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diff --git a/old/54790-0.txt b/old/54790-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2ebeafe..0000000 --- a/old/54790-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13412 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Raisin Industry, by Gustav Eisen - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Raisin Industry - A practical treatise on the raisin grapes, their history, - culture and curing - -Author: Gustav Eisen - -Release Date: May 26, 2017 [EBook #54790] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RAISIN INDUSTRY *** - - - - -Produced by MWS, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - In this document, texts between _underscores_, =equal signs= and - ~tildes~ represent texts printed in italics, in bold face and - underlined texts, respectively. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - -[Illustration: Muscat of Alexandria Raisin Grape, First Crop. One-half -Natural Size.] - - - - - THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. - - A PRACTICAL TREATISE - ON THE - RAISIN GRAPES, - THEIR HISTORY, CULTURE AND CURING. - - BY GUSTAV EISEN. - - SAN FRANCISCO: - H. S. CROCKER & COMPANY, STATIONERS AND PRINTERS, - 1890. - - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1890, by - GUSTAV EISEN, - in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Of late years the raisin industry has been prominently before the -horticulturists of California. Many people now make their living and -acquire wealth by the cultivation of the raisin grapes, and many are now -studying the methods of cultivation, pruning, curing and packing while -waiting for their vines to bear. The literature of the raisin industry -is a very scant one, and, with the exception of a few notices in works -of travel, or in treatises on general fruit culture, we find not a -single book in which this important and interesting industry is made the -special subject of study and discussion. A book on the raisin industry -may, therefore, be considered timely. I have endeavored to so write it -that it would contain something of interest to all those connected with -the growing and curing of the raisin grapes, to those who have already -succeeded in building up fame and fortune, as well as to those who have -just begun the cultivation of the vine, and who have as yet only -realized the pleasures, but not the profits, of the industry. The -historical part of the book will principally interest the former; for -the latter the practical part on cultivation, pruning, curing and -packing is intended. - -As our climate and other conditions differ from those of any other -country in the world, so must our methods of cultivation and curing -differ from those practiced elsewhere. Foreign methods, while -interesting and, in some respects, of great importance to us, had to be -greatly modified and improved upon before our growers succeeded in -producing raisins equaling the best from the raisin districts of the Old -World. It has cost years of experimenting and study to attain success, -as well as much money and disappointment to many who had nothing to -guide them when they commenced. - -These processes by which success was achieved can now become the -property of all, and a safe guide to even the most inexperienced -beginners. The methods advocated here are the result of practical -experience of the author, as well as of the most successful -raisin-growers of this State. - -For the benefit of those of our readers who now study the raisin -industry at a distance, but whose steps may in the future be directed to -this Coast, a descriptive tour through the raisin districts of our State -has been added in order that they may see what our country is like,--the -country of the raisin and the fig; the country of almonds, olives, -oranges and prunes; the country where health, profit and enjoyment are -more than anywhere else derived from horticultural pursuits. It is for -these prospective readers, that the short biographical sketches of our -principal raisin-men are intended,--short records of the pioneers of the -raisin industry,--men who have broken the way which is now easy to -travel, and through whose experience and perseverance others are now -being benefited. - - GUSTAV EISEN. - - SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., OCTOBER, 1890. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE. - HISTORICAL 5 - - Raisins 5 - - The Currant 6 - - Muscatels 7 - - Dehesa Raisins 7 - - Lexias or Lye-dipped Raisins 9 - - Various Kinds of Raisins 10 - --Muscatels; Currants; Belvideres; Black Smyrnas; California - Malagas; California Sun-dried Sultanas; Seedless Muscatels; - Thompson Seedless; Dried Grapes; Lexias; California Dipped; - Smyrnas; Faros; Huascos. - - - RAISIN DISTRICTS 10 - - Foreign Districts 10 - - Raisins in Ancient Times 10 - - Modern Raisin Districts 11 - - The Malaga District 12 - --Extent and Age; Climate; Soil; location of the Vineyard; - Varieties of Grapes; Characteristics of the Raisins; Yield - of Grapes; Distances of the Vines; Pruning; Manuring and - Fertilizing; Drying Floors or Sequeros; Drying and Curing; - Packing; Labor. - - Valencia and Denia 15 - --Extent of the District; Soils and Appearance of the - District; Climate; Irrigation; Quality of the Raisins; - Planting and Care; Dipping and Scalding; Drying and Curing; - Packing and Disposing of the Crop; Export and Production. - - Corinth and Currants 22 - --Historical and Geographical Notes; Characteristics and - Quality; Soil and Irrigation; Preparation of the Land; - Distances of the Currant Vines; Care of Cuttings; Planting - and Grafting; Pruning the Vines; Care of the Vineyard; - Ringing the Branches; Drying and Curing; Cost of Currant - Vineyards in Greece; Consumption and Production. - - Smyrna Raisins 30 - --Districts in Smyrna; Climate; Care of the Vines; Dipping, - Drying and Curing; Production and Export; Cost of Vineyards - in Smyrna; Other Varieties of Raisins. - - Italy and Italian Raisins 36 - --Lipari and Belvidere; Pantellaria; Calabria. - - Chile and Huasco Raisins 36 - --Characteristics; Location; Varieties; Soils; Climate; - Irrigation; The Vineyard; Drying and Curing. - - California Raisin Districts 38 - - A General Review 38 - --Early History; Later Planting; Acreage and Crops. - - Yolo and Solano 40 - --Soil and Climate; The Vineyard; The Crop. - - Northern California 43 - --General Remarks; Placer County; Yuba County; Sutter County; - Colusa County; Butte County; Tehama County; Shasta County. - - Fresno, Merced, Tulare and Kern 44 - --Extent and Location; Soils and Climate; Irrigation; The - Vineyard; Pruning and Other Operations; The Crop. - - San Bernardino County 48 - --Location and Acreage; Climate; Irrigation; Soils; The - Vineyard; The Crop; The Profits and Other Items. - - Orange County and Santa Ana 52 - --General Remarks; Location; Climate; Soils and Ripening; The - Vineyard; The Crop and its Curing; Yield and Profits. - - San Diego and El Cajon 55 - --Location and Acreage; Climate and Rainfall; Soils; The Vines - and the Vineyard; The Crop. - - Other Raisin Districts 59 - - - CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, SOILS, LOCATION AND IRRIGATION 60 - - Climatic Conditions Favorable and Unfavorable to the Raisin - Industry 60 - --Limits of the Raisin Districts; Dry Seasons, Spring and Fall - Rains; Winter Rains; Frost in Spring and Winter; Summer - Temperature; Winds, Injurious and Beneficial; Fogs and - Moisture in the Air; Ideal Conditions of Climate. - - Soils 67 - --General Remarks; Malaga; Valencia and Denia; Smyrna; Zante; - Chile; Fresno; Other Soils in San Joaquin Valley; Orange - County; Redlands and Riverside; El Cajon; Subsoils; Hardpan - Soils; Comparative Value of Soils; Alkali Soils; - Fertilizing. - - Irrigation 77 - --Introductory Notes; the Necessity of Irrigating the Raisin - Vines; Health and Longevity of Irrigated Vines; The Bearing - Quality of Irrigated Vines; Quality of Irrigated Grapes; - Various Methods of Irrigation; Irrigation by Flooding; - Irrigation by Furrowing; Subirrigation; Seepage; Drainage; - The Influence of Irrigation on the Soil. - - The Raisin Grapes 87 - --Introductory Notes; Muscatel or Gordo Blanco; Muscat of - Alexandria; Huasco Muscat; Other Varieties of Muscat; - Seedless Sultana; Black Currant; Other Varieties of - Currants; Thompson Seedless; Other Seedless Grapes; Malaga; - Feher Szagos; Other Raisin Grapes. - - - DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 93 - - Powdery Mildew or Uncinula 93 - --General Notes; Characteristics; History and Distribution; - Remedies. - - Downy Mildew or Peronospora 95 - --General Notes. - - The Vine Plague 96 - --Characteristics; Nature and Cause; Damages; Remedies. - - Leaf-hopper 98 - --Characteristics; Damages; Distribution; Remedies. - - Red Spider 100 - --Characteristics; Remedies. - - Caterpillars 100 - --Characteristics; Damages; Remedies. - - Black-knot 102 - --Characteristics; Remedies. - - Grasshoppers 102 - --General Notes; Remedies. - - - THE RAISIN VINEYARD 104 - - Planting 104 - --Distances for Muscat Vines; the Marking Out of a Vineyard; - Relative Value of Cuttings and Rooted Vines; The Making of - Cuttings; The Care of Cuttings; Planting Cuttings; Care of - Young Cuttings; Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts; - Rooting Cuttings; Care of Rooted Cuttings; Planting Rooted - Vines; Proper Time for Planting; Cost of Cuttings and Rooted - Vines; Winter Plowing; Plowing Devices; Cultivation; Back- - furrowing; Cross-plowing; Weed-cutters; Cutter-sled; Hoeing; - Time for Cultivation. - - Grafting the Muscat on Other Stocks 117 - --Time for Grafting Raisin-vines; Points to be Observed in - Grafting; Various Methods of Grafting; Stocks and their - Influence. - - Various Summer Work 121 - --Sulphuring; Tying Over; Covering the Vines; Thinning the - Crop; Ringing the Vines; The Vineyard Labors of the Year. - - Pruning 124 - --Winter Pruning or Pruning Hard Wood; Bleeding of the Vines; - Summer Pruning or Pruning Green Wood; Root-pruning; - Suckering. - - Various Vineyard Tools 130 - --General Notes; The Sheep’s-foot; The Planting-bar; The - Dibble; Planting Chains; Spades; Hoes; Plows; Cultivators; - Randel Disc Cultivators; The Ash-trough; Sulphuring Cans and - Bellows; The Cutter-sled; Vineyard Trucks; Shears. - - - DRYING AND CURING 133 - - California Sun-dried Raisins 133 - --Notes; Time of Ripening; Signs of Maturity; Picking; - Cleaning; Drying on Trays; Turning; Reversing; Slanting the - Trays; Elevating the Trays; Stacking Against Rain and Dew; - Taking Up; Covering; Drying-floors; Dryers; Sweatboxes; - Trays for Drying. - - California Lye-dipped Raisins 149 - --General Notes; Dipping Process; Drying and Curing; Stemming, - Grading and Packing. - - - THE PACKING-HOUSE 153 - - Buildings and Mechanical Appliances 153 - --The Packing-house; The Stemmer and Grader; The Sweating- - house; The Presses; Boxes and Cartoons; Packing Frames and - Packing Trays; Facing-plate; Scales; Labeling Press; Tables; - Bags and Bagholders; Trucks; Trays for Weighing; Followers; - Paper; Tin Boxes. - - Loose Raisins 158 - --Stemming and Assorting; Packing and Cleaning; Sacking; - Facing, Top-up Method; Facing, Top-down Method; Comparative - Value of the Two Methods. - - Layer Raisins 162 - --Sweating and Equalizing; Packing Layers, Top-up Method; - Packing Layers, Top-down Method; Filling; Nailing and - Trimming; Labels. - - - STATISTICS OF IMPORTATION, PRODUCTION AND PRICES 169 - --Production of Raisins in California from 1873 to 1889; - Number of Acres in Raisin Grapes in California in 1890; - California and Malaga Prices, Importation, etc., from 1871 - to 1889; Exports of Malaga Raisins from 1864 to 1889; - Exports of Valencia Raisins from 1850 to 1889; First Cost of - Crop of Valencia Raisins; Production and Distribution of - Smyrna Raisins from 1844 to 1884; World’s Raisin Production - in 1890; Importation of Raisins, Currants and Figs into the - United States from 1873 to 1878; Importation of Raisins, - Currants and Figs into the United States from 1879 to 1888; - Consumption of Currants and Raisins per Head of Total - Population in 1884; Prices Ruling in the California Raisin - Districts. - - - THROUGH THE CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS 181 - - Through San Joaquin Valley to Fresno 181 - - From Los Angeles to Santa Ana 189 - - From Santa Ana to San Diego 192 - - El Cajon 195 - - Riverside 199 - - Redlands 202 - - An Hour in a Packing-house 205 - - - RAISIN-GROWERS AND THEIR VINEYARDS 208 - --G. G. Briggs; R. B. Blowers; Robert McPherson; T. C. White; - Miss M. F. Austin; Joseph T. Goodman; A. B. Butler; William - Forsyth; A. D. Barling; San Joaquin Valley Raisin Packers of - 1889. - - - LITERATURE 215 - --Introductory; List of Books of Reference. - - - GENERAL INDEX 219 - - - - -THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. - -A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE RAISIN GRAPES, THEIR HISTORY, CULTURE AND -CURING, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CALIFORNIA, BY GUSTAV EISEN. - -_Copyrighted._ - - - - -HISTORICAL. - - -RAISINS. - -The word “_raisin_” as spelled and pronounced to-day, is not of very -ancient origin, but rather a corruption and evolution of older words, -both spelled and pronounced differently. Thus Falstaff replies to Prince -Hal: “If reasons were as plentiful as blackberries, I would give no man -a reason upon compulsion” (Henry IV, Act II, scene 4). Also, Cooper, in -his dictionary of 1685, indicates that “_raisin_” and “_reason_” are of -identical sounds. The derivation of the word has, again, been very -variously suggested either from “red” or “rose” color, connecting it -with the German and Danish word “_rosine_;” and it has even been -suggested that the word was derived from the fact that the raisins were -cured in the “rays” of the sun. The true derivation, however, is from -the Latin word “_racemus_,” meaning a bunch or cluster. Richardson, who -first points out this derivation, quotes: “Whether a reisyn (E. V. -graap, _racemus_) of Effraym is not better than the vindages of Abiezer” -(Wicliffe Judges VIIJ, 2). “And there shall be left in it as a rasyn” -(E. V., braunches of a cluster). Marginal note, “A rasyn is a lytil bow -with a lytil fruit” (Idem. Is., XVIJ., 6). But we have much older -testimony of this derivation being the correct one. An old document -states that, in 1265 A. D., the Countess of Leicester paid in London -twelve shillings for fourteen pounds, or, as the statement reads in -Latin, “_Pro uno fraello racemorum_;” which, translated, would be, “for -one frail of bunches.” The evolution of the Latin word _racemus_ was -thus seen to have been accomplished rapidly enough; but, on account of -the illiteracy of the olden times, it was spelled and pronounced -promiscuously. Thus we meet with such spellings as “_reysyns_,” in 1266; -“_reysons_,” in 1447 (“Russell’s Book of Nurture”). In 1554 the -_Stationers’ Company_ in London paid twopence for one pound of “_greate -reasons_;” while Andrew Borde, in his “Dietary” of 1542, says that -“_great raysens be nutrytyve, specyally yf the stones be pulled out_.” -In 1578 Dodoens speaks of dried raysens. In 1685 the word “raisin” is -used and spelled as in our days, and from that time on the different -spellings were used, if not promiscuously, still without any great -uniformity. The term of “greate raysens” was introduced to distinguish -them from the smaller raisins, or currants. In our own days, the latter -is seldom classed or alluded to as a “raisin” proper, although it, -strictly speaking, should be considered as such. The tendency at present -in California is to make the distinction between “raisins” and “dried -grapes,” meaning by the former certain varieties of grapes which have -been skillfully dried and cured, and which are superior in taste, -flavor, thinness of skin and saccharine matter. “Dried grapes,” again, -are simply any kind of grape, especially wine-grapes, which have only -been dried, and which have not undergone that skillful treatment which -the grape-grower is so proud of, and justly enough designates as -“curing.” They are an outgrowth from the late efforts of the French wine -merchants to make genuine French wine out of anything that is sweet, and -as they are immensely preferable to beets, potatoes and glucose, they -will always be in demand. - -With the above definition of the “raisin” accepted, we can proceed to -consider their different varieties, their names and derivations. The old -designations of the different varieties were derived from the places -where they were produced, without special reference to the grapes from -which the raisins were made. Thus we had Malagas, Currants, Valencias, -Denias, Turkish and Italian raisins. But since it has been found that -the same kinds of raisins have been produced in very different -localities, and that some localities can produce all the different -kinds, a new division has been found necessary. Thus, disregarding the -many various brands with which this and other markets are flooded, the -following different varieties of raisins will be found the principal -ones: _Currants_, _Muscatels_, _Dipped_ and _Sultana_. - - -THE CURRANT. - -The _currant_ is one of the very oldest raisins known. As early as 75 A. -D. Pliny speaks of the fine grapes grown in Greece, the berry being -thin-skinned, juicy and sweet, and the bunch being exceedingly small. -This, then, must be the currant of later times. After this first mention -of this grape, the same drops out of history for ten centuries, and the -name currant is first to be identified with raisins de Corauntz, or -rather, “reysyns de _Corauntzs_” as late as 1334. As early as the -eleventh century, a lively traffic in this kind of raisins had taken -place between the Greek producers, the _Venetians_ and other of the -Mediterranean merchant nations. In 1334 we find them called “corauntz;” -in 1435, “corent;” and old MS. of the Grocers’ Company in London, speaks -of “x butts and vi roundelletts of resins of Corent.” Thus spelled, the -name was used for years. In 1463 “reysonys of Corawnce” were three pence -per pound, and in 1512 the Duke of Northumberland paid two pence per -pound for rasyns of Corens. In 1554 the name had changed to currans, and -the Stationers’ Company provided for a banquet “5 punde of currans at -one shilling and eight pence.” In 1558 the same company provided for “6 -punde of currance for 2 shillings.” In 1578 we find in Lytes’ -translation of Dodoens’s “Herbal,” in the description of different -varieties of vines, that “Small raysens, commonly called Corantes, but -more rightly raysens of Corinthe. The fruit is called in the shoppes of -the countrie,[1] passulae de Corinthe; in French, raisins de Corinthe; -in base Almaigne (Dutch) Corinthea; in English, Currantes, and small -raysens of Corynthe.” Here, then, is indicated for the first time that -the true and correct name should be “raisins of Corinth.” But we need -not follow this evolution any longer; there can be no possible doubt -that the name _currant_, the one now accepted for this class of raisins, -is derived from the town of Corinth, on the mainland of Greece,--the -Morea of our days, the Peloponnesus of the ancients. Until the time when -the Turks conquered Greece, the port of Corinth was the principal point -of export for this class of raisins, and while, after the subjection of -Greece this commerce entirely ceased, still this fruit always continued -to bear the name by which it first became known to commerce. - - [1] Holland, Dodoens was a learned Dutch botanist. - - -MUSCATELS. - -The principal and most valued class of raisins are the Muscatels or -Muscats. They all derive their name from the Muscatel or Muscat grape, -from which these raisins are made. As to the origin of the name Muscat, -opinions differ. The most popular one is that the grape got its name -from the supposed musky flavor peculiar to this variety of grape. It is, -however, far more likely that the name is a very ancient one, and -derived from the Latin word _Musca_, meaning a fly,--these fine grapes -when drying being especially attractive to flies. The Romans called this -grape, “Uva Apiaria,” meaning bee grapes, or grapes beloved by bees, -from the fact that the bees are especially attracted to these grapes -when they are being dried. The Muscat or Muscatel would then not -originally designate a certain variety of grapes, but grapes used for -drying generally. In the course of time the name was transferred to or -especially given to the _best_ grape for drying purposes,--the Muscatel -of our own times. - - -DEHESA RAISINS. - -The finest or at least the most expensive brand of raisins made is the -_Dehesa_ raisin of Malaga. They are produced from the Muscatel variety -and the name they bear has an interesting origin, giving us at the same -time an insight in the development of the agricultural and horticultural -resources of Spain. The word “Dehesa” is found by reference to a good -Spanish dictionary to mean pasture ground. The “Dehesa” raisins then are -pasture-ground raisins, or raisins grown on former pasture ground. The -way the raisins came to be given such a name is as follows. Between the -years 800 and the end of the fifteenth century, the fairest part of -Spain as well as Portugal was occupied by the Moors. Contrary to their -nature in other countries, they proved here extremely industrious, and -excelled both as merchants, artisans and agriculturists. The waters of -the streams were conducted to the land in aqueducts, dams were thrown -across the rivers, reservoirs were formed, and the whole of Southern -Spain became most highly cultivated, rich and prosperous. In fact, if -the historians are to be believed, and the yet remaining views of former -grandeur can be trusted, no country either in ancient or modern times -has ever in prosperity rivaled the ancient Moorish kingdoms of Granada -and Andalusia. In the thirteenth century the Christian knights and kings -of Central and Northern Spain succeeded in conquering the Moors, who -again were unmercifully expelled, massacred or enslaved, their cities -burned and razed, and the fertile and cultivated districts utterly -ruined. Vast tracts were depopulated and abandoned, and, nature taking -its course, wild grass, shrubbery and trees soon covered the former -highly cultivated plains. In the course of time these uncultivated lands -attracted the attention of the highland shepherds, who drove their herds -to them during the winters, again returning to the mountains at the -advent of the dry season. - -By degrees the self-taken rights of the sheepmen became more widely -recognized, and, while the less valuable lands were taken possession of -by the poorer peasantry, these pasture lands were set apart for the -exclusive use of the sheep-owners. The pasture lands thus being free, it -was no wonder that the sheep industry flourished, and that the flocks -increased. The wool industry soon became one of the most important in -Spain. The flocks were principally owned by nobles and monks, and the -poor peasants, who constituted the only agricultural population, had -very little if any chance to oppose the ever greater encroachments of -the wandering flocks or their insolent owners. The Merinos, or moving -sheep, were wintered in the warm valleys of Andalusia, Murcia and -Estremadura, only to be again removed to the cooler mountains of Leon -and Castille at the advent of spring. What curse this would entail on -the agricultural population is easy to be seen. The sheep were moving in -bands of 10,000 each, and 700 to 800 such flocks were moved annually -twice through a country devoid of fences or inclosures of any kind. -Numerous disputes and constant bloody fights arose between farmers and -the shepherd, to settle which the “Council of the Mesta” was instituted. -In tyranny, this dreaded institution was only equaled by the famous -Inquisition, with which in birth and death it was almost -contemporaneous. In the year 1556 a code of laws was promulgated, and a -compromise was entered upon. But the tyranny of the shepherds, upheld -through their “Mesta,” was in no way diminished. The latter continually -extended its power, encroached upon new territory, appropriating -gradually the finest pastures of Spain, and finally obtained a monopoly -of the wool trade. Its tyranny became at last intolerable. The shepherds -of the Mesta were more dreaded than robbers and highwaymen in every -place through which they passed. Agriculture became almost impossible. -At last the “Mesta” was abolished by the Cortez in Cadiz in 1812, and a -few years afterwards the pastures or Dehesas were sold. One of the -finest Dehesas near Velez, Malaga, was planted to Muscatel grapes, and -through the combined fertility of the soil, and the abundance of -moisture, the vineyard proved a great success. So fine were the grapes -grown there that they attracted great attention; no such fine grapes had -ever been seen in Andalusia before. The merchants to whom the first -raisins were sold were much astonished, and wonderingly asked whence -they came. The reply, “from the Dehesa,” was from that time on applied -to the finest Muscatel grapes. - - -LEXIAS, OR LYE-DIPPED, AND OTHER RAISINS. - -The third class of raisins are the _dipped_ raisins, so called from -being dipped in boiling lye before being dried and cured. The Spanish -name for these raisins is _Lexias_. The name _Lexia_ is, again, derived -from a more ancient word, the Latin _lixivium_, or _lixia_, meaning -_lye_. To-day the continental name for this class of raisin is _Lexias_, -when the more specific names of Denias and Valencias are not used. Here, -in America, we generally use these names, and whenever we speak of -Valencias and Denias we mean the dipped raisins of these districts. To -the above three classes of raisins we might appropriately add Sultanas -and Malagas. The Sultanas are made from the Sultana grape, a seedless -grape from Asia Minor, now grown in many Mediterranean countries, as -well as here in California. The Malagas, again, were originally the -Muscatels grown around Malaga, in Spain; but of late this name is being, -with considerable confusion, applied to a coarser raisin made in -California from a grape here called, for want of a better name, the -Malaga grape. - -Among names which were formerly much used, but which have gone out of -use, was the Solis, or sun-dried raisins, especially the sun-dried -Muscatels of Malaga. As early as 1295 A. D., the Muscatels were -generally called thus: Raisins of the sun; Solis, or sun-dried, so as to -distinguish them from the inferior dipped, or Lexias. In our own time, -this name was nearly being revived, when a couple of years ago our -California _sun-dried_ raisins were spoken of in opposition to our -_machine-dried_ raisins, and when both classes had their earnest and -enthusiastic champions. - -We cannot leave this chapter on names without referring to classes of -raisins receiving their names from certain localities. Of course, the -number of such names may be almost endless. It is, however, only of -interest to refer to the principal ones, such as have been known to -commerce in former days or are yet known. Thus, we designate as Malagas -any of the raisins grown and shipped from Malaga. The Smyrnas (formerly -Smirna) are those from Smyrna, in Asia Minor, both sun-dried and dipped -raisins; the Alicantes, dipped raisins, from Alicante, in Spain; the -Denias, dipped raisins from Denia, in Spain; the Valencias, dipped -raisins from Valencia (include Denias); the Lipari, raisins from the -Island of Lipari, near Sicily; the Belvideres, from the same island and -from the Island of Pantellaria; the Calabrian raisins, from Calabria, in -Italy; the Faro raisins, from the port of Faro, in Algarve, Portugal. We -have above already referred to the currants, from the town of Corinth -and the Grecian Islands, and the Malagas, from Malaga. The latter were -also known as “great raisins,” on account of their superior quality. -Among the latter we should, of course, count the California raisins; -but, unfortunately, our raisin-growers have not until quite recently -recognized the necessity of adopting names which should at once show the -locality where the raisins are produced. But we will return to this -further on. - - -VARIOUS KINDS OF RAISINS. - -_a._ _Sun-dried_ raisins. - -1. _Muscatels_, or Muscats, from Malaga or California. The former, also -known at various periods as “Solis,” or sun-dried, or “great raisins,” -on account of their very superior qualities. - -2. _Currants_, raisins made of the small currant grape, originally from -Corinth. - -3. _Belvideres_, raisins from Calabria, in Italy, and from the Islands -of Lipari and Pantellaria, near Sicily. - -4. _Black Smyrna_, properly only a dried grape, not exported to this -country. - -5. California _Malagas_, made from the Malaga grape. - -6. California sun-dried _Sultanas_, made from the Sultana grapes in this -State. And, lastly,-- - -7. _Seedless Muscatels_, made in California, and being the smallest -Muscats separated from the larger seed-bearing berries. - -8. _Thompson Seedless_, a new, very promising raisin now being produced -in this country from vines imported originally from Constantinople, -producing seedless grapes, slightly larger than the Sultanas. - -9. _Dried grapes_ of any description, especially wine grapes, exported -from this and Mediterranean countries for wine-making to France, England -and the Eastern States. - -_b._ _Dipped_ raisins. - -10. _Lexias_, or Dipped Muscatels, from Denia, Valencia, Alicante, in -Spain. - -11. California Dipped, especially second-crop Muscatels. Proper name not -yet established. - -12. Smyrnas, which again may be either _Sultanas_, _Chesmes_ or -_Elemês_. The first from the Sultana grape, the two latter, the “red” -grapes, from Dipped Muscatels. - -13. _Faros_, from Algarve, in Portugal, not known in this country. - -_c._ _Dried in the shade._ - -14. _Huasco_ raisin, from Chile. To this list might be added many more -varieties of less importance. - - - - -RAISIN DISTRICTS. - - -_FOREIGN DISTRICTS._ - - -RAISINS IN ANCIENT TIMES. - -Previous to the production of raisins in California within the last -twenty years, the raisin industry of the world was entirely confined to -the Mediterranean district of Europe and Asia. At that period, however, -raisin grapes became more disseminated, and raisins were produced to -begin with in small quantities in widely distant countries, such as -Chile, Australia and California. By virtue of their climatic conditions, -the Mediterranean countries were the only parts of Europe where raisin -culture could be successfully carried on, though it is almost certain -that the original home of the raisin grapes must be looked for -elsewhere. In searching for the original habitat for the ancient -varieties of raisin grapes, we must look further east to ancient Persia, -or to the tablelands of Western Asia generally. In remotest antiquity, -grape culture was carried on there, and in the ancient records of -travelers in those countries we find mentioned dried and seedless -grapes. We can trace the origin of two varieties of raisin grapes to the -beginning of our era, which must then already have attained perfection. -As has been mentioned before, Pliny spoke of a small, sweet and -remarkable grape grown by the Greeks, evidently the “currant;” he also -mentions _Uva Zibebae_ and _Uva Alexandria_. - -The Latins generally spoke of Uvae Apiariae or Uvae Muscae, our present -Muscatels or dried grapes generally. This carries us back fully nineteen -centuries. But we may well believe, even in want of records, that the -drying of grapes was practiced centuries before. - - -MODERN RAISIN DISTRICTS. - -Leaving remote antiquity, it was only in the Mediterranean basin, and in -comparatively modern times, that the drying of grapes developed to an -important industry, and in more recent times yet that grapes were -exported to Northern Europe. While thus the industry is old, it was not -until the eleventh century, at the time of the Crusades, that it became -important. The returning knights brought with them taste for and -acquaintance with the products of the East. Northern Europe became the -consumers of raisins, regarding them as the greatest luxuries, only to -be afforded by the rich. It has been reserved for our time to make the -raisin a necessity even in humbler homes. The perfection to which the -raisin industry has attained is of modern origin not yet half a century -old. - -The raisin districts of the world are not large, and while for centuries -every effort was made to extend the planting of raisin grapes and their -curing into raisins, few of these efforts have been crowned with -success. While raisin grapes may grow and be turned into raisins in -almost every part of the Mediterranean basin, experience has -demonstrated that it has only proved a paying business in comparatively -few localities. The reasons of this are not fully apparent; but they are -evidently dependent both upon climatic conditions and upon the -capability of the natives to learn and profit by the experiences of -others, and upon their enterprise in venturing upon a new industry. On -the other hand, it is not likely that, even with extensive experiments -and with the aid of large capital, the growing and curing of the raisin -grapes could be very extensively extended. The question there as well as -here is not one alone of agricultural consideration, but a financial -problem dependent upon the labor supply, the facilities for shipping, -climatic conditions during the curing season, etc. Such being the case, -all the more interest is attached to those localities and districts -where the raisin industry flourishes, and where there is every -probability that it will remain a success. - - -THE MALAGA DISTRICT. - - -_Extent and Age of the District._--Malaga has been known to export -raisins since 1295 A. D., but must have been a raisin-producing district -centuries before. The raisin cult, then, is no doubt of Phœnician -origin, and has been practiced in the same locality for two thousand -years or more. Under the Romans the raisin industry was continued, but -appears to have deteriorated and later on to have been abandoned -altogether, as the local tradition credits the Moors with having -re-introduced the raisin grape into Velez Malaga. The raisin district of -Malaga extends along the southern coast of Spain for a distance of sixty -or seventy miles. The district is subdivided into several other -districts. Thus, the subdistrict of Malaga proper occupies a plain -eighteen miles long by nine miles wide, in the northeast corner of which -is situated the town of Malaga. - -The best part of the whole district is, however, found at Velez Malaga, -situated northeast of Malaga proper. It was here the raisin grape was -first planted by the Romans or Phœnicians, and it was here also the -devastating phylloxera first made its appearance. The raisin vineyards -extend here not over a _vega_ or plain, but occupy the fertile country -along the coast or the litoral towards Malaga proper. - -Beyond Velez Malaga to Algaroba, the Muscatel grape is of inferior -quality, and is greatly superseded by the red Muscats, principally -exported to France. - -Another district is _Marbella_, on the coast, and in the interior we -find _Ronda_ and _Albuñol_. Of the principal towns in these districts, -the population of Malaga is 120,000, that of Velez Malaga 24,000, of -Marbella 7,700, and of Ronda 19,000. - - -_Climate._--The climate of Malaga is the very mildest. Frost is almost -unknown, and is never heavy. The average temperature of Malaga during -the winter months of November to January is 56 degrees Fahrenheit, while -that of Pau in France is 41, and that of Nice 47. Malaga is well -sheltered on the north and east by mountains, but is open to the south. -It is the most equitable climate of Europe, although the winds are -sometimes trying. The summer is very tempered. The air is, however, -moist, and fog, while rare, is not entirely absent. Rain sometimes falls -during the growing season of the grapes, and quite frequently during the -drying season. But the fog is warm and not specially injurious to the -grapes, the latter often growing within reach of the spray on the -seashore. - - -_Soil._--The soil of the Malaga vineyards varies considerably, the best -being a reddish clayey loam with much sand and gravel. But we have also -other varieties of soil, such as the white ash, gray alluvial soils, and -the very sandy loam on the hills. - - -_Location of the Vineyards._--In former years, the vineyards were -principally located on the hillsides, only occasionally extending to the -level plains. Of late, however, the hillside vineyards have suffered -from the phylloxera and various other diseases, and many of them have -been dug up. The lowland vineyards are now the best, although even they -are, by far, not free from disease. Few of the vineyards are located on -entirely level ground, there being but little such in the district. The -nature of the country is rolling, with small valleys or flats. The -raisin grapes grow apparently well both inland and on the coast. -According to Consul Marston, about eighty per cent of the vineyards are -situated on rolling land, ten per cent on lowland and ten per cent on -the very coast. The vineyards on the coast are actually within reach of -the spray. - -The vineyards are generally small, none being over eighty acres in -extent. Most contain, perhaps, from three to four acres each; while from -twenty to forty acres is considered a good-sized vineyard. - - -_Varieties of Grapes._--The principal variety used is the Gordo Blanco -or Muscatel. It is identical with the grape known by us under that name, -and which was imported to us from Malaga. But several types are found, -although none superior to the Gordo Blanco. - - -_Characteristics of the Raisins._--The Malaga raisins were, until -lately, the finest raisins in the world, and for the present have only -the California raisins to compete with. They are characterized by great -sweetness, deep bluish color, great size and by good keeping qualities. -The best raisins are those called Dehesas, being produced on the valley -lands of the districts. - - -_Yield of Grapes._--The yield of Malaga vineyards varies of course. The -best yield eight or nine tons of grapes to the acre,--just like those of -California. But there is a great difference between new and old -vineyards. In many vineyards where formerly the yield was nine tons, the -soil has been so exhausted by continuous croppings that to-day, even -with manuring, two or three tons of grapes must be considered a high -yield. - - -_Distances of the Vines._--The older vineyards had their vines set seven -feet by seven feet, but of late the vines are planted generally eight -feet by four feet, thus much closer than by us in California. - - -_Pruning._--The pruning of the vineyard is performed very much as in -California. Formerly the soil had to be removed from the vines before -they could be pruned; now this is not necessary except while the vines -are very young. The various branches are pruned back to a few inches, -with two eyes each, while the heads are elevated only a few inches above -the ground. - - -_Manuring and Fertilizing._--The Malaga vineyardist fully understands -the value of manuring his vineyards, and uses for this purpose not only -all fertilizers available at home, but also imports directly from -distant countries. The most valued fertilizers are the Mexican and -Chilean guanos or phosphates. The Mexican phosphate costs in Malaga -sixty-five dollars per ton; still it is used by all the principal -vineyardists, who know the value of fertilizers. In fact, concentrated -fertilizers are a necessity to the Malaga vineyards; without them they -could not be cropped. Even the most virgin soil is exhausted in ten -years’ time by constant croppings of raisin grapes; no paying crops -could be expected if fertilizers were not used yearly. This fertilizing -of the soil is, however, of recent origin, and fifty years ago was -almost unknown. - -When home manures are used, it is placed in holes dug round the roots of -the vines, which, after exposure to the air for several months, are -again filled up at the advent of spring, generally in March, before the -vines start to bud. - - -_Drying-floors, or Sequeros._--The raisins, when picked, are dried on -so-called _sequeros_, or drying-floors, characteristic of the Malaga -district. These floors are of different sizes and lengths in different -vineyards, but everywhere constructed on the same general principles. -Where an incline or a hill is found, the floor may simply be built on -the slope, with no artificial elevation; but, where the ground is level, -the structure of the _sequero_ is different. The floor must always face -the south, and the back is raised to give the floor the proper slope. -The _sequero_ thus consists of four walls, the front one of which is -only a foot high, and the back wall from six to eight feet high. The -side walls slope between these, generally with an angle of forty-five -degrees. In length, these floors vary from forty to fifty feet, -according to the different ideas of the vineyardists. The whole interior -is filled with black gravel, and is tamped hard. These _sequeros_ are -divided in beds, fourteen feet or so wide, by tiles that are sunk, thus -forming walks of several feet in width, and which also serve for leading -off the rainwater. Around every little bed of this kind are small -upright tiles to prevent the rainwater entering from the walks. Finally, -in the center of the bed, is a long row of upright tiles, high enough to -support either boards, mats, or more generally canvas, in order that -they may shed the rain into the tile walks. The value of such floors is -evident. Being covered with canvas, etc., every night, the heat is -preserved, and every morning, when the sun rises, the grapes are yet -warm. The drying on such beds has never, in fact, been interrupted. The -drying-floors are also useful in case of too hot weather, when the -grapes can be properly sheltered with canvas and prevented from being -cooked; when finally dried, the covering, again, will serve to keep the -moisture from too quickly evaporating. - - -_Drying and Curing._--When the grapes are picked, the best vineyardists -separate the bunches immediately in three different grades. Each grade -is placed by itself on the gravelly drying-ground, and remains there to -dry. When half dried, they are taken bunch by bunch by a workman, who -picks out bad or overdried berries and rubbish, and in putting the bunch -back turns it over. In ten days the grapes are generally dried, provided -the weather has been favorable. Every night the canvas covering is slid -down over the _sequero_, and the grapes protected from dew and cold, or -rain. The drying is sometimes greatly hastened by the _Terral_ or hot -winds blowing from the plains of La Mancha, a wind very similar in its -effect to the desert wind of Riverside and Santa Ana, in California. - - -_Packing._--The raisins in Malaga are packed by the large growers -themselves, and every such grower packs almost to a man. The generally -accepted idea that a few packers living in Malaga pack all the raisins -is erroneous. This is not the case.