a></li> + +<li>Absaroka or Crow Indians, tribal designations of, <a href="#page380">380</a></li> +<li class="isub1">sign for medicine man of, <a href="#page466">466</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war color of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">headdress of, <a href="#page753">753-755</a></li> + +<li>Abstract ideas expressed pictorially, <a href="#page584">584-607</a></li> +<li class="isub1">After, <a href="#page585">585</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">age, <a href="#page585">585-586</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">bad, <a href="#page586">586</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">before, <a href="#page586">586</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">big, <a href="#page586">586-587</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">center, <a href="#page587">587</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">deaf, <a href="#page587">587</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">direction, <a href="#page588">588</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">disease, <a href="#page588">588-590</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">fast, <a href="#page590">590</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">fear, <a href="#page590">590-591</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">freshet, <a href="#page591">591-592</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">good, <a href="#page592">592</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">high, <a href="#page592">592-593</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">lean, <a href="#page593">593-594</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">little, <a href="#page594">594-595</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">lone, <a href="#page595">595-596</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">many, much, <a href="#page596">596</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">obscure, <a href="#page597">597</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">opposition, <a href="#page597">597-598</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">possession, <a href="#page598">598</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">prisoner, <a href="#page598">598-600</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">short, <a href="#page600">600</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sight, <a href="#page600">600-601</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">slow, <a href="#page601">601</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tall, <a href="#page601">601-602</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">trade, <a href="#page602">602</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">union, <a href="#page602">602-603</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">whirlwind, <a href="#page603">603-604</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">winter, cold, snow, <a href="#page603">603-606</a>.</li> + +<li>Accounting, pictographic methods of, <a href="#page259">259-264</a></li> + +<li>Africa, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page178">178-185</a></li> +<li class="isub1">message of peace used in, <a href="#page361">361</a></li> +<li class="isub1">aroko or symbolic letters used in, <a href="#page371">371-374</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cowries of, <a href="#page374">374-375</a></li> +<li class="isub1">message of complaint for debt used in, <a href="#page374">374-375</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooing in, <a href="#page415">415-416</a></li> +<li class="isub1">scarification in, <a href="#page417">417</a></li> +<li class="isub1">property marks in, <a href="#page442">442</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning ceremony in, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war colors in, <a href="#page633">633</a></li> + +<li>After, pictographs for, <a href="#page585">585</a></li> + +<li>Age, pictographs for, <a href="#page585">585-586</a></li> + +<li>Ahuitzotzin, Mexican emperor, pictograph for, <a href="#page134">134-135</a></li> + +<li>Ainos, tattooing among, <a href="#page412">412-413</a></li> +<li class="isub1">inscriptions probably made by, <a href="#page185">185-186</a></li> + +<li>Alaskan Indians, petroglyphs of, <a href="#page047">47</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notices of hunt by, <a href="#page332">332-333</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notices of direction by, <a href="#page333">333-334</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notices of condition by, <a href="#page350">350-353</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page402">402-405</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic drawings on ivory by, <a href="#page476">476-477</a></li> +<li class="isub1">shamanism of, <a href="#page497">497-500</a></li> +<li class="isub1">shaman’s lodge of, <a href="#page507">507-508</a></li> +<li class="isub1">votive offering to the dead by, <a href="#page519">519</a></li> +<li class="isub1">grave-posts of, <a href="#page520">520-521</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic records of customs of, <a href="#page541">541-542</a></li> +<li class="isub1">biographic records of, <a href="#page581">581-582</a></li> +<li class="isub1">signal of discovery by, <a href="#page645">645</a></li> + +<li>Alfara, Anastasio, gold ornaments from Costa Rica donated by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Algeria, petroglyphs in, at Tyout and Moghar, <a href="#page178">178-179</a></li> + +<li>Algonquian bibliography, work on, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a>-<a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Algonquian Indians, petroglyphs by, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page109">109-110</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wampum belts of, <a href="#page228">228-229</a></li> +<li class="isub1">military drill of, <a href="#page258">258</a></li> +<li class="isub1">insignia of military rank of, <a href="#page258">258</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notice of departure and return by, <a href="#page330">330</a></li> +<li class="isub1">declaration of war by, <a href="#page358">358</a></li> +<li class="isub1">invitation sticks of, <a href="#page364">364-365</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblems of, <a href="#page377">377</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designation of, <a href="#page378">378-379</a></li> +<li class="isub1">grave-posts of, <a href="#page517">517-518</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of battle by, <a href="#page554">554-555</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of victory by, <a href="#page557">557-558</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning color of, <a href="#page629">629</a></li> +<li class="isub1">colors of war and peace of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs of, <a href="#page676">676-680</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hair dressing of, <a href="#page755">755</a></li> + +<li>Alton, Illinois, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page080">80</a></li> + +<li>Amalecite Indians, birch-bark notice of trip by, <a href="#page334">334-336</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal emblem of, <a href="#page379">379</a></li> + +<li>Amazon, decorative body painting by Indians on the, <a href="#page620">620</a></li> + +<li>America, North, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page037">37-140</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810">[810]</a></span></li> + +<li>American horse, winter count of, <a href="#page269">269</a></li> + +<li>Andaman islanders, head decoration of, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page418">418</a></li> +<li class="isub1">decoration of head by, <a href="#page621">621</a></li> + +<li>Annamite tradition concerning tattoo, <a href="#page413">413</a></li> + +<li>Anthropological Institute of New York, pictographs published by, <a href="#page106">106</a></li> + +<li>Apache Indians, izze-cloth or medicine cord of, <a href="#page225">225</a></li> +<li class="isub1">time records of, <a href="#page258">258-259</a></li> +<li class="isub1">charms and amulets of, <a href="#page502">502-503</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hair dressing of women of, <a href="#page755">755</a></li> +<li class="isub1">drawings of, compared with German sketches, <a href="#page740">740</a></li> + +<li>Appointment, records of, <a href="#page257">257-258</a></li> + +<li>Appun, C. F., sculptured rock described by, <a href="#page147">147-148</a></li> + +<li>Arabs, tattooing among, <a href="#page414">414</a></li> + +<li>Arapaho Indians, tribal designation of, <a href="#page381">381</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gesture signs of, <a href="#page643">643</a></li> + +<li>Arch Spring, near Zuñi, New Mexico, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page096">96</a></li> + +<li>Arequipa, Peru, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page157">157-159</a></li> + +<li>Argentine republic, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page157">157</a></li> + +<li>Arikara or Ree Indians, pictographs on wood by, <a href="#page214">214</a></li> +<li class="isub1">decorating and coloring of skins by, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page381">381-385</a></li> +<li class="isub1">sign of achievement by, <a href="#page436">436</a></li> +<li class="isub1">property marks of, <a href="#page441">441</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hunting and other pictographs of, <a href="#page537">537</a>, <a href="#page538">538</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional device of, for dead man, <a href="#page660">660</a></li> + +<li>Arison, William, pictographs copied by, <a href="#page111">111</a></li> + +<li>Arizona, work in, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page048">48-51</a>, <a href="#page476">476</a>, <a href="#page512">512</a>, <a href="#page682">682-683</a></li> + +<li>Armenia, inscriptions on tombstones in, <a href="#page524">524</a></li> +<li class="isub1">colors used for mourning in, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>Aroko, or symbolic letters of West Africa, <a href="#page371">371-374</a></li> + +<li>Artificial objects, pictographs on, <a href="#page215">215-217</a></li> + +<li>Aruba island, West Indies, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page139">139-140</a></li> + +<li>Asheville, North Carolina, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page099">99</a></li> + +<li>Asia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page185">185-188</a></li> + +<li>Assiniboin, Montana, rock pictures in, <a href="#page033">33</a></li> + +<li>Assiniboin tribal designation, <a href="#page381">381</a></li> + +<li>Athapascan dialects of Oregon, linguistic study of, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Athapascan Indians, chart-making by, <a href="#page341">341</a></li> +<li class="isub1">practice of tattoo by, <a href="#page395">395</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblem of, <a href="#page612">612</a></li> + +<li>Atosis, Abnaki myth of, <a href="#page471">471</a></li> + +<li>Australia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page161">161-165</a></li> + +<li>Australian natives, decoration of body with feathers by, <a href="#page207">207</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs on skins by, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> +<li class="isub1">songs and song writers of, <a href="#page250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub1">messengers and mode of invitation of, <a href="#page368">368</a>, <a href="#page369">369</a></li> +<li class="isub1">message sticks of, <a href="#page369">369-371</a></li> +<li class="isub1">scarification of, <a href="#page416">416-417</a></li> +<li class="isub1">messengers of vengeance (pinya) of, <a href="#page433">433</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic personages of, <a href="#page489">489-490</a></li> +<li class="isub1">charm of fetich of, <a href="#page504">504</a></li> + +<li>Australian natives, magic and initiation ceremonies of, <a href="#page513">513-514</a></li> +<li class="isub1">messenger of death of, <a href="#page525">525</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of color by, <a href="#page628">628</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning ceremony of, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war colors of, <a href="#page633">633</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional representations by, <a href="#page652">652-653</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wommeras and clubs of, <a href="#page753">753</a></li> + +<li>Authors and works cited, list of, <a href="#page777">777-808</a></li> + +<li>Ava, Illinois, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page077">77</a></li> + +<li>Aztec inscription, Mexico, <a href="#page133">133-134</a></li> + +<li>Azuza Canyon, California, rock paintings in, <a href="#page069">69</a>, <a href="#page354">354-356</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">B.</li> + +<li>Babylonians, significance of color among, <a href="#page622">622</a></li> + +<li>Bad, pictographs for, <a href="#page586">586</a></li> + +<li>Bahama islands, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page137">137-139</a></li> + +<li>Bailey, Vernon, petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> + +<li>Bald Friar rock, Maryland, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page083">83-86</a></li> + +<li>Bandelier, A., petroglyphs reported and sketched by, <a href="#page098">98</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a></li> + +<li>Bantry bay, Australia, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page164">164-165</a></li> + +<li>Bark, pictographs on, <a href="#page213">213</a></li> + +<li>Barnes, Mr., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page064">64</a></li> + +<li>Barnesville Track rock, Ohio, <a href="#page102">102-104</a></li> + +<li>Barre, Wisconsin, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page126">126</a></li> + +<li>Barrés Indians of Brazil, dyes used by, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> + +<li>Barton, W. E., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page081">81</a></li> + +<li>Battiste Good, Winter Count of, <a href="#page268">268-269</a>, <a href="#page287">287-328</a></li> +<li class="isub1">revelation of, <a href="#page289">289-290</a></li> + +<li>Baskets, pictographs on, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> + +<li>Basutoland, South Africa, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page182">182-183</a></li> + +<li>Battle records, <a href="#page554">554-566</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Iroquois and Algonkin, <a href="#page554">554-555</a>, <a href="#page556">556</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Ojibwa, <a href="#page556">556-557</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Algonkin, <a href="#page557">557-558</a></li> +<li class="isub1">French, from Indian account, <a href="#page558">558</a></li> +<li class="isub1">from Winter Counts, <a href="#page561">561-563</a></li> +<li class="isub1">of Little Bighorn, <a href="#page563">563-566</a></li> + +<li>Before, pictographs for, <a href="#page589">589</a></li> + +<li>Bella Coola Indians, ceremonial dress of, <a href="#page431">431</a></li> + +<li>Bendire, Capt. Charles, petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page122">122</a></li> + +<li>Bengal, account sticks or strings used by natives of, <a href="#page264">264</a></li> + +<li>Benton, Owens Valley, Cal., petroglyphs near, <a href="#page058">58</a></li> + +<li>Big, pictographs for, <a href="#page586">586-587</a></li> + +<li>Big Indian Rock, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page106">106-107</a></li> + +<li>Big Road, Oglala chief, <a href="#page420">420</a></li> + +<li>Bilqula Indians, tattoo of, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> + +<li>Biography, pictographic forms of, <a href="#page571">571-582</a></li> +<li class="isub1">classification of, <a href="#page571">571</a></li> +<li class="isub1">continuous record, <a href="#page571">571-575</a></li> +<li class="isub1">particular events, <a href="#page575">575-582</a></li> + +<li>Birchbark pictographs, Abnaki, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page213">213-214</a>, <a href="#page468">468-469</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Amalecite, <a href="#page334">334-336</a></li> + +<li>Blackfeet Indians, figures sketched by, <a href="#page130">130</a></li> + +<li>Black Rock spring, near Milford, Utah, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page117">117</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811">[811]</a></span></li> + +<li>Blake, Lady Edith, petroglyphs described and sketched by, <a href="#page137">137-139</a></li> + +<li>Boas, Franz, work of, <a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></li> + +<li>Bone, pictographs on, <a href="#page206">206</a></li> + +<li>Book cliff canyon, Utah, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> + +<li>Borneo, mourning color used in, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>Borrinqueños, ancient inhabitants of Puerto Rico, <a href="#page137">137</a></li> + +<li>Brazil, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page150">150-157</a>, <a href="#page689">689</a>, <a href="#page691">691</a>, <a href="#page692">692</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cup sculptures in, <a href="#page195">195-196</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo in, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> + +<li>Brazilian petroglyphs, compared with Spanish petroglyphs, <a href="#page690">690</a></li> + +<li>British Columbia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page044">44-48</a></li> + +<li>British Guiana, dyes used by Indians of, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page686">686-687</a></li> + +<li>British islands, cup sculptures in, <a href="#page189">189</a></li> + +<li>Brittany, France, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page176">176-177</a></li> +<li class="isub1">methods of account-keeping in, <a href="#page264">264</a></li> + +<li>Broken leg, pictographic representation of, <a href="#page716">716-717</a></li> + +<li>Brown, C. Barrington, rock paintings mentioned by, <a href="#page144">144</a></li> + +<li>Brown, L. W., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a></li> + +<li>Brown, Mrs. Wallace myths related by, <a href="#page468">468</a></li> + +<li>Browns cave, La Crosse valley, Wisconsin, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page126">126</a></li> + +<li>Browns valley, Minnesota, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page090">90</a></li> + +<li>Browns valley, South Dakota, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page114">114</a></li> + +<li>Brulé Dakota, tribal designation of, <a href="#page382">382</a></li> +<li class="isub1">origin of, as pictographically recorded, <a href="#page567">567</a></li> + +<li>Burmah, tattooing in, <a href="#page413">413</a></li> + +<li>Bushmen, inscriptions by, <a href="#page180">180-183</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">C.