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diff --git a/old/54667-8.txt b/old/54667-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1e95734..0000000 --- a/old/54667-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4691 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Two Centuries of Shipbuilding, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Two Centuries of Shipbuilding - By the Scotts at Greenock - -Author: Various - -Release Date: May 6, 2017 [EBook #54667] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TWO CENTURIES OF SHIPBUILDING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Ralph and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - - Apparent typographical errors have been corrected. - - Archaic and inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been preserved. - - - - -[Illustration: Flag] - - - - - TWO CENTURIES - - OF - - SHIPBUILDING - - - - -[Illustration: _H. M. S. Argyll._] - - - - - TWO CENTURIES OF - SHIPBUILDING - - BY THE - - SCOTTS AT GREENOCK. - - [Illustration: decoration] - - [_Partly Reprinted from "Engineering."_] - - [Illustration: decoration] - - "Take it all in all, a ship of the line is the most honourable thing - that man, as a gregarious animal, has ever produced.... Into - that he has put as much of his human patience, common sense, - forethought, experimental philosophy, self-control, habits of order - and obedience, thoroughly wrought hand-work, defiance of brute - elements, careless courage, careful patriotism, and calm expectation - of the judgment of God, as can well be put into a space of - 300 feet long by 80 feet broad."--RUSKIN. - - - [Illustration: sailing ship] - - - LONDON: - - OFFICES OF "ENGINEERING," 35 and 36, BEDFORD STREET, W.C. - - 1906. - - - - -Contents. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - PAGE - - PERSONALIA xi - - THE ERA OF THE SAILING SHIP 1 - - THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEAMSHIP 15 - - Table I. Epoch-Marking Steamers built by the Scotts, 1819 - to 1841 31 - - Table II. Progress in the Economy of the Marine Engine, - 1872 to 1901 41 - - A CENTURY'S WORK FOR THE NAVY 43 - - Table III. Progressive Types of Warship Machinery, and - their Economy, 1840 to 1905 53 - - Table IV. Particulars of the Successive Large Naval Guns, - 1800 to 1905 56 - - Table V. Size and Fighting Qualities of British Battleships - of Different Periods, 1861 to 1905 59 - - YACHTING AND YACHTS 63 - - Table VI. General Particulars of Principal Steam Yachts - Built by Scotts' Company 69 - - THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 73 - - Numbers of British and Foreign, and of Oversea and Channel, - Steamers, of over 16 knots speed 75 - - Table VII. Records of Coal Consumption of Steamship - "Narragansett" 79 - - EFFICIENCY: DESIGN: ADMINISTRATION 88 - - THE SHIPBUILDING YARD 94 - - THE ENGINE AND BOILER WORKS 106 - - - - -List of Illustrations. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - PAGE - - H.M.S. "Argyll" (Plate I.) _Frontispiece_ - - - PERSONALIA. - - Portraits of William Scott (born 1722, died 1769); John Scott (born - 1752, died 1837); William Scott, his Brother (born 1765); and - Charles Cuningham Scott (born 1794, died 1875) (Plate II.) - _Adjoining page_ 1 - - John Scott, C.B. (born 1830, died 1903); Robert Sinclair Scott - (born 1843, died 1905); Charles Cuningham Scott (the present - Chairman); Robert Lyons Scott (Plate III.) _Adjoining page_ 1 - - - THE ERA OF THE SAILING SHIP. (PAGES 1 TO 14.) - - The Beginnings (Plate IV.) _Facing page_ 2 - - Greenock and Scotts' Yard in the Eighteenth Century (Plate V.) - _Facing page_ 4 - - A West Indiaman 7 - - A Typical East Indiaman 9 - - The "Lord of the Isles" (Plate VI.) _Facing page_ 10 - - The "Archibald Russell" (Plate VII.) " " 12 - - - THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEAMSHIP. (PAGES 15 TO 42.) - - Early Steamboats at Greenock, 1820 (Plate VIII.) _Facing page_ 16 - - The "City of Glasgow" (Plate IX.) " " 20 - - A Side-Lever Engine of 1831 23 - - An Engine of 1832 25 - - Scotts' First P. and O. Liner, the "Tagus" (Plate X.) - _Facing page_ 26 - - Type of Side-Lever Engine of 1840 29 - - Double-Geared Engine for Early Atlantic Liner 32 - - A Pioneer in Water-Tube Boilers (The Rowan Boiler) 35 - - High-Pressure Machinery in the "Thetis" (Plate XI.) - _Facing page_ 36 - - The Machinery of the "Achilles" 38 - - General Arrangement of the Machinery of the "Achilles" (Plate XII.) - _Facing page_ 38 - - The "Achilles" of 1865, off Gravesend (Plate XIII.) " " 40 - - - A CENTURY'S WORK FOR THE NAVY. (PAGES 43 TO 62.) - - Model of H.M.S. "Prince of Wales," 1803 (Plate XIV.) - _Facing page_ 43 - - The Launch of the First Clyde-Built Steam Frigate "Greenock," 1849 - (Plate XV.) _Facing page_ 44 - - Machinery in H.M.SS. "Hecla," and "Hecate" 1839 (Plate XVI.) - _Facing page_ 46 - - Machinery of H.M.S. "Greenock," 1848 48 - - Machinery of H.M.S. "Canopus," 1900 49 - - H.M.S. "Thrush," 1889 (Plate XVII.) _Facing page_ 50 - - Engines of H.M.S. "Thrush," 1889 (Plate XVIII.) 52 - - H.M. Battleship "Prince of Wales" (Plate XIX.) 58 - - Propelling Engines of H.M.S. "Argyll" (Plate XX.) 60 - - - YACHTING AND YACHTS. (PAGES 63 TO 72.) - - The "Erin," Owned by Sir Thomas Lipton, Bart. (Plate XXI.) - _Facing page_ 63 - - The "Clarence," an Early Racing Cutter (Plate XXII.) " " 64 - - The "Greta" of 1876; the "Greta" of 1895 (Plate XXIII.) - _Facing page_ 66 - - The "Margarita"; the "Tuscarora" (Plate XXIV.) 68 - - The Saloons of the "Beryl," Owned by Lord Inverclyde (Plate XXV.) - _Facing page_ 70 - - Typical Yacht Engines (Plate XXVI.) " " 72 - - - THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. (PAGES 73 TO 87.) - - Dining-Saloon in a Mail Steamer; Drawing-Room in the Steam Yacht - "Foros" (Plate XXVII.) _Facing page_ 73 - - The Donaldson Liner "Cassandra" (Plate XXVIII.) " " 74 - - The Holt Liner "Achilles" of 1900 (Plate XXIX.) " " 76 - - The Largest Oil-Carrying Steamer afloat--the "Narragansett" - (Plate XXX.) _Facing page_ 78 - - The Launch of a China Steamer (Plate XXXI.) " " 80 - - The China Navigation Company's T.SS. "Fengtien" (Plate XXXII.) - _Adjoining page_ 81 - - The British India Company's SS. "Bharata" (Plate XXXIII.) - _Facing page_ 82 - - One of Twenty Thames Steamers Engined by the Scotts - (Plate XXXIV.) _Facing page_ 84 - - Engines and Boilers for Twenty London County Council Steamers - (Plate XXXV.) _Adjoining page_ 85 - - Typical Propelling Machinery (Plate XXXVI.) _Facing page_ 86 - - - EFFICIENCY: DESIGN: ADMINISTRATION. (PAGES 88 TO 93.) - - Shipbuilding (Plate XXXVII.) _Facing page_ 88 - - The Launch of H.M.S. "Argyll" (Plate XXXVIII.) " " 90 - - Engine Construction (Plate XXXIX.) " " 92 - - - THE SHIPBUILDING YARD. (PAGES 94 TO 105.) - - The Moulding Loft (Plate XL.) _Facing page_ 94 - - Beam Shearing Machine; Bevelling Machine; Hydraulic Joggling - Machine (Plate XLI.) _Adjoining page_ 95 - - In one of the Platers' Sheds (Plate XLII.) _Facing_ " 96 - - Punching and Shearing (Plate XLIII.) " " 98 - - The Fitting-out Dock (Plate XLIV.) " " 100 - - The Graving Dock (Plate XLV.) _Adjoining_ " 101 - - The Saw Mill (Plate XLVI.) _Facing_ " 102 - - Two Views in the Joiners' Shops (Plate XLVII.) _Adjoining_ " 103 - - Electric Generators in the Power Station; Hydraulic Pumps and - Air-Compressors in the Power Station (Plate XLVIII.) - _Facing page_ 104 - - - THE ENGINE AND BOILER WORKS. (PAGES 106 TO 116.) - - View in Main Machine Shop (Plate XLIX.) _Facing page_ 106 - - Vertical Planing Machine; Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine - (Plate L.) _Facing page_ 108 - - Surfacing and Boring Lathe (Plate LI.) _Adjoining_ " 109 - - Brass-Finishing Shop (Plate LII.) _Facing_ " 110 - - Tool, Gauge, Template and Jig Department - (Plate LIII.) " " 112 - - In the Boiler Shop (Plate LIV.) " " 114 - - Hydraulic Plate-Bending Machine 114 - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -Personalia. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -JOHN SCOTT (I) founded the firm in 1711, and engaged -in the building of herring busses and small craft. There -is, unfortunately, no engraving of him extant, so that our -series of portraits on Plates II. and III. adjoining page 1, -is to this extent incomplete. - -WILLIAM SCOTT, his son, born 1722, died 1769, succeeded -him, and, with his brother, extended the business alike as -regards the extent of the works, and the types of vessels -built. His first square-rigged ship--of 1765--was the first -vessel built on the Clyde for owners out of Scotland. - -JOHN SCOTT (II), born 1752, died 1837, son of William, -greatly developed the works and built the dry dock and -basin now included, with the original Yard, in the establishment of -Messrs. Caird and Co., Limited. Under his _régime_ many ocean-going -sailing ships were constructed, ship-work for the Navy was undertaken, -the manufacture of steam machinery commenced in 1825, and Admiralty -orders undertaken for engines for dockyard--as well as Greenock-built -frigates. He built the Custom House Quay in 1791, bought Halkshill, the -family seat, in 1815, was a partner in the Greenock Bank, and otherwise -promoted the industries of the town. - -His brother, WILLIAM SCOTT (II), born 1756, migrated -to Barnstaple, where he carried on an extensive shipbuilding -industry, obtaining engines for the most of his steamships from the -Greenock Works. - -CHARLES CUNINGHAM SCOTT, born 1794, died 1875, son of John Scott (II), -along with his elder brother, John Scott (III), born 1785, died -1874, carried on the business as "John Scott and Sons," developing -still further the progressive policy of his father, who had been -responsible for the works for about half a century. The Cartsdyke Yard -was commenced in 1850 by Charles Cuningham Scott, and his son John, -under the style of "Scott and Co.," and this firm is the one which has -maintained the continuity of the Scotts' association with shipbuilding. - -JOHN SCOTT (IV), born 1830, died 1903,[1] and ROBERT SINCLAIR SCOTT, -born 1843, died 1905, sons of Charles Cuningham Scott, were responsible -for the progress for nearly forty years, and the former was created a -Companion of the Bath (C.B.) in 1887. During their _régime_ the firm -took a large part in the introduction of the steamship for over-sea -voyages; in the development of high steam pressures and of the -multiple-expansion engine, which greatly improved the economy of the -steam engine; and in naval work, with its incidental advancement. They -completely reconstructed the Cartsdyke Works, and greatly improved what -is now known as the Cartsburn Dockyard, modernising the equipment. -The co-partnery was, for family reasons, registered in 1900 under the -Limited Liability Company Law. - -CHARLES CUNINGHAM SCOTT, son of John Scott, C.B., -is now the head of the concern and Chairman of the -Company (Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, -Limited), and with him on the directorate are his brother -ROBERT LYONS SCOTT, C. Mumme, and James Brown. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -[Illustration: _William Scott_ (_1722-1769_)] - -[Illustration: _John Scott_ (_1752-1837_)] - -[Illustration: _William Scott_ (_born 1756_)] - -[Illustration: _Charles C. Scott_ (_1794-1875_)] - -[Illustration: _John Scott_ (_1830-1903_)] - -[Illustration: _P. Sinclair Scott_ (_1843-1905_)] - -[Illustration: _C. C. Scott_] - -[Illustration: _R. L. Scott_] - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] This date is incorrectly given as 1904 at the end of the third -paragraph on page 66. - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -The Era of the Sailing Ship. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -The maintenance of an industry for two hundred years by one family, in -the direct line of succession and in one locality, is almost unique -in the history of western manufactures. Such a record proves that -the successive generations have displayed diligence, prudence, and -enterprise; otherwise it would not have been possible for them to have -held continuously a foremost place in the face of incessant competition -consequent upon the general advance in science, the introduction of -superior constructional materials, and the invention of new machinery. -It indicates also the maintenance of a high standard of workmanship -as well as integrity and business capacity; because time is the most -important factor in proving efficiency and in establishing credit for -durability of work, without which no reputation can be retained for -such a long period. - -The Scotts began the building of ships in Greenock in 1711. To-day, -their descendants of the sixth generation worthily maintain the high -traditions which have accumulated during the intervening two hundred -years. It is impossible to form an adequate conception of the service -rendered by this one firm to the science of marine construction and to -Britain, the leading maritime nation of the world. We should require -to review in detail the successive steps: firstly, in the perfection -of the sailing ship, from the sloops and brigantines of the eighteenth -century, to such beautiful clippers as Scotts' _Lord of the Isles_, -which in 1856 made the record voyage from China, and did much to wrest -from the Americans the "blue ribbon" of the ocean; and, secondly, -in the development of the steamship from its inception early in the -nineteenth century to the leviathans of to-day. In successive epochs in -the history of naval architecture the Scotts have played a creditable -part, and to some of the more important improvements initiated or -advanced by the firm reference will be made in our brief survey of the -work done during the past two centuries. Unfortunately, some years ago, -most of the old-time records were destroyed by a fire at the shipyard, -so that our review of the early work is largely from contemporary -publications, and is unavoidably incomplete. - -[Illustration: Plate IV. _From an Engraving by E. W. Cooke, R.A._ -THE BEGINNINGS.] - -The beginnings were small, for Scotland had not yet attained to -industrial importance, and had little oversea commerce. The first -trans-Atlantic voyage made by a Clyde ship was in 1686, when a -Greenock-built vessel was employed on a special mission to carry -twenty-two persons transported to Carolina for attending conventicles -and "being disaffected to Government."[2] American ships were most -numerous on the western seas, and the East India Company had a monopoly -of the eastern seas, so far as Britain was concerned, and preferred -to build their ships in India, although many were constructed on the -south coast of England. This monopoly checked progress. There was -little or no incentive to improvement in merchant ships, and the -naval authorities were too busy fighting Continental nations to risk -extensive experimental work. We have it on the authority of Sir -Nathaniel Barnaby, K.C.B.,[3] that neither Government nor private -builders made much progress in improving methods of construction. The -first letters patent granted for improvements relating to ships bear -the date January 17th, 1618, but the result of a thorough investigation -of all patents between 1618 and 1810 discloses no improvement worth -recording, except in the manufacture of sheathing and the construction -of pumps. - -The Scotts, like a few other shipbuilders on the Clyde, were concerned -for the greater part of the eighteenth century in the building of -fishing and coasting boats. There belonged to Greenock, in 1728, -as many as nine hundred of such fishing boats, locally built, each -carrying from twenty to twenty-four nets and manned by a crew of four -men. For many years the business of the firm consisted almost entirely -in the building of herring busses and small craft employed in the -fishing trade, the first establishment being at the mouth of the West -Burn, on land leased from the Shaw family. The shipbuilding industry -was carried on intermittently, and the Scotts were the first to give -it stability and continuity. In 1752, the Greenland whale fisheries -were engaged in, and this led to a development in the size of craft. -The first square-rigged vessel built in the port was a brig, named -_Greenock_, constructed in 1760, for the West Indian trade. In 1765, -William Scott, who had succeeded the original founder--his father, John -Scott--built a large square-rigged ship for some merchants of the town -of Hull, the timber for which came from the Ducal woods at Hamilton. -This ship is notable as being probably the first ship built on the -Clyde for owners out of Scotland.[4] To take a fairly representative -year (1776), eighteen vessels, ranging up to 77 tons, and of a total of -1073 tons burden, were constructed in Greenock, and of the number six -were built by the Scotts.[5] Although the work could be more cheaply -done on the Clyde than at London or Bristol, there was for a long time -a strong prejudice against English owners ordering vessels from the -north, and against Scotch vessels taking any part in the oversea trade. - -The Jacobite risings had also affected the industry, but the War of -Independence in America had far-reaching beneficial results. It is true -that prior to this the rich fields of the English colonial possessions, -as well as the English markets, had been opened to the commerce of -Scotland, and that the merchants of Glasgow had developed extensive -commercial operations with the West Indies and British North America; -but, although there was thus a considerable oversea trade between the -Clyde and the Western hemisphere, all the large vessels trading to the -Clyde were built in America.[6] The shipbuilding industry in the States -was thus a very extensive one; and, in 1769, there were launched, in -the North American Colonies, three hundred and eighty-nine vessels -of 20,000 tons burden, which was far in excess of the annual British -output.[7] This was largely owing to the limitless supply of timber in -America, and to the import duties on constructional material imposed -in this country to suit the English growers of oak, the price of which -advanced in the eighteenth century from £2 15s. to £7 7s. per load.[8] - -The _Brunswick_, of 600 tons, carpenters' measurement, to carry 1000 -tons real burden, built by the Scotts in 1791 for the Nova Scotia -trade; and the _Caledonia_, of 650 tons, built by the Scotts in 1794, -for the carriage of timber for the Navy yards--each the largest ship in -Scotland of its respective year--signalised the beginning of a period of -greater activity, especially in respect of large ocean ships. Some -years before--1767--the Scotts had feued ground for a building yard -on the shore east of the West Burn. They added a graving dock of -considerable size, and the inaugural proceedings included a dinner held -on the floor of the dock. - -[Illustration: Plate V. _From an Old Engraving._ -GREENOCK AND SCOTTS' YARD IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.] - -Other developments contributed to the prosperity of the port of -Greenock, the chief of the establishment being John Scott of the third -generation, who was born in 1752, and died in 1837. His brother, -William Scott, also the second of that name, migrated to Bristol, -where he carried on an extensive trade as a shipbuilder. The latter -was the father of James M. Scott, who is still remembered by some old -inhabitants as the founder, about 1847, of penny banks in Greenock -and of the Artisans' Club. John Scott, after his brother's departure, -carried on the business under the name of John Scott and Sons, and -did great service not only for the town, but also for the advancement -of the business. In three successive years, 1787, 1788, and 1789, -he bought three large plots from the ninth Lord Cathcart, for the -extension of the works.[9] These then extended almost from the West -Quay to the West Burn. He also, in 1791, constructed the old steamboat -or custom-house quay,[10] and played a large part in developing the -banking facilities of the town. He bought, in 1815, Halkshill, near -Largs, which has continued the residence of the family. In view of the -association of the firm with the town, it may be worth interpolating -here a statement of the growth of the population of Greenock, with the -sources from which the figures have been taken. - - Year. Population. Source. - 1700 1,328 Campbell's History, page 23. - 1801 17,458 Weir's History, page 120. - 1901 68,142 Census Returns, vol. i., page 212. - -Shipbuilding work, however, was still in craft which to-day would -be considered insignificant. The increase of the mercantile fleet -of England throughout the eighteenth century was only fivefold in -respect of numbers, and sixfold in tonnage; the average size shows -an augmentation from 80 tons to only 100 tons, and there was no -improvement in labour-economising appliances for the working of the -ship, as the ratio of men to tonnage was at the beginning of the -century practically one to every 10 tons, and at the close one to 13 -tons.[11] - -In the nineteenth century, the tonnage increased eightfold, but in view -of the adoption of steam the actual carrying capacity was augmented -nearly thirtyfold; the average size of ship increased to 760 tons. -Practically, every ship in the eighteenth century carried guns, the -average being two per vessel. It was not until 1853 that there was -omitted from the mail contracts the clause which provided that each -mail vessel must be built to carry guns of the largest calibre in use. - -[Illustration: A WEST INDIAMAN. (_See page 12._)] - -The nineteenth century brought every incentive to the development -of shipbuilding. Nelson taught the lesson, never to be forgotten, -that sea-power is essential to the commercial expansion--even to the -existence--of our island kingdom, with its corollary, that the merchant -fleet is as necessary to this mastery of the sea as fighting squadrons. -The sea became our home; there arose a renewed love of exploration, -and an ambition for colonisation. Success brought the chastening -influence of responsibility, with a higher appreciation of the -advantage of a conciliatory policy towards foreign nations. -Contemporaneously with the growth of this conception of empire there -arose a war of retaliation in shipping with the newly-formed United -States of America, which continued for half a century. Although not -without its regrettable incidents, it stimulated a rivalry in the -shipping and shipbuilding industries which was ultimately as beneficial -as it had been pronounced. The monopoly of the East India Company in -the Eastern shipping trade terminated, so far as India was concerned, -in 1814, and as regards China in 1834. This removed an influence which -had hitherto retarded enterprise in naval construction--especially on -the Clyde--due to the Company's preference for building their ships in -India, and in the south of England ports. Private owners, too, entered -more vigorously into competition with American clippers which had first -commenced trade with China in 1788. - -With the widening of the maritime interests and the intensification -of competition there was awakened a general desire to increase the -strength of ships. In this respect, as in others, there had been -little advance either in the Navy or in the mercantile marine. It was -exceptional for a ship of the eighteenth century to continue in service -for more than twelve or fifteen years. This was due partly to defective -constructional details, and partly to the ineffective methods of -preserving timber. - -[Illustration: A TYPICAL EAST INDIAMAN. (_See page 12._)] - -Ships were then built up[12] of a series of transverse ribs, connected -together by the outside planking and by the ceiling. There was no -filling between the ribs. The ship's structure thus suffered severely -from hogging and sagging stresses. The French tried to improve this by -introducing oblique iron riders across the ceiling, or by laying the -ceiling and the outside planking diagonally, while in other instances -the whole was strengthened with vertical or diagonal riders; but none -of these systems gave complete satisfaction. The Sepping system was -introduced about 1810, and was early adopted by the Scotts. The bottom -of the ship was formed into a solid mass of timber. The beams were -connected with the side of the ship by thick longitudinal timbers below -the knees, and by other stiffening members. A trussed frame was laid -on the inside of the transverse frame in the hold of the ship, and -the decks were laid diagonally. These members bound the ship in all -directions, so as to resist the stresses due to the ship working in a -seaway. - -The method of preserving the timber adopted at the beginning of the -eighteenth century was to char the inner surface of the log, while -the outer surface was kept wet; but this was superseded early in the -century by the stoving system, which consisted in placing timber in wet -sand, and subjecting it to the action of heat, for such time as was -necessary to extract the residue of the sap and bring the timber to a -condition of suppleness. This process continued until 1736, after which -the timber itself was steamed. Copper sheathing was first employed -on warships in 1761; prior to this lead had been used, but only -occasionally. - -American shipbuilders held an important position, even in the British -trade, for some time after the Declaration of Independence; but there -was then developed a pronounced spirit of emulation amongst the British -firms, which had a marked effect on competition in western seas. At the -beginning of the nineteenth century much of the oversea work done by -the Scotts was for the West Indian trade. The vessels were not often of -more than 600 tons, but the firm continued steadily to develop their -business. - -[Illustration: Plate VI. THE "LORD OF THE ISLES." (_See page 13._)] - -Between 1773 and 1829, the period of expansion under the second John -Scott, to which we have already referred, the output was 16,800 -tons.