[2] Nearly all packers there are also -growers owning their own vineyards. The raisins are all packed in -22-pound boxes or in quarters, etc., according to the demands of the -trade. - - [2] According to A. B. Butler. - -The various raisin brands packed in Malaga are different according to -the different markets that are to be supplied. Thus for England we have: -Finest Dehesa, three crown; finest Dehesa, two crown; finest Dehesa, one -crown; Dehesa; Choice layers; London layers, three crown; London layers, -two crown; London layers, one crown. - -For France again we have: 1 Imperiaux; 1 Royaux; Couches; Surchoix; -Choix; Ordinaire; Surcouches, etc. - -The loose raisins or _Brena_ and the seedless or _Escombro_ generally go -to the continent or even to the United States. The old terms Garoon or -Sun are now never used. - -For American markets we have: Imperial Dehesa; Royal finest Dehesa; -finest Dehesa; fine Dehesa; Dehesa; London layers, three crown; London -layers, two crown; London loose, one, two and three crown. - -Boxes are generally made from fir imported from Portugal, at fifteen -cents each. Of late years, however, they are also received from Canada, -and cost only seven cents each. - - -_Labor._--The labor in Malaga is the most expensive in Spain, the best -laborer being paid forty cents per day, while in Denia the labor is -obtained for fifteen cents only; but it must be remembered that the -packing of the Malaga raisins is a much more particular work than the -packing of the dipped Denias. - -The price paid for Malaga raisins at the packing-house is at an average -of seven cents per pound for the best, or from one to two cents more -than what is paid in California. The lower grades bring from two and a -half cents upwards. - - -VALENCIA AND DENIA. - - -_Extent of the Districts._--The Valencia raisins, or, as they are -called, the Lexias or Spanish dipped raisins, are produced in the -province of Valencia, situated on the east coast of Spain. The district -contains three sub-districts, the southern one, the Alicante district, -extending from Villa Joyosa in the north to Elche in the south. The -raisins of the Alicante district are inferior to those produced in the -other districts, both as regards quality and quantity. The most -northerly district is the Valencia district proper, extending from -Cullera in the south to Castellon in the north. North of the latter -place the Muscat grape does not come to perfection, and even within this -district comparatively few raisins are now produced as compared with a -few years ago. But the bulk of all the raisins produced in the province -are exported from Valencia city, and hence these raisins are known as -Valencias, while in reality they come principally from Denia. - -The bulk of the Valencia raisins come from the central district, or the -Denia sub-district, comprising the land between Villa Joyosa in the -south and Cullera in the north, or about thirty miles on each side of -the town of Denia. Towards the interior the raisin district extends at -the most nine miles, but the average is less, so that the whole district -over which the Denia vineyards are spread includes only an area of 350 -square miles, equal to ten townships of land, or about 224,000 acres. A -large part of this land is not cultivated, and consists of mountains and -waste places only suitable as watersheds. The town of Denia is the -principal town of the sub-district, and has now a population of about -2,600 people. It is situated about half way between Valencia in the -north and Alicante in the south, on the shore of the Mediterranean, in -about the latitude of Sacramento in California, or thirty-eight degrees, -fifty minutes north. Being one of the oldest towns in Spain, Denia was -first founded by the Phœnicians, who here established the worship of -Diana, from which word the name Denia is a corruption. The Phœnicians -also introduced the grapes, and possibly also the drying of raisins; but -the local tradition gives the honor of the latter industry to the Moors, -who are said to have brought with them the variety of grape known as the -Muscat of Alexandria. During a part of the year, Denia is the export -harbor for the raisins of the district. This is only possible in the -early part of the raisin season, as then only are the winds -favorable,--the so-called harbor being nothing but a roadstead. Later in -the season, when storms and rains set in, all the raisins are shipped to -Valencia by railroad, and from there exported by steamers and sailing -vessels. - -Among other industries of the Denia district are the cultivation of -onions, the manufacture of cotton goods, its sardine fisheries, etc., -all giving work to the vineyard workers during a time of the year when -there is nothing or but little to do in the vineyards and -packing-houses. - -The raisins of Denia are not all of the same quality, but vary according -to the locality where grown. The whole district is dotted with small -villages, all producing raisins. The principal ones of these are, -besides Denia proper, Jabea, Jaraco, Jerrea, Oliva, Pedreguer, Jalon, -Gandia, Ondara, Vergel, etc. Of these, Denia proper produced in 1876 -over 2,500 tons of raisins, Jabea 1,700 tons, Oliva 1,600 tons, -Pedreguer 1,000 tons, Retoria 900 tons, Jalon 850 tons, Ondara and -Benisa 800 tons each. But, besides these, there are some twenty odd more -villages or smaller raisin centers, which produce from 200 to 700 tons -each, or an aggregate of 20,000 tons of raisins. - - -_Soils and Appearance of the Districts._--The soils of the province of -Valencia, where the vineyards are situated, are of various kinds, such -as cretaceous and calcareous soils, containing admixtures of clay, sand -and gravel. The color is often red, changing to gray where irrigation -has been practiced, but much of the soil is of an ashy white color, -similar to that of bottom lands generally. In many of the lower situated -plains, the soils are blackish or dark gray, especially so where stable -or other manures have been used for years. - -Many vineyards are situated on the hillsides or on the rolling lands, -where the gravelly soils produce raisins of smaller size and in less -quantity, but sweeter and finer flavored. But the largest bulk of the -vineyards are on comparatively level land, which can be and which is -irrigated. The raisins produced on these low grounds in the moist and -cool valleys are larger, but not of equal flavor and sweetness. In wet -seasons, the hillsides are preferred, the valley lands then being too -wet and cold. Accordingly, as the seasons are wet and cold, or dry and -warm, the various localities produce raisins of different qualities, -which again are valued and paid for differently. The extent of the -valley or plain lands decides the extent of the raisin districts, and of -late years the rolling vineyards have decreased in quantity, while those -on the plains have increased, until at the present time almost all the -plain lands are occupied with raisin vineyards, especially in the Denia -sub-district. - - -_Climate._--The climate of Denia and its surroundings is rather cold and -windy; damaging spring frosts, as well as early fall rains, frequently -interfere with the setting of the grapes and with the harvesting of the -crop; it has even happened several times that the entire crop has been -seriously injured by one of these, or by both causes combined. Farther -north, or in the Valencia district proper, the climate is milder, and -frost is rare. Oranges are here at home, while the culture of raisin -grapes becomes less every year. North of Castellon the climatic -conditions are such that no raisin culture is possible. - -As compared with the climate of Malaga, that of Denia is much less -favorable to the raisin grape. The production of sun-dried and undipped -raisins in Denia is not possible, and, although it has been attempted -several times, it has seldom succeeded. The rainfall of Denia averages -twelve inches per year. The rainiest months are those of November, -February and April, but the heaviest rainfall at one time occurs quite -frequently in the first week of September, while light showers are not -uncommon in August, at that time doing much damage to the grapes or the -just exposed raisins. - - -_Irrigation._--Not only is irrigation necessary to grow the vines -successfully and to produce an abundance of grapes, but the irrigation -in the province of Valencia is necessary to the health and longevity of -the vines. Nowhere else in Spain is the water so abundant, and no saving -of the water is necessary in the majority of the districts. Through an -abundance of water, the soil on the lowlands has now filled up to such -an extent, that in the best vineyards the surface water is only from -five to eight feet from the surface of the ground. Those vines which -could not be irrigated have gradually become diseased, and the hillside -vineyards are being rapidly abandoned and devoted to something else. -Upon the abundance and constancy of the water depends the prosperity of -the whole province, and there is hardly a more prosperous country in -Spain. To show the close connection between irrigation and raisin -production in Spain, it will no doubt interest many to know something of -the irrigation system and the irrigation districts of the province of -Valencia, than which no more important ones are found in Spain. - -The district of Alicante is supplied with water from the river Monegre, -and the Elche district from the river Minalapo. In the northern part of -the province is the Murviado irrigation district, taking its water from -the river Palencia. The Jucar irrigation district, situated immediately -south of the _huerta_ of Valencia, takes its water from the Jucar -river, distributing 850 cubic feet of water per second upon some 50,000 -acres of land. - -The Valencia irrigation district consists of 26,350 acres of land close -to the town of Valencia, and is watered by the river Guadalaviar, or, as -it is generally called, the Turia. The water is distributed through -eight canals, each carrying from 35 to 120 cubic feet of water per -second, the combined low-water discharge of all the canals being from -250 to 350 cubic feet of water per second. Of the importance of -irrigation in this district, we can judge when we learn that the above -26,350 acres contain 72,000 inhabitants and sixty-two villages, or an -average of 1,774 people per square mile, not including the city of -Valencia itself, with a population of 120,000 people. It is also -remarkable that this enormous population on a territory not as large as -the arable land surrounding any one of our principal inland towns in -California, is not alone due to the irrigation and care of the land, but -to the minute subdivision of the land, which makes this culture and -irrigation possible. It is a practical illustration of the value of the -colony system as inaugurated in California, showing what we can expect -of our inland plains when they become fully irrigated and the land -properly subdivided. - - -_Quality of the Raisins._--It has already been stated that the grapes -grown in Denia are the Muscat of Alexandria, which were introduced there -by the Moors. Farther south, in the Alicante district, other varieties -are more common, but play no important part in the raisin production of -the district. The Valencia raisins are inferior to those of Malaga, the -want of heat requiring them to be dipped in lye before drying. This, -again, gives these raisins a peculiar reddish, semi-transparent color, -which unfits them for table raisins. The Valencia raisins are -principally used for cooking; even the best grades of Valencias are -inferior to the inferior grades of Malaga raisins. During the last -season (1889) large quantities of Denia grapes were cured on the Malaga -style, and with great success. Large quantities of such sun-dried Denias -were sent in bulk to Malaga, and there repacked for export to the United -States, the Malaga crop having so diminished that the usual demand could -not be supplied. Years in which such sun-drying is possible in Denia are -rare. - - -_Planting and Care._--The Muscat cuttings are planted generally in -February. The best cuttings are considered to be those taken from vines -at least six years old. The cuttings are set at various distances -according to the richness of the soil. The richer the soil the less room -is given the vines. Thus the vines are set either five by eleven feet or -five by twelve feet, or, in other words, they are set in rows eleven or -twelve feet apart, with the vines five feet apart in the row. The depth -of the cutting is regulated by the moisture of the surface soil, but -averages eighteen inches. The vines begin to bud in the middle of March, -and are from the start subject to great care and constant cultivation. -The first operation after the cutting is planted is to cut off the top -bud as soon as the vine starts to grow, leaving the two shoots only from -the two lower buds. No more shoots are allowed to grow the first year. -Next winter the smaller of these two branches is cut off completely and -the remaining branch is pruned back to two eyes. In the second year the -young shoots from the vine are allowed to grow to ten inches or so long, -when all are cut away except two of the strongest. Next winter again -these are pruned so to leave only two eyes on each, or four buds on the -whole vine. In the succeeding years the branches are gradually increased -in number, but always pruned back to two eyes. After the vine is five -years old, it is seldom increased as to branches; it is then always -pruned back to the same number of spurs. It can be said that the Denia -growers pay less attention to the quality of the raisins, and prune more -to attain quantity. They leave more spurs on their vines than do those -in Malaga, and in this respect resemble many of our own California -growers, who frequently leave from twelve to fifteen spurs on a vine. -The vines in Denia are also raised higher above the ground than in -Malaga, very much as we have been in the habit of pruning our own vines. -At the age of three years the vines come into bearing; but no fine -raisins are made until the vines are five or six years old. - - -_Dipping and Scalding._--The dipping process is one of the greatest -importance, and gives the peculiar characteristics to the Valencia or -Denia raisins. As a similar process will sometime or other be more -generally used in California, a more detailed description may prove -interesting to California growers. We can probably not do better than to -imitate them, although in mechanical appliances we will readily improve -upon their methods. The dipping is always done at the drying ground or -_secadero_. The larger part of the dipping apparatus, or the kettles, -are placed under the ground so as to save heat and fuel. A trench eight -or nine feet in length is dug to the depth of three or four feet. At one -end is built a chimney protruding three or four feet above the level of -the ground. In the other end of the trench is built a brick wall with an -opening for feeding the fire. Some trenches are lined inside with -bricks, making them more permanent and solid. On the top of this flue, -and on a level with the ground, are built the kettles or boilers, -containing not less than twenty gallons each. The boiler nearest the -fire entrance is destined to contain a solution of lye or ashes, the one -next to the chimney being for boiling water only. - -The lye is made from the ashes of burnt vine cuttings, together with -lime and sometimes some salt, by men who have acquired the art from -years of experience, and who know by the appearance of the scalded -grapes whether the solution is too strong or too weak. If too weak, the -skins of the grapes will be insufficiently cut, which will delay the -drying of the grapes, and cause them to rot if the weather is damp and -foggy. If, again, the lye solution is too strong, the skin will be -destroyed and the berries seriously injured. - -The grapes to be dipped should be perfectly ripe. If dipped before, they -will become inferior both as to color and taste. The perfect ripeness is -a most important point. The grapes are picked in baskets of about ten -pounds each, and carried to the scalder. The man nearest him on the -right fills a perforated ladle with about twenty pounds of the grapes. -The ladle is made either of wire netting or of tin or zinc, with large -perforated holes about three-eighths of an inch wide. There is a scalder -at each boiler. The first scalder dips the grapes in the scalding water -for a second, and immediately hands them to the second scalder, who dips -the same ladle in the boiling lye solution for not over two seconds. The -grapes are then carefully turned out on trays to dry. - -The dipping first in scalding water is of the greatest importance, both -in washing off the dust of the grapes and in preparing them to receive -the alkali wash with more effect. Since the hot-water process was -introduced, the Valencia raisins have materially improved in quality. -The grapes are never rinsed in cold water after being dipped, and it is -more than likely that the lye prevents molding, as, according to A. B. -Butler, dipped raisins are sometimes exposed to the rain for three weeks -without being totally ruined. In California, our dipped and washed -raisins spoil quickly if exposed to rain. The object of dipping is, of -course, to slightly crack the skins so as to allow the water to readily -evaporate. Dipped raisins dry sometimes in five days, while undipped -raisins would require as many weeks. Efforts to produce sun-dried -raisins without dipping them have repeatedly been made in Denia; but -they are invariably spoiled by the rain, and lately two firms were -ruined in their attempts to dispense with the dipping process. - - -_Drying and Curing._--After the grapes have been properly dipped, the -drying proceeds very quickly. The grapes are immediately spread on cane -trays or _cañezos_, about six feet long by three or four feet wide. -These cane trays are made of the common Italian reed or _Arundo donax_, -which grows everywhere, even in California, and is here incorrectly -known as bamboo. The trays are made either of split or of entire canes -tied strongly together. These trays are placed flat on the ground, only -leaving enough space around each one to allow the workmen free access to -the tray on all sides. After having been exposed to the sun for three -days, the grapes are turned, in order to dry evenly on both sides. On -the fifth day, the raisins are turned again, and, if the weather has -been favorable, many of the raisins are then ready to pack. A day or two -after this, all the raisins are ready, and are collected and housed. If, -again, the weather has been unfavorable, the drying is very much -delayed. At the approach of rain, the mats or trays are taken up and -piled on the top of each other, under sheds previously made. Every -drying ground has stationary appliances for this purpose. These simply -consist of poles stuck in the ground, and extending five or six feet -above the same. Other cross-rafters or scantlings are nailed between the -poles, thus forming rows of roofless sheds eight or nine feet wide, of -greater or shorter length. Painted canvas, or simply mats or empty reed -trays, are used as covers, under which the raisin trays are piled. Under -and between each tray are placed five little cubes of wood, for the -purpose of lifting the tray and preventing it from pressing too heavily -on the grapes underneath. - - -_Packing and Disposing of the Crop._--When at last the raisins are -dried, they are either stored by the producer, or, as is more generally -the case, are taken to the merchant or packer who has supplied the -grower’s wants during the year in anticipation of the coming crop. There -are thus a number of special packers in Denia, who own large and -splendid packing-houses in which the crop is yearly handled. The grower -never packs himself, the enhanced value of the raisins not being -sufficient to warrant the trouble. One of the best and by far the -largest packing-houses in Denia is owned by J. D. Arquimbau. A more -perfectly equipped establishment is not found anywhere else. - -[Illustration: Views from Col. Wm. Forsyth’s Raisin Vineyard, Near -Fresno: Residence, Lake, Raisin Dryer, Packing House.] - -All of the packing is done by women, while the men do the carting of the -raisins from the vineyards to the packing-houses. During the balance of -the year, when there is no more work in the packing-houses, these very -men occupy themselves with the sardine fishery, while their wives then -dress the sardines and pack them in oil. They have thus work all the -year round,--an absolute necessity in a country where the wages are so -small, and where the poor man has no chance to save up a capital. The -wages paid for packing in Denia is only fifteen cents per day; while in -Malaga the same work commands from forty to sixty cents per day. In some -of the warehouses in Denia, from two to three hundred women are -employed, as well as a number of men. The boxes now used are halves of -twenty-eight pounds, or quarters of fourteen pounds each. The large or -whole boxes of fifty-six pounds each are no longer in use. The raisins -are all packed “off-stalk,” or, as we say, “loose.” Bunch or stem -raisins, or “on-stalk” raisins, are seldom seen. This great improvement -in packing is of recent origin, and is due entirely to the influence of -English merchants. Some thirty years ago, the raisin industry of -Valencia had so deteriorated, that it threatened to entirely cease. The -cause of the deterioration was principally the habit of the buyers to -pay for crops, not according to the quality of the raisins, but -according to the quantity. The small farmer with a few hundred pounds of -raisins carefully cured was paid less, or at least not any more, than -the man who had hundreds of tons carelessly cured. As a consequence, it -was to no one’s interest to take any particular pains in curing. The -raisins deteriorated; no care was paid to packing; anything, almost, -stalks, dirt and bruised berries were dumped in boxes together; brands, -trade-marks and labels were unknown. The whole business was apparently -going to ruin. The orders from England became less and less every year. -Those from America almost ceased. The “equality price” or “average -price,” which has been so much in vogue in California, actually ruined -the Valencia raisin industry. We ought to take a lesson from them, and -change this system in time, or we will be in the same bad fix as they -were. - -The improvement in Valencia raisins was entirely due to the energetic -efforts of English gentlemen. Mr. George Graham, agent for an English -firm, established himself in Valencia, investigated the raisin business, -and, seeing the true cause of the ruin, set himself to work to remedy -the same. He introduced better methods in growing, curing and packing; -and through his efforts a better price was paid for a better grade of -raisins, and it was not long before the raisin business was on an -entirely different footing. The object of the grower was from that on, -not only to increase the quantity, but to increase the quality as well. -To begin with, the raisins were shipped off-stalk or loose; but the -boxes were not faced. Now the raisin boxes are all faced, and the -raisins are carefully selected and assorted. As a consequence, the Denia -trade has of late years increased enormously, until at present all the -land available has been planted to raisins. There is at present but -little or no first-class raisin land left in Denia, and it looks as if -the raisin production there could not be further expanded. - - -_Export and Production._--Although the raisin industry had long existed -in the province of Valencia, it was only in late years that it assumed -an importance. They were already known as _Duracinae_ by the Romans. -Re-introduced or improved by the Arabs or Moors, it soon became a -prominent industry, and the export of raisins to England was already of -some consequence in the time of William and Mary. In the year 1638, -Lewis Roberts, in his merchant map of commerce, informs us that Denia -raisins cost eighteen rials or three shillings per hundred weight. In -1664, Gandia raisins were quite famous, and were known as Pasas. At the -end of the last century, the raisins from Denia and Liria reached forty -thousand quintals, or two thousand tons, distributed as follows: Spain, -six thousand; France, six thousand; England, twenty-eight -thousand,--equal to one million, four hundred and thirty thousand boxes, -forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons. In 1862, the raisin -export from Valencia had dwindled down to seven thousand tons. In 1876, -it had again risen to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1883 to forty -thousand tons. Of these, nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes -were exported to the United States, one million, three hundred and -eighty-five thousand were sent to England, and four hundred and -thirty-six thousand found their way to other parts of Europe and Spain. -In 1888, the yield was two million, three hundred and sixteen thousand -boxes of twenty-eight pounds each, equal to thirty-two thousand, four -hundred and twenty-four tons. If packed in twenty-pound boxes, this crop -would have equaled three million, two hundred and forty thousand, four -hundred boxes, or four times as much as California produced at the same -time. The crop of 1889 is calculated to have reached two million, eight -hundred thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each. - -When we remember that this class of raisins is as yet hardly produced in -California, and that the nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes or -more imported could and should be supplied by us, it would seem that our -fears of overproduction will not immediately be realized. The tendency -of the raisin market is now to supplant these Valencia dipped raisins -with California undipped or sun-dried raisins, the California Sultanas -being considered superior for the same purpose that Valencias were -formerly used. - - -CORINTH AND CURRANTS. - - -_Historical and Geographical Notes._--The principal and only raisins of -any great commercial importance which are produced by Greece are the -currants. We have already spoken of their name, and its supposed origin -from the town of Corinth, and of their having been mentioned by Pliny in -the year 75 A. D. The currants must thus very early have been of -considerable importance as a commercial product, although the great -increase in their production is of more recent date. The crusades which -brought the nations of the North in contact with the Orient and the -South also spread the knowledge of the Grecian currants to the distant -parts of Europe. After the Latin conquest, currants became a commercial -article, and we have every reason to suppose that, as early as the -beginning of the thirteenth century, currants had reached the English -shores, and that in the middle of the fourteenth century the English -trade was fully established. Raysins of Corauntz were quoted in 1374 at -two pence and three farthings per pound, equivalent to one dollar and -twenty-five cents in our money at its present value. In 1513, the first -English consul was appointed at Chios, and from that time on a direct -traffic was maintained between the Grecian Islands and the North of -Europe. In 1582, Hakluyt writes that efforts had been made to introduce -the coren plant or vine into England, but that the same failed to fruit. -The first introduction of the Zante vine into England is supposed by -Anderson to have taken place in 1533. In the end of the sixteenth -century, the currant traders were in full intercourse with the Venetians -on the Island of Zante, and the Turks on the mainland or Morea. In 1581, -the Levant Company received a monopoly in the trade of the small fruits -called currants, being the raysins of Corinth. According to Wheler, who -traveled in the Ionian Islands in 1675, Zante produced enough currants -to charge five or six vessels, Cephalonia three or four, and Nathaligo, -Missolonghi and Patros one each. Some few were also brought down from -the Gulf of Lepanto. - -As to the native home of the currants, opinions have considerably -differed. Some have supposed Zante or Naxos to have been the original -home of this grape; while others, with better reasons, have held that -their original home was Corinth. Beaujour, who was French consul in -Greece in 1790, says: “The fruit is not indigenous to Morea. No writer -before the sixteenth century mentions it, and the result of my inquiries -is that the currant came from Naxos into the Morea about 1580. It is -true no such plant now exists in Naxos, but it has similarly disappeared -from the territory of Corinth, though it is very certain it was -cultivated there in former days, when the Venetians held the country.” -This account does not agree with the statements of Comte Grasset St. -Sauveur, consul to the Ionian Islands from France in 1781. He states, in -his History of the Ionian Islands, that “the first plants were imported -from Corinth to Zante about two centuries ago” (or about 1580). There -are no exact records of the time or of the introducer; but the date is -fixed by the regulations of the Senate of Venice relating to custom -duties. It is likely this introduction took place not much before 1553, -and was caused by the hostility of the Turks, who then held Morea, to -the merchant vessels of the other nations of Europe, who in fact forbade -them any entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, the principal export place for -the currants. Thus John Locke, who in 1553 describes Zante, speaks of -other products of the island, but not of currants. - -Hakluyt states that, in 1586, the chief commodities of the island were -“oyle and currants.” The latter, then, must have been introduced some -time in the middle of the sixteenth century. Lithgow, a Scotch traveler -who in 1609 visited the islands and published an account of the same in -1633, informs us that, besides oyle and wine, Zante produced one hundred -and sixty thousand chickens of currants, each chicken of gold being -equal to nine shillings of English money. And he adds that the custom -duties on those currants amounted to twenty-two thousand piasters (one -piaster is equivalent to six shillings), a sum of money which those -Islanders could not have afforded (they having been, not above sixty -years ago, but a base, beggarly people, and in an obscure place) if it -were not that in England there are some who cannot digest bread, etc., -without these currants. This seems to imply that, since the introduction -of the currant culture in the Island of Zante about the year 1550, the -Zanteans had suddenly become comparatively wealthy. So suddenly had this -important industry spread, that in 1610, according to Sandys, the chief -export of both Zante and Cephalonia was currants. In 1612, Coryat says -that “Zante is famous for its wine, oile and currants.” Fynes Moryson, -in his “Itinerary” published in 1617, states that “the English merchant -vessels exported currants from Zante and Cephalonia, and from Petrasso -in the Gulfe of Corinth.” Tavernier says, in 1678, that, “Corinth -exports great quantities of currants. Patras does the same, which is all -the trade from those two places.” In 1682, Wheler states that “the ports -of Patros, Nathaligo and Missolonghi, all three together having enough -to lade only one good ship every year.” Randolph, in 1689, mentions that -currants were first planted on the plains of Corinth, and that the plain -about Vostizza produced corn, currants and wine. Of Zante, he says that -it produced two thousand tons of currants. Thus it will seem as if, -through the fostering care of the Venetians, the currant trade was -transplanted from the mainland of Morea to the Islands of Zante and -Cephalonia, there to become of almost national importance. Until the -Turks were expelled from Morea, the latter never made any serious -efforts to recover the lost trade. First in later times the culture of -currants has again spread on the mainland, especially on the northern -shore of the Gulf of Corinth, and to-day the combined production of the -Morean vineyards is largely in excess of that of the Ionian Islands. - -In our times the currants are exported either from the mainland of -Greece, the Morea, the ancient Peloponnesus, or from the Grecian -Islands,--Cephalonia and Zante. In Morea, the principal ports for the -exportation of the currants are Patras and Vostizza, although other -ports export a few. Even the Islands of Ithaca and Santa Maura -contribute a few. Efforts have been made to extend the culture of the -currant vine, and introduce it to other islands, but not with any great -degree of success. This is entirely attributed to climatic conditions. - - -_Characteristics and Quality._--The currants are small, seedless raisins -produced from the currant grape, which again is characterized by small -clusters, which, when perfect, are very compact like the heads of Indian -corn or maize. The skin of the berries is thin, the pulp very sweet, -with a strong flavor and aroma. The raisins are similarly aromatic and -very sweet, sometimes semi-transparent, but generally dark violet. The -flavor of the raisins is entirely distinct from the Muscatel, and is -very superior to that of the also seedless Sultana raisins. - - -_Soil and Irrigation._--The soil best suited to the currant grape is a -calcareous marl, which must be of good depth, loose, and easily worked. -Such marls are also prized for their great power of retaining moisture. -But vineyards are planted in Cephalonia, Zante and Ithaca in the most -different soils and situations. They are found in gray marls, in red -clay, on the plains and among the hills, in fact, in the most widely -different situations. The soil of Zante contains a small percentage of -sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is by many considered indispensable -for the successful and profitable culture of the currant vine. The -currant vine thrives especially in low and rich land which can be -irrigated, and irrigation is quite essential to the perfect development -of the grapes. Many vineyards, however, are not irrigated, the -irrigation, of course, only being practicable on the plains. This -irrigation is practiced from October to the end of December, often while -the natural rainfall supplies the artificial watering. The lands are -generally small freeholdings, owned by the peasants. The most valuable -currant vineyards are situated on the rich and level valley lands. - - -_Preparation of the Land for Irrigation._--The preparation of the land -for a currant vineyard is expensive, as the land is hardly ever level -enough to admit of the vines being immediately planted. The surface is -therefore first leveled and divided up in smaller cheeks or flats, each -one surrounded by a bank. The whole is covered with a network of -ditches, which are necessary for the perfect irrigation of the soil. -Where there is water enough, the vineyards are irrigated in November and -December, and are then flooded as often as practicable, the water -sometimes standing on the ground for weeks in succession. In perfectly -arranged vineyards, the irrigation is so managed that the water flows -from one check to another, and is first shut off at the advent of the -New Year, when the pruning and cultivation begins. By this plentiful -irrigation, the ground becomes thoroughly soaked, and remains saturated -until the next season, when rain again sets in and fills the irrigation -canals. No summer irrigation is used in old vineyards, and in young -vineyards only in case of great necessity. - - -_Distances of the Currant Vines._--The vines are set at various -distances, in some places four feet each way, in others again six by -ten, giving a various number of from 740 to 2,622 to the acre. In some -places, the old practice of planting the vines in groups of four still -exists. Each group consists of four vines one and a half feet apart, and -each group distant six feet from each other either way. Of late, -however, the vines are planted farther apart, probably because the soil -is becoming exhausted, a favorite way being to have the vines closer one -way than the other. - - -_Care of Cuttings, Planting and Grafting._--Great importance is attached -to procuring cuttings from a distance, or in getting new strains. -Cuttings from the nearest vineyard are never used, as they are -considered to produce inferior vines, and not do as well. To procure -cuttings or vines, the old vines are sometimes cut a few inches below -the surface of the soil, causing the parent plant to throw off numerous -suckers or shoots, which the following winter are separated and used as -we do rooted vines here in California. Three or four years will elapse -before they come into regular bearing. Some vineyards are produced by -grafting the black currant on the wine grape, and many wine vineyards -that do not pay are thus transformed into paying raisin vineyards. The -grafted vines come into bearing much sooner than those grown from -cuttings. The grafting is performed in Zante as follows: The soil is dug -away from the main trunk of the old vine to the depth of from twelve to -eighteen inches, and the trunk cut off square at the bottom of the pit. -Two or three scions are then inserted in the trunk, and made to slightly -project above the ground, in no case with more than two or three eyes. -Clay is then applied to the joint of the graft, and the trunk slightly -covered with leaves, and the hole then filled up with soil. The grafting -is done in the spring, and the cuttings must be kept dormant in dark and -cool cellars. - - -_Pruning the Vines._--The pruning is done in the fall, just as soon as -the leaves have fallen, and is performed in two parts. In December, the -vines are cleaned of all small, weakly or dead branches, and at that -time only the large and strong branches are left. In February, the -regular cutting back commences, two or three eyes being left on every -spur. There are as many different ideas of pruning the vines in Greece -as there are in California, each one having his favorite methods and -theories as to what is proper and what is not. Some vineyardists prefer -to delay the second pruning until after the vines have started to bud -out, and, when the young shoots are two weeks old, the old wood is so -cut that the bleeding of the vine will not run down on the bud. Bleeding -is at any time considered injurious. The principal pruning is therefore -conducted in February, as being the time most suitable to the currant -grape and conducive to the best crops. Mr. Manoti, a very intelligent -Zanteote currant grower, told Dr. Davy (_Ionian Islands_, page 343) that -he had at one time experimented with pruning the currant vine at -different times of the year. Those pruned in December yielded very few -grapes, which were large; those pruned in April gave plenty, but very -small berries. Again, those pruned in February were in every way the -best. Mr. Manoti added that if he had told one of his neighbors of his -experiments they would have laughed at him, and said, “Whoever thinks of -pruning the uva passa (or currant) in December or April.” This shows how -much the growers are opposed to experimenting and improving upon the -methods which have been handed down to them from their forefathers. As -we have shown, the currant vines are all very closely pruned, very much -in the same way as our Muscats. Seldom more than three spurs are allowed -to remain, each one with two or three eyes. Summer pruning or topping -the branches is never practiced on the currant vines, but generally on -the wine grapes. On the contrary the currant branches are carefully -guarded, and in order that they may not break are tied to stakes from -four to five feet high. - - -_Care of the Vineyard._--After irrigation is over, the vineyards are dug -over. The soil is dug up around the vines and placed on top of the -ground in small heaps, which process is considered beneficial both to -the roots of the vines and to the soil. In April, this soil is all put -back, and the ground leveled. Each vine is staked. By the middle of -April, the vines are in leaf. By the middle of July, the first fruit is -ripe, and by the middle of August the harvest has everywhere begun. The -stakes for the vines are imported at a cost of $15 or $16 per thousand, -and constitute the most expensive item in the construction of a currant -vineyard. - -The mildew or oidium, which some fifty years ago spread all over the -world, destroyed many of the vineyards before the sulphuring was -discovered as a sure remedy. Sulphuring the vines is now regularly -practiced in all the vineyards; but there is a popular belief that the -raisins are no longer of the same fine and pure flavor as they used to -be before the advent of the oidium and the sulphur. - - -_Ringing the Branches._--A process much used in the currant vineyards is -the ringing of the branches. At the time of blossoming, some of the main -branches are cut in such a way that a small ring of bark is separated -from the branch near its base. The sap which ascends in the interior of -the branch, but which returns by the bark, is thus prevented from -returning, and must remain in the branch. The effect is that a large -number of clusters are formed with berries both larger and sweeter than -those not thus treated. But the practice is not without its drawbacks. -In the dry lands of Cephalonia, where it was first introduced, it was -soon discovered that the ringed vines began to fail after two or three -years, and the method had to be modified or abandoned. In Morea, where -the soil is moister and richer, the ringing did not prove as dangerous, -and is yet practiced, though great care is taken that the same branch is -never girdled or ringed in two successive years. Only the strongest -vines are able to resist the exhausting effects of the process; the -weaker ones should never be forced to overproduce. - -The exhalations of fig-trees and pomegranate bushes are considered most -beneficial to the currant grape, and the former are found everywhere -among the plantations, especially along roads and ditches. - - -_Drying and Curing._--The drying and curing of the currant grapes are -done on drying grounds. These are simply leveled places covered with -fresh cow dung, or cow dung first mixed with water into a paste. When -this paste is dried, it presents a smooth surface, firm but elastic, and -entirely free from smell. This kind of drying ground is considered the -best kind. Inferior drying grounds are simply made of the cleared soil. -The currants dried on the latter are always full of sand and dirt to an -alarming extent, and bring an inferior price in the market. The bunches -are turned several times until dry, when they are raked over with a -wooden rake or broom, by which process the stalks are separated from the -berries. The berries are now gathered, and the better qualities are -winnowed in machines like our fanning-mills. The next step is to sweat -the currants, which is simply done by piling them in air-tight rooms. -The currants are here put in large piles, which by sweating and pressure -become so hard and solid that, when removing the berries, a sharp spade -is used for digging. The vintage begins in July in Zante; Cephalonia -grapes ripen almost one week earlier. - - -_Cost of Currant Vineyards in Greece._--In the Grecian Islands and -Morea, the best vineyard land varies between $80 and $125 per acre for -unimproved land. To prepare the land for the vineyard and irrigation, it -will cost, in extreme cases, from $20 to $50 more. The first year’s -cultivation and care of the young vines is, of course, different -according to locality, but the average is seldom less than $50 per acre. -The value of already planted property or a vineyard in good bearing is -seldom less than $320 per acre, and often as high as $650 per -acre,--four stremmas. Strange enough, in calculating the cost of a -vineyard in Greece, no one ever takes into consideration the price of -the plantation or the capital invested. The interest on the same is -never considered by the natives. In this respect they resemble our own -farmers, who, in calculating the expenses of their farms, never take -into consideration the labor of themselves and family. Of course, it is -almost impossible to obtain exact calculations of profit. The following -will serve as a sample: An acre of vineyard planted to currants yields -3,200 pounds. The price obtained for the same is two cents per pound, or -$64. The labor for the year on one acre is estimated at $45, leaving a -yearly profit of $19 per acre. In reality, however, this is not a true -statement, as it does not consider the interest on the capital. If the -same should be added, it is evident that there would be but little or no -profit in the growing of currants. The industry simply enables the -peasant who pursues the work to live and support his family, and -possibly to pay his taxes. Only the very best land and the best -vineyards can pay enough to enable its owner to save up a capital, -generally a difficult thing in Greece for any one but a merchant or -government officer. - -As a rule, the cost of producing one hundred pounds of currant raisins -is not less than $1.35. Whatever the merchant pays above this to the -producer will be for the benefit of the producer. But, as a rule, this -way of buying direct is not in use. The merchant sells on commission, -and what this means we who have had experience in the raisin business in -this State all know. We will see how a calculation of an acre of -currants will look, when all the expenses are taken into consideration: - - One acre of currants equals 3,200 pounds at three cents per - pound $96.00 - ------ - Expense on 3,200 pounds at $1.35 $43.00 - Packing and hauling 7.50 - Freight, insurance, duty, etc. 22.50 - Interest on capital invested 15.00 - Merchant charges say 8.00 - ------ - $96.00 - -In this instance the poor currant raiser has had no other profit than -the five per cent interest on his capital invested; he has, in other -words, come out even. But figures, sometimes, are apt to lie. The -profit, no doubt, is small to the producer, but it must still be some. -He makes, no doubt, fair wages according to his own ideas, and as he has -paid for his capital in labor, and probably never handled a dollar of -the same, he considers himself comparatively well-to-do. But, as currant -vineyards sometimes sell, and sell high, too, it is simply unaccountable -that the interest is never taken into consideration in estimating the -profits of the grower. The currant industry is, I believe, the only one -in the world in which this is not done. I have thus extensively dwelt -upon the profits and expenses of this industry in its native country, on -account of the many attempts to introduce the growing of currants here -in California. The question with us is, will it pay. Our advantage is -that our currants would be protected; but still it is very doubtful if -currant plantations would ever pay enough to warrant us to engage in the -same. The price paid at present is too low, and, as long as Muscatels -bring a higher price, it will probably be the favorite grape with us. - - -_Consumption and Production._--The importation of currants to England -was, at the end of the last century, about 3,600 tons. In 1832 this had -risen to 7,135 tons, in 1864 to 37,151 tons, and in 1876 to 48,595 tons. -As regards the production of currants in Greece, the average yield from -1816 to 1826 was, for Cephalonia, 2,000 tons, for Zante 3,000 tons, and -for Morea 4,000 tons or over. From that time on the exportations from -Zante and Cephalonia increased, while the export of Morea decreased. -Thus, in 1833, Zante and Cephalonia exported about 11,000 tons, and -Morea only 2,000 tons, this principally on account of the Greek -revolution. In 1840, the three places exported 14,206 tons, which again -in 1849 had risen to 30,850 tons, in 1858 to 32,950 tons, in 1868 to -55,283 tons, and in 1876 to 86,104 tons. This large crop was exported as -follows: England, 60,263 tons; Germany, 1,475 tons; Holland, 4,847 tons; -Trieste, 3,241 tons; America, 11,225 tons; Belgium, 4,105 tons; Various, -948 tons. - -Since that time the production of currants has increased greatly in -Greece, especially on the mainland, and now it reaches yearly from -126,000 to 130,000 tons. During the last four years the production has -been about as follows (according to L. C. Crowe in the _California -Fruit-grower_): 1884, 130,000 tons; 1885, 114,000 tons; 1886, 126,000 -tons; 1887, 127,000 tons. - -In 1886 this crop was produced in the following places: - - Gulf of Corinth 7,000 tons. - Vostizza 10,000 “ - Patras 12,000 “ - Gastuni, Pergos, Olympia 38,000 “ - Kyparissia, Figliatra, Gargaliano 17,000 “ - Ligudista, Pylos, Modone and Corone 9,000 “ - Kalamata and Nisi 14,000 “ - Missolonghi, Ætolico, Lepanto 2,500 “ - Nauplia and Argos 600 “ - ------- - Total for Morea and Acarnania 110,000 “ - Ionian Islands, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Santa Maura 10,500 “ - Zante 6,000 “ - ------- - Total 126,000 “ - -Of this crop the United States imported as follows (the freight to New -York in 1886 ranging from 17s. 6d. to 20s. per ton, gross): 1883, 13,895 -tons; 1884, 10,175 tons; 1885, 8,283 tons; 1886, 8,755 tons. - -In the United States, the consumption of currants has increased largely -during the last twenty-five years. In 1874, we imported 14,141,797 -pounds of currants; but in 1888 the importations had increased to -30,636,424 pounds, valued at $1,176,532. The duty is now one cent per -pound in this country; while in England it is seven shillings per -hundred pounds. - -The currants exported to the United States are known as Provincial -currants or American staple, and are not considered the best quality; -they are grown principally in Trifylla and Pylia and are shipped from -the ports Zante and Patras. Some come also from Vostizza, Catacolo, -Kalamata, Nauplia and Cephalonia. The Kalamata currants are inferior and -are mostly exported to France for brandy and wine making. The choicest -currants are those grown in Zante, and there known as “Cascalina.” They -go mostly to England, while the other products of the islands go to -Belgium, Holland and Northern Germany. - - -_Currants in California._--California has so far not cut any figure as a -currant-producing country, not because the currants will not grow here, -but because no one has ever seriously engaged in their culture. Currant -grapevines are scattered all over the State; but, to our knowledge, no -plantations are larger than an acre or two. In Fresno, a few acres of -currants are found in the Mirabelle Vineyard east of town, and a few -hundred vines are also grown on the Raisina Vineyard in the Central -Colony. Outside of these we know of only scattered vines. These currants -are all of the white variety, which is considered inferior to the black -currant of Zante and the mainland of Greece. When dried, they produce a -most beautiful semi-transparent raisin, entirely seedless, with a very -thin skin and of very fine flavor. The yield, however, has from some -cause or other not been equal to expectations, and, the price of -currants being lower than that of other raisins, the former has not been -considered as profitable as the Muscatels. Until we import the true -black currant from Zante and find the most suitable locality to grow -them, it is not likely that currant culture will make much headway in -this country. We have, however, no doubt that, with our various -climates, many places will be found in California where the currant will -yield enough to pay, provided our raisinmen will be satisfied with a -reasonable profit. - - -SMYRNA RAISINS. - - -_Districts in Smyrna: Their Extent and Climate._--The port of Smyrna, so -famous for its dried figs, is hardly less renowned for the immense -quantity of raisins and dried grapes of different kinds which are -shipped from there to all parts of the world. While Smyrna figs are -better known than Smyrna raisins, the latter are by far the most -important industry. Thus from 1880 to 1881 the raisin crop exported from -Smyrna was valued at $4,602,388; while the value of the fig crop did not -exceed $1,646,998, or about three million dollars less than the former. -Since that time the raisin trade has yet further increased, until it -to-day reaches one hundred thousand tons of raisins and dried grapes. -Unlike the figs, which are only grown in the interior valleys some -thirty to sixty miles from Smyrna, the grapes which produce the raisins -are grown in the immediate vicinity of the town. The large territory -which exports the Smyrna raisins can, however, be divided into several -sub-districts, each one having some characteristics of its own, both as -regards quality of raisins, time of ripening, etc. These districts are: -Chesme, Vourla, Yerly and Carabourna. The principal variety of grape -grown in these districts is the Sultana, a seedless grape with enormous -bunches. Many other varieties are found there also, such as “black” and -“red,” the latter said to be identical with the Spanish Muscat of -Alexandria, which I doubt. - -The Chesme district is situated to the west on the peninsula near -Smyrna, its principal port for exportation of the crop being the town of -Chesme. The Chesme raisins are considered inferior to those of the other -districts. Three-fourths of the raisins from the district are exported -to Hamburg, Bremen, Stettin, Amsterdam, and to Trieste in Austria. The -latter town is the main distributing point for most of the raisins grown -in the eastern Mediterranean raisin districts. - -The Carabourna or Karabournou district produces the best raisins,--both -of the Sultanas, the red and the black. The district is situated to the -east and north on the same peninsula as Chesme. The district is rough -and hilly, but the whole is cultivated to vines. The Carabourna “Elemês” -go about one-half to Russia, the balance to England and Trieste. - -The Vourla district consists of a fertile plain lying on the isthmus -between the Bay of Smyrna and Scala Nova or Ephesus. The export place is -the port of Vourla, one of the finest harbors on the coast of Asia -Minor, and often the meeting place for fleets of the Western nations of -Europe during their remonstrances in Turkish waters. - -The Yerly district immediately surrounds the town of Smyrna, and extends -from Nymphio in the east to Tourbali in the south and Sivri-Hissar in -the west, thus bordering the Vourla district. Yerly Sultanas are the -earliest in the market, sometimes being ready in the first weeks of -August. - -Small quantities of raisins also come from Tyra, Bairdir, Aidin and -other places in the fig districts in the interior. The Island of Samos, -off the coast of Asia Minor, produces raisins of several kinds, such as -Sultanas, black raisins, principally for distilling abroad, and Muscatel -raisins, the latter reaching three thousand tons in favorable seasons. -The Island of Cos or Stanchio is also famous for its Sultana raisins, -said to be the finest of any produced in Turkey. - -The climate of the Smyrna raisin districts is very mild, allowing farm -labor to be performed the year round. The temperature seldom falls below -the freezing point, while from the middle of May to the middle of -September it ranges from 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. -During the summer, the _Imbat_ or seabreeze tempers the heat and makes -the climate pleasant to live in. The grapes begin to ripen about July -first, the Sultana grapes being the earliest. The rainfall is abundant -during the rainy months of the year, September to April, and averages -twenty-five inches, varying from fifteen inches in dry seasons to -thirty-three inches in very wet years. The following table of the -rainfall is taken from the consular reports published in 1884: - -_Table showing the monthly rainfall in the city of Smyrna, in inches and -hundredths of inches, during the nineteen years ending with 1882._ - -Compiled by W. E. STEVENS, Consul at Smyrna. - - =====+======+======+======+======+======+======+ - YEAR| Janu-|Febru-|March.