</li> + +<li>Cachoeira do Riberão, Brazil, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page150">150-151</a></li> + +<li>Caïcara, Venezuela, sculptured rock near, <a href="#page148">148</a></li> + +<li>California, linguistic work in, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a>-<a href="#pagexv">XV</a>, <a href="#pagexvi">XVI</a>-<a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page052">52-72</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gesture signs in petroglyphs of, <a href="#page637">637-639</a></li> + +<li>California Indians, pictographs by, on feather blankets, <a href="#page207">207</a></li> +<li class="isub1">coloring matter used by, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">method of keeping accounts of, <a href="#page262">262-263</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mode of challenge of, <a href="#page362">362</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mode of collecting debts by, <a href="#page374">374</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page406">406</a></li> +<li class="isub1">face painting by, <a href="#page619">619</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblems of royalty, of <a href="#page633">633</a></li> + +<li>Canada, linguistic work in, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page037">37-45</a></li> + +<li>Canadian Indians, quill pictographs of, <a href="#page207">207</a></li> + +<li>Canary islands, pictographs of, compared with California petroglyphs, <a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page059">59</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page183">183-185</a></li> + +<li>Canyon de Chelly, New Mexico, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page096">96</a></li> + +<li>Canyon Segy, Arizona, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> + +<li>Cara Pintada, Mexico, <a href="#page131">131</a></li> + +<li>Cardinal points, colors attributed to, <a href="#page623">623-626</a></li> + +<li>Carisa plain, California, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page068">68</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Carson river, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page092">92</a></li> + +<li>Catlin, George, cited, <a href="#page741">741</a></li> + +<li>Cayuga Indians, tree-carvings by, <a href="#page213">213</a></li> + +<li>Cayuga lake, pictographs on, <a href="#page213">213</a></li> + +<li>Cayuse vocabulary obtained, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a></li> + +<li>Ceará, Brazil, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page155">155-157</a></li> + +<li>Center, pictographs for, <a href="#page587">587</a></li> + +<li>Central America, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page141">141-142</a></li> + +<li>Chaleur Bay, face decoration of Indian women of, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> + +<li>Challenge, pictographic form of, <a href="#page362">362</a></li> + +<li>Chalk grade, Owens valley, California, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page059">59</a></li> + +<li>Chandeswar, India, cup sculptures at, <a href="#page196">196</a></li> + +<li>Charencey, Count de, cited on Mexican symbolic colors, <a href="#page625">625</a></li> + +<li>Charms and amulets, <a href="#page501">501-505</a></li> + +<li>Chasm island, Australia, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page161">161</a></li> + +<li>Chelan lake, Washington, petroglyphs at <a href="#page033">33</a>, <a href="#page122">122-123</a></li> + +<li>Cherokee Indians, linguistic work among, <a href="#pagexv">XV</a>-<a href="#pagexvi">XVI</a></li> +<li class="isub1">work on language of, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, with Shawnees, <a href="#page122">122</a></li> +<li class="isub1">map made by, <a href="#page341">341</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic use of colors by, <a href="#page624">624-634</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war color of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">alphabet of, <a href="#page665">665</a></li> + +<li>Cheyenne Indians, letter-writing by, <a href="#page363">363-364</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page382">382-383</a></li> + +<li>Chibcha Indians, symbols used by, <a href="#page615">615-616</a></li> + +<li>Chicagua rapids, Venezuela, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page148">148-150</a></li> + +<li>Chihuahua, Mexico, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page131">131</a></li> + +<li>Chikasa Indians, tattoo of, <a href="#page394">394</a></li> + +<li>Child, gesture signs for, <a href="#page643">643-644</a></li> + +<li>Chile, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page159">159-160</a></li> + +<li>Chilkat Indians, pictographs by, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cedar bark blankets made by, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial garments of, <a href="#page429">429-430</a></li> + +<li>China, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page185">185</a></li> + +<li>Chinese, mnemonic devices of <a href="#page226">226</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a></li> +<li class="isub1">topographic representations by, <a href="#page344">344</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographs by, for sickness, <a href="#page590">590</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographs for prisoners by, <a href="#page600">600</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic writing of, <a href="#page618">618</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional characters of, <a href="#page649">649-650</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning colors of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographs and gesture signs of, <a href="#page637">637</a>, <a href="#page642">642</a>, <a href="#page643">643</a>, <a href="#page644">644</a>, <a href="#page645">645</a></li> + +<li>Chinook Indians, medicine bag of, <a href="#page504">504</a></li> +<li class="isub1">burial vaults of, <a href="#page523">523-524</a></li> + +<li>Chippewa Indians, practice of tattoo by, <a href="#page406">406-407</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning color of, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>Chiriqui, cup sculptures in, <a href="#page193">193-194</a></li> + +<li>Chiulee creek, Arizona, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page051">51</a></li> + +<li>Choctaw Indians, ancient notices of, <a href="#page347">347</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mode of divination of, <a href="#page494">494-495</a></li> + +<li>Christian art, significance of color in, <a href="#page622">622-623</a></li> + +<li>Chronology, pictographic, <a href="#page265">265-328</a></li> + +<li>Chukchis of Siberia, tattooing of, <a href="#page414">414</a></li> + +<li>Chumanas Indians of Brazil, dyes used by, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> + +<li>Ciguaner Indians, war colors of, <a href="#page632">632-633</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812">[812]</a></span></li> + +<li>Claim or demand, mode of presenting, <a href="#page374">374-375</a></li> + +<li>Clarke, W. M., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page115">115</a></li> + +<li>Clarksville, Tennessee, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page114">114</a></li> + +<li>Clouds, signs and symbols for, <a href="#page700">700-701</a></li> + +<li>Cloud-Shield, Winter Count of, <a href="#page269">269-523</a></li> + +<li>Cold, pictographs for, <a href="#page605">605-606</a></li> + +<li>Color, significance of, <a href="#page618">618-637</a></li> +<li class="isub1">decorative use of, <a href="#page619">619-622</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideocrasy of, <a href="#page622">622-623</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of, <a href="#page623">623-629</a></li> +<li class="isub1">relative to death and mourning, <a href="#page629">629-631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">for war and peace, <a href="#page631">631-633</a></li> +<li class="isub1">designating social status, <a href="#page633">633-635</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic use of, in general, <a href="#page635">635-636</a></li> + +<li>Coloring matter and its application in pictography, <a href="#page219">219-222</a></li> + +<li>Colorado, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page072">72-75</a></li> + +<li>Colorado river, Utah, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a></li> + +<li>Columbia River, Washington, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page123">123</a></li> + +<li>Comanche Indians, drawings on bone by, <a href="#page206">206</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gesture signs of, <a href="#page645">645</a></li> + +<li>Connecticut, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page075">75-76</a></li> + +<li>Controverted pictographs, <a href="#page759">759-767</a></li> + +<li>Conventional pictographic devices, <a href="#page650">650-664</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Peace, <a href="#page650">650-651</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">war, <a href="#page651">651-652</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">chief, <a href="#page652">652-653</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">council, <a href="#page653">653-654</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">plenty of food, <a href="#page654">654-655</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">famine, <a href="#page655">655-656</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">starvation, <a href="#page656">656</a></li> + +<li>Conventionalizing in pictography, <a href="#page649">649-675</a></li> +<li class="isub1">development of, <a href="#page649">649-650</a></li> + +<li>Copper, pictographs on, <a href="#page212">212-213</a></li> + +<li>Corados, pictured notices by, <a href="#page357">357</a></li> + +<li>Corbusier, William, petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page129">129-130</a></li> +<li class="isub1">account of Dakota customs by, <a href="#page265">265</a></li> +<li class="isub1">religious ceremonies described by, <a href="#page505">505-507</a></li> + +<li>Coronel, A. F., ethnologic collection of, <a href="#page071">71</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#page072">72</a></li> + +<li>Costa Rica, Anastasia Alfaro donates gold ornaments from, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Costumes, weapons, and ornaments (distinctive), pictographs of, <a href="#page749">749-756</a></li> + +<li>Cree Indians, exploit marks of, <a href="#page440">440</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of death given by, <a href="#page518">518</a></li> + +<li>Criley, John, petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page077">77</a></li> + +<li>Cross, pictographs, symbols, and significations of the, <a href="#page724">724-735</a></li> + +<li>Crow Indians, tribal designation of, <a href="#page380">380</a></li> + +<li>Cueva Pintada, petroglyph at, <a href="#page098">98</a></li> + +<li>Cult societies, pictographic devices of, <a href="#page528">528-530</a></li> + +<li>Cunningham, Charles W., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page356">356-357</a></li> + +<li>Cunninghams island, Lake Erie, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page678">678</a></li> + +<li>Cup sculptures, <a href="#page189">189-200</a></li> +<li class="isub1">classification of, <a href="#page189">189-192</a></li> + +<li>Curtin, Jeremiah, work of, <a href="#pagexvi">XVI</a>-<a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a>, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Cushing, Frank Hamilton, Zuñi sand painting described by, <a href="#page210">210-211</a></li> + +<li>Customs, illustrated in pictographs, <a href="#page528">528-550</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">D.</li> + +<li>Dakota or Sioux Indians, gods of, <a href="#page032">32-33</a></li> +<li class="isub1">dye stuffs used by, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> + +<li>Dakota or Sioux Indians, notched sticks used by, for recording time, <a href="#page227">227</a></li> +<li class="isub1">system of chronology of, <a href="#page265">265</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Ojibwa name for, <a href="#page272">272</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal names of, <a href="#page272">272</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic records of, <a href="#page290">290-293</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Battiste Good’s record of, <a href="#page293">293-328</a></li> +<li class="isub1">topographic representation by, <a href="#page344">344-345</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page383">383</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gentile designations of, <a href="#page389">389-390</a></li> +<li class="isub1">superstition of, regarding tattoo, <a href="#page395">395</a></li> +<li class="isub1">devices of, for personal names, <a href="#page442">442-443</a>, <a href="#page459">459-460</a></li> +<li class="isub1">god Haokah of, <a href="#page479">479-480</a></li> +<li class="isub1">thunder birds of, <a href="#page483">483-485</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs of, connected with thunder-bird myth, <a href="#page486">486</a></li> +<li class="isub1">shamanism or medicine-making of, <a href="#page493">493-495</a></li> +<li class="isub1">fetiches of, <a href="#page501">501</a>, <a href="#page503">503</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial colors of, <a href="#page512">512</a></li> +<li class="isub1">burial scaffolds of, <a href="#page518">518-519</a></li> +<li class="isub1">commemoration of dead by, <a href="#page523">523</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs of, relating to customs, hunting, war, etc., <a href="#page534">534-537</a>, <a href="#page539">539-540</a></li> +<li class="isub1">games of, <a href="#page547">547</a></li> +<li class="isub1">records of expeditions by, <a href="#page552">552-554</a></li> +<li class="isub1">records of notable events by, <a href="#page567">567-570</a></li> +<li class="isub1">records in general by, <a href="#page576">576</a>, <a href="#page578">578-581</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographic records by, <a href="#page585">585-605</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning ceremony of, <a href="#page629">629</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war color of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">significant use of color by various tribes of, <a href="#page633">633-634</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs for gesture signs of, <a href="#page639">639-641</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional devices of, for peace, war, chief, counsel, plenty of food, famine, starvation, horses, horse-stealing, kill and death, shot, <a href="#page650">650-661</a></li> +<li class="isub1">composite forms in pictographs of, <a href="#page735">735-736</a></li> +<li class="isub1">painted robes of, <a href="#page747">747</a></li> +<li class="isub1">distinctive dress, ornaments, and weapons of, <a href="#page751">751-753</a></li> +<li class="isub1">drawings of, <a href="#page756">756</a></li> + +<li>Dakota language, translation made from Teton dialect of, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">work on, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Davenport tablets, the, <a href="#page764">764-765</a></li> + +<li>Davidson, William C., vases donated by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Dayaks, tattooing among, <a href="#page413">413</a></li> + +<li>Dead mountain, Nevada, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page095">95</a></li> + +<li>Deaf, pictographs for, <a href="#page587">587</a></li> + +<li>Death valley, California, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page060">60-61</a></li> + +<li>Declaration of war pictographically represented, <a href="#page358">358-359</a></li> + +<li>Denison, James S., communication from, <a href="#page105">105</a></li> + +<li>Dellenbaugh, F. S., drawings by, <a href="#page051">51</a></li> + +<li>Departure and return, Algonquian pictographic notice of, <a href="#page330">330</a></li> + +<li>Depuch island, Australia, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page162">162-163</a></li> + +<li>Desgodins, Pere, Mo-so manuscript copied by, <a href="#page673">673-674</a></li> + +<li>Dighton rock, Massachusetts, descriptions of, <a href="#page086">86-87</a>, <a href="#page762">762-764</a></li> + +<li>Direction, pictographic notices of, <a href="#page334">334</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813">[813]</a></span></li> + +<li>Direction indicated by drawing topographic features, <a href="#page341">341-347</a></li> + +<li>Director, report of, <a href="#pageiii">III</a>-<a href="#pagexxx">XXX</a></li> + +<li>Disease, pictographic representation of, <a href="#page588">588-590</a></li> + +<li>Dorsey, J. Owen, work of, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a>-<a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited concerning Omaha names, <a href="#page092">92</a></li> +<li class="isub1">report by, on use of colors by Osage Indians, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">explanation of Osage records by, <a href="#page251">251</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notes on Indian personal names by, <a href="#page446">446</a></li> + +<li>Douglas, Prof., remarks by, on cup sculptures, <a href="#page198">198</a></li> + +<li>Downing, Alfred, petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page123">123</a></li> + +<li>Drawing, instruments for, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> + +<li>Drums, magic, <a href="#page514">514-517</a></li> + +<li>Duck river, Tennessee, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page114">114</a></li> + +<li>Dutch, of Brazil, petroglyphs attributed to, <a href="#page150">150</a></li> + +<li>Dwellings, pictographs of, <a href="#page719">719-722</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">E.