[13] This output included a succession of fine ships for the -West India trade, to the order of some of the old Glasgow companies, -amongst the number being Stirling, Gordon and Company; J. Campbell and -Company; James Young and Company; and Muir and Fairlie. We may mention -as typical ships, the _Grenada_, of 650 tons burden, and the _John -Campbell_, of 446 tons, built in 1806, the first ships launched on the -Clyde with all rigging in position. - -Thus early, too, the Scotts had entered upon the construction of -that long series of yachts, sailing and steam, which has brought -them considerable repute, and even more pleasure, since they were in -successive generations noted yachtsmen. In 1803 they launched the -45-1/2-ton cutter for Colonel Campbell, of the Yorkshire Militia, which -was pronounced one of the completest of the kind ever built in Scotland -up to that time. It may be incidentally mentioned, that the Scotts also -showed thus early their practical sympathy with the auxiliary forces of -the Crown by being at the head of the volunteer Sea Fencibles formed on -the Clyde in the stormy years of the Napoleonic wars. - -As soon as the monopoly of the East India Company was removed in -1814, private shipowners entered the lists, and the Scotts were early -occupied in the construction of Indo-China clippers. In 1818 they built -the _Christian_, and in 1820 the _Bellfield_, the latter, of 478 tons -register, for the London and Calcutta trade. She was one of the first -of a long series. The _Kirkman Finlay_, of 430 tons, built in 1834, -suggests the name of a firm long and honourably associated with the -development of trade in our great Eastern dependency. The effect of -competition was a reduction in the average rate of freight per ton from -India to Britain from £32 10s. about 1773 to £10 in 1830. - -The East India Company about the year 1813 paid £40 per ton for -their ships, as against about £25 per ton by other traders; the latter -sum was about the same as that paid in America. The East Indiaman had -a crew in the ratio of one to 10 or 12 tons, while one to 25 tons -sufficed for the West Indiaman. The speed of the western ship was -greater, largely by reason of the difference in proportions and lines. -The clipper built on the Clyde and in America had a length equal to -five or six times the beam, against four times the beam in the case of -the East India Company's ships. In the design of these clippers the -Scotts took an important part. Charles Cuningham Scott was then at the -head of the concern. An ingenious method of making model experiments -in the graving dock at the works was evolved in the 'forties, whereby -the firm were able to arrive at the most satisfactory form of hull to -give the minimum of resistance, and at the same time a large capacity -for cargo per registered ton. In this latter respect they were more -successful than the designers of the East Indiamen, notwithstanding the -bluff form of the latter. - -As rapidity in answering the helm was a most important element in -tacking, and therefore in speed, the firm about this time prepared -full-rigged models, about 5 ft. long, for experimental trials as to the -ship's form and rudder, on Loch Thom, on the hill above Greenock, in an -exposed place where the conditions of wind were analogous to those at -sea. The results proved satisfactory. In fact, in these years, when the -_Minerva_, _Acbar_, and other noted clippers were built, the care used -in design and construction was almost as great as that now devoted in -the case of racing yachts. - -[Illustration: Plate VII. THE "ARCHIBALD RUSSELL." (_See page 14._)] - -The Scotts, in the first half of the nineteenth century, continued to -produce a long series of successful sailing ships, while at the same -time taking a creditable part in the evolution of the steamship. Steam, -however, was not possible in long-distance voyages until pressures had -been increased, and coal consumption reduced to moderate limits; and -thus it came that, although the steam engine was used in the early -years of the nineteenth century in river, and later in coasting, -craft, the sailing ship continued supreme almost until the middle of -the century. We do not propose, however, to refer to all of the later -sailing ships built by the Scotts, but it may be interesting to give -some details of the construction. - -American rock elm was largely used. The frames were in three sections -with scarfed joints, bolted together, the scantlings being reduced -towards the top, so as to lower the centre of gravity. Inside the -frames there were at various heights longitudinal timbers, to add to -the fore-and-aft strength. The top sides were of greenheart, the beams -of oak or greenheart, with wrought-iron knees; the height between the -beams was made to admit of two hogsheads of sugar being placed in the -hold. There were side-stringers, sometimes 10 in. thick, between the -floor and the beams, which were half-checked into the stringers. On the -top of the beams there were deck-stringers. There was a most effective -transverse and longitudinal binding, brass bolts being extended right -through the knee, stringer, frame, and skin of the ship. The decks -were of yellow or Dantzig white pine. An 800 or 1000-ton West Indiaman -occupied about nine months in construction. The last wooden ship built -in Greenock was the _Canadian_, completed by the Scotts in 1859.[14] - -The highest conception of the iron sailing ship, as built by the -firm, was probably embodied in the _Lord of the Isles_, completed in -1856. She had a length between perpendiculars of 185 ft., a breadth -of 29 ft.--the proportion being thus 6.4 of length to 1 of beam--with -a depth of hold of 18 ft. Her registered tonnage was 691 tons, and -her builders' measurement 770 tons. Although a fine-ended ship she -carried a large cargo on board, and made her first trip to Sydney in -seventy days, which had not then been surpassed.[15] She made the -passage from Shanghai to London in eighty-seven days, with 1030 tons -of tea on board. In one trip she averaged 320 nautical miles for five -consecutive days. When engaged in the celebrated race for the delivery -of the season's teas from Foo-chow-foo to London, in 1856, the _Lord of -the Isles_ beat two of the fastest American clippers, of almost twice -her tonnage. She "delivered her cargo without one spot of damage, and -thus British ships regained their ascendency in the trade which their -American rivals had far too long monopolised."[16] From that time the -British sailing ships gradually gained a complete superiority over the -American vessels, and carried all before them, until they in turn were -supplanted by the British steamship. From time to time an occasional -sailing ship was constructed of steel; the latest, the _Archibald -Russell_, is illustrated. Built for Messrs. John Hardie and Company, -this vessel has a length, between perpendiculars, of 278 ft., a beam -of 43 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 26 ft., and carries 3930 tons of -deadweight cargo on a draught of 21 ft. 7-1/2 in. But less than 1 per -cent. of ships now constructed depend upon the unbought but uncertain -winds, and then only for special trades. On regular routes the steamer -is now almost paramount, and it was, therefore, appropriate in the -highest degree that the first vessels to steam regularly to China, -_viâ_ the Cape, should, like the _Lord of the Isles_, be built by the -Scotts; but that belongs to another story. - -[Illustration: decoration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[2] Campbell's "Historical Sketches of the Town and Harbour of -Greenock," vol. i., page 18. - -[3] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development in the Century," page 23. - -[4] Brown's "Early Annals of Greenock," page 136 - -[5] Williamson's "Memorials of James Watt," 1856. - -[6] "The Gazetteer of Scotland," 1842, vol. i., page 709. - -[7] "Journals of the House of Commons," 1792, page 357. - -[8] Holmes' "Ancient and Modern Ships," page 152. - -[9] Williamson's "Old Greenock," page 148. - -[10] Campbell's "Historical Sketches of the Town and Harbour of -Greenock," page 68. - -[11] The following figures are taken for 1701 from "Chambers' -Estimates," pages 68, 69, and 90; for 1793 from Lindsay's "History of -Merchant Shipping"; for 1803 from "Porter's Progress of the Nation," -page 626; and for 1901 from the "Statistical Abstract for the United -Kingdom." - - 1701. 1793. 1803. 1901. - Number of ships 3,281 16,079 20,893 20,258 - Tonnage 261,222 1,540,145 2,167,863 15,357,052 - Seamen 27,196 118,286 -- 247,973 - -The Scottish fleet, which is not included for 1701 and 1793, was much -smaller, alike in the size of units and aggregate tonnage. - -[12] Holmes's "Ancient and Modern Ships," page 130. - -[13] Weir's "History of Greenock." - -[14] Brown's "Early Annals of Greenock," page 138. - -[15] Murray's "Shipbuilding in Iron and Wood," page 60. - -[16] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iii, page 294. - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -The Development of the Steamship. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -A close association existed between the Scotts and the family of James -Watt, the inventor of the steam engine: the founder of the Scotts' -shipbuilding firm and the father of Watt were identified with several -schemes for the improvement of Greenock; and the signature of John -Scott, of the third generation, whose portrait is the second reproduced -on Plate II., is taken from a document in connection with some -intromissions of town's funds, to which also is adhibited the signature -of Watt's father. - -It is not surprising, therefore, that the Scotts were early close -students of Watt's inventive work, and among the first to enter upon -the building of steamships; while at the same time, as we have shown -in the preceding pages, building many of the fine sailing ships which -established British shipping supremacy in the early half of the -nineteenth century, and raised Greenock by 1829 to a port having trade -with every part of the world. - -Miller and Taylor commenced their experiments at Dalswinton in 1788, -with a steam engine driving paddle-wheels in boats[17]. Symington's -steam tug, _Charlotte Dundas_, by its success in 1802 on the Forth -and Clyde Canal[18], removed any remaining doubt; but it was not until -1812 that Henry Bell, with his _Comet_, proved the commercial utility -of the steam system, although without profit to the promoter.[19] The -building of steamships, evolved by experiments by various workers -in Britain--and in America also--was readily adopted on the Clyde. -Within four years of the completion of the _Comet_, it was not -unusual for five hundred or six hundred passengers to enjoy in the -course of one day water excursions on the river.[20] The fares were -practically five times those prevailing to-day. Among the earliest -of the Clyde steamers were the _Active_, of 59 tons, and _Despatch_, -of 58 tons, built by the Scotts. In calculating the tonnage in those -early days, an average allowance of one-third was deducted for the -machinery. In 1816 the firm built the _Shannon_, of a length between -perpendiculars of 77 ft. 7 in., of a beam of 15 ft. 3 in., and of a -depth moulded of 9 ft. 1 in. She had fore-and-aft cabins. Her engines -were of 14 horse-power nominal. She plied on the Shannon between -Limerick and Kilrush. By 1818--six years after the completion of the -_Comet_--thirty-two steamers were running on the Clyde, and some of -these were sent ultimately for traffic on the coast and on other -rivers.[21] The largest of these was of 112 tons, with engines of 40 -nominal horse-power. - -The Scotts had built many sailing craft for the Clyde and Belfast -trade, for the Glasgow and Liverpool service, and for the Liverpool and -Drogheda, and other coasting routes; and it was natural when steam was -introduced that the same firm should supply the side-paddle boats. - -[Illustration: Plate VIII. _From an Old Engraving._ -EARLY STEAMBOATS AT GREENOCK.] - - -In three successive years--from 1819 to 1821--the largest steamer -in the kingdom came from Scotts' Works. The record was marked in -1819 by the _Waterloo_, of over 200 tons, with engines of 60 nominal -horse-power; in 1820, by the _Superb_ of 240 tons register, with -engines of 72 nominal horse-power, which cost about £37 per ton, and -steamed 9 miles per hour, using 1670 lb. of Scotch coal per hour; and -in 1821, by the _Majestic_, of 345 tons register, with engines of 100 -horse-power, which cost over £40 per ton, and steamed 10 miles per -hour for a consumption of 2240 lb. of Scotch coal. Although the modern -steamer is fifty times the size of these pioneers, with a cost per ton -of less than one-fourth, and a fuel consumption per unit of work done -of not more than a seventh, the records of these and other early ships -are worthy of full reference. - -The advantage of steam navigation for channel service was at once -recognised. A Parliamentary return issued in 1815 showed that for the -space of nine days in the previous year only one mail packet could sail -between Holyhead and Dublin owing to adverse winds, and even then the -average passage was twenty-four hours. Lord Kelvin, in his memorable -Address as Chancellor of the University of Glasgow, in 1905, recalled -the fact that early in the century his father often took three or -four days to cross from Belfast to Greenock in a smack, as she was -frequently becalmed. With favourable winds, rapid passages were made, a -revenue cutter occasionally doing the Belfast and Greenock run in ten -hours. - -The Greenock and Belfast route was among the first around the coast to -come under the influence of the mechanical system of propulsion. The -_Rob Roy_, which was the outcome, so far as form of hull was concerned, -of probably the first model experiments ever made--undertaken by David -Napier in the Canal at Camlachie[22]--was in 1818 the pioneer in the -Glasgow and Belfast steam service, and later in the Dover and Calais -steam service. - -There followed in 1819 three notable vessels from Scotts' Works: the -_Waterloo_,[23] the _Robert Bruce_, and the _Sir William Wallace_. The -particulars and performances of these vessels, taken from contemporary -records, principally the "Greenock Advertiser," which faithfully -reported each incident in the development of the steamship, are -especially interesting as illustrative of early work. - -The _Waterloo_, which, as we have already said, was the largest steamer -of her year (1819), had a beam equal to one-fifth of her length, the -measurement between perpendiculars being 98 ft. 8 in. In addition to -a large number of passengers, she carried under ordinary conditions -a cargo of 100 tons, on a draught of 8 ft. 6 in. against 7 ft. 3 in. -without cargo. Three months were required, between the launch of the -ship and her trials, for the fitting on board of engines each of 30 -nominal horse-power, which gave her a speed of between 8 and 9 miles -per hour. Sails, however, were still carried to assist in driving the -ship, and this vessel was of schooner rig. She inaugurated the steam -service between Belfast and Liverpool. - -The _Robert Bruce_ was the first steamer to trade between the Clyde and -Liverpool.[24] She was followed by the _Sir William Wallace_. Both -were built by the Scotts, and had engines of 60 nominal horse-power. -They began service in the summer of 1819; and the record of the maiden -voyage of the former, in August, 1819, showed that two and a-half -hours were occupied in the run from Glasgow to Greenock, about 22 -miles; and within 26 hours thereafter the vessel took on her pilot at -the north-west lightship outside the Mersey Bar. The return voyage -was equally satisfactory. To quote again from contemporary records, -"the passengers, both out and home, were so highly gratified with the -performance of this vessel and their treatment on board that they -unanimously expressed their entire satisfaction with Captain Paterson's -exertions to render them comfortable and happy, their conviction of the -seaworthiness of the vessel, and their admiration of the powers of the -engines, capable of propelling so large a body at the rate of 7 knots -per hour, in the face of a strong north-northwest wind and high sea for -at least two-thirds of the way from Liverpool, her rate thither being -nearly 9 knots."[25] - -In 1820, the _Superb_, of 240 tons and 72 horse-power, followed the -_Sir William Wallace_, and marked a still further improvement. She had -a copper boiler, and in the three cabins sleeping accommodation was -provided for sixty-two passengers. She was "the finest, largest, and -most powerful steam vessel in Great Britain.[26] The average duration -of the passage from the Clyde to Liverpool did not exceed 30 hours." - -The _Majestic_, also for the Clyde and Liverpool service, was built -in 1821, and was 134 ft. 11 in. long between perpendiculars, 22 ft. 8 -in. beam, and 14 ft. 5 in. depth, moulded. Her draught, 10 ft. 6 in. -forward and 12 ft. aft, was too great for the upper reaches of the -Clyde, and passengers were brought from Glasgow to Greenock in a -tender. In her four cabins there was greatly-increased accommodation -for the passengers. She was probably the first steamer with a -sleeping apartment exclusively for ladies. The copper boiler worked -at a pressure of 4 lb. per square inch, and the engines ran at 56 -revolutions. The fares[27] to Liverpool in those days were £2 15s., as -compared with 11s. to-day; of course, very much better accommodation is -now provided. - -The _City of Glasgow_ was built in 1822 for the Liverpool service. -This vessel, which cost £15,000, had a speed of over 10 knots, and was -reputed the fastest afloat. Her length was 110 ft. 4 in., beam 22 ft. 4 -in., and depth, moulded, 13 ft. She was arranged like the _Majestic_, -and the two were long the most important vessels in the Clyde and -Liverpool trade. She was subsequently bought by McIver, and inaugurated -the competition with the Burns line, commenced in 1829.[28] The McIver -and Burns lines were subsequently combined. - -The Scotts rendered similar service in the development of the mail -route between Holyhead and Dublin. The first vessel built by them for -this service was the _Ivanhoe_, constructed in 1820. The steam service -had been opened between these two ports in 1819 by the _Talbot_, the -first steamer fitted with feathering floats.[29] The _Ivanhoe_,[30] a -larger steamer than the _Talbot_, was of 170 tons burden, her length -between perpendiculars being 97 ft. 4 in., beam 19 ft., and depth, -moulded, 14 ft. 6 in. She had various improvements in her machinery, -which was of 60 nominal horse-power. She left Scotts' yard in May, -1820, and made the voyage to Howth (200 miles), in 26-1/2 hours. - -[Illustration: Plate IX. _From "The Life of Robert Napier."_ -THE "CITY OF GLASGOW." ] - - -Thus the Scotts continued to improve on each successive ship, and to -widen the area of their influence. The Clyde continued to largely -monopolise the industry of steam shipbuilding, and it was not until the -summer of 1822 that a steamer--not built in Scotland--appeared on the -Clyde. This was the _Saint George_, from Liverpool, and the _City of -Glasgow_, already referred to, her competitor in the Liverpool trade, -raced her and greatly excelled. - -One of the first steamers to trade in the Mediterranean was the -_Superb_, sent thither in 1824, and the _Trinacria_, also built by the -Scotts, followed in 1825. These ran between Naples and Palermo. The -last-named vessel was 135 ft. long over-all, and 113 ft. 6 in. between -perpendiculars, 39 ft. 6 in. broad over the paddle-box, and 21 ft. -10 in. net beam, 14 ft. deep (moulded), and of 300 tons burden. The -vessel was especially well-equipped, and cost £15,000. The engines, the -first manufactured by the Scotts at their Greenock foundry, were of 80 -nominal horse-power, and the boilers, which were of copper, weighed -40 tons. The speed was 10 miles per hour. Later this steamer became -the _Hylton Joliffe_, and was employed by the General Steam Navigation -Company on their London and Hamburg service. - -As to the yard in which these several vessels were built, suggestion -is afforded of the state of efficiency by the following quotation from -a history published in 1829.[31] "The building yard of Messrs. Scott -and Sons is allowed to be the most complete in Britain, excepting those -which belong to the Crown. It has a fine extent of front from the West -Quay to the termination of the West Burn, and has a large dry dock, -which was altered lately to the plan of the new dock. All the stores -and lofts are entirely walled in, and, independently of the building -premises, they have an extensive manufactory of chain cables." - -The majority of the engines for these early steamers of the Scotts -were constructed by Napier or Cook, and were of the side-lever or -beam type. In 1825, however, John Scott, who had done so much for the -progress of the firm, decided to commence building machinery, and -acquired for £5000 the works which have since been developed into the -well-known Greenock Foundry. This establishment was begun, although on -a very small scale, about 1790,[32] and in its equipment, which was -considered thoroughly efficient, there was included a large cupola. -Some idea is given of the extent of the establishment by reference to -Weir's "History of Greenock" (1829), page 94, where it is stated that -in the few years that had elapsed since the taking over of the works -by the Scotts "they have manufactured some splendid engines, and--what -is more to be looked for than the appearance--they have wrought well. -They have in hand the largest engine ever made, which is of a size of -200 horse-power, and is intended for a vessel building at Bristol. The -number of men employed amount to about two hundred and twenty, while -the weekly distribution of wages is £180." As a contrast, it may be -said here that there are now four thousand men in the works, earning -per week over £5500 in wages, and that the Scotts are engaged on the -largest set of engines yet constructed by them--for H.M.S. _Defence_. -They are of 27,000 indicated horse-power, to give the immense armoured -cruiser named, of 14,600 tons displacement, a speed of 23 knots. - -Since 1825, the Scotts have continued to do very satisfactory engine -work, much of it of an original character, not only for vessels built -for themselves, but for ships constructed on the Thames and other -English rivers, and also for the series of warships built for the -British Navy at their works, and for others constructed at the Royal -Dockyards. This naval engine work began with H.M. ships _Hecla_ -and _Hecate_, engined in 1838-9, and the first warships built in the -dockyards to be sent to Scottish works to receive machinery.[33] And -here it may be noted, too, that the first warship built by the Scotts -was the _Prince of Wales_, in 1803, and also that the firm had the -credit of building the first steam frigate constructed at Clyde works -for the British Navy, H.M.S. _Greenock_, launched in 1839. They also -built the first compound engines fitted to a French warship. With these -naval ships and engines we deal in our next Chapter, and may therefore -continue our narrative regarding merchant steamers. - -[Illustration: A SIDE-LEVER ENGINE OF 1831.] - -We reproduce on the preceding page a drawing illustrating an early type -of engine built by the firm. This is an engine constructed in 1831. -The steam cylinder is 52-1/4 in. in diameter, and the crank-shaft is -actuated, through connecting-rods, from the ends of the levers operated -by the piston-rod, while the air-pump is placed at the opposite ends of -the levers. - -A different type of engine, constructed in the following year (1832), -is illustrated on the facing page. In this case the cylinder operates -the opposite end of the levers to that connected with the crank-shaft. -In both engines the lever-gudgeon passes through the jet-condenser. - -The records we have given are historically interesting, because they -tell of the beginnings of a great epoch in British shipping. We do -not propose to follow in such detail subsequent steamships, built for -other services, between London and Aberdeen, the Clyde and Dublin, -etc. The _City of Aberdeen_, built in 1835 for the first-named, marked -noteworthy progress. She measured 187 ft. over the figure-head, and -was of 1800 tons, including the space for the machinery. Her poop was -60 ft. long and 45 ft. broad. According to contemporary testimony, -she was, in her day, the strongest steamer built, having solid frames -from gunwale to gunwale. She had additional bracing with African oak -stringers; oak and iron trussings alternately bolted to the stringers -formed a complete system of diagonal fastenings and bindings from stem -to stern. The whole of the cabins, saloons and state rooms, were on one -deck, and there was the important innovation of hot and cold baths. The -speed was 12 miles per hour.[34] - -The _Jupiter_, of 439 tons and 210 horse-power, built in 1836 for the -Clyde and Dublin trade, cost £20,000, and established a record in -speed, making the voyage in sixteen hours six minutes, at the rate of -13 miles per hour; formerly the voyage took twenty-four hours. - -[Illustration: AN ENGINE OF 1832.] - -In the late 'thirties and the early 'forties there was a great -development in oversea trading steamers, the Clyde taking, then as now, -the foremost place. Several epoch-marking voyages had been made with -the steam engine used intermittently. The _Savannah_ had thus crossed -the Atlantic from the United States in 1819, and the _Royal William_ -from Quebec in 1833. - -The barque _Falcon_,[35] 84 ft. in length, and of 175 tons, had, -on the voyage to India in 1835 utilised engines which, however, were -removed on her arrival in our Eastern dependency. Later in the same -year the _Enterprise_, of 470 tons and 120 horse-power, also rounded -the Cape of Good Hope to India. In all these cases, however, sails -were utilised whenever possible, and there was still great hesitancy -in accepting the steam engine even as an alternative on occasions to -the use of the "unbought wind." The advantage, however, of a rate of -speed which, while low, would be constant, soon asserted itself, and -there followed within a few years regular mail steamship services on -the North and South Atlantic Oceans, in the Mediterranean Sea, in the -Indian Ocean, and the China Seas. In the beginning and development of -these services the Scotts took a prominent part. - -One of the first notable steamship lines to be organised for oversea -service was that which ultimately became the Peninsular and Oriental -Company. It had its origin[36] in steamship service from Falmouth -to Oporto, Lisbon, Cadiz, and Gibraltar. Four steamers were built -in 1836-37: the _Tagus_, _Don Juan_, _Braganza_, and _Iberia_. The -first-named was built by the Scotts, and the third was engined by -them. These ultimately carried the mails as far as Alexandria, whence -they were conveyed overland to Suez, and from thence by the East India -Company's vessels to Bombay. This service developed into the Peninsular -and Oriental service, when, in 1840, the Company took over the mail -service on the Indian Ocean; in 1847 they extended their operations to -China. The overland service continued until the Suez Canal was opened -in 1869, and many of the vessels for the Mediterranean service, as well -as for the eastern route, were built by the Scotts. - -[Illustration: Plate X. SCOTTS' FIRST P. AND O. LINER, THE "TAGUS."] - - -The _Tagus_,[37] which was thus amongst the first of the P. and O. -steamers, was built in 1837. She had a length of 182.1 ft., a beam of -26 ft., and a depth of 17 ft. 4 in., the burden tonnage being 709 tons. -When carrying 265 tons of coal in her bunkers and 300 tons of cargo, -the draught was 14 ft. 6 in. The side-lever engines which were fitted -to her had a cylinder 62 in. in diameter, with a 5-ft. 9-in. stroke, -developed 286 horse-power, and operated paddle-wheels 23 ft. 6 in. -in diameter. Two of the other early steamers, the _Jupiter_ and the -_Montrose_, were also constructed by the Scotts. - -The conveyance of cargo and passengers across the Isthmus of Suez not -only involved inconvenience and expense, but was a cause of great -delay. There was still, however, a strong prejudice against steamships -being utilised for long sea voyages, partly because of vested interests -in sailing ships. Sir John Ross, C.B., who, in 1818 and in 1829 to -1833, made Arctic explorations, was one of the strongest advocates for -a service to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope; and, in order to -establish the feasibility of the undertaking, made experiments with the -_City of Glasgow_, built by the Scotts in 1821. This vessel, of 283 -tons, had in the interval been fitted with new boilers, with special -safety appliances, and they worked at 4-lb. pressure; they gave the -high evaporation in those days of 9 lb. of water per pound of coal.