|April.| May. | June.| - | ary. | ary. | | | | | - | | | | | | | - -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+ - 1864| 3.59| 1.53| .58| 3.75| 1.59| .80| - 1865| 7.07| 9.05| 4.43| 1.42| .23| .34| - 1866| 1.40| 1.78| 1.79| .20| .95| .63| - 1867| 2.63| 3.14| 1.16| .37| 1.37| .67| - 1868| 8.30| .32| 11.24| .92| .83| .67| - 1869| 3.21| .74| 12.07| 1.78| .19| .59| - 1870| 5.79| 2.81| 2.29| 2.24| .07| -- | - 1871| 11.10| 1.19| 1.29| .66| 1.09| .39| - 1872| 3.17| 1.46| .50| 4.18| 3.09| .60| - 1873| 2.41| 5.64| 2.08| .50| 2.38| .16| - 1874| .14| 5.82| 1.92| .40| .15| -- | - 1875| 4.58| 9.48| 5.78| 1.36| -- | -- | - 1876| 2.88| 1.45| 2.53| 3.12| .42| 1.76| - 1877| 3.08| 2.92| 4.84| 1.11| 3.47| .94| - 1878| 6.27| 2.10| 3.00| 4.97| .29| .13| - 1879| 4.28| 2.69| 1.61| .35| 2.36| .01| - 1880| 1.61| .30| 2.87| 1.69| 2.69| .18| - 1881| 6.15| 3.92| 1.74| .80| 1.45| -- | - 1882| 1.27| 1.17| 1.04| 3.45| .66| .09| - -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+ - Aver-| 4.15| 3.03| 3.30| 1.75| 1.22| .42| - age | | | | | | | - -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+ - - =====+======+======+======+======+======+======+====== - YEAR| July.| Au- | Sep- | Octo-| No- | De- | Year- - | | gust.| tem- | ber.| vem- | cem- | ly - | | | ber. | | ber. | ber. |total. - -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ - 1864| 2.40| .50| 3.30| 3.51| 6.80| 1.49| 29.84 - 1865| .10| -- | -- | 1.27| 2.67| .10| 26.69 - 1866| .13| .06| .39| .08| 3.84| 3.91| 15.16 - 1867| | -- | -- | 1.54| 5.76| 7.08| 23.72 - 1868| .27| .07| .52| 1.30| 4.92| .84| 30.20 - 1869| .04| -- | .08| 1.81| 3.46| .80| 24.77 - 1870| -- | .47| 3.95| 4.45| .18| 6.73| 28.98 - 1871| -- | -- | .07| 1.36| 7.04| 4.58| 28.77 - 1872| -- | -- | 2.82| -- | 3.65| 4.76| 24.23 - 1873| -- | -- | -- | 2.50| 2.92| 2.62| 21.21 - 1874| -- | -- | .02| .30| 10.31| 8.99| 28.05 - 1875| -- | -- | .15| 2.87| 4.86| 3.96| 33.04 - 1876| .54| -- | .08| .94| 5.75| 8.48| 27.95 - 1877| .11| .36| .61| 4.00| 6.09| 5.98| 33.51 - 1878| .40| .63| 1.22| -- | .44| 8.50| 27.95 - 1879| -- | -- | 1.38| 2.71| 4.06| 1.81| 21.26 - 1880| .04| -- | 1.32| .60| 4.09| 2.49| 17.88 - 1881| .10| -- | -- | 5.47| .15| 4.72| 24.50 - 1882| -- | -- | -- | 1.02| 7.89| 4.56| 21.25 - -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ - Aver-| .22| .11| .84| 1.88| 4.47| 4.34| 25.73 - age | | | | | | | - -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ - -As will be seen, most of the vineyards are situated within the reach of -the seabreezes, some even being almost on the edge of the waters of the -Mediterranean. The best vineyards are those which are situated inland -from seven to twenty miles from the coast. The vineyard districts are -all rough and hilly, except those in the Vourla district, which are on -comparatively level ground. While some vineyards stretch from the -seashore, others reach an elevation of four hundred feet or over. The -soil varies with the districts. The best soil for the Sultanas is -considered to be hippurite limestone soil, common in some districts. -This white, marly soil is in places mixed with a yellow-ocher-colored -loam, with sand and gravel. The abundance of the rainfall makes -irrigation unnecessary, and no vines are grown with irrigation. - - -_Care of the Vines._--While no general irrigation is needed, the young -vines are watered by hand in years of exceptionally light rainfall. The -vines are generally grown from rooted cuttings, which have been planted -in trenches the year before. Previous to the planting of a vineyard, the -soil is dug to the depth of three or four feet. If this can be done the -year before planting, it is considered better, as resulting in a quicker -and stronger growth of the vines. - -In older vineyards, the vines are set in rows six or seven feet apart, -and with three or four feet between the rows. The vines are not grown to -standards, but from branching stalks from one to two and a half feet -high, with an average height of one and a half feet from the ground. No -stakes are used, and only occasionally is there seen a prop under -heavier loaded branches. - -The pruning is done in the winter, when the vines are comparatively -dormant. The superfluous branches are then cut away, and the remaining -ones are cut to two or three eyes each. The cultivation was, until -lately, performed in the simplest way with pick and spade. The first -digging is done in January, at which time also the ground is manured. -This is done by digging pits and trenches in the vineyard, which are -filled with goat and camel dung. These trenches remain open for a month -or more, and are after that time filled in. The first digging in the -soil is done in November, the second one in January and February, when, -in leveling the ground, it is at the same time dug over again one foot -or more. The third or last digging is performed in March, when simply -the weeds are spaded under. Of late years, vineyardists from other -Mediterranean districts have settled in Smyrna and brought with them -better methods. Greek farmers have especially done much to improve the -old ways of cultivation used by the slovenly or ignorant natives. - -In May, the young shoots are pinched back after the grapes have set well -and began to develop. The pinching of the ends produces a second crop, -which, besides being later, also consists of smaller grapes than the -first. All sterile and inferior shoots are then cut off, and this is -repeated during the summer in order that the vines may not be weakened -unnecessarily. The vines come into bearing in the third year, begin to -pay expenses in the fourth year, and leave a profit in the fifth year -after being set out. In the seventh and eighth years the vines are -considered in full bearing. - -The Sultana grapes begin to ripen in July. The vintage begins towards -the end of July, and lasts until the middle of August. Other varieties -of grapes are later, lasting from the middle of August to the end of -September, their vintage seldom lasting as late as the first week of -October. The first raisins are ready about August 1st, and the last -Sultanas are all in by September 1st, the other varieties of raisins -coming in later. - - -_Dipping, Drying and Curing._--The curing of the grapes into raisins -requires great care, and nowhere is any more skill shown than in Smyrna. -Its raisins are the most beautiful of any, their splendid appearance and -transparency being due to the process employed. The drying is done on -drying-floors, which sometimes consist of the bare ground only, at other -times of elevated beds of earth a foot or so high. When the soil is not -naturally hard and suitable for drying-floors, it is first prepared by -cutting off the weeds, and is then watered and packed until a smooth and -hard surface is produced. This hard bed is sometimes left bare, and at -other times covered with matting. In other places the grapes are dried -on canvas, or on trays made of the Italian reed, or of grasses. These -trays are raised on props three or four inches above the ground, and are -loose so that they may be put on top of each other to exclude the sun, -rain or fog, according to locality and season. Great stress is laid upon -having the grapes fully ripe. Before thus exposed, the grapes are -dipped in a solution of lye and oil, and upon the skill in this -performance depends the beauty and value of the raisins. A potash is -made from the ashes of the vine cuttings of the previous year. About one -gallon of this potash solution is mixed with from twenty to twenty-five -gallons of water, making a weak lye solution of a strength of from five -to six degrees in Beaume’s “Lyeometer.” A similar strength would be -obtained by dissolving one pound of pearl ash in ten gallons of water. -Tubs of wood or zinc of the size of two and a half by two feet are used -for dipping. To every such tub of twenty-five gallons is added from -one-fourth to two gallons of olive oil. The latter quantity is used in -the Karabournou district, where the finest raisins are made. When of -proper strength as regards both oil and lye, the wash runs off from the -bunches smoothly; when, again, the wash runs off in small globules, -there is a deficiency of either oil or potash. The grapes are loaded in -small baskets of twenty-five pounds each, and immersed in the wash for -half a minute. They are then taken out and spread either on the ground -or on trays or canvas. In the interior, where the sun is hot, the reed -mats are placed on top of each other to exclude the sun. The same is -also done if rain or fog is feared. After a few days of exposure, and -when partially dried, the raisins are sprinkled every morning with the -same lye solution, but without oil. The Sultanas are dried in from five -to eight days. This dipping process is also used for the larger -Muscatels, but the lye is made stronger, probably reaching the -proportion of about one and a half pounds of pearl ash to five gallons -of water. The carefully dipped raisins have a pure greenish amber color, -and a peculiar flavor. They are worth twenty per cent more than undipped -fruit. - -The Sultanas of the better grades are now sold off-stalk or loose. The -finest brands are the Chesme elemê, or Chesme select. Elemê means choice -or select, and is used both for raisins and figs. The yield of an acre -of Sultana vines varies in different vineyards, according to the quality -of the soil. A good yield is considered about seven tons of fresh -grapes, or about two and a third tons of raisins. - -The price of the Smyrna Sultanas fluctuates considerably; but it may be -said that the best grades are always from twenty-five to thirty per cent -higher than the dipped raisins of Valencia. Thus, in 1843, dipped -Valencias brought six and a quarter cents, while the Smyrna Sultanas -brought ten cents. In 1844, the Valencias were quoted at ten cents, -while the Sultanas brought twenty cents per pound. Of late years, the -Smyrna Sultanas have fluctuated between four and a half and twelve and a -half cents per pound. - - -_Production and Export._--The production of Smyrna raisins and dried -grapes has enormously increased during the last few years. In 1844, the -average crop was only from six to eight thousand tons. In 1868, this had -increased to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1871 we find the export from -Smyrna to be forty-eight thousand tons. In 1881, this had grown to -seventy-five thousand tons (according to the consular report of -Consul-General G. H. Heap of Constantinople). Of the districts already -mentioned, Chesme and Vourla produce about three times as much as Yerly -and Carabourna. A somewhat varied estimate of the Smyrna raisin crop is -given by Consul W. E. Stevens of Smyrna, in his report dated February -28, 1884. According to him, the raisin crop of Smyrna should amount to -one million, nine hundred thousand hundred weight or ninety-five -thousand tons. These two consular estimates would give Smyrna as -follows: 1871, forty-eight thousand tons; 1872, thirty-one thousand -tons; 1879, seventy-five thousand tons; 1881, forty-nine thousand tons; -1884, ninety-five thousand tons. This, of course, includes all kinds of -raisins. As regards the Sultana raisins, the reports of the two consuls -also differ. By Consul Stevens, it is estimated to be thirty-two -thousand, five hundred tons, or sixty-five million pounds; while Consul -Heap puts the figures at only nineteen million, four hundred thousand -pounds, or only nine thousand, seven hundred tons. We have no means to -verify the statements, but are inclined to think the higher figure the -more correct. If it is true that the raisin yield of Smyrna to-day -reaches one hundred thousand tons, it would be absurd to think that only -ten per cent should be Sultanas, which is the principal raisin grape of -the district. It is more probable that at least one-third of the whole -crop consists of Sultanas. About eighty per cent of all the Sultana -raisins go to England, ten per cent are consumed by Eastern Europe and -Russia, a small part only going to the United States. - - -_Cost of Vineyards in Smyrna._--The cost of vineyards in the Smyrna -district varies just as it does elsewhere. Bearing vineyards change -hands at from three hundred to four hundred and fifty dollars per acre. -The yearly labor on an acre of vines, including pruning, cultivation and -drying, amounts to fifty dollars an acre or more. The average yield per -acre averages from about eighty-five to ninety dollars, leaving a profit -of from thirty to forty dollars, equal to from about eight to ten per -cent on the capital invested. I believe, however, that these figures may -be modified, and that the profit on an acre of average vineyard often -reaches from fifty to sixty dollars. The fact that an acre of vineyard -sells for four hundred and fifty dollars indicates that it must not only -give a fair but a good interest on that sum. The raisins from one acre -of a Smyrna vineyard are sold for $88. The interest on the par value of -an acre ($450) for one year at five per cent is $22.50. The other -expenses during the year amount to $50, leaving, as net profit, $6.50. -The above is a low estimate copied from English statements. - - -_Other Varieties of Raisins._--Besides Sultanas, Smyrna produces an -enormous quantity of raisins of other kinds. The demand for these has -been and is constantly increasing, the most being shipped to -manufacturers of wines, distilled liquors of all kinds, jellies, jams, -etc. These varieties are known as Large Black and Large Red. These -varieties are grown in all the Smyrna districts, and in quantity far -exceed the Sultanas. The following will give an idea of how this trade -has increased of late. Red and Black Smyrna raisins in tons: 1868, -12,795; 1876, 15,500; 1881, 40,000; 1883, 45,000; 1888, 60,000. The -price varies from three to four cents per pound in the local market. -Judging from the constantly increased export of these kinds of raisins, -it is not likely that the production of the same is likely to soon be -overdone. - - -ITALY AND ITALIAN RAISINS. - - -_Lipari and Belvidere._--Of the Mediterranean countries, Italy produces -the smallest quantity of raisins. We cannot imagine this to be on -account of unsuitable soil and climate, but more on account of the -tardiness of its people to take kindly to new industries and improve -upon their older methods. In former years the raisins from Southern -Italy were much exported to Northern Europe; to-day the trade is -insignificant. In the sixteenth century, the raisins from Lipari and -Belvidere were of considerable repute, but were, however, considered -inferior to the Spanish raisins. The Island of Lipari, to-day -principally known on account of its volcanoes, produces yet so-called -Lipari currants of larger size than those from Morea. They are of much -inferior quality, being hard and dry and of oblong shape. - - -_Pantellaria._--The Island of Pantellaria, between Sicily and Africa, -also produces raisins of somewhat better quality, which, if better -packed, would favorably compare with the Lexias of Valencia and Denia. -The Pantellarias, or Belvideres, as they are known in the market, are -principally consumed in Northern Italy and Southern France. They are -sweet and good raisins, which, if carefully and intelligently handled, -would rapidly improve in quality. - - -_Calabria._--Since the destruction of the Calabrian raisins through the -mildew, the raisin production of this peninsula has largely increased. -In 1876, it had reached eight thousand tons, but must now probably be -double that amount. The Calabrian raisins produced on the mainland of -Italy are of good quality, and are principally exported to France. - - -CHILE AND HUASCO RAISINS. - - -_Characteristics._--The Chile or Huasco raisin is one of the finest -raisins in the world, and in the opinion of the author superior to both -Spanish and California raisins. They excel in sweetness and aroma as -well as flavor; their skin is thin, and the seeds are small. The color -is entirely different from sun-dried California or Spanish raisins, -being yellowish amber with a fine and thin bluish bloom, indicating that -they have been dried in the shade or in partial shade without dipping in -lye or other solutions. - - -_Location._--The number of acres devoted to raisin culture in Chile is -not known. The grapes for this purpose are grown almost exclusively in -the valley of the Huasco, back of the port of Huasco in the province of -Atacama. There appear to be two distinct valleys of the same name, one -situated only twenty minutes’ ride from the port of Huasco on the -Pacific Ocean, the other farther inland about sixty miles from the -coast. In the former place, the culture of the raisin grape is very -limited, the whole valley and town only containing four hundred people, -of which not all are occupied with the raisin industry. The interior -valley is more extensive, and the largest quantity of the Huasco raisins -come from this place. The port of Huasco is situated in latitude -twenty-seven degrees, thirty minutes south, longitude seventy-one -degrees, sixteen minutes west. - -[Illustration: Muscatel or Gordo Blanco Raisin Grape, Second Crop. -Two-thirds Natural Size.] - - -_Varieties._--The grape used for raisins is a variety of the Muscat, -very similar to the Muscat of Alexandria. Grapevines transplanted to -California resemble this variety very much, but, according to Professor -Hilgard, set their fruit better, and do not suffer so much from colure. -It is said that these grapes were imported to Chile long ago by the -Spanish conquerors, and it is supposed they grew the vines from seed -brought from Spain, and selected the best of the seedlings. In this way -the slight difference of the Huasco grape from the Muscat of Alexandria -can be accounted for. - - -_Soils._--The soil in the coast valley consists of a reddish, sandy -loam, which changes to a fine yellow sand, of great richness. This sand -covers the hills almost everywhere in the vicinity of the Huasco river, -the nature of the country being a rolling one. - - -_Climate._--The climate is notoriously dry, and rain falls only very -seldom between June and September, is of short duration and very scant. -In the interior valley, rain is said to be seldom known, and the climate -there can be called entirely rainless. Dew is abundant in the winter, -but the summers are warm and dry. - - -_Irrigation._--Near the coast no irrigation is required, but in the -interior valley the grapes are irrigated three times a year, first when -the buds begin to swell, second when they begin to blossom, and lastly -when the fruit is well advanced. - - -_The Vineyard._--The vines are planted six feet one way by eight feet -the other, and the intermediate space is often planted to alfalfa, -giving three crops of hay each year. The heads are kept low, the vines -are pruned heavily, and only two eyes left on each cane. Sometimes whole -branches are cut away, especially if they do not bear well. The vines -are grown both on hillsides and in the valleys on the bottom lands. Many -of the vineyards are surrounded by elevated arbors or trellises, over -which the vines are trained, to keep off the heavy spring winds which -otherwise would break the branches,--windbreaks, in fact. The -cultivation of the Huasco vines is of the most primitive kind. The land -is poorly cultivated, and the fact that alfalfa is grown between the -rows of the vines indicates that the industry is not highly developed. -On the other hand, it is not impossible that the crowding together of -various things on the land may help to give the grapes a certain flavor -or aroma. - -There is said to be a great difference between the various Huasco -grapes, some being very superior to others. The inferior kinds are -called simply Muscats, while the better kinds are the Huascos. It is not -known if these varieties come from different kinds of grapes, but it is -likely that this is the case. Vines of the best variety transplanted to -other localities than the Huasco valley give invariably indifferent -results, and produce raisins inferior to the Huasco. - - -_Drying and Curing._--The poorer qualities are simply dried on boards or -on the roofs of the houses in the sun; but the fine and most valuable -raisins are dried in the shade. When ripe, the bunches are carefully -picked and taken to open sheds with thatched roofs, and there hung up to -dry. The raisins are turned at intervals, and when ready are packed in -twenty-five-pound boxes without any great care or skill. The best -Huasco raisin sells at fifty cents per pound in the local market, and is -decidedly the most high-priced raisin known. The best variety is scarce -even in Chile, and in Chilean statistics I could not find any quoted. -The following houses in Huasco are dealers in fruits and raisins: Juan -Quijada, Ramon F. Martinez, and José Manuel Balmaceda. The export from -the port of Huasco in 1885 amounted only to $685,853. How large a -portion of this was raisins is not known. - - -_CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS._ - - -A GENERAL REVIEW. - - -_Early History._--While the planting of raisin grapes and the production -of raisins in California dates back some thirty odd years, the raisin -industry cannot be said to be as yet twenty years old. Already, in 1851, -Col. Agoston Haraszthy grew Muscatel vines from seeds of Malaga raisins. -On the 25th of March, 1852, he imported the Muscat of Alexandria from -Malaga, and ten years later, during a visit to that place on September -27, 1861, he selected cuttings of the Gordo Blanco which afterwards were -grown and propagated on his San Diego county vineyard. The same year he -imported Sultana vines from Malaga, and white and red Corinth from -Crimea. Col. Haraszthy was thus the first one to introduce the -raisin-vines in this State. Another importation of the ovoid Muscat of -Alexandria was made in 1855 by A. Delmas and planted at San José, -according to a statement made by his son D. M. Delmas,[3] the prominent -San Francisco lawyer. G. G. Briggs of Davisville also imported Muscatel -grapes from Malaga in Spain; while R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo -county, started his raisin vineyard in 1863 from Gordo Blanco cuttings -received from Col. Haraszthy. In 1876, W. S. Chapman, imported the best -Muscatels from Spain for his colonists in the Central California Colony -in Fresno, which proved in no way different from those already growing -there. Who produced the first raisins in California will probably never -be satisfactorily known. According to page 88 of the Report of the State -Agricultural Society of California, 1863, cured raisins were exhibited -by Dr. J. Strentzel at the State Fair in 1863.[4] The first successful -raisin vineyards in the State were those planted by G. G. Briggs at -Davisville in Solano county, and by R. B. Blowers at Woodland in Yolo -county. Both these gentlemen grew the raisin grapes on a large scale, -and shipped raisins extensively. The Briggs vineyard consisted mainly of -Muscats of Alexandria, while the Blowers vineyard contained the Gordo -Blanco. Both these vineyards produced raisins as early as 1867; but it -was not until 1873 that their raisins cut any conspicuous figure in the -market. That year six thousand boxes were produced in the State, the -majority by far coming from these two vineyards. - - [3] See also Wickson’s “California Fruits,” page 357. - - [4] _Same_, page 79. - - -_Later Planting._--In 1873, in the fall, the Muscat vines were first -brought to the Fresno raisin district, where twenty-five acres of Muscat -of Alexandria were planted in the Eisen vineyard. A few years later, or -in 1876 and 1877, T. C. White planted the Raisina Vineyard in the -Central California Colony near Fresno from Gordo Blanco Muscatels -brought from R. B. Blowers’ vineyard at Woodland. The following year, or -in 1877-78, Miss M. F. Austin began improving her Hedgerow Vineyard, -also in the same colony, with grapes of the same kind as Messrs. White -and Blowers. Robert Barton had also planted some twenty-five acres of -Muscat grapes, but did not make raisins until later. The year 1879 saw -the first planting of the A. B. Butler vineyard, now the largest -vineyard in the State. J. T. Goodman had begun improving his place at -the same time; while Col. William Forsyth entered upon raisin-grape -growing between 1881 and 1882, most of his grapes, however, being -planted a year or two later. From that time the raisin vineyards in -Fresno multiplied rapidly, and about 1886 and 1887 raisin production -became recognized as the principal industry of the district. - -The history of the development of the raisin industry in the other -districts of the State runs very much the same. Riverside had entered -the field in 1873, when the founder of that colony, Judge John Wesley -North, planted there the first raisin-vines of the variety Muscat of -Alexandria. But raisin-grape growing did not become general until 1875 -and 1876, when the largest vineyards in the colony were planted. In El -Cajon valley in San Diego county, the first raisin vines of the Muscat -of Alexandria variety were planted in 1873 by R. G. Clark; but the -raisin industry did not get a good start until some six or seven years -ago, while most of the vineyards were planted from 1884 to 1886. In -Orange county, raisin grapes were planted at the same time as in -Riverside and El Cajon by MacPherson Bros., near Orange, now called -MacPherson. The raisin industry developed rapidly, and Robert -MacPherson, the largest grower and packer in the district, and at one -time in the State, handled yearly over one hundred thousand boxes, while -the yearly crop of the district rose to one hundred and seventy thousand -boxes. - -In Central California, the raisin industry is gradually spreading from -the original center around Fresno, the greater freedom from rain and the -better facilities for irrigation being great inducements for the -settlers to engage in the growing and curing of the raisin grapes. The -San Joaquin valley is especially adapted to the production of raisins, -the Fresno raisin district being by far the largest, and now producing -almost one-half of the raisin crop of the State. In San Bernardino -county and district, the raisins are also grown to great profit and with -great facility, and are of equal quality with those of the interior of -the State. But the raisin industry is here gradually giving way to the -culture of oranges and other citrus fruits, and the increase in the -raisin acreage has therefore not been so great as in the San Joaquin -valley. In El Cajon, irrigation is not used, and the raisins produced -there are very similar to the Malaga raisins, but through absence of -irrigation the crops are smaller than in any of the other districts in -the State. In Los Angeles and Orange county district, the raisin -industry has suffered immensely from the ravages of the vine plague, an -as yet entirely mysterious disease, and the output of raisins there has -dwindled down to almost nothing. But the farmers of the district are -ready to replant whenever there are any prospects that the vines will do -well again. - -In the interior of California, north of Solano and Yolo counties, large -quantities of raisin grapes have been planted during the last few years, -both in the foothill valleys, out on the plains, and in the bottom lands -of the Sacramento, Yuba and Feather rivers, etc. Raisins of very good -quality have been produced in that part of the State for years in -limited quantities, but it is yet a question to what extent that section -can compete with the central and southern parts of the State. In Sutter -county around Yuba City the cultivation of a seedless raisin grape is -advancing rapidly, the raisins made from it being of excellent quality -and finding a ready market. - - -_Acreage and Crops._--The quantity of raisin-vines planted cannot be -estimated correctly; but it is certain that at least sixty-five thousand -acres of Muscat vines are now set out in the State, including grapes in -bearing, as well as vines lately set out. - -California enjoys a climate peculiarly adapted to the culture and curing -of the raisin grape. The summers are warm and rainless, the winters -again moderately rainy. The interior is free from injurious fogs and -heavy dews, while the most southern coast is only visited by warm fogs, -which are not greatly harmful to the grapes. Irrigation is practiced -almost everywhere, except in El Cajon valley, and in some of the -northern districts of the State, but even there it is no doubt that -judicious irrigation would be beneficial and greatly increase the crop. -The demand for California raisins has kept pace with the improvements in -curing and packing, and has steadily increased from year to year. What -the future has in store only the future can tell, but it is almost -certain that first-class raisins will always be in demand, while -inferior grades may from time to time bring lower prices. The ruling -price of raisins in sweatboxes, as they may be had from those growers -who do not pack themselves, has been from four to five cents per pound. -Of late years, the tendency is developing to pay according to quality, -and from three to seven cents was the ruling price for unpacked raisins -in sweatboxes during last season (1889). This practice will greatly -promote the raisin industry and encourage growers to grow large grapes -and fine bunches, and to cure their raisins well. It will also benefit -the buyers, who will know what they pay for, and who will be able to -furnish better grades, and more of the best grades than formerly, when -good, bad and indifferent raisins brought five cents per pound. - -The raisin crop of 1889 did not exceed one million boxes. Should we -venture upon a statement as to the distribution of the same among the -various counties or districts of the State, the following figures would -be found as near correct as it is possible to get them: - - Fresno district 475,000 twenty-pound boxes. - Tulare 15,000 “ “ “ - Kern 4,000 “ “ “ - Yolo and Solano 120,000 “ “ “ - Scattering 25,000 “ “ “ - San Bernardino 265,000 “ “ “ - Orange and Los Angeles 8,000 “ “ “ - San Diego 75,000 “ “ “ - ------- - 987,000 “ “ “ - - -YOLO AND SOLANO. - - -_Location and Acreage._--The district is situated north of San Francisco -Bay, bordering on it as well as on the Sacramento river, and is a part -of the Sacramento valley. The number of acres overreaches seven -thousand, and is increasing yearly. The principal vineyards are those of -the late G. G. Briggs at Davisville, Solano county, with three hundred -acres, and at Woodland in Yolo county, four hundred and sixty acres; E. -Gould, also at Davisville, two hundred acres; H. M. Larou, at same -place, about fifty acres; sundry vineyards around Davisville, fifty -acres; around Woodland and Capay valley, some four hundred acres;--or in -full bearing more than two thousand acres. The district comprises the -southern part of Yolo and the northern part of Solano counties. The -grape used for raisins is principally the Muscat of Alexandria, except -the vineyard of R. B. Blowers, which is composed exclusively of Gordo -Blanco. The Muscat of Alexandria is generally preferred, as it makes a -fine raisin and bears well. - - -_Soil and Climate._--The soil varies somewhat; the best is a deep gray, -alluvial bottom-land soil; other soils are not much thought of for -Muscatel raisin grapes. The average depth of water is about eighteen -feet from the surface. It is not necessary, as a rule, to first level -the land, as the ground is very level naturally. The rainfall averages -thirteen inches. The most rain falls in January and February; the least -falls in August. There is seldom a shower in the summer, but about -November 1st rains are almost always certain to interfere with the -drying of the grapes. Sometimes the rain comes in October, when it -causes considerable damage to the grapes and partially dried raisins. -There is very little dew in summer time, but plenty in October and also -some in September. The temperature is considerably modified by the -nearness of the bay. It reaches in the hottest part of the summer one -hundred and fourteen degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, but only for a day -or two. The average highest is about ninety degrees Fahrenheit in the -shade, while the heat almost every day in July and August shows -eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. Thus this district is -considerably cooler than the San Joaquin valley and San Bernardino -county, but warmer than Los Angeles and San Diego districts. There are -heavy frosts in winter, when at times even the thermometer falls to -eighteen degrees Fahrenheit, although this is the extreme low -temperature, six or seven degrees of frost being more common. There is -spring frost in April one year in every three or four, and the vineyards -are then smoked to prevent injury to the vines. Irrigation is not needed -to produce crops, only to produce larger crops, as it increases the -yield fifty per cent. Generally two irrigations a year are needed, the -first one in early summer, the other later, when the berries have begun -to ripen. Water from ditches is used and carried to the vines in furrows -only, no flooding being practiced. - - -_The Vineyard._--In planting, cuttings are used principally, but rooted -vines are preferred by some. The distances most common are ten by ten -feet each way, one vineyard being set ten feet by sixteen feet. The -vines bear the third year. The ground is plowed and cross-plowed, the -first plowing being from the vines, and the second to the vines. -Harrowing and cultivating both ways are secondary operations, continued -to the middle of May, but seldom later. Hoeing the vines finishes the -work of the soil in the middle or end of May. - -In pruning, the crowns are never raised over six inches above the -ground, from seven to eight spurs are left on large vines, and each spur -is pruned to two or three eyes each. Formerly more eyes, say from four -to five, were left on each cane, but it was found that this was too -many, hence the change to two or three eyes. Summer pruning is practiced -by some, but not by all; there is yet a controversy in regard to its -usefulness. When practiced, the vines are cut six or eight inches from -the tops, and this is done not later than June. Sulphuring is in use -everywhere; the vines are sulphured two times, once before and once -after the bloom. Sulphured vines do not suffer from mildew. Colure, or -the dropping of the young berries, is not common, the Muscat of -Alexandria even setting well. The leaf-hopper (_Erythroneura comes_) is -more common in some years than in others. They eat the leaves and cause -the grapes to sunburn. Grasshoppers have never caused any damage. Grape -moths are more or less common, but never troublesome. Black-knot is -often seen on neglected vines, but is rare in old vineyards well cared -for. - - -_The Crop._--The grapes ripen in September, generally from the first to -the tenth. The drying and curing occupies three weeks. The bunches are -placed on trays made of pine two feet by three. Several growers have -artificial dryers, which are needed for curing the second crop. The -sweatboxes are large enough to contain seventy pounds of raisins, and -are eight inches deep. In the Briggs raisin vineyard, the following -brands are packed: three crown Layer Muscatels; two crown Layer -Muscatels; one and two crown Loose Muscatels; Dehesas and Seedless -Muscatels. The raisins are seldom sold in sweatboxes, and no fixed price -is known for such raisins. Most growers pack their own raisins. The -oldest raisin vineyard is that started by the late G. G. Briggs, and now -owned by his widow. The most renowned vineyard was that owned by R. B. -Blowers of Woodland, which has of late years been mostly replaced by -other crops. Raisin land can be had for from one hundred to one hundred -and fifty dollars per acre. This is vacant land of the very best -quality. An average profit of fifty dollars per acre is realized, -although some have made more money out of their vines. A yield of two or -three tons of grapes per acre is common. As regards prices of labor, -etc., the following were those most common last season: Man and team, -who boards himself and animals, three dollars and twenty-five cents per -day, can plow one and a half acres of vineyard well. Pruning, one man, -one dollar per day, can prune three hundred vines, or three-fourths of -an acre. Laborers generally board themselves. The raisins of this -district were the first ones in the State or on this continent to -attract attention, and they were the first which successfully competed -with Spain. The crop of 1889 reached one hundred and twenty thousand -boxes. - - -NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. - - -_General Remarks._--The Muscatel and Sultana raisin grapes grow almost -everywhere in the State, and it is therefore natural enough that the -planting of raisin-vines should have increased considerably of late -years, even in localities situated outside of those raisin districts -mentioned, which have already made a success of the raisin industry. -Below will be found a few notices from various such places which aspire -to raisin fame, some of which have yet to make their reputation in this -line. These notices are partly taken from the San Francisco _Chronicle_, -which paper went to the trouble and expense of collecting such -statistics at the beginning of the year. It must be remembered, however, -that these statements are more or less approximate. As will be seen, all -these localities here mentioned lie in the interior or the Sacramento -valley proper, enjoying an inland climate. The climate in this valley is -somewhat like that of the San Joaquin valley, of which it is an -extension. Only the heat in summer is less, the rain in winter is more -profuse, the showers in the spring of the year are later and those of -the fall are earlier. - - -_Placer County._--At Rocklin J. P. Whitney has two hundred and fifty -acres of raisin grapes, and is the largest raisin-maker in the county. -There are not over three hundred and fifty acres of Muscats devoted to -raisin-making in the county, and the total output this year was about -four hundred tons, most of which was shipped directly East. The first -carload of Muscat raisins sent East was shipped from the Whitney -vineyard about ten years ago. A large area of Muscat and other vineyards -will be planted this season, but none for raisin-making. - - -_Yuba County._--The raisin industry has received but little attention in -Yuba county, although it has long been known that raisins of superior -quality can be produced here. The area in raisin-vines is about three -hundred acres, which will probably be increased by several hundred acres -this season. Less than a hundred acres are in bearing. The raisin -vineyards planted last season are chiefly at Colmena, midway between -Marysville and Wheatland. The Muscatel grape is planted to some extent, -but the favorite grape is the Thompson Seedless, a new variety of great -promise. - - -_Sutter County._--The raisin industry of Sutter county dates back to the -year 1876, and the venture was first made by the late Dr. S. R. Chandler -three miles south of this city. The area now in raisin vineyard is about -six hundred acres, three-fourths of which are in bearing. The crops -marketed and prices received are about as follows: Three thousand -twenty-pound boxes at $1.65 per box; eight hundred sacks of one hundred -pounds each, at five cents a pound; five hundred and twenty-five sacks -of dried grapes of one hundred pounds each, at three cents a pound. The -home consumption is extensive, but is not estimated. The county is well -adapted to raisin growing and curing, and received the second prize at -the late Oroville State Citrus Exposition. Muscatel and Thompson -Seedless are the favorite grapes. The soil of this county is very rich -and warm, and no irrigation has been practiced. - - -_Colusa County._--In the immediate vicinity of Colusa there are about -one hundred and fifty acres in bearing, and fully one hundred acres more -will be set out the coming season. The crop of raisins in 1888 was very -insignificant; but in 1889 the Colusa canneries packed forty tons in -boxes. The prices ranged from $1.75 to $2.25 per box, according to -quality. These figures refer only to the territory lying within a radius -of eight miles of Colusa. Some of the finest raisin grapes in the county -are grown near College City, and the entire output was at least eighty -tons of raisins. Many of the people around Orland are reported as going -into the business on a large scale. The ranchers in and near the -foothills are also producing raisins of excellent quality. A single -vineyard of fifteen hundred acres is being planted in one place in the -foothills. - - -_Butte County._--While Butte produces a fair quality of raisins, her -vineyards are yet young and are just coming into bearing. The older -vines are those of General Bidwell, at Chico, covering about one hundred -acres, and those of Oroville and Mesilla valley, embracing about the -same area. A large number of young vines have been set out during the -past two years, and these number 52,200 near Oroville, 77,480 at -Palermo, 67,200 at Thermalito, 20,570 at Wyandotte, 25,000 at Central -House, 50,500 at Gridley, and something over 50,000 near Chico. These -have nearly all been planted within the past two years, but a limited -number are three years old. In the foothills are a number of small -vineyards, but it is impossible to ascertain the acreage and product, -though the total of each is not large. Practically the bearing vines of -Butte number between 300 and 400 acres. The one and two year old -vineyards embrace about 350 acres, so that a conservative estimate for -the total raisin vineyards of the county, young and old, would be 700 -acres. The raisins are all boxed and sold directly by the vineyardists, -the local demand taking nearly the whole crop. The area to be planted -this year will not exceed 250 acres. - - -_Tehama County._--The area planted to grapes in Tehama county is over -ten thousand acres. The greater part of the fruit grown is used for -wine, and probably one-third for raisins. All the raisins produced here -are packed in boxes, and a large portion is used in home consumption, -while the remainder is shipped. Probably about ten thousand boxes in -bulk and packed will cover the yield. - - -_Shasta County._--The raisin industry of Shasta county is only in its -infancy. There are 147 acres planted to raisin grapes within a radius of -fifteen miles from Redding. The largest acreage of raisin grapes is in -Happy valley. There are patches of grapes all through the foothills. -Probably not over one thousand boxes of raisins were shipped. The -planting of raisin grapes continues every year. Raisins are made by many -small growers, and sold here at an average of six cents per pound. - - -FRESNO AND SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. - - -_General Remarks._--The San Joaquin valley is well adapted to raisins -along its whole length almost, but especially in its central and -southern parts. The farther we go south in the valley, the drier is the -climate, and the less is the rainfall in the autumn of the year, both -conditions favoring the curing of the grapes. The present raisin center -is around Fresno City, where over twenty-five thousand acres are planted -to raisin grapes, principally Muscatels; but from this locality the -industry has been constantly spreading, until at present the other -counties in the valley, viz., Merced, Tulare and Kern, can show a good -acreage of young vines. Next after Fresno, Tulare county produces the -largest quantity of raisin grapes, and produces raisins of the very -highest quality. The principal raisin vineyards in that county are -situated in the Mussel Slough district, on the rich bottom lands formed -by the former delta of Kings river; of late, the planting of raisin -grapes has extended to other parts of the county as well. In Kern county -few old raisin vineyards exist, the oldest one being situated on the -Livermore ranch, being a part of the Haggin and Carr tract. Several -hundred new acres have been planted there this spring, especially in the -Rosedale, Lerdo and Virginia Colonies, as well as on the plains near -Delano. I need here hardly say that the raisins of Fresno, Tulare, Kern -and Merced counties should be all classed together, as the climate in -these various localities is one and the same, with only a slight and -gradual change as to rainfall as we go south in the valley. If there -will, in the course of time, be found some difference as regards quality -in the raisins of these various localities in the San Joaquin valley, -this difference will not be due to any great difference in the climate, -but to the variety of soil on which the grapes are grown. The raisins -are only grown on the level lands, situated from three to four hundred -feet above the sea. - - -_Extent and Location._--The Fresno district contains about thirty -thousand acres, out of which about twelve thousand are in good or full -bearing. Merced county has about two thousand acres, nearly all very -young vines. Kern county has probably about one thousand acres, also -very young vines, and some thirty acres of old vines. Tulare county has -about seven thousand acres of Muscats, a large part of which is in full -or good bearing. Many vineyards, large and small, are being planted in -these counties this year, but enough attention is not paid to proper -soil and to locality, and here, as elsewhere in the State, many of these -vineyards will not turn out as the owners expect they will. In Fresno -county, the old vineyards are planted principally around Fresno City, -while in late years other raisin districts or sub-districts are growing -into prominence around Malaga, Sanger, Selma, Fowler and Madera. The -varieties used are principally the Gordo Blanco Muscatel, much mixed -with the Muscat of Alexandria. There are some few acres of Sultanas and -White Corinths, and of late many Malagas have been planted. - - -_Soils and Climate._--There are several different varieties of soils in -the district,--the red or chocolate-colored sandy loam principally east -of the railroad, the white, ashy soil west of the railroad, and the very -sandy soil, generally occurring in elevated ridges. We have also the -deep, gray-colored bottom land in the river bottoms or along the rivers -and creeks. The best grades of the chocolate and reddish loams, and of -the river bottom soil, is considered the best for raisins. The very -sandy soil and the alkali soil should not be used for raisin purposes. -The climate is warm and dry during the summer, while the winters are not -very rainy. From seven to ten inches of rain are an average in Fresno; -south to Kern the rainfall decreases, five and a half inches being an -average around Delano. Towards the northern end of the valley, the -rainfall increases, and in Merced county varies between ten and twenty -inches, fifteen inches being a high average. In no portion of the -raisin-producing portion of the valley can raisin grapes be grown -without irrigation, the natural rainfall being entirely insufficient. -The lowest temperature is about eighteen degrees Fahrenheit in Fresno, -generally in January, while the highest is one hundred and eighteen -degrees Fahrenheit in the shade in July and August. The lowest -temperature is reached once in from three to five years, and the highest -quoted is similarly scarce. The high average in summer time is one -hundred and ten in the shade, and for three months of the year the -thermometer every day can be counted on to vary between one hundred and -one hundred and ten in the shade. In the winter, twenty degrees -Fahrenheit is often reached, and the end of December and January may be -counted on as being cold and frosty. These figures all refer to the -level plain land, where the most of the vineyards are planted, and not -to the foothills or the thermal belt, nor to the high Sierra Nevada, -where snow and ice are common, and where glaciers cover many of the -highest mountain peaks. The most rainfall occurs from December to -February, and the rain continues more or less scattering to April and -May. There is only very seldom a shower in the summer, one perhaps in -three years. In the mountains, the fall rains commence about the middle -of August, on the plains again in October and November, sometimes even -later. Dew is rare in summer time, but common from the beginning of -October. Fog is rare, sometimes an unwelcome visitor in November, but -never known at any other time of the year. Spring frosts are almost -unknown, and occur only once in from five to eight years. - - -_Irrigation._--Irrigation is practiced wherever raisins are grown. The -water is taken from the rivers,--from Kings river in the Fresno -district, and from the Merced, Kaweah and Kern rivers, etc., in the -other districts. Before irrigation was begun in the Fresno districts, -there were from fifty to sixty feet of dry soil before the natural water -level was reached; but this has been so changed through a few years of -constant irrigation, that now in places the land is subirrigated or -moist to the surface, while in places even