</li> + +<li>Eakins, D. W., customs of Muskoki Indians described by, <a href="#page258">258</a></li> + +<li>Earth, pictographs on, <a href="#page210">210-212</a></li> + +<li>Easter island, Oceanica, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page169">169-171</a></li> + +<li>Eclipse of the sun, pictographs of, <a href="#page722">722</a></li> + +<li>Effigy mounds, <a href="#page212">212</a></li> + +<li>Egypt, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page179">179-180</a></li> + +<li>Egyptians (ancient), symbols of deities of, <a href="#page466">466</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning ceremonies of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic color of, <a href="#page634">634</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic characters of, <a href="#page642">642</a>, <a href="#page643">643</a>, <a href="#page645">645</a></li> + +<li>El Paso county, Texas, Indian map on rock in, <a href="#page344">344</a></li> + +<li>El Paso del Norte, Texas, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page115">115</a></li> + +<li>Emblems, use of, in early and modern times, <a href="#page376">376-373</a></li> +<li class="isub1">signification of, <a href="#page610">610-611</a></li> + +<li>Emmert, John W., work of, <a href="#pagexi">XI</a>, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> + +<li>Enchanted mountain, Georgia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page076">76</a></li> + +<li>England, turf monuments in, <a href="#page172">172-173</a></li> + +<li>Épone, France, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page175">175-176</a></li> + +<li>Escamela, Mexico, stone of the giants at, <a href="#page133">133</a></li> + +<li>Escondido, California, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page062">62-63</a></li> + +<li>Esopus, New York, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page098">98</a></li> + +<li>Espanola, New Mexico, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page097">97</a></li> + +<li>Esquimau tattooing, <a href="#page392">392-396</a></li> + +<li>Esselen vocabulary obtained, <a href="#pagexv">XV</a></li> + +<li>Europe, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page171">171-178</a></li> + +<li>Expenditures during the year, <a href="#pagexxx">XXX</a></li> + +<li>Extra-limital petroglyphs, <a href="#page161">161-188</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">F.</li> + +<li>Face decoration by Indian women of Bay of Chaleur, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> + +<li>Fairy rocks, Kejimkoojik lake, Nova Scotia, inscriptions on, <a href="#page038">38-42</a></li> + +<li>Fancher, G. L., pottery donated by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a>-<a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Fast, pictograph for, <a href="#page590">590</a></li> + +<li>Fayette county, Pennsylvania, glyphs from Indian grave in, <a href="#page112">112</a></li> + +<li>Fear, pictograph for, <a href="#page590">590-591</a></li> + +<li>Feathers and quills, pictographs on, <a href="#page207">207-208</a></li> + +<li>Featherstonhaugh, Thomas, Indian relics donated by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Feet and tracks, human and animal, pictographs of, <a href="#page715">715-716</a></li> + +<li>Fictile fabrics, pictographs on, <a href="#page215">215</a></li> + +<li>Field work, <a href="#pagex">X</a>-<a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> + +<li>Financial statement, <a href="#pagexxx">XXX</a></li> + +<li>Finke river, Australia, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page162">162</a></li> + +<li>Florida chief, Satouriona, tattoo of, <a href="#page393">393</a></li> + +<li>Florida Indians, declaration of war by, <a href="#page359">359</a></li> +<li class="isub1">decorative painting by, <a href="#page619">619</a></li> + +<li>Flower messages of Turks and Persians, <a href="#page368">368</a></li> + +<li>Fauna, delineation of, <a href="#page749">749</a></li> + +<li>Fool creek canyon, Utah, pictographs at, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> + +<li>Forsyth county, Georgia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page076">76</a></li> + +<li>Fort Washakie, Wyoming, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page129">129-130</a></li> + +<li>Fort Wrangell, Alaska, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page047">47</a></li> + +<li>Fowke, Gerard, work of, <a href="#pagexi">XI</a></li> + +<li>France, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page175">175-177</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblems on tombstones in, <a href="#page524">524</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gambling pebbles from, <a href="#page549">549-550</a></li> + +<li>Fremont, Samuel, aid by, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a>-<a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>French Acadians, story of, told by Louis Labrador, <a href="#page042">42</a></li> +<li class="isub1">defeat of, at Port Royal, <a href="#page042">42</a></li> + +<li>Freshet, pictograph for, <a href="#page591">591-592</a></li> + +<li>Frost, L. L., pictographs reported by, <a href="#page069">69</a></li> + +<li>Fulton, R. L., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page092">92-95</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">G.</li> + +<li>Galibis, natives of South America, appointment notices of, <a href="#page257">257</a></li> + +<li>Games pictured, <a href="#page547">547-550</a></li> + +<li>Garden rock, Asheville, North Carolina, <a href="#page099">99</a></li> + +<li>Gaston, Oregon, petroglyphs, near, <a href="#page105">105</a></li> + +<li>Gatschet, Albert S., work of, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a>, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub1">report by, on coloring matter used by Klamath Indians, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on use of colors by Pueblos, <a href="#page624">624</a></li> + +<li>Geneva Picture rock, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page111">111</a></li> + +<li>Gentile and clan designations, <a href="#page388">388-391</a></li> + +<li>Georgia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page076">76</a></li> + +<li>German swordmaker’s marks, <a href="#page446">446</a></li> + +<li>German sketches (mediaeval) compared with Apache drawings, <a href="#page740">740</a></li> + +<li>Gesture and posture signs depicted, <a href="#page637">637-642</a></li> + +<li>Giant bird Kaloo, myth of, <a href="#page472">472-473</a></li> + +<li>Giant petroglyph, England, <a href="#page173">173</a></li> + +<li>Gibbs, George, petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page123">123</a></li> + +<li>Gila river, Arizona, pictographs on, <a href="#page049">49</a></li> + +<li>Gila river valley, Arizona, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page051">51</a></li> + +<li>Gilbert, G. K., communication by, <a href="#page048">48</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> +<li class="isub1">drawings by, <a href="#page077">77</a></li> +<li class="isub1">inscriptions copied and described by, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page329">329</a></li> + +<li>Gill, De Lancey W., aid by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> +<li class="isub1">acknowledgment to, <a href="#page030">30</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814">[814]</a></span></li> + +<li>Glooscap, hero-god of Abnaki, <a href="#page469">469-470</a>, <a href="#page473">473</a></li> + +<li>Gods of Abnaki presiding over petroglyphs, <a href="#page032">32</a></li> + +<li>Good, pictograph for, <a href="#page592">592</a></li> + +<li>Gourds, pictographs on, <a href="#page208">208-209</a></li> + +<li>Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa investigated, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> + +<li>Grave Creek stone, the, <a href="#page761">761-762</a></li> + +<li>Grave posts, Algonquian, <a href="#page517">517-518</a></li> + +<li>Great Britain and Ireland, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page171">171-173</a></li> + +<li>Greek mnemonic device, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> + +<li>Greenland Innuit tattoo, <a href="#page392">392</a></li> + +<li>Greenland native map, <a href="#page346">346</a></li> + +<li>Guadeloupe, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page139">139</a></li> + +<li>Guatemala, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page142">142</a></li> + +<li>Guatemalan Indians, symbols used by, <a href="#page614">614-615</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning color of, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> +<li class="isub1">colors for social distinction of, <a href="#page633">633</a></li> +<li class="isub1">priest of, <a href="#page431">431</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gesture signs of, <a href="#page647">647-648</a></li> + +<li>Guiana, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page144">144-147</a></li> + +<li>Guiana Indians, superstition of, <a href="#page146">146</a></li> +<li class="isub1">appointment notices of, <a href="#page257">257-258</a></li> +<li class="isub1">name-system of, <a href="#page444">444-445</a></li> +<li class="isub1">painting of body by, <a href="#page620">620</a></li> + +<li>Gypsy notice of direction, <a href="#page340">340</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">H.</li> + +<li>Haida Indians, demon of, <a href="#page047">47</a></li> +<li class="isub1">basket work of, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs by, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page396">396-405</a></li> +<li class="isub1">myths of, <a href="#page477">477-478</a>, <a href="#page479">479</a></li> +<li class="isub1">thunder-birds of, <a href="#page485">485</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gambling sticks of, <a href="#page547">547-548</a></li> +<li class="isub1">totem post of, <a href="#page684">684-685</a></li> +<li class="isub1">composite forms in pictographs, <a href="#page737">737</a></li> + +<li>Haiti, religious and ceremonial use of color in, <a href="#page628">628</a></li> + +<li>Hamats, custom of biting among, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> + +<li>Handkerchief rock, Tazewell county, Virginia, <a href="#page122">122</a></li> + +<li>Hallock, Charles, cited, <a href="#page033">33</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs reported by, <a href="#page090">90</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs described by, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page043">43</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page116">116</a></li> + +<li>Harpeth river, Tennessee, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page114">114</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></li> + +<li>Hawaii, account books used by natives of, <a href="#page226">226-227</a></li> + +<li>Healdsburg, California, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page069">69</a></li> + +<li>Henshaw, H. W., work of, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a>-<a href="#pagexv">XV</a>, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a>, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Hewitt, J. N. B., work of, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a>, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on etymology of Iroquoian word for war mattress, <a href="#page555">555</a></li> + +<li>Hidatsa Indians, instruments for pictography used by, <a href="#page218">218</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> +<li class="isub1">paintings by, on robes or skins, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> +<li class="isub1">use of notched sticks by, for recording time, <a href="#page227">227</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designation of, <a href="#page384">384</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notices by, <a href="#page336">336-337</a></li> +<li class="isub1">map made by, <a href="#page342">342</a></li> +<li class="isub1">individual designations of, <a href="#page424">424</a></li> + +<li>Hidatsa Indians, exploit marks of, <a href="#page437">437-440</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs of hunting and fruit-gathering by, <a href="#page533">533-534</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of chief of, <a href="#page581">581</a></li> + +<li>High, pictograph for, <a href="#page592">592-593</a></li> + +<li>Hill, Edwin A., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page097">97</a></li> + +<li>Hillers, J. K., work of, <a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictograph copied by, <a href="#page353">353</a></li> + +<li>Hindoo and Egyptian symbol, lotus flower, <a href="#page618">618</a></li> + +<li>Hindu women, superstition of, <a href="#page196">196</a></li> + +<li>Hindu pictographs in rice flour, <a href="#page211">211</a></li> + +<li>Hindustan, cup sculptures in, <a href="#page196">196</a></li> + +<li>Hinman, S. D., classification of pictography by, <a href="#page204">204</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictorial roster obtained by, <a href="#page420">420</a></li> + +<li>History, pictographic methods of recording, <a href="#page551">551-570</a></li> + +<li>Hittite emblems of sound, <a href="#page662">662-664</a></li> + +<li>Hoddentin used by Zuñi Indians, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> + +<li>Hoffman, W. J., work of, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a>, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a>, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">acknowledgments to, <a href="#page030">30</a></li> +<li class="isub1">rock paintings reported and described by, <a href="#page052">52-53</a>, <a href="#page056">56</a>, <a href="#page060">60</a>, <a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page071">71-72</a>, <a href="#page099">99-100</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs described and copied by, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a></li> +<li class="isub1">report by, on Hualpai Indians, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">report by, on Indian mnemonic devices, <a href="#page223">223</a></li> +<li class="isub1">information furnished by, <a href="#page358">358</a></li> +<li class="isub1">report by, on Ojibwa Grand Medicine Society, <a href="#page626">626-627</a></li> + +<li>Hog island, Maine, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page083">83</a></li> + +<li>Holman, Paul, report by, concerning pictographs, <a href="#page049">49</a></li> + +<li>Holmes, William H., work of, <a href="#pagex">X</a>, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs copied and described by, <a href="#page088">88-89</a></li> +<li class="isub1">paper by, mentioned, <a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a></li> +<li class="isub1">rock sculptures described by, <a href="#page475">475</a></li> + +<li>Holston river, Tennessee, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page115">115</a></li> + +<li>Hopi Indians, game of, <a href="#page548">548-549</a></li> + +<li>Howitt, A. W., pictographs described by, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> + +<li>Hualpai Indians, decoration of body by, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> + +<li>Huaytara, Peru, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page156">156</a></li> + +<li>Hubbell collection of ancient Indian pottery examined and photographed, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> + +<li>Hudson Bay Indians, significant use of color by, <a href="#page634">634</a></li> + +<li>Human body, pictographs on, <a href="#page205">205</a></li> + +<li>Human form, pictographs of, <a href="#page703">703-716</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Head and face, <a href="#page707">707-711</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">hand, <a href="#page711">711-715</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">feet, <a href="#page715">715</a>, <a href="#page716">716</a>.</li> + +<li>Humboldt county, Nevada, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page095">95</a></li> + +<li>Huron Indians, wampum messages of, <a href="#page229">229</a></li> +<li class="isub1">method of recording used by, <a href="#page257">257</a></li> +<li class="isub1">declaration of war by, <a href="#page358">358</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooing of, <a href="#page393">393-394</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional war tokens of, <a href="#page652">652</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">I.