[38] - -This vessel made the trip from London Bridge to the lightship off -Spithead (246 miles) in thirty-one hours five minutes, on a consumption -of 6 lb. of fuel per indicated horse-power per hour. These facts were -utilised by Sir John Ross in his advocacy of the route, and a new -company was formed, under his chairmanship, in 1837. - -The first vessel of the fleet, named the _India_, was built and -engined by the Scotts, and was a few years later transferred to the -Peninsular and Oriental Company. The _India_, launched in 1839, was -the largest steamer built on the Clyde up to that date, being 206 ft. -6 in. long, 30 ft. 9 in. beam, or 48 ft. wide over the paddle-boxes. -The gross tonnage was 1206 tons. Accommodation was provided for eighty -cabin passengers, and provision made for 400 tons of cargo. A feature -of her construction was the provision of two strong bulkheads of iron -across the engine-room, in order to avoid accidental outbreak of -fire, and also to prevent water from a leak in one part spreading to -another.[39] This was probably the beginning--nearly seventy years -ago--of the system of division by watertight bulkheads, now universal. -Its compulsory adoption was advocated by the Institution of Naval -Architects in 1866, and enforced by Lloyds in 1882, and by the Board -of Trade in 1890. The machinery was of 320 horse-power, and had -surface-condensers. The _India_ was launched on the anniversary of the -birth of James Watt, and a salute of twenty-one guns was fired as the -vessel left the ways. - -Five other steamers were built for the service, and the voyage took -from fifty-five to sixty days, as compared with the one hundred and -thirteen days occupied by the _Enterprise_. A monthly service was thus -rendered possible. At the same time the Scotts built steam vessels for -the coasting trade of India and of South Africa. - -The type of machinery in use at this period is illustrated on the -opposite page. This particular engine was constructed in 1838. The -piston was connected to one end of the side-levers, while the crank was -operated from the other. The paddle-wheel of this engine was 25 ft. -0-1/2 in. in diameter, with seventeen floats. For about thirty years -this was the standard type of marine engine for paddle steamers. - -The Gothic architectural design for the main framing was gradually -abandoned for something less ornamental and perhaps more mechanical. - -[Illustration: TYPE OF SIDE-LEVER ENGINE OF 1840.] - -The Royal West India Mail Company's Service, still one of the best -known of British lines, was commenced in 1841. Some of the steamers -were purchased, but amongst those built originally for the service was -the _Dee_ by the Scotts. She was 213 ft. 9 in. long, 30 ft. 4 in. beam, -and 30 ft. in depth, the burden tonnage being 1848 tons. On a draught -of 17 ft. 6 in. she carried 700 tons of cargo; and, as with most of the -oversea liners of the period, the average speed was only about 8 knots. -The voyage of 13,650 miles occupied then one hundred and nine days, -including stoppages; and the consumption of fuel was 25-1/2 tons per -day. The engines, which had cylinders 73 in. in diameter with a stroke -of 7 ft., were of 450 horse-power, driving side paddle-wheels 28 ft. 6 -in. in diameter.[40] - -In the thirty years from the first commercial British steamer, the -_Comet_, there had not been much advance in the steam engine, excepting -in size, power, and, perhaps, reliability. Wood had continued to be -the constructive material for all but the smallest ships. The size of -vessels had grown steadily to the 1848 tons of the West Indian mail -liner, which started regular steamship service almost contemporaneously -with the inauguration of the Atlantic mail line by the Cunard Company -in 1840. Speeds on service, even on the shortest routes, were seldom -over 13 knots, and on the long routes under 8 knots. But this was in -excess of the average attained by all but exceptionally fast clippers. -The Table on the opposite page shows the progress made in thirty years. - -TABLE I.--EPOCH-MARKING STEAMERS BUILT BY THE SCOTTS, 1819 TO 1841. - - -----+------------------+--------+---------+-------+------------------ - Year.| Name. |Tonnage.| Horse- |Speed | Remarks. - | | |power.[A]|(Miles | - | | | | per | - | | | | Hour).| - -----+------------------+--------+---------+-------+------------------ - 1819 | _Waterloo_ | 200 | 60 | 9 |Largest steamer of - | | | | | 1819. - | | | | | - 1820 | _Superb_ | 240 | 72 | 9 |Largest steamer of - | | | | | 1820. - | | | | | - 1821 | _Majestic_ | 345 | 100 | 10 |Largest steamer of - | | | | | 1821. - | | | | | - 1835 |_City of Aberdeen_| ... | 200 | 12 |Strongest steamer - | | | | | of 1835. - | | | | | - 1836 | _Jupiter_ | 439 | 210 | 13 |Record speed - | | | | | - 1837 | _Tagus_ | 709 | 286 | 10 |Largest constructed - | | | | | on Clyde, 1837, - | | | | | and an early - | | | | | P. and O. liner. - | | | | | - 1839 | _India_ | 1206 | 320 | 10 |First steamer to - | | | | | India _viâ_ the - | | | | | Cape and the first - | | | | | Indian liner. - | | | | | - 1841 | _Dee_ | 1848 | 450 | 10 |First Royal West - | | | | | India Mail liner. - -----+------------------+--------+---------+-------+------------------ - -[A] It is difficult to determine in all cases the basis on which -horse-power was computed. The figures given represent nominal -horse-power, and in Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine" (page 3), -the indicated horse-power is, for this early period, recorded as 1.8 -times the nominal horse-power. - -We enter now upon the period when iron took the place of timber as a -constructional material. It was first used in part in the construction, -on the banks of the Monkland Canal as far back as 1818, of a canal -barge named the _Vulcan_, a vessel which continued at work for over -sixty years.[41] But the first vessel built entirely of iron was a -small craft constructed in 1821 in England. It was not, however, until -1832 that the first sea-going vessel was built of this metal. Progress -in the adoption of iron was slow, largely because timber had proved so -serviceable, and, with lessened restriction upon its importation, had -become much cheaper. It was not until the higher strength and greater -ductility of steel were demonstrated in the 'eighties that timber -was finally superseded. The last wooden ship built by the Scotts was -completed in 1859. - -The firm built several of the early Atlantic liners, and we reproduce -on page 32, as a further step in the development of the steam engine, -a drawing showing the double-gear engines constructed early in the -'fifties for an iron screw steamer of 1190 tons, built for the Glasgow -and New York service. This engine was pronounced at the time "the most -compact specimen of its type then in existence,"[42] for although -the power developed was 250 horse-power, and the ship was 260 ft. in -length, only 12 ft. 6 in. of the fore-and-aft length was taken up by -the machinery. "Every weight was well balanced, the working parts -were clear and open, and the combined whole was stable, firm, and -well bound together." The cylinders were 52 in. in diameter, were -arranged diagonally, and worked at right angles to each other, with -a stroke of 3 ft. 9 in. The piston-rods projected through the lower -covers, to allow of long return connecting-rods. Each cylinder had two -piston-rods, for greater steadiness, their outer ends in each case -being keyed into a crosshead, fitted at each end with slide-blocks, -working in a pair of inclined open guide-frames, bolted to the bottom -cylinder cover, and supported beneath by projecting bracket-pieces, -recessed and bolted down upon pedestal pieces on the engine sole-plate. -From each end of this crosshead, immediately outside the guide-frame, -a plain straight connecting-rod of round section passed up to actuate -the main first-motion shaft. The upper ends of the connecting-rods were -jointed to side-studs, or crank-pins, fixed in two opposite arms of -a pair of large spur-wheels, which gave motion to the screw-shaft by -means of a pair of corresponding spur-pinions, fixed on the shaft. - -[Illustration: DOUBLE-GEARED ENGINE FOR EARLY ATLANTIC LINER.] - -The main spur-wheels were 11 ft. 5-1/2 in. in diameter, and the pinions -on the screw-shaft 4 ft. 6 in.; so that the screw propeller made 2-1/2 -revolutions to each rotation of the engine. The arrangement ensured -that each piston was directly coupled to both of the large wheels, and -the increased length of the crossheads, which the plan involved, was -counterbalanced by the effect of the double piston-rods, for by this -division of the pressure the cross-strain leverage was proportionately -diminished. - -The use of steam expansively in multiple-cylinder engines was, however, -the most important factor in the development of the steamship during -the latter half of the nineteenth century.[43] With low steam pressures -and simple engines the coal consumption, even for moderate-sized ships, -was a serious item in a long sea voyage; and, early in the 'fifties, -engineers, recognising the economy which would result from a successful -compounding of steam, tackled the problems of steam-generation plant to -enable the necessary high initial pressure to be developed with safety. -John Elder had fitted several ships, but was, for a long time, content -with an initial pressure of from 50 lb. to 60 lb. per square inch. - -The late John Scott, C.B., was so convinced of the economy of steam -at higher pressures in the compound system that he decided to build, -largely at his own expense, a vessel which would enable him to put the -system to a thorough test. This steamer, constructed of iron in 1858, -was the _Thetis_, which was, undoubtedly, an epoch-marking ship, as her -machinery was operated at an initial pressure of 115 lb. to the square -inch--exceptionally high for those days. - -For the first time, surface condensers were used in association with -the compound marine engine. There were, as shown on Plate XI., facing -page 36, six cylinders, arranged in two groups, each with one high- and -two low-pressure cylinders. The three pistons of each group worked one -crosshead, connecting-rod, and crank. Each group had two slide-valves, -one for the high-pressure and one for the low-pressure cylinders, and -both were attached to one valve spindle and one reversing link.[44] The -engines worked up to 51 revolutions per minute--equal to a piston speed -of 255 ft. per minute--and the maximum indicated horse-power was 256. -The engines were tried by the late Professor Macquorn Rankine, F.R.S., -who certified that the coal consumption on trial was 1.018 lb. per -indicated horse-power per hour: an extraordinary result, even in the -light of modern improvements.[45] - -A large part of this efficiency was due to the boilers, which were of -the Rowan water-tube type, and are illustrated on the opposite page. -They had square vertical water-tubes, and through each of these there -passed four hot-gas tubes. They evaporated 11 lb. of water per pound -of coal, which was 30 per cent. higher than was attained with the best -marine boilers of those days. The coal consumption at sea was about -1.86 lb. per indicated horse-power per hour. - -Unfortunately, there soon developed small holes in the boiler-tubes, -owing to erosion of the external surface, probably the consequence of -the chemical action set up by the steam for cleaning the tubes mixing -with the soot and other deposit.[46] Although for this reason this -early water-tube boiler did not succeed, there is no doubt that the -performances suggested improvements which have since brought complete -success to this system of boiler. At the same time, the efficiency of -high steam pressures was completely established and resulted in very -considerable progress in the size and power of steamships. - -[Illustration: A PIONEER IN WATER-TUBE BOILERS.] - -Another innovation which suggested future developments was the fitting -at the base of the funnel in the _Thetis_ of a series of water-tubes -for the purpose of utilising the waste heat from the boilers to -evaporate water for subsequent condensation to make up the boiler feed. -The time was not ripe for such a utilisation of the waste gases--the -heat was insufficient to generate the required steam--but now various -schemes are applied for absorbing the waste heat in the uptake to heat -air for furnace draught and to superheat steam. - -A number of water-tube boilers were made, and a set was fitted into -a corvette built for the French Navy. This vessel, completed in the -early 'sixties, was the first ship in the French fleet to be driven by -compound engines, and will fall to be described with other vessels in -our next Chapter, dealing with the work of a century for the Navy. - -Perhaps the most significant indication of the success of the Scott -compound engine is found in the results of its application to the early -Holt steamers. Alfred Holt commenced trading with the West Indies in -1855, while his brother, George Holt, became associated with Lamport -in the River Plate trade in 1865. Both lines continue among the most -successful in British shipping. - -The Holt steam line to China was commenced in 1865, and was the only -one _viâ_ the Cape of Good Hope which proved at once successful. -Built and engined by the Scotts, the early Holt liners, starting from -Liverpool, never stopped till they reached Mauritius, a distance of -8500 miles, being under steam the whole way, a feat until then -considered impossible.[47] Thence the vessels proceeded to Penang, -Singapore, Hong Kong, and Shanghai. Unaided by any Government grants, -they performed this long voyage with great regularity. - -[Illustration: Plate XI. HIGH-PRESSURE MACHINERY IN THE "THETIS."] - -The three vessels which inaugurated the very successful Holt line were -named _Agamemnon_, _Ajax_, and _Achilles_, and were built of iron -by the Scotts in 1865-6. They were each 309 ft. in length between -perpendiculars, 38 ft. 6 in. beam, and 29 ft. 8 in. in depth, with -a gross tonnage of 2347 tons--dimensions which were then deemed too -great for the China trade, but which experience soon proved to be -most satisfactory. Sails were fitted to the vessels, as shown in the -engraving on the Plate facing page 40. - -Alfred Holt was the first to apply the compound engine to long voyages, -and his vessels were the earliest of the type built for the merchant -service by the Scotts. It is true the Pacific Company had compound -engines fitted to one or two ships prior to this, but these were only -used in the coasting trade. The engines of these Holt liners are -therefore of historical interest, and general drawings are reproduced -on the next page and on Plate XII. A feature in these liners was that -the propeller was abaft the rudder, which worked in an aperture in the -deadwood corresponding to that for the propeller in single-screw modern -ships. - -A detailed description from the specification of the machinery may -be reproduced, as it indicates the practice of the Scotts for a -considerable time. Indeed, this type of compound engine, with slight -modifications, was the standard engine for Holt liners until the advent -of the triple-expansion engine. The details follow:-- - - The cylinders were: high-pressure, 30 in. in diameter; low-pressure, - 62 in. in diameter, with 4 ft. 4 in. stroke, arranged vertically in - tandem fashion, with the low-pressure cylinder on the top. There were - two connecting-rods, but a common crosshead for the tandem cylinders, - and a common crankpin. - - The crankshaft was 13-1/2 in. in diameter, with a bearing 30 in. long - at the aft end of the bedplate, which took the propeller thrust. The - propeller was three-bladed, 17 ft. in diameter, with 26 ft. 6 in. - pitch; with 46 revolutions per minute the piston speed was 400 ft. - per minute. To ensure smooth working with the single crank, a heavy - flywheel was fitted, and the pump levers carried a massive weight to - help to balance the weight of pistons and rods. - - [Illustration: THE MACHINERY OF THE "ACHILLES."] - - The condenser had 420 tubes 1-1/2 in. in diameter, giving a cooling - surface of 1375 square feet. The tubes were arranged in three nests, - the water circulating through the top one first and the bottom one - last. The circulating pump, instead of forcing water through the - tubes, as was usual in such case, sucked from the condenser and - discharged directly overboard. There were: one air pump, 24 in. in - diameter; one circulating pump, 24 in. in diameter; two feed pumps, - 4-3/4 in. in diameter; and one bilge pump 7 in. in diameter: all the - pumps were single-acting, with 17 in. stroke. The diameters of the - principal pipes were: main steam, 7-1/2 in.; to low-pressure cylinder, - 12 in.; circulating inlet, 10 in.; discharge, 12 in.; air-pump - discharge, 10 in.; main feed, 3-3/4 in.; and waste steam, two at 6 in. - in diameter. - - The two boilers were double-ended, of the locomotive type, with - wet-bottomed furnaces. The centre was cylindrical, but the ends were - rectangular with semi-cylindrical tops, the total weight, without - water, being 78 tons. Each boiler had a long receiver passing through - the uptake to dry the steam. On the receiver was a deadweight - safety-valve 6-1/4 in. in diameter, to suit a working pressure of 60 - lb. per square inch. The grate surface was 112 square feet, and the - total heating surface 4506 square feet, there being 328 iron tubes 4 - in. in diameter. - -[Illustration: Plate XII. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE MACHINERY OF THE -"ACHILLES."] - -The three pioneer ships of the Holt line--the _Agamemnon_, _Ajax_, and -_Achilles_--proved most economical. The _Achilles_ came home from China -in fifty-seven days eighteen hours, net steaming time, or, including -the stoppages at ports, sixty-one days three hours. She travelled -during this period a distance of 12,352 miles, on a consumption of -coal which did not exceed 20 tons per day for all purposes,[48] equal -to 2-1/4 lb. per unit of power per hour, which for those early days, -with comparatively low steam pressures, must be regarded as a highly -satisfactory result. - -The non-stop voyage between Liverpool and Mauritius was made as early -as 1866 in thirty-seven days, equal to 10 knots, with a number of -passengers and a fair cargo. The higher economy established for the -compound engine on long voyages resulted in the ultimate supersession -of the sailing ship.[49] Thus the Scotts, while still enjoying the -credit of the splendid performance of the _Lord of the Isles_ in the -early 'sixties, produced at their foundry the Holt compound engine, -which sounded the death-knell of the clipper. The compound system had -at once an influence on the size of ships. Up till 1862 no ship of -over 4000 tons had been constructed, with the exception of the _Great -Eastern_; by 1870 there were fifteen; by 1880, thirty-seven.[50] - -The Scotts, aided by Holt, continued their research towards higher -economy, and a large fleet of steamers was built, with engines having -flywheels which, it was found by experience, considerably improved the -economy up to a certain stage, although with increased pressure the -proportion of saving was not commensurate with the weight of the wheel, -and the three-cylinder three-crank engine was ultimately adopted. - -The Scotts throughout the century continued to have a close -association with the China trade, constructing a long series of -successful steamers for the Holt company and for other lines, with -services from Britain to the Far East, and carried out very extensive -work in the building up of the coasting trade of Asia and Oceania. -For the Holt line alone there have been constructed by the Scotts -forty-eight steamers, aggregating 148,353 tons; while the propelling -machinery of these represents 19,500 nominal horse-power. For the India -and China services there have, in the past fifty years, been completed -over one hundred and thirty steamers. - -The China Navigation Company, Limited, was formed in 1873 by Messrs. -John Swire and Sons, of London, for trading in China, and the first -steamers built for them by the Scotts were two vessels of 1200 tons -gross, completed in 1876. - -Since then the Scotts' yard has practically never been without a vessel -for one or other branch of the Eastern trade, and particularly for -the China Navigation Company, which runs steamers from China as far -south as Australia, as far west as the Straits, and as far north as -Vladivostock and the Amur river. They also have ships trading up the -Yangtsze Kiang to Ichang, 1000 miles from the sea, where the rapids -prevent navigation farther into the interior. For this service the -twin-screw steamer was adopted in 1878, much earlier than in many other -trades, largely owing to the strong advocacy of the late John Scott, -C.B. Up to that time most of the Yangtsze steamers were propelled -by paddle-wheels driven by walking-beam engines. The first of the -twin-screw steamers was built in 1878--a vessel of 3051 tons gross--and -there has been constructed since then a long succession of very -serviceable steamers. For this line alone, sixty-four vessels have been -constructed by the Scotts, the aggregate tonnage being 115,600 tons, -while the nominal horse-power of the propelling machinery fitted to -these vessels is 15,000 horse-power. - -[Illustration: Plate XIII. THE "ACHILLES" OF 1865 OFF GRAVESEND.] - -But having in our brief historical sketch come to times within the -recollection of the reader, it may be more satisfactory to depart from -the purely chronological review of the company's operations, and to -offer rather an analysis of the progress made, deferring a description -of typical modern steamers for a separate Chapter. - -The direct-acting vertical engine, with inverted cylinders, almost -as we know it to-day, and as illustrated in connection with the -work of the twentieth century, was introduced in the late 'fifties. -The compound engine, introduced in 1854, was developed into the -triple-expansion system in 1882, and later into the quadruple-expansion -type; but this latter has not been much adopted, only some 3 per cent. -of the vessels registered at Lloyds being so fitted. This is in a large -measure due to the satisfactory economy attained with triple-expansion -engines. As to the progress made, Table II., giving average results at -different periods, is instructive.[51] - -TABLE II.--PROGRESS IN THE ECONOMY OF THE MARINE ENGINE, 1872 TO 1901. - - -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+------+------ - |1872.|1881.|1890. | 1901. - -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+------+------ - Boiler pressure in pounds per square inch |52.4 |77.4 |158.5 | 197 - Coal consumption in pounds per indicated | | | | - horse-power per hour | 2.11| 1.83| 1.52 | 1.48 - Consumption on prolonged sea voyages in | | | | - pounds per indicated horse-power per hour |... | 2 | 1.75 | 1.55 - Piston speed in feet per minute |376 |467 |529 | 654 - -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+------+------ - -The advance of the century may be popularly expressed by stating that, -whereas in the first coasting steamships built by the Scotts the fuel -consumed in carrying 1 ton of cargo for 100 miles was 224 lb., the -expenditure to-day is from 4 lb. to 5 lb. The economy of the steam -engine has accounted, as is shown in the Table, for a considerable part -of this improvement. But, at the same time, the growth in the size of -ships has enabled the normal speed of 10 knots to be realised, with an -addition to engine power of much less ratio than the increase in the -capacity of the steamer. As to speed, recent progress has been most -marked in the Navy, and it is therefore fitting that here we should -direct our attention to Naval work. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -[Illustration: Plate XIV. MODEL OF H.M.S. "PRINCE OF WALES," 1803.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] Woodcroft's "Steam Navigation," page 20, etc. - -[18] Woodcroft's "Steam Navigation," page 54. - -[19] Deas' "Treatise on the Improvements and Progress of Trade on the -River Clyde" (1873), page 24. - -[20] Muirhead's "Life of Watt," pages 428 and 429. - -[21] Williamson's "Clyde Passenger Steamers," pages 348 to 351. - -[22] James Napier's "Life of Robert Napier," page 21. - -[23] This was the second of the name--a favourite one after the Duke -of Wellington's great victory, and gave rise to the following poetic -effusion:-- - - And now amid the reign of peace, - Art's guiding stream we ply; - That makes our wheels, like whirling reels, - O'er yielding water fly. - As our heroes drove their foes that strove - Against the bonnets blue; - On every side the waves divide - Before the _Waterloo_. - - --Millar's "Clyde from Source to Sea," page 179. - - -[24] Millar in "Lecture on Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering at -Glasgow Exhibition, 1880-81," page 138. - -[25] "Greenock Advertiser," August 6th, 1819. - -[26] "Steamboat Companion" for 1820. - -[27] Millar, "On the Rise and Progress of Steam Navigation." Lectures -at the Glasgow Exhibition (1880-81), page 138. - -[28] Hodder's "Life of Sir George Burns, Bart.," page 161. - -[29] Williamson's "Clyde Passenger Steamers," page 32. - -[30] Lindsay's "History of Merchant Shipping," vol. iii., pages 78 to -80. - -[31] Weir's "History of Greenock," page 89. - -[32] Williamson's "Memorials of James Watt" (1856) page 228. - -[33] "Greenock Advertiser," July 5th, 1839. - -[34] "Greenock Advertiser," February 5th and May 25th, 1835. - -[35] Fincham's "History of Naval Architecture," page 294. - -[36] Sir Thomas Sutherland, in the "Pocket Book of the P. and O. -Company" (1890), page 15. - -[37] Fincham's "History of Naval Architecture," page 235. - -[38] Sir John Ross's "Steam Communication to India by the Cape of Good -Hope" (1838), page 31. - -[39] "Greenock Advertiser," January 22nd, 1839. - -[40] Fincham's "History of Naval Architecture," pages 320 and 321. - -[41] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iv., page 86. - -[42] "Practical Mechanic's Journal," vol. i., 1853. - -[43] The number of steam vessels belonging to the United Kingdom -in 1849 was only 1142, of 158,729 tons; Sweden, which was second -among the nations of the world, had only about one-tenth of this -tonnage.--Porter's "Progress of the Nation," page 626. - -[44] Holmes' "Marine Engineering," page 74. - -[45] Rankine's "Steam Engine," page 502. - -[46] "Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. -xxviii., page 141; and vol. xxx., page 278. - -[47] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iv., page 434. - -[48] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xi., -page 152. - -[49] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iv., page 435. - -[50] Pollock's "Modern Shipbuilding, and the Men Engaged in it," page -199. - -[51] "Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers" (1901), -page 608. - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -A Century's Work for the Navy. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -The work for the Navy by the Scotts began with the building, in 1803, -of a sloop-of-war named _The Prince of Wales_; a photograph from the -model of this vessel is reproduced on Plate XIV. Since the construction -of this ship the firm have carried out several important Admiralty -contracts, including the first machinery manufactured in Scotland for -a dockyard-built ship, the first steam frigate built in the North, and -several later ships, with their engines; the most recent order being -for the machinery of the armoured cruiser _Defence_, of 14,600 tons -displacement, and 27,000 indicated horse-power, to give a speed of 23 -knots. - -The progress demonstrated by a contrast between the small sloop-of-war -and this latest powerfully-armed and well-protected high-speed cruiser, -is a record of research and invention, not only on the part of the -naval architect, but also of the chemist, the metallurgist, and the -engineer; the triumph is greater than that reviewed in the case of the -Merchant Marine. Great speed has been achieved, notwithstanding that -the problems to be solved in its attainment have been intensified by -the limitations in the size of the ship in order to minimise the target -presented to the enemy's fire, and by the necessity of providing for -heavy armour, armament, and ammunition in the displacement weight. - -When a comparison is made of the Navy ships at the beginning of the -nineteenth century with those of a hundred years earlier, it is found -that little progress had been made, either in design or in gun-power. -The largest vessel in 1700 was of 1809 tons burden, with a hundred -guns. A century later, the size had increased only to 2600 tons, with a -hundred and twenty guns.[52] But even this was an exceptionally large -vessel. The British ships were, as a rule, smaller, and perhaps slower, -than the French ships; but then--as now and always--skill in strategy, -courage in combat, and devotion to duty were the most powerful -factors in action. No fault in these respects could be found with the -work of our Navy in the various engagements which terminated in the -epoch-marking victory in Trafalgar Bay. - -The peace following the Napoleonic wars was not conducive to -advancement, as there was little incentive to pursue the sciences -which contributed to the development of destructive weapons. Steam as -a motive power and iron as a constructive material were not so readily -adopted in the Navy ship as in the Merchant Marine. Progress in the -utilisation of iron was not continuous. The first application of steam -was belated, and its popularity was not unalloyed. - -[Illustration: Plate XV. _From an Old Engraving._ THE LAUNCH OF THE -FIRST CLYDE-BUILT STEAM FRIGATE "GREENOCK," 1849.] - -The Admiralty ordered their first ship of iron in 1839--a small, -non-fighting boat for the Dover station--and there followed other -vessels for the exploration of the River Niger. But the first -iron fighting ship was not built until 1843. In 1848-9 the Scotts -constructed the iron steam frigate _Greenock_, the largest iron warship -of her day, and the first steam frigate built on the Clyde. The -over-all length of this vessel was 213 ft., the beam 37 ft. 4 in., -and the depth of hold 23 ft. She was of 1413 tons burden, and carried -ten 32-pounder smooth-bore muzzle-loading guns. The illustration on -Plate XV. is a reproduction from an old engraving of the launch of the -vessel. It is a noteworthy feature that the figure-head was a bust -of John Scott, the second of that name. This compliment by the Naval -authorities of the time was well merited, as he did much not only for -the advance of naval architecture, but also for the development of -Greenock. - -As a writer of the day put it, this vessel was the _experimentum -crucis_ of the principle of constructing fighting ships of iron.[53] By -1850 there were six large iron vessels, ranging downwards from the 1980 -tons of the eighteen-gun ship _Simoon_, with eleven smaller vessels; -but they were all condemned, because it was found by experiment[54] -that the 32-pounder gun at short range could perforate the side of the -iron ship, and that the projectile carried its "cloud of langrage" with -great velocity into the interior of the ship, so that men could not -stand against it. Tests were also made with sixteen wrought-iron plates -superposed, to give a total thickness of 6 in., but these also were -perforated by the 32-pounder projectiles at 400 yards range; so that -the adoption of iron on the main structure of the ship was practically -delayed until armour-plates were first rolled in 1859. - -The obstacle to the adoption of steam was the unsuitability of -paddle-wheel machinery for fighting ships. The wheel was exposed to -gun-fire, and the whole of the machinery could not be located below -the water line. Moreover, the side wheel limited the number of guns -which could be utilised for broadside fire. The first steam craft -ordered by the Admiralty was a small vessel of 210 tons and 80 nominal -horse-power, built in London in 1820.[55] Several other non-fighting -steamships followed. By 1837, the largest steam vessel in the fleet -was a sloop of 1111 tons and 320 horse-power.[56] In 1839 five steam -vessels were built, and two of them--the _Hecate_ and _Hecla_--were -engined by the Scotts. These wooden steamers were the first Naval -vessels sent to Scotland to have their machinery fitted on board. They -were of 817 tons and 250 horse-power. The paddle-wheels had a diameter -of 25 ft. 1/2 in., and there were seventeen floats. The main engines, -illustrated on page 29, represent the type adopted, not only in the -Naval, but in the Merchant service of this time. The steam pressure was -then about 3 lb. per square inch. - -On Plate XVI. we illustrate the general arrangement of the machinery in -the _Hecate_ and _Hecla_. There were four boilers of the rectangular -type, each with two wet-bottomed furnaces at one end and large return -flues at the other end. The uptakes passed up inside the boilers -through the steam space, uniting in one funnel. - -Smith's screw-propeller was tried experimentally in 1837, and -Ericsson's about the same time. The comparative trials of the -_Archimedes_ fitted with Smith's screw against existing paddle-steamers -did much to prove the efficiency of the new system.[57] The screw-ship -excelled the performance of paddle-steamers on the service, and the -screw-propeller was adopted by the Admiralty in 1845; twin-screws -followed twenty-five years later. - -[Illustration: Plate XVI. MACHINERY OF H.M.SS. "HECLA" AND "HECATE," -1839.] - -The _Greenock_, built in 1848, was the first war vessel by the Scotts -fitted with the screw-propeller. We have already referred to her -construction in iron, and to her launch. She had a displacement of -1835 tons, and her engines were of 719 indicated horse-power. The -speed realised on the trial was 9.6 knots. The _Greenock's_ machinery, -which is illustrated on the next page, is specially interesting, as it -represents one of the earliest attempts to drive the screw-propeller by -gearing. Two horizontal cylinders were fitted, each 71 in. in diameter, -with a stroke of piston of 4 ft. The gearing consisted of four sets -of massive spur-wheels and pinions, in the ratio of 2.35 to 1, so -that 42 revolutions per minute of the engines give 98.7 revolutions -to the propeller-shaft. The propeller was 14 ft. in diameter, and was -so fitted that it could be detached and raised to the deck. There -were four rectangular brass-tube boilers, each with four wet-bottomed -furnaces, and all the internal uptakes united in one funnel, which was -telescopic, so that when it was lowered and the propeller raised out of -the water, the vessel had the appearance, as well as the facility, of a -sailing frigate. - -As will be seen from the drawings, both the engines and boilers were -arranged very low in the hull, to be safe from the enemy's fire. The -engine and boiler compartment occupied 72 ft. of the length of the -ship--about one-third of the total length--and the seating for the -machinery was specially constructed, with a very close pitch of frames -which were only 1 ft. apart. For comparison with the drawings of the -machinery in the _Greenock_, we give on page 49 a similar drawing of -the machinery of the _Canopus_, of 12,956 tons displacement, seven -times that of the _Greenock_. To double the speed, the power of -machinery had to be multiplied twenty times, and yet the space occupied -is only about trebled. - -[Illustration: MACHINERY OF H.M.S. "GREENOCK," 1848.] - -[Illustration: MACHINERY OF H.M.S. "CANOPUS," 1900.] - -In 1850 the largest of the steam vessels in the Navy[58] had a -displacement of 3090 tons, but the most noted was the _Dauntless_, of -2350 tons displacement, with engines of 1347 indicated horse-power -to give a speed of 10 knots. It is true that there were three smaller -vessels of greater speed, one of 196 tons steaming 11.9 knots; but this -was the highest rate reached in the Navy service. By this time some of -the fast mail steamers made 13-1/2 knots. These latter were suited for -war service, but we have already dealt with them. - -Following the adoption of the screw-propeller in warships came the -abandonment of gearing for the engines. For many years various forms -of horizontal engine were used; first with return-connecting rods, -and subsequently with direct-acting rods. Steam pressures steadily -increased, largely owing to stronger materials being available. It was, -however, not until the 'seventies that the cylindrical boiler, the -compound engine, and the surface condenser admitted of an increase to -60 lb. per square inch[59]--several years after these improvements had -been introduced in the Merchant Marine. - -The Scotts had worked steadily at the solution of the problem from -their trials with the _Thetis_ in 1858 (see page 34 _ante_). In 1860 -the late John Scott, C.B., laid before the Admiralty a system of -water-tube boilers and compound engines, but objection was raised to -the system. The French Naval authorities, with whom the Scotts then -had close business connection, took up the scheme, largely because -of the favour with which it was viewed by M. Dupuy de Lôme, the head -of the Department. The first ship fitted was a corvette of 650 tons -displacement; the boilers worked at a pressure of 140 lb., while the -initial pressure at the compound three-cylinder engines was 120 lb. -These were the first engines of the compound type in the French Navy. - -[Illustration: Plate XVII. _From a Photograph by Symonds and Co., -Portsmouth._ H.M.S. "THRUSH," 1889.] - -The Scotts were at the time building engines for four corvettes -under construction at the Woolwich and Deptford yards for the -British Navy; and the Admiralty agreed to have fitted in one of them -water-tube boilers and engines similar to those built for the French -boats. The boilers may be said to have belonged to the same general -type as the Thornycroft and Normand water-tube steam generators. It -was subsequently found impossible, however, to ensure that the top of -the boilers should be at least 1 ft. under the load-line--a condition -then enforced in steam vessels for the Navy--and the adoption of the -water-tube boiler was deferred, the ordinary machinery of the period -being fitted to work at 25-lb. pressure instead of 120-lb.[60] - -This was unfortunate, as it removed the incentive to continued research -needed to make the water-tube boiler a really satisfactory steam -generator. The Scotts, however, continued to work for the successful -application of high pressures, and it was this that brought them into -contact with the late Mr. Samson Fox, with whom they were closely -identified for many years in connection with the development of the -corrugated flue and the cylindrical steam boiler. - -Opinion being adverse to the water-tube boiler, notwithstanding its -acceptance by many foreign Navies, there was a strong agitation -fostered by engineers to induce the societies for the registry of -shipping, and also the Board of Trade, to increase the ratio of the -working to the test, pressure in boilers. The British Admiralty allowed -the boiler to be worked up to within 90 lb. of the test pressure, -whereas in the Merchant Service the working pressure was limited to -one-half of the test pressure. In 1888 the Scotts, being convinced that -the Admiralty system afforded quite a satisfactory factor of safety, -undertook the experiment of submitting a warship boiler, then being -built by them to Admiralty specification, to the highest possible -pressure, even up to bursting-point. The boiler ultimately leaked -to such an extent, after the pressure had been maintained for a -long period at 620 lb. per square inch, that it was not considered -necessary to proceed further. The stresses at this stage worked out to -48,130 lb. per square inch; and the result proved that there was some -justification for a reduction in the minimum scantlings of the shells -of marine boilers to, at least, the scale adopted by the Admiralty.[61] - -These suggestive experiments were carried out in connection with the -boilers constructed in 1888-9 for two war vessels built by the Scotts. -These vessels were the _Sparrow_ and the _Thrush_. At the same time, -the Scotts engined two other vessels of the same type, constructed at -the Royal Dockyards. A view is given on Plate XVII. of the _Thrush_, -which was commanded by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales on the North American -and West Indian stations in 1891. She was a vessel of composite build, -of 805 tons displacement, with machinery of 1200 horse-power, to give a -speed of 13 knots; but, as is shown by the illustration, she was fitted -as a three-masted schooner, and utilised her sails when the wind was -favourable. In this respect, she marks the transition stage between the -days of the sailing craft and the modern ship, depending entirely on -steam for propulsion. Indication is afforded of the progress towards -this transformation by Table III. on the opposite page, which shows the -improvement in economy in the machinery of warships at various stages -in their development. - -[Illustration: Plate XVIII. ENGINES OF H.M.S. "THRUSH," 1889.] - -The figures in the Table are average results rather than highest -attainments during the periods. For 1890-95 we have taken the -_Barfleur_, the engines of which were constructed by the Scotts in -1894; whilst the particulars for 1895-1900 refer to the _Canopus_, -engined by them in 1900. In 1902 they also supplied the machinery -for the battleship _Prince of Wales_, and commenced the construction -of the armoured cruiser _Argyll_. But before referring in detail to -these latter ships, we may briefly review the advances in applied -mechanics, metallurgy and chemistry, which have contributed largely to -the perfection of these modern fighting ships in respect of offensive -and defensive qualities. - - -TABLE III. - -PROGRESSIVE TYPES OF WARSHIP MACHINERY, AND THEIR ECONOMY, 1840 TO 1905. - - ------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------- - |1840 to 1855.|1855 to 1875.|1875 to 1890. - | | | - ------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------- - Type of boiler | Rectangular | Rectangular | Single-ended - | box | box | cylindrical - | | | - Steam pressure per | 3 lb. | 25 lb. | 90 lb. - square inch | to 4 lb | | - | | | - Coal consumption per | 7 lb. | 4 lb. | 2-1/2 lb. - indicated horse-power | | to 5 lb. | - per hour | | | - | | | - Type of engine | Geared | Simple | Three- - | screw | horizontal | cylinder - | | surface | compound - | | condensing | - | | | - Piston speed in feet | 220 | 500 to 600 | 750 - per minute | | | - | | | - Weight of machinery per | 10 cwt. | 3 cwt. | 3 cwt. - indicated horse-power | | to 5 cwt. | - per minute | | | - | | | - Speed of ship | 8 to 9 | 14 | 16 - | knots | knots | knots - ------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------- - ------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------- - |1890 to 1895. |1895 to 1900.|1900 to 1905. - | [A] | [B] | [C] - ------------------------+--------------+-------------+------------- - Type of boiler | Single-ended | Belleville | Water-tube - | cylindrical | water-tube | - | | | - Steam pressure per | 155 lb. | 300 lb. | 300 lb. - square inch | | | - | | | - Coal consumption per | 2 lb. | 1.8 lb. | 1.8 lb. - indicated horse-power | | | - per hour | | | - | | | - Type of engine | Three- | Three- | Four- - | cylinder | cylinder | cylinder - | triple- | triple- | triple- - | expansion | expansion | expansion - | | | - Piston speed in feet | 840 | 918 | 1000 - per minute | | | - | | | - Weight of machinery per | 2-3/4 cwt. | 2 cwt. | 1.6 cwt. - indicated horse-power | | | - per minute | | | - | | | - Speed of ship | 18 | 18.25 | 23 - | knots | knots | knots - ------------------------+--------------+-------------+------------- -[A] Battleship, _Barfleur_. - -[B] Battleship, _Canopus_. - -[C] Armoured Cruiser. - -The gun most in favour at the close of the eighteenth, and at the -opening of the nineteenth, centuries was the cast-iron, smooth-bored, -muzzle-loader: first the 32-pounder and later the 68-pounder. -Carronades were used for "smashing" rather than for penetrating the -skin or structure of ships. Although the 68-pounders were improved by a -lining of wrought iron being inserted in the bore, whereby the energy -at 1000-yards range was increased from 290 to 600 foot-tons, little -progress was made until after the Crimean War, when chemists undertook -the investigation of the action of explosives and metallurgists sought -to produce stronger metals. - -The general idea as regards the powder used as a propellant was -that the ignition was instantaneous, and that the more violent the -explosion the greater would be the velocity of the projectile. Under -such conditions short weapons naturally found favour; and indeed, -with a light, spherical, ill-fitting projectile, there was very -little advantage to be gained by lengthening the bore. But with the -introduction of rifled cannon, much heavier and better-fitting shot -became possible, and a rapid-burning powder gave rise to dangerous -pressures in the gun. It was then realised that it was not an explosion -that was wanted, but a continuous pressure acting on the base of a -shot for a relatively considerable period. This needed a slow-burning -explosive, and led to the manufacture of powder as pebbles or prisms; -the enlargement in the late 'seventies of the chamber of the gun, and -the provision of air spaces for the expansion of the powder, greatly -added to the velocity with which the shot left the gun, and therefore -augmented its carrying power.[62] - -Gun-makers had meanwhile improved the strength of the weapon by a -recognition of the fact that wrought iron was twice as strong in the -direction of the fibre as across it; and thus in the 'sixties they -began to coil the central tube, surrounding it by hoops, welded or -shrunk on. The full advantages of fibre were thus secured for resisting -circumferential strain. The bore was rifled to give the shot that -rotatory motion which prevents irregularity in flight and conduces to -accuracy of fire at long range. The smooth-bore gun was effective up to -only 1000 yards range, as compared with the 6000 yards and 7000 yards -for the modern weapon. Breechloading was first introduced into the Navy -in the 'sixties, but discarded because the details for closing the -breech end proved unsatisfactory. Finally, it was reintroduced in 1878, -a satisfactory mechanism having been devised. - -These various improvements gradually increased the power of the -gun. The length and weight had enormously grown, as is shown by the -particulars of successive large Naval guns, shown in Table IV. on the -next page; but the increase in energy up till the 'eighties was not -commensurate with the augmentation of the weights of the projectile and -charge. - -The advance from the 38-ton gun of 1870 to the 110-1/2-ton gun in -1887 involved the multiplying by five of the charge of powder, which -quadrupled the energy of the gun, but the carrying power of the shot -was still deficient. The velocity had increased in twenty years -from 1600 to 2000 ft. per second, slower-burning powder having been -introduced. - - -TABLE IV. - -PARTICULARS OF THE SUCCESSIVE LARGE NAVAL GUNS, 1800 TO 1905. - - -----+--------+---------+-------+--------+-----+-----+--------+------- - | | | | |Weight of |Penetra- - | | | | |Projectile. |tion of - | | | | | |Weight of |Wrought- - | | | | | |Charge. |Iron at - | | | | | | |Muzzle |1000 - Year.| Type. | Weight. |Length.|Calibre.| | |Energy. |Yards - -----+--------+---------+-------+--------+-----+-----+--------+------- - | |tons cwt.| in. | in. | lb. | lb. |ft.-tns.| in. - 1800 |Cast- | 2 12 | 114 | 6.4 | 32 | 10 | 400 | -- - |iron | | | | | | | - |smooth- | | | | | | | - |bore | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - 1842 |Ditto | 4 15 | ... | 8.12 | 68 | 16 | 700 | -- - | | | | | | | | - 1865 |Woolwich| 4 10 | ... | 7 | 115 | 22 | 1400 | 7 - |wrought-| | | | | | | - |iron | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - 1870 |Built-up| 38 0 | 200 | 12.50 | 810 | 200 | 13,900 | 17 - |muzzle- | | | | | | | - |loader | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - 1880 | Ditto | 80 0 | 321 | 16 |1700 | 450 | 27,960 | 22-1/2 - | | | | | | | | - 1887 |Built-up| 110 10 | 524 | 16.25 |1800 | 960 | 54,390 | 32 - |breech- | | | | | | | - |loader | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - 1895 |Wire- | 46 0 | 445.5 | 12 | 850 | ... | 33,940 | 34.6 - |wound | | | | | | | - |breech- | | | | | | | - |loader | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - 1900 |Ditto | 51 0 | 496.5 | 12 | 850 | 210 | 36,290 | 35.4 - | | | | | | | | - 1905 |Ditto | 58 0 | 540 | 12 | 850 | ... | 49,560 | 42 - -----+--------+---------+-------+--------+-----+-----+--------+------- - -Attention was further directed to the improvement of explosives; -and ultimately, instead of gunpowder having a potential energy of -480 foot-tons per pound, modified gun-cotton was introduced, with -an energy of 716 foot-tons per pound, and still later there were -evolved explosive compounds of which the potential energy per unit of -weight was fourfold greater than in the case of gunpowder, namely, -1139 foot-tons per pound. Finally, the explosive has taken the -form of cordite, which ensures slow burning, great expansion, and, -consequently, augmented propelling power behind the projectile, without -material addition to the maximum strain upon the weapon. But in any -case the constructional strength of the modern gun is enormously -superior to the earlier built-up weapons, as around the inner tubes -there is coiled something like 120 miles of wire, which itself has a -breaking-strain of between 90 and 110 tons per square inch, and is -put on under a tension of from 54 tons per square inch on the inner -wires to 32 tons per square inch on the outer wires,[63] so that the -ultimate resistance to strain consequent upon the firing of the gun -is enormously increased. Velocities of 2600 ft. per second are thus -realised, and even more is quite feasible, so that penetration of -wrought iron at 1000 yards range has now been increased to 42 in. - -If we compare the 12-in. gun to-day with the weapon of the same -calibre of twenty years ago, when there was no widened chamber for -the explosive, when prismatic powder of low expansive power was used, -it is found, as shown in the Table opposite, that the penetration -at 1000 yards has been doubled, and the possible effective range -multiplied fivefold. There has also been an enormous gain in quicker -fire by improved breech mechanism and efficient hydraulic and electric -mountings, whereby the gun and all its loading, elevating, and training -machinery is rotated. - -The metallurgist has also been successfully occupied, and it is -probable that the armour plate of to-day is still invulnerable. -The earlier wrought-iron plates were increased from 4-1/2 in. in -thickness on the _Warrior_ of 1861, to the 24 in. on the _Inflexible_ -of 1881; the area protected being almost proportionately reduced. -The artillerist with improved projectiles ultimately defeated this -heavy cleading on the ships; but compound armour, first made in 1879, -enabled the maximum thickness on the broadside to be reduced to 18 in., -permitting a greater area to be covered for the same weight. At first -the 80-ton gun failed in its attack, but heavier weapons, with improved -projectiles, prevailed. The next step was the introduction of -all-steel armour in 1890. Two years later there was introduced the -super-carburising and subsequent chilling of the face of plates made of -an alloy of nickel steel. In 1897 the process of hardening was still -further developed, and now the 9-in. plate on the modern battleship is -equal in resistance to a 26-in. wrought-iron plate of the 'sixties, -or a 20-in. compound-plate of the 'eighties, or a 13-in. plate of the -early-hardened type. For the present, therefore, the armour seems to -have secured the victory, as at 5000 yards range 9-in. armour can -scarcely be defeated by even the 12-in. gun. - -With the increased resistance of armour and the consequent reduction -in its thickness, the naval designer can spread his protecting plates -over a much wider area, so that the whole broadside of ships like the -_Prince of Wales_, or the cruisers _Argyll_ and _Defence_, is clad with -armour of satisfactory resisting power. At the same time the gun-power -and speed of ships have been greatly increased without making the -displacement inordinately high. On the opposite page a Table gives the -main features of representative ships at different epochs, which will -show this at a glance. - -The growth in the size of battleships has been steady, with the -exception of the class represented by the _Barfleur_ and _Canopus_, -both of which were engined by the Scotts. These vessels are embodiments -of a desire to check the advance in the size and cost of the -battleship. The deficiency in the number and calibre of their guns -was partly compensated by the introduction, for the first time in -battleships, of quick-firing weapons of large calibre. The _Barfleur_ -had four 12 in. breechloaders and ten 4.7 in. quick-firers; while the -_Canopus_ had four 10 in. breechloaders and ten 6 in. quick-firers. But -opinion has again strongly grown in favour of having in each British -ship the best that can be achieved; and thus the _Prince of Wales_ -has a displacement greater than any previous ship, while in the _King -Edward_ and the _Lord Nelson_ classes there has been a further growth -in every element of power. The probabilities, too, are that we have -not yet by any means seen the end of this advance. - -[Illustration: Plate XIX. _From a Photograph by West and Son, Southsea._ -HIS MAJESTY'S BATTLESHIP "PRINCE OF WALES," 1902.] - - -TABLE V. - -SIZE AND FIGHTING QUALITIES OF BRITISH BATTLESHIPS OF DIFFERENT PERIODS. - - ------------+--------------------------------------------------------- - | Date of Completion. - | +---------------------------------------------------- - | | Displacement. - | | +----------------+------+---------+----------- - | | | | | Total | Collective - | | | | | Weight | Energy at - | | | | | of Shot | Muzzle of - Name. | | | Side Armour. |Speed.