the soil requires to be -drained, and no other irrigation is now needed except to allow the water -to flow in the main or secondary canals, from which it seeps and keeps -the soil filled with water, the moisture rising from below. The -irrigation when practiced is done by flooding or by irrigating in -furrows. New land must be irrigated until it becomes subirrigated; but, -when once this is done, no separate irrigation becomes necessary. Many -vineyards planted on subirrigated land which was once dry land have -never since been irrigated. - - -_The Vineyard._--The general distance of the vines is eight by eight or -ten by ten feet, varying in different vineyards. Of late, there have -been some efforts made to improve upon these distances, and to have -them planted closer one way than the other, say five by ten or six by -twelve feet. The vines begin to bear the second and third years, and if -planted on proper soil should pay the fourth year and give an income the -fifth year. Some vines have been known to pay the third year, there -being much difference in this respect. Both cuttings and rooted vines -are used, rooted vines having been preferred during the last few years. -The ground is plowed in various ways in the winter time, according to -the ideas of the owner. Cross-plowing is sometimes practiced. The -general rule is to first plow one way, and then to cross-cultivate -repeatedly until the soil is level and the weeds are destroyed. In wet -places, the cultivation is kept up until July, but in proper places the -working of the soil is finished in the early part of June. - - -_Pruning and Other Operations._--The heads of the vines are kept -low,--from six to sixteen inches above the ground. The canes are cut to -two or three eyes, and the number of canes left vary from five to -fifteen or more. The pruning is done between December and February. -Summer pruning is practiced by some, but not by all growers, there being -considerable difference of opinion as to the value of this operation. -Sulphuring is practiced by all growers, some sulphuring only once, but -the best vineyards are sulphured three or more times. Oidium or mildew -never appears in sulphured vineyards. Some few growers sulphur with -great success against the colure or dropping of the grapes. Leaf-hoppers -are common, but do no great harm. Grasshoppers and grape caterpillars -were troublesome one or two seasons, but have not reappeared of late. -Black-knot is common in many places. - - -_The Crop._--The grapes begin to ripen in the middle of August, or from -the middle of August to the first of September, and at the latter date -the first boxes of cured and packed raisins are generally heralded -through the press. The first grapes dry in from seven to ten days, but -the later grapes require three weeks or more. The drying continues -through September, and for the second crop through October and even in -November, or until the rains set in. The grapes are dried on trays two -by three or three by three feet. The sweatboxes are generally two by -three feet and from six to eight inches high. A large number of brands -are packed, such as Imperial Clusters, Dehesas, Layers, Loose and -Seedless. The common price for raisins in sweatboxes is from three and a -half to six cents, five and five and a half cents being the average for -good layers. Good land for raisin purposes can be had for one hundred -dollars per acre, but nearer the town of Fresno is held higher. Bearing -raisin vineyards have changed hands at as high as $1,000 per acre. From -one hundred to two hundred and fifty boxes of raisins are realized per -acre, and the profits vary from seventy-five to two hundred and fifty -dollars per acre, according to location, soil, management, etc. From -thirty to fifty dollars per acre is spent yearly in many vineyards. Few -dipped raisins are produced. Some dipped Sultanas have brought seven -cents in the San Francisco market. Last season about four hundred and -seventy-five thousand boxes were produced in the Fresno district, and -some twenty thousand boxes more in the other parts of the San Joaquin -valley. - - -SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY AND RIVERSIDE. - - -_Location and Acreage._--San Bernardino county, California, is entirely -an inland county, sheltered by low and high hills from the ocean. Fogs -and dew are rare, in places unknown, and the county offers unusual -advantages for raisin-growing. The vineyards are widely distributed -through the county in different localities or raisin centers, all of -which are greatly similar as to climatic conditions, except as regards -altitude. The San Bernardino vineyards are the highest elevated above -the sea of any in California. Below will be found a list of the raisin -centers in the county, with the number of acres and their altitude above -the sea. It must be understood that each locality has a large extension -as regards altitude, and varies in many instances several hundred feet; -this fact being indeed a characteristic of the San Bernardino county -vineyards. The raisin centers in San Bernardino county are: - - Riverside, 1,500 acres. Altitude above sea, 900 to 1,000 feet. - Redlands, 800 “ “ “ “ 1,200 “ 1,600 feet. - Highlands, 400 “ “ “ “ 1,500 feet. - Ontario, 500 “ “ “ “ 983 “ 2,350 feet. - Cucamonga, ---- “ “ “ “ 900 “ 1,500 feet. - Etiwanda, 700 “ “ “ “ 1,200 feet. - -There are several other localities where raisin vineyards are found in -smaller quantities, and it is safe to estimate the number of acres in -the county at over five thousand. Nearly all these vineyards are -situated on mesa lands, by which is meant the lands situated between the -river bottoms and the foothills. As a consequence, the surface water is -never near the top, but generally far down, and even continued -irrigation would not be liable to raise it much higher, as the water -will as rapidly drain off through the substrata, which generally -consists of sandy soil and gravel. The land is in fact well drained, and -differs in this respect from the plains of the San Joaquin valley. In -Riverside, the surface water is from thirty to fifty feet down, and only -in one or two vineyards situated deep down in the _arroyo_ is the -surface water as shallow as ten feet. These latter vineyards are never -irrigated. In Redlands the surface water is at an average of thirty feet -on the mesa lands. In Ontario the surface water is even deeper, and -found at from seventy to eight hundred feet, and the shallowest water in -the district is, according to Mr. W. E. Collins, twenty-five feet below -the surface. It is the general belief in the San Bernardino district -that deep water is necessary for, or at least beneficial to, raisin -grapes, and that shallow surface water is conducive to all kinds of -diseases. In this I cannot agree, as contrary to my own experiences and -to the experiences of the Spanish growers. - - -_Climate._--As regards temperature, there is some difference in the -various districts. A true comparison between them and other districts is -almost impossible, as the signal service thermometers are placed at -unequal heights above the ground, and in localities with very different -characteristics. It can, however, be said that the winter climate of the -district is much milder during the winter than that of the plains of the -San Joaquin valley, and very similar to the Orange county and the San -Diego districts. In Riverside and Redlands, the thermometer seldom -reaches one hundred and nine degrees Fahrenheit in the shade during the -summer, and in winter seldom goes below twenty-four degrees Fahrenheit, -while twenty-eight or twenty-seven degrees Fahrenheit is no unusual -occurrence once every year, but is considered the extreme of the season. -It may thus be seen that raisin vineyards and orange orchards may be and -actually are grown side by side in every part of San Bernardino county, -and this is a distinct characteristic of the district, which, however, -it shares with Orange and San Diego counties. The warmest months are -August and September, and October is generally fine for drying. So is -November, and only twice (in 1885 and 1889) has there been any serious -difficulty in drying the grapes. In two other years the crop has -suffered slightly, but during the majority of seasons in the months of -November there has not been any rain on the mesa lands, and it is this -absence of fall rains which makes it possible for the raisin-grower to -dry his crop without any other appliances than raisin-trays. Dew and -fogs are very rare, and occur only very seldom during the summer months. -When they do occur at this time, they are of but short duration, and -last perhaps only from five to seven o’clock in the morning. In the fall -of the year, in October and November, the desert wind blows warm and -dry, and hastens the drying of the raisins. It may blow three or four -times during the season, but has also been known to be entirely absent. -The rain in the winter season is light, in Riverside twelve inches being -an exceptionally wet season. From six to eight inches are the usual -rainfall, while again the actual average for Riverside is six and -one-fourth inches. In Ontario the rainfall in 1887 was 8.21 inches, and -in 1888 9.23 inches. - - -_Irrigation._--In Riverside grapes cannot be grown without irrigation on -the mesa lands, with the exception of one or two localities in the -arroyo. In the Ontario district, raisin grapes may be grown without -irrigation in the center of the valley, but on the mesas, higher on the -sides, they must be irrigated, and even in localities where they could -be grown without artificial irrigation the same is always practiced -whenever it can be obtained. Less water is, however, needed than in the -San Joaquin valley, but more than would suffice in El Cajon. Through the -nature of the gravelly subsoil, the raisin land cannot fill up with -water. Seepage is only possible to a limited degree; summer irrigation -is always required. The vines are irrigated three times a year, in -April, June and August. The system of furrows is used, and a ten-inch -flow is considered enough to irrigate one acre of grapes during one day -and night each time. In Ontario the raisin grapes are irrigated every -five weeks, not, however, while they are in bloom, as it is considered -best to wait until the berries are well set. In Redlands, one irrigation -after the winter rain ceases is considered enough, even on soil with -thirty feet to water. - - -_Soils._--The soil in San Bernardino county varies considerably. In -Riverside and Redlands the best soil is a reddish loam, with some sand -and gravel. But in Riverside we also find sandy soil of lighter color -and strength, which, however, is less suited to grapes. In Ontario the -soil varies from a heavy clayey _adobe_ to a lighter but very rich sandy -loam of a grayish color. The very sandy soil in some river bottoms, -especially around Lugonia, has, through experience, been found to be -entirely unsuited to the raisin grapes. - - -_The Vineyards._--The variety used for raisins is nearly entirely the -Muscat of Alexandria, although several vineyardists call these grapes -incorrectly the Gordo Blanco. I saw nowhere this variety, but I suppose -some must have been imported there. In planting, cuttings have been -preferred, probably because they are the cheapest, and because the value -of rooted vines has not been properly understood. The vines are set, -almost everywhere, eight by eight, only in a few vineyards nine by nine -feet. There is, however, a growing belief that eight by ten feet or -eight by twelve feet is better than the old accepted eight by eight -feet. But I believe that this tendency to give the vines greater room -will, in course of time, be followed by the opposite tendency to plant -them closer, at least one way, and give more room the other way. The -Muscat of Alexandria begins to bear in three years, and in four years -will pay fifty dollars per acre. The practice of plowing is, in -Riverside, to first plow towards the vines in the fall, and then, when -the vegetation has begun in the spring, the soil is turned back towards -the center of the space between the rows, or from the vines. Then the -soil is cultivated with chisel-tooth cultivators, both crosswise and -lengthwise, also similarly after every irrigation. But this practice is -not entirely the same everywhere, and the different vineyardists have -here as elsewhere different ideas, even in regard to the most common -farm or vineyard practices. Pruning was formerly done much closer than -now, but it was found that by close pruning the vines bore less. To-day -from fifteen to twenty spurs are left on the strongest vines, and on -every spur about two eyes. From twenty to twenty-five spurs were found -to be too much; with such quantity of spurs the vines produce smaller -and inferior grapes. Some vines which were pruned with twenty-five spurs -last year have this year been given nine or ten spurs only, so as to -enable them again to recover and grow strong, when the quantity of spurs -will again be increased to fifteen. Summer pruning is used by some, but -not by others. It does not, according to observation, injure the vine, -but produces always a second crop, which is difficult to cure. -Sulphuring the vines is practiced by some, but not by all, growers. A -great many cannot see the use and value of sulphur. No one sulphurs for -colure or the dropping of the grape, which is quite a common occurrence. -The vines, however, never suffered from the leaf-hopper nor the grape -caterpillars, but sunscald is not uncommon, nor is black-knot. - - -_The Crop._--The Muscat grapes begin to ripen in Riverside later than in -the San Joaquin valley, and picking commences between the 10th and the -30th of September. Highlands is said to be two weeks later than -Riverside. The first crop is ready to turn in two weeks, and is ready -for the sweatbox in three weeks’ time. For drying, trays are used, and -about twenty pounds are placed on each tray. These trays are all made of -pine or fir. Redwood has been found unsuitable, as imparting both a -color and a taste to the raisins if accidentally wet by early showers -in the fall. Size of trays, two by three feet, with a cleat nailed at -the short ends, but none at the long ends of the trays. Sweatboxes -receive the raisins when they leave the trays. Formerly the sweatboxes -were much larger and deeper than now, eight or even twelve inches in -depth not being unknown. Of late sweatboxes are made two by three feet, -or of the exact size of the trays, and not over six inches in depth. A -greater depth makes the boxes too heavy to handle, and also causes the -bunches to break. The packing of the raisins in Riverside and in the -Southern California raisin districts generally is done by the method -known as “top up.” That is, the first raisins are placed in the bottom -of the box and successive layers are placed on top, until finally the -top layer is put on the last. The lever press for the compression of the -layers is a Riverside invention. A modification of this press is now in -use in nearly all districts where the “top-up” method of packing is -practiced. The brands packed are as follows: Three Crown London Layers, -Two Crown London Layers, Three Crown Loose Muscatels, Two Crown Loose -Muscatels, and Muscatels in sixty-pound sacks; also Seedless Muscatels -in sacks of sixty and thirty pounds respectively. Cotton sacks are -commonly used for the two latter brands. The brands are apt to vary from -year to year, according to the fancy or ideas of the packers, new ones -of which are in the field every year. Only those who both produce and -pack have anything like established brands. The prices paid for raisins -in sweatboxes have varied in different years. In 1887 and 1888, the -price was from four and one-half to five cents per pound. In 1889, the -price rose to five and five and three-fourths cents, and in one or two -instances six cents were paid. - - -_The Profits and Other Items._--The profit varies, of course, greatly, -but an average profit may be considered to be from about $125 to $150 -per acre. The yield of an acre is variable, but from eight to ten tons -of fresh grapes is said not to have been uncommon. In some cases the -yield has been much higher and the profit larger. I have from -trustworthy source the statement that one vineyardist who owns only a -few acres, I believe only five, and who has given all his time and -attention to these vines, has realized as much as $430 per acre. This I -quote only as an instance of what might be done with care and expense in -an exceptionally favored locality. Some few growers have realized $250 -profit on each of a few acres, which also is to be considered -exceptional. I believe my former statement of $150 per acre as being -reliable and attainable by all San Bernardino county raisin-growers who -have good land, and who give their vines sufficient care. As another -instance of a high yield, I copy below an account of the vintage of C. -Newton Ross of Etiwanda, San Bernardino county, California. The article -appeared in the _Press and Horticulturist_ of Riverside, September 27th, -and I have every reason to consider it trustworthy. The writer adds that -the yield is extraordinary. “Mr. Ross has seventeen acres of 8,000 vines -five years old from which he picked 8,648 trays of grapes that average -twenty-five pounds to the tray, or a total of 108 tons of grapes, which -will make thirty-six tons of raisins,--equal to 3,600 boxes,--over 200 -boxes to the acre. This is the first picking only, and it is estimated -that the second crop will be half as large as the first, which will give -a total yield of 318 boxes to the acre. Mr. Ross has sold his first crop -at five and one-half cents per pound in the sweatbox, which will give -him an income of $242 an acre on the first crop, and half as much more -on the second crop if he succeeds in saving it in good shape, or a total -income of $363 per acre on his crop. Mr. Ross estimates that $50 an acre -will cover the entire cost of taking care of the vineyard and putting -the crop in the sweatbox, and this would leave him a net income of $313 -an acre for his vineyard, which is ten per cent on $3,130 per acre.” -But, I may add, it is not likely that such a profit can be realized year -after year. - -As regards care of the vineyard and expenses of running the same, they -vary, of course, and are estimated at from twenty dollars upwards. But -the best vineyardists spend from thirty to forty dollars per acre in the -care of an acre, but in this do not include interest, trays bought, -etc., nothing in fact but “care.” - -Vines were first planted in Riverside by Judge John Wesley North in -1873. Vacant land that is suitable for raisins may be had with water for -$250 per acre. Some land with choice locations is held at higher prices. -The highest yield of raisins in San Bernardino has been 290,000 boxes in -1888. Of this Riverside produced 150,000 boxes, Etiwanda 30,000 boxes, -and Ontario 15,000 boxes. The raisin shipments from Riverside during the -fall of 1889, up to December 12th, amounted, according to the _Daily -Press_, to 216,000 boxes. There was a balance on hand of 7,000 boxes, -making the total production 223,000 boxes. It is estimated that the -value of this crop was $3,500,000 at wholesale. Later advices give to -the county 265,000 boxes as last season’s crop. The San Bernardino -raisins are superior both as regards quality and size, and raisin -growing and curing is a profitable business, eminently suited to the -settler with small means, who cannot invest large capital, nor can -afford to wait long for a return. No dipped or sulphured raisins have -ever been produced in the district, although dipped raisins would prove -profitable. Especially does this refer to the second crop, which ripens -enough to make good raisins, but which cannot be cured when the early -rains set in. - - -ORANGE COUNTY AND SANTA ANA. - - -_General Remarks._--On account of the vine disease which has been -injuring the Orange county raisin and wine vineyards, this district has -a special interest to every one engaged in grape-growing. While the -country has received a hard blow through the injury and destruction of -so many of its vineyards, still it is likely that it will recover and -rise as soon as the vine disease leaves. - - -_Location._--The Orange county raisin district lies close to the sea. Of -all raisin districts, it is nearest the ocean, the average distance of -the raisin vineyards from the latter being eight to twelve miles, some -few perhaps a little more. As will be seen, the district resembles in -this respect some of the Mediterranean districts, such as Malaga and -Smyrna, where the vineyards come within actual reach of the sea fogs. On -one side of the Orange county district we have the ocean, on the -opposite side it is bordered by rather high foothills, beyond which are -the San Bernardino county vineyards, some forty to sixty miles away. - -[Illustration: A Raisin-grower’s Residence at Fresno.] - - -_Climate._--The nearness to the ocean modifies the climate much. The -temperature is more even all the year round than anywhere else on the -coast where raisins are grown. The extreme of heat is 105 degrees; in -fact, July 27, 1889, it was 104 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, while -in the winter it seldom goes lower than 28 degrees Fahrenheit, and -indeed very, very rarely as low as that. In many places there is no -frost at all, except, perhaps, one in April, which, of course, cannot -but prove damaging to the vines. This absence of heavy frost, which is -beneficial to every other semi-tropical product, is not favorable to the -vine. The grape requires heavy frost to become dormant. The farther -south we go the less frost and the less grapes, at least of the Asiatic -kind. There are, as we know, native grapes even in tropical countries, -but they are adapted to their surroundings and cannot be considered -here. The proximity to the coast modifies the air considerably. With 100 -degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, which is an exception here, I felt as -warm as I do in the San Joaquin valley with the mercury at 114;--the two -extremes in both places affect us just the same. The air here is -certainly much more moist, which again must have a marked effect upon -the vine, and in no small degree promote fungoid growths, or parasites -generally. In this respect, then, the coast vineyard must certainly be -at a disadvantage. The fog is not an unusual visitor in the district -between the coast and the foothills, which, in fact, covers the whole -area ever planted in raisin grapes. For days in succession every morning -is foggy, and the fog condenses on the leaves of the trees and falls -under them in real showers, making the adjoining and underlying road -wet. For a few days again the sun will rise bright, again to be followed -by foggy mornings. By from nine to eleven o’clock the fog is again gone -and the sun shines brightly. Every evening and morning there is a heavy -dew, and every branch, leaf or grass is then dripping wet. Several -mornings when the fog was in I found the thermometer at 62 degrees -Fahrenheit, while at noon it rose to over 100. - - -_Soils and Ripening._--The soil here is the very best, and I doubt if -the same fine quality of soil is found anywhere else in California over -the same extended territory. I ride for miles and miles, everywhere the -finest and richest loam of a gray color, sometimes a little drawing -towards slate blue, sometimes again towards yellowish. It is immensely -rich, and can hardly be improved. There is, however, especially near -Orange, a different kind of soil consisting of the sand loam, but -intermixed with very coarse gravel. This soil is warmer but consequently -not so rich. The grapes ripen on it two weeks earlier, but yield only -one-half as much as those on the richest loam along the creeks. The -vines planted here were alone the Muscat of Alexandria. Strangely enough -I find no traces of Sultanas or currant, which latter, it seems, should -be especially adapted to the coast climate. - - -_The Vineyards._--In planting a vineyard, rooted vines were seldom used. -Cuttings grew so readily and so well that they were much preferred. I -am told that five per cent loss was unusual. It must be remarked that -the moister is the air the better it is for any kind of cuttings. The -moisture sustains and nourishes the wood while it is making roots. As to -distances, I remarked nothing new. Eight by eight or eight by ten feet -seems the generally adopted way. The nature of the soil and climate make -higher cultivation a necessity. McPherson Bros., who packed the largest -quantity of raisins and owned the finest vineyards, told me that they -plowed and cross-plowed and cultivated from fourteen to sixteen times -every season; in fact they never ceased working the ground. The pruning -was begun in December, or as soon as the leaves began to turn and fall. -To begin with, only a few spurs were left on every vine, and on every -spur three eyes, including the bottom eyes, but experience taught that -that way was not the very best. Gradually more space was given the -vines, and now from fifteen to twenty spurs to a vine in full bearing is -considered proper. Summer pruning is only practiced in some of the -vineyards where the ground is quite wet. The most profitable vineyards -were irrigated. The nearer the coast the more moisture there is in the -soil. Thus three miles west of Santa Ana the ground is always moist -enough to grow grapes, but as we come nearer the foothills to the east, -the moisture is farther down. At Tustin, Orange, and especially at -McPherson, irrigation was practiced in all first-class vineyards. Some -were irrigated in the winter only, and this was considered the best; -others again were irrigated also once in summer,--a practice the best -vineyardmen considered unnecessary and even injurious. I found land near -the town of Santa Ana moist one inch below the surface, where no -irrigation had even been practiced. Sulphuring was used everywhere to -counteract the oidium. For this purpose powdered sulphur was dusted -through the vines as soon as the grapes were as large as small shot. -From three to four sulphurings were used every year with a week between -each. Sulphuring for the colure or dropping of grapes was not known; in -fact I am informed that this colure was seldom known. Besides mildew, -there are few enemies to the vine here. Grasshoppers, leaf-hoppers and -grape moths have never been known to molest the vines. When the late -vine-plague struck the country the vineyardists were entirely unused to -fight any enemy of the vines besides the oidium. Sunscald of the berries -was not known. - - -_The Crop and its Curing._--The grapes begin to ripen in the end of -August, say about the twenty-fifth, on the gravelly soil, but on the -cooler and richer bottom land very much later, or about the middle of -September. The harvest then begins; the grapes are picked on trays two -and a half by three feet and placed to dry in the sun; the drying takes -two or three weeks or more, and is accomplished with some difficulty. -Two years the grapes had to be carried out to the Mojave desert, to be -dried there. The trays are placed among the vines in such a way that the -trays from three rows are placed in one. To protect them from the fog -and dew, they are covered with canvas. This is done in two ways. One way -is to put small pegs on one side of the trays. The long canvas is -furnished at intervals with rings, which are slipped over the pegs and -thus held steady on one side. In the daytime the other end of the canvas -is simply thrown back over the pegs; in the night-time the canvas is -again turned over the trays, resting directly on the grapes. The other -and better way is to run three wires along the row of trays, one on each -side of the trays. The canvas is furnished with rings on each long side, -which are made to run on the wire. The center wire is run a little -higher up, and here and there simply supported by posts. It takes -comparatively little time every evening to run the canvas along the -wires and cover the trays. The expense is considerable, both in -furnishing and preparing the canvas, and in maintaining and operating -it. The peculiar climatic conditions of the district, however, -necessitate some such contrivance for the drying of the grapes. The -vines seldom bear a second crop of any importance. Sometimes in October -the district is visited by a warm and dry desert wind called the Santa -Ana wind. It comes from the cañon of the Santa Ana river, and -originates, no doubt, in the Mojave desert, and rising high up in the -air is again precipitated over the hills on the lowlands towards the -ocean. This Santa Ana wind is always welcome. It hastens the drying of -the grapes just as the _Terral_ or land winds from the plains of La -Mancha hasten the drying of the grapes of Malaga in Spain. - - -_Yield and Profits._--The yield is quite small on the gravelly soil, at -the most being three tons of green grapes to the acre, on richer land -from six to seven tons, and in rare instances ten tons to the acre. I -heard of one vineyard where the owner had sold from twenty acres of -Muscatels thirty-three tons of raisins and fifty-six tons of green -grapes, equal to about 155 tons from the lot. Another lot of three-year -Muscatels bore ten tons to the acre,--indeed a very unusual yield -anywhere for Muscatels. I hear reports of some wonderful yields and high -profits, but am informed by the most experienced and trustworthy that -$125 per acre is an average profit which can be relied upon year after -year. The first Muscat vines were planted near Orange, now the station -of McPherson, about 1873, by McPherson Bros. The acreage in grapevines -in the Orange county district was about 8,000 acres; but probably over -half of it is wine grapes. The highest output of raisins was 170,000 -boxes of twenty-pounds each. - - -SAN DIEGO AND EL CAJON. - - -_Location and Acreage._--The El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys are the -raisin centers of San Diego county. The former contains about four -thousand acres of Muscat vines, the latter about five hundred acres. -Magnificent-looking Muscat grapes are also grown within three miles of -San Diego. Escondido is by many pronounced superior for raisin grapes to -any of the other places; but El Cajon is the present center of the -raisin industry, and is likely to remain so for years. The -raisin-growing section of the two valleys lies from about fifteen to -seventeen miles from the coast line, and at an altitude of from 450 to -500 feet. The arable land in El Cajon valley contains 50,000 acres, or -perhaps less, and consists of the rolling bottom of the valley, but -which can in no way be classed as bottom land. The land partakes more -of the characteristics of mesa or upland, and extends on all sides, -slightly undulating upon the sides of the hills. Lower hills and behind -them, again, higher hills surround the valley, and the high peaks beyond -the Cuyamaca Mountains reach 4,500 feet or more. None of these hills or -mountains in sight are covered with timber of any kind, and even the -valleys are without the usual sycamores. Only in the very narrow bottom -of the creek is there a vegetation of willows and shrubbery. - - -_Climate and Rainfall._--The rainfall of the valley varies considerably. -It has been known to be as little as six inches and as much as twenty, -the average probably being about twelve inches, distributed as generally -elsewhere in California,--during the winter months. In summer time it -seldom rains,--perhaps a shower in two or three years. September is the -warmest month, or at least the month with the greatest number of warm -days. The highest temperature reached in the shade in El Cajon is 105 -degrees Fahrenheit, and in Sweetwater valley 108, and the coldest in the -winter twenty-four degrees Fahrenheit on the upper mesa land, while on -the lower land, close to the river, the temperature falls low enough to -kill orange trees, probably somewhere about eighteen degrees Fahrenheit. -September is freer from fog than any other month. During the other -summer months there is fog in the morning two days out of three. The -fog, however, is warm and pleasant to all but consumptives, but, -nevertheless, leaves behind a soaking dew on all vegetation, and is even -heavy enough to moisten the dust on the roads. The moisture on this mesa -land--by which is meant all the land between the hills, which are too -steep to be plowed, and the actual river bottom lands--is near the -surface. In the El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, the water is found on -this mesa at from eight to twenty feet, or at an average of from twelve -to fifteen feet. On little hills or knobs in the valley the water is -found at about the same depth. It is strange that with the water so near -the surface no perennial vegetation of either shrubbery or trees should -be found on this land. The grapevines will grow on it without -irrigation; in fact none is used anywhere now, but no doubt it would -prove profitable to irrigate somewhat, so as to increase the crops of -grapes. Water can be had through the Cuyamaca flume, but has so far not -been used. The vines do not grow after August 1st, and may stop growing -sooner. - - -_Soils._--The soils of the district are of four kinds: First, reddish -clay mixed with gravel, the color changing between light chocolate and -deep reddish. This soil is considered by many the most desirable. -Second, a steel or slate gray adobe with much gravel of a coarse nature. -Third, black adobe with little gravel. Fourth, alluvial sandy soil, -apparently consisting of decomposed granite mixed with much vegetable -matter. This soil is coarse, of a dark steel-gray color, very easily -worked; it is considered the best for raisins, but it contains streaks -where they will not grow and prove profitable. The last-named soil goes -gradually over into common alluvial soil of a sandy nature. The two -last-named soils are found principally in the Sweetwater valley. - - -_The Vines and the Vineyard._--In planting, cuttings are generally used, -not because they are most preferred, but because good rooted vines -cannot be obtained. The distance to, and the difficulty of reaching, -this district was formerly such that roots would suffer in transit and -would rapidly dry, while cuttings could be had handy and fresh. The -vines, originally planted eight by eight feet, have been given more -distance of late, some vineyardists planting them eight by twelve feet, -while others prefer twelve by twelve or ten by twelve feet. The -varieties used are the Muscat of Alexandria only. This variety happened -to be the one that was imported first from Riverside, I believe, and it -was afterwards propagated by every one. The variety as grown in El Cajon -is the type of Muscat of Alexandria with oblong berries, large clusters -with loosely hanging berries and large strong stems. The shape of the -vines is erect, with a few center shoots, strong and upright. The vines -commence bearing the second year, and are said to pay expenses of caring -for in the third year, but I think it would be safer to say in the -fourth year. - -As regards cultivation and plowing, many plow both ways and harrow and -cultivate crosswise several times until the 1st of June, when, on -account of the dryness of the soil, no more weeds start and no -cultivation of any kind is needed. The large majority of the vineyards -are splendidly kept, not a weed being seen anywhere for miles around. -Winter pruning commences as soon as the leaves fall. In former years -from five to nine spurs were left in pruning and two or three eyes on -each spur, but it has been found profitable and judicious to leave more -spurs, so as to take the sap in the spring, and now from twelve to -fifteen spurs with two or three eyes each are left every winter. Spring -or summer pruning has only been practiced the last two seasons, and -being found very profitable is now adopted by everybody. The vines are -not pinched, but headed well back as soon as the grapes are well set. -This method has in this district the following advantages: It gives -better shade to the bunches on account of the production of a strong -second growth; it causes the bunches to fill better, and, finally, it -leaves more room between the rows of the vines. I was told that any of -these three advantages would warrant the system of summer pruning to be -generally adopted. The valley has been unusually free from any insect -pest, such as leaf-hoppers (_Erythroneura comes_) caterpillars, -grasshoppers, etc., but suffers from mildew, not, however, to the extent -that the presence of almost daily fogs would lead us to suppose. -Sulphuring is now practiced to some extent, but not as much as it should -be. The sulphur is applied with bellows as soon as the berries are the -size of shot, but not before. Sulphuring for colure, or the dropping of -the grapes when very small, is not practiced, nor was it ever suspected -that it would help. Colure is quite common, much more so on sandy soil. -Sunscald is frequent but not bad. I saw quite a number of grapes scalded -on every vine, but not enough to warrant any special measures to be -taken as a protection. The grapes have during this and last year ripened -by the first days of September, but it is generally much later, or at -about the 10th of September, when the vintage usually commences. The -picking was, until last year, done by white labor, but the same was so -very difficult to obtain that Chinese were then employed. They gave -satisfaction to some, while to others not. Some of the principal growers -are this year (1889) going to employ Chinese help at $1.25 per day, at -which price they board themselves. - - -_The Crop._--The grapes are dried on redwood trays made of sawed redwood -shingles, three-eighths of an inch thick. The trays are made two by -three feet. The best growers are this year going to assort the grapes -when putting them on the trays. This was never done before, but will be -of great advantage. A tray will average eighteen pounds of fresh grapes, -which will take about one month to dry,--never less than three weeks. -There is but little second crop, generally none that can be saved. -September is the warmest month, or else the grapes could not be dried. -At a temperature of 103 degrees Fahrenheit, it was found that grapes -scalded or cooked while on the trays. This is, however, very rarely the -case. From ninety-five to one hundred degrees is considered the best -temperature at which the best raisins are made. The sweatboxes used -formerly were two by three feet and ten inches deep; but of late eight -inches and six inches in depth is considered the best, on account of the -facility with which they can be handled. As to packing, many advocate -twenty-pound boxes, that are only four and one-half inches deep, -contending that they will hold twenty pounds of loose raisins. Few -Dehesas are put up, the general brands being three crown London layers, -and three crown loose Muscats. Some are also put up in fancy paper -boxes. This year the valley has two packing companies, who buy raisins -in sweatboxes, and pay from four to five and a half cents per pound. The -yield per acre is from two to three tons of green grapes, I should say -this year nearer two than three tons. I saw, however, some that would -average five tons per acre, but this land was favorably situated in a -moister place than is generally found in Sweetwater valley, and the -vines were yet growing on August 21st. I heard of much greater yields, -so extraordinary indeed that they are not likely to return again. From -five to seven tons to the acre is a really rare yield, even on the best -land, where the water is within six or seven feet of the surface. This -shows me conclusively that judicious irrigation would materially -increase the crop, and greatly improve the uniform size of the berries. -The profit on an acre of bearing Muscat vines is from fifty to one -hundred and twenty-five dollars per acre. The latter is the most any one -realized, and thirty-five dollars is considered a good profit. The -expense of running a vineyard is hard to ascertain, but those best -informed told me that forty dollars per acre would be an average; this -of course includes everything. The small amount of weeds and the absence -of irrigation materially lessens the expenses of the El Cajon vineyards. - -Good vineyard or raisin land can be had for seventy-five dollars per -acre. No vineyards in bearing have changed hands. Last year’s (1888) -pack of the whole of San Diego county was variously estimated at from -twenty to thirty thousand boxes, and this year at sixty thousand boxes -of twenty pounds each. - -The unanimous verdict of the best growers in El Cajon is that want of -moisture is the greatest drawback to raisin culture there. And I agree -with them in this, but also think it might to some extent be remedied, -as water for irrigation is close at hand. At last I must say a few words -as to the quality of the El Cajon and Sweetwater valley raisins. They -are very sweet, highly flavored, the skin is thin, and the seeds are -small and few. But while some of the berries are of very large size, -there are comparatively few which would be considered large, and even -the best bunches have too many small berries. The grapes that had plenty -of water were simply magnificent, and a general irrigation system would -greatly improve the size of the grapes, as well as the quality of the -crop. The best selected raisins from this valley must be counted as -among the very best. The constant fog injures the bloom on the raisins -to some extent, and most raisins that I saw were in this respect -deficient; but their color generally was very good. The Sweetwater -valley raisins are in this respect finer than those of El Cajon; they -are also farther inland, and have less fog. The Escondido raisins are -said to be superior, but I saw none of them. While many vines have been -planted in this locality of late, only one or two small vineyards are in -bearing. - - -OTHER RAISIN DISTRICTS. - -Of late raisin grapes have been planted in considerable quantities in -Salt river valley and in Gila river valley in Arizona, but the outcome -of the venture is yet unknown, at least to us. The growers of Arizona -claim for their localities the advantage of great earliness, as the -grapes ripen there in July, or a month earlier than in California. - -In the Argentine Republic in South America it is said that the Spanish -immigrants have planted many raisin grapes during the last few years. In -Australia we are also informed that dipped raisins, and perhaps even -sun-dried ones, have been produced, but even there the result is unknown -to us. So far these raisins have cut no figure in the general market, -but it is not improbable that many localities in those vast countries -will be found where Muscat grapes can be profitably grown and cured. - - - - -CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, SOILS, LOCATION AND IRRIGATION. - - -CLIMATIC CONDITIONS FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE TO THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. - - -_Limits of the Raisin Districts._--It is an interesting fact, and by no -means a coincidence, that the raisin districts of the world are found on -or between the same latitudes. Thus we find the California districts -between latitudes 32°, 75´ and 38°, 75´. The latitude of Smyrna is 38°, -28´, 7´´, that of Malaga in Spain 36°, 75´, Valencia 39°, 25´, Denia -38°, 50´, the Grecian Islands and Morea 37° and 38°, and finally Huasco -in Chile 28° south latitude. That the latter place is situated so much -farther south or so much nearer the equator cannot exactly be considered -exceptional, as it conforms with the general characteristics of the -Southern hemispheres as compared with those on the northern half of the -globe. In Europe the Muscat grape for raisin purposes is not a success -north of the fortieth degree of latitude. While the limits in California -and Chile are not yet fully ascertained, it may be presumed that, as far -as regards this country, these limits will not differ very much from -those of Spain and Asia Minor. Only years if not centuries of experience -will finally decide where and where not raisin grapes can be grown and -cured to perfection. While the vines and the grapes can be grown in many -places, the proper curing of the raisins is attended with more or less -difficulty in the various districts. With proper modes of curing the -grapes, and by protecting them from the inclemencies of the weather, the -limits of the successful raisin districts may be extended considerably -both north and south. - - -_Dry Seasons, Spring and Fall Rains._--The climate of the Mediterranean -basin, as well as of the raisin districts of the New World, present the -peculiarity of having only two distinct seasons, one dry and warm, and -one cold and wet. There are other parts of the world also characterized -by a dry and a wet season, for instance Mexico and Central America, -etc., but they differ in the important point, that whereas the climate -of the raisin districts is dry during the growing or summer season, -Mexico has then its greatest rainfall. While grape-growing may not be -impossible under such circumstances, the curing and drying of raisins is -impossible, except with the aid of costly and burdensome appliances, the -expense of which will very much increase the cost of producing the -raisins. The climate of the raisin centers is by no means uniform. As a -rule, the farther north we go the less is the distinction between the -dry and the wet season, the shorter is the former and the longer the -season of rain. Experience shows that the less this distinction between -the seasons is marked, and the shorter the rainless season, the less -favorable is the climate for the raisin industry. The longer the dry -season, and the less rain during the same, the more favorable is the -locality for raisin drying and curing, supposing, of course, other -necessary conditions are not absent. This absence of summer rains and -cold fog is the most important climatic condition, and the one that more -than any other decides upon the advantages of any certain locality for -the industry under our consideration. A perusal of the reports from the -different raisin districts will convince us of this. For California we -need not refer to any special reports, as the newspapers are full of -them every year from May to November, and it will suffice to state that -any large amount of rain after the beginning of June, and especially in -September, October and November, when the raisins are curing, is -considered very detrimental, and sure to cause much loss. Heavy and -continued rainfall during the drying season would not only injure the -raisins, but might even totally ruin the crop. Any district where year -after year such showers occur, would not be considered favorable for the -raisin industry, and would no doubt be given up to something else. To -show that these same conditions also exist in the Mediterranean raisin -districts, we will here quote a few extracts from the United States -consular reports from there. Consul W. E. Stevens, United States consul -at Smyrna, writes:[5] “It happens occasionally that rain falls during -the vintage time, causing heavy loss to growers through the inevitable -deterioration in quality. This was the case last season (1883), and -large quantities of raisins were in consequence shipped to France to be -made into spirits.” From Valencia another consul writes: “In the event -of wet and damp weather, the hurdles (or grape mats) are piled up in -sheds covered with mats or painted canvas. Of course in this case the -drying is retarded, the quality of the fruit deteriorates, and the -expense and labor of curing are considerably increased.” Two years ago -ten thousand tons were thus damaged in the Denia district. While the -Mediterranean districts are comparatively rainless during the summer -time, still they are far less so than California. The rainy and dry -seasons there are less distinct than with us. - - [5] Consular Reports, No. 41½, June, 1884, page 745. - -Among the Grecian Islands, the production of currants is confined to -only a few localities, principally on account of the untimely rainfall -on the other islands. Dr. Davy (_Ionian Islands_, page 320) tells us: -“The attempts to extend the culture of the currant to some other islands -have been only partial, and attended with doubtful success. This, it is -to be understood, is not owing, as has been asserted, to any unfitness -of the soil on other islands, as it is analogous on them all, but rather -to some difference of climate, especially about the times of ripening, -gathering and drying of the fruit, consisting in greater liability to -rain, a heavy fall of which is ruinous to the crop, and which, during -the period of gathering in the currant islands, is considered a great -calamity.” But even in Zante and Cephalonia in Greece, the crop is -sometimes greatly injured on account of rain. Thus in 1857 a crop of -fifty thousand tons was expected, but disastrous rains in August injured -the raisin grapes to such an extent that seventeen thousand tons were -totally destroyed, and twelve thousand tons became unfit for anything -else than distilling. Malaga in Spain, which of all the districts most -resembles California, has undergone similar experiences, both damaging -and ruinous. - -It is thus that the fall rains are everywhere feared the