</li> + +<li>Idaho, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page077">77</a>, <a href="#page680">680</a></li> + +<li>Ideography, <a href="#page583">583-648</a></li> +<li class="isub1">preliminary remarks on, <a href="#page583">583-584</a></li> +<li class="isub1">progressive stages of, <a href="#page584">584</a></li> + +<li>Illinois, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page077">77-80</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815">[815]</a></span></li> + +<li>Illinois river, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page079">79-80</a></li> + +<li>Imitations and forced interpretations of pictographs, <a href="#page764">764-767</a></li> + +<li>Independence stone, Ohio, <a href="#page102">102</a></li> + +<li>India, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page186">186</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cup sculptures in, <a href="#page196">196-198</a></li> +<li class="isub1">declaration of war by natives of, <a href="#page361">361</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooing in, <a href="#page413">413</a></li> + +<li>Indian god rock, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page109">109-110</a></li> + +<li>Indian personal names, work on, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Indian physiognomy, work on, <a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></li> + +<li>Individual designation, <a href="#page419">419-460</a></li> + +<li>Individual achievements, signs of, <a href="#page433">433-441</a></li> + +<li>Innuit Indians, instruments used by, for carving on bone, <a href="#page218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub1">method of keeping accounts of, <a href="#page264">264</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictograph of whale hunting by, <a href="#page531">531</a></li> + +<li>Inscription rock, El Moro, New Mexico, <a href="#page096">96</a></li> + +<li>Insignia or tokens of authority, <a href="#page419">419-433</a></li> + +<li>Interpretation, means of, <a href="#page745">745-758</a></li> + +<li>Invitation sticks, <a href="#page364">364-366</a></li> + +<li>Iowa, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page080">80</a></li> + +<li>Iroquoian bibliography, work on, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a></li> + +<li>Iroquois Indians, war post of, <a href="#page227">227</a></li> +<li class="isub1">use of wampum beads by, <a href="#page228">228-230</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page377">377-378</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo designs of, <a href="#page394">394</a></li> +<li class="isub1">insignia of chiefs of, <a href="#page419">419</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of battles by, <a href="#page554">554-555</a></li> +<li class="isub1">military terms of, <a href="#page555">555</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of events by, <a href="#page575">575-576</a></li> +<li class="isub1">illustration of prisoner by, <a href="#page600">600</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional devices of, for dead men and death, <a href="#page660">660-661</a></li> + +<li>Instruments by which pictographs are made, <a href="#page218">218-222</a></li> + +<li>Ireland, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page171">171</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cup sculptures in, <a href="#page194">194</a></li> + +<li>Italy, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page178">178</a></li> + +<li>Itamaraca, rock of, Brazil, <a href="#page151">151-152</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">J.</li> + +<li>Japan, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page185">185-186</a></li> + +<li>Japanese, mnemonic devices of, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> +<li class="isub1">letter-writing of, <a href="#page368">368</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning colors of, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> + +<li>Java, symbolic colors of the cardinal points in, <a href="#page625">625</a></li> + +<li>Jebu messages of complaint, <a href="#page374">374-375</a></li> + +<li>Jĕssakkī'd curing disease, <a href="#page254">254</a></li> + +<li>Johnson, G. K., pottery donated by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Johnson, Willard D., pictographs reported by, <a href="#page077">77</a></li> + +<li>Jones, C. C., vessels donated by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">K.</li> + +<li>Kaibab (Arizona) Indians, personal names of, <a href="#page444">444</a></li> + +<li>Kaiowa Indians, tribal designations of, <a href="#page384">384</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gourd pictograph by, <a href="#page208">208-209</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblem of, <a href="#page613">613</a></li> + +<li>Kalosh (Alaska) Indians, graves of, <a href="#page524">524</a></li> + +<li>Kanawha, West Virginia, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page034">34</a></li> + +<li>Kanawha river, West Virginia, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page125">125</a></li> + +<li>Kansas, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page080">80-81</a></li> + +<li>Karánkawa vocabulary obtained, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> + +<li>Kauder, Christian, works of, in Micmac language, <a href="#page667">667-670</a></li> + +<li>Keam, Thomas V., rock drawings reported by, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on ceremonial use of colors by Moki Indians, <a href="#page623">623</a></li> + +<li>Keam’s Canyon, Arizona, rock drawings in, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographic petroglyphs in, <a href="#page604">604</a>, <a href="#page605">605</a></li> + +<li>Kei (or Arue) islands, Oceanica, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page167">167-168</a></li> + +<li>Kekeewin and kekeenowin, definition of, <a href="#page035">35</a></li> + +<li>Kentucky, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page081">81</a></li> + +<li>Kejimkoojik lake, Nova Scotia, work on pictographs at, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">inscribed rocks at, <a href="#page038">38-42</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic petroglyphs at, <a href="#page468">468-487</a></li> +<li class="isub1">drawings at, <a href="#page740">740-749</a></li> + +<li>Kickapoo Indians, mnemonic songs of, <a href="#page250">250</a></li> + +<li>Kickapoo (Shawnee) prophet, <a href="#page508">508-509</a></li> + +<li>Kinahan, G. H., cup sculptures described by, <a href="#page194">194</a></li> + +<li>Kítshi Man'idō, Ojibwa mythic personage, <a href="#page255">255</a></li> + +<li>Kiwach, myth of, <a href="#page473">473</a></li> + +<li>Klamath language, work on, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Klamath Indians, coloring matter used by, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page406">406</a></li> + +<li>Knotted cords and objects tied, <a href="#page223">223-227</a></li> + +<li>Ktá-i Tupákshi (Standing Rock), Oregon, <a href="#page106">106</a></li> + +<li>Kwakiutl Indians, British Columbia, totemic carvings of, <a href="#page391">391</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> +<li class="isub1">myth of, <a href="#page479">479</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">L.</li> + +<li>Labrador, ethnologic work in, <a href="#pagexxiv">XXIV</a></li> + +<li>La Crosse, Wisconsin, copies made of pictographs near, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a></li> + +<li>La Flesche, Francis, petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page091">91-92</a></li> + +<li>Lake of the Woods, Manitoba, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page043">43</a></li> + +<li>Lake Superior, Wisconsin, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page126">126</a></li> +<li class="isub1">painting of body by Indians on, <a href="#page620">620</a></li> + +<li>Lake Tyrrell, Australia, pictograph on bark from, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> + +<li>Las Flechas, Mexico, petroglyph at, <a href="#page181">181</a></li> + +<li>Layton, Pennsylvania, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page111">111</a></li> + +<li>Lean, pictograph for, <a href="#page593">593-594</a></li> + +<li>Lean Wolf, a Hidatsa chief, drawings by, <a href="#page342">342</a>, <a href="#page424">424</a></li> + +<li>Leland, Charles G., communication from, <a href="#page346">346</a></li> + +<li>Lightning, gesture signs and symbols for, <a href="#page701">701-702</a></li> + +<li>Lisières, France, petroglyph in, <a href="#page177">177</a></li> + +<li>Little, pictograph for, <a href="#page594">594-595</a></li> + +<li>Little Bighorn, battle of, <a href="#page563">563-566</a></li> + +<li>Little Coal river, West Virginia, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page125">125</a></li> + +<li>Little Indian rock, Pennsylvania, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></li> + +<li>Little Standing Buffalo, aid by, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Lolos of China, written characters of, <a href="#page674">674</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816">[816]</a></span></li> + +<li>Lone, pictograph for, <a href="#page595">595-596</a></li> + +<li>Lone Dog, Winter Count of, <a href="#page266">266</a>, <a href="#page273">273-287</a></li> + +<li>Lone Butte, Nevada, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page092">92</a></li> + +<li>Los Angeles, California, mnemonic devices of Indians of, <a href="#page223">223</a></li> + +<li>Los Letreros, Canary islands, petroglyphs of, <a href="#page183">183-185</a></li> + +<li>Lower California, rock paintings in, <a href="#page131">131</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page683">683</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">M.</li> + +<li>MacDonnell, Australia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page161">161</a></li> + +<li>Machias bay, Maine, rock inscriptions at, <a href="#page034">34</a></li> + +<li>Machiasport, Maine, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page081">81-83</a></li> + +<li>Madeira and Mamoré rivers, Brazil, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page152">152-155</a></li> + +<li>Magiguadavic river, Maine, rock carvings on, <a href="#page032">32</a></li> + +<li>Mahadeo, Hindu god, worship of, <a href="#page196">196-198</a></li> + +<li>Maine, work on pictographs in, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page081">81-83</a></li> + +<li>Malay natives, tattooing of, <a href="#page412">412</a></li> + +<li>Malecite Indians, birch-bark pictographs of, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a>-<a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> + +<li>Mallery, Garrick, work of, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a>-<a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a>, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice and summary of paper on picture writing by, <a href="#pagexxvi">XXVI</a>-<a href="#pagexxx">XXX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">paper on picture writing of the American Indians by, <a href="#page001">1-807</a></li> + +<li>Mandan Indians, oracle stone of, <a href="#page032">32</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page385">385</a></li> +<li class="isub1">signs of exploit worn by warriors of, <a href="#page436">436</a></li> +<li class="isub1">decorative painting of body by, <a href="#page619">619-620</a></li> + +<li>Mangaia, tattooing in, <a href="#page413">413</a></li> + +<li>Manitoba, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page043">43-44</a></li> + +<li>Manti, Utah, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page117">117-118</a></li> + +<li>Maori Indians, genealogical board of, <a href="#page228">228</a></li> + +<li>Maryland, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page083">83-86</a></li> + +<li>Maco manuscript, <a href="#page673">673-674</a></li> + +<li>Many, pictograph for, <a href="#page596">596</a></li> + +<li>Mason, Charles S., drawings furnished by, <a href="#page077">77</a></li> + +<li>Massachusetts, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page086">86-87</a></li> + +<li>Materials by which pictographs are made, <a href="#page218">218-222</a></li> + +<li>Mato-Sapa (Black Bear), chart made by, <a href="#page268">268</a></li> + +<li>Matthews, Washington, cited, <a href="#page210">210</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on ceremonial use of colors by Navajo, <a href="#page623">623</a></li> + +<li>Maya Indians, gesture signs of, <a href="#page645">645-647</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic characters of, <a href="#page645">645</a></li> +<li class="isub1">written characters of, <a href="#page756">756</a></li> + +<li>McCall’s Ferry, Pennsylvania, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page108">108</a></li> + +<li>McChesney, Charles E., account of battle of Little Bighorn by, <a href="#page563">563</a></li> + +<li>McWhorter, L. V., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page126">126</a></li> + +<li>Meath county, Ireland, cairn in, <a href="#page171">171-172</a></li> + +<li>Medicine-arrow, pictographs of, <a href="#page503">503</a></li> + +<li>Medicine-man, pictographs of, <a href="#page463">463</a>, <a href="#page464">464</a>, <a href="#page466">466</a></li> + +<li>Megaque’s last battle, <a href="#page560">560-561</a></li> + +<li>Menomoni Indians, myth of, <a href="#page481">481</a></li> +<li class="isub1">grave posts of, <a href="#page521">521-522</a></li> + +<li>Merriam, C. Hart, petroglyph photographed by, <a href="#page061">61</a></li> + +<li>Merriam, Col. Henry C., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page122">122-123</a></li> + +<li>Message sticks, <a href="#page369">369-371</a></li> + +<li>Meteors, pictographs of, <a href="#page722">722-724</a></li> + +<li>Mexican Emperor Ahuitzotzin, pictograph for, <a href="#page134">134-135</a></li> + +<li>Mexican Indians, method of preparing accounts by, <a href="#page264">264</a></li> +<li class="isub1">military insignia of, <a href="#page431">431-432</a></li> +<li class="isub1">personal names of, <a href="#page460">460</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic figure of (Ahuitzotl), <a href="#page488">488</a></li> +<li class="isub1">superstition of, <a href="#page500">500</a></li> +<li class="isub1">customs of, pictographically illustrated, <a href="#page542">542-547</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hieroglyphic record of, <a href="#page567">567</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographic illustration of small-pox by, <a href="#page589">589</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographic illustration of snow by, <a href="#page606">606</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbols of, <a href="#page613">613-614</a>, <a href="#page644">644</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbolic colors for cardinal points, <a href="#page625">625</a></li> +<li class="isub1">color in the codices of, <a href="#page636">636</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional pictograph of, <a href="#page656">656</a></li> + +<li>Mexican and Central American pictorial writing, <a href="#page665">665</a></li> + +<li>Mexico, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page131">131-136</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Aztec inscription from, <a href="#page133">133-134</a></li> + +<li>Micmac Indians, work on pictographs of, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">birch-bark pictographs by, <a href="#page201">201</a></li> +<li class="isub1">rock scratchings of, imitated, <a href="#page218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of direction by, <a href="#page341">341</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs of fishing by, <a href="#page530">530-531</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal emblems of, <a href="#page379">379</a></li> +<li class="isub1">insignia dress and masks of, <a href="#page424">424-429</a></li> +<li class="isub1">medicine lodges of, <a href="#page509">509-511</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning colors of, <a href="#page629">629</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hieroglyphics of, <a href="#page666">666-671</a></li> +<li class="isub1">catechism of, <a href="#page667">667-668</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Lord’s prayer, as written by, <a href="#page669">669</a></li> +<li class="isub1">various printed words of, <a href="#page670">670</a></li> + +<li>Middleton, James D., work of, <a href="#pagexi">XI</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page080">80</a>, <a href="#page081">81</a></li> + +<li>Midé lodges, ceremonies of, <a href="#page508">508</a></li> + +<li>Mide rites, birch-bark roll of, <a href="#page202">202-203</a></li> + +<li>Midē'wiwin, or Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa, investigated, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial chant of, <a href="#page232">232-246</a></li> +<li class="isub1">migration record of, <a href="#page566">566</a>, <a href="#page567">567</a></li> + +<li>Millsboro, Pennsylvania, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page110">110</a></li> + +<li>Minabozho, tradition of, <a href="#page252">252</a></li> + +<li>Mindeleff, Cosmos, work of, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a>-<a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></li> + +<li>Mindeleff, Victor, work of, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a>, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a>, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">description of Pueblo prayer ceremonies by, <a href="#page511">511</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on ceremonial use of colors by Pueblo Indians, <a href="#page622">622</a></li> + +<li>Minitari, Gros