| in One | One Round. - | | | | | Round. | - ------------+----+------+----------------+------+---------+----------- - | | tons | in. | knots| lb. | foot-tons - | | | | | | - _Warrior_ |1861| 9,210| 4-1/2-in. |14-1/2| 3800 | 61,476 - | | | wrought iron | | | - | | | | | | - _Hercules_ |1868| 8,680| 9-in. to 6-in. |14 | 5400 | 70,200 - | | | wrought iron | | | - | | | | | | - _Alexandra_ |1877| 9,490| 12-in. to |15 | 5426 | 71,400 - | | | 6-in. wrought | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - _Inflexible_|1881|11,880| 24-in. to |13 | 6936 | 123,120 - | | | 16-in. wrought | | | - | | | iron | | | - | | | | | | - _Benbow_ |1888|10,600| 18-in. |16.75 | 4600 | 135,560 - | | | compound | | | - | | | | | | - _Royal |1892|14,150| 18-in. and |17.5 | 5800 | 159,610 - Sovereign_ | | | 5-in. compound | | | - | | | | | | - _Barfleur_ |1894|10,500| 12-in. |18.5 | 2450 | 67,670 - | | | compound | | | - | | | | | | - _Canopus_ |1900|12,950| 6-in. hardened |18.25 | 4600 | 178,720 - | | | steel | | | - | | | | | | - _Prince of |1902|15,000| 9-in. |18.25 | 4600 | 194,400 - Wales_ | | | super-hardened | | | - | | | steel | | | - | | | | | | - _King |1904|16,350| 9-in. |18.50 | 5920 | 270,040 - Edward VII._| | | super-hardened | | | - | | | steel | | | - | | | | | | - _Lord |1905|16,500| 10-in. |18.50 | 7960 | 413,900 - Nelson_ | | | super-hardened | | | - | | | steel | | | - ------------+----+------+----------------+------+---------+----------- - - -As to the machinery made by the Scotts for these battleships, the -_Barfleur_ had three-cylinder, triple-expansion twin-screw engines, to -run at 108 revolutions, and to develop 13,000 indicated horse-power. On -her trials the power was 13,163 indicated horse-power. There are eight -single-ended, return-tube, cylindrical boilers, working at 155 lb. -pressure. Other details are given in the Table on page 53. - -The engines of the _Canopus_ are illustrated on page 49 by a drawing -taken from a Paper read at the Institution of Civil Engineers, by Sir -John Durston and Admiral H. J. Oram.[64] This was the first type of -British battleship fitted with water-tube boilers. She was followed -soon after by the _Prince of Wales_.[65] - -The _Argyll_, which was built and engined by the Scotts, and the -_Defence_, which is being built in one of the Royal Dockyards, and is -having its machinery constructed by the Scotts, signalise progress in -cruiser design. The hardening of armour, increasing its resistance, -permits of a reduction in weight for a given measure of protection, so -that it has been possible to effectively defend the modern cruiser, -while at the same time giving an enormously increased gun-power and a -speed far in excess of that possible ten years ago. The _Argyll_ is a -vessel of 10,850 tons displacement, being 450 ft. long, 68 ft. 6 in. -beam, and having a draught of 25 ft.; while the _Defence_ is a vessel -of 14,600 tons displacement, having a length of 490 ft., a beam of 74 -ft. 6 in., and a draught of 26 ft. In both ships the greater part of -the broadside, from 5 ft. below the water-line to the upper deck, is -armoured, and a very large proportion of the area thus clad has 6-in. -hardened plates. - -[Illustration: Plate XX. PROPELLING ENGINES OF H.M.S. "ARGYLL."] - -In the late 'nineties it was assumed that quick-firing artillery was -best suited to the work of a cruiser, and thus the 6-in. gun was -exclusively adopted. But since then Naval strategists have developed -their ideas as to the function of armoured cruisers, and now anticipate -their use in the line of battle; so that not only has the defensive -quality been improved, but the offensive power has been materially -increased. In the _Defence_, and the other ships of the class, the -6-in. gun has been entirely discarded in favour of an installation of -9.2-in. and 7.5-in. weapons. Owing to the perfection of the hydraulic -and electric mountings, little has been forfeited in respect of -rapidity of fire, while much has been gained in the striking energy at -a given range of each projectile. Thus, while the 6-in. gun five years -ago had an energy equal to penetrating 6 in. of wrought iron at 3000 -yards' range, the 7.5-in. weapon now may perforate 6-3/4 in., and the -9.2-in. gun 9 in. of the hardest armour at corresponding range. The -total weight of projectiles fired from the present-day cruiser in a -minute is double, and the muzzle energy quadruple, the results attained -by the cruisers designed at the close of the nineteenth century.[66] - -The modern cruisers steam at 23 knots, the power of the machinery in -the _Argyll_ being 21,000 indicated horse-power, and in the _Defence_ -27,000 indicated horse-power. The machinery of the _Argyll_, which is -typical, consists of four sets of triple-expansion engines, arranged -in separate watertight compartments. The diameters of the cylinders -are: high-pressure, 41-1/2 in.; intermediate-pressure, 65-1/2 in.; -and the two low-pressure, each 73-1/2 in., all having a stroke of 42 -in. At full power, developed with 138 revolutions, the piston speed -is 966 ft. per minute. The cylinders are fitted with liners, and are -steam-jacketed; forged steel is used for the liners of the high- -and intermediate-pressure cylinders, and cast-iron for those -of the low-pressure cylinders. The cylinder covers and pistons -are of cast steel, the latter being of conical form. The high- -and intermediate-pressure cylinders have piston valves, and the -low-pressure cylinders flat valves. The cylinders are supported at the -front by eight forged-steel columns, and at the rear by four cast-iron -columns formed with guide-faces, and one forged steel column. The -crankshaft is in four pieces, the high- and intermediate-pressure parts -being interchangeable with each other, and the two low-pressure parts -with one another. The shafts are hollow, and three-bladed propellers -of manganese bronze are fitted to each. The condensers are entirely -separate, and independent air pumps are fitted. - -The _Argyll_ had a combination of six cylindrical and sixteen -water-tube boilers, but in the later ships, including the _Defence_, -the boilers are entirely of the water-tube type. The working pressure -of the boiler is 275 lb., reduced at the engines to 250 lb. The trials -of the _Argyll_ were carried through most satisfactorily,[67] and -the vessel, under the new Admiralty conditions, was completed for -commission by the builders. The fact that this armoured cruiser was so -completed at the builder's yard is of itself evidence of the capacity -and efficiency of the plant. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -[Illustration: Plate XXI. THE "ERIN," OWNED BY SIR THOMAS LIPTON, BART. -(_See page 70._)] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[52] Charnock's "History of Marine Architecture," vol. iii., page 245. - -[53] The "Greenock Telegraph," May 4th, 1849. - -[54] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development of the Century," page -140. - -[55] Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine," page 3. - -[56] Fincham's "History of Marine Construction," page 332. - -[57] _Ibid._, page 344. - -[58] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development of the Nineteenth -Century," page 113. - -[59] Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine," page 10. - -[60] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xxx., -page 278. - -[61] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xxx., -page 287. - -[62] "Encyclopædia Britannica" (1898 edition), vol. xi., page 288. - -[63] "Engineering," vol. lxxix., page 577, May 5th, 1905. - -[64] See "Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers" (1899), -vol. cxxxviii., part 3. - -[65] "The Engineer," vol. xcviii., page 15. - -[66] "Engineering," vol. lxxx., page 415. - -[67] "Engineering," vol. lxxx., page 420. - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - -Yachting and Yachts. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -Yacht designers and builders, when votaries of the sport, produce much -better results, and in this truism we have some explanation of the -success of the Scotts in the long series of yachts built during the -past century. There are a few misty memories and time-worn traditions -to the effect that yachting of a kind was indulged in on the Clyde in -the closing years of the eighteenth century; but there are no authentic -records antecedent to the nineteenth century. From 1803 onwards the -Scotts have been closely identified with the pastime, and with the -production in the early years of sailing yachts; and, later, of steam -craft. - -The first notable Clyde racing yacht, of which there is any record, -was launched by the Scotts in 1803, as already referred to on page -11 _ante_. She was a 45-1/2-ton cutter for Colonel Campbell, an -Argyllshire soldier, and the launching ceremony, the honours of which -were done by Lady Charlotte Campbell, was attended with military -honours. For the twenty years immediately following the launch of -this cutter, yachting made most pleasing progress, and in 1824 the -Royal Northern Yacht Club was formed for the better organisation and -encouragement of the pastime. The club had its origin in the North of -Ireland, and had jurisdiction over that district, as well as over the -West of Scotland up till 1838, when the Irish section was disbanded. -The Royal Northern gave regattas throughout the season, at almost -every suitable port, from Helensburgh on the Clyde to Oban. Amongst -the leaders of the Clyde Division was John Scott, the second of the -name, and a large number of the racing craft owned by the members were -built by him. Indeed, one of the most experienced writers on Yachting -in Scotland, Mr. J. D. Bell, says that "among the old yachting families -of the West of Scotland, the Scotts and the Steeles filled the foremost -place." - -Among the best remembered of the yachts built by John Scott were the -cutters _Hawk_ and _Hope_, constructed for himself, and the _Clarence_, -built for his son-in-law, the late Robert Sinclair. The _Hawk_ was a -boat of about 30 tons, the _Hope_ was rather smaller, and was used for -cruising rather than for racing; and the _Clarence_ was about 18 tons. - -The _Hawk_ was a successful racer, and secured many cherished prizes, -but the _Clarence_ was her superior, and was the first of a long line -of prize-winners which have brought renown to the Clyde. Indeed, in all -she won over thirty challenge trophies, and in her best season never -suffered defeat. Robert Sinclair, the owner, was himself a keen and -accomplished yachtsman. - -[Illustration: Plate XXII. _From a painting at Halkshill._ THE -"CLARENCE": AN EARLY RACING CUTTER.] - -In the races held in 1833-34--most prominent years--John Scott, -with the _Hawk_, won the Anglesey Cup at Dublin, and the Oban and -Helensburgh Cups; while Robert Sinclair, with the _Clarence_, won -the Ladies' Cup at Oban, the Kintyre Cup at Campbeltown, the Dublin, -Adelaide, and Booth Cups at Dublin, the Stewart Cup at Greenock, the -Largs Cup and the Dunoon Cup. These two yachts were indeed close -rivals, although the principal honours rested with the _Clarence_. -On one occasion, however, the _Hawk_ unexpectedly defeated the -_Clarence_ in an important race at Dublin, and the owners were anxious -to have the cup in Greenock as soon as possible for a special reason. -Recognising that the _Clarence_ was really the faster boat, they handed -over the trophy to her crew to take to the Clyde port; but the luck -which enabled the _Hawk_ to win the cup stood by her on the passage -home, and she made the port a considerable time before her rival. - -The _Clarence_ became a pilot boat, and was unfortunately run down off -Garroch Head, while the _Hawk_ was transferred to the fishing trade. -In later years John Scott, C.B., had the laudable desire to secure as -a relic the vessel his grandfather had owned, but the negotiations -failed; and the boat is probably still at work among the islands of -Scotland. - -The Royal Northern Club's fleet in the 'thirties numbered about fifty, -but there were no steam vessels on the list until 1855. Among the -principal boats in the club were the Duke of Portland's ketch, the -_Clown_, of 156 tons; the Duke of Buccleuch's cutter, the _Flower of -Yarrow_, of 145 tons; Mr. John Scott's cutter, the _Lufra_, of 81 tons; -Mr. Robert Meiklem's schooner, _Crusader_, of 126 tons; and Mr. Lewis -Upton's cutter, _Briton_, of 91 tons. The membership was about one -hundred and fifty, the aggregate tonnage of the fleet about 2000 tons, -and its cost, at a fairly generous estimate, about £20,000. - -What a contrast is suggested by a review of the fleet of yachts owned -to-day by Clyde yachtsmen! There are now eight clubs in the Firth -recognised by the Yacht Racing Association, and one of the largest of -these--the Royal Clyde--alone has over a thousand members, with a fleet -of over three hundred and seventy yachts, of a collective tonnage of -26,000 tons, and of a first cost of a million sterling. The club-house -at Hunter's Quay, which cost about £20,000, is representative of -the best of its kind. Many of the yachts--sailing and steam--are of -considerable size, and have international repute for their excellence, -either as racers, or as comfortable seaworthy cruisers. - -The origin of the Royal Clyde Club in itself affords interesting -suggestion of the development of the pastime on the Clyde. Owing to a -rule enforced by the Royal Northern Club during the earlier period of -its existence, boats smaller than 8 tons could not be enrolled; many -enthusiastic owners of small craft were thus debarred from membership, -and in 1856 they decided to form a new club. This, first named the -Clyde Model Yacht Club, became, a year later, the Clyde Yacht Club; -and, having grown immensely in influence, obtained, in 1872, Queen -Victoria's sanction to the appellation of "Royal." To-day the Royal -Clyde Yacht Club is one of the most important in the Kingdom. - -John Scott (1752-1837) was long a prominent member of the Royal -Northern Club. His son, Charles Cuningham Scott, was an original -member, but did not take the same active part in the pastime, the -claims of a quickly-developing industry being probably the reason. But -the records of the family were again revived by his sons--John Scott, -C.B., Robert Sinclair Scott, and Colin William Scott. They displayed -a preference for steam craft, although the first-named owned several -cutters, beginning with the _Zingara_; later several beautiful yachts, -each successive ship being named the _Greta_, were built for him. The -first of these, of 1876, and the last, of 1895, are illustrated on the -Plate facing this page. He was elected Commodore of the Royal Clyde -Club in 1895 in acknowledgment of his services to the club and to -yachting generally, and he occupied the post until his death in 1904. - -[Illustration: Plate XXIII. THE "GRETA," OF 1876.] - -[Illustration: THE "GRETA," OF 1895.] - -These were exciting times in Clyde yachting. It was then that Lord -Dunraven and Sir Thomas Lipton made their gallant but unsuccessful -efforts to recover the America cup with Clyde-built boats, while the -performances of the _Britannia_, owned by the then Prince of Wales, -now His Majesty the King, and of the _Meteor_, belonging to the German -Emperor, gave a distinction to the sport which it had never enjoyed -before. - -The Mudhook Yacht Club was formed in 1873 by a few skilled yacht -designers and yachtsmen, and included Robert Sinclair Scott, Colin -William Scott, and James Reid. The membership was limited to forty, -and the aim of the founders was to "encourage amateur yacht sailing." -There were many inspirations connected with the founding of the club; -there is a tradition that when a "Mudhooker" was being initiated, he -was usually confronted with a coil of rope, a small marlinspike, a -chart and dividers, a forecastle bucket and other implements; and, -before the hand of fellowship was extended to him, he was exercised, -with more or less of solemnity, as to their uses. From the foundation -of the Club until his death in 1905, Robert Sinclair Scott was Admiral -of the Club. For twenty-nine years from the same period his brother, -Colin William Scott, acted as Honorary Secretary, and his great -services were recognised on the club attaining its majority in 1894, by -the presentation by the members of a set of old candelabra and fruit -dishes. The present Honorary Secretary is R. L. Scott, son of John -Scott, C.B. - -Although, as we have said, the Scotts never owned racing yachts, they -have built for themselves and for others a long succession of beautiful -steam yachts, as recorded in the Table on page 69. In all, seven yachts -have been built in succession for the Scotts themselves. Each was named -the _Greta_, after a small stream which runs through the Halkshill -Estate, excepting the last, which was called the _Grianaig_, the Gaelic -for Greenock. - -The last _Greta_ is exactly double the length of the first, while -the yacht tonnage is practically eightfold. The successive steps are -marked. The _Greta_ of 1876 was 76 ft. long, and of 53 tons, and she -was at once purchased by a Kilmarnock lady, Miss Finnie. The vessel -built for John Scott, C.B., in the following year was slightly larger, -and she also was coveted and secured. In 1878 a still larger ship was -built, and for many years this craft continued in the possession of its -original owner, but in 1892 was displaced by a vessel of greater size, -of 135 ft. 6 in. in length, and of 230 tons yacht displacement. Other -vessels followed at periods of three years, and the _Greta_ of 1898 was -154 ft. long, and of 393 tons. - -Many other notable vessels were constructed in the same period for -other owners; and while it is not possible to refer to all of them, -mention may be made of the _Tuscarora_, built in 1897, for William -Clark, Esq., of Paisley. This vessel, which is illustrated on Plate -XXIV., is 170 ft. long, and of 775 tons. She had a bridge and promenade -deck 104 ft. long; and there were ten state-rooms and large saloons for -the owner and his guests. Built for oversea cruising, she had a very -complete installation of refrigerating machinery. The triple-expansion -engines with which she was fitted developed 1030 horse-power when -running at 150 revolutions, equal to a piston speed of 675 ft. per -minute. Steam was supplied by a single-ended boiler. - -A much larger vessel--indeed, the largest of the type constructed by -the firm--was the _Margarita_, constructed for A. J. Drexel, Esq., of -Philadelphia, to the designs of the late Mr. G. L. Watson, who did so -much for the advance of the science of naval architecture as applied -to sailing and steam yachts. This vessel is of 272 ft. in length, with -a displacement of 2522 tons. For the owner and his guests there are -thirteen large state-rooms, and the general saloons include dining, -drawing, and smoking rooms, a boudoir, and a children's nursery. -The yacht is equipped with all the accessories of the modern liner, -including refrigerating appliances. It is propelled at a speed of -over 17 knots by twin-screws, operated by two independent sets of -triple-expansion, four-cylinder engines, balanced to obviate vibration. - - -[Illustration: Plate XXIV. THE "MARGARITA."] - -[Illustration: THE "TUSCARORA."] - - -TABLE VI.--GENERAL PARTICULARS OF PRINCIPAL STEAM YACHTS BUILT BY -SCOTTS' SHIPBUILDING AND ENGINEERING COMPANY, LIMITED, GREENOCK. - - -----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------ - | | | | | | - | Date of | | | |Displace-| - |Construc-| | | | ment in | - Name. | tion. |Length.|Breadth.| Depth. | Tons. |Speed. - -----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------ - | |ft. in.| ft. in.|ft. in.| |knots. - | | | | | | - _Greta_ | 1876 | 76 0 | 12 0 | 9 3 | 53 | 7.5 - | | | | | | - _Greta_ | 1877 | 84 0 | 12 6 | 9 6 | 73 | 8.25 - | | | | | | - _Greta_ | 1878 | 90 0 | 14 0 | 9 6 | 86 | 9.33 - | | | | | | - _Ulva_ | 1879 |162 0 | 21 0 | 15 6 | 350 | 11.08 - | | | | | | - _Griffin_ | 1879 |120 0 | 16 6 | 11 0 | 152 | 9.8 - | | | | | | - _Eagle_ | 1879 | 84 0 | 12 6 | 9 6 | 77 | 7.7 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - _Retriever_| 1884 |123 0 | 17 0 | 12 0 | 144 | 11 - | | | | | | - _Alca_ | 1887 | 80 6 | 14 0 | 10 0 | 93 | 10 - | | | | | | - _Santanna_ | 1887 |180 0 | 24 0 | 15 6 | 495 | 13.6 - | | | | | | - _Foros_ | 1891 |236 0 | 30 6 | 20 6 | 1170 | 12.5 - | | | | | | - _Greta_ | 1892 |135 6 | 18 6 | 12 0 | 230 | 11 - | | | | | | - _Kittiwake_| 1893 |113 0 | 21 0 | 13 6 | 210 | 9.55 - | | | | | | - _Lutra_ | 1894 |117 0 | 18 0 | 12 0 | 200 | 10.75 - | | | | | | - _Greta_ | 1895 |145 0 | 22 0 | 13 5 | 338 | 11 - | | | | | | - _Erin_ | 1896 |252 0 | 31 6 | 20 6 | 1330 | 15.6 - | | | | | | - _Tuscarora_| 1897 |170 0 | 26 6 | 15 7 | 775 | 12.5 - | | | | | | - _Greta_ | 1898 |154 0 | 22 9 | 13 6 | 393 | 12.25 - | | | | | | - _Lutra_ | 1899 |140 0 | 21 0 | 13 0 | 348 | 11.65 - | | | | | | - _Margarita_| 1900 |272 0 | 36 6 | 28 0 | 2522 | 17.1 - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - _Waihi_ | 1900 | 82 0 | 14 6 | 10 0 | 102 | 10.3 - | | | | | | - _Saevuna_ | 1901 | 76 4 | 14 6 | 9 3 | 95 | 8.4 - | | | | | | - _Grianaig_ | 1904 |160 0 | 23 9 | 14 0 | 435 | 12.6 - | | | | | | - _Beryl_ | 1904 |160 0 | 25 0 | 14 6 | 500 | 13.3 - -----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------ - ------------+------------------------+------+------+------------------- - | |Indi- | | - | |cated |Boiler| - | |Horse-|Pres- | - Name. | Type of Engines. |power.|sure. | Owner. - -----------+------------------------+------+------+------------------- - | | | lb. | - | | | | - _Greta_ | Compound | 58 | 74 |John Scott, Esq., - | | | | C.B. - | | | | - _Greta_ | " | 76 | 78 |John Scott, Esq., - | | | | C.B. - | | | | - _Greta_ | Compound tandem | 105 | 78 |John Scott, Esq., - | | | | C.B. - _Ulva_ | " " | 277 | 70 |F. A. Hankey, Esq. - | | | | - _Griffin_ | " " | 130 | 78 |C. E. Dashwood, Esq. - | | | | - _Eagle_ | Compound | 74 | 75 |Count Stackleberg, - | | | | St. Petersburg. - | | | | - _Retriever_| " | 215 | 90 |O. Randall, Esq. - | | | | - _Alca_ | Triple-expansion | 110 | 160 |Colonel Malcolm, - | | | | Poltalloch. - | | | | - _Santanna_ | " " | 780 | 150 |M. Louis Prat, - | | | | Marseilles. - | | | | - _Foros_ | " " | 960 | 160 |M. Kousenzoff, - | | | | Moscow. - | | | | - _Greta_ | " " | 280 | 160 |John Scott, Esq., - | | | | C.B. - | | | | - _Kittiwake_| " " | 185 | 160 |Lord Carnegie. - | | | | - _Lutra_ | " " | 250 | 160 |Colonel Malcolm. - | | | | - _Greta_ | " " | 340 | 170 |John Scott, Esq., - | | | | C.B. - | | | | - _Erin_ |Triple-expansion, 4 cyl.| 2500 | 180 |Sir Thomas Lipton, - | | | | Bart. - | | | | - _Tuscarora_| " " " | 1030 | 170 |Wm. Clark, Esq., - | | | | Paisley. - | | | | - _Greta_ | " " " | 480 | 170 |John Scott, Esq., - | | | | C.B. - | | | | - _Lutra_ | " " " | 480 | 170 |Lord Malcolm of - | | | | Poltalloch. - | | | | - _Margarita_| {Twin-screw, triple} | 5200 | 200 |A. J. Drexel, Esq., - | {expansion, four } | | | Philadelphia, - | {cylinders in each } | | | U.S.A. - | {engine } | | | - | | | | - _Waihi_ | Triple-expansion | 130 | 170 |J. Bulloch, Esq. - | | | | - _Saevuna_ | Compound | 75 | 130 |Maurice Bernard - | | | | Byles, Esq. - | | | | - _Grianaig_ | Triple-expansion | 740 | 190 |R. Sinclair Scott, - | | | | Esq. - | | | | - _Beryl_ | " " | 910 | 200 |Baron Inverclyde. - -----------+------------------------+------+------+------------------- - - -The _Erin_, now owned by Sir Thomas Lipton, Bart., was designed and -built in 1896 for a Sicilian nobleman and was purchased later by the -popular baronet and sporting yachtsman. One of the largest vessels of -her time, she was 250 ft. long, and of 1330 tons displacement. The -four-cylinder, carefully-balanced engines, of 2500 horse-power, gave -her a sea speed of 15-1/2 knots. A view of this well-known yacht is -given on Plate XXI., facing page 63. - -Much might be written about the decoration of these yachts; but it may -suffice to give illustrations of the dining- and drawing-rooms in the -steam yacht _Beryl_, owned by the Right Hon. Baron Inverclyde. The -saloons are in the Old-English style, and are treated with decorative -freedom, but with strict simplicity. The walls in both cases are -framed in solid figured white Austrian wainscot oak, highly finished -and polished. The drawing-room has silk tapestry panels, relieved with -chaste carving on the window canopies, dado rail and mantelpiece, and -divided with bevelled and carved pilasters, with carved Corinthian -capitals. In the dining-room, on the other hand, there is no tapestry, -the whole being of oak, suitably carved. In the ports there are large -plate-glass windows, fitted with Greenwood springs. In each room there -is a large cupola skylight, which, with its rich stained glass, gives -a fine decorative effect. The drawing-room cupola is fitted with a -brass mushroom ventilator. The ceiling in each case is of yellow pine, -moulded, ribbed, and beamed in the Tudor style, and painted flat white, -picked out with gold. - -[Illustration: Plate XXV. THE DRAWING ROOM. THE DINING SALOON.] - -[Illustration: THE STEAM YACHT "BERYL," OWNED BY LORD INVERCLYDE.] - -The drawing-room has a slow-combustion grate having -brass mounts, with richly-carved oak mantelpiece, marble jambs, -tiled hearth, and fire-brasses and fender. The dining-room has a -steam radiator enclosed in a cabinet with Numidian marble top and -brass-grilled front. - -The _Beryl_ is a vessel of 160 ft. in length, with a displacement of -500 tons at slightly less than 12-ft. draught. She steams at 13.3 knots -with the engines indicating 910 horse-power, steam being supplied from -a large single-ended boiler with three furnaces. - -As typical of the engines adopted in the yachts built by the Scotts, we -give an illustration on Plate XXVI., facing page 72, of the engines of -the _Grianaig_. In the thirty years that have elapsed since the first -_Greta_ was built, the ratio of horse-power to tonnage has increased -from 1 to 1 to 2 to 1, the steam pressure from 74 lb. to 200 lb.; and -the piston speed from about 300 ft. to 675 ft. per minute. The aim has -been to ensure reliability by a steady- and easy-running engine. - -An effective appearance has always been aimed at, and the result has -invariably been a highly-finish design. Yachts' engines are invariably -balanced, whether so specified or not, as the gain in comfort to all on -board, owing to the absence of vibration, is so marked as to more than -compensate for the extra cost involved. Forced lubrication has also -been applied, although the engines may be of the ordinary open type: -the main bearings, crank-pins, cross-heads, eccentrics, valve gear, -pump gear, etc., are all included in the system, which has given every -satisfaction. - -The _Grianaig's_ engines developed on trial 740 indicated horse-power -at 148 revolutions per minute, with a boiler pressure of 190 lb. -per square foot, and a condenser vacuum of 26.5 in. Some of the -details, being typical of the practice of the firm in respect of yacht -machinery, are quoted from the specification on the next page. - -The arrangement of cylinders is as follows: H.P. 14 in. in diameter, -I.P. 22 in. in diameter, L.P. 35 in. in diameter, Stroke 24 in. The -piston and connecting-rods are of steel; the guide-shoes for the -crossheads are of cast iron, the ahead face having white metal, and -the astern face being left plain. The back columns are of the usual -cast-iron box type, the front columns, being steel, are turned. The -high-pressure cylinder has a piston valve, and the intermediate- and -low-pressure cylinders flat slide-valves. None of the cylinders is -provided with liners. A single-stroke reversing engine is situated -at the back of the main engine, but is operated from the starting -platform. The condenser is of the surface type with a circular -cast-iron shell; the total cooling surface is 1300 square feet. - -Steam is supplied to the main engine by one single-ended cylindrical -boiler 13 ft. 9 in. in diameter by 10 ft. long, working at a pressure -of 190 lb. per square inch. There are three furnaces, the mean internal -diameter being 3 ft. 5-3/4 in. and the length 6 ft. 10 in. The grates -are 6 ft. long, giving an aggregate area of 61.5 square feet. The -boiler tubes are 3-1/4 in. in diameter and 6 ft. 10-3/4 in. long, the -total heating surface being 1899 square feet. - -[Illustration: decoration] - -[Illustration: Plate XXVI. ENGINES OF THE YACHT "GRIANAIG."] - -[Illustration: Plate XXVII. DINING SALOON IN A MAIL STEAMER. -(_See page 81._) - -DRAWING ROOM IN THE STEAM YACHT "FOROS." (_See page 81._)] - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -The Twentieth Century. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -Prophecy has its allurements even in the domain of applied mechanics; -and having reviewed progress during the past two centuries in naval -architecture, as embodied in sailing ships, merchant steamers, -warships, and yachts, there is a temptation to speculate on the -prospects of the future. The possibilities of the steam turbine, for -manufacturing which the Scotts are laying down a special plant; the -potentialities of the producer-gas engine as applied to the propulsion -of ships; and even the solution of the problems which stand in the way -of the application of the universally-desired oil turbine, are all -topics which would prove interesting, even although no conclusion could -be arrived at. It is enough, however, to say here, that each is having -careful consideration by the firm. - -The historian is not, however, concerned with the future, and the -only justification for the title given above is the intention here -to briefly review the state of marine construction, as represented -at the beginning of this new century by typical vessels built or -being built by the Scotts. It is difficult, where so many ships of -distinctive design and equipment have been constructed, to select a -few representative types. Amongst the countries which have had new -ships in recent years are France, Russia, Italy, Denmark, Holland, -Portugal, Greece, India, the Straits Settlements, China, Australia, -New Zealand, Brazil and other South American Republics, and the United -States of America. This list of foreign _cliéntele_, however, is -being diminished, owing to the influence of subsidies paid by foreign -Governments to shipowners or shipbuilders. - -Taking account only of large vessels built during the past fifty years, -there are one hundred and five of Scotts' steamers now trading in China -seas, twenty-six in the Indian Ocean, ten on the North Atlantic, nine -in the South African seas, thirty in South American waters, eighteen in -the Colonial service, and ninety-seven on the European coast; while in -home waters there are many more. - -One of the gratifying features in connection with the commercial -relationship of the Scotts, too, is the continuance of confidence over -a long period of years of several of our large steamship companies. -This is, perhaps, the best indication of the satisfactory character -of the work done. The Holt Line have had built for them within forty -years, by the Scotts, forty-eight vessels of 148,353 tons. The China -Navigation Company have had a greater number of ships, namely, -sixty-four, but as the size is smaller the total tonnage is less, -namely, 115,600 tons. An important Continental firm has had twenty-one -vessels; while for a Portuguese Company five large vessels were built, -and for the French Trans-Atlantic Company eleven fast liners. Other -cases might be mentioned, but these suffice. - -[Illustration: Plate XXVIII. THE DONALDSON LINER, "CASSANDRA."] - -As regards fast steamers, the recent warships built and described in a -previous chapter may be accepted as typical in so far as the problems -of marine engineering are concerned. In each of these cases the design -of the machinery has been prepared by the firm, and the difficulties -were more complicated than in the case of merchant work. Moreover, -it must be remembered, that the maritime predominance of Britain is due -as much to that enormous fleet of moderate-speed intermediate and cargo -ships, which maintain exceptionally long voyages with regularity and -economy, as to the fast ships engaged on comparatively short routes. -Of the nine thousand odd British ships included in _Lloyds' Register_, -less than 2-1/2 per cent. have a speed of over 16 knots: a fact which -in itself proves that economy, rather than speed, is the primary -consideration.[68] - -The new Donaldson liner, now being constructed by the firm, may be -accepted as representative of one of the most useful types of steamer -in the British fleet. An illustration of this vessel is given on Plate -XXVIII., facing page 74. While primarily intended for the Atlantic -passenger trade, she is of such moderate dimensions as to suit almost -any service, having a length of 455 ft. between perpendiculars, a -breadth of 53 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 32 ft.; the draught will -not be more than 26 ft. with a displacement of 13,500 tons. While -designed to carry 8000 tons of deadweight cargo in the four holds, the -vessel has accommodation for a large number of passengers, who are -afforded more room than on the larger and faster liners, with the same -luxury and comfort. This latter fact accounts in large measure for the -growing preference of a great proportion of the travelling public for -the intermediate ship. - -The machinery has been designed with the view of attaining the -highest economy. For driving the twin screws there are two separate -three-cylinder triple-expansion engines, which are to indicate together -5500 horse-power when running at the moderate piston speed of 680 -ft. per minute. The cylinders are respectively 26 in., 42 in., and -70 in. in diameter, the stroke being 48 in. There is a very complete -installation of auxiliary machinery. In all, there are fifty-seven -steam cylinders in the ship, each having its special function. - -Steam for all of these is supplied at a pressure of 180 lb. per square -inch, by two double-ended boilers 20 ft. long, and two single-ended -boilers 11 ft. 6 in. long, the diameter in all cases being 15 ft. 9 in. -The total heating surface is about 15,000 square feet, and the grate -area 435 square feet. In the design and construction of the engines -and boilers every consideration has been given to strength in order to -ensure reliability. - -In dealing with the development of the steamship we had occasion to -refer to the Holt liners, which inaugurated the first regular steamship -service to the Far East, _viâ_ the Cape of Good Hope. That was in 1865, -and since then a long series of most successful steamships has been -constructed by the Scotts for the China trade of the Ocean Steamship -Company. As representative of the modern ship for this service we take -four vessels just completed, three of them taking the names of the -pioneer ships of the line--the _Achilles_, _Agamemnon_, and _Ajax_, -while the fourth is named _Deucalion_; one of these is illustrated on -Plate XXIX., facing this page. - -[Illustration: Plate XXIX. THE HOLT LINER "ACHILLES," OF 1900.] - -Throughout the forty years that have elapsed since the first vessels -were built, each successive steamer of the forty-eight built by the -Scotts has marked an increase in size, and an improvement in -economy. In the former respect the advance is not perhaps so striking -as in some other trades; but it must always be remembered that a ship -which is to steam for 12,000 or 13,000 miles without many opportunities -of coaling cannot be of high speed; otherwise the bunker capacity -would be so great as to seriously reduce the available cargo space; -while the running expenses would be so heavy as to materially decrease -the utility of the vessel as an aid to the development of commerce. -There is ever the happy mean, which has here been realised with -characteristic prudence and enterprise. - -The forty years' progress in the case of the Holt liners has brought -about an increase of 50 per cent. in the dimensions of the ship, the -later Scotts' vessels being 441 ft. between perpendiculars, 52 ft. 6 -in. in breadth, and 35 ft. in depth moulded, with a gross register of -7043 tons. In respect of deadweight capacity, however, there has been -considerable development, due to the adoption of mild steel having -permitted a reduction in the weight of boilers and engines, and in -the scantlings of the hull. The new vessels, with a draught of 26 ft. -6 in., carry 8750 tons of deadweight cargo--two and a-half times the -weight carried by the earliest Holt liners. - -In forty years the steam pressure in the Holt liners has increased from -60 lb. to 180 lb.; and the piston speed from 400 ft. to 720 ft. per -minute. The heating surface in the boilers has decreased from 6 square -feet to 3 square feet per unit of power; and the condenser surface from -1.83 square feet to 1.3 square feet per unit of power. On the other -hand, each square foot of grate gives now 14 horse-power, as compared -with 6.6 horse-power formerly. - -As a result of increased steam pressures and greater efficiency of -propulsion, it may be taken that, notwithstanding the increase in -dimensions and capacity of the ship, and the consequent advance in -engine power, the coal required for a voyage half way round the world -has been reduced to one half that of 1865. - -Another notable feature in the economy of the ship is that twenty-five -derricks have been fitted for dealing rapidly with the cargo, and -one of these has a lifting capacity of 35 tons, to take such heavy -units of cargo as locomotive boilers and tenders. In addition, there -are eighteen steam winches. The reduction in the time spent in port, -because of the facilities thus provided, is another element in the -economy of the modern ship. - -The largest oil steamer yet constructed, the _Narragansett_, -was completed by the Scotts in 1903. This vessel, built for the -Anglo-American Oil Company, carries in her sixteen separate -compartments, 10,500 tons of oil, at a speed of 11 knots, for a fuel -consumption of 4.9 lb. of coal per 100 tons of cargo per mile. This -result is deduced from steaming, in ordinary service, over nearly -24,000 miles, and is consequently as reliable as it is interesting. - -The _Narragansett_, which is illustrated on Plate XXX., facing this -page, has a length between perpendiculars of 512 ft. and overall of -531 ft.; the beam is 63 ft. 3 in., and the depth, moulded, 42 ft. -The deadweight carrying capacity on a draught of 27 ft. is 12,000 -tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion type. Interest in the -machinery is associated principally with that fitted for the pumping -of the oil cargo. There are two pump-rooms, one located conveniently -for the oil in the eight compartments forward of the machinery space; -the other in a corresponding situation for the same number of tanks -abaft the propelling engines. The 10,500 tons of cargo can be loaded or -discharged in less than twelve hours. While primarily for the Atlantic -trade, the vessel was designed to undertake, if required, the much -longer voyage of the Eastern service. - -[Illustration: Plate XXX. THE LARGEST OIL-CARRYING STEAMER AFLOAT, THE -"NARRAGANSETT."] - -Because of the uniformly good results with ordinary coal, we give the -details as received from the superintending engineer of the owners:-- - - -TABLE VII.--RECORDS OF COAL CONSUMPTION OF STEAMSHIP "NARRAGANSETT." - - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Voyage No. - +------------------------------------------------------------ - | Coal, Indicated Horse-Power per Hour. - | +----------------------------------------------------- - | | Total Coal on Voyage. - | | +---------------------------------------------- - | | | Coal for Boilers only. - | | | +--------------------------------------- - | | | | Sea Miles on Voyage. - | | | | +------------------------------ - | | | | | Cargo Carried. - | | | | | +--------------------- - | | | | | | Average Speed. - | | | | | | +------------- - | | | | | | | Horse-Power - | | | | | | | On Voyage. - ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+------------- - | lb. | tons | tons | miles | tons | knots | I.H.P. - ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+------------- - 15 | 1.60 | 918 | 822 | 3,447 | 10,298 | 10.85 | 3,713 - | 1.58 | | | | | | 3,900 - 16 | 1.59 | 923 | 834 | 3,403 | 10,289 | 10.80 | 3,951 - | 1.64 | | | | | | 3,775 - | 1.63 | | | | | | 3,668 - 17 | 1.50 | 924 | 836 | 3,469 | 10,499 | 10.40 | 3,949 - | 1.53 | | | | | | 3,796 - 18 | 1.50 | 847 | 775 | 3,441 | 10,563 | 11.10 | 3,937 - | 1.50 | | | | | | 3,720 - 19 | 1.44 | 837 | 760 | 3,423 | 10,570 | 10.85 | 3,909 - | 1.43 | | | | | | 3,813 - 20 | 1.50 | 780 | 707 | 3,312 | 10,641 | 11.50 | 4,107 - | 1.32 | | | | | | 3,817 - 21 | 1.56 | 846 | 766 | 3,330 | 10,651 | 10.60 | 3,909 - | 1.44 | | | | | | 3,870 - | 1.46 | | | | | | 3,746 - ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+------------- - Totals | | 6075 | 5500 | 23,825 | 73,511 | | - Averages | 1.51 | 868 | 786 | 3,404 | 10,501 | 10.87 | 3,848 - ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+------------- - -The China Navigation Company of London, for whom the Scotts began -building in 1875, have had in the thirty years sixty-four vessels, -which have been an important factor not only in the development of -trade in China, but also in the advancement of British interests in the -Far East. - -In an earlier Chapter we referred to the extent of the service -conducted by these vessels, and also to the Company's continuous -progressive spirit, which, for instance, induced them, on the -suggestion of the Scotts, to adopt twin-screws. The launch of one of -these ships is illustrated on Plate XXXI., facing this page, while -the next Plate, XXXII., illustrates the _Fengtien_, which was built in -1905 in an exceptionally short period of time. The contract was made -in the closing week of 1904, the first keel-plate was laid on the 15th -January, 1905, the vessel was launched on the 20th April, and arrived -in Shanghai on the 14th July--less than twenty-six weeks from the -date when the building was commenced. This performance indicates not -only the satisfactory character of the organisation, but also of the -equipment of the shipyard and marine engineering works. - -The _Fengtien_ has a length between perpendiculars of 267 ft., a -beam of 40 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 18 ft., with a deck-house -having accommodation for thirty-three European first-class passengers; -while on the top of this house there is, as shown in the engraving, a -promenade for passengers. The accommodation provided for first-class -passengers is exceptionally satisfactory, both in respect of -state-rooms and of public saloons. Fifty-six first-class Chinese -passengers are also carried, as well as seventy steerage native -passengers. In addition to this considerable source of revenue, the -ship carries 1720 tons of deadweight cargo on a draught of 14 ft. - -The _Fengtien_ on her trial, when developing 2146 horse-power, -attained a speed of 13-1/4 knots, which was considered highly -satisfactory, in view of the unusual dimensions. The engines are of -the triple-expansion, three-cylinder type, fitted with every accessory -which experience has shown to ensure regularity of working, with the -minimum of expense in respect of upkeep and working cost. Steam at -190-lb. pressure is supplied by two boilers, 15 ft. in diameter and 11 -ft. 6 in. long, having 5184 square feet of heating surface, and 121 -square feet of grate area. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXI. THE LAUNCH OF A CHINA STEAMER.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXXII. THE CHINA NAVIGATION COMPANY'S T.-SS. -"FENGTIEN."] - -We have referred generally to the passenger accommodation in the ships -built by the firm, and it may be interesting to refer here to the -character of the work done and illustrated on Plate XXVII., facing page -73. The first view shows the dining-room of one of four Portuguese -steamers. This room is designed in the Jacobean style. The walls are -framed and panelled in solid walnut, and all the mouldings, cornices, -architraves, pilasters, columns, pediments, and also the furniture, are -beautifully carved. The floor is laid in mosaic tiles, in geometrical -patterns, with Brussels carpet runners in the passage-ways. The ceiling -is of yellow pine, moulded, ribbed, and broken up with carved panels, -painted a flat white and relieved with gold. The dome skylight is in -teak, with richly-carved beams and mouldings; and glazed with embossed -plate glass, while the side windows are fitted with jalousie blinds, -stout double-line teak shutters, and glass bull's-eyes in brass frames. -The upholstery is in crimson Utrecht velvet, and seating accommodation -is provided for sixty-eight saloon passengers. - -The other view on Plate XXVII. illustrates the drawing-room of the -steam yacht _Foros_, built for M. Kousenzoff, of Moscow. It is in the -Elizabethan style. The walls are framed in solid East Indian satinwood, -highly finished and French polished, with figured silk tapestry panels -of a shade that harmonises and blends with the wood-work. Neat and -delicate carving in low relief is introduced where most effective. The -ceiling, of yellow pine, has square panels of Tynecastle tapestry, -relieved with rich carving in cornices and beams. The room is lighted -and ventilated by eight large round lights in the ship's side, each -enclosed in a recess with a sliding screen of beautifully-stained and -leaded glass. The large circular skylight in the centre of the room, -finished to suit the ceiling, has large opening sashes, glazed with -stained glass. The floor is laid with oak parquetry, with a Parisian -mat in the centre. The room is heated by a slow-combustion grate -with rich brass mounts, tiled hearth, fire-brasses and fender. The -mantelpiece and overmantel, in satinwood, is a beautiful piece of -work--carved and relieved with colonnades and pilasters. This room is -fitted with a complete installation of electric bells and lights, with -two graceful electric candelabra, one on each side of the fireplace. -The stained glazing is illumined at nights by electric lights on the -outside. The drawing-room is completely and artistically furnished with -high mirrors, fitments, writing-tables, card and occasional tables, and -with a variety of beautifully upholstered chairs and sofas. All the -metal-work is of ormolu. - -The British India Steam Navigation Company is another of the old -clients of the Scotts. This Company, originally formed in 1856, under -the title of the Calcutta and Burmah Steam Navigation Company, which -was changed in 1862 to the title now known in all maritime countries, -had its first steamship built by the Scotts, and it is therefore -interesting to illustrate the one recently built at the same Works--the -_Bharata_. This vessel is of the intermediate type, carrying a large -number of British and native passengers, and nearly 4000 tons of cargo. -The length between perpendiculars is 373 ft., the beam 45 ft., and the -depth, moulded, 29 ft. 6 in. The cargo carried on a draught of 24 ft. -is 3940 tons, and this is handled by eight hydraulic cranes, some of -them of high power. The passenger accommodation, in the centre part of -the ship, includes state rooms and saloons for forty-two first-class -and thirty-six second-class European travellers, while in the 'tween -decks a large number of native passengers are accommodated. - -The machinery of the _Bharata_ gives a speed of 16 knots, when the -displacement is 5560 tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion -type, and develop 6000 indicated horse-power. Five single-ended boilers -supply steam at 180 lb. pressure. This vessel in service carries her -cargo of about 4000 tons and her passengers at a speed of 16 knots, for -a consumption of ordinary coal of about 50 tons per day. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXIII. THE BRITISH INDIA COMPANY'S STEAMSHIP -"BHARATA."] - -In our historical Chapters it has been clearly shown that the Scotts -took a prominent part in the evolution of Channel steamers, and -reference may be made to the latest vessels of this class now being -built at the Company's works--two steamers for the old and successful -firm of G. and J. Burns, Limited. These vessels, the dimensions of -which are:--Length 233 ft., breadth 33 ft., depth 24 ft., are to have -a speed of 13 knots. They are to be employed on the service between -Glasgow and Manchester, and are fitted for steerage passengers, and -also for conveying cattle, horses and sheep. The machinery consists of -three-cylinder triple-expansion engines of 1750 indicated horse-power, -having cylinders 23 in., 36 in., and 58 in. in diameter respectively, -with a stroke of 42 in. The boilers, of which there are two in each -ship, are 14 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. 6 in. in length, with a heating -surface of 4000 square feet, and a grate area of 120 square feet. They -work under natural draught at a pressure of 175 lb. per square inch. - -We might continue almost indefinitely describing different types of -ships, but will content ourselves with a reference to the fleet of -Thames passenger steamers built in 1905 for the London County Council. -Of the thirty vessels constructed for the Council, twenty had their -boilers and engines from the Scotts' Works. Ten of the steamers, in -which this machinery was fitted, were built on the Clyde by Messrs. -Napier and Miller; six at Southampton, by Messrs. John I. Thornycroft -and Company; and four at Greenwich, by Messrs. G. Rennie and Company. -These vessels are 130 ft. long, and of very light draught--2 ft. 10 in. -when loaded. An idea of their proportions is given by the engraving on -Plate XXXIV., facing this page, showing one of the Clyde-built vessels -ready to steam from Greenock to London. - -The engines for all of these vessels are of the compound, diagonal, -surface-condensing type, the two cylinders being 16 in. and 31 in. in -diameter, with a stroke of 3 ft. - -One set of engines is illustrated on Plate XXXV., adjoining page 85. -They have forged steel guide columns, to bind the cylinders to the -three entablature frames. The crank-shaft is a solid steel forging, -6-5/8 in. in diameter, coupled to the steel paddle-shafts by flexible -couplings. The surface-condenser, cylindrical in form and constructed -of light brass sheets, is placed below the guide bars close to the -cylinders. The water-ends are of cast brass, arranged for double -circulation of the water. The air-pump, of the trunk type, is driven by -bell-crank levers off the low-pressure connecting-rod. Two independent -feed-pumps are driven off the same crosshead. - -The auxiliary machinery includes a circulating pump with auxiliary -air-pump attached, a direct-acting feed and bilge pump, a fan and -engine for the forced draught, and an electric engine and dynamo. - -Each steamer has one cylindrical steam boiler, 9 ft. in diameter by 9 -ft. 3 in. long. The working steam pressure is 110 lb. The boilers are -also illustrated on Plate XXXV. The twenty sets of engines and boilers -were completed in a remarkably short space of time. - -These steamers were designed for a service speed of 12 statute miles -per hour, and a trial speed of 13 miles per hour, or 11.285 knots. -The best trial performances were attained by the _FitzAilwin_ and the -_Turner_, both built on the Clyde; they attained a speed of 14.1 miles -per hour, or 12-1/4 knots, with the engines making 69.8 revolutions per -minute, and indicating 360 horse-power. This is nearly 1 sea mile per -hour more than was required by the contract. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXIV. ONE OF TWENTY THAMES STEAMERS ENGINED BY THE -SCOTTS.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXXV. ENGINES OF LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL STEAMERS.] - -[Illustration: BOILERS FOR LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL STEAMERS.] - - -We illustrate on Plate XXXVI., facing page 86, a typical set of -triple-expansion engines. The practice in respect of the design of -engines and boilers is necessarily very varied. From the designs for -a small steam launch to those for a first-class cruiser or battleship -there is a wide range, and all classes of work, with not a few of -special interest, come between those extremes. In connection with the -three-crank triple-expansion engine, now generally adopted for merchant -work, an arrangement well favoured for sizes up to about 1000 indicated -horse-power is that in which the high-pressure cylinder is in the -centre with a piston valve, the intermediate-pressure cylinder being -forward, and the low-pressure cylinder aft, each with a slide valve -at the extreme ends. This has been found to give a handy arrangement -of gear, and to be easily accessible. With twin-screw engines of this -power it is customary, and has been found very convenient, to lead all -the hand-gear for both engines to a pedestal placed midway between the -engines and ahead of the forward cylinders. - -A description of the types of engines built by the Scotts for the China -Navigation Company during the past thirty years would be practically -a history of the progress of marine engineering during that period. -The customary sequence of cylinders has in the main been adhered to -in the design of these engines--viz., high-pressure cylinder forward -and low-pressure cylinder aft in the case of compound engines: the -intermediate-pressure cylinder, in the case of triple-expansion -machinery, is placed between the high- and low-pressure cylinders. -Indeed, this latter is the arrangement invariably adopted by the firm -in the design of all large-size ordinary cargo steamer engines. The -valve gear is forward of its cylinder in each case. This has also been -the design adopted in the case of recent high-class passenger and mail -steamers with three cylinders, and in the case also of steamers for -special trades. Twin-screw engines present little deviation from the -above, and such as there is mainly affects pipe connections. - -All engines of whatever type up to about 1000 indicated horse-power -are usually arranged with forged columns in front. The condenser is -ordinarily designed to form part of the engine structure, having the -columns cast on, and supporting the cylinders; but not infrequently it -is entirely separate from the main engines, and is carried either on -the back of the columns, or fitted in the wing of the ship. - -Of engines for the Navy nothing need be said beyond stating that they -form quite a class by themselves, and all present the special features -of design so characteristic of Admiralty work referred to in an earlier -Chapter. The latest types of large-size engines for the Admiralty are -being fitted with a system of forced lubrication to main bearings and -crank-pins. - -The Scotts' practice with respect to paddle engines has been no less -varied than that in the case of screw machinery, ranging as it does -from the ponderous side-lever engine of past years to the stern-wheel -engine of the shallow-draught steamers of the present day. Oscillating -and diagonal engines, both compound and triple-expansion, are also -within the experience of the Company, the three-stage expansion being -the type now usually adopted. - -With respect to auxiliary machinery, the Scotts invariably fit a -separate centrifugal pump for circulating the water through the -condenser for all classes of engines, excepting only those for the -ordinary tramp steamer. The air, bilge, and sanitary pumps are usually -worked from the main engine by levers. The feed pumps are generally -independent. Frequently, especially in yachts, all the pumps are -entirely independent of the main engines. The Scotts in some cases -make all auxiliary machinery for their own engines: such as centrifugal -pumps, fans, feed-heaters, auxiliary condensers, duplex feed and -ballast pumps, etc. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXVI. TYPICAL PROPELLING ENGINES.] - -Many varieties and types of boilers have been made. The old practice -of having two or three rings in the length of the shell in ordinary -cylindrical boilers has long since given place to one plate in the -length. The boiler ends are seldom made in more than two plates; up -to diameters of 11 ft. only one plate is used. The number of riveted -seams is thereby reduced to a minimum, and the liability of the boiler -to leak is minimised. The Scotts also have a system of forced draught -for supplying either cold or heated air to the furnaces, which is -fitted largely to their ships, and gives every satisfaction. Large -installations of Belleville and Yarrow water-tube boilers for working -under forced draught have also been made and fitted in H.M. ships, but -they need no description here. A large installation for burning oil -fuel has recently been completed and applied by the firm to the Babcock -and Wilcox water-tube, and the cylindrical, boilers of H.M.S. _Argyll_. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[68] From _Lloyds' Register_ we classify, according to speed, the -numbers of British and Foreign, and of Oversea and Channel, Steamers, -of over 16 knots. - - ---------------------+----------+----------++----------+---------- - Speed. | British. | Foreign. || Oversea. | Channel. - ---------------------+----------+----------++----------+---------- - Over 20 knots | 42 | 26 || 17 | 51 - 19 to 20 knots | 23 | 11 || 7 | 27 - 18 " 19 " | 38 | 14 || 15 | 37 - 17 " 18 " | 53 | 49 || 67 | 35 - 16 " 17 " | 70 | 56 || 77 | 49 - +----------+----------++----------+---------- - | 226 | 156 || 183 | 199 - ---------------------+----------+----------++----------+---------- - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -Efficiency: Design: Administration. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -Having reviewed the history of the firm, and dealt briefly with the -results obtained by some of the modern steamers constructed by them, -we propose now to describe the Works in order to indicate the measures -adopted to secure efficiency in design and construction of all types of -ships and machinery. Organisation and administration are as important -factors towards this end as the mechanical methods and appliances -adopted, and it may be well, therefore, to deal first with these. - -The firm have been responsible for the design of almost every merchant -ship constructed by them. Success has been rendered more certain -by the possession of carefully-collated records, the product of an -organised system of working up all data, of tackling new problems, of -making calculations regarding any scientific question, and of studying -contemporaneous work as described in the technical press and in papers -read at technical institutions. This continuous investigation produces -a wealth of suggestion, which enables the chiefs of the respective -departments to determine how far practice may be improved; and thus -there is steady progress not only in design but in constructional -methods. A well-selected technical library, from which the staff can -borrow books, also contributes to the same end. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXVII. SHIPBUILDING. (_See page 100._)] - -Admiralty and merchant work is initiated in separate drawing-offices. -The "Printed Instructions to Draughtsmen" throws light on the general -principles which influence design, and one or two quotations may be -made:--"Every machine or structure is designed with a certain object in -view; therefore, in designing, keep that object always to the front. Go -straight to the point, and let the object be attained in as simple a -manner as possible. Avoid all curves and indirect lines, except those -conceived to give uniform strength or stiffness, or required for some -definite purpose. There should be a reason for the contour and shape -of every detail. It should be remembered that designs made in this -way, requiring least material for the work to be done, usually look -best. Besides keeping the object clearly to the front, it is necessary -in designing to remember that certain facilities must be attended -to for moulding, machining, and erecting. It is also necessary to -keep in view the circumstances in which the structure or machine is -to be used. Every little detail should be definitely attended to on -the drawings, and not left to the judgment of the men in the shops; -remember that it is usually the unexpected which happens, and that -even the want of a split pin may cause a breakdown. In making drawings -or sketches for ordering material or for the shops, assume that those -who have to interpret the instructions have no knowledge of, or -information concerning, the work in question, except what is contained -in the drawing or order you are making out. This will ensure that all -information issuing from the drawing-office is complete, and that no -work is done in the shops without drawing-office instructions." - -The draughtsman, in designing work, must so arrange details as to fully -utilise, as far as is compatible with progress, the special machine -tools available, the system of gauges, templates, and jigs extensively -applied in the shops, and existing patterns. Bonuses are paid for -improvements in design whereby economy may be effected in machine -operations, etc. - -There is a large estimating department, where records of costs, rates, -wages, etc., are of the most complete description. The card system -adopted is admirably suited for enabling references to be made at any -time as to the cost of units in any contract. Here also it is possible, -by the simple process of comparison, to effectually check the economy -of design and manufacture, without which a high premium is placed -against efficiency. - -The staff in these departments is largely recruited from the shops, -and thus there is an incentive to the willing apprentice to excel. The -great majority of the vacancies in the technical staff are filled by -apprentices who have spent three and a-half years in the shops, and who -are chosen as a result of examination and of a satisfactory record in -the shops. Financial facilities are afforded to boys and to progressive -workmen to attend special classes, not only in Greenock but in Glasgow. -Competitions are instituted at intervals to encourage expertness in -some branch of work--for instance, in the use of the slide-rule, -etc. Thus in many ways the growth of an active _esprit de corps_ is -encouraged, apart altogether from the influence which the historical -and present-day success of the firm engenders. - -The same broad policy is pursued in the shops. Payment by merit to the -tradesman is adopted as far as possible. In the engine works the bonus -system--first adopted in 1902--is extensively applied. The arrangement -is satisfactory from the point of view of tradesman, employer, and -client. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXVIII. THE LAUNCH OF H.M.S. "ARGYLL." -(_See page_ 101.)] - -Long experience has enabled the firm to set equitable standard times -for many operations, and there was from the beginning the guarantee -that this standard would not be altered unless entirely new machines -were introduced to greatly influence the rate of production. Now if a -workman requires the full time, or more than the time set as a standard -for a job, he is still paid his full-time wage as under the old -conditions: but should he complete the work in less than the standard -time, his rate of wage per hour is increased in direct proportion to -the saving in time; the shorter the time taken, the greater the rate -of bonus. The bonuses earned range as a rule from 20 to 30 per cent. -over the time-rate wage. To quote actual cases, a workman who saves 26 -hours on a job for which the standard time is 134 hours, increases his -wage for the fortnight by 14s., while the money saved to the employer -is only 2s. 9d. He who saves 30 per cent. on the time adds 21s. to his -fortnight's wage. - -Such reduction in the time taken is not attained at the expense of -efficiency; the premium job is carefully inspected, and unless it is -of the highest standard the bonus is forfeited; so that the workman is -continuously careful to avoid any risk which will result in the loss -of the reward for his extra work. The reduction in time taken is, in -a large measure, due to the exercise of foresight and ingenuity on -the part of the workman. He is ever on the alert to ensure that he -will not be kept waiting for material to enable work to progress. The -machine-man makes certain that before one unit is out of his machine -the casting, forging, or bar for the next is alongside. This is further -facilitated by a man in each shop whose only duty is to see that there -is a supply of work for every tool. Encouragement is always accorded -to those who suggest modifications to increase the output from any -machine. Again, in the erecting of engines, considerable economy has -been attained, owing to similar foresight being exercised to ensure -that each unit is machined before it is wanted by the erector. - -To the employer also there is gain in the increased production, from -a given number of machines and men, for a constant establishment -expenditure--rent, rates, taxes, etc. While the wage paid to the men -is increased, there is a reduction in the cost of production, which -of itself encourages capital expenditure on improved methods and -appliances. Concurrently with the adoption of the bonus system there -has been a great increase in the cutting speed of tools, which has also -augmented the rate of production. This "speeding-up" is partly due -to the fitting of new machines, to the substitution of forged steel -machine-cut gear for cast spur-wheels, to the strengthening of lathe -headstocks, to wider belts, to the application of reversible motors to -some machines, and to quicker return speeds. - -Some indication may be given of the increased economy resulting from -the bonus system and from the "speeding-up" of tools, as compared with -the former system, with slower speeds and piece-work rates. A typical -job, which had formerly occupied eighty hours, was, after experience, -given a standard time of sixty hours. When first carried out under the -bonus system the time actually taken was forty-five hours, the labour -cost being reduced from £2 13s. 4d. at piece-work rate to £1 17s. 6d. -under the bonus system, while the wage of the worker was increased by -2d. per hour. Subsequently, a repeat of this job was machined by the -same man, who, having confidence that the time allowed would not be -reduced, finished the work in thirty-nine hours, saving twenty-one -hours on the standard time, reducing the cost to £1 15s. 0d., and -increasing his rate of pay by 2.8d. per hour. Other comparisons might -be given to show the advantage over the piece-work. In successive -fortnights after the introduction of the system, the percentage of -time saved on the time taken on piece-work in one department steadily -advanced from 16 per cent. to 47 per cent., and ultimately the pay -of the men per hour was increased 75 per cent., while the saving to the -employer was 50 per cent. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXIX. ENGINE CONSTRUCTION. (_See page_ 108.)] - -The client profits, as the contract price is reduced without any -diminution in the satisfactory character of the work done; indeed it -is probable that this is improved because of the special inspection -to ascertain if the bonus has been conscientiously earned. A lower -contract price, therefore, is possible; and this places the firm, -both directly and indirectly, in a better position in competition in -shipbuilding. There is more work obtainable, more constant employment -for the workmen, with the additional inducement of higher wages to -capable and diligent men. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -The Shipbuilding Yard. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -Covering an area of 40 acres, the Works have ten berths for the -construction of ships of all sizes, with departments for producing all -the accessories and machinery--engine and boiler works, steam-turbine -factory, foundries, brass, copper, and sheet-iron shops, saw-mill -and extensive wood-working department--and these give employment to -four thousand workmen. The equipment has been greatly extended and -modernised during the past few years. The building of the China Steam -Navigation Company's steamer _Fengtien_ in nineteen weeks, from the -laying of the keel to the trials, is one of several instances of rapid -construction which might be enumerated. - -The plans of ships prepared in the designing department and drawing -offices, to which reference has been made in the previous Chapter, -are passed to the moulding loft, where the work of construction is -commenced. This loft is situated in a substantial four-storey building, -accommodating practically all the wood-finishing departments. Each -floor has an area of 12,500 square feet; the ground and first floors -are given up to the joiners and cabinet-makers, with their numerous -machine tools, while the top floor is at present utilised for storing -completed joiner work, etc. The moulding loft monopolises the -third floor, and as the length is 240 ft. and the width 52 ft., there -is ample space, as is shown on the engraving in Plate XL., facing page -94, for laying down full size deck-plating, stringers, margin plates, -deck girders, etc., so that moulds or templates may be prepared for the -iron workers. Armour-plates for warship belts, barbettes, and casemates -are similarly prepared in template, to assist the makers to form them -to the required curvature and size. - -[Illustration: Plate XL. THE MOULDING LOFT.] - -[Illustration: Plate XLI. BEAM SHEARING MACHINE. BEVELLING MACHINE. -HYDRAULIC JOGGLING MACHINE.] - -The ironworkers' department is extensive and important. When the -material is delivered into the yard, it is discharged from the railway -wagons by a 5-ton electric overhead travelling high-speed crane, which -stacks the plates and bars in such a way that any piece can be readily -removed by the same crane for conveyance to the furnaces. - -There are six furnaces suitable for heating shell plates of the largest -size, and angles and bars for frames, etc., up to 60 ft. in length. -Adjacent to the furnaces are the screeve boards and the frame-bending -blocks. The channel, bulb angle, or Z bars, used so extensively now for -framing in large ships, are bevelled as they pass from the furnace to -the bending blocks. This is done in a special machine made by Messrs. -Davis and Primrose, Leith, and illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining -this page. The bars, as delivered from the rolling mills, have flanges -at an angle of 90 deg., which is not suitable for taking the skin -plating of ships. One angle has therefore to be altered, so that while -the inner flange may lie at right angles to the keel-plate, that to the -outside will fit closely to the shell plating throughout the entire -length of the frame from keel to shear stroke, which may be 50 ft. or -60 ft. - -As the bar passes through the machine, the web is carried on an -ordinary flat roller, while bevelling rolls, set to the desired angle, -work on each side of one of the flanges to give it the desired set. -There are several of these machines in use, and they run on rails laid -across the front of the furnace, so that the angles, Z sections, or -channels may be bevelled while passing out of the furnace on to the -bending blocks. The manipulation of the plates from the furnace is by -means of steam and electric winches. - -Formerly, the turning of the frames to the required curvature against -the pins on the bending blocks was carried out by hand. To suit the -heavier scantlings of the larger ships of the present day, a portable -hydraulic machine is now utilised. It is fixed at its base by pins, -which fit into the ordinary holes in the blocks, and hydraulic pressure -is supplied through a flexible pipe to work the ram-head against the -angles, forcing them to take the desired form. The machine is a great -labour economiser, as it ensures work on the heaviest of bulb angles -being carried out in the minimum of time, and therefore at top heat. - -The bars are usually cut to length by a guillotine, but it was -considered that this tended to twist the metal, and perhaps unduly -fatigue it; and as a consequence the firm have fitted John's shearing -and notching machine, as constructed by Messrs. Henry Pels and Co., -of Berlin. This new machine is illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining -page 95. The tool is shown in the act of cutting through a channel -section. The cutting tool is seen immediately in front of the operator, -and is actuated by gearing accommodated within the standards of the -machine. When the cutting tool is brought down on the angle or beam -to be sheared, and the shaft at the rear started, the rotation of -an eccentric actuated by the shaft causes the point of the tool to -slide idly a short distance to-and-fro on the bar. The hand lever on -the right hand side of the machine is depressed, forcing the tool -downwards, and the continued rotation of the eccentric causes the tool -to pierce through the bar with a downward and inward motion. Where -there is a deep web with flanges, the beam is reversed on the anvil, -to enable the other flange to be cut. The cutting of any bar in this -machine is a matter of only a few seconds. - -[Illustration: Plate XLII. IN ONE OF THE PLATERS' SHEDS.] - -Of the platers' shed, where the plates, angles, bulbs, bars, etc., are -machined, two views are given on Plates XLII. and XLIII., facing pages -96 and 98 respectively. It may be said generally that the machines are -designed to deal with plates up to 50 ft. in length, and with angles -up to 60 ft. in length, and of corresponding sections. It follows that -the straightening and bending rolls, edge-planers, and punching and -shearing machines, are of great power. It is scarcely necessary to make -detailed references to all of the tools for these and other purposes. - -All the tools are electrically driven. The plate-flattening rolls, -which have 15 and 20 horse-power reversible motors, take plates 8 ft. -wide, and the rolls are from 21-1/2 in. to 19 in. in diameter. The -bending rolls are driven by a 20 horse-power motor. The plate-edge -planers, shown to the left in the view, Plate XLII., facing page 96, -are operated by 16 horse-power motors, and the plate is held on the -table by means of hydraulic rams as well as screw-jacks. For drilling -and countersinking plates there are several modern tools, each actuated -by an independent electric motor. One of these is a three-standard -drill, to deal with plates of the largest size. The spindles have a -rise and fall of 10 in., and are fitted with self-acting, as well as -hand, feed, and with the usual rack arrangement for the traverse of -the head. Several radial countersinking machines, with 11-ft. jibs and -spindles 2-1/2 in. in diameter, are driven by 10 horse-power motors. -There are many heavy punching and shearing machines, nearly all of them -having 42-in. gaps, so that they can punch holes at any part of the -widest plates. As a rule, they are arranged to punch 1-1/2-in. holes -through 1-1/2-in. plates at the rate of thirty holes per minute. The -shears are of corresponding power. - -For dealing with angles and bars there are several interesting tools, -in addition to shears and punches. Some of the shears cut 8-in. by -4-in. angles, and are driven by 10 horse-power motors. There are -channel-angle shearing machines, taking work 16 in. by 6 in., and -operated by hydraulic pressure. These machines are made with revolving -gear to suit almost any angle of flange. - -There is also an hydraulic stamping press for bending angles and tees -to form knee-bars and other stiffening pieces, the cylinders being 14 -in. in diameter, working at a pressure of 800 lb. per square inch, -with a stroke of 18 in. The machine, which has been constructed by Sir -William Arrol and Company, Limited, consists of an hydraulic cylinder -mounted horizontally on a massive table. On the ram-head there are -former blocks, while on the table in front there are corresponding -dies. The bar is placed on the table between the blocks and dies, and -as these are forced together by hydraulic pressure, the bar between -them is squeezed into the exact shape required. Not only is the -operation expeditiously executed, but there is no uncertainty. The -whole of the metal within the bar is retained inside the knee, which -becomes thicker and broader, materially adding to its strength. As -the moulds or dies can be made to suit any form, the machine can be -utilised in the preparation of various details of structures, provided -they are designed with a view to their production by aid of dies. -The great economy resulting from the use of special machines is only -realised when the designing staff remember that they must be kept -employed. - -A specially powerful tool is provided for bending channel irons -and beams, and for drilling horizontal holes in them. Hydraulic -manhole-punching and flanging machines are employed, each having a ram -of 27 in. in diameter, and capable of punching a hole 42 in. by 16 in. -through a plate 3/4 in. thick. There are provided dies for forming -flanges 4 ft. 6 in. deep in the widest of plates. - -[Illustration: Plate XLIII. PUNCHING AND SHEARING.] - -The modern practice of joggling and of scarfing the laps and edges of -plates is applied in many instances, and special hydraulic tools are -provided to carry out this work. The firm were also early in adopting -the practice of joggling frames, deck beams, etc. The frames and beams -are joggled when cold, to suit each alternate inner strake of plating, -in a special design of hydraulic press, of which there are several in -the works. This tool, illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining page 95, -carries dies on the ram-head and on the anvil, to form between them -the obverse and reverse sides of the dent or joggle desired. Movable -centre-pieces on the ram-head and anvil are traversed in all directions -by screw thread to suit the position and width of the joggled part, and -a gauge shows variations of 0.1 in. in the position of the joggled part -of the frame. A 2 ft. length of angle can be joggled at each stroke. -The machines are by Messrs. Hugh Smith and Co., Limited, Glasgow. - -The same machine joggles the lap or edge of a shell, inner bottom, or -deckplate in a similar way. The whole length of the frame or plate can -thus be worked in a very short time. A powerful jib crane, of 16 ft. -radius, assists materially in the rapidity of the work turned out by -these tools. The only slips required are at the ends of the vessel, -where the bevel of the frames precludes the use of joggling. A special -electrically-driven hammer is used for forming these taper slips. - -The angles, etc., to form the frames are assembled at the head of the -building-berth, and when lying on skids are riveted to form the double -bottom, frames and margin plates. Hydraulic riveters are used wherever -possible. There are about a score of these at work in the shipbuilding -yard, with cylinders from 8 in. to 10-1/2 in. in diameter, a stroke of -7-1/2 in., and a gap of 55 in., so that heavy work can be done. Some of -them are specially designed for keel work, for closing rivets in beams, -and for difficult parts. - -The frames thus riveted are conveyed down the berth by a simple and -ingenious cableway, known in the Works as the "switchback," from its -resemblance to the well-known amusement railway. A derrick-post stands -at the head of the berth adjacent to the skids on which the frames are -riveted. The cable stretches from a small derrick at the foot of the -shipbuilding berth over a pulley at the top of the large derrick-post, -and thence, through a similar block at its base, to an electric winch. -The frame or unit of the ship's structure is suspended on a running -block on the cable, which is then made taut, partly by the working -of the winch and partly by the large derrick post being inclined -backwards. The running block with its load travels down the taut cable -by gravity, under the guidance of the squad of fitters. The gradient of -the cableway is only sufficient to enable the load to move slowly to -its position in the shipbuilding berth. - -The double-bottom frames and margin plates are united with the -keel-plate, and subsequently there are successively worked into the -structure the tank top plates, side frames, the skin plates, beams, -bulk-heads, and other units, portable hydraulic punches and riveters -being largely used. Pneumatic tools are also extensively employed for -boring, drilling, riveting, chipping, caulking, etc. There are from 130 -to 140 of these tools in use on vessels in course of construction. - -There are ten building berths ranging in length up to 700 ft.; but -slight alterations would enable the firm to build vessels of still -greater size. Several of these are shown on the engraving on Plate -XXXVII., facing page 88. The launching ground is probably the finest -in the river, the channel being here of great depth and very wide, as -is shown on the engraving opposite. Indeed, ordinary merchant vessels -with full lines are launched without any check chains; the fine-ended -ships--mail steamers and cruisers--are, as a precautionary measure, -checked by drags in the usual way. The engraving on Plate -XXXVIII., facing page 90, shows the launch of H.M.S. _Argyll_. - -[Illustration: Plate XLIV. THE FITTING-OUT DOCK.] - -[Illustration: Plate XLV. THE GRAVING DOCK.] - -The ships launched are completed in the fitting-out dock, constructed -about two years ago, and illustrated on Plate XLIV. The engraving shows -H.M.S. _Argyll_ under the big jib-crane. This dock has a length of 560 -ft. and a width of 172 ft., and opens directly into the channel of the -Clyde. The depth of water is never less than 28 ft., so that warships -are afloat at all states of the tide. A prominent feature in the view -is the crane, which was supplied by Messrs. George Russell and Co., -Limited, of Motherwell, and lifts 120 tons at a radius of 70 ft. It is -carried on concrete foundations and piers, which rise 20 ft. above the -level of the quay. In addition to the pier for carrying the mast of the -crane, there are similar supports for each of the back legs through -which the crane is anchored. - -One advantage of the derrick type is that the crane may be placed close -to the edge of the quay; in this case the centre is only 7 ft. from the -front of the wharf, so that the full load of 120 tons can be dealt with -at an effective outreach of 63 ft. from the quay. The maximum radius -of the heavy purchase with a load of over 60 tons is 90 ft., and of -the light purchase gear, with a load of 10 tons, 98 ft. The minimum -radius of the crane is 25 ft. There are four sets of gear: for lifting -heavy loads, for raising light weights, for derricking the jib, and -for slewing; a separate controller of the enclosed tramway type is -provided for