most, the more -so where they may be expected with regularity, and where the district is -so situated that the heat of the sun is not powerful enough to rapidly -dry the injured crop. Thus in Valencia the rains are feared more than at -Malaga. In the latter place the sun is powerful enough to dry the -raisins, and only repeated showers would injure the crop. Our experience -is very much the same, and the early fall rains in the northern part of -the State are to be feared much more than rains at the same time farther -south, where a few showers would soon be succeeded by warm weather, and -a hot sun powerful enough to dry the partially cured grapes. On account -of local conditions, certain parts of Central California are freer from -these fall rains than the more southern districts, but this disadvantage -is counteracted by the greater amount of warm weather and drying winds -just at a time when they are most needed. But while the southern part of -the State is in this respect not as favorably situated as some other -parts, the disadvantage is greatly counteracted by the warmer and drier -fall weather in October and November, and by drying winds which are -often able to desiccate the moistened raisins in a very few days. - -Spring rains in May or even in the early part of June cannot be -considered greatly detrimental to the vines. On the contrary, if only -occurring at long intervals, one or two showers say during the season, -they are rather beneficial than otherwise. In California I have never -known them to injure the crop, except if accompanied by heavy hail. Much -alarm is regularly felt every time such a shower happens to come, but -after it is well over it will generally be found that the vines look -fresher and better, the ozone and ammonia which was brought down by the -rain having acted as powerful fertilizers for the grape-leaves, and -increased their vigor and growth. The only thing that might prove -injurious at this or any other time of the growing season would be -continued cloudy weather before or after such showers, which would cause -mildew. Such weather has to my knowledge never been experienced. -Occasionally spring rains also bring frost, and this of course is one of -the greatest enemies of the raisin-vines. - - -_Winter Rains._--In order that the raisin grapes may develop and mature -without the aid of irrigation, the winter rains should be sufficient to -keep the soil moist during the dry months. The absolute quantity of rain -thus necessary varies in different localities. In California, generally, -we would say that from twenty to twenty-four inches of rain would be -required every year to keep the soil sufficiently moist to grow Muscatel -grapes without irrigation. The nearer we go to the coast the less -rainfall is required to supply this moisture, and the farther we go -inland, the more elevated the land, the less rain is needed. Thus a -regular rainfall of twenty-four inches would possibly not suffice on the -low plains of the San Joaquin valley, while in El Cajon in San Diego -county one-half of this rainfall is enough to grow the vines and mature -small crops of very good and superior grapes. - -It matters not from where the moisture comes,--from rain, seepage, moist -air or irrigation,--as long as it is not present in excess nor too -scant. In El Cajon valley the moisture appears to be held in suspense in -impervious strata, or perhaps in strata which contain and preserve the -moisture as does a sponge. In parts of Chile, as well as in Malaga and -Smyrna, the winter rainfall is sufficient to grow crops of fair size and -good quality, but it is almost certain that judicious irrigation in any -of these places proves beneficial and remunerative. Of all the present -raisin districts, Smyrna enjoys the greatest rainfall, often as much as -thirty odd inches of rain. Of localities which grow raisins profitably -with the least possible amount of rain, and without irrigation, Huasco -and El Cajon take the lead. In Central California, as well as in San -Bernardino county, no raisin culture would be possible with the natural -rainfall. In foreign countries, Valencia and the Grecian Islands, as -well as Morea, are similarly situated in not having sufficient rainfall -to produce paying crops. - -As a rule it may be said that, where the rainfall is sufficient to grow -the Muscats without irrigation and cause them to bear good crops, the -fall rains are also too frequent and too injurious to the drying grapes -to allow a profitable raisin cult. The proper amount of moisture -necessary to perfect the grapes cannot be ascertained by the aid of the -rain gauge. While, as we have said, from twenty to thirty inches may be -enough in Smyrna, from seven to ten inches suffice in El Cajon, and in -Chile even less is required. The proper amount of moisture can best be -told by the state of growth of the vines. The vines must have moisture -enough to be kept growing up to the very time of the maturity of the -grapes. The proper sign of this is the green and fresh color of the -young shoots or the tips, combined with a certain vigor of the tendrils. -When the tips cease to grow, and the tendrils begin to dry up, then the -moisture has begun to give out, and irrigation should have been resorted -to; the winter rains were not sufficient. - - -_Frosts in Spring and Winter._--One of the frequent effects of spring -showers is spring frosts. They are always injurious to the tender Muscat -vine, and if occurring more than once during the same spring may -entirely ruin the crop. In California such frosts occur sometimes in -April, and observations inform us that they are most to be feared -between the tenth and fifteenth of that month, while sometimes they come -even later. The young buds are then either opening or fully developed -into shoots, which the lightest frost will blacken and cause to dry up. -Where the vines are irrigated and strong, one such frost may not ruin -the crop, as new buds will start out in place of the old ones destroyed, -and new shoots and new blossoms will come out. I have seen as many as -three such crops of shoots develop from the winter buds, but each -succeeding crop of such shoots is weaker than the preceding one, and -bears less and later grapes. Happily, these frosts occur but very seldom -in the Central and Southern California raisin districts, and during -fifteen years of observation I have seen only three such frost years in -which the branches were partially injured. In neither of these seasons -was the crop materially injured as to quantity, the principal effect of -the frost being a retarding of the crop for a week or more. Smoking of -vineyards can only be successfully carried out in small valleys -sheltered from heavy winds, but on the open plains such smoking is -accompanied with difficulties, and its effect is uncertain. The growing -of a limited number of windbreaks has in the Fresno district no doubt -modified the climate, and made spring frosts rarer and less to be -feared. - -While the spring frosts are injurious to the grapes, winter frosts are -on the other hand most beneficial, if not necessary to a continued -raisin cult. The raisin grape must have a season of recuperation, and -winter frost is the only climatic phenomenon which, without injury to -the vine, can procure it that rest which is so necessary for all -deciduous trees, by nature destined to enjoy alternate periods of growth -and sleep. The absence of frost causes the sap of the vine to circulate -more or less in the wood, and the vine never ceases to grow. This is one -of the reasons why our deciduous vines do not succeed well in the -tropics, where there are no cold seasons to cause the leaves to fall and -the sap to become dormant. In the tropics, therefore, our deciduous -vines keep on growing, set little or no fruit, and prove unprofitable. -This phenomenon is shared there with other trees, and peaches, pears and -apples act in the same manner. They all appear to need the rest afforded -them by the winter frosts. It is also a question of very great -importance, whether the continued and unnatural activity of the vine, at -a time when it should be dormant, does not invite diseases of various -kinds, which find the exhausted vines unfit to withstand their ravages. -It may be possible that _mal nero_, the vine plague and other similar -and as yet insufficiently understood diseases, are especially -destructive to vines growing in frost-free climates, while in colder -climates they make but little headway, the vines as it were being -protected by the heavy frosts, which either kill the enemies of the vine -or enable the latter to gather the necessary strength to battle with -them through the growing season. There can be little doubt that at -present the healthiest vineyards are those growing in countries where -winter frosts are severe, but on the other hand we know that grapevines -have been growing for ages in temperate climates, where the frosts, even -if not entirely unknown, are still of very rare occurrence. - - -_Summer Temperature_.--The temperature in summer time must be sufficient -to properly ripen the grapes, but must not be so great as to injure them -either while they hang on the vines, or while they are exposed to dry on -the trays. The average heat required to do the work of maturing is not -exactly known, but it is certain that a very high degree is not -absolutely needed to produce sweet grapes. As far as our experience -goes, it seems that cool weather, with the average temperature of ninety -degrees Fahrenheit, would be most beneficial in the fore part of the -season, while when the grapes begin to ripen a greater heat is -desirable. It is not the warmest countries nor the warmest seasons which -produce the earliest grapes. Thus while the season of 1888 was in -California unusually cool, with the thermometer seldom reaching one -hundred degrees in June and July, the raisin season was nevertheless a -very early one, and much earlier than seasons remarkable for their early -high temperature. In Malaga and Smyrna, the heat seldom reaches one -hundred degrees, and the grapes ripen several weeks earlier than in -Fresno, where the summer temperature averages ten degrees higher. In -Fresno, on the contrary, the season is earlier than in Southern -California, where probably the seabreezes retard the ripening of the -grapes. A temperature of over one hundred and five degrees proves -injurious to unprotected or exposed grapes in the central region of -California, but in San Diego county several degrees less is sufficient -to scald the grapes or give them a cooked flavor if they are already -exposed on the trays to dry. It is certain that with an average highest -temperature of ninety degrees, the grapes develop better and become -larger and sweeter than where the heat is excessive and reaches one -hundred and ten degrees or more.[6] - - [6] Whenever the temperature is referred to it means the degree of - heat (Fahrenheit) in the shade, and not in the sun except when so - expressly stated. - -The time when the greatest temperature occurs is of practical -importance. Excessive heat can be tolerated by grapes protected by -leaves and branches or otherwise sheltered, but if it happens at a time -when the bunches are exposed to dry on the trays, the injury to the -berries will be great or even ruinous. Early localities are especially -apt to suffer in this way, and it is well to experiment before too much -confidence is placed in very early regions. To such places, however, -there remains the possibility of curing the raisins in partial shade, as -is done in Chile, thus producing raisins of an entirely different type -from the Malaga or California product. - - -_Winds, Injurious or Beneficial._--In the California raisin districts -hot, electrical winds are much feared in the months of June and July, or -before the grapes have begun to ripen. In the San Joaquin valley these -winds come from the northwest and sweep down over the vines, often -scorching the leaves and frequently drying the berries on the exposed -side. In the course of a few days the berries dry up entirely, and the -whole bunch is lost. These drying winds are not peculiar to any certain -part of California, but occur from time to time in every raisin district -on the coast, in the south as well as in the center, on the coast as -well as inland. The remedy is to grow the vines low and to keep the -berries well covered. The planting of windbreaks will also modify these -winds, and in places where they formerly were common they have now -entirely ceased or become so modified that they cause no injury to the -grapes, but prove even beneficial on account of the quicker and better -maturing of the fruit. In certain districts, especially in San -Bernardino and in Orange, some very drying winds are experienced late in -the season,--in September and October. For the raisin-growers these -winds are a blessing. They quickly dry the exposed grapes, which have -been retarded in drying, or perhaps even injured by a previous shower of -rain or by continued heavy dews. These winds are undoubtedly desert -winds, and similar to the Terral of Malaga, which, sweeping over the -inland plains of La Mancha, reach the coast vineyards and quickly mature -the grapes. In Malaga there is also a moist southern wind, the Levante, -which retards the ripening and the curing of the grapes, and which must -be considered as our southwesterly fall winds, which, saturated with -moisture, swell the overdried raisins as well as prevent the yet green -grapes from drying. They are precursors of the rainy season, and warn -the grower to prepare his dryer if he possess one. In Greece and Smyrna -such hot or moist winds are also known and feared, and cause at times -much damage in one way or another. We might here also mention the cold -“northers” which are common in the California raisin districts in -springtime, and which sometimes both cause the young shoots to break off -from the old wood and make it easy for the mildew to attack the flowers -or the young berries of the vines. Against these northwest winds we have -two remedies, summer pruning and sulphuring, which, if applied in time, -are both quite effective. - - -_Fogs and Moisture in the Air._--It is certain that the air in the -California raisin districts is much drier than that of the Spanish or -Mediterranean districts generally. The night air is, in these districts, -loaded with moisture, and dew is heavy and frequent, even in the middle -of the summer. The air in Malaga and Smyrna feels quite moist, and -without this moisture in the air the vines would grow less and require -irrigation. In these places the raisin grapes grow on the steep -hillsides without irrigation, but in California this could not be done -anywhere except in El Cajon or in other parts of the San Diego district, -where the air is considerably moister than elsewhere. This increased -moisture is partly caused by the increased rainfall in these districts, -and partly by their nearness to the sea and fogs. This moisture in the -air will, when other conditions are equal, greatly benefit the grapes, -causing them to grow larger, and the thickness of the skin is materially -diminished. Combined with this moisture in the air, fogs are injurious -or indifferent. There is always a great difference between warm fogs and -cold fogs, and now I speak principally of fogs from the ocean. Warm fogs -are not particularly injurious to the grapes, generally indifferent and -sometimes even considerable of a benefit to the proper development of -the grapes. In Malaga, San Diego and in Chile the Muscat grapes grow and -thrive actually within the reach of the spray of the waves, and fogs are -there not uncommon, but they are warm. It would seem that such a climate -would cause mildew or oidium, but I cannot find that these fungi are -particularly frequent in San Diego county, while in Malaga they are but -little more common than in the inland districts of our State. But as we -go north the cold fogs become more common, and the vines thrive less -under their influence. North of Los Angeles county the Muscat vines do -not enjoy the coast air, while even in Orange county the interior -vineyards are preferred to those closer to the coast. But anywhere, even -in the best situated districts, protection from the direct influence of -the sea fogs is appreciated, and the best localities are those in which -low hills afford this protection by modifying and increasing the -temperature of the fog or sea air. - -In Central, and in the larger part of Southern, California, the inland -valleys are the most successful raisin-producing districts, while even -in San Diego county, where the Muscats seem to thrive at the very -seashore, the interior valleys alone afford the necessary heat and dry -air for curing the grapes and transforming them into raisins. According -to Consul G. H. Heap of Constantinople, the positions preferred for -vineyards in Turkey are the slopes of elevated and sheltered undulating -lands, or on the sunny hills that do not lie too near the coast, or are -naturally protected from the cold winds and fogs of the sea. The Island -of Cos or Zea is called the paradise of the Sultana grape, because -Nature has given the cultivable land there the best possible protection -from the direct influence of the fogs. In Malaga, according to Consul -Marston, eighty per cent of the vineyards are situated on the hills and -inland, ten per cent on the valley lands or plains, and ten per cent on -the coast. With the exception of some of the San Diego vineyards, -California cannot show any raisin vineyards as close to the coast as -those found in Malaga. The main El Cajon vineyards are from ten to -fifteen miles inland, while the former Santa Ana vineyards were situated -from eight to twelve miles from the coast. The San Bernardino raisin -vineyards are from twenty to thirty miles inland, while in the San -Joaquin valley the raisin districts are more than a hundred miles from -the coast, while the sea wind, before it reaches any of the vines, has -been modified by passing over from two to three hundred miles of dry -country. - - -_Ideal Conditions of Climate._--There remains only to draw some -conclusions from the above facts. We are often asked what are the ideal -conditions, as far as climate is concerned, for the proper development -of the raisin grape, and for the proper curing of the raisins. Could we -select such an ideal spot, where all the requirements for the raisin -industry could be found in their highest perfection, with as few of the -drawbacks as possible, our choice would be as follows: A moderately dry -air, a frostless spring, a rainy winter and a rainless autumn. The -temperature in the summer should vary between ninety and one hundred -degrees, the fall months should now and then be visited by drying winds, -while the winter frosts should be heavy and regular, but not below -twelve degrees. Some have suggested that absolute freedom from any rain -would be very desirable, as then no interference would be experienced -with the cultivation of the grapes, but I doubt if the soil in such -districts would not be rapidly exhausted through the want of weeds, the -plowing under of which enriches the ground and enables it better to -preserve the moisture provided for it by irrigation. - - -SOILS. - - -_General Remarks._--No one certain variety of soil can be said to be the -best for raisin purposes, and both in different countries, as well as in -the same district, various varieties of soils are valued equally. Every -raisin district has, however, its favorite soil, which is supposed to -have some peculiar advantages for the raisin grapes, but upon closer -investigation we generally find other varieties of soils which are not -inferior. Growers who have succeeded with raisin grapes on one variety -of soil are only too apt to consider this kind preferable to any other. -This is especially the case in California, where soils vary so much and -where in some districts it is difficult to find forty acres with a -uniform soil. Whether the soil is black, red or gray, it makes but very -little difference, as long as it is rich and susceptible of the highest -state of cultivation and has the faculty of retaining moisture. The -deeper and richer the soil the better the Muscatel grape will thrive and -produce, and as such soils are most generally found along the banks of -creeks and rivers, or in their bottoms and sinks, we might conclude that -in such localities the best soils for the Muscat grape may be found. -Other varieties of raisin grapes, such as the Malaga (California) and -the Sultana, do well in less rich soil; indeed, they bear profitably in -places where the Muscat would be a failure. It is therefore important -for every vineyardist to carefully select his soil and then plant on it -the proper variety of vine. - - -_Malaga._--The soils of Malaga are of various kinds. The best is a -reddish loam containing much gravel, both coarse and fine. This soil is -very stiff and hard, and when dry is as solid as a brick. The red color -is derived from oxide of iron or other iron compounds, which many of the -best vineyardists consider a most desirable element in any raisin soil. -The upland vineyards, or those on the slope of the hills, contain soils -of decomposed clay and slate mixed with more or less gravel and sand. -The Dehesa lands contain alluvial deposits of a black or gray color. - - -_Valencia and Denia._--In this district we find soils of many different -grades and colors. The sandy and gravelly soils are considered as -producing the finest flavored raisins, and those having the best keeping -qualities, while the rich, loamy soils of the valleys produce raisins of -inferior flavor and keeping qualities, but of larger size and more per -acre. For economical reasons, the latter soils are preferred, as they -alone can be irrigated and made to produce large crops. Some of the best -vineyards in this district contain a gray, ashy soil, quite similar to -the white ash of the Kings river lands, while others are growing on a -red clayey loam similar to the California red soil. - - -_Smyrna._--The raisin-grapes of Smyrna in Asia Minor are almost -exclusively grown on a white limestone soil, which consists of -decomposed white rocks mixed with a stiff ocher-colored loam. This soil -is so rocky that it must first be cleared, and the large rocks are -carried away and used for boundary walls. This is the soil in the coast -districts. In the interior the Sultana vines, as well as the Muscats, -are replaced by fig orchards and other trees which delight in sandy -soil,--too sandy to produce profitable raisin crops. - - -_Zante._--The soils of Zante, the home of the Currant grape, are of -various kinds. The heavy marl of the plains, which contains a large -percentage of gypsum or sulphate of lime, is considered the best; indeed -the gypsum is by many considered indispensable, or at least highly -beneficial, to the above variety of grape. Other soils are red clay, -gray marl and gravelly loam, all containing an abundance of lime. The -Currant grape grows well and produces well on all these different soils, -but does the best on the gypsum soil, which is therefore the most -valued. On other soils the bunches are less solid, and the quantity of -grapes produced is somewhat less, while their quality is inferior. - -[Illustration: Scene in a Fresno Raisin Vineyard: Raisin Trays Exposed -for Drying.] - - -_Chile._--The Huasco grape grows in the valley of Huasco, on the coast -of Chile, in a soil that is very light and red, containing a great -quantity of sand. While very light in weight, this soil is said to be -very rich in plant food, and yields good crops. - - -_Fresno._--The Fresno soils are of several kinds, but the three -principal varieties are red or chocolate-colored loam, white or gray -ashy soil, and a light, very sandy, loam. To this may be added the -deeper gray bottom soils or alluvial deposits of the Kings river. Each -one of these varieties have different grades more or less suitable to -the Muscatel grape. The best grades of each are equally valuable, while -again the poorer grades are not to be recommended. The deep -chocolate-colored loam is by many preferred, and the largest and most -successful raisin vineyards are now located on this soil. But even in -the best districts the soil varies to such an extent, that while one -twenty-acre field will yield 250 boxes of raisins to the acre, the -adjoining field, with only a slight change in the soil, will yield only -seventy-five boxes to the acre. The best grades of the white ashy soil -are also very good, and almost identical with the gray bottom-land -deposits of Kings river. The light sandy soil should be avoided for -Muscat grapes, but may do for Malaga and Sultanas, especially if -judiciously fertilized. - - -_Other Soils in San Joaquin Valley._--In Merced the best soil is heavy -chocolate-colored loam, in places redder, in others darker, almost -blackish. It is generally mixed with some gravel. As a rule, all the red -soil in the San Joaquin valley is of the same characteristics, and well -suited to the Muscat grape, provided the ground is sufficiently level. -In Tulare county the proper soil for the Muscat is found to be the -bottom lands of Kings and Kaweah rivers, as well as the deposits of the -smaller creeks. This variety of gray alluvial loam is exceedingly -fertile, and there is none superior for the Muscat grape. But an -admixture of alkali often spoils soils which otherwise would be -considered the very best. A similar soil is found in Kern county, -especially near Kern Lake, and which must be rated among the best in the -State, its color being a deep bluish gray. The vineyards of Yolo and -Solano counties are located on a very similar soil, rich in humus, lime -and phosphates, but more yellowish or pale chocolate colored. - - -_Orange County._--A similar rich alluvial deposit is found in Orange -county in the fertile district known as Santa Ana valley. The soil -around Anaheim, Santa Ana, Orange and Tustin consists of a more or less -dark alluvial loam of unsurpassed fertility, and especially adapted to -the Muscat grape. It varies as to the percentage of sand and gravel. The -sandiest soil in this district, while less rich, brings the earliest -grapes, which come to perfect ripeness several weeks before those grown -on the heavier soils, but the latter produce the best raisins. - - -_Redlands and Riverside._--The Redlands soil of the mesa lands is -reddish, rather darker than the same quality of soil in Riverside and -Fresno. It is mixed with sand and gravel, and partakes strongly of the -nature of the red or chocolate-colored loams of the State. The Lugonia -bottom soil consists of a very sandy loam, on which the Muscat grape -has proved a failure. The best Riverside soil is red or -chocolate-colored sandy loam, so often spoken of. Towards Rincon we find -alluvial bottom soils producing grapes of superb quality and size. The -soil of the San Bernardino district resemble the red Fresno soils, while -the white ashy soil is not found there. - - -_El Cajon._--The El Cajon valley soils are of three or more kinds: Rich -red clay mixed with gravel, with the color changing from lighter -chocolate to deeper reddish. This is a very desirable soil,--a steel -gray or slate gray adobe with much gravel of a coarse nature; a black -adobe with some gravel; an alluvial sandy loam consisting of decomposed -granite mixed with much vegetable matter and humus. The El Cajon soils, -while sandy and gravelly, produce exceedingly sweet and highly flavored -grapes but comparatively small crops. - - -_Subsoils._--The subsoil in a raisin vineyard is of great importance. -Properly irrigated soils, if they are sufficiently rich, need not -necessarily be very deep, as the raisin grapes, especially the Muscat, -seldom extend deeper than eight feet below the surface. Even from four -to five feet of rich soil may be considered as enough in irrigated -vineyards, where the water is abundant. In poorer soils, or in districts -with less irrigation, the roots of the vines penetrate much deeper, and -the importance of the subsoil in such cases is apparent. Any rich -subsoil will serve our purpose. It is always best to thoroughly -investigate the subsoil before the vineyard is planted, and in doing -this the following points must be considered: The subsoil should be as -rich as possible, and there should, in no instance, be less than four -feet of rich top soil. _Very_ sandy soil or pure sand is not a proper -subsoil for raisin grapes. Such soil will cause the top soil to dry too -quickly after each irrigation, and will cause the top soil to leach out, -while it besides gives no nourishment to the vines. Hardpan is not -desirable, not even admissible, except in places that are or will become -subirrigated. Alkali or salty subsoils will soon spoil the quality of -even the best top soil. This especially is the case in irrigated -districts, where the salts of the subsoil are carried to the top by the -rising waters or by the continued irrigation. Hardpan which readily -dissolves when wet is not injurious. - - -_Hardpan Soils._--While I have alluded to them already, a few more -remarks on these soils are here in place. The hardpan consists of a -stratum of hard soil or hard rocky substance below the top soil. The -depth at which the hardpan is found varies. In places where it is -situated eight or ten feet below the top surface it does but very little -harm, and may even prove beneficial in localities where water for -irrigation is scarce, as it checks too rapid drainage. If the hardpan is -situated closer to the top soil, it may seriously interfere with the -vines, and if too close, or say within two or three feet from the top, -it makes such soils entirely unfit for raisin grapes. If situated -somewhat lower down, say from four to six feet, the hardpan does no -great harm in subirrigated districts, while, in places where irrigation -is not used, it leaves the top soil too shallow and too dry. But -allowance must always be made as to the nature of the hardpan. Some -varieties of hardpan are so hard that they can best be compared to -regular stratified rocks, impenetrable to the roots of the vines, and -impervious to water. Other hardpans again are softer, and allow the vine -roots to penetrate more or less readily, while some again are so soft -that they dissolve in water and make good soil for the vines. If the -hardpan is very shallow, it may pay to blast holes through it, in order -to allow the roots of the vines to penetrate to lower soils. But if the -hardpan is thick and hard, and if there is no immediate prospect of -subirrigation, it is better to use such land for some other purpose than -for raisin-vines, which will only pay properly if grown under the most -favorable circumstances, and on the best and deepest soils. - -As to the nature of the hardpan, a few remarks may prove of interest. -The hardpan can best be compared to a stalactite formation similar to -those found in various caves. It has been formed very much in the same -way as they were. In caves the rainwater, that seeps down from the top -surface, dissolves various substances, especially carbonates (and -silicates even) which again are deposited on the underside of the cave -roof. This precipitation of hard material is caused both by evaporation -of the water, as well as by attraction and adhesion. Such redeposition -of dissolved minerals is seen for instance if solutions of salt in water -are passed through tasteless and clean sand. The water will come through -sweet and tasteless, the salt having adhered to the surface of the sand -grains. Similarly, if a hole is dug near the seashore in the sand, the -salt water will seep through, and form a well of more or less tasteless -drinking water. In the formation of hardpan, this is exactly what has -taken place. The rainwater has dissolved certain elements, such as -carbonates of lime, or carbonates of sodium and various other salts, and -in its way through the lower strata of the soil these dissolved elements -have again been taken up by the sand and cemented it together. Thus it -is explained why hardpan upon examination is so often found to resemble -sand or sandstone: the lower sandy strata of the soil have been -especially effective in causing the lime in the water to adhere to the -numerous surfaces of every individual grain of sand. In hog-wallow -districts the hardpan is found principally between the individual -hog-wallows, but rarely in or under them. The rainwater has here carried -the minerals in the soil to the deeper places between the hog-wallows, -in which it has accumulated to a greater extent than anywhere else, and -thus formed a heavier hardpan. In flooding the hog-wallows, the top of -every hog-wallow is seen to settle and fall in, there being no hardpan -below it, if the sides of the hog-wallow are steep. Where the hardpan -consists principally of lime compounds, its chemical composition is not -detrimental to the vines. But where the hardpan is cemented by alkalies -more or less soluble in water, these deleterious substances will -dissolve and rise to the surface to the great detriment or even to the -total destruction of the vineyard. - - -_Comparative Value of Soils._--The river bottom soils, or soils formed -by the deposit of creeks, are with few exceptions rich and deep, and -contain in abundance all the elements necessary to produce a superior -Muscat grape. Such soils are, however, often injured by subsoils -containing mineral deposits, which will injure the vines, or by -hardpans, which will cause the soil to dry out. Poor soils will not -prove profitable, and rather than plant vines on such soils it would be -better to plant no vines at all. The rich soils are not only the -heaviest producers, but the vines grown on them are stronger and -healthier and in every way better able to resist the attacks of insects -and fungi and the ravages of other inexplicable diseases. But regardless -of these advantages the various soils leave their effects on the grapes, -some of them producing sweet and very keeping raisins, while others -cause large berries and bunches, which bring the highest market price. -Thus the lighter and drier soils produce richer flavored and sweeter -raisins than the wet and rich soils, which again produce the largest and -handsomest grapes. On the latter soils the raisins when cured will be -found to be dark and covered with a heavy bloom, while the raisins from -the sandier or gravelly soils are lighter in color and with less -pronounced bloom. The keeping quality of the raisins from gravelly soils -is well known. In California the keeping quality of the raisins is -seldom inquired into, as our raisins keep remarkably well and are in -this respect superior to those grown in Spain. This may be from the -effect of our drier climate more than from any certain quality in our -soils. - -As a rule it may be said that poor soil causes the raisins to mature -earlier than the rich, heavy loams, and on this account the latter are -to be greatly preferred, as the earliest raisins in any district are -never as good as the bulk of the crop, and are in demand rather as a -curiosity, and for the purpose of supplying an early market, than -through any superior qualities. In some districts there is such a great -difference in the time of ripening upon the various soils that the -grapes grown on the earliest soils are used only as table grapes fresh. -In planting a raisin vineyard, the future profits depend upon the choice -of land, and it is far better to pay a high price for the best land than -to take the inferior land as a gift. Few of those who now enter upon -raisin culture take the proper care in selecting the land, neither do -they sufficiently, if at all, realize the advantages of the rich soil, -nor the disadvantages of the poor land. - - -_Alkali Soils._--While nothing but first-class land is to be recommended -for raisin vineyards, and alkali lands are of all soils those least -suitable for our purpose, still a consideration of these lands will -interest many raisin-grape growers. The best lands for raisin purposes -in California are often contiguous to alkali lands, or to land -containing more or less traces of alkali. A vineyard on the best soil -contains often spots charged with alkali, and it may be inconvenient for -the grower to allow these spots to lie idle, and he would prefer to fill -them up with vines. The first work must then be to get rid of the alkali -or reduce it to such an extent that it will not prove injurious. The -general alkali lands are classed in three kinds, according to the -quality of the alkali. - -1st. Alkali salts, such as carbonates and borates. These are greatly -detrimental to the vines, and no vines could be expected to do well in -such soils, as even the smallest percentage of this alkali is injurious -or even ruinous to the crop. In clayey soils these alkalies cause the -clay to harden in such a way that no good tilth can be obtained. The -land may be plowed ever so much, it will only turn up in chunks and -never become properly pulverized. These true alkali salts consist -principally of carbonate of sodium (sal-soda) or of carbonate of -potassium (saleratus). _Remedies_: Gypsum, land-plaster or leaching with -water. - -2d. A second class of alkalies are the sulphates and chlorides, all -soluble in water. Such salts are: Magnesium chloride (bittern), -magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt), calcium chloride, etc. These salts, -when not present in too large quantities, are easily counteracted by -lime. - -3d. A third class of alkalies is composed of neutral salts, such as -chloride of sodium (common salt), sulphate of sodium (Glauber salt), -sulphate of potassium, all soluble in water, but not convertible into -less injurious substances by lime or gypsum. These salts do not bake the -soil, but rather contribute towards keeping it loose and mellow. - -The remedies which are practical and not too expensive may be divided -into several classes, which, if used in combination, may prove -effective, while each one of them used separately would fail. - -1st. Leaching with water. All soluble salts may be leached with water. -The alkali land should be checked and so ditched that the water from -each check can be drained into a waste ditch. But, besides these waste -ditches, drain ditches should be made for the purpose of draining off -the water, say to a depth of four feet below the surface. The _modus -operandi_ consists in first flooding the soil, and while the check is -yet full the floodgates are opened and the water drawn off into the -waste ditch, when the water will carry off the salts which have been -dissolved in it. A second or third flooding should be allowed to settle -in the soil and be drained off below into the drain ditches. The -drawback to common leaching is that under certain circumstances the -water may deposit its alkali in lower strata, especially if they are -sandy, and there form hardpan or alkali accumulations. A much better -method is under-drainage by means of pipes or gravel drains constructed -all through the tract at certain regular distances. This under-drainage, -if properly constructed under conditions favorable for its perfect -working, is by far the best method of freeing alkali soils from their -superfluous salts. To what extent this system is practical depends upon -circumstances. To reclaim large districts by this method may not prove -economical as long as good land is plentiful and cheap, but where -smaller alkali tracts are surrounded by soil, and where it is of -importance to get a uniform plantation, under-drainage by pipes or -common drains is both the surest and most practical solution of the -alkali problem. Under-drainage is strongly recommended by Prof. E. W. -Hilgard, who has repeatedly pointed out its value, and who has called -the author’s special attention to this as yet little understood remedy. - -2d. Deep and constant plowing. Deep and frequent plowing acts in various -ways. By being mixed with a larger quantity of soil, the alkali is -diluted sufficiently to not cause any serious injury to the crops, the -damage generally being done near the surface. Constant plowing also -prevents evaporation, which carries the alkali to the surface and -deposits it there. This method can only be successful when the alkali -salts are limited in quantity, and no one need expect to be able to rid -badly charged lands from their alkali by plowing it under. - -3d. By plowing under green or dry crops. If grain can be made to grow on -the alkali land at all the turning under of it, either green or dry, -will in course of time greatly reduce the alkali. The turned-under -stubble or straw forms in decaying an acid, which in many instances will -combine with and counteract the effects of the alkali. Similarly, straw -stacks spread on alkali spots and plowed under will considerably reduce -the alkali. But manure containing ammonia and other salts should not be -used, as it will, on the contrary, only increase the alkali by adding -other or similar salts to those already in the soil. - -4th. Cropping. If water, either in the form of sufficient rain or as -irrigation can be had, alkali lands can be reclaimed by cropping. It is -amply proved that beets and carrots, as well as other plants, such as -salt-bush (_Chenopodium_), take up large quantities of alkali salts, and -in the course of a few years render alkali soils available for grain. -Wheat also extracts alkalies, and repeated croppings with grain will in -the course of time prepare the soil for vines and trees. Bermuda grass -will completely remove the alkali from soils to the depth at which the -roots can penetrate, and must be recommended for the worst places. -Afterwards, cropping with annual crops may be advisable before vines are -finally planted on such reclaimed lands. The Australian salt-bushes, or -_Chenopodium_, extract alkalies, and are besides liked by stock. They -should be introduced to alkali lands and take the place of the -California native salt-bushes, which are not eaten by stock. While being -real desert plants, they yet require some moisture in the soil, but they -could probably be grown anywhere on the alkali lands in this State where -the rainfall is over three or four inches. - -5th. By chemicals. The use of chemicals of various kinds in -counteracting the alkali is not resorted to by our farmers as it should -be. The principle upon which chemicals can be used is that obnoxious or -greatly injurious alkalies may be changed into less obnoxious and less -injurious salts, or even into fertilizers. The most available of these -chemical compounds are gypsum (sulphate of lime) and lime (carbonate of -lime). When the alkali consists mainly of carbonates, such as carbonate -of sodium (sal-soda) or potassium carbonate (saleratus), in other words -of the class which we have designated as class number one, the most -dangerous and worst class of alkalies to combat, gypsum may be used as -an antidote or rather as a means to convert these alkalies into alkalies -of the second class, or the sulphates. The principle upon which this is -done is to displace the sulphate in the gypsum and force it to combine -with the alkali (sodium carbonate) and form sulphate of sodium (Glauber -salt), an alkali belonging to the third class of alkalies, and which is -twenty times less injurious to vegetation than is class number one. The -change is made on the following principle, and might be thus -illustrated: To the alkali in the soil (carbonate of sodium), add -sulphate of lime. As soon as the mixture is made with sufficient water, -a change will take place, and the substances (carbonate of sodium and -sulphate of lime) will form new compounds. Thus we will get, out of -those two substances, two new compounds, _viz._, carbonate of lime and -sulphate of sodium. Of these, carbonate of lime is not injurious to -vegetable life, and sulphate of sodium (Glauber salt) is only injurious -when present in large quantities. The carbonate of lime is not soluble -in water, but the sulphate of sodium is, and can consequently be -eliminated by underdraining or by flooding, as we have previously -described. - -To know when gypsum can be used is not necessarily a scientific matter. -Mix some of the alkali in a tumbler with water, and allow the mixture to -settle. In another tumbler mix some gypsum and water, and allow it to -settle. Then mix the two clear liquids, which, if gypsum is an antidote -and the proper thing to use, will be turbid or milky through the -chemical combinations which take place. If the water remains clear, -gypsum will not prove an antidote to the alkali under consideration. The -use of lime is based very much on the same principle. If the second -class of alkalies are present, and lime is added, the changes that take -place may be illustrated as follows: Epsom salt (magnesium sulphate) -combined with calcium carbonate, will form two new compounds, _viz._, -gypsum (calcium sulphate) and magnesium carbonate, both of which -substances are less injurious to crops. But, as I have already stated, -raisin-vines prefer soils which are naturally free from alkali, and -should never be planted on soils which cannot readily be reclaimed. -Chemical antidotes may do where the alkali occurs in a few spots mixed -in among tracts of good soil, but where the whole field must be -reclaimed some other crop than vines had better be first attempted. -There is too much good and suitable soil in California, and until all -this is occupied the alkali soils had better be given up to other crops -than vines. - - -_Fertilizing._--To this date but few grape-growers manure their soil. -California has not yet been engaged in the raisin business twenty years, -and her vineyards are comparatively virgin. The first raisin vineyards -were planted on the deepest and richest soil, the soil which would -naturally hold out the longest, but the croppings of a raisin vineyard -are enormous, and when from eight to ten tons of green grapes have been -taken from the soil year after year, it is but natural that the land -should become gradually exhausted. In Spain it is considered that even -the richest soils require manuring after ten years of constant cropping -with Muscats, and the same experience is likely to become ours in -California. So far, I know of not one vineyard which has yielded Muscat -grapes for ten continuous years and still keeps yielding as much as -formerly. Yearly the crop must become less, and finally will not be -large enough to pay. The manuring of the Muscatel vines is fully -understood in Spain, where all kinds of manures are used. When home -manures fail in supply, the Spaniards use imported fertilizers, such as -Mexican phosphates, etc. This fertilizer brings in Spain sixty-five -dollars per ton, and is brought there from our very doors,--the Gulf of -Lower California. It could be laid down here for, and is actually sold -here now at, forty dollars per ton, or twenty-five dollars less than in -Spain; still to my knowledge only very few raisin-growers in Fresno use -it for their vines. In one year one of these succeeded, with the aid of -this phosphate, in raising the crop of an acre of Sultana grapes from a -very poor yield to over eight tons. The grapes were grown on a piece of -sandy soil of the kind well known to Fresno vine-growers, and which is -generally considered as less suited to raisins, lacking in fact in more -than one of the necessary qualities of a good raisin soil. - -It is certainly a wrong policy to crop the soil until the grape crops -begin to fail. The soil will then be so exhausted of several of its -ingredients, that it will take the most scientific treatment to bring it -back again to what it was formerly, and it is even questionable if this -could be done in a way that would prove profitable. Experience in Spain -teaches that vineyards which formerly used to yield from eight to ten -tons of green grapes to the acre now, after years of neglect, only yield -two tons to the acre, and even with expensive manuring can in no way be -brought back to their former fertility. On the other hand, we know that -vineyards which have been fertilized from the beginning have for fifty -years been kept up in apparently as good condition as at first; it is -accordingly this method that must be recommended. The manure or -fertilizer must be varied occasionally. In rotation, phosphates, bone -dust, guano, stable manure, sheep manure, lime and plaster of Paris or -gypsum may be used, but it is best to have every variety of soil in the -vineyard analyzed, and to apply from year to year that kind of -fertilizer which is particularly needed. The phosphates are those which -will first give out in our California soils. Phosphates must therefore -be considered as the best fertilizers we can use, but the quantity to be -used must always be determined by a practical chemist. Of these chemical -fertilizers, it is dangerous to use too much, as they might injure the -vines, and from fifty to a few hundred pounds to the acre may in some -instances suffice and produce better crops than would four or five times -as much. But, regardless of chemical fertilizers, the cautious -raisin-grower should endeavor to return to the soil as much as he -possibly can out of the wastes of his crop. The refuse of stems and -berries, which are wasted at the stemmer and in the packing-house, -should not be burned, as is generally the case, but returned to the -vineyard, and applied one year on one piece of ground, and another year -on some other piece. If, however, these wastes must be used as fuel in -the dryer, etc., the ashes should be carefully collected and spread