Ventre, or Hidatsa tribal designations, <a href="#page384">384</a></li> + +<li>Minneconjou myth, <a href="#page482">482</a></li> + +<li>Minnesota, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page087">87-90</a></li> + +<li>Minnesota valley, traditions concerning rock inscriptions in, <a href="#page034">34</a></li> + +<li>Mississippi river, signals of peace by Indians on, <a href="#page361">361</a></li> + +<li>Mnemonic picture writing, <a href="#page223">223-264</a></li> + +<li>Moghar, Algeria, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page178">178-180</a></li> + +<li>Modoc women, tattoo of, <a href="#page406">406</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817">[817]</a></span></li> + +<li>Modoc war color, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> + +<li>Mojave desert, California, petroglyph in, <a href="#page061">61</a></li> + +<li>Mohave Indians, inscriptions by, <a href="#page095">95</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pigments used by, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of women of, <a href="#page406">406</a></li> +<li class="isub1">painting of body by, <a href="#page620">620</a></li> + +<li>Moki Indians, notices on rocks by, <a href="#page329">329-330</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic drawings by, <a href="#page488">488</a>, <a href="#page506">506</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial by priests of, <a href="#page512">512</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of colors by, <a href="#page623">623-624</a>, <a href="#page628">628</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional device of, for rain and symbol of Aloseka, <a href="#page662">662</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gesture signs of, <a href="#page643">643</a></li> +<li class="isub1">devices of, <a href="#page746">746</a> <a href="#page748">748</a></li> + +<li>Mongols, magic drums of, <a href="#page514">514-517</a></li> + +<li>Montana, pictured rocks in, <a href="#page090">90</a></li> + +<li>Mooney, James, work of, <a href="#pagexv">XV</a>-<a href="#pagexvi">XVI</a>, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a>, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page099">99</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictograph described by, <a href="#page208">208</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on use of colors by Cherokees, <a href="#page624">624</a>, <a href="#page634">634</a></li> + +<li>Morgantown, West Virginia, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page124">124-125</a></li> + +<li>Mormons, petroglyph near Manti, Utah, as interpreted by, <a href="#page118">118</a></li> + +<li>Mortuary practices, <a href="#page517">517-527</a></li> + +<li>Mosher, Lieut., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page051">51</a></li> + +<li>Mosman, Mrs. A. T., clay articles loaned by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Mound canyon, Arizona, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page051">51</a></li> + +<li>Mound explorations, work in, <a href="#pagex">X</a>-<a href="#pagexi">XI</a>, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Much, pictograph for, <a href="#page596">596</a></li> + +<li>Muskhogean bibliography, work on, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a></li> + +<li>Muskoki Indians, numeration marks of, <a href="#page258">258</a></li> + +<li>Myths and mythic animals pictured, <a href="#page468">468-490</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">N.</li> + +<li>Naqómqilis (Wakashan) Indians, pictographs by, <a href="#page213">213</a></li> + +<li>Najowe valley, California, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page065">65-68</a></li> + +<li>Nambé, New Mexico, petroglyph at, <a href="#page098">98</a></li> + +<li>Names, Indian personal, work on, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Nasquapees of Labrador, notices of direction, etc. by, <a href="#page340">340</a></li> +<li class="isub1">birch bark, letter by, <a href="#page341">341</a></li> + +<li>Natchez Indians, method of recording appointment by, <a href="#page257">257</a></li> +<li class="isub1">declaration of war by, <a href="#page358">358</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of color by, <a href="#page628">628</a></li> + +<li>Navajo Indians, work among, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">sand paintings of, <a href="#page210">210-211</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of colors by, <a href="#page623">623-624</a></li> + +<li>Nebraska, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page090">90-92</a></li> + +<li>Negation, gesture sign for, <a href="#page644">644</a></li> + +<li>Nelson, E. W., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page060">60-61</a></li> + +<li>Nevada, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page092">92-96</a></li> + +<li>Newark, Ohio, fraudulent inscribed stones from, <a href="#page760">760</a></li> + +<li>Newark Track rock, Ohio, <a href="#page101">101-102</a></li> + +<li>New Brunswick, work in, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a>-<a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> + +<li>New Caledonia, drawings from, <a href="#page743">743</a></li> + +<li>Newcombe, Cyrus F., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page072">72</a></li> + +<li>New Guinea, tattooing of Papuans in, <a href="#page411">411-412</a></li> +<li class="isub1">scarification in, <a href="#page417">417</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning colors used in, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>New Hebrides, tattooing in, <a href="#page418">418</a></li> + +<li>New Mexico, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page096">96-98</a>, <a href="#page353">353</a>, <a href="#page682">682</a></li> + +<li>New York, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page098">98-99</a></li> + +<li>New Zealand, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page165">165-167</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooing in, <a href="#page409">409-410</a></li> +<li class="isub1">grave effigies in, <a href="#page525">525-526</a></li> +<li class="isub1">religious and ceremonial use of color in, <a href="#page627">627-628</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wood carvings in, <a href="#page685">685-686</a></li> + +<li>Nez Percé vocabulary obtained, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a></li> + +<li>Nicaragua, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page686">686</a></li> + +<li>Nicobarese mortuary tablet, <a href="#page527">527</a></li> + +<li>Night, signs and symbols for, <a href="#page699">699-700</a></li> + +<li>Nikari-Karu Indians of Guiana, mnemonic device of, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> + +<li>Nipigon bay, Ontario, pictograph on, <a href="#page042">42-43</a></li> + +<li>Nootka or Aht Indians, at Vancouver island, British Columbia, <a href="#page044">44</a></li> +<li class="isub1">legend of, <a href="#page044">44</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> + +<li>Normocs, tattoo of, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> + +<li>Norris, P. W., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs obtained by, <a href="#page459">459</a></li> + +<li>North America, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page037">37-140</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo in, <a href="#page392">392-407</a></li> + +<li>North Carolina, linguistic work in, <a href="#pagexv">XV</a>-<a href="#pagexvi">XVI</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page099">99-101</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war color of Indians in, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> + +<li>Notched or marked sticks, <a href="#page227">227-228</a></li> + +<li>Notices, pictographic forms of, <a href="#page329">329-357</a></li> + +<li>Nova Scotia, work on pictographs in, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page037">37-42</a></li> + +<li>Numeration, <a href="#page258">258-259</a></li> + +<li>Nye county, Nevada, inscribed rock in, <a href="#page094">94</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">O.</li> + +<li>Oakley spring, Arizona, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page329">329-330</a></li> + +<li>Obscure, pictograph for, <a href="#page597">597</a></li> + +<li>Oceanica, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page165">165-171</a></li> + +<li>Odanah, Ojibwa village, Wisconsin, <a href="#page126">126</a></li> + +<li>Oglala, Dakota, individual designation of, <a href="#page424">424</a></li> + +<li>Oglala roster, <a href="#page420">420-424</a></li> +<li class="isub1">description and history of, <a href="#page420">420-421</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs from, <a href="#page641">641</a>, <a href="#page642">642</a>, <a href="#page652">652</a></li> + +<li>Ohio, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page101">101-104</a></li> + +<li>Ojibwa Indians, work among, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">concentric circles used as symbols by, <a href="#page199">199-200</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hieroglyphic writing of, <a href="#page202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs on copper by, <a href="#page212">212-213</a></li> +<li class="isub1">birch-bark pictographs of, <a href="#page213">213</a></li> +<li class="isub1">instruments for birch-bark pictographs used by, <a href="#page218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub1">instruments for drawing on wood used by, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wampum belt of, <a href="#page230">230</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial songs of, <a href="#page232">232-250</a></li> +<li class="isub1">songs of Midēwiwin, <a href="#page232">232-246</a></li> +<li class="isub1">song for Metai or medicine hunting, <a href="#page246">246-250</a></li> +<li class="isub1">musical notation of, <a href="#page250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Midē records of, <a href="#page252">252-255</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tradition of, concerning origin of Indians, <a href="#page255">255-256</a></li> +<li class="isub1">birch-bark record of treaty by, <a href="#page256">256-257</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of direction used by, <a href="#page337">337-338</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818">[818]</a></span></li> +<li class="isub1">illustration of battlefield by, <a href="#page342">342</a></li> +<li class="isub1">topographic signs employed by, <a href="#page345">345</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of condition by, <a href="#page347">347</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of warning by, <a href="#page353">353</a></li> +<li class="isub1">declaration of peace by, <a href="#page360">360</a></li> +<li class="isub1">letter-writing by, <a href="#page362">362-363</a></li> +<li class="isub1">invitation sticks of, and ceremony of invitation and acceptance, <a href="#page365">365-366</a></li> +<li class="isub1">summons to Midē ceremony of, <a href="#page367">367</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designation of, <a href="#page385">385</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooing of women of, <a href="#page395">395</a></li> +<li class="isub1">shamanism of, <a href="#page466">466-467</a>, <a href="#page474">474</a>, <a href="#page475">475</a>, <a href="#page495">495-496</a></li> +<li class="isub1">manidos, or spirits, illustrated by, <a href="#page480">480</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic wild cats illustrated by, <a href="#page481">481-482</a></li> +<li class="isub1">thunder-birds represented by, <a href="#page487">487</a></li> +<li class="isub1">hunting records of, <a href="#page532">532</a>, <a href="#page538">538</a></li> +<li class="isub1">records of battle by, <a href="#page556">556-557</a>, <a href="#page559">559-660</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of migration of, <a href="#page566">566-567</a></li> +<li class="isub1">biographical record of, <a href="#page577">577-578</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographic illustrations by, <a href="#page586">586-605</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bad, <a href="#page586">586</a>;</li> +<li class="isub2">sickness, <a href="#page590">590</a>;</li> +<li class="isub2">fear, <a href="#page591">591</a>;</li> +<li class="isub2">great, <a href="#page596">596</a>;</li> +<li class="isub2">see, <a href="#page601">601</a>;</li> +<li class="isub2">cold, snow, <a href="#page605">605</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of colors by, <a href="#page626">626-627</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional devices of, <a href="#page653">653</a></li> +<li class="isub1">devices of, for life and death, <a href="#page660">660</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal and national emblems of, <a href="#page747">747</a></li> +<li class="isub1">weapons of, <a href="#page753">753</a></li> +<li class="isub1">drawings of, <a href="#page757">757-758</a></li> + +<li>Ojo de Benado, New Mexico, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page097">97-98</a></li> + +<li>Ojo Pescado, New Mexico, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page097">97</a></li> + +<li>Oliver, Alice M., aid by, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> + +<li>Omaha Indians, personal names of, list obtained, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page385">385</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo designs of, <a href="#page395">395</a></li> +<li class="isub1">insignia worn by police of, <a href="#page420">420</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of war expeditions by, <a href="#page552">552</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial colors used by, <a href="#page625">625</a>, <a href="#page628">628</a></li> + +<li>Onas, Mohawk name for William Penn, <a href="#page443">443</a></li> + +<li>Oneida, Idaho, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page077">77</a></li> + +<li>Onontio, Iroquois name for governor of Canada, <a href="#page443">443</a></li> + +<li>Ontario, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page042">42-43</a></li> + +<li>Opposition, pictograph for, <a href="#page597">597-598</a></li> + +<li>Oregon, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page104">104-106</a></li> + +<li>Origin of Indians, tradition of, <a href="#page255">255-256</a></li> + +<li>Orongo Indians of Easter island, houses of, <a href="#page169">169</a></li> + +<li>Osage Indians, coloring matter used by, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic tradition and chart of, <a href="#page251">251-252</a></li> +<li class="isub1">practice of tattoo by, <a href="#page394">394</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning custom of, <a href="#page519">519</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war color of, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> +<li class="isub1">colors used by, for social or military distinction, <a href="#page633">633</a></li> + +<li>Ottawa Indians, instruments used by, for birch-bark pictographs, <a href="#page218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictograph by, <a href="#page529">529-530</a></li> + +<li>Ottawa and Pottawatomie Indians, pictographic notices by, <a href="#page350">350</a></li> + +<li>Owens valley, California, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page056">56-60</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">P.