each. The main hoisting and derricking motors are of 50 -horse-power, and the others of 35 horse-power. The speed of hoisting -120 tons is 5 ft. per minute, while a 10-ton load is raised at the -rate of 40 ft. per minute. Automatic brakes are fitted for the slewing -motion, and powerful hand-brakes for the hoisting and derricking gears. -All motions are controlled by one man in the steelhouse fixed to the -mast of the crane 56 ft. above the quay level. - -There is on the opposite wharf of the dock a 20-ton travelling electric -crane, and throughout the Works there are many portable and hydraulic -cranes, in addition to the hydraulic and other cranes commanding the -machine tools. - -Reference may here be made to the Company's graving dock, illustrated -on Plate XLV., adjoining page 101. The length is 360 ft., and it is -largely used for docking ships for repair, as well as for cleaning -ships preparatory to trial. Our view shows a torpedo-boat destroyer -in the dock. The pumps for the emptying of the dock are electrically -driven. - -We may return now to our narrative of the construction of a ship, and -deal with the supplementary departments, including those of joiners, -smiths, plumbers, sheet-iron, and other workers. - -Wood-work forms a large and important item in most of Scotts' ships, as -many of them are for passenger service. We illustrate on Plate XLVI. -one of the saw-mills. It is self-contained, having its own power plant, -including a compound engine, having cylinders 15-1/4 in. and 27-1/2 in. -in diameter by 44-in. stroke. There are four vertical saw frames, the -largest having a 36-in. frame, six rollers, and two bogies to take in -the heaviest logs. In addition, there are circular saws, ranging up to -6 ft. in diameter, a swing cross-cut saw, special planing, moulding, -and turning machines to do heavy work, and saw-sharpeners, grindstones, -punching machines and anvils to carry out all repairs and fettling -of the blades, etc. There are also large steam-heated drying stoves, -and a timber-drying yard of about three acres in extent. The overhead -travelling cranes range up to 5 tons capacity, and the rails on which -they run are extended on columns across the yard. The saw-mill is the -largest and best-equipped in the district, and does the sawing and -planing of timber for three of the largest shipbuilding yards, as -well as the general work for two other firms. - -[Illustration: Plate XLVI. THE SAW MILL.] - -[Illustration: Plate XLVII. TWO VIEWS IN THE JOINER SHOPS.] - -The joiners' and cabinet-makers' shop, as we have already indicated, -occupies two floors of a building 240 ft. long and 52 ft. wide; while -the fourth floor is utilised for the French polishing work, as well -as for storing the completed wood-work until the vessel is ready -to receive it. Provision is also made in the same building for the -model-making department, in which replicas of nearly all ships are -produced, and, being works of art, because of their completeness, -accuracy, and beauty, have earned high awards at many Exhibitions. - -In the joiners' shops, illustrated by two engravings on Plate XLVII., -adjoining this page, there is a complete equipment of wood-working -machines for sawing, turning, planing, moulding, sand-papering, -mortising, boring, tenoning, dovetailing, dowelling and joining. -These are electrically driven, and are grouped at three places in the -length of the shop on each floor, with benches around them, so that -the joiners do not require to carry their jobs any distance in order -to have them machined. There is also in use in connection with the -department a portable electric circular saw, which is specially useful -for carpenters and joiners, etc., on board the ship in the dock. An -electric deck-planer, of the lawnmower form, has proved serviceable in -reducing enormously the most laborious task experienced by carpenters -and joiners. - -There are two large smithies convenient to the shipbuilding berths, -and in both cases the finishing department adjoins. In one case there -are fifty-four fires and eight hammers; in the other, forty fires, -with five hammers, ranging up to 15 cwt. The fires are operated by -mechanical blowers, and the smoke and waste gases are carried off -by overhead ventilating pipes. Extensive work is carried out by the -smiths. Die-stamping is largely adopted in connection with the making -of eye-plates, cleats, stanchions, clips, etc. In each finishing shop -there are band saws, radial and other drills, screwing machines, and -grindstones. Smiths' stores are arranged above the finishing shops. - -The plumbers' shop is fitted with a special machine for bending pipes -when cold, as well as screwing and tapping machines, drills, saws, -grinders, and fires. - -The sheet-iron department is equally well equipped, having -straightening rolls, shearing, punching, chipping, drilling, and other -tools, with various hammers; and here work is done in connection with -ventilating and other light ironwork. - -In view of the warship contracts undertaken, the mechanics' shop, for -work peculiar to the ship as distinct from the propeller machinery, -etc., is extensive. The four lathes here range up to 27 ft. in length -over all, with a 14-in. headstock and a 22-ft. bed. There is a useful -shaping machine, a fair-sized planer, and several drills, all adequate -for the work required, which is remarkable more, perhaps, for its great -variety than for size. - -All the machinery in the yard, and in several departments in the engine -and boiler works, is run from one central station, of which two views -are given on Plate XLVIII., opposite. The electric generators occupy -one side of the power station, and the air compressors and hydraulic -pumps the other. Steam at 200 lb. pressure is supplied by one marine -cylindrical, and four Babcock and Wilcox water-tube, boilers, with -superheater, coal conveyors, and mechanical stokers. - -[Illustration: Plate XLVIII. ELECTRIC GENERATORS IN THE POWER STATION. -HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND AIR COMPRESSORS IN THE POWER STATION.] - -There are three electric generating sets, with a total capacity of -1200 kilowatts, the voltage being 240. They are illustrated on Plate -XLVIII., facing this page. The engines are of the high-speed, enclosed, -forced lubrication, condensing type. The current is distributed from a -switchboard in the power station by overhead mains, with three-way -distributing panels in the various departments. The motors, of which -there are about 130 in the shipbuilding department alone, are of the -two- and four-pole type, partly or entirely enclosed, and mostly of -10 to 20 electric horse-power. Arc lamps are used for lighting, but -the shops and offices are also illumined by 16 and 32 candle-power -incandescent lamps. Plugs are arranged at various points throughout the -yard for portable lights, and for connecting mains for lighting the -various ships while being completed in the docks. - -Hydraulic power at 800 lb. pressure is generated by two high-pressure -pumps, with steam cylinders 15 in. in diameter, and rams 4 in. in -diameter. There are separate accumulators for each. The pressure pipes -are led underground throughout the Works to the various hydraulic tools -already referred to. - -There are two air compressors for supplying power for the pneumatic -tools. The combined capacity is 1800 cubic feet of free air per minute. -Each has two steam cylinders 6 in. in diameter, working respectively -high- and low-pressure air cylinders 15-1/4 in. and 21-1/4 in. in -diameter, the stroke being 18 in. The hydraulic pumps and the air -compressors are illustrated on Plate XLVIII., facing page 104. - -As we have already stated, part of the power generated in this station -is utilised at the engine works, to which we may now turn our attention. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - -The Engine and Boiler Works. - -[Illustration: decoration] - - -Rapidity of construction has been characteristic of the engine and -boiler works of the Scotts to at least as great an extent as in the -shipbuilding yard. Several instances might be noted, beginning with six -blockade-runners, built in a very short period, in 1864, and fitted -with engines to give a speed of 12 knots at sea and 13-1/2 knots on -trial. A recent and striking instance is the construction of boilers -and engines for twenty of the passenger steamers built for traffic on -the Thames, to the order of the London County Council, and described on -pages 83 and 84, _ante_. The contract for this work was signed towards -the end of November, 1904, and work was commenced about the beginning -of December. The various parts of the engines were being machined and -finished during the month of January and the beginning of February, -1905; and all of the twenty sets of engines and boilers were completed -by the end of May. Another noteworthy case is the construction of the -machinery for the steamship _Fengtien_, described on page 80, _ante_. -Work was commenced on the machinery in the middle of January, and -finished about the end of April. The machinery was fitted in the ship -and ready for the trials on the 29th May. The total time taken from -the beginning of work was well under five months.[69] - -[Illustration: Plate XLIX. VIEW IN MAIN MACHINE SHOP.] - -The pattern shop, where all work originates, is fitted with the usual -pattern-making machinery, including a core-making machine. - -The iron foundry, which was begun in 1790,[70] and around which the -large engineering establishment has since been raised step by step, -continues to do sound work. There are four cupolas, of a combined -capacity of about 20 tons, and cylinders up to 120 in. in diameter are -cast. These facts suggest the satisfactory character of the equipment. - -The brass foundry is an equally important department, where first-class -work is done. There are fifty-two crucible pots in use, varying in -size up to 150 lb., and of a collective capacity of about 2 tons; also -an air furnace capable of producing at one heat 12 tons of metal, for -such heavy castings as are required for preparing shaft liners, large -sea chests for naval ships, etc. The strength of Admiralty gun metal -made in this foundry is up to 18 tons per square inch, with 30 per -cent. of elongation in a 2-in. length. The foundry is served by an -electrically-operated jib crane. - -In the forge and smiths' shops a large amount of detail work is done, -in units ranging up to 3 tons in weight. The hammers vary up to 15 cwt. -power. A considerable amount of die-stamping is done in connection with -auxiliary engine forgings, etc. All paddle-wheels are made in this -department. The blast for the fires is got from an electrically-driven -fan. - -The machine shop, which was one of the first constructed with a -completely glazed roof, occupies a site on a steep slope, one side -being formed by a heavy retaining wall, as shown in the engraving on -Plate XLIX., facing page 106. At the level of the top of the wall, -which is 25 ft. high, there is the light machine shop, while at the end -of the bay and over the annexe situated to the left of the engraving, -is the brass-finishing shop. There is a 2-ton hoist between the -erecting-shop floor and the galleries, so that no inconvenience, so far -as transport is concerned, is involved by this arrangement. - -Originally a stream ran down the hill and over the site on which the -Works are located, and its waters have for many years been utilised -as a source of power. A special 24-in. inward-flow turbine works in -the conduit which conveys the water across the site, and this turbine -develops continuously 80 horse-power. This serves to drive some of -the machines in the boiler works. The turbine runs in parallel with -a compound vertical engine, which drives the shafts actuating the -groups of small machines in the engine shop. Many of the larger tools, -however, are electrically-driven by separate motors, the current being -transmitted from the central station already described. - -The engravings on Plates XXXIX. and XLIX., facing pages 92 and 106 -respectively, illustrate the main machine shop, which has a width of -60 ft., and, with the adjoining bay, accommodates some of the finest -marine engineering tools made. Perhaps the best indication of their -efficiency is the fact that three weeks suffice for the machining of -the parts of a complete set of engines to develop 2000 horse-power. The -shops are traversed by five overhead electric cranes, ranging up to 40 -tons lifting capacity. - -[Illustration: Plate L. VERTICAL PLANING MACHINE.] - -[Illustration: MULTIPLE SPINDLE DRILLING MACHINE.] - -[Illustration: Plate LI. SURFACE AND BORING LATHE.] - -The leading dimensions and the principal work done by the more -important tools afford an idea of the extent of the equipment. There -are several planing and slotting machines, one of which is shown in -the engraving on Plate L., facing this page. There are two combined -machines, to plane 21 ft. and to slot 18 ft., used in connection -with the condensers, cylinders, large bearing frames and sole-plates -of engines, while two other smaller tools are devoted to finishing the -castings for bed-plates and columns. For machining eccentric-rod ends, -etc., there is a 24-in. slotter with a circular table. There are two -high-speed planers with two tool-boxes on the cross-slide, which take -in pieces 10 ft. by 5 ft. by 5 ft., and one to take work 12 ft. by 3 -ft. by 3 ft. - -In the driving of some of the heavier tools very good results have -been attained by the application of a reversible motor, which in one -case has dispensed with four belts, a pair of bevel wheels, and two -countershafts, reducing enormously the frictional waste, and enabling -higher speeds and quicker return strokes to be attained.[71] - -For drilling work there are several large tools. Recently there has -just been fitted a multiple machine which, while primarily intended for -drilling the tube-holes in drums and water-pockets of Yarrow water-tube -boilers, is also utilised in connection with ordinary machine work. -This tool, of which an engraving is given on Plate L., facing page 108, -was manufactured by Messrs. Campbells and Hunter, Limited, Leeds. It -has a massive cross-slide carrying four saddles, movable by a powerful -screw, driven by spur-gearing and friction-clutch, controlled from one -of the saddles. The steel spindles are balanced, and have a special -self-acting, variable, rack-feed motion, as well as a quick vertical -motion by hand for rapidly adjusting the drill through the jig. Each -spindle can be operated independently. The table has a sliding motion, -directed by two straight screws coupled to the cross shaft and vertical -shaft, and is carried by a straight bed with three bearing surfaces. -This machine, which weighs 20 tons, is driven by a 30 brake-horse-power -electric motor. - -There are two vertical boring mills used for cylinder work, one being -capable of boring up to 120 in. in diameter, and the other to 94 in. -in diameter. A combined boring and facing machine, with a table 4 ft. -square, is usefully employed on propeller bosses, valve-chests, small -cylinders, and built-up bed-plates, machine bearings, etc. - -The installation of high-speed lathes is specially noteworthy. In -one, the face-plate can take in 12 ft. in diameter, and, as the -length of bed is 30 ft., it is useful for large surfacing work, as -well as for turning crankshafts of the larger sizes. There are two -12-in. double-geared lathes for surfacing and screw cutting. These are -self-acting, and the lengths of bed are 19 ft. and 12 ft. respectively. -For turning piston and connecting rods, two screw-cutting lathes of -16-1/4-in. centres are in use, the length of the bed being 22-1/2 -ft. These have each a triple-gear headstock, and a chuck 48 in. in -diameter; with rack motion and slide-rest feeds. A 20-in. centre lathe, -with a bed 28 ft. 6 in. long, is fitted with two saddles and four -slide-rests for shaft liners, etc. Amongst others, there is a 27-in. -centre lathe for shafting, the bed being 36 ft. long. - -One of the lathes is illustrated on Plate LI., adjoining page 109. This -is a 48-in. surfacing and boring lathe, by Messrs. John Lang and Sons, -Limited, Johnstone. The two new features introduced are the variable -speed drive and automatic speed-changing mechanism. The headstocks -can be used for single or triple gear, and are so arranged that, even -when running at the greatest speed, there is a reduction by gearing. -With this arrangement the lathes have greater power when turning -small diameters than when the belt is used driving direct to the main -spindle. The spindles, which are hollow, with hexagonal turrets, are -of crucible cast steel, and run in gun-metal bearings. By means of -the speed-changing mechanism, the cutting speed of the tool is kept -practically constant when surfacing. This means that any surface can be -finished off in about one-half of the time taken by a lathe having -the ordinary step-cone drive, where the workman will not change the -position of the belt while surfacing. The self-acting feed-motions are -positive. - -[Illustration: Plate LII. BRASS FINISHING SHOP.] - -Milling is adopted in many instances in preference to planing or -slotting, and this is especially so in connection with valve quadrants, -columns, faces, etc. For the first-named there is a large vertical -miller, and for the latter a horizontal tool with a vertical milling -apparatus. For grinding bolts, etc., a machine having a separate head -for grinding taps is used, the emery wheel being 18 in. in diameter and -1-1/2 in. broad. - -A shop, now in course of construction, is to be specially laid out for -the manufacture of turbine machinery of the greatest power. It is to -be 285 ft. long, with a span of 60 ft. Heavy lifts will be taken by a -100-ton overhead crane, and ordinary work will be handled by a 40-ton -electric crane. The heavy machine tools, while specially chosen for -turbine work, are also adaptable for use in the manufacture of the -heaviest reciprocating machinery. The principal tools are large lathes -suitable for turbine rotors and crank-shafts; vertical boring machines -which may be utilised for work on cylinders as well as on turbine -casings; and a heavy planer, 10 ft. by 10 ft. by 25 ft. stroke. The -necessary small machine tools for turbine work will be put down in this -department, whence also some of the large tools will be removed from -the existing shops, so that it will be fully equipped for the purpose -intended. - -The brass-finishing shop, which is illustrated on Plate LII., facing -page 110, serves both for ship and engine work. It has only recently -been laid out anew. The machines, according to the latest practice, are -arranged down each side of the shop, and the benches occupy the centre. -Each alternate bench is utilised for the material to be operated upon, -so that the working bench is not littered in a confused way, as is too -often the case. There are representative types of the best makes of -automatic tools, turret lathes, brass-finishers' lathes, and grinding -machines with specially large discs. - -A considerable amount of work is done to limit gauge in all the shops -which we have described. This practice has been considerably developed -recently, and a specially equipped department has been organised, -where gauges, templates, and cutting tools are made. This department -is illustrated on Plate LIII., facing this page. A word may first be -said as to the significance of this new department. Where three or -four ships have engines of the same type, a set of jigs and templates -for the most important parts are at once made, so that a unit from -an engine in one ship may be fitted to an engine in another. This -simplifies the ordering of new parts, and greatly reduces the number of -spare items which have to be kept in store by the owners, in order that -repairs or refits may be effected at short notice. - -For some time the Scotts have adopted this system, so that it was a -simple matter to enforce it in connection with the machinery of the -twenty Thames Steamers, and in recent naval work, where the practice -is being applied in an extended form. In the recent Admiralty work -every part of an engine is made interchangeable and identical with -the corresponding parts of other engines for the same type of ship, -although built in different parts of the country; and this fact -alone will indicate the extent and intricacy as well as the care -and degree of accuracy necessary. This standardisation to ensure -interchangeability has reached its highest exemplification in the -case of the machinery for the armoured cruiser _Defence_, of 27,000 -indicated horse-power, to be completed in twenty-one months from the -placing of the order by the Admiralty. - -[Illustration: Plate LIII. TOOL, GAUGE, TEMPLATE, AND JIG DEPARTMENT.] - -Then, as regards the tool-making and fettling--the other branch of work -carried out in the tool room--it has been recognised that, to make -the cutting tools efficient, it is necessary to utilise the most -suitable steel for the tools working on various metals and alloys; and -the selection of the tool steel for each metal has been systematised by -the careful collation of data of actual work. In the manufacture of the -tools special appliances are used and will be referred to presently. -The workmen are encouraged to use only tools in sound condition. Each -machine-man in the shops has ten checks, and may borrow from the store -a corresponding number of tools, but these must be returned as soon as -possible for overhaul and re-grinding. The bonus system further induces -the men to ensure that their tools are in good condition. - -The tool department is separate from the main structure, and in it -all jigs, templates, and gauges, as well as tools, are constructed. -Standard gauges, as well as limit gauges, are used, and both are -marked in metrical and English dimensions. The tool room is not only -carefully maintained at a regular temperature, in order to prevent the -templates and jigs from varying in the course of their manufacture, -but the appliances adopted have been selected so as to get the most -precise results. In connection with the manufacture of large boiler -taps, drill gauges, milling cutters, etc., a specially designed gas -furnace has been built, with a number of compartments which can be used -separately or collectively, according to the size of the tool being -made. The toolsmith's forge is on the down-draught principle, so that, -in addition to carrying off all smoke and dust, it tends to keep the -atmosphere pure. - -Amongst the principal machines used in this tool-manufacturing -department is an 8-in. Whitworth self-acting, sliding-surfacing, -and screw-cutting lathe, with a backing-off and taper-turning -attachment. The milling, drilling, and grinding machines are all by -the best makers. A 10-ft. machine is used for making the comparative -measurements from existing standards. This machine, also of Whitworth -make, has a measuring screw in a fast headstock with a large dividing -wheel, one division of the latter representing 0.0001-in. in the end -movement of the spindle. All transverse and tensile testing of bars is -done in this department. - -A check system is used in connection with the distribution of -templates, tools, drawings, etc., and a separate store in the centre of -the works is arranged for this purpose. - -[Illustration: HYDRAULIC PLATE-BENDING MACHINE.] - -As to the boiler works, the fact that in 1905 the production was -practically one boiler per week is, of itself, testimony to the nature -of the plant adopted. The main boiler shop, together with its yard, has -an area of 7000 square yards, and a height of 45 ft. to the crane rail, -and is served by five overhead electric cranes, ranging in lifting -power up to 100 tons, with numerous jib and other cranes associated -with the various machine tools. - -[Illustration: Plate LIV. IN THE BOILER SHOP.] - -The machine tools fitted in the boiler works are all of a very powerful -character; but only a few of these need here be referred to. There -is a 13-ft. gap hydraulic plate-bending machine, which is entirely -automatic in its action, and can be set to any radius to bend plates up -to 2 in. thick when cold. The flanging for the front and back plates -of boilers is done in an hydraulic machine, exerting a pressure of -over 160 tons. This machine has four rams, two of which act downwards, -one upwards, and the other horizontally. It is served by a special -hydraulic jib-crane, capable of lifting the heaviest plates. There are -also plate-edge planers and triple boring mills of corresponding power, -while the vertical rolls take in plates up to 10-ft. wide. - -For the riveting of the boilers there is a 13-ft. gap hydraulic -riveting machine, capable of exerting a load on each rivet of 200 -tons. The weight of this riveting machine alone is about 60 tons, and -it is served by an independent hydraulic jib-crane. All the valves in -connection with the crane and riveter are led to a common platform, so -that one man is able to manipulate the whole of the work. - -There is also a large installation of special plant for the manufacture -of water-tube boilers, but it is scarcely necessary to describe this in -detail. - -A large part of the boiler work, especially for warships, is -galvanised, and a special department has been organised for this -purpose. The tubes, in the first place, are thoroughly cleaned, then -placed in a zinc bath, and coated by electrolysis to the desired -extent; the object being to expose defects, as well as to protect the -tubes from corrosion during manufacture. The amount of work done is, -perhaps, the best indication of the equipment of this department, as -well as of the water-tube department; and this will be realised when it -is stated that over 24,000 tubes are required for the boilers of one -cruiser, and that six months suffices for their construction. - -It would be possible to give other indications of the splendid -equipment of the Works, but enough has been said to show that -there is directed towards the realisation of the best work in all -departments--firstly, the advantages of accumulated experience, -carefully collated throughout two hundred years; secondly, the benefits -which the psychologists claim for hereditary influence--applicable -here not only through the proprietors, but also through many of the -workmen; and, thirdly, a sound progressive spirit, which recognises the -necessity for continual improvement in administration and design, and -in machine tools and methods of manufacture. - -[Illustration: decoration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[69] For further references to the rate of construction, see -_Engineering_, vol. lx., page 813, where it is noted that ten vessels, -aggregating 26,000 tons, were built for the China Navigation Company in -nine months. - -[70] See page 22, _ante_. - -[71] See _Engineering_, vol. lxxx., page 418. - - - - -PRINTED AT THE BEDFORD PRESS, 20 AND 21, BEDFORDBURY, STRAND, LONDON, -W.C. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Two Centuries of Shipbuilding, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TWO CENTURIES OF SHIPBUILDING *** - -***** This file should be named 54667-8.txt or 54667-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/6/6/54667/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Ralph and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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