over -the soil, and kept dry and shaded until thus used. - -Another most valuable fertilizer generally wasted is the trimmings. In -our careless California farming, these trimmings of the vines are put in -piles on the roads, outside of the vineyards, and there burned. Thus the -ground loses the most powerful soluble salt, which would greatly -increase the yield of grapes and the profits to the farmer. Where the -vines are planted far enough apart, the trimmings may be burned between -the rows of the vines without injury to them, but, when the vines are -set close, there is no other way than to carefully collect the ashes and -spread them evenly over the soil. Some vineyardists use large troughs -made of galvanized iron and perforated with holes. These vats are drawn -through the vineyard by a team, and scatter the ashes evenly over the -soil. The vats may be so constructed that the cuttings are burned in -them directly as they are being pulled along, thus saving much labor as -well as ashes. Such contrivances will probably only prove profitable in -large vineyards, where there are long rows and few turnings for the -teams. Even the stable manure in our State is not used as it should be. -It is hardly possible to understand how vineyardists can be thoughtless -enough to haul loads upon loads of stable manure on their roads or in -holes and waste places, while their vines adjoining are suffering from -the want of sufficient nourishment. In the irrigated districts, this is -a very common sight, and the wet places on the road are often deep with -manure and strongly smelling of ammonia. If the manure had been placed -around the vines, the increase in crops would probably have been -sufficient to enable the owner to macadamize or otherwise permanently -fix the roads. - - -IRRIGATION. - - -_Introductory Notes._--The irrigation of the raisin grapes was, for -several years, considered as a practice entirely peculiar to California, -but as our knowledge extended it was found that, far from being anything -at all new, it had been practiced successfully for centuries in some of -the Mediterranean countries. We have already mentioned how irrigation is -customary both in the Valencia and Denia districts, as well as in -Greece. It is evident that irrigation there is only limited by the -supply of water, and that there is no question about its usefulness. As -regards the methods of irrigation in these foreign countries, we beg to -refer to the chapters treating of these countries. Here our efforts -shall be to consider irrigation in its relation to the following points, -which are of more general interest to the Californian growers: Necessity -of irrigating the raisin-vines; the health of irrigated vines; the -bearing quality of irrigated vines; the quality of the irrigated grape; -supposed unhealthiness of irrigated vineyards; irrigation by flooding; -irrigation by furrowing; subirrigation; seepage; drainage; irrigation -and its influence on the soil. - - -_The Necessity of Irrigating the Raisin-vines._--When the irrigation of -raisin grapes was first attempted in Fresno and Riverside, hardly any -one was acquainted with or knew that irrigation had ever been used for -such a purpose before, and irrigation was considered as a venture which -did not promise well for the future. Later on it was found that the -raisin grape really would grow and do well in some localities without -irrigation, and the latter practice was accordingly condemned. To-day, -however, the practical knowledge of irrigation is greater and more -generally distributed, and it is now fully understood that irrigation is -not only not injurious, but beneficial and necessary in localities where -the raisin-vine will not grow or bear sufficiently without it. The -questions then arose, When is irrigation necessary, and how much -irrigation is required? The first object in raisin-growing is the -profit; a secondary object is how to so treat the vines that they will -last as long as possible. To attain the first object, we must raise -plenty of grapes, and when a larger quantity of good raisin grapes can -be grown with irrigation than without it, irrigation is justifiable and -necessary. In Spain, especially in the Denia district, irrigation of the -raisin grapes is practiced wherever water can be had, and the same is -the case in Greece and Italy. - -In California the tendency is now to irrigate wherever water can be had, -and wherever it is profitable to procure it. In Fresno, Tulare and Kern -counties, raisin grapes could not be grown without irrigation. These -same conditions are also found in San Bernardino county, while in Los -Angeles and Orange counties all the best vineyards are irrigated, and -only occasionally do we find the conditions such that irrigation is not -absolutely necessary. In Northern California, raisin-vines may be grown -without irrigation, but the latter is considered of such advantage that -expensive pumping works have been erected in places where no other means -were had for irrigating the vines. In San Diego county, especially in El -Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, irrigation is not absolutely necessary, in -fact it is not practiced there at all, although water could be had, but -as a consequence the crops there are not as large. In Smyrna, in Asia -Minor, the largest raisin center in the world, the raisin-vines receive -no irrigation, but the unusually heavy rainfall of this section makes -the want of irrigation less felt. Of course, outside of the raisin -districts proper, Muscatels or other raisin-vines may be grown, and are -grown to good advantage without irrigation, but the climate in those -places is generally unsuited to the drying of the grapes. - -Should we inquire into the reasons why raisin grapes may in some -localities be grown and actually prove profitable without irrigation; we -find the same to depend not alone upon the rainfall of the locality, but -principally upon such other circumstances as dew, fog, the nature of the -subsoil, and the moisture of the air. In Smyrna the rainfall of the wet -season is from twenty-four to thirty-six inches annually, and greater -than in any other raisin district. In El Cajon the rainfall is only half -that much, and the moisture in this case must be sought partly in the -subsoil, which is especially retentive of moisture, as well as in the -dew, and the warm fogs from the ocean. The subsoil has the greatest -possible influence, as in other valleys near by, where the fog and the -dew are the same, but, where the subsoil is different, no raisin grapes -can be grown without irrigation. Malaga is in this respect very similar -to El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, but it enjoys more rainfall than the -latter places, while probably the dew and fog is about the same. Still -in Malaga irrigation is used in a few isolated localities where it can -be obtained, the nature of that country being such, that no general -irrigation system is possible, and this is probably, more than anything -else, the reason why the vines are not more generally irrigated there. -In Chile, in the valley of the Huasco, the Muscat vines are grown both -with and without irrigation, the conditions there appearing to be very -similar to those of El Cajon valley in San Diego county. From the above -we might draw a general conclusion, that wherever the raisin-vines -cannot grow without irrigation, and wherever water can be had in -sufficient quantities, irrigation is practiced in order to increase the -crops and to make the business more profitable. - - -_Health and Longevity of Irrigated Vines._--As regards the health of the -vines, the old idea in this country that vines would suffer from -irrigation is decidedly erroneous. The vines of Denia in Spain have been -irrigated for eighty years or more, and are to-day the healthiest vines -in Spain. Similarly, the Fresno vines, where the water level, as in -Denia, is only from five to ten feet below the surface, show no signs of -decay, while many of the raisin-vines in other parts of the State, -especially where planted on the hillsides, show diseases which baffle -the cultivator. I do not, of course, mean to say that irrigated -raisin-vines are entirely free from diseases, but only that, so far, the -healthiest and strongest raisin-vines of the world are those which are -irrigated, and which have always been irrigated. Of course in this -respect the Muscat grapes, as well as the currant vines, differ -materially from certain wine grapes, which as a rule have originated on -drier soils, and which, if grown with irrigation, deteriorate and yield -inferior fruit. The raisin-vines require much moisture, and, if this is -not supplied in one way or another, they will suffer and prove -unprofitable. The same is observed in soils which rapidly lose their -moisture. In such soils the Muscat is not at home, and its health and -vigor is seriously impaired. - - -_The Bearing Quality of Irrigated Vines._--In regard to the bearing -quality of the raisin grapes under irrigation, we know with certainty -that the irrigated raisin-vines yield by far the most. In Valencia and -Denia, the vines yield from five to ten tons to the acre, and so do -those of Riverside and Fresno, while the El Cajon unirrigated vines -yield only from one to two tons per acre. If the latter place would -irrigate judiciously, its Muscat vines would no doubt bear as well as -those of any other locality. I am led to this belief from what I have -seen of irrigated grapes elsewhere in San Diego county, which were fully -as well loaded as the heaviest vines in San Bernardino county or Fresno. - - -_Quality of Irrigated Grapes._--That the quality of the irrigated raisin -grape is increased by judicious irrigation is readily seen in all -irrigated districts, where those vines which receive their proper share -of water produce the largest bunches and berries. But it is also evident -that too much water will cause a deficiency of sugar in the grapes, as -well as a lack of flavor, by which the irrigated grapes can always be -distinguished from those grown with natural moisture. Grapes too freely -irrigated are not alone wanting in sugar, but also in color. Such grapes -remain green to the end of the season, and never assume that amber color -so valued in grapes, and which always indicates beforehand what raisins -they will produce when properly dried. In our interior valleys, where -the sun and the wind sometimes produce sunscald of the berries, which -again causes them to fall off or dry up long before they are properly -ripe, this defect is much more frequent on vines which suffer from want -of water than on those which have had enough. When the soil is not -subirrigated, it is therefore advisable to irrigate the vines at the end -of June, just before the hottest part of the summer arrives. Similarly, -irrigation will help to swell out the berries if applied just before -they commence to ripen. - -In conclusion we might with truth say that the raisin grapes may in many -localities be grown without irrigation, but that in California, in -Greece and in Spain, the largest and most prosperous districts are those -where the raisin-vines are liberally irrigated. The Muscat grape seems -especially to love water, and, in the real raisin districts, the -healthiest vineyards are those that are best irrigated. The berries and -bunches are also increased in size, but not in flavor and aroma, by -irrigation. In places where the raisin grapes will not bear without -irrigation, the latter, of course, is a necessity. There are always -naturally subirrigated parts, in every county or district, where -artificial irrigation is not required. But these parts are generally -confined to river bottoms or to natural sinks, which, so far, have -played no important part in the raisin industry. Considered from a -practical standpoint, irrigation of the raisin-vines is necessary in -California, and, should it from some reason or other be made impossible, -the raisin industry would not prove profitable or even possible, except -in a few very limited localities. - -Much has been written in regard to the supposed unhealthiness of the -irrigated vineyards. The malaria prevalent in some vineyards is no doubt -caused by irrigation; but it has been amply proved in Fresno and -elsewhere that if the grower would know from the beginning how to so -prepare his land that there would be no stagnant pools, no waste water, -and no swampy grounds, the so much talked of malaria would be as rare in -the irrigated vineyards as anywhere else. It is not the irrigation that -causes malaria, but the waste of the water, the carelessness of the -irrigator and the faultiness of the badly constructed irrigation works. -After the vineyard has been irrigated a few years, the malaria leaves it -entirely. This is the experience in Fresno where the vineyards, after -years of irrigation, have become perfectly healthy. - - -_Various Methods of Irrigation._--There are several methods of -irrigation now practiced in the irrigated vineyard districts. We may -irrigate by flooding the land or by leading the water in furrows between -the vines. Both ways, but especially the former, may, if continued long -enough, cause subirrigation, the most desirable state of irrigation. The -choice of methods of irrigating does not always lie with ourselves, but -depends upon the quantity of water at our command, the lay of the land, -etc. Sometimes one method will in course of time give room to another, -and again, after the lapse of a few years, continued irrigation may not -be necessary or desirable. - - -_Irrigation by Flooding._--This method consists of flooding the land -either by means of checks and banks, which must have been constructed -before the vines were planted, or in simply flooding ground which is -naturally level. In either case the land must naturally not be too -rough, and the water must be abundant, else this method cannot be used. -It will always pay to engage the services of an engineer in preparing -such ground for vines. The extra cost will be more than paid for in the -first few years, when frequent irrigations of the vineyard are as -necessary as they are expensive. The ditch supplying the vineyard should -always run on the highest ground, and in no instance should it be run -through low ground when high ground can be had, as the low ground may in -the future have to be used for drainage, about which we will treat -further on. From the main canal, branch ditches should run out at right -angles if possible, or if the ground is very uneven they may follow the -highest parts. The ground between these ditches should be properly -leveled into checks. With checks the irrigator simply measures a piece -of ground of any size which is surrounded by a levee or bank. This bank -must be high enough to allow the water to cover all of the ground as -soon as the check is filled with water from the ditch. - -To make the ground level enough, it is generally necessary to level it -with scrapers. The more level is the surface the better, cheaper and -quicker will be the irrigation, and no small amount of trouble will be -avoided if this work is properly done before the vines are planted. Too -little of this leveling is done in some places, and I have seen -thousands of acres planted in Muscat vines which were so improperly -leveled that the profits of the vineyard in after years would be -seriously interfered with. To understand how this can be possible, we -must remember what takes place when we irrigate and after we have -irrigated. The gate in the ditch is opened, the water flows out and runs -immediately down to the lowest part of the check. When this part is -reached, the check begins to fill up. If the ground is very uneven, it -may take days to fill the check, and the lower part will require to be -covered several feet with water before it will reach the higher parts, -which always need irrigation the most. To back it up so high requires -also a correspondingly high levee, which again is more apt to break and -cause trouble and expense the higher it is. After the water has reached -the highest possible point, the flow is shut off, and the water begins -to subside. The highest part of the land becomes dry the first, and -quickly, while it may take days or even weeks to dry up the lowest part -of the check. When at last the check is all dry it may be found that the -lowest vines have been injured or entirely drowned out. When summer -irrigation is used, it is absolutely necessary to have the ground level, -so that when it is flooded the water will not reach up to the grapes, as -they spoil when coming in contact with the water. - -The time when flooding should be used must depend upon circumstances. As -a rule, flooding is especially adapted to winter irrigation, as, when -the vines are entirely dormant, they may be submerged for months without -suffering any harm. Young vineyards may also be flooded in summer time, -but, when the grapes begin to appear, flooding can only be done in the -winter or when the land is absolutely level, but even under the most -favorable circumstances many grapes are always lost. Some have so -prepared their vineyards that a check, when flooded, can be drained into -a lower check or into a ditch. This is a very good arrangement where the -land is not entirely level, as it will cause the low places to dry up as -quickly as possible. But a better way is to have the ground so level -that the water will sink evenly and leave no sinks nor any high and -prematurely dry places. There are, however, soils so composed that the -water cannot sink through them in any reasonably short time. Such heavy -soils must be surface drained after every flooding, or perhaps had best -be given up to some other method of irrigation. But such hard or -impervious soils are frequently improved by irrigation, and in course -of time lose their impervious nature and become subirrigated. If the -land is tolerably level by nature, and there are prospects of -subirrigation soon appearing, it may be unnecessary to level the land, -and flooding with temporary checks may be used with advantage for the -first few seasons. Furrowing will generally assist this mode of -irrigation. - - -_Irrigation by Furrowing._--This method of irrigation is practiced where -the land is not sufficiently level to be flooded, or when the water is -not sufficient to enable the irrigator in a short time to flood the -land. The practice of furrowing simply consists in plowing furrows -alongside of the vines, and then to lead the water in the furrows. This -system is by far the one that is most practiced in Southern California, -as it has some advantages over the flooding; it is, however, not so -effective and cannot supply the vineyard with as much water as flooding. -To use the furrowing system to advantage, the land must have been -previously leveled, but not necessarily graded to an absolute level. It -is enough to have the surface smooth and on an even grade, in order that -the water may run from a higher point to a lower one without spreading -or breaking out. Especially all knolls in the vineyard must be leveled -off, and care must be taken to fill all hollows or sinks in which the -water would otherwise collect. - -After the vines are planted, or when irrigation is necessary, one or -more furrows are plowed on each side of the vine, and the water is -allowed to run in them for several hours, or even days, until the soil -is sufficiently soaked. In many places three furrows are made between -the rows of vines, and the water is allowed to run in at one end and out -through the other in a stream only sufficiently large to cause all the -water to sink. Where particular nicety is required, the waste water -which runs out at the farther end may be collected in a trough with -perforated holes, through which it is conducted to a ditch or lower -check. Similarly, a long trough may be used for conducting the water to -the land in the first instance, and allow it to run out through a number -of small holes, one of which is situated in front of every furrow. When -the ground is well prepared, level and with an even slope, this system -of irrigation is very perfect, and causes but little expense and trouble -in management. In Riverside the vines are irrigated thus every three or -five weeks, while in Redlands less irrigation is used on old vines. As a -rule, in Southern California the furrowing system is the accepted one as -being best adapted to the nature of the country. The water is conducted -both in open ditches and in pipes, and when under pressure saves much -labor and expense which would otherwise be required for the continued -construction and repair of ditches. - -The furrowing system has, however, its disadvantages. It requires a -longer time to fill the soil sufficiently, and accordingly it takes many -more irrigations to accomplish as much as with flooding. As advantages -of this system, we might state that it requires no banks or levees to -back up the water, and a vineyard irrigated this way can be kept -entirely free from weeds by a few cultivations, while a checked vineyard -must besides be cleared with hand labor, as the banks and checks are apt -to be destroyed by cultivation. - - -_Subirrigation._--Subirrigation may be either artificial or natural. The -artificial subirrigation has, as far as I know, only been used in a few -vineyards in Yolo and Solano counties, the report, shortly after it had -been established, being very flattering as regards its success. But of -late years we have heard nothing about this kind of irrigation, and it -is likely that some practical difficulty was encountered which could not -be fully overcome. The artificial subirrigation consists in laying -larger and smaller cement pipes between the rows of the vines. These -pipes are perforated in various places, and, when filled with water -under pressure, the water runs through the perforated holes and keeps -the ground outside the pipes constantly moist, without causing the -surface of the soil to get wet and weedy, and herein consist the -principal advantages of the system, as well as in the fact that rolling -ground can be irrigated thus without being previously leveled and -without being cut up with open ditches. The difficulty of keeping the -holes open and of preventing the roots of the vines from entering the -pipes is, I understand, very great and probably impossible to overcome. -Both irrigation water and liquid manures could by this system be -supplied to the roots of the vines directly without any waste, and, in -cases of diseases or attacks by underground pests, medicines or -insecticides could be brought to the soil with the least possible cost. - -The natural subirrigation is caused either by the whole soil filling up -with water from the natural and original water level to the very top or -to the roots of the vines, or from an impervious hardpan or clay, as -subsoil, up towards the surface. As an example of the former we might -cite the country around the irrigated plains of the San Joaquin valley, -especially around Fresno and in Mussel Slough. Before irrigation was -begun there in 1872, the surface water was from sixty to seventy feet -from the top east of the railroad, and from forty to fifty feet west of -the railroad, lower down in the valley. After five years of irrigation -it began to be noticed that the soil required less water. The water in -the wells began to rise, and the following year the water stood in many -places near or on the top of the surface. Now the whole irrigated -district around Fresno has filled up with water to such an extent that -drainage ditches have become necessary in some places in order to lower -the water in the wet season some four or five feet from the surface. -Many more drainage ditches will be required, as in wet winters the -surface water in places is not only very near the top, but actually -forms ponds or swamps where formerly the ground was entirely dry. - -In the old irrigated districts, water can now be found at from six to -ten feet in the driest season, while formerly the wells had to be from -fifty to seventy feet deep. In the older vineyards, and even in many of -the younger ones, no more surface irrigation is used; all that is now -required is to allow the water to run in the main ditches, in which the -water sinks sufficiently to keep up the supply of the evaporation of the -ground outside. Large tracts of land which have never been surface -irrigated are now sufficiently moist to grow vines to the greatest -perfection, and many of the best vineyards have never been irrigated at -all; in fact, nothing but drainage ditches have ever been made on the -land. Whenever such subirrigation exists, the water level will be found -higher in the winter than in the summer, and drainage should accompany -subirrigation in nearly every instance. A subirrigation like the above -exists in Denia and other of the Spanish districts. Subirrigation may be -also caused by either impervious subsoils, such as hardpan and clay, or -by spongy subsoils, which keep the water like a sponge. Such is the case -to a limited extent in parts of San Bernardino county. At Redlands, for -instance, much less irrigation is now used than when the vines were -first planted, and this fact is attributed to a spongy subsoil -peculiarly retentive of water. A similar subirrigation exists in the -Mussel Slough country, where the water rapidly fills the land and keeps -it moist throughout the summer. The phenomenal moisture of the El Cajon -land is probably also produced by some kind of subirrigation, either on -impervious or through retentive strata; the waste water from the -surrounding hills no doubt supplies much of the water appearing in the -lower lands of the valley. Other valleys close by do not show this -moisture, the underlying strata probably making subirrigation impossible -with the present amount of rainfall. - - -_Seepage._--Seepage is the quality of the soil to attract moisture and -retain it. Seepage soils attract the water from a ditch run through the -land, the water spreading all through the soil towards all sides instead -of sinking only vertically down. There is a distinct difference between -such seepage soils and those that do not seep, although there is a -gradation in the degree of the seepage, some soils seeping more than -others. Thus the Fresno soil, or the soils on the Fresno plains, -especially the red and sandy soils, do not seep or percolate. Vines -planted on the sides of the ditches, or a foot or two from their banks, -will die and dry up if not specially irrigated by bringing water to -their very roots. Other soils, especially the river-bottom soils or the -alluvial soils, seep or percolate in a great or less degree. They act -like a sponge, attract water and give it away slowly, and the soil will -be found wet for long distances from the ditch. This seepage capacity of -the soil is partly caused by an abundance of humus or vegetable matter. -The seepage capacity of the soil greatly increases by admixtures of -green vegetable matters through the plowing under of green crops, such -as alfalfa, peas, beans, grain, etc. The value of seepage soils is seen -especially where some uneven ground is scraped off and the top soil -removed to low places. Such ground often becomes useless for years -afterwards, especially if the quantity of humus in the lower soils is -small. Frequent irrigations will not serve to keep such soils moist, as -the water sinks rapidly down, leaving the poor top soil dry. Vines -planted in such places never do well, and even heavy manuring will not -suffice to bring on a strong, healthy growth. Such humus-wanting soils -must be treated with green crops, as stated above, in order to become -fertile and moist. Thus seepage and subirrigation are often confounded. -The former is caused by the retentive and communicative quality of the -soil, while the latter is caused by the natural or artificial -distribution of the underground water. - -Subirrigation and seepage combined make the most perfect irrigation for -a raisin vineyard, with advantages that can in no other way be attained: -absence of distribution ditches, which take up valuable land and which -cost money to keep clean from weeds; less growth of weeds on the surface -of the ground; greater mellowness of the top soil and less work in -plowing generally; a greater and more uniform supply of moisture, which, -instead of being near the top of the ground, is accumulated deeper down, -thus causing the roots to go down instead of spreading near the surface; -no expensive irrigation, which will require plowing every time after the -water is spread on the surface; a greater coolness of the ground and a -lower temperature generally, which shows itself in a more vigorous -growth of the vines, a greater supply of grapes and less danger from -sunburn. These and many more are the advantages of subirrigation and -seepage combined. To attain them in a raisin vineyard, no labor and -reasonable cost should be spared. - -[Illustration: Raisin-grape Picking at Riverside.] - - -_Drainage._--Drainage is necessary in all vineyards where large -quantities of water are used for irrigation, and principally at the very -time that subirrigation begins. Thus in Fresno county the best raisin -vineyards are those in which the land is both subirrigated and drained. -When irrigation commences in any certain district, no one thinks of -drainage as a possibility, and great carelessness is shown in locating -ditches and other irrigation works. But in a few years, when the soil is -full of water which finds no outlet, drainage becomes both necessary and -desirable. A very successful and highly necessary drain has been -constructed through a part of the Fresno district, which so filled up -with water during the rainy winter of 1883-84 that much of the ground -could not be plowed until late in the spring. The drain remedied the -evil and drained the soil, and the vineyards grown there are now counted -among the best and most profitable. The water thus drained off lowered -the water level from six to seven feet. In very dry seasons this ditch -is filled with water, and serves then to keep the soil moist through -seepage or subirrigation. - - -_The Influence of Irrigation on the Soil._--It is by many considered -that irrigation helps to fertilize the soil. The spring and flood water -contain great quantities of mud and humus, which when spread over the -land will greatly increase its fertility. Even ordinary river water -contains salts and other ingredients, which will fertilize the soil to -no small degree. Another cause of the increased fertility of -subirrigated soils is that the water which constantly evaporates carries -with it salts, etc., from the lower strata up towards the surface, and -makes them accessible to the roots of the vines. But, on the other hand, -if the water or the soils contain alkalies or other destructive -substances, these also are deposited on the surface to the great -detriment of the vines, and often to such an extent that the vines will -die or become sickly. Too abundant flooding may also leach out of the -soil its soluble salts, and carry them deeper down in the ground. But if -this soil after a while fills up with water and becomes subirrigated, -the evaporation of water from the surface will gradually carry these -salts back to the surface, when they will increase the fertility of the -soil. Where drainage is very perfect, constant irrigation will gradually -rob the soil of many of its soluble salts, and carry them to places -where they will forever be out of the reach of the vines. To ascertain -these facts and conditions, every vineyardist should have the soil -analyzed about every five years, and too great care cannot be taken to -keep the soil of proper strength. - -Another influence of irrigation on the soil may also be mentioned here. -Some of the soils in the irrigated districts which were formerly very -hard and difficult to work have in course of time changed and become -mellow. The water has undoubtedly caused a chemical and mechanical -decomposition of the components of the soil, which has caused it to -continually improve. Even certain kinds of hardpan have been known to -dissolve when irrigated, and to change into useful and mellow soil, in -which the vines can find nutriment. Such hardpans are those which are -generally found in very dark red soils; those in lighter soils are not -so readily dissolved. - - - - -THE RAISIN GRAPES. - - -_Introductory Notes._--The raisin grapes might be divided into two -classes,--proper and genuine, such as Muscats, Sultanas and Currants, -and irregular or inferior raisin grapes, such as Malagas and Feher -Szagos. Now-a-days almost any kind of grapes are dried and sometimes -called raisins, but the proper name for them should be dried grapes. -With these we need not here busy ourselves, as with a few exceptions -they are of little value, and cannot be compared with the regular raisin -grapes, either as regards quality, demand or price. - - -_Muscatel or Gordo Blanco._--This variety is the best type of the raisin -grape of Malaga. Its growth is low and spreading, with no upright -branches in the center. Its bunches are heavy, and, when perfect, close -and shouldered. Its berries are round and large, the greatest -circumference being at the center. A crease is often found at the apex -of the berry. The color is green, or, when fully ripe, amber green or -yellow. As compared with the Muscat of Alexandria, this variety is -distinguished, when perfect, by its low, depressed growth, without any -upright branches in the center of the vine; by a closer bunch; by -rounder berries, and by a thicker and firmer bloom. The berries set -better than those of the Muscat of Alexandria, although both varieties -suffer from the early stages of oidium or colure. The Gordo Blanco is -the choice raisin grape for the San Joaquin valley, and for the interior -generally. It is the raisin grape of Malaga in Spain, where it is -probable the variety originated. Importations of this variety have been -made to California at various times by A. Haraszthy in 1861, and by W. -S. Chapman in 1876. - - -_Muscat of Alexandria._--The growth of this variety is upright in the -center. Its clusters, even when perfect, are never close. Its berries -are oblong and tapering, the largest circumference being near the apex. -The color when fully ripe is amber green or yellowish green. The leaves -of both varieties of Muscats are five-pointed, light green, lighter -below, and do not differ materially from each other. Both Muscats are -remarkable for their second and third growths, and for the large second -crop on the laterals. - -The Muscat of Alexandria, as compared with the Gordo Blanco, is -characterized by its oblong berries, and by its more upright branches in -the center of the vine. Its growth is more straggling than that of the -Gordo Blanco, and, planted side by side, the two varieties are -distinctly characteristic. The Muscat of Alexandria is the favorite -raisin grape in Southern California, where it seems eminently adapted. I -found no other Muscat in San Bernardino and San Diego counties. The most -magnificent bunches of this variety which I have ever seen were grown -there only a few miles from the ocean,--bunches that could not be -surpassed, and which certainly were equal in weight to any Gordo Blanco -that have ever come under my notice. A. B. Butler considers that the -Muscat of Alexandria does equally as well as the Gordo Blanco in Fresno, -but most growers are not ready to agree with him. - -[Illustration: 2.--Planting Bar (Fresno). 3.--Fresno “Sheep’s-foot.” -4.--Muscat of Alexandria (N. S.). 5.--Muscatel Gordo Blanco.] - -The raisin made from the Muscat of Alexandria looks smaller on account -of its oblong form, and is less suited for facing the boxes, but as to -other qualities, such as taste, sweetness and color, there is no marked -difference between these two varieties of Muscats. All varieties of -Muscats set better in moist air than where the air is very dry, and the -moister air tends to better develop the bunches. This explains why, in -isolated vineyards in the interior, the bunches are never so large as -where a large number of acres of vines have modified the often excessive -dryness of the atmosphere. As to the relative distribution of these two -varieties of Muscats in our State, it may be stated that the former is -not based upon any particular adaptability of the respective varieties -to the localities where they are grown. The Muscat of Alexandria is the -older variety of the two, probably both in Spain as well as in -California. To Valencia in Spain it was brought by the Moors from -Africa, or possibly from Alexandria in Egypt. The Gordo Blanco again -appears to be a native Spanish variety, especially adapted to the warmer -region of Malaga or Southern Spain. The Gordo Blanco is the principal -grape of Malaga; the Muscat of Alexandria is the one grown in Valencia -and Denia and also in Smyrna in Asia Minor. - -In California the Gordo Blanco is found around Woodland in Yolo county, -throughout the San Joaquin valley, and in Fresno it is the favorite and -almost exclusive Muscat grape. The Muscat of Alexandria is grown in -Solano county and elsewhere in Northern California, while it is the -exclusive grape in Riverside, Redlands, Orange county and El Cajon, and -probably elsewhere in San Diego county or Southern California generally. -The Muscat of Alexandria was imported by Colonel Agoston Haraszthy in -1852 from Malaga, and by D. M. Delmas some thirty-eight years ago from -France. - - -_Huasco Muscat._--This variety (pronounced Uasco) resembles very much -the Muscat of Alexandria, of which it is probably a seedling, and was -introduced into Chile by the Spaniards soon after the conquest. -According to Professor E. W. Hilgard, this variety sets better than the -Alexandria, and on that account deserves to be cultivated. It is strange -that no attempts have been made in this country to grow it on a larger -scale. The Huasco is undoubtedly one of the most interesting grapes, and -the fact that it produces the most expensive raisins in the world should -be a sufficient inducement to our California growers to at least study -the variety closely. I should think that El Cajon valley would be the -proper locality for it in this State. - - -_Other Varieties of Muscats._--A variety of Muscatel resembling the -Gordo Blanco, but with more erect growth, is said to have been imported -by G. G. Briggs of Davisville, Solano county. I have seen it growing in -the vineyard of George A. Freeman of Fresno, but cannot distinguish its -berries from those of the Gordo Blanco. The growth of the vine is more -erect, and leaves the center of the vine rather uncovered and exposed. I -would decidedly prefer the Gordo Blanco. A seedling of the Gordo Blanco -originated by the author is now growing on the Floreal vineyard, owned -by J. T. Goodman, near Fresno. This variety promised a great deal the -first season. I have no doubt that, with some selection of berries and -bunches, many new and valuable raisin grapes could be originated in this -State, varieties which would be especially adapted to our soil and -climate. While our fruit-growers have produced a number of new fruits of -various kinds, we have yet to hear of the first superior grape -seedlings. According to the _Rural Press_ of May 5, 1877, C. T. Ward of -Haywards, Alameda county, raised some seedlings from Huasco seed, but -what has become of them I do not know. Haywards would not be likely to -be a proper place for raisin grapes, and even the best variety could not -possibly be a success there. - -J. T. Goodman of Fresno has a Muscatel vine in his vineyard which ripens -ten days earlier than the Gordo Blanco, but whether it is a seedling is -not known. It may prove a most valuable variety if extensively grown. B. -G. Stabler of Yuba City tells me that Ch. E. Swezy, near Marysville, -has raised a seedling from an imported Dehesa raisin, which in size, -flavor and all other qualities excels any other table grape known, but -the flavor of the grape does not resemble that of the Muscatel. I have -seen raisins made from this grape, but they were not desirable; but as a -table grape this variety is said to be superior. If so, this grape -should be tried in different localities, and may prove a real -acquisition. There is no doubt that other seedling raisin grapes have -been raised in this State, and we hope in course of time to know all -about them. - - -_Seedless Sultana._--This grape is decidedly one of the most important -raisin grapes known. Its bunches are very large, sometimes weighing five -pounds each. The berries are round and seedless, the size of large peas, -of a green color, which, when the grape ripens, turns bright amber -yellow, with small brown spots. The leaves are large and very entire, -and more yellowish than those of the Muscat. The growth of the vine is -upright, with erect or climbing branches. This grapevine in order to -bear must be pruned long, and should properly be staked from four to -five feet high. The yield of the Sultana is very heavy, and as much as -sixteen tons of fresh grapes are frequently harvested from an acre, -provided the soil is the very best possible. The grapes begin to color -and sweeten several weeks before the Muscat, but they become fully ripe -later than this variety, and are on that account not as extensively -grown as they certainly deserve to be. For districts with long summers -and autumns the Sultana will prove a very profitable and desirable -grape. The native home of the Sultana is Asia Minor. There it is grown -principally around Smyrna and in several of the islands in the -Archipelago. In California only few Sultana vineyards are planted; still -there is undoubtedly a great field for this grape where the seasons are -long enough to allow of its perfect ripening. The raisins are light in -color and somewhat acid, but with no particular flavor, and in this -respect are inferior to the Muscats and the Currants. They are produced -either by dipping, as is done in Smyrna, or by sun-drying, as we do in -this State. If the dipping process is used, the grapes must be very -ripe, else they will turn reddish and dark and lose quality. In -California the Sultana grape does well, and only seldom produces seeds. -In Eastern Mediterranean countries, except in the few favored spots of -Smyrna, or in some of the Islands, this variety rapidly deteriorates and -becomes seed-bearing, which of course entirely ruins its usefulness. The -Seedless Sultana was first brought to California by Colonel Agoston -Haraszthy in 1861. - - -_Black Currant._--This variety is but little known in this State. The -growth is erect and climbing. The bunches are long, narrow and -cylindrical, with heavy shoulders. The berries are small, of the size of -peas, seedless and black, very sweet and with a peculiar aroma not found -in any other variety. The Black Currant should be pruned short, and the -young branches require staking in order to bear well. The home of the -Black Currant is the Grecian Islands as well as Morea, especially around -Patras. Zante, Cephalonia and Ithaca all produce Currants of the highest -quality. - - -_Other Varieties of Currants._--The White Currant grown in California is -not the true raisin grape which produces the Currant of commerce. The -bunch and berry resemble the Black Currant, but differ in not being -black, and in lacking the peculiar aroma and flavor alone possessed by -the Black and true Currant. There are in Greece several other varieties -of Currants, such as red and gray, but these are used for wine and not -for raisins. The White and Red Currants were introduced from Crimea in -1861 by Colonel Agoston Haraszthy. - - -_Thompson Seedless._--This variety has been growing in California for -many years, but has only lately come into notice. It was imported from -Rochester, New York, from the establishment of Elwanger & Barry, about -1872, and was by them described as a grape from Constantinople under the -name of Lady Decoverly. Thompson Seedless is the name given this grape -by the local growers around Yuba City, and not the original name. I am -inclined to believe that this grape is related to, but not identical -with, the oblong, seedless grape which is grown around Damascus in Asia -Minor, and there dried into a raisin of very good quality. This Damascus -grape is brownish when ripe. Thompson Seedless is an oval grape, -greenish yellow, as large as a Sultana, seedless, with thin skin, good -but not strong flavor, and without that acid which characterizes the -Sultana grape and raisin. The bunches are large, or very large, and the -vine is an enormous bearer. As yet it is principally grown around Yuba -City and Marysville in limited quantities, but the raisins are in good -demand. When sun-dried and cured, these raisins are bluish and dark like -Muscats, but narrower and more tapering, and only a quarter the size. -Their sweetness and taste commend them for cooking purposes, and the -bearing quality of the vine will no doubt make their growing profitable -in all places where the seasons are too short to thoroughly ripen the -Sultana. In Yuba this grape ripens early in August. - - -_Other Seedless Grapes._--In the Islands of Lipari and Pantelleria a -coarse but seedless grape is grown, out of which a variety of Sultana -raisin is made. We have no further notices and description of this -variety. - - -_Malaga._--This is not a real raisin grape, but of late years raisins -have been made from it and found both fair in quality and profitable to -the grower. The Malaga is a heavy bearer of one crop of very large but -loose bunches. There is no second crop. The berries are large, oval, not -tapering, the flesh is meaty and solid, very sweet, but with no decided -flavor. The skin is thick and green, when ripe amber yellow, with thick -bloom. Raisins made of this grape are very large, and the bunches are -also large and solid, and the berries are not easily torn off. When -sweated, the skin becomes thinner, and the quality improves generally. -The Malaga is a very hardy vine, not particular about soil, a strong -grower, bears well, and its grapes ripen at the time of the Muscats. -But, as there is no second crop, the vintage of the Malaga will be over -long before that of the Muscats, and out of the way of rain or fog. This -is what makes this grape so valuable. Four cents per pound has been paid -for these raisins in sweatboxes for the past two years, and at that -price this grape pays better than the Muscats. The Malaga raisins are -also very heavy and solid. I am satisfied that there will be a good -demand for this raisin, especially among consumers, who prefer a bunch -raisin, but who do not care to pay for the expensive packing which is -necessary to preserve the Muscat bunches. The Malaga raisin could be -sold in bulk, and still would not break up. The Malaga grape is grown in -many places in California, and is used principally as a table grape; it -has only been cured and dried into raisins in Fresno. According to A. B. -Butler, this grape is grown in Malaga for table purposes. - - -_Feher Szagos._--Feher Szagos raisins have been in the market for -several years, and have brought in sweatboxes from three to three and a -half cents per pound. This grape is a heavy bearer and grower, branches -erect but slender, leaves glossy, entire, bunches medium to small, -pointed and solid. The berries are greenish amber, medium, oval, -pointed, with thin skin, and few and small seeds. The flesh is not firm, -but dries well, and when dried the raisin is very good, with a peculiar -flavor of its own. They are only used for cooking, but are nevertheless -rather good raisins to eat, and their seeds are so soft that they are -not objectionable. The bearing quality of the Feher Szagos is very -heavy, as much as sixteen tons of green grapes having been raised to the -acre, and from ten to twelve tons is a common yield. It ripens with the -Muscat, and the vine bears only one crop. At three cents per pound, the -Feher Szagos is a profitable grape. The native home of this variety is -Hungary or Southern Austria, the name meaning, in Hungarian, White Jack. -In Fresno it is grown quite extensively, having originally been planted -as a wine grape. As such it is highly valued, producing an abundance of -highly flavored sherry. - - -_Other Raisin Grapes._--In Asia Minor, the Grecian Islands, Morea, -Italy, Spain and Morocco, there are grown a number of varieties of -grapes which are cured into raisins and sold as such. Many of these are -little, if any, better than our dried grapes, while others again are -superior, more resembling the regular raisins. Among the latter we have -the Spanish Black and Red, and the Smyrna and Turkish Black and Red. -Some of them belong to the Muscat family, probably resembling Black and -Red Muscats, but of these varieties we have no particular information, -and our growers will probably not lose much by avoiding a more intimate -acquaintance with them. - - - - -DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS. - - The following short account of the diseases and insect pests is not - intended to be exhaustive, and is only intended to refer to the raisin - districts of our State. I have not included accounts of the phylloxera - nor of other insects or fungi which do not exist in these districts, - but which may be troublesome in other parts of the State. Strictly - scientific descriptions have purposely been left out, but I have - endeavored to make the popular account as correct and as condensed as - possible. Of insects and fungi I have only enumerated those which are - of importance through