</li> + +<li>Pacific coast, tattoo on, <a href="#page396">396-407</a></li> + +<li>Passamaquoddy Indians, pictographs of, examined, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">shop accounts of, <a href="#page259">259-262</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notice of direction by, <a href="#page339">339-340</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notice of condition, or wikhegan by, <a href="#page347">347-350</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wikhegan, or message to the President from, <a href="#page367">367</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal emblem of, <a href="#page378">378-379</a></li> +<li class="isub1">birch-bark drawing by, <a href="#page474">474</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of battle by, <a href="#page560">560-561</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional device of, <a href="#page652">652</a></li> + +<li>Painted caves, Crocket county, Texas, <a href="#page116">116</a></li> + +<li>Painted rock, Indian personal name, <a href="#page035">35</a></li> + +<li>Painting upon robes or skins, <a href="#page219">219</a></li> + +<li>Painting on the human body, <a href="#page618">618-619</a></li> + +<li>Paint rock, North Carolina, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page099">99-101</a></li> + +<li>Pai Ute Indians, in Owens valley, California, <a href="#page060">60</a></li> +<li class="isub1">topographic illustration by, <a href="#page342">342</a>, <a href="#page343">343</a></li> + +<li>Palestine, cup sculptures in, <a href="#page198">198</a></li> + +<li>Papuans, notice of warning by, <a href="#page357">357</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning colors of, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>Parsons, F. H., aid by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Partridge creek, Arizona, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> + +<li>Passés Indians of Brazil, dyes used by, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> + +<li>Pawnee Indians, pictographs on wood by, <a href="#page214">214</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page386">386</a></li> +<li class="isub1">medicine arrow of, pictographically represented, <a href="#page503">503</a></li> + +<li>Pawnee Loup Indians, notice of war party by, <a href="#page336">336</a></li> + +<li>Peach Springs, Arizona, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> + +<li>Pedra Lavrada, Brazil, <a href="#page157">157</a></li> + +<li>Peace and friendship, profession of, pictographically represented, <a href="#page359">359-362</a></li> + +<li>Peale, A. C., aid by, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Penn wampum belt, history of, <a href="#page231">231</a></li> + +<li>Pennsylvania, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page106">106-113</a>, <a href="#page678">678</a></li> + +<li>Penobscot Indians, pictographs by, examined, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">vocabulary of, obtained, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of direction by, <a href="#page338">338-339</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal emblem of, <a href="#page379">379</a></li> + +<li>Piasa rock, near Alton, Illinois, description of, <a href="#page077">77-79</a></li> +<li class="isub1">definition of name, <a href="#page078">78</a></li> + +<li>Pictorial tribal designations, <a href="#page377">377-388</a></li> + +<li>Pictographs of Abnaki and Micmac Indians examined, <a href="#pagexii">XII</a>, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> + +<li>Pictographs on stone, imitated, <a href="#page218">218</a></li> + +<li>Pictographs in alphabets, <a href="#page674">674-675</a></li> + +<li>Pictured cave near La Crosse, Wisconsin, copies made of pictographs at, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a></li> + +<li>Picture writing of the American Indians, notice and summary of paper on, <a href="#pagexxvi">XXVI</a>-<a href="#pagexxx">XXX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">paper by Garrick Mallery on, <a href="#page001">1-807</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819">[819]</a></span></li> + +<li>Piedra Pintada (Painted rock) creek canyon, Colorado, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page072">72</a></li> + +<li>Piegan Indians, notice by, <a href="#page356">356</a></li> + +<li>Pilling, James C., work of, <a href="#pagex">X</a>, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a></li> + +<li>Pinart, Alphonse, pictographs reported by, <a href="#page062">62</a></li> + +<li>Pipestone, Minnesota, petroglyphs copied at, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a>, <a href="#page087">87-88</a></li> + +<li>Piute Creek, California, pictographs at, <a href="#page062">62</a></li> + +<li>Piute map of Colorado river, <a href="#page342">342</a></li> + +<li>Plains tribes, notices by, <a href="#page340">340</a></li> + +<li>Plancarte, F., Indian relics donated by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Playsanos Indians of California, gravestones of, <a href="#page519">519</a></li> + +<li>Pokinsquss, myth of, <a href="#page469">469-470</a></li> + +<li>Polynesia, tattooing in, <a href="#page408">408</a></li> + +<li>Ponka Indians, personal names of, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page386">386-387</a></li> + +<li>Pontiac, wampum belt of, <a href="#page230">230</a></li> + +<li>Pope, George, petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> + +<li>Portsmouth, Rhode Island, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page113">113</a></li> + +<li>Possession, pictographic signs for, <a href="#page598">598</a></li> + +<li>Potomac river valley, work on pottery of, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Pottawatomie Indians, mnemonic songs of, <a href="#page250">250</a></li> + +<li>Pottery of the Potomac valley, work on, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a></li> + +<li>Powell, J. W., work of, <a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, concerning Indian personal names, <a href="#page444">444</a></li> + +<li>Powhatan tribes of Virginia, work on, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a></li> + +<li>Powhatan, deerskin mantle of, <a href="#page209">209</a></li> + +<li>Prairie du Rocher, Illinois, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page080">80</a></li> + +<li>Prayer sticks, <a href="#page508">508-509</a></li> + +<li>Praying beads of Buddhists, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> + +<li>Prisoners, Indian treatment of, <a href="#page552">552</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ideographically represented, <a href="#page598">598-600</a></li> + +<li>Provo river, Utah, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> + +<li>Profession of peace and friendship, <a href="#page359">359-362</a></li> + +<li>Property, division of, among North American Indians, <a href="#page441">441</a></li> + +<li>Property marks, <a href="#page441">441-442</a></li> + +<li>Proudfit, S. V., pottery from the Potomac valley loaned by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Publications issued and distributed during the year, <a href="#pagex">X</a></li> + +<li>Pueblo architecture, work on, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">models of, prepared, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a>-<a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></li> + +<li>Pueblo Indians of New Mexico map made by, <a href="#page341">341</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cosmology of, <a href="#page467">467-468</a></li> +<li class="isub1">prayer ceremonies of, <a href="#page511">511</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of colors by, <a href="#page624">624</a></li> +<li class="isub1">colors for war and peace used by, <a href="#page631">631</a></li> + +<li>Pueblo pottery, coloring of, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> + +<li>Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, sculptured rock near, <a href="#page147">147-148</a></li> + +<li>Puerto Rico, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page136">136-137</a></li> + +<li>Puget Sound, Washington, pictographs found on, <a href="#page214">214</a></li> + +<li>Pyramid lake, Nevada, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page092">92</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Q.</li> + +<li>Quick, J. H., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page090">90-91</a></li> + +<li>Quipu, a mnemonic device of Indians of Peru and Guiana, <a href="#page224">224-226</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">R.</li> + +<li>Rain, gesture signs and symbols for, <a href="#page701">701</a></li> + +<li>Rattlesnake rock, Mojave desert, California, <a href="#page061">61</a></li> + +<li>Record of expedition, battle, migration, and other notable events, <a href="#page552">552-570</a></li> + +<li>Red Cloud’s census, description and history of, <a href="#page445">445-447</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs from, <a href="#page390">390-391</a>, <a href="#page421">421-423</a>, <a href="#page463">463-465</a>, <a href="#page486">486</a>, <a href="#page494">494</a>, <a href="#page534">534-535</a>, <a href="#page585">585-598</a>, <a href="#page639">639-641</a>, <a href="#page652">652</a>, <a href="#page653">653</a>, <a href="#page657">657</a></li> + +<li>Red Horse petroglyph, England, <a href="#page173">173</a></li> + +<li>Red lake, Minnesota, birch-bark record obtained at, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a></li> + +<li>Religion, pictographs concerning, <a href="#page461">461-527</a></li> +<li class="isub1">general discussion and classification, <a href="#page461">461-527</a></li> + +<li>Religious ceremonies, <a href="#page505">505-517</a></li> + +<li>Reno, Nevada, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page095">95</a></li> + +<li>Reveillé, Nye county, Nevada, inscribed rocks in, <a href="#page094">94</a></li> + +<li>Reynolds, Henry L., work of, <a href="#pagexi">XI</a>, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pottery from Potomac valley, loaned by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Rhode Island, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page113">113</a></li> + +<li>Riggs, S. R., editorial work on manuscript left by, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Rio Mancos, Colorado, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page073">73-74</a></li> + +<li>Rio Negro, Brazil, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page152">152</a></li> + +<li>Roche Percé, Souris river, Manitoba, <a href="#page043">43</a></li> + +<li>Rock creek, Colorado, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page072">72</a></li> + +<li>Rock-paintings, Indian superstition concerning, <a href="#page466">466-467</a></li> + +<li>Rockhill, W. W., notice of Paul Vial’s work by, <a href="#page674">674</a></li> + +<li>Rocky Dell creek, New Mexico, rock paintings at, <a href="#page096">96</a></li> + +<li>Rock hill, California, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page052">52</a></li> + +<li>Rogers, Charles, remarks by, on cup sculptures, <a href="#page200">200</a></li> + +<li>Romans, custom of tattooing among, <a href="#page408">408</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblems of, <a href="#page525">525</a>, <a href="#page618">618</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of color by, <a href="#page628">628-629</a></li> + +<li>Rowe canyon, Arizona, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page356">356-357</a></li> + +<li>Running Antelope, Dakota chief, biography by, <a href="#page571">571-575</a></li> + +<li>Russell, I. C., pictographs sketched by, <a href="#page117">117</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">S.</li> + +<li>Sac Indians, mourning ceremonies of, <a href="#page518">518-629</a></li> +<li class="isub1">conventional devices of, <a href="#page658">658</a></li> + +<li>Sacred rock paintings, <a href="#page466">466-467</a></li> + +<li>Salish Indians, work on language of, <a href="#pagexxiii">XXIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo among, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> +<li class="isub1">funeral customs of, <a href="#page524">524</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning colors of, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>Samoa, tattooing in, <a href="#page410">410-411</a></li> + +<li>Samoyed message of demand, <a href="#page375">375</a></li> + +<li>Sand, pictographs on, <a href="#page210">210-212</a></li> + +<li>San Antonio springs, New Mexico, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page097">97</a></li> + +<li>San Bernardino, California, pictographs reported near, <a href="#page062">62</a></li> + +<li>San Diego county, California, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page063">63</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820">[820]</a></span></li> + +<li>San Francisco mountain, Arizona, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page048">48-49</a></li> + +<li>San Marcos pass, California, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page064">64</a></li> + +<li>San Juan river, Colorado, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page073">73</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs on, <a href="#page074">74-75</a></li> + +<li>Santa Barbara, California, coloring matter of pictographs in, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> + +<li>Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa, Guatemala, sculptures of, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> + +<li>Sapiel Selmo, Passamaquoddy chief, <a href="#page338">338</a></li> + +<li>Satsika (Blackfeet) Indians, insignia of Tail Bearer of, <a href="#page429">429</a></li> +<li class="isub1">societies of, <a href="#page528">528-529</a></li> + +<li>Sawyer, Wells M., acknowledgments to, <a href="#page030">30</a></li> + +<li>Scandinavian colors for war and peace, <a href="#page635">635</a></li> + +<li>Scarification, <a href="#page416">416-418</a></li> + +<li>Schoolcraft, Henry R., exaggerated accounts of Ojibwa pictographs by, <a href="#page202">202</a></li> + +<li>Scotland, cup sculptures in, <a href="#page193">193</a></li> + +<li>Scythian declaration of war, <a href="#page362">362</a></li> + +<li>Seeman, Berthold, remarks by, on cup sculptures, <a href="#page193">193-194</a></li> + +<li>Serpent, pictographs of, <a href="#page476">476-477</a></li> +<li class="isub1">emblematic use of, <a href="#page617">617</a></li> + +<li>Serrano Indians of California, property marks of, <a href="#page441">441</a></li> +<li class="isub1">face mark of, <a href="#page621">621</a></li> + +<li>Shafer, P. W., pictographs published by, <a href="#page106">106-10</a></li> + +<li>Shaman, definition of term, <a href="#page490">490-499</a></li> + +<li>Shamanism, <a href="#page490">490-500</a></li> + +<li>Shastika Indian women, face decoration of, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> + +<li>Shawnees, battle of, with Cherokees, <a href="#page122">122</a></li> + +<li>Shells, pictographs on, <a href="#page209">209-210</a></li> + +<li>Shinumo canyon, Arizona, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page051">51-121</a></li> + +<li>Short, pictographs for, <a href="#page600">600</a></li> + +<li>Shoshoni Indians, petroglyphs interpreted by, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub1">use of notched sticks by, for recording time, <a href="#page227">227</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notice of hunt by, <a href="#page331">331</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notice of guidance by, <a href="#page353">353-354</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page387">387-388</a></li> +<li class="isub1">biographical record of, <a href="#page578">578</a></li> +<li class="isub1">gesture signs of, for cold, <a href="#page606">606</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs by, <a href="#page680">680-682</a></li> + +<li>Shuswap Indians of British Columbia, notices by, <a href="#page340">340</a></li> + +<li>Siberia, use of knotted cords for mnemenic purposes in, <a href="#page226">226</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, <a href="#page186">186-188</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooing in, <a href="#page414">414</a></li> + +<li>Siberian and Tartar inscriptions, <a href="#page188">188</a></li> + +<li>Sicasica, Peru, writings found at, <a href="#page672">672</a></li> + +<li>Sierra Leone, scarification in, <a href="#page417">417</a></li> + +<li>Sight, pictographs for, <a href="#page600">600-601</a></li> + +<li>Signs, symbols, and emblems, <a href="#page607">607-618</a></li> +<li class="isub1">classification of, <a href="#page607">607-609</a></li> + +<li>Simons, A. B., clay articles loaned by, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> + +<li>Siouan dialects, work in, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Siouan family, divisions of, <a href="#page272">272</a></li> + +<li>Sioux or Dakota Indians, paper prepared on camping circles of, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tribal designations of, <a href="#page379">379-388</a></li> +<li class="isub1">origin of name of, <a href="#page272">272</a></li> +<li class="isub1">message of, to Ojibwa, <a href="#page360">360</a></li> +<li class="isub1">exploit marks of, <a href="#page433">433-435</a></li> +<li class="isub1">sign of mourning of, <a href="#page519">519</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cult societies of, <a href="#page528">528</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of battle by, <a href="#page563">563-566</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning color, <a href="#page629">629-630</a></li> +<li class="isub1">colors for victory used by, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> + +<li>Six Nations, deed from, to King of Great Britain, <a href="#page378">378</a></li> + +<li>Skins, pictographs on, <a href="#page206">206-207</a></li> + +<li>Slow, pictographs for, <a href="#page601">601</a></li> + +<li>Snanaimuq Indians, war paint of, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> + +<li>Snow, pictographs for, <a href="#page605">605-606</a></li> + +<li>Social and religious missives, <a href="#page362">362-374</a></li> + +<li>Songs, order of, <a href="#page231">231-250</a></li> +<li class="isub1">explanation of, <a href="#page231">231-232</a></li> + +<li>Sonora, Mexico, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page749">749</a></li> + +<li>South Africa, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page180">180-183</a></li> + +<li>South America petroglyphs in, <a href="#page142">142-160</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo in, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> + +<li>South Carolina, war color of Indians in, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> + +<li>South Dakota, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page114">114</a></li> + +<li>South Sea Islanders, mnemonic devices of, <a href="#page224">224</a></li> + +<li>Spain, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page177">177-178</a></li> + +<li>Spaniards, ceremonial use of color by, <a href="#page629">629</a></li> + +<li>Spanish and Brazilian petroglyphs, <a href="#page690">690</a></li> + +<li>Special comparisons, <a href="#page676">676-744</a></li> + +<li>Stephen. A. M., work of, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a>-<a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></li> + +<li>Stevenson, James notice of death and biographic sketch of, <a href="#pagexxiv">XXIV</a>-<a href="#pagexxv">XXV</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on ceremonial use of colors by Zuñi, <a href="#page623">623</a></li> +<li class="isub1">paper by, mentioned, <a href="#page210">210</a></li> + +<li>Stone of the Giants, Mexico, <a href="#page138">138</a></li> + +<li>Stone, pictographs on, <a href="#page205">205-206</a></li> + +<li>Strings used for mnemonic purposes, <a href="#page223">223</a></li> + +<li>Substances on which pictographs are made, <a href="#page205">205-217</a></li> + +<li>Supernatural, symbols of the, <a href="#page462">462-468</a></li> + +<li>Susanville, California, pictographs near, <a href="#page069">69</a></li> + +<li>Swan, James G., contribution by, on tattoo, <a href="#page402">402</a></li> + +<li>Sweden, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page173">173-175</a></li> + +<li>Symbolism, development of, <a href="#page609">609-610</a></li> + +<li>Symbols of the supernatural, <a href="#page462">462-468</a></li> + +<li>Syllabaries and alphabets, <a href="#page664">664-675</a></li> +<li class="isub1">development of, <a href="#page664">664-665</a></li> + +<li>Syrian symbols, <a href="#page616">616-618</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">T.</li> + +<li>Taboo, <a href="#page504">504-505</a></li> + +<li>Tall, pictograph for, <a href="#page601">601-602</a></li> + +<li>Tallies or notched sticks, in Great Britain, <a href="#page228">228</a></li> + +<li>Tamanaques Indians, legend of, <a href="#page033">33</a></li> + +<li>Tartars, use of notched sticks as records by, <a href="#page228">228</a></li> +<li class="isub1">notice of warning by, <a href="#page357">357</a></li> +<li class="isub1">magic drums of, <a href="#page514">514-517</a></li> + +<li>Tassin, A. G., drawing and explanation of petroglyphs by, <a href="#page095">95</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821">[821]</a></span></li> + +<li>Tattoo, significance of, <a href="#page391">391-419</a></li> +<li class="isub1">use of, by ancient monarchs, <a href="#page407">407-408</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in ancient Rome, <a href="#page408">408</a></li> +<li class="isub1">among Arabs, <a href="#page414">414</a></li> +<li class="isub1">summary of studies on, <a href="#page418">418-419</a></li> + +<li>Taylor, H. R., sketch furnished and information communicated by, <a href="#page082">82-83</a></li> + +<li>Tazewell County Virginia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page121">121-122</a></li> + +<li>Temple Creek canyon Utah, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page116">116-117</a></li> + +<li>Tennessee, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page114">114-115</a></li> + +<li>Tepumereme, Venezuela, sculptured rock of, <a href="#page148">148</a></li> + +<li>Teocuauhxicalli, Mexican sculptured stone, <a href="#page135">135-136</a></li> + +<li>Teton Dakota, translations made from dialect of, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> +<li class="isub1">insignia of police of, <a href="#page419">419-420</a></li> +<li class="isub1">shield device of, <a href="#page436">436</a></li> + +<li>Texas, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page215">215-217</a></li> + +<li>Textile fabrics, pictographs on, <a href="#page215">215-217</a></li> + +<li>The-Flame, winter count of, <a href="#page268">268</a></li> + +<li>The-Swan, winter count of, <a href="#page268">268</a></li> + +<li>Thlinkit (Tlinkit) Indians, shamanistic emblem of, <a href="#page612">612-613</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war colors of, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> + +<li>Thomas, Cyrus work of, <a href="#pagex">X</a>, <a href="#pagexxi">XXI</a>, <a href="#pagexxii">XXII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#page209">209</a></li> +<li class="isub1">on Mexican and Maya symbolic colors, <a href="#page625">625</a></li> + +<li>Thompson, Gilbert, petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page092">92</a></li> + +<li>Thunder bird, pictographs of, <a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page479">479</a>, <a href="#page483">483-487</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Ojibwa, <a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page487">487</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Kwakiutl, <a href="#page479">479</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Dakota, <a href="#page483">483-485</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Haida <a href="#page485">485</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Twana, <a href="#page485">485</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Micmac, <a href="#page487">487</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Venezuelan, <a href="#page487">487</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Haida, <a href="#page399">399</a>.</li> + +<li>Tibeto-China, mode of declaring war in, <a href="#page359">359</a></li> + +<li>Time records of Apache Indians, <a href="#page258">258-259</a></li> + +<li>Tiverton, Rhode Island, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page113">113</a></li> + +<li>Tlalmanalco, Mexico, inscribed rock near, <a href="#page132">132-133</a></li> + +<li>Topography represented in pictographs, <a href="#page341">341-347</a></li> + +<li>Torres straits islanders, scarification of, <a href="#page417">417</a></li> + +<li>Totemic system, explanation of, <a href="#page388">388-389</a></li> + +<li>Totems, titles and names, <a href="#page376">376-391</a></li> + +<li>Trade, pictographs for, <a href="#page602">602</a></li> + +<li>Treaties, mnemonically recorded, <a href="#page256">256-257</a></li> + +<li>Trees, pictographs on, <a href="#page213">213</a></li> + +<li>Trempealeau, Wisconsin, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a></li> + +<li>Truckee river, Nevada, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page093">93</a></li> + +<li>Tsimshian Indians, pictograph by, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattoo of, <a href="#page407">407</a></li> +<li class="isub1">secret societies and ceremonies of, <a href="#page512">512</a></li> + +<li>Tuálati Indians, tradition of, <a href="#page105">105</a></li> + +<li>Tule River agency, California, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page052">52-56</a></li> + +<li>Turf monuments in England, <a href="#page172">172-173</a>, <a href="#page212">212</a></li> + +<li>Turkish love letter, <a href="#page368">368</a></li> + +<li>Turner, Lucien M., work of, <a href="#pagexxiv">XXIV</a></li> + +<li>Turner, H. W., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page052">52</a></li> + +<li>Tusayan pueblos, work among, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a>-<a href="#pagexviii">XVIII</a></li> + +<li>Tuscarora Indians, legends obtained, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">linguistic work among, <a href="#pagexx">XX</a></li> + +<li>Twana Indians, thunder bird of, <a href="#page485">485</a></li> +<li class="isub1">war paint of, <a href="#page632">632</a></li> + +<li>Tyout, Algeria, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">U.</li> + +<li>Umatilla vocabulary obtained, <a href="#pagexiv">XIV</a></li> + +<li>Unalaska, relics of art found in, <a href="#page220">220</a></li> + +<li>Uncpapa Dakota, personal name, <a href="#page445">445</a></li> + +<li>Union, pictographic signs for, <a href="#page602">602</a>, <a href="#page603">603</a></li> + +<li>Utah, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page116">116-121</a>, <a href="#page681">681</a></li> + +<li>Ute Indians, declaration of peace by, <a href="#page360">360</a></li> + +<li>United States, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page045">45-130</a></li> + +<li>United States of Colombia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">V.</li> + +<li>Vancouver island, British Columbia, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page044">44-45</a></li> + +<li>Venezuela, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page147">147-150</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cup-sculptures in, <a href="#page195">195</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic pictographs in, <a href="#page487">487</a></li> +<li class="isub1">color stamps used by Piaroas of, <a href="#page621">621</a></li> +<li class="isub1">petroglyphs in, compared with Ojibwa and Shoshonean types, <a href="#page688">688</a></li> + +<li>Voice and speech, pictographically illustrated, <a href="#page717">717-719</a></li> + +<li>Victory, pictographic record of, <a href="#page557">557-558</a></li> + +<li>Virginia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page121">121-122</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tattooed figures on Indians of, <a href="#page393">393</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">W.</li> + +<li>Wakashan Indians, pictographs by, <a href="#page215">215</a></li> + +<li>Walker Lake, Nevada, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page093">93</a></li> + +<li>Wall, J. Sutton pictographs described by, <a href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs copied by, <a href="#page111">111</a></li> + +<li>Wampum used in treaty, <a href="#page231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub1">forms and uses of, <a href="#page228">228-231</a></li> +<li class="isub1">significance of colors in, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a></li> + +<li>War, pictographic form of declaration of, <a href="#page358">358</a>, <a href="#page359">359</a></li> + +<li>Warning and guidance, pictographic notices of, <a href="#page353">353-357</a></li> + +<li>Washington, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a></li> + +<li>Washington, Pennsylvania, petroglyph near, <a href="#page109">109</a></li> + +<li>Washoe Indians in Nevada, <a href="#page093">93</a></li> + +<li>Water, gesture signs for, <a href="#page642">642-643</a></li> + +<li>Watterson’s ranch, Owens valley, Cal., petroglyphs at, <a href="#page059">59</a></li> + +<li>Weasel girls, myth of, <a href="#page471">471-472</a></li> + +<li>Webster, North Carolina, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page099">99</a></li> + +<li>Wellsville, Ohio, petroglyphs near, <a href="#page104">104</a></li> + +<li>West Indies, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page136">136-140</a></li> + +<li>West Virginia, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page124">124-126</a>, <a href="#page475">475</a>, <a href="#page676">676-678</a></li> + +<li>Whipple, Lieut., pictographs reported by, <a href="#page061">61-62</a></li> + +<li>Whirlwind, pictographs for, <a href="#page603">603-604</a></li> + +<li>White Earth reservation, Minnesota, work at, <a href="#pagexiii">XIII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Ojibwa Midē' ceremony at, <a href="#page254">254</a></li> + +<li>White Horse petroglyphs, England, <a href="#page172">172</a></li> + +<li>Whitney, Willard J., petroglyphs reported by, <a href="#page062">62</a></li> + +<li>Wichita Indians, practice of tattoo by, <a href="#page375">375</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822">[822]</a></span></li> + +<li>Wikhegan, definition of, <a href="#page035">35</a>, <a href="#page330">330</a></li> + +<li>Wilkesboro, North Carolina, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page099">99</a></li> + +<li>Wind River valley, Wyoming, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page128">128-129</a></li> + +<li>Winnebago personal names, list obtained, <a href="#pagexix">XIX</a></li> + +<li>Winnebago Indians, coloring matter used by, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographic notice by, <a href="#page334">334</a></li> +<li class="isub1">signs of exploit by, <a href="#page440">440</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mythic animal of, <a href="#page482">482</a></li> +<li class="isub1">record of battle by, <a href="#page558">558-559</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mourning color of, <a href="#page630">630</a></li> + +<li>Winslow, E., relation by, concerning Indian records, <a href="#page250">250</a></li> + +<li>Winter, pictographs for, <a href="#page605">605-606</a></li> + +<li>Winter counts of the Dakota Indians, <a href="#page266">266-328</a></li> +<li class="isub1">history and explanation of, <a href="#page266">266-273</a></li> +<li class="isub1">comparison of, <a href="#page270">270</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pictographs from, <a href="#page273">273-328</a>, <a href="#page380">380-387</a>, <a href="#page447">447-465</a>, <a href="#page494">494-495</a>, <a href="#page503">503</a>, <a href="#page523">523</a>, <a href="#page535">535-538</a>, <a href="#page540">540</a>, <a href="#page547">547</a>, <a href="#page553">553-554</a>, <a href="#page561">561-562</a>, <a href="#page567">567-570</a>, <a href="#page578">578-581</a>, <a href="#page585">585-598</a>, <a href="#page600">600-605</a>, <a href="#page634">634-642</a>, <a href="#page650">650-661</a>, <a href="#page716">716-717</a>, <a href="#page721">721</a>, <a href="#page751">751</a></li> + +<li>Wisconsin, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page126">126-128</a></li> + +<li>Wood, pictographs on, <a href="#page213">213-214</a></li> + +<li>Woodthorpe, Lieut.-Col., account of tribes in India by, <a href="#page361">361</a></li> + +<li>Wright, Charles D., petroglyphs described by, <a href="#page072">72-73</a></li> + +<li>Writing and drawing, original identity of, <a href="#page664">664-665</a></li> + +<li>Wyoming, petroglyphs in, <a href="#page128">128-130</a>, <a href="#page678">678-680</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Y.</li> + +<li>Yampais spring, Arizona, petroglyphs at, <a href="#page050">50</a></li> + +<li>Yenesei river, Siberia, petroglyphs on, <a href="#page186">186</a></li> + +<li>Yokut Indians, pictographs on baskets by, <a href="#page217">217</a></li> + +<li>Young, William, cited, <a href="#page378">378</a></li> + +<li>Yuma Indians, map of Colorado river by, <a href="#page342">342</a></li> +<li class="isub1">religious ceremonies of, <a href="#page505">505-507</a></li> + +<li>Yuris Indians of Brazil, dyes used by, <a href="#page222">222</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Z.</li> + +<li>Zulu tattoo marks, <a href="#page415">415-416</a></li> + +<li>Zuñi Indians, study of architecture of, <a href="#pagexvii">XVII</a></li> +<li class="isub1">tally sticks of, <a href="#page259">259</a></li> +<li class="isub1">sand paintings of, <a href="#page210">210-211</a></li> +<li class="isub1">coloring materials used by, <a href="#page221">221</a></li> +<li class="isub1">symbols used by, <a href="#page612">612</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ceremonial use of color by, <a href="#page623">623-624</a></li></ul> + + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="p4 transnote"> +<h2 class="nobreak">Transcriber’s note</h2> + +<p>Illustrations have been moved next to the text to which they refer. Page numbers in the list of Illustrations may not match their locations in the eBook.</p> + +<p>Plate headings have been standardised in the format: "BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. X"</p> + + +<p>The printed text used non-standard typography which could not be replicated entirely in the eBook. In particular:</p> + +<ul><li>on p. 171, "∩" represents an inverted U symbol printed in the text;</li> + +<li>on p. 172, the capital S in "S-shaped curve" was rotated 90 degrees;</li> + +<li>on p. 185, the text beginning "“The inscriptions are cut" was printed on a new line, but not indented;</li> + +<li>on p. 252, the letter s in "Waↄiñʞa-ↄüʇse" and "uta¢a<sup>n</sup>ʇsi" was inverted;</li> + +<li>on p. 417, "Λ" represents an inverted V symbol printed in the text;</li> + +<li>on p. 708, the capital H in "The central H" was rotated 90 degrees.</li></ul> + +<p>The "remarks in smaller type" referred to on p. 232 are indented in the eBook.</p> + +<p>"e.g." has been regularised to "e. g."</p> + + +<p>The following printing errors have been corrected:</p> + +<ul><li>p. xviii "corret spondence" changed to "correspondence"</li> + +<li>p. xxi "earthern" changed to "earthen"</li> + +<li>p. xxiv "Congress of the United State." changed to "Congress of the United States"</li> + +<li>p. 6 "Petroglypps in Australia" changed to "Petroglyphs in Australia"</li> + +<li>p. 11 "West Virgina" changed to "West Virginia"</li> + +<li>p. 11 "dancers, bearing" changed to "dancers bearing"</li> + +<li>p. 12 "San Marcos pass, California 62-67" changed to "San Marcos pass, California 62"</li> + +<li>p. 12 "Washington, Pednsylvania" changed to "Washington, Pennsylvania"</li> + +<li>p. 18 "Ah-ton-we-tuck" changed to "Ah-tón-we-tuck"</li> + +<li>p. 18 "On-saw-kie" changed to "On-sáw-kie"</li> + +<li>p. 18 "753. Scalped h ead. D akota" changed to "753. Scalped head. Dakota"</li> + +<li>p. 21 "1071. Life and death. Obijwa" changed to "1071. Life and death. Ojibwa"</li> + +<li>p. 27 "anthroplologic" changed to "anthropologic"</li> + +<li>p. 39 "sharpely" changed to "sharply"</li> + +<li>p. 42 "Mr Charles Hallock" changed to "Mr. Charles Hallock"</li> + +<li>p. 55 "Fig. 14," changed to "Fig. 14."</li> + +<li>p. 59 "Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">IX</span>" changed to "Pls. <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">XI</span>"</li> + +<li>Plate VII "OWENS VALLEY CALIFORNIA." changed to "OWENS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA."</li> + +<li>pp. 69-70 "sand stone" changed to "sandstone"</li> + +<li>p. 86 "inscriptian" changed to "inscription"</li> + +<li>p. 90 "t e shape" changed to "the shape"</li> + +<li>p. 95 "in the library of the of the" changed to "in the library of the"</li> + +<li>p. 98 "Nambe" changed to "Nambé"</li> + +<li>p. 101 "Fig 63 is" changed to "Fig. 63 is"</li> + +<li>p. 101 "Fig. 63.—Newark" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Newark"</li> + +<li>p. 107 "excellant" changed to "excellent"</li> + +<li>p. 111 "as Fig. 75" changed to "as Fig. 75."</li> + +<li>p. 118 "Colorado river, only only" changed to "Colorado river, only"</li> + +<li>p. 122 "stangely painted" changed to "strangely painted"</li> + +<li>p. 123 "history of a a" changed to "history of a"</li> + +<li>p. 123 "more less distinctly" changed to "more or less distinctly"</li> + +<li>p. 139 "numbers in Oruba" changed to "numbers in Aruba"</li> + +<li>p. 142 "that the beginning" changed to "than the beginning"</li> + +<li>p. 143 "Mr A. L Pinart" changed to "Mr. A. L. Pinart"</li> + +<li>p. 145 "Fig 1104" changed to "Fig. 1104"</li> + +<li>p. 147 "religous" changed to "religious"</li> + +<li>p. 147 (Illustration) "Fig. 107.—Sculptured" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Sculptured"</li> + +<li>p. 148 "insignificent" changed to "insignificant"</li> + +<li>p. 156 "Cracara" changed to "Cracará"</li> + +<li>p. 157 (Illustration) "Fig. 123.