the damage they occasion from time to time. - Those which prey on the vines, but which cause no great damage, and - which the grower need not prepare himself to fight, have here been - left out. - - -POWDERY MILDEW OR UNCINULA. - - -_General Notes._--This disease of the grapevine is caused by the growth -of parasitic fungus known in Europe as _Oidium Tuckeri_, and in this -country as _Uncinula spiralis_ or powdery mildew. I am satisfied the two -names signify the same fungus, only the European form has never been -found as highly developed as the American one, which has on that account -received a name of its own. If the two are identical, then the European -Oidium, which for many years caused the destruction of the transatlantic -vineyards, was imported to that country from this. The _Uncinula -spiralis_ is undoubtedly native on our indigenous vines. - - -_Characteristics._--The mildew appears in two different stages, one in -the spring when the vines are in blossom, the other again later in the -summer when the fruit is more advanced. The first stage of the mildew -resembles a fine cobweb spun between the flowers of the bunch. If -allowed unrestricted sway, the flowers will drop off, the fruit will -never set, or set only imperfectly, and the crop will be a great loss or -even a total failure. Generally the inexperienced vineyardist does not -perceive the mildew until too late. A slight touch to the vine will then -bring down all the young fruit or blossoms like a shower, and the stem -of the bunch will be seen to be entirely bare, or with only a few -scattered berries. This form of the Uncinula mildew has not been as -scientifically investigated as would be desirable, and nothing is known -as regards its development. It is possibly a primary generation and -early stage of the later Uncinula. I believe this form of the mildew is -identical with the disease which is called Colure by the French, and -which is characterized by the dropping of the young, undeveloped grapes. -The first appearance of this mildew is always accompanied by white, -salty excrescences on the edges of the grape leaves. Whether they are -directly or indirectly connected with the fungus is not known. - -The later form, the powdery mildew, and the form which has given this -mildew its name, appears later in the season, when the grapes are half -grown or more. It then takes the shape of fine powder-like patches or -blotches on the upper side of the leaves, stems or berries. These spots -are of a dull gray or whitish gray color, and smell strongly of mold or -mushrooms. If these mildew spots when young are rubbed smooth, -especially on the green stems or berries, we see below them, in the -epidermis of the vine, the _mycelium_ or stem of the fungus spreading in -all directions from a central point, like the roots of a tree or plant. -This part of the mildew corresponds with the stem and root of a plant, -while the upper, powdery part is the one which produces the spores or -the seed, conidia and peritheca, all of which are reproductive organs. -The grapes thus attacked gradually dry up or crack open. The leaves are -eaten through and dry up, and the whole plant becomes badly diseased, -and may even die. - -[Illustration: Powdery Mildew (Oidium Form), Greatly Magnified.] - - -_History and Distribution._--The powdery mildew or Oidium was observed -for the first time in the year 1845 in hothouses in England. It -immediately began to spread, and in a few years infested all the vine -districts of the Old World. Before any remedy had been discovered, many -vine districts were so injured that they have not since been able to -recover. Thus in 1850 and 1851 France suffered greatly from this mildew, -and the Island of Madeira, which for three hundred years had produced -the finest wines, had its grapevines so injured that they up to this -time have not again produced as good a quality of grapes as before the -advent of the disease. The Grecian Islands as well as Morea were also -visited by the powdery mildew, and though the latter is now kept in -control, the general opinion is that the quality of the currants is not -as high as it was before the mildew appeared. Now there is probably no -place in the Old World where grapes are not attacked by this mildew, -although some places are injured much more than others. Adjoining -vineyards are often differently attacked, some being even entirely free, -while others are visited yearly. Young vines are less attacked than old -ones, and in favorable places the mildew seldom infests vines before -they are two or three years old. Elevated places and localities exposed -to winds and cold are generally attacked by the first stages of this -oidium, while its second or last stage prefers low, damp places exposed -to dew or fog. - -The American form of the powdery mildew or _Uncinula spiralis_ differs -in some respects from the European Oidium, not as to its effects, but as -to its microscopical characteristics. The Oidium occurs in Europe only -with certain generative organs called gonidia, while the American -_Uncinula_ also develops so-called _peritheca_. It is more than probable -that both fungi belong to the same species, but until these perithecal -organs have been found on the European Oidium, the proper name for our -mildew must be _Uncinula_, and not Oidium. It is also probable that the -_Uncinula_ fungus is a native of this continent, and that it from here -has spread to Europe, where the natural conditions are such that only -the gonidial form of the fungus has been able to develop. In general -appearance and in their effects the _Uncinula_ and Oidium are identical. - -The Oidium appears sooner on poor soil and on exhausted vines, and vines -in which the flow of the sap for some reason or other has been checked -are more subject to the mildew than those which are yet in full growing -vigor. Elevated vines on trellises which are much exposed, and vines -which are so covered up that the air has little access, are the first -ones to be attacked, and those which will suffer the most. The powdery -mildew affects all varieties of grapes, but some kinds more than others. -The Muscats are among those which suffer considerably, and if not -sulphured would in severe cases neither set nor bear suitable grapes. -The Malaga is less affected, and so is the Sultana. In new districts the -Uncinula does not appear until the vines are older. Thus in the Fresno -district the earliest vines did not suffer from mildew until they became -five years old, but now the mildew would destroy the grapes every year, -in case they were not treated with sulphur. - - -_Remedies._--The most common and perhaps the best remedy is powdered -sulphur. The latter is applied either with the dust can or “dredger,” or -with bellows. The dust can is used when the vines or vine shoots are yet -small, and the bellows when the vines are larger. The first sulphuring -should be done when the young shoots are six inches long, immediately -before the bloom, and the second time when the berries are well set. -Sulphuring as a regular vineyard operation will be more fully discussed -further on. - - -DOWNY MILDEW OR PERONOSPORA. - - -_General Notes._--The downy mildew is a fungus known botanically as -_Peronospora viticola_. Its native country is the United States, but its -greatest damage is done in Europe. It appears as white, downy spots on -the underside of the grape leaves, which are gradually destroyed, and -later on attacks the berries, which shrivel and spoil. In California the -downy mildew occurs frequently on wild native grapevines, but only very -rarely on the cultivated Asiatic vines. Dr. H. W. Harkness, the eminent -mycologist, found it only once on cultivated vines in the Sacramento -river bottom. These vines were growing close to native vines, from which -the fungus had spread. There is no fear that this fungus will ever -spread and cause damage in our State as long as the vineyards are given -plenty of air. In France the _Peronospora_ has caused much damage, but -is now being combated with bluestone and lime solutions, according to -the following formula: Slake thirty pounds of lime in seven and a half -gallons of water, also mix sixteen pounds of bluestone (copper sulphate) -in twenty-five gallons of water. Mix the two together, and either -sprinkle the foliage with it, or dilute it further with say five -hundred gallons of water and spray the vine leaves on both the upper and -lower sides. According to Dr. Harkness the efficiency of this spray -cannot always be relied on. So far no other fungi have appeared in the -raisin districts of this State, nor have we reason to fear that any will -attack the vines. - -[Illustration: Downy Mildew (_Peronospora_), Greatly Magnified. _a._ The -Fungus Growing out of a Stoma of the Vine Leaf. _b._ Transversal Section -of Vine Leaf, showing Fungi and their Tuberous Mycelium.] - - -THE VINE PLAGUE. - - -_Characteristics._--The first, or at least the most characteristic signs -of this disease appear especially after a summer rain, or after the -first fall rain. The leaves then become spotted with yellow. The -following season these yellow spots appear as if fused together, and -many leaves become entirely yellow, except the veins, which stand out -bright green. Some leaves are invaded by the yellow from the edges, -while the veins as before remain green. These yellow spots soon turn -brown, the leaves dry up and curl slightly backwards and finally fall -off, leaving the canes bare. During the very first appearance of the -vine plague, many leaves turn brown and dry up in certain spots in the -vineyard without the previous appearance of any yellow spots. The drying -of the leaves proceeds either from the center of the spots, or from the -margin of the leaves, destroying both the leaves and their veins. Later -on in the fall a new crop of leaves appear, but these leaves are small -or very small, bright green and sickly, and do not continue to develop -after they have reached a certain size, different in different vines. In -red varieties of grapes, the yellow spots in the leaves gradually turn -red or claret colored, often resembling the most beautiful autumn -leaves. In districts where the disease is common, these leaves are -generally known as calico leaves on account of their peculiar markings. - -The canes do not attain their regular growth, and fail to mature in the -fall, or mature only in spots, the balance of the wood remaining dull -green. The inner parts of the canes are, as a rule, more mature than the -tips. Very often only one or two joints nearest the stem mature, and in -bad cases no part of the canes mature, but at the advent of the rain -turn black and die. Late in the fall the tips of the green canes turn -black, dry up and snap off like glass when touched. The pith turns in -the older canes dark brown, dries up prematurely and dies, while in very -young canes the pith remains watery like a semi-transparent jelly. - -Many vines have no mature wood when the leaves have fallen in the -autumn, while others again have some. While the spotted leaves may -appear all over the vineyard, the diseased canes appear on vines in -spots, these spots in the vineyard growing larger year after year. A -dead vine may be seen in the midst of healthy ones, while a healthy -vine, on the other hand, may remain in the midst of dead ones. It takes -generally several years to kill the vines, and some varieties are -hardier than others. Some Muscats may succumb in one year, while some -will last for three years or more. The roots remain alive and healthy -longer than any other part, and, when the top of the vine has already -died, it is common to see the root send up a healthy sucker, which, -however, in its turn, will become diseased and die. It is likely that -the vines in some districts will suffer more than in others, and in -places the vines may not become seriously injured by the disease. - -The berries on badly diseased vines do not develop, but shrivel up or -remain sour, and in some cases dry up entirely. In others, again, they -acquire a mawkish taste, lose flavor and sweetness, and make only -inferior or bad raisins. These many different characteristics of the -plague depend evidently on the stage of infection. They do not follow -each other in any certain succession, nor do they all appear on the same -vine. Some vines show one face of the disease, other vines show another, -and the observer must have been previously acquainted with the disease -before he can readily recognize it. - - -_Nature and Cause._--The cause of the vine plague is not known. No -deadly fungus has so far been found on the vine, nor has any other -deadly parasite been found on the diseased vines. In California the vine -plague has been studied by N. B. Pierce, of the Agricultural Department -at Washington. He suggested once that the disease was of bacterial -nature, but has not proved his theory, his investigations not yet being -finished. Mr. E. Dowlen has also been investigating this disease, and at -one time thought it caused by a fungus, which, however, was proved later -by Dr. H. W. Harkness to belong to the non-injurious kind. No insects of -any kind prey on the vines in sufficient numbers to cause the serious -symptoms of the vine plague.[7] Whatever may be the true cause of the -vine plague, certain it is that it resembles in its advent and spreading -such diseases in men as cholera, yellow fever or the Oriental plague. -The vine plague appears to be especially promoted by warm, moist air and -rain, but it is not confined to damp places, nor has it as yet been -ascertained in what relation it stands to locality and climate. - - [7] The most interesting and correct account of the vine plague yet - published is found in an essay on “The Mysterious Vine Disease,” by - Newton B. Pierce, read before the State Horticultural Convention, at - Los Angeles, March, 1890, and published in CALIFORNIA--A JOURNAL OF - RURAL INDUSTRY, May 10, 1890; Vol. 3, No. 18. - -In California it first made its general appearance in Anaheim in Orange -county, in the month of August, 1884, when vineyards of old Mission -vines suddenly stopped growing, and the grapes failed to color and -ripen, while many of the vines died the same year. The plague attacks in -preference vines growing on poor, sandy or alkaline soil, or in -vineyards underlaid with hardpan. The weak vines succumb the first of -any. This is the reason why so many vineyardists doubt the existence of -any particular disease, contributing the poor condition of the vineyard -to anything else than the true cause. - -N. B. Pierce, who has now spent a year in studying the vine plague, has -found many similarities between it and the _mal nero_ of Italy; but the -descriptions of the foreign investigators are both contradictory and -insufficient, and, without a personal investigation of the Italian or -French vines, the identity of our vine plague with any foreign disease -cannot be established. It is to be hoped that the United States Congress -will make such investigations possible. At present we do not even know -whether the vine plague is original in this country or whether it was -imported from foreign countries. The general opinion in the first -attacked district is that the disease was imported there with grapevines -brought from Europe. So far I have not been able to ascertain when and -by whom such vines were imported, but I am satisfied that in the course -of time it will be found that foreign grapevines were imported to the -vineyards where shortly afterwards this disease first appeared. - - -_Damages._--The damages caused by the vine plague may be summed up as -follows: The leaves turn spotted and yellow, finally dry up and fall -off. The canes fail to mature, or mature only in spots. Later in the -fall, they die from the tips, which turn black and become brittle. The -berries either dry up or shrivel up, and fail to mature, or at any rate -become mawkish or bitter. The yield becomes less and less every year, -although, the first year that the vines are touched by the disease, the -yield is often unusually large. In severe cases the vine dies in from -one to three years, but a few may linger longer. - - -_Remedies._--The vine plague has existed in this State for six or eight -years, but as yet few, if any, efforts have been made to extinguish it, -and only during the last year have any experiments been carried on. The -solutions of bluestone and lime which many expected would prove -beneficial to the vines attacked by the plague have, in my opinion, done -little or no good. Spraying the vines when in full foliage with the -I X L compound greatly benefits the vines, and proves a powerful -stimulant and the best remedy yet employed. - - -LEAF-HOPPER (_Erythroneura comes_). - - -_Characteristics._--This pernicious little pest is a bug which -multiplies in enormous quantities and sucks the sap out of the vine -leaves. Many use the name of thrips to denote this insect, but this is -incorrect, as the thrips is an entirely different, much smaller, insect, -which so far has never been injurious to the vines of this coast. In -size the leaf-hopper is, at maturity, about one-tenth of an inch. In -color it is yellowish white, with a few red spots. When the insect -approaches maturity, it jumps, but the undeveloped insect or larva only -crawls, principally on the underside of the vine leaves, where their -cast-off skins can be seen in all stages and sizes. The eggs are laid in -the veins of the leaves. The glossy globules which are always seen on -leaves where the leaf-hopper is found are not the eggs, as has been -supposed by many, but is only the vomit which, when irritated, the -hopper throws out either as a defense, or because it desires to rid -itself of an unnecessary burden. The leaf-hopper hatches at least two -times, or possibly three times, during the summer. Many of the insects -remain over during winter time. They feed on almost anything, such as -_alfilerilla_ (_Erodium_), etc., but are especially fond of the -grapevines, and even in the early spring flock onto the young vine -shoots, leaving the less desirable weeds. In some localities this insect -is known variously as the white fly, the vine-hopper, or incorrectly as -the thrips. - - -_Damages._--The hopper punctures the leaves and causes them to dry up -and fall, thus exposing the grapes to the hot sun. The excrement of the -hoppers also covers the grapes largely, and spoils their appearance and -keeping quality, at least as table grapes. It is principally the table -grapes and wine grapes which are injured by this insect; the former are -made unfit for shipment, and the latter do not color well when deprived -of their leaves. If the grapevines are kept growing, the grapes are less -injured, and some growers even contend that the hopper is advantageous, -as it causes the leaves to fall and the grapes to mature. - - -_Distribution._--It is not known whether the leaf-hopper is a native of -California, and I hardly believe it is. It does not exist in Southern -California, but in Northern California and in the San Joaquin valley it -is common. In the grape districts of Southern California there is found -another variety of leaf-hopper almost twice the size and of a brilliant -green color, which only once appeared in such quantity as to do any -damage at all. Generally it is quite rare. The _Erythroneura comes_, -however, occurs in countless numbers, and often rises in clouds when the -vines are approached. In some years it is less common than in others, -and after having been plentiful for several years gradually diminishes -in quantity, but never disappears entirely. - - -_Remedies._--Pasturing the vineyards with sheep as soon as the grapes -are picked is very beneficial. The sheep destroy both hoppers and -leaves, and the following season always finds the hoppers greatly -diminished in numbers. The sheep do no injury to low-pruned vines, and -in Fresno many vineyardists pasture their vines regularly every year in -October and November, or as soon as the grapes are picked and the -vineyards are made accessible. - -The gauze bell consists of a bell-shaped cover made of wire netting, -large enough to cover the vine. The inside of the bell is sprayed with -petroleum, and then turned over the vine. A shake is then given the -vine, when many leaf-hoppers will fly up and stick in the petroleum. It -will only pay to use this remedy on table grapes; for raisin grapes it -is too expensive. - - -RED SPIDER. - - -_Characteristics._--Red or yellow mites are quite frequently injurious -to grapevines. These mites are small, almost microscopical, and appear -in enormous quantities on both sides of the leaves, especially, however, -on their under side. They cover the leaves, and even the ground of the -vineyard, with a thick cobweb, in which they live and hatch. Dry air and -heat promote the wellbeing of the mites, and hasten the injury they do -to the vine leaves, which soon dry up and check the growth of the vines. -On the contrary, dew and moisture destroy the red mites in a short time, -and in places near the coast they are seldom very injurious. - - -_Remedies._--Sprays of various kinds, such as whale-oil soap, resin -sprays, etc., have been used. Frequent spraying with pure water will -destroy the mites, but they will multiply again if the climate is -favorable. The best success is had with a spray of a compound known as -the I X L compound, which is used in the proportion of five pounds of -the compound to thirty gallons of water. One good spray will destroy -both the mites and their eggs. - - -CATERPILLARS. - - -_Characteristics._--The caterpillars which trouble the raisin grapes are -confined to three or four kinds. The most common and also the most -destructive are the very large larvæ of the sphinx moth. The common -grapevine sphinx (_Philampelus achæmon_) is a large larva, incorrectly -called a worm, which is, when full grown, over three inches long. The -color varies from bluish green to brown, with several lighter stripes on -each side. The head is truncate, and the tail is furnished with a curved -horn. The _pupa_ hibernates in the soil below the vines, and is about -half the size of the full-grown caterpillar. The full-grown moth is -about two inches long by two and one-half inches between the -outstretched wings. The eggs are laid by the moths on the leaves of the -vines. Two broods of caterpillars appear yearly under favorable -conditions, or else only one brood, which generally appears in the end -of July. The caterpillars grow with great rapidity, and attain their -full size in a few weeks. The _pupæ_ hibernate in the soil and hatch the -following summer. - -Another large grapevine caterpillar is the _Deilephila striata_, which -is about the same size as the _Achæmon_. The moth has more pointed -wings, with narrow stripes, and the larva is brighter colored, often -yellowish green, with several colored stripes on the sides. The eggs are -not laid on the vines, but on the weeds on the vacant lands outside the -vineyard, especially on species of _Epilobium_, but also on other weeds, -and they hatch and feed on them. The caterpillars feed in ordinary years -only on the weeds on which they are bred, but in other years which are -especially favorable to their enormous increase they migrate to the -vineyards and feed on the vines at the most alarming rate. The -caterpillars of both the above large moths vary in color from green to -brown or violet brown, but as a rule the _Deilephila_ is more brightly -colored than the _Achæmon_. The former is more active and often travels -in enormous numbers, when it is called the army-worm. The _Achæmon_ is -more blunt at both extremities, the head being almost truncate. - -[Illustration: Vineyard Scene, Rosedale Colony, Kern County, July, -1890.--Three Months After Planting.] - -Army-worms are smaller caterpillars, about one inch or more in length, -which breed on the outside weeds, and which, when feed becomes scarce, -migrate to the vineyards and feed on the vines. These caterpillars are -the larvæ of smaller moths of various genera such as _Prodenia_ and -others. - -Cutworms are other caterpillars of moths of the genus _Agrotis_, which -feed on the branches of the vines, especially in the night-time, and in -the daytime bury themselves in the soil beneath the vine. They are -generally a gray or leathery color, while the army-worms are more violet -and darker. - - -_Damages._--The damages from these various caterpillars are sometimes -very large. Some years they occur in enormous quantities, and hundreds -of tons of them may then be picked from a vineyard of a hundred acres of -vines. The leaves are eaten by them, and the grapes are either scalded -by the sun or do not attain their sweetness and coloring. Sometimes -these various caterpillars are very common and destructive for one or -two years in succession, after which they disappear and do not return to -trouble the vines again for many years. - - -_Remedies._--The great caterpillars, after they have once infested the -vineyard, can be destroyed by picking. A gang of men or boys should be -furnished with buckets, which are besmeared on the inside with coal-oil. -The caterpillars are picked and dropped in the buckets, from which they -cannot crawl out, and when the buckets are half filled they may be -emptied into trenches and covered up with soil. - -Many use small scissors, with which the caterpillars are cut in twain -while sitting on the vines. This will do for wine grapes, which are -grown higher above the ground, but will hardly be proper on the low -Muscat vines, as the contents of the caterpillars are apt to soil the -grapes. - -I have used Buhach sprays with great success. Ten pounds of Buhach, with -a hundred gallons of water, brought the caterpillars down from the vines -in forty-five minutes after spraying. As some, however, recovered, it is -best to kill as many as possible of those which fall to the ground by -punching them with a stick. The cost of Buhach is, however, great, and -the difficulty of encountering favorable weather is such that this -remedy is not apt to be extensively used. - -When the vineyards are threatened by the invasion of the army-worms, or -by the striped _Deilephila_ caterpillar, the best remedy consists in -trenching. A narrow trench, say one foot or more wide and two feet deep, -with perpendicular sides, should immediately be dug around the vineyard. -If water is at hand, fill the trench with water, on which some coal-oil -may be poured,--enough to cause a film on the surface. If no water can -be had, a log or scantling may be continually dragged up and down the -furrow or trench, so as to crush the caterpillars before they can crawl -out. In many places, however, the trench alone will do the work, as the -caterpillars will generally not be able to get up the other side of the -trench. What few crawl up can easily be kept down by hand-picking. - -If certain attractive flowers, such as honey-suckles or petunias, are -planted on a small bed in the vineyard, say near the house, the moths -will come to them to feed from all the surrounding neighborhood. Only -one small bed should be planted on every vineyard. A boy with a -butterfly net, posted at each flower bed at sundown, can catch hundreds -of moths every evening, and considerably reduce their number and prevent -them from breeding. - - -BLACK-KNOT. - - -_Characteristics._--The woody or spongy excrescences which appear on the -vines, and which are known as black-knots, are really only a wart-like -growth, the origin of which is entirely unknown. It is supposed that an -insufficient outlet for the sap in the spring caused by too close -pruning is the chief cause. Certainly closely pruned vines are more -subject to the black-knot than long pruned vines, but on the other hand -neglected vines which have had no cultivation, and which accordingly -could hardly have had too rapid a flow of sap, suffer more than any -others. The woody warts appear quite frequently on the ends of the spurs -of the old wood, or on places of last year’s growth which have been -wounded or injured in some way, but never on the green wood. They vary -in size from that of a pea to that of lumps weighing several pounds. -When present in small quantities, the warts cause no injury, but when -they become larger the vines may even die. These black-knots always die -with the year, and never survive to the next season. At the end of the -season, they burst open and then often display black spores of fungi, -which, however, are only parasitical growths on the already decayed -wood, and not the cause of the disease. As I said, it is generally -supposed that the flow of sap is during spring time so great that it -ruptures the cells of the vine and causes the warts to form. Under the -microscope, however, there are no such ruptured cells visible. It is -more natural to suppose, that through the accumulation of sap an -irritating poison is originated, which causes the warty growth to form -in a manner similar to the formation of galls. On sandy soil the -black-knot is the most common, probably on account of the earliness and -the natural warmth of this kind of soil. - - -_Remedies._--So far no decidedly successful remedy has been found. Some -growers advise leaving plenty of spurs on the vine, so as to give a -sufficient outlet to the sap, but it remains to be seen if this will -mitigate the evil. If the black-knot should be very destructive, a -cutting out of the same in summer time while they are forming would be -beneficial. This could best be done in June and July. Mixtures of -coal-oil and lime, etc., have been used during the winter after the -vines were already pruned, but, as the black-knot is then already dead, -no advantages can result from this remedy. - - -GRASSHOPPERS. - - -_General Notes._--While grasshoppers cannot be considered as a common -pest in the vineyard, still they are at times greatly destructive. -There has been during the last sixteen years two such invasions of -grasshoppers in the California raisin districts. The grasshoppers are of -many species, some seventeen kinds having been recognized one season. -They all breed in the waste or unplowed ground outside the vineyard, and -when full-grown invade the vines. This fact can be taken advantage of to -destroy them. - - -_Remedies._--The waste lands for a half mile at least all around the -vineyard should be plowed and harrowed in the early spring. This will -destroy the eggs of the grasshoppers, and the fallow land will serve as -a barrier over which the grasshoppers do not readily pass. - -If the vineyards are so situated that the weeds or natural vegetation on -the land surrounding the vines can be burned for half a mile or more, -this will also prove a certain barrier for the hoppers. - -A mixture of fifteen pounds of white arsenic with eighty pounds of bran -and twenty pounds of middlings, moistened with enough water to make a -paste, will be eaten by the grasshoppers. The paste is spread on bits of -shakes or shingles and distributed all around the vineyard, and later on -in the vineyard. It may also be smeared on fences or trees. The -grasshoppers will eat it readily, and can thus be successfully -destroyed. If this method is used in time, the advancing army of the -pest can be kept back or destroyed at the very entrance of the vineyard. -As another remedy, a spray is recommended consisting of one ounce of -Paris green, one hundred gallons of water, and two pounds of paste. This -is sprayed on the trees or vines, and is said to kill the grasshoppers -effectively without injuring the fruit. - - - - -THE RAISIN VINEYARD. - - -PLANTING. - - -_Distances for Muscat Vines._--An examination of the various vineyards -in any or in all the different raisin districts will not help us much in -deciding upon how far apart the vines should be set, as most vineyards -have been planted by men of no previous experience in the raisin -business, and when that experience was at last acquired the vineyards -were already established and could not easily be changed. In planting, -we are too apt to do as other people do without first inquiring from -them if their experience has not taught them anything else, and if they -would not do otherwise if they had to commence over again. For years the -standard distances between raisin-vines have been eight by eight feet. -Of late years this distance was considered too small, as our soil was -supposed to be so rich, that all that was required, in order to get -large crops, was to give the vines plenty of room. Many vineyards have -been set nine by nine, nine by ten, ten by ten, or even ten by twelve -and twelve by sixteen feet. The effect has, however, been different from -that which was expected. Instead of producing larger crops, those vines -which were given more room produced only more wood and more leaves. They -followed that law of nature, which causes any animal or vegetable to -grow luxuriantly when overfed, and which, on the contrary, causes seed -and fruit to form when the vegetable system is restricted to certain -proportions, which, of course, we can only determine by actual -experience. By giving the vines less space, some inconvenience will be -experienced in working the soil, and in drying the crop between the -rows. On that account some vineyards have been planted with the vines -closer one way than the other, thus giving plenty of room in which to -work the soil, while on the other hand sufficiently confining the vines -in order to cause them to bear well. I therefore now recommend that the -vines be set four and a half by eleven, five by ten and a half, or five -by eleven feet. The first would probably be my choice. I claim for this -system many advantages, and beg intending growers to carefully consider -the following points: - -It gives us more vines to the acre, which means more grapes to the acre, -as long as the land is of the best quality, and no raisin grapes should -ever be planted on inferior soil, or at least the soil should be -sufficiently rich to supply plant food to the greater number of vines. - -It makes the working of the soil cheaper, and fully one-third more of -the work can be done by two-horse plows. The single-horse work can be -confined to plowing a furrow on each side of the vines, and to running a -cultivator crosswise. As the number of rows in this system is less, it -also follows that less single-team work is needed. - -The vines protect themselves from the hot sun and hot winds which cause -sunscald. The short distances should be in the direction of the hot -wind, if any there be, or in the direction of east and west if there are -no hot winds in the district. The spaces between the rows will thus -catch the morning sun, which is of importance when we dry on trays -between the vines. - -Less roads will be needed in the vineyard, as the larger distance is -sufficient to enable any teams to pass between every row of vines, and -distribute trays, boxes, etc., without interfering with the vines. The -saving thereby of labor in carrying the boxes and trays is quite an item -in vineyards where the vines are planted say eight by eight feet or -closer. - -[Illustration: Land Scrapers.] - -The trimmings of the vines can be burned in the vineyard between the -rows, and will thus help to fertilize the soil. Besides, the expense of -hauling the trimmings away will be saved. - - -_The Marking Out of a Vineyard._--As any practical horticulturist knows -how to stake out an orchard or vineyard, a minute description is not -here needed. I will only indicate the most important points. Cut a large -number of small pegs, one inch or so square and a foot or so long. Next -get two lines of twisted wire, each say 150 feet long. Mark off on one -wire every five feet by inserting a small, bright copper wire in the -twist, and wind it around the iron wire three or four times, enough to -show the place. On the other wire mark off similarly every ten or eleven -feet, always supposing these are the distances decided upon. Now stretch -one of the wires along one end of the future vineyard and call this line -the base line No. 1. Set a peg close to every copper ringlet, on the -side of the wire away from the vineyard. When done, stretch the other -wire, No. 2, at a right angle with the former, and set pegs similarly. -Remove wire No. 1 from base line No. 1 and stretch it at the end of wire -No. 2, parallel to the base line. Call this base line No. 2. Set pegs as -before every eight feet. It is now evident that, by stretching -successively the wire No. 2 between the pegs set on the two base lines, -and by setting cuttings or rooted vines close to the copper ringlets on -the wire line, perfectly straight and even rows can be had in every -direction. - -Too much stress cannot be laid on this work. Remember that the vineyard -is to last for a lifetime or more, and that any careless work will ever -be an eyesore and a drawback. Unsightly vineyards, carelessly staked -out, are never worth as much as those carefully planted, where every row -is straight, and where plowing, cultivating and other farming and -vineyard work can be performed without meeting any obstacles in the way -of crooked rows, or of vines standing out of line. Only too frequently -vineyard rows are plowed out, and the cuttings are “slapped” in anyway -in order to get the work quickly done. In after years, when the -proprietor’s taste and experience has improved, he finds that his -reputation as a careless or ignorant grower cannot be changed; for the -vineyard is there to last, and to tell the tale of early ignorance or -neglect. - -[Illustration: 1-_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_.--Vineyard Tools used in the Currant -Vineyards of Zante.] - - -_Relative Value of Cuttings and Rooted Vines._--Cuttings and rooted -vines have their advocates, but the majority of vineyardists are now in -favor of planting rooted vines, and I would myself choose the latter -every time. As, however, rooted vines and cuttings are both likely to be -used as long as vines are planted, a few words in regard to their -respective merits may be of general interest. In planting cuttings, we -are never sure that they will all grow. Cuttings if cared for generally -do well, but sometimes, even with good care, they fail, and the loss and -annoyance is then always great, and even in very careful planting seldom -over ninety per cent live, while often twenty-five per cent die. The -reason is often careless planting, when the season is favorable, but in -unfavorable seasons the failure must be attributed to other causes. -Those cuttings which grow, generally grow well and often make as good -vines as those raised from previously rooted ones. - -The replanting of the cuttings that failed to live is both expensive and -troublesome. Every vineyardist knows how difficult it is to succeed in -making cuttings, or even vines, grow on places in the vineyard where -other ones have failed to grow before. Some attribute this difficulty to -some poison in the soil, but I believe the cause will be found in the -greater difficulty to attend to a few young vines in among the older -ones. The older vines will naturally use up the moisture in the soil, -and the cuttings, with their young and tender roots, will have but -little chance in the general struggle for life. But even if we suppose -that the replanted vines will do equally well, it will be found that the -replanting of the cuttings is actually more expensive than the first -planting. The reason why this is so lies in the greater work in getting -the soil in first-class condition after the first planting failed. In -the first planting, the soil has been put in order with the help of -horses and plows, while, when we replant, the very spots where the vines -are to be located cannot be reached by other means than by a pick or -shovel, as, no matter how well the old vineyard is plowed, there will -always be a hard spot around every vine, or around the place where the -vine should be, and where it failed to grow. If only a few cuttings have -taken root, it is better to plow up the whole vineyard and reset, and in -so doing endeavor to do better work. I know of vineyards where the -owners have not succeeded in replanting during ten years, every year -spending money and labor with little success. There will always be a few -cuttings that fail to live. - -The causes of the uncertainty of cuttings are our inability to foresee -the outcome of the season’s climatic conditions. More or less rain has a -direct influence on our success. Thus in very rainy seasons the cuttings -should be small or rather short, so as to be as much as possible in the -upper, dryer and warmer soil. In dry seasons, again, the cuttings should -be long, so as to be in the moist ground, but as we can never foresee -what the season will be, we had better have a recourse to rooted vines, -which, if in good condition, will be comparatively independent of -weather and wind. - - -_The Making of Cuttings._--The making of cuttings is not a difficult -process, but nevertheless it should be carefully done in order to insure -final success. After the vines have been trimmed and the trimmings have -been placed in small piles along the rows of the vineyard, the cuttings -should be made as quickly as possible on the spot, the laborers moving -from pile to pile as they finish up. The shears should be sharp and kept -sharp, both to insure good cuttings and to hasten the work. A poor shear -is worse than a poor farmhand, and it pays to keep the best kind of -every tool that is used in vineyard work. The size of the cutting must -be decided upon according to the conditions of the soil. If the land is -very wet and is likely to remain so, an eight-inch, or even a six-inch, -cutting, will do, and will grow better than a long one. Long cuttings -will reach down into the wet soil and decay at the lower end before -they take root. In dry and warm soils the cuttings may be from twelve to -eighteen inches long, or even longer if it is desirable to bend them in -a circular way in the holes in which they are to be planted, or if the -soil is very warm and dry, when it is of importance that the cutting -should reach the deeper moisture. A twelve or fourteen inch cutting is -probably an average size cutting, and one that will answer most -conditions, in case they are not previously known. - -A nurseryman, or any one who can give his cuttings as much attention as -they require, can use even the very tips of the vines and make them -grow. But for general planting, especially direct in the field, seldom -more than one or two cuttings can be made from a branch. The cutting -should be cut immediately below an eye or joint. Such cuttings grow -better, are easier to plant and are less apt to dry out. The more eyes a -cutting contains the better is the cutting, as the roots mostly form at -the joints. Many make the cuttings with a heel of old wood, but I do not -believe such cuttings are in any way preferable to those made of only -one season’s wood. The old wood does not grow any better than young -wood, generally not so well, and, besides, such cuttings with heels are -more difficult to plant and handle. When the cuttings are made, they -should at first be placed in small piles, with the top ends all the same -way, and as soon as possible afterwards tied up in bundles, with at -least two strings to every bundle. For tying, any string will do, but -split basket-willow twigs are probably the strongest and least apt to -root. Still any stout twine will answer the purpose. From one hundred to -two hundred cuttings may conveniently be put in each bundle, according -to the size of the cuttings. - - -_The Care of Cuttings._--After the cuttings are made and bundled, they -should be labeled with wooden labels and immediately taken to some place -where they can be heeled in. The lead-pencil is the best for writing the -names. The best place in which to heel in the cuttings is on the north -side of some large building, under an open shed or under some large -trees. In fact, any place which is partially shaded and cool will do. If -the bundles are to be used soon or shipped, they might be placed on the -wet ground, and only covered with sacks or with straw, but, if they are -to remain any longer time, they must be placed in the ground and -carefully covered. A trench should be dug half the depth of the cutting, -but slightly wider. The bundles are placed in the trench upright, and -after the trench is full the soil from the new trench, parallel with the -first one, is thrown on and around the bundles so as to keep them moist. -It is best not to keep the cuttings too moist, and on no account should -they be wet, as they will then begin to root rapidly, and when they are -again removed these roots will break or dry up to the great injury of -the cutting. If unavoidably the planting is delayed longer than -expected, the bundles of cuttings may be taken out and placed in dry air -for a day or for a few hours, and then replaced in the soil. This may be -done several times without any injury accruing to the cuttings, the only -effect of the drying being to retard their rooting and sprouting, but it -should of course not be done after they have once begun to callus or -root. To place cuttings in water for any length of time is nearly always -injurious, and especially so if the water is bad or contains manure. -Manure water always kills cuttings readily. If the cuttings have -sprouted, or begun to make roots, or form callus, a careful vineyardist -will take his bundles to the field submerged in a barrel or bucket of -water, or at least wrapped in wet sacks or blankets. If again the -cuttings are dry and a fresh cut does not show a flow of sap, they may -be freshened by soaking in fresh water over night. Even very poor and -dry cuttings are easily revived this way, but a continuous immersion for -several days will injure the cuttings and cause them to rot. It is also -of importance that the water should be clear and cold, or at least not -warm. Instead of immersing the cuttings in water, they may be set down -in cool and moist soil for three or four days before being planted. The -soaking in water is the simplest, quickest and most effective for -slightly dried cuttings. - - -_Planting Cuttings._--Planting cuttings in the vineyard can be done in -several different ways. They may be planted with a spade, with a flat -planting bar, or with the “sheep’s-foot.” Each one of these tools will -answer the purpose if properly used, but their selection must depend -upon the quality of the soil, and upon the nature of the land generally. -In all planting of cuttings, the following points must be observed as of -importance in insuring success. The cuttings must be set in moist and -cool soil. The lower end of the cuttings must lodge in solid ground, and -there must be no air space at the bottom. Only one eye should be left -above the surface of the soil. The soil must be tamped well around the -cutting from the bottom to the top. All inferior cuttings should be -thrown away, and every cutting should be examined before it is planted. - -For a description of the tools used in planting, I beg to refer to the -end of this chapter. I will now further consider the above points. Many -failures are made by not planting in moist soil. If irrigation is -needed, irrigate before planting, then plow and harrow, and then plant. -When moist cuttings are planted in dry and warm soil, the latter will -extract all the moisture from the cuttings, and the latter will fail to -grow. I have seen parties first plow deep furrows through the vineyard, -so as to air and dry the ground before planting the cuttings. This is -not necessary and even harmful. Moist and warm ground is essential to -the starting and growth of cuttings. The lower end of the cutting should -be lodged in solid ground, or the cutting will fail to grow. This point -is of the utmost importance, and should be carefully observed. If, when -the cutting is pushed down in the soil, a small air chamber form at the -lower end, the butt end of the cutting will mold, and the latter will be -poisoned and die. Nine-tenths of all the failures in planting are caused -by neglect in this respect. Care is especially needed when the -sheep’s-foot is used. Only one eye should be left above ground, which is -enough for all purposes. Any more eyes will exhaust the cutting before -it is rooted, and the additional length of the cutting will expose it to -the danger of being broken or otherwise injured. The soil must be tamped -hard all along the cutting so as to cause the latter to attract the -necessary moisture. Loosely set cuttings very often fail, especially in -dry seasons. All inferior cuttings, especially those frosted or -otherwise injured, should be thrown out before being brought to the -field. A cutting costs so little that it pays to use only the strongest -and best, when a much better stand will be the result. Frosted cuttings -can be detected by their darker color. Fresh and healthy cuttings should -have a green and fresh cambium or inner bark, and a fresh cut should -show fresh sap oozing out. - -When the sheep’s-foot is used in planting, the butt end of the cutting -is inserted in the forked end of this tool, and this explains why it is -necessary to have as little wood as possible below the last eye of the -cutting. By pushing the sheep’s-foot down in the soil, the cutting is -pushed simultaneously down to the proper length; a twist is then given -the sheep’s-foot so as to get it loose from the cutting, and the former -is then pulled up. It may in some instances be necessary to push down -the cutting with the left hand, while the sheep’s-foot is being pulled -back, as care must be taken that in pulling back