—Petroglyphs" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Petroglyphs"</li> + +<li>p. 159 (Illustration) "Fig. 126.—Petroglyphs" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—Petroglyphs"</li> + +<li>p. 165 "peculiarty" changed to "peculiarity"</li> + +<li>p. 166 "<span class="smcap">Fig 133.</span>" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>"</li> + +<li>p. 168 (Illustration) "Fig. 124.—Petroglyphs" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Petroglyphs"</li> + +<li>p. 168 (Illustration) "Fig. 125.—Inscribed" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—Inscribed"</li> + +<li>p. 172 "to cairn" changed to "to a cairn"</li> + +<li>p. 176 "crypt of the of the" changed to "crypt of the"</li> + +<li>p. 186 "the Yenisei river" changed to "the Yenesei river"</li> + +<li>p. 187 "Chandeshwar, India" changed to "Chandeshwar, India."</li> + +<li>p. 188 "733" changed to "723"</li> + +<li>p. 195 "serves at its pendant" changed to "serves as its pendant"</li> + +<li>p. 208 "Fig. 683" changed to "Fig. 685"</li> + +<li>p. 209 "Ashmoleon" changed to "Ashmolean"</li> + +<li>p. 219 "suppleness," changed to "suppleness."</li> + +<li>p. 220 "corsair aspect”" changed to "corsair aspect.”"</li> + +<li>p. 235 "Midē friends" changed to "Midē friends"</li> + +<li>p. 236 "When he went" changed to "when he went"</li> + +<li>p. 236 "Still represented" changed to "still represented"</li> + +<li>p. 237 "Manidō, the Thunderer" changed to "Manidō, the Thunderer"</li> + +<li>p. 241 "symbol of the Mīdē" changed to "symbol of the Midē"</li> + +<li>p. 247 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 165</span>—Song" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>—Song"</li> + +<li>p. 254 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 170</span>—Minabozho." changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>—Minabozho."</li> + +<li>p. 256 "<span class="smcap">Fig. 174</span> is copy" changed to "Fig. 174 is copy"</li> + +<li>p. 257 "the drum used used" changed to "the drum used"</li> + +<li>p. 257 "Chap. x, Sec. 2." changed to "Chap. x, Sec. 2)."</li> + +<li>p. 260 "X cr 10" changed to "X or 10"</li> + +<li>p. 262 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—Bookaccount." changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—Book account."</li> + +<li>p. 265 "life time. one old man." changed to "life time, one old man."</li> + +<li>p. 271 "1811-’02." changed to "1801-’02."</li> + +<li>p. 274 "distingushed" changed to "distinguished"</li> + +<li>p. 276 "Crow Feather was their" changed to "Crow-Feather was their"</li> + +<li>p. 276 "bird portruding" changed to "bird protruding"</li> + +<li>p. 281 "Th Sans Arcs" changed to "The Sans Arcs"</li> + +<li>p. 283 "1851-52." changed to "1851-’52."</li> + +<li>Plate XXI "A 901-930" changed to "A 901-930."</li> + +<li>p. 290 "shall live." changed to "shall live.”"</li> + +<li>p. 295 "Fig. 267,1710-’11." changed to "Fig. 267, 1710-’11."</li> + +<li>p. 296 "who-was eagle-hunting" changed to "who-was-eagle-hunting"</li> + +<li>p. 299 "each others movements." changed to "each other’s movements."</li> + +<li>p. 301 "lodge and said." changed to "lodge and said,"</li> + +<li>p. 302 "Omaha-horses winter." changed to "Omaha-horses winter.”"</li> + +<li>p. 302 "Ventre winter." changed to "Ventre winter.”"</li> + +<li>p. 302 "reverance" changed to "reverence"</li> + +<li>p. 302 "Killed-two-Assiniboines" changed to "Killed-two-Assiniboins"</li> + +<li>p. 304 "Assiniboins-came" changed to "“Assiniboins-came"</li> + +<li>p. 305 "beef winter." changed to "beef winter.”"</li> + +<li>p. 309 "Fig.339" changed to "Fig. 339"</li> + +<li>p. 309 "Fig.340" changed to "Fig. 340"</li> + +<li>p. 309 (Illustration) "Fig. 342" changed to "Fig. 342."</li> + +<li>p. 310 (Illustration) "Fig. 343" changed to "Fig. 343."</li> + +<li>p. 313 "name Don’t Eat-Buffalo-Heart" changed to "name Don’t-Eat-Buffalo-Heart"</li> + +<li>p. 317 "again-winter.”" changed to "again winter.”"</li> + +<li>p. 317 "rotton-wood" changed to "rotten-wood"</li> + +<li>p. 324 "the Blue-creek" changed to "the-Blue-creek"</li> + +<li>p. 336 "topograpyh" changed to "topography"</li> + +<li>p. 341 "winter quarters It" changed to "winter quarters. It"</li> + +<li>p. 344 "topograpic features" changed to "topographic features"</li> + +<li>p. 357 "Parauapanama" changed to "Paranapanama"</li> + +<li>p. 359 "were supended" changed to "were suspended"</li> + +<li>p. 359 "delare war" changed to "declare war"</li> + +<li>p. 374 "Egyptain" changed to "Egyptian"</li> + +<li>p. 374 "decribes" changed to "describes"</li> + +<li>p. 377 "Ottowa" changed to "Ottawa"</li> + +<li>p. 379 "familarly" changed to "familiarly"</li> + +<li>p. 400 (Illustration) "Haida tattoo, dogfish" changed to "Haida tattoo, dogfish."</li> + +<li>p. 404 "kahatta" changed to "kahátta"</li> + +<li>p. 412 (Illustration) "Tattooed Paupan" changed to "Tattooed Papuan"</li> + +<li>p. 418 "14 to inspire" changed to "14, to inspire"</li> + +<li>p. 420 "Big Road and his" changed to "Big-Road and his"</li> + +<li>p. 425 "549.—Micmac" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 549.</span>—Micmac"</li> + +<li>p. 427 two lines "The designs show some marks suggesting the artistic devices used in / +the Roman Catholic Church, though the figuration of the cross is by no" were printed in reverse order.</li> + +<li>p. 433 "know-ng" changed to "knowing"</li> + +<li>p. 435 "considered as Objibwas" changed to "considered as Ojibwas"</li> + +<li>p. 442 (Illustration) "Fig. 579.—African" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 579.</span>—African"</li> + +<li>p. 467 "misshappen" changed to "misshapen"</li> + +<li>p. 476 "it seems, probable" changed to "it seems probable"</li> + +<li>p. 478 "missionary." changed to "missionary.”"</li> + +<li>p. 496 "medicines are used" changed to "medicines are used."</li> + +<li>p. 496 "Sometimes the muzzin ne-neence" changed to "Sometimes the muzzin-ne-neence"</li> + +<li>p. 502 "bags whieh are considered" changed to "bags which are considered"</li> + +<li>p. 513 "Caramūlŭn is said" changed to "Daramūlŭn is said"</li> + +<li>p. 513 "<b>(1)</b> A piece" changed to "(1) A piece"</li> + +<li>p. 515 "and a seive" changed to "and a sieve"</li> + +<li>p. 519 "chaplet." changed to "chaplet.”"</li> + +<li>p. 535 "the pole. American-Horses’" changed to "the pole. American-Horse’s"</li> + +<li>p. 551 "Eugéne" changed to "Eugène"</li> + +<li>p. 554 "and a a ditch" changed to "and a ditch"</li> + +<li>p. 555 "an individul was distinguished" changed to "an individual was distinguished"</li> + +<li>Illustration: "Plate XLV" changed to "Plate XLV."</li> + +<li>p. 578 "Blackfeet Dakota indian" changed to "Blackfeet Dakota Indian"</li> + +<li>p. 579 "the heroic indian" changed to "the heroic Indian"</li> + +<li>Illustration: "PL. XLVII" changed to "PL. XLVII."</li> + +<li>p. 582 "Kiatexamut" changed to "Kiatéxamut"</li> + +<li>p. 588 "third figure show" changed to "third figure shows"</li> + +<li>p. 590 "Objiwa." changed to "Ojibwa."</li> + +<li>p. 592 "from the the mouth" changed to "from the mouth"</li> + +<li>p. 592 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 892</span>" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 892.</span>"</li> + +<li>p. 593 "The first,which" changed to "The first, which"</li> + +<li>p. 593 "Fig.896" changed to "Fig. 896"</li> + +<li>p. 593 "unaplatable" changed to "unpalatable"</li> + +<li>p. 595 (Illustration) "Little-Moon," changed to "Little-Moon."</li> + +<li>p. 596 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 918</span>" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 918.</span>"</li> + +<li>p. 600 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 940</span>" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 940.</span>"</li> + +<li>p. 601 (Illustration) "<span class="smcap">Fig. 946</span>" changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 946.</span>"</li> + +<li>p. 604 "Cloud Shield’s Winter Count" changed to "Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count"</li> + +<li>p. 604 "given in Red Cloud’s" changed to "given in Red-Cloud’s"</li> + +<li>pp. 604-5 "the Ho-be-bo" changed to "the Ho-bo-bo"</li> + +<li>p. 614 "12 feet long" changed to "12 feet long."</li> + +<li>Illustration: "Tenth Annual Report. Plate XLIX" changed to "Tenth Annual Report Plate XLIX."</li> + +<li>p. 628 "chief annointed" changed to "chief anointed"</li> + +<li>p. 640 "Fig. 988. The first" changed to "Fig. 988.—The first"</li> + +<li>p. 640 "by the Minneonjou" changed to "by the Minneconjou"</li> + +<li>p. 647 "sculpture in Guamatela" changed to "sculpture in Guatemala"</li> + +<li>p. 647 "Apparrently" changed to "Apparently"</li> + +<li>p. 647 "eplacing our letters" changed to "replacing our letters"</li> + +<li>p. 652 "This isexplained" changed to "This is explained"</li> + +<li>p. 652 "the human figureis" changed to "the human figure is"</li> + +<li>p. 653 "this symbols" changed to "this symbol"</li> + +<li>p. 665 "A.D. 1820" changed to "A. D. 1820"</li> + +<li>p. 678 "Figs. 106" changed to "Figs. 70"</li> + +<li>p. 681 "F. A Kimball" changed to "F. A. Kimball"</li> + +<li>p. 682 "forms of thsee" changed to "forms of these"</li> + +<li>p. 685 "grostesque wood" changed to "grotesque wood"</li> + +<li>p. 687 "which is larger" changed to "which is larger."</li> + +<li>p. 689 "indellible" changed to "indelible"</li> + +<li>p. 698 "Coyotero" changed to "Coyotèro"</li> + +<li>p. 704 "Bildebuch" changed to "Bilderbuch"</li> + +<li>p. 708 "at Rio Janeiro" changed to "at Rio de Janeiro"</li> + +<li>p. 712 "longtitude" changed to "longitude"</li> + +<li>p. 715 "Hindu hands." changed to "Hindu hands.”"</li> + +<li>p. 722 "Pedro de las Rios" changed to "Pedro de los Rios"</li> + +<li>p. 729 "<span class="smcap">Fig. 1233.</span> Crosses." changed to "<span class="smcap">Fig. 1233.</span>—Crosses."</li> + +<li>p. 723 "presented in Fig. 1223" changed to "presented in Fig. 1223."</li> + +<li>p. 732 "the +.”" changed to "the +.””"</li> + +<li>p. 738 "for drawing." changed to "for drawing.”"</li> + +<li>p. 740 "psuedo-science" changed to "pseudo-science"</li> + +<li>p. 742 "thenorthern Algonquian" changed to "the northern Algonquian"</li> + +<li>p. 747 "purely arbirary" changed to "purely arbitrary"</li> + +<li>p. 755 "marying some one" changed to "marrying some one"</li> + +<li>p. 757 "carniverous" changed to "carnivorous"</li> + +<li>p. 766 "Ojibway Nation." changed to "Ojibway Nation,"</li> + +<li>p. 772 "among the petroglpyhs" changed to "among the petroglyphs"</li> + +<li>p. 773 "by the aborignes" changed to "by the aborigines"</li> + +<li>p. 779 "<b>AUSLAND</b>, <i>Das</i>" changed to "<b>AUSLAND</b>, <i>Das</i>."</li> + +<li>p. 781 "and in Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 8<sup>o</sup>" changed to "and in Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 8<sup>o</sup>."</li> + +<li>p. 785 "(Sept. and Oct)" changed to "(Sept. and Oct.)"</li> + +<li>p. 787 "(<i>Commodore</i> Charles." changed to "(<i>Commodore</i> Charles)."</li> + +<li>p. 791 "Emil" changed to "<span class="smcap">Emil</span>"</li> + +<li>p. 792 "(<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span> Coll. Mend., Pl. 75)" changed to "(<span class="smcap lowercase">I</span>, Coll. Mend., Pl. 75)"</li> + +<li>p. 795 "591-306" changed to "291-306"</li> + +<li>p. 795 "Toulouse et Paris. 8<sup>o</sup>" changed to "Toulouse et Paris. 8<sup>o</sup>."</li> + +<li>p. 796 the entry beginning "<b>McGUIRE</b> (<span class="smcap">Joseph D.</span>)" was printed as one paragraph; the format has been regularised.</li> + +<li>p. 796 "1857.80" changed to "1857. 8<sup>o</sup>"</li> + +<li>p. 799 "Kans, La Platte" changed to "Kans., La Platte"</li> + +<li>p. 801 "Pedro II. Vols. 1" changed to "Pedro II. Vols. I"</li> + +<li>p. 802 "59, Figs," changed to "59, Figs."</li> + +<li>p. 809 "Abacu" changed to "Abacus"</li> + +<li>p. 810 "near Zuni" changed to "near Zuñi"</li> + +<li>p. 810 "color among" changed to "color among, 622"</li> + +<li>p. 810 "213-214 468-469" changed to "213-214, 468-469"</li> + +<li>p. 811 "Caicara" changed to "Caïcara"</li> + +<li>p. 811 "Ceara" changed to "Ceará"</li> + +<li>p. 811 "643, 644, 645." changed to "643, 644, 645"</li> + +<li>p. 812 "118 119, 120" changed to "118, 119, 120"</li> + +<li>p. 812 "starvation, 656." changed to "starvation, 656"</li> + +<li>p. 812 the entries for "Corbusier" and "Corados" were printed out of order.</li> + +<li>p. 812 "etc 534-537" changed to "etc., 534-537"</li> + +<li>p. 813 "Easterisland" changed to "Easter island"</li> + +<li>p. 813 "mediaevel" changed to "mediaeval"</li> + +<li>p. 813 "Oregon, petrogyphs" changed to "Oregon, petroglyphs"</li> + +<li>p. 814 "on Hualpa Indians" changed to "on Hualpai Indians"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "Karankawa" changed to "Karánkawa"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "Iroquois Indians." changed to "Iroquois Indians,"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "Jessakkid" changed to "Jĕssakkīd"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "Kitshi Manido" changed to "Kítshi Manidō"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "Kta-i Tupakshi" changed to "Ktá-i Tupákshi"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "Lisieres" changed to "Lisières"</li> + +<li>p. 815 "707-702" changed to "701-702"</li> + +<li>p. 816 "Mamore" changed to "Mamoré"</li> + +<li>p. 816 "Mide" changed to "Midé"</li> + +<li>p. 816 "Midewiwin" changed to "Midēwiwin"</li> + +<li>p. 816 The sub-entry for "Migration record of" was printed as a separate entry.</li> + +<li>p. 816 "178-176" changed to "178-180"</li> + +<li>p. 817 "Naqomqilis" changed to "Naqómqilis"</li> + +<li>p. 817 "New Mexico, petroplyphs" changed to "New Mexico, petroglyphs"</li> + +<li>p. 818 "351-252" changed to "251-252"</li> + +<li>p. 820 "colors by Zuni" changed to "colors by Zuñi"</li> + +<li>p. 821 "work among, XVII-XVII" changed to "work among, XVII-XVIII"</li> + +<li>p. 821 "Mide cermony" changed to "Midē ceremony"</li> + +<li>p. 821 "Tualati" changed to "Tuálati"</li> +</ul> + + +<p>The letters identifying the elements in Fig. 653, Fig. 719 and Fig. 936 were not clearly printed.</p> + + +<p>The following are used inconsistently in the text:</p> + +<ul><li>Ânishinabēg and Ânishinabég</li> + +<li>archæologist and archeologists (and related words)</li> + +<li>Arikara and Arickara</li> + +<li>armpit and arm-pit</li> + +<li>At-o-sis and Atosis</li> + +<li>Baholikonga, Baho-li-kong-ya and Baho li-kong-ya</li> + +<li>birchbark and birch-bark</li> + +<li>boulder and bowlder</li> + +<li>breechcloth and breech-cloth</li> + +<li>Clément and Clement</li> + +<li>crosspiece and cross-piece</li> + +<li>débris and debris</li> + +<li>demigods and demi-gods</li> + +<li>dogfish and dog-fish</li> + +<li>Easter island and Easter Island</li> + +<li>extralimital and extra-limital</li> + +<li>facsimile and fac-simile</li> + +<li>folklore and folk-lore</li> + +<li>footpath and foot-path</li> + +<li>Góngora and Gongora</li> + +<li>Good-Weasel and Good weasel</li> + +<li>headdress and head-dress</li> + +<li>Hindoo and Hindu</li> + +<li>Hoofprints and Hoof-prints</li> + +<li>Hopitu and Ho-pi-tu</li> + +<li>horsetracks and horse-tracks</li> + +<li>inclosures and enclosures</li> + +<li>Lenâpé and Lenape</li> + +<li>Makwa Manidō and Makwá Manidō</li> + +<li>Mañaus and Manaus</li> + +<li>Midē' and Midē</li> + +<li>northeastern and north-eastern</li> + +<li>Oglalas and Oglálas</li> + +<li>Ojibway and Ojibwa</li> + +<li>pipeclay and pipe-clay</li> + +<li>pipestem and pipe-stem</li> + +<li>Révue and Revue</li> + +<li>right hand and right-hand</li> + +<li>rockwriting and rock-writing</li> + +<li>smallpox and small-pox</li> + +<li>snowshoe and snow-shoe</li> + +<li>SOCIÉTÉ and SOCIETE</li> + +<li>subclan and sub-clan</li> + +<li>subchief and sub-chief</li> + +<li>Susbeca and Sus-be-ca</li> + +<li>synecdoche and synechdoche</li> + +<li>tatoo, tatto and tattoo (and derived forms)</li> + +<li>thunder bird, thunder-bird and thunderbird</li> + +<li>today and to-day</li> + +<li>Wakan-Tanka and Wakan Tanka</li> + +<li>warpath and war-path</li> + +<li>wildcats and wild-cats</li></ul> + + + +<p>On p. 127 the text refers to two characters <i>k</i>; only one is shown in the illustration.</p> + + +<p>The following possible errors have not been changed:</p> + +<ul> + +<li>On p. 206, several of the figures listed as "Alaskan and Eskimo carvings" appear unrelated.</li> + +<li>p. 271 "having been selected"</li> + +<li>p. 496 "figures of a man or women"</li> + +<li>p. 558 "City of Monreal"</li> + +<li>p. 727 incorrectly refers to Fig. 429 as representing petroglyphs at Oakley +Springs, Arizona.</li> + +</ul> + + +<p>Inconsistent use of small capitals for volume numbers in the List of Works and Authors Cited has not been regularised.</p> + + +<p>The following were hyphenated at the end of lines:</p> + +<ul><li>p. 381 magpi-yato</li> + +<li>p. 388 Kong-rat</li> + +<li>p. 484 U-mi-ne</li> + +<li>p. 567 Neta-wa-ya-sink</li> + +<li>p. 567 Wikup'bi<sup>n</sup>-mi<sup>n</sup>s</li> + +<li>p. 567 Shage'skike'-dawan'ga</li> + +<li>p. 567 Ta'pakwe'-ĭkak</li></ul> + +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 54653 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/54653-h/images/colophon.png b/54653-h/images/colophon.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7db63c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/54653-h/images/colophon.png diff --git a/54653-h/images/cover.jpg b/54653-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c16080 --- /dev/null +++ b/54653-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/54653-h/images/dp072_pg040.jpg b/54653-h/images/dp072_pg040.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a80da6f --- /dev/null +++ b/54653-h/images/dp072_pg040.jpg diff --git a/54653-h/images/dp072_pg040h.jpg b/54653-h/images/dp072_pg040h.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 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