the sheep’s-foot the -cutting is not lifted. Even the smallest lift will cause the lower end -of the cutting to hang in an air chamber, and this will, as I have -stated, cause the cutting to mold and die. When planted, a few sharp -taps with the foot will sufficiently fix the cutting. When the flat bar -is used, a hole is first made by the bar, the cutting is then inserted, -and the hole filled up by again inserting the bar near the cutting, and -by pressing it forward towards the latter. Neither of these tools can be -used in dry or stony soils, but in moist and loamy soil, which has been -previously well prepared, they are most excellent, as doing the work -both quickly and well. The sheep’s-foot is unexcelled for speed in loose -soil, while the flat bar is of advantage where the soil is a little -harder. The flat spade is used when rocky and stony or even gravelly -soil interferes with the using of the former tools. Every farmer will -know how to use the spade, and no further explanation is required here. - -Some plant the cuttings slantingly in the soil, in order to bring them -as near the surface as possible. This is well enough and proper in very -wet soils, where the lower strata are too cool, but in this warm country -the perpendicular planting is easier and better. By twisting and bending -the cutting in the dug hole a longer cutting can be used, but I have -seldom found any advantage of very long cuttings, and few soils are -suited to raisin grapes when such methods are needed to produce strong -and rapidly growing vines. - - -_Care of Young Cuttings._--In places where irrigation is needed and -used, many irrigate the cuttings immediately after they are planted, so -as to settle the soil. This, however, is only needed where the ground is -very dry or very sandy. It is much the better way to irrigate before -planting and to plant on the loose soil after it has been replowed and -properly prepared. Such soil keeps the moisture for a long time, and -even in dry climates will require no irrigation for months after the -planting. The principal care, after the cuttings have been planted, but -before they are fairly started, is to keep the ground loose and to -prevent it from baking on the surface. The best way to accomplish this -is to run a revolving randel harrow over the land regardless of the -cuttings. This kind of harrow consists of a row of vertical, slightly -concave steel discs, which revolve when the harrow is pulled over the -land. No regard need be paid to the rows of cuttings, provided they do -not stand too high above the surface, or have begun to swell. Not one -cutting in a hundred is injured, and those that are cut off are sure to -sprout from below. After every shower of rain, the land should be -harrowed or pulverized in this way. If the soil is baked and hard around -the cuttings, the latter will be slow to start, but a loosening of the -soil will have the desired effect almost immediately. The amount of -irrigation needed for young plantations can only be decided upon on the -ground. The cuttings should be kept growing, and young leaves should -always be seen at the tips of the branches. Long before these young -leaves cease growing, a copious supply of water should be added to keep -the soil from becoming too dry. - - -_Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts._--When cuttings are to be -shipped any distance, they must be packed. The simplest method of -packing for short distances is to fill the bottom of a sack with wet -straw, and then slip the bundle of cuttings down in the sack, and a -single string will then suffice to secure the sack to the bundle. Packed -this way, cuttings can stand a voyage of a week or more if the weather -is not too hot. If a longer voyage, of say several weeks’ duration, is -necessary, the cuttings should be packed in dry-goods boxes, and, if the -time of transit is not too long, no other packing is needed. If, -however, a very long transit is in view, more precautions for the safe -arrival of the cuttings are required. After the bundles have been -pressed down in the box, moist and fresh moss is packed tightly down all -along the sides of the box. Such packing will keep the cuttings fresh -for over a month. For a longer time, coarse, pulverized charcoal filled -in between the cuttings is a splendid packing. The charcoal must be dry, -the moisture in the cuttings being enough to keep them alive for several -months. Packed first in tin boxes surrounded by charcoal, and then the -boxes soldered tightly, so as to allow no air to enter, is the safest -method for transporting cuttings long distances. If there is a -possibility to repack at certain stations on the road, wooden boxes may -be used instead of tin. The waxing of the ends of the cuttings will help -to keep them moist. All lumber boxes should be lined with waxed paper, -and all cracks carefully nailed up, as by the drying of the boards the -contents are very liable to run out. Large and heavy boxes should be -surrounded by iron bands. - - -_Rooting Cuttings._--There are two ways of planting cuttings in the -nursery in order to have them rooted for next season’s planting. One way -is to plant in nursery rows four feet apart; the other is to set in -beds. For such nursery, a plat of land with rich soil and with good -water facilities should be selected. Water should never fail in the -nursery, as cuttings always require more water than old plants set -farther apart. The rows should be staked out four feet from each other. -Six or eight inch cuttings should be used, according to the depth to -moisture; the more moisture, the shorter need be the cuttings. With a -big, flat hoe the soil along the line of the row is thrown up on one -side, the cuttings are set down upright close to the perpendicular -side, and the soil is again raked back with the same kind of hoe, and -then tamped hard around the cuttings. The latter need not be over two or -three inches apart, and from forty to fifty thousand may be set on one -acre of ground. In no instance should the cutting be left more than one -or two inches above the surface of the ground. The best instrument or -tool for opening the soil and for covering the cuttings is the large -flat-faced Italian hoe, used by Italian workmen both in Europe and in -this country. - -If the bed system is adopted, much smaller cuttings may be used, -although it is not necessary to have them smaller than six inches. The -beds may be two feet wide and four feet apart, in this respect -resembling nursery rows, and treated just as such. The cuttings are set -in the beds two or three inches apart each way. We must remember that -such cuttings require much more water than cuttings planted in four-foot -rows, as the quantity soon exhausts the moisture in the soil. The beds -may also be square, each one surrounded by a little bank or levee of -soil in order to hold the water. In these beds, which should be slightly -below the general surface of the ground, the cuttings are set very -close,--two or three inches apart,--until the whole bed is filled up. -These beds are never cultivated in any other way than by pulling the -weeds out by hand. They must be frequently irrigated by flooding, except -when the soil is immensely wet or moist. - -Vines may also be propagated from a single eye, or from cuttings -containing a single eye. Such cuttings may be set perpendicularly in -beds or in rows, or they may be placed horizontally in boxes with pure -sand, and entirely covered over. The single eyes soon sprout and make -nice little plants, with a well-developed system of roots. - -All these cuttings planted in beds, if properly watered during the -summer, will make excellent vines to be set in vineyard form next -season. Being set so close, they require much moisture and irrigation, -the many new roots soon exhausting the moisture in the soil. It is -better, however, to have the cuttings set as closely as possible, so as -not to get too strong vines. An overgrown vine is more expensive to -plant and more difficult to handle than one of medium growth. Besides, -the latter has a greater number of fibrous roots, which, if in good -condition, will give a quick start and rapid growth to the new vine. - - -_Care of Rooted Vines._--The same precautions are to be observed with -rooted vines as with cuttings, only more care is required to shield the -roots from the sun and wind. Wet blankets or sacks should always be used -when the roots are taken to the field, and, if the vines show the least -sign of being dry, they should be soaked for several hours in pure -water, and in this respect treated just like cuttings. - - -_Planting Rooted Vines._--Planting rooted vines is not attended with -many difficulties. The most important points to observe are these. The -vines must be freshly dug. If not, or if the least dry, soak in water -over night. Cut away all dead or dry rootlets. Prune the top of the vine -down to two or three buds, and leave only one spur. Have the vines -covered while carried out in the field, and plant only in moist ground. -The young and tender roots are easily dried if set in warm and dry -soil, and they will afterwards decay and injure the vine. A carefully -planted vineyard, where rooted vines alone have been used, and where -every precaution has been taken to insure success, should have about -ninety-seven per cent of the vines growing. To make every one grow would -only be possible in a very small plantation. In the large raisin -centers, all this planting may be contracted for. The cost of planting -cuttings is generally calculated at one-half cent per cutting, and for -rooted vines at one cent per vine. Frequently parties contract to supply -cuttings and to plant the land for from eighteen to twenty dollars per -acre or less. It is generally better to pay the higher price and get the -work done properly. - - -_Proper Time for Planting._--The time for planting cuttings depends -greatly upon the season, the quality of the soil and the moisture. In -wet seasons the dry land should be planted first, and cuttings might be -started there as soon as the first frost allows us to make them with -advantage. The moister the soil the later should the planting be begun, -and on the contrary the drier the soil and the warmer, the sooner should -the cuttings as well as the rooted vines be planted in the fall. -December and January are the best months to plant, although with care -cuttings as well as rooted vines may be set as late as in April or even -in May. As a rule, early planting is better, as it gives the cuttings -chance to root well before the hot weather causes the shoots to start. -In very rainy seasons, or in wet places, cuttings should be planted -later than rooted vines. Moisture in undue degree will cause cuttings to -rot, while its influence on the roots of the vines is not as great. -Rooted vines stand both moisture and drought better than cuttings do. On -sandy, dry soil and in dry seasons I would wish my cuttings planted as -early in December as possible; while, on wet places, I would delay -planting until after the frost is over in February. The same rule -applies to rooted vines, but we must remember that roots begin to send -out rootlets almost as soon as they are dug, and that early planting -will preserve these for the early use of the vine, while, in late -planting, almost every one of these new roots will be destroyed in -planting and must be produced over again. We might also say that both -cuttings and rooted vines should be set as soon as the soil is in proper -condition in the fall. Do not wait for anything after the soil is dry -enough to permit planting. Early planted vines will have a good start. - - -_Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines._--The price of Muscat or -raisin-grape cuttings generally varies from two dollars and fifty cents -to five dollars per thousand, and have been sold as low as one dollar -per thousand cuttings. Rooted vines again vary from ten to twenty -dollars per thousand, according to the demand and supply. The cost of -planting is, of course, different in different localities. In Fresno the -ruling prices for vineyard planting with cuttings is one-half cent per -cutting. The men board and lodge themselves for this sum. For rooted -vines the price is from sixty cents to one dollar per hundred vines. The -ground must be in a perfect condition, but the success of the work is -never guaranteed, as so much depends upon after treatment. While the -actual cost of planting the grapes is insignificant, it will be found -that the many different expenses of a large vineyard of say 160 acres -will be quite considerable, and few of our larger raisin vineyards in -irrigated districts have cost less than fifty dollars per acre during -the first year. This includes labor, buildings, tools, etc., but not the -first cost of land. With experience and constant supervision, this cost -may be reduced somewhat, and under very favorable circumstances from -twenty to forty dollars even per acre may cover the cost of planting and -maintenance during the first season. But estimates in this direction are -not reliable, as one man will spend twice as much as another under -similar circumstances. - - -PLOWING AND CULTIVATION. - - -_Winter Plowing._--The plowing and cultivation of a vineyard comprise -different operations, both in the spring, winter and summer. Winter -plowing should begin as soon as the vines are pruned, and should be -finished before the buds begin to swell in the spring. The plowing -should begin with a large plow and two horses, and the soil should be -thrown from the vines towards the center of the land between them. As -such a large plow cannot go too near the vines without breaking branches -and injuring the buds, a smaller single-horse plow is used to follow -after the double team, and to finish up by plowing a furrow nearest to -the vines. The depth of this plowing should, if possible, be from six to -eight inches in the center of the row, and from four to six inches -nearest to the vines. - -[Illustration: Vineyard Double Plow.] - - -_Plowing Devices._--To enable the single plow to run as closely to the -vines as possible without injury to the vines, several devices are used. -The block device consists of inserting a block of wood two inches wide -between the center of the clevis and the plow-beam. This throws the -singletree out to one side and enables the horse to walk at a distance -from the vine, while the plow follows as close to the latter as -possible. In combination with this block, the singletrees should be so -constructed as not to catch the branches of the vines. This is best -accomplished by attaching to the outside end of the singletree a flat, -doubled leather strap, to which is fixed a common, large snap, in which -latter the traces of the harness are fixed. Such a singletree will -glide by the branches without giving them a chance to catch anywhere. -Similar singletrees, or even doubletrees, should be used wherever -vineyard work is to be done, and they have the double advantage of being -cheap, practical and easily made by any farmhand handy with tools. - - -_Cultivation._--The cultivation should always follow the plowing -immediately, so as to prevent the soil from baking, and so as to tear up -the roots of the weeds which have been partially dislodged. The first -cultivation, which should always be in the same direction as the -plowing, should be followed by cross-cultivation. The latter brings the -soil back towards the vines, filling up the hollow formed by the -throwing of the soil from the vines. - -[Illustration: Raisin Vineyard Diamond-tooth Cultivator.] - - -_Back-furrowing._--Later on, when the weeds have to some extent decayed, -a double-shovel plow is by some growers used for turning a part of the -soil back towards the vines. One round of this plow on each side of the -vines is all that is required, as the repeated cultivation that should -be carried on in a vineyard will generally suffice to bring the balance -of the soil back from the center of the land towards the vines. - - -_Cross-plowing._--Cross-plowing is not absolutely needed, and in many -places not even possible, as where the vines are planted closer one way -than the other. But wherever plowing can be done both ways, the land -will be benefited by being plowed one way one year and the other way the -next year, so that in course of time all the soil will be regularly -broken up. When there is plenty of time and enough labor, cross-plowing -the same season will greatly benefit the vines. - - -_Weed-cutters._--These are used to great advantage after the first -plowing, and any cultivator may be rigged with one of them, or they may -be made as separate tools. The cutter-bar is simply a flat bar, which is -bent in the shape of a very wide U, and is fastened to the beams of the -cultivator just behind the last shovels or blades. The horizontal part -of this cutter-knife should be on the same level as the center of the -cultivator blades, and stand as horizontal as possible, in order to be -subjected to the least amount of friction. The effect of such cultivator -cutters are that no growing weeds are left behind wherever they pass. - - -_Cutter-sled._--I have used with great advantage a combination of this -cutter-knife and a sled, upon which the driver could stand and ride, and -its use saved time, besides doing the required work well. Such a -cutter-sled is, however, only useful in already well plowed and -cultivated soil, and for summer work it is just the thing and can then -not be surpassed by any other weed-cutting tool which I have ever seen -used. - -[Illustration: Raisin Vineyard Weed-cutter.] - -Various other tools are used, and different ones at that in each -separate district. Each grower has his particular way to cultivate and -plow, and not two vineyardists do the work alike. Each one has his -favorite tools and instruments, which he often changes from year to year -or replaces by new inventions of local mechanics or inventors. A -description of these tools and the various methods of plowing, -cultivating and bringing the land in proper condition would make a book -of itself and would be merely a history of each individual vineyard in -the land. An enumeration of them will be found later on. - -The cultivation of the vineyard should be continued as long as it can be -done without causing injury to the new growth of the vines. The exact -number of times the vines should be cultivated is impossible to decide -upon beforehand, as almost every vineyard requires a different method of -working. It is safe to say that during the summer no weeds should be -allowed to grow in the vineyard, and, as long as any of them are left, -the soil should, if possible, be cultivated. Every weed acts like a -chimney for the moisture in the soil, which it sucks out to the -detriment of the vine, while weeds which grow in among the branches of -the vines will also seriously interfere with the picking of the grapes. - -[Illustration: Riverside: City, Orchards and Vineyards.] - - -_Hoeing._--Only little manual cultivation is needed. In the spring, -after the first plowing and before the buds have started or have grown -long enough to interfere with the work, the vines should be hoed. The -object of hoeing is to loosen the soil nearest the vines, and to destroy -all the weeds which cannot be turned under by the plow, and especially -those which grow close to the vines. The best tool for this purpose is -the common, heavy hoe with a long handle. A very useful hoe can be made -of old shovels which are so worn and broken that they cannot be longer -used for digging. The blade of the shovel is fixed to a new handle at a -right angle, similar to a hoe handle, while the blade itself is left as -it is. Such hoes are very useful in cutting heavy weeds, and work with -great facility. Forked hoes are used by many vineyardmen, especially for -stirring the hardened crust around the vine, but I believe the common, -heavy hoe a more useful instrument, and if used in time will make the -forked hoe unnecessary. - - -_Time for Cultivation._--Too early plowing or cultivation before the -weeds have started is not always desirable, as it prevents the weeds -from growing. Such weeds, if turned under, will yearly enrich the land, -and in course of time form a heavy and humus-rich top soil, which will -serve to keep the moisture in the soil below. I therefore advocate -plowing as late as possible. The exact time must be decided for every -particular season and for every separate locality, and no general rule -can be given. Wet lands should be plowed earlier than dry lands; it is -the latter which especially require the green weeds to be turned under, -and which will be the most benefited by the accumulation of humus. Our -vineyardists disregard this fact too much, and are generally too apt to -plow their dryest lands first. - - -GRAFTING THE MUSCAT ON OTHER STOCKS. - - -_Time for Grafting Raisin-vines._--The best time for grafting -grapevines, as well as for grafting anything else, is when the stock on -which we graft has its sap in circulation, and when the scions or -cuttings which we are to insert in the stock are yet dormant. This time -occurs from the middle of January, when the sap first rises in the old -vine, and continues to March or even April, February and March being -generally the months best suited to the work. Grafting may also be done -in the fall of the year after the grape crop has been gathered, while -some growers have best succeeded still earlier, and advocate the month -of August as being the most favorable time for this process. The sap at -that time ceases flowing, and there is no danger of its being clogged. -Grapevines can be grafted at almost any time of the year at which the -weather is not too warm, as this will cause the cuttings to bud out -before they have joined the stock. If grafting on resistant stocks is -desired, the stocks, if small, must first be dug, and the grafting can -then be performed in the workshop any time between December and March, -the early winter months being preferable. - - -_Points to be Observed in Grafting._--The main object in grafting is to -properly join the scions and the stock. The point of junction should be -the cambium layer, or what is commonly called the inner bark. If a -cutting of a vine is cut off smoothly and placed in the ground, the -callus soon begins to form at the lower end. This callus, which is seen -to exude from the green layer between the hard wood and the bark, is fed -by the sap in the cutting descending through the cambium layer and -forming new cells at its free end. If this callus joins a similar callus -of the cambium or green layer of the stock, the two calluses unite and -form together a new vine, in which the top consists of the new scion and -the root of the old vine. The junction of the two is the place where the -cambium surface of the scion met the cambium of the stock. In the -scions, the cambium lies very close to the exterior layer of the -cutting, the bark here being very thin, while in the old stock the -cambium is situated many times deeper in, the outer layer or the bark -being very thick. It is not necessary that the cambium layers of the two -should meet or join all along the cut surface, and a few points of -contact and junction is sufficient, although it is better to have as -large a junction surface as possible. If the two cambium layers do not -meet, the scion will not grow, or, as it is called, take. The scions -must be dormant when being grafted, and, if their buds have begun to -swell, they will probably not take, or at least success is less certain. -In order to keep them dormant they should be cut early in winter, and -then be buried in cool and only slightly moist earth, either in a cellar -or on the north side of a house, where the sun and heat will not strike -them and cause them to start their buds. If the callus should form, or -even root, the callus and roots may be cut away without great injury to -the cuttings. If the cuttings are dry, they should be soaked for a few -hours in tepid water, and afterwards buried in moist sand. This -treatment is often useful for imported cuttings which have been injured -in transit. They often recover vigor wonderfully fast, and should never -be given up for lost as long as there is any green-colored cambium left, -in which the sap may again be brought into circulation. - - -_Various Methods of Grafting._--The general way to graft is to graft on -old stocks. Vines of one variety are thus changed into the variety we -wish to grow, and from which the scions are taken. The first step is to -dig away the soil from the vines down to the first roots, which should -be done by a separate gang of men. Next the stocks are sawed off -horizontally at the first roots, or say from four to six inches below -the surface of the soil. This should also be done by separate hands so -as to insure rapidity and skill in the work. Some grafters saw off the -stocks somewhat slanting, so as to cause them to shed the sap which -always exudes from the stump. Next in order comes the splitting of the -wood of the stock and the insertion of the grafts. This requires care -and skill, and should not be done by careless hands. - -The splitting of the stock is done in several different ways, and to -accomplish it we can either use a knife and a wooden mallet or a -hand-saw. If the former is used, the knife must be sharp and thick, so -as to stand the blows of the mallet. Some growers even use a sharp -chisel. If a saw is the tool used,--and I prefer it every time,--the -edges of the old wood should afterwards be pared off smoothly with a -sharp knife, so as to leave no rough marks of the teeth of the saw. The -stock is split straight across, as in the cleft graft, and one scion is -then inserted at each end of the cleft on opposite sides of the stock; -or the stock is split on one side only, care being taken that the cleft -does not extend across the stump, and in this cleft a scion is carefully -fitted as before; or a wedge-shaped piece may be sawed out or cut out of -the stock, and of the size that can be fitted by a scion. It makes but -little difference what method is used, as with ordinary care and skill -the scions will take quite readily. Even if they should entirely fail, -the same stocks may be grafted over next fall or next year, as they keep -their vitality almost unimpaired for years after they are cut. It is -only necessary to saw them off until fresh wood is reached. - -[Illustration: Simple Lateral Cleft Graft, 1_a._ Splitting the Trunk, -1_b._ The Scion, 1_c._ The Beveled End of the Latter, 1_d._ Scion and -Stock Joined. - -2. Simple Transversal Cleft Graft with Two Scions. 3. Cleft Grafting -with a Cutting Graft. Champin Graft, or Graft on a Rooted Vine. 4_a._ -Graft and Stock Before being Joined. 4_b._ The Same After being Joined. -All after Aimé Champin’s “Vine Grafting.”] - -The next work is to insert the scions. They should never be longer than -sufficient to have one eye above the surface of the soil, two or three -eyes to the scion being generally enough. The cuttings are first cut in -sufficient lengths in the field, or on the spot, and there pared to fit -the cleft in the stock. If prepared in the house, they are apt to dry -out and become ruined. By keeping them in water they may be kept fresh, -but this greatly injures their quality. The best way is to bring the -cuttings out to the vineyard wrapped up in wet sacks, and to cut and -pare them on the spot where they are to be grafted. With a sharp knife -the two opposite sides of the scions are pared off tapering, but not -necessarily to a fine point. The scion is then fitted in the cleft, a -small wooden wedge being useful for holding the latter open while the -scion is fitted. If the stock closes tightly upon the graft, no tying is -required, but, if the grip of the stock is not sufficient, tying is -needed. Cotton cloth, manilla rope or anything that will hold the two -together will answer the purpose. The stocks and scions will both dry -slightly, and the tying should therefore be secure and tight. - -A piece of bark of the vine is next placed over the cleft, so as to -prevent any soil from falling in the cleft, and very careful grafters -use a paste made of a mixture of two parts of adobe or clay and one part -of cowdung, for covering both the cleft and the sides of the grafts -outside of the tying. A stout stake is driven in the ground close to the -graft, and the two tied together in order that the graft may not give or -be disturbed in the least. The hole is next filled with soil, which -should be packed tightly and heaped above the scion, thus forming a -small mound above the ground all around the graft. The soil should not -be disturbed until the new shoots are well above the ground and have -begun to harden their wood, at which time the security of the graft is -fully assured. One or more of the grafts may be left growing for the -first year, and later on all except one graft are cut off so as to give -the vine only one trunk. - -In grafting on resistant stocks, the latter generally being smaller then -old stocks, a different graft may be used, such as the whip graft. This -graft should be above or at least near the top of the ground in order to -prevent the scion from taking root, the latter’s roots not being -resistant to the phylloxera. Such grafts should be carefully covered -with the clay mixture, and soil should be heaped up over their tops. To -prevent the scions from drying out, their tops may also be covered with -grafting wax. - - -_Stocks and Their Influence._--The old stock has a decided influence on -the scion and the new vine. Which stock is the best on which to graft -the Muscat has not yet been determined, but we may presume that any -strong and healthy growing variety will answer our purpose. During the -first year, and also during the second year, in many instances the new -vine assumes a character half way between that of an old-stock variety -and that of the variety of the scions. Thus I have seen Muscats grafted -on Sultanas and Zinfandels which were almost identical with these -varieties. If I had not positively known that they were the tops -produced from Muscat scions, I would never have believed them to be -anything else than suckers from the old stocks. The leaves, berries and -branches of these Muscats were the first year exactly like Sultanas. The -berries of those grafted on black grapes were, however, in this -instance, not black but white, but I have heard of other instances in -which they were partially colored. Some vines, again, showed -characteristics of both varieties, the leaves generally being similar to -the old stock, while the grapes showed the characteristics of the -Muscats. This bastardity, however, wears off in a year or two, and -finally the vine assumes the full characteristics of the scion variety. -When this takes place it is evident that the sap of the scion or the top -of the vine has either changed the root, or through its quantity -overpowered the effects of the root-sap. - -Muscats grafted on Malagas, Feher Szagos, Sultanas and Zinfandels all do -well in time, and in many instances bear even better than Muscats on -their own roots. Our experience in grafting the Muscat is, however, -limited, and we do not know with any certainty which roots are the most -favorable or the most unfavorable on which to graft the Muscat grape. I -have seen grafted Muscats on wine stocks which did not do well as -regards bearing, while the growth of the vines was rather vigorous. -These varieties mentioned above are, however, suitable stocks for Muscat -grafts. I learn from Mr. R. C. Kells of Yuba City that the late Dr. S. -R. Chandler of the same locality cleared the third year seventy-five -dollars per acre from Muscats grafted on Mission vines. This must be -considered as very successful, especially as I have heard of other -instances where similar grafts did not bear sufficiently the third year -to pay for the labor of caring for the vineyard work that year. - - -VARIOUS SUMMER WORK. - - -_Sulphuring._--Sulphuring the vines is now considered a most necessary -operation, and without doing it well and in time no good crops can be -relied upon. It is true that good crops of grapes are sometimes had -without sulphuring, but this is only due to chance; the absence of -mildew, and immunity from disease of unsulphured vines are rare, even in -otherwise most perfectly kept vineyards. - -The sulphuring consists in thoroughly dusting the growing vines, leaves, -branches, flower buds and berries with powdered sulphur. The first -sulphuring must be done when the grapevines leaf out in the spring, and, -when the young shoots are about six inches long, it is about time to -commence. Many growers sulphur only once, some go over their vines two -times, but our most successful growers,--those who get the best and -largest fruit crop of grapes and bunches,--sulphur in unfavorable -seasons three or four times. The second sulphuring is done just before -the blossoms open, and may even, provided the weather remains cool and -windy, be done in the open blossoms with great benefit to the setting -berries. Miss M. F. Austin of Fresno was the first to successfully -sulphur in the open blossom, the result being very large crops. But not -all have been as successful as she, and one of our most experienced -vineyardists and raisin-growers, T. C. White, prefers to sulphur just -before the blossom opens, as, in case of very warm weather when the -sulphur is thrown on the blossom, the latter is apt to blast. We are -therefore on the safe side if we sulphur just before the buds have -opened, and after the grapes have set. But on cold, windy days when one -of the cold electric northwest winds are sweeping down the valleys, -sulphuring must be done whether the blossom is open or not, as it is -just at this time the sulphur is required the most, in order to -counteract the formation of the first stage of the powdery mildew. The -vapor of the sulphur destroys the germs of the mildew, and thus prevents -the latter from causing the grapes to fall off. After the grapes have -fully set, no further sulphuring is required except in the case of heavy -rains or in continued cloudy weather, when there is always danger that -the mildew will reappear. If heavy rains should occur during the summer, -a renewed sulphuring is always necessary or at least advisable, but in -ordinary seasons no sulphuring is needed after the berries have set -well, as the germs of the mildew are then sufficiently injured to not -develop later in the season. - -Sufficient sulphuring is always noticeable in the vineyard by its smell, -and, when this smell is strong and pronounced, no further sulphuring is -required. The sulphur is applied to the vines either by the “dredger” -(or dust-can) or by a pair of sulphur bellows. The dredger is used when -the vines are small, while the bellows are necessary to spread the -sulphur evenly when the vines have reached a certain size. Many growers -use, during the first sulphuring, small burlap bags filled with sulphur. -The meshes of the burlaps are large enough to allow the sulphur to go -through. The sulphur should be finely pulverized to be effective, and -the sublimated French sulphur is by many considered the best. The cost -of sulphuring varies according to the size of the vines, but is -generally about three dollars per acre. Young vines under three years of -age require little sulphuring, while older vines require a great deal. -About ten tons of sulphur will be enough for 160 acres. - - -_Tying Over._--The tying over of the branches is another vineyard -operation much used in the interior raisin districts, generally in the -end of June or the middle of July. It consists in so bending and tying -the long, straggling branches of the vine that they will shade the -grapes hanging in the center. The long branch is bent, not in a direct -line towards the center, as it would then expose too many of the lower -grape bunches, but in a spiral direction round the vine. If there is any -fear that the grapes will be exposed and sunburned, and the vines have -not been properly summer pruned, the tying over is the only process by -which great loss can be prevented and the grape crop saved. In tying -over, no twine is used. The end of the long branch is twisted and -fastened to other branches, and, when the grapes are ripe and the -picking season comes, a single light pull will suffice to untie all and -allow the grapes to be picked. Great care should be used in tying over, -lest the lower branches become exposed and sunburned. Careless or -inexperienced laborers will often accomplish a great deal of work and a -great deal of harm in an incredibly short time. I have seen vineyards -where more harm was done by tying over than by the sun and wind -combined. - - -_Covering the Vines._--Instead of tying over, many vineyardists now -cover the vines, and place the covers on the open center of the vine, in -order that they may protect the grapes from exposure to the sun. This is -done in June, several days before the hot spell is expected. The last -week in June is the best time almost everywhere in California, as the -vines are then open in the center, and any unusually hot weather would -easily cause the grapes to sunburn. The process of covering is very -simple. With a pair of shears the longest branches are clipped off and -immediately placed on the open center. This is generally enough to -prevent the exposed grapes in the center of the vine from being scalded. -More than half a dozen branches will seldom be required, and at picking -time these dry branches must first be thrown off, so as to give the -picker access to the grapes. The covering of the vines is a better -process than tying over, requiring less work and being more quickly -performed. It is especially useful for old vines, as the grapes of young -vines are principally exposed from the sides. - - -_Thinning the Crop._--The proper thinning of the crop should be done by -pruning. If the proper amount of wood is left, no thinning out of the -grapes is needed. If a few show-grapes or extra large raisins are needed -for exhibiting purposes, they can be produced by a judicious cutting of -the majority of the grapes from any single bunch. If the free half of -the bunch is cut off, the part that is left will produce very large -grapes. This operation is, however, never likely to enter as a regular -vineyard operation in our vineyards, as with us labor is too scarce. The -object of our raisin industry is to produce cheap medium-sized raisins -of good quality, to be used by the masses of the people, instead of a -smaller quantity of very large grapes, which could only be used by the -rich. - - -_Ringing the Vines._--This consists in removing a part of the bark all -around a cane. In France and Greece a special instrument is made to -perform this operation quickly and carefully. A ring of bark half an -inch wide is all that is required to have the desired effect. The vines -are ringed when the grapes are half grown, and only a few canes are -ringed on each vine. The effect of ringing is to greatly increase the -crop of grapes, also to produce the grapes earlier in the season. So far -this process has not been used in California to any extent. In the -Grecian Islands, where currants are raised, this ringing has been -practiced for years, with more or less beneficial effect. The sap in the -cane that is ringed is prevented from again returning to the root, and -goes to produce a larger quantity of grapes above the ring. But thereby -the cane is seriously injured, and often to such an extent that it must -be entirely removed the following season. Care must therefore be taken -to leave enough unringed branches to serve as fruit-bearing wood the -following year. If done with care and good judgment, the ringing does no -great injury to the vine. For a fuller account of the process, see -article on Currants. - - -_The Vineyard Labors of the Year._--The following synopsis of the -various labors in a raisin vineyard can only be of interest to the -beginner, or to any one who contemplates engaging in the raisin -business. The data given are only approximate, as they must differ in -different localities, or according to the changing of the seasons: - - -_December._--After the first frost, or when the vines are dormant, -planting new vines and cuttings may begin. Pruning the old wood. Burning -the prunings. Manuring the soil. - - -_January._--Plowing, cultivating and planting. - - -_February._--Cultivating and plowing. - - -_March._--Grafting the grapes and finishing plowing. - - -_April._--Hoeing the vines and cultivating. Sulphuring and suckering. - - -_May._--Sulphuring and summer pruning. - - -_June._--Hoeing. Covering or tying over the vines. - - -_July._--Irrigating where needed. Fixing trays and sweatboxes. - - -_August._--Distributing trays and sweatboxes in the vineyard. Picking -the first crop. Packing should begin as soon as possible. - - -_September._--Picking, drying, turning the trays, reversing, taking up. - - -_October._--Picking the last of the second crop. Packing continues. - - -_November._--Hauling in, stacking and cleaning off trays and sweatboxes. -Irrigating and manuring the land. New land should be prepared for -planting, which should begin as soon as the first frost has killed the -leaves of the vine. - - -PRUNING. - - -_Winter Pruning, or Pruning Hard Wood._--The pruning of vines comprises -two different processes. The first one has for its object the shaping of -the vines, the second one similarly the shortening of the branches -properly so as to enable them to bear better fruit. These two points -must always be kept in view, much more so of course during the first few -years, before the vines have reached their bearing age. But even in -after years the pruning must be so conducted, that the shape of the vine -is not changed so as to interfere with the work in the field, or with -the perfect development of the grapes. As regards the shape of the vine, -it has been decided that in our raisin districts the Muscat requires to -be pruned low, in order to properly protect the grapes from sun and -wind. The head should be as low as possible, or even rest on the ground, -and in no instance be more than a few inches above the same. Many of the -bunches will then rest on the ground or hang a few inches above it, and -experience shows us that such low bunches are the best and those which -produce the finest raisins. Tall Muscat vines never produce as sweet and -as large bunches or grapes as those headed low, and their grapes are apt -to sunburn or be otherwise checked in their growth. During the first -year, the young vine should be cut back to a single stem, it being -enough to leave two or three eyes above the ground. The second season -these canes should all be cut away except three, which are to form the -future head of the vine. Each one of these may be cut to two eyes, thus -leaving six eyes on the vine. In the majority of vines, the head should -by this time have been formed, as the following year will be the first -year in which the vines will bear. - -When Muscat vines have grown two seasons, they should be pruned for -fruit. The third season will always give some fruit, while, in many -localities where the vines have been well cared for, the yield may be -quite large and pay handsomely. No direction as to pruning, which will -apply to every locality or to every vine, is possible. In different -localities the climatic and other conditions are so variable that the -methods of pruning may be modified. Where the vines grow strong and -vigorous more wood should be left. In cool and sheltered places the -vines should be given a greater spread to allow more sun and air to -enter. In warm localities, with a broiling sun, the principal object in -pruning should be to properly shelter the grapes. There is danger, or at -least there are great disadvantages in pruning either too long or too -short, and in leaving too many or too few spurs. In pruning too long, or -leaving too many eyes, the shape of the vine is changed or even -seriously injured. In leaving too many spurs, the vines may bear too -many and too small grapes. To find the medium between these extremes is -always the great object and study to which the grower should devote his -attention. In rich and moist soils which produce strong vines, more eyes -should be left, and in sandy, poor soil a few eyes may suffice to cause -the vine to bear much more that it can properly mature and perfect. The -year before the vines bear their first good crop, the spurs left should -not exceed three or four, and each spur should not have more than two -eyes, including the eye nearest the old wood, which eye is often -overlooked and not counted in. The next year a few more spurs may be -left, but at no time should each spur be allowed to carry more than two -eyes. If more eyes are left, the lower eyes will not develop, and the -only thing attained by such pruning is to increase the size of the head, -and to place the leaves and the grapes farther away from the center of -the vine. - -At the age of six years, or when the vine is in full bearing, no more -spurs should be added, as the vine has then attained a mature age, and -the yield will increase independently of an increased number of spurs. -How many spurs should be left it is not possible to say. The experience -with most growers is generally that too few spurs are left, and that -from ten to fifteen spurs are not too many on large and healthy vines. -The tendency of the growers is now to leave more spurs than formerly, -and to always restrict the spurs to two eyes each. This experience has -been acquired simultaneously in Fresno, San Bernardino and San Diego -counties. Many growers affirm the fact that the difficulty is to get -spurs enough, and my own experience is that, after the vine has once -attained its age of full bearing, all the strongest branches are -required to furnish spurs, and that only the weak and sickly shoots -should be cut away entirely. The strong flow of sap in the spring -requires many outlets, so as not to unnecessarily push the cell walls -and cause disorders, and in case the soil is not strong enough to -sustain and perfect so many grapes, it is better to manure it heavily -and make it rich enough for all purposes. I believe an average of from -eight to ten spurs are required by strong and bearing vines. Only strong -canes should be left at any time. Weak and immature canes should be cut -off close to the trunk or to the head. - -[Illustration: Muscatel Vine Eight Years Old, after Winter Pruning.] - -This method of pruning differs materially from that this season adopted -by A. B. Butler. He leaves now only from five to eight spurs on the -vines, generally the lesser number. He maintains that his object is to -produce large and superior grapes, and not to have his vines overbear. -The outcome of such close pruning has not yet been demonstrated, but it -may be possible that this is the proper way. Mr. Butler has certainly -one point in his favor, and that is that it has not yet been -demonstrated that very close pruning causes the disease known as -black-knot, as quite frequently the unpruned vines show this disease -much more than those which are pruned close. Another point in favor of -this pruning is that it has been practiced in Malaga for years without -any ill effects. But, before such very close pruning can be generally -recommended, our experience in this direction should be more extensive, -and several years more will be necessary to come to any satisfactory -conclusion in this respect. We know, however, that too many (say from -twenty to twenty-five) spurs will exhaust the low-headed Muscatel vines, -and in order to bring such vines back to proper bearing it has been -found necessary to reduce the number of spurs at once to one-third and -then gradually increase their number as the vines grow stronger. Every -grower should study his own vines and adapt the number of spurs to the -quality of the crop. If the crop is inferior, reduce the number; if -again the crop is superior, we may try to gradually give a few more -spurs in order to reach the greatest yield of first-class grapes. In -pruning the spurs, the cut should be made a little above the eye or bud, -and not so close to it that it will be injured and dry out. - -Suckers from the roots should be removed to a limited extent, that is, -now and then a sucker may be left in order to give material for forming -a new head, if this should be found necessary. But as a rule the many -suckers which rise from the roots should be removed in early spring with -a sharp-pointed stick, and even those which rise from below the regular -head should be broken off while young, or be pruned off in winter time. - -Another system of pruning called the Chaintre system has been -introduced, or at least spoken of during the last few years. As, -however, it is not generally used, or even to my knowledge used at all, -for raisin grapes, I need only here allude to it. It consists of pruning -the vine to one single long stem, which is carried along the ground and, -at a distance of six or eight feet from the root, fastened to a stake. -This branch is pruned to shorter branches and spurs, each of the latter -to one or two eyes each to furnish wood and fruit. The advantages of the -Chaintre pruning are claimed to be principally two,--a greater yield of -grapes and a larger outlet for the abundant sap in the spring. It is -supposed that, if the vine is pruned too short, the sudden flow of sap -in the spring has a great tendency to poison some of the cells and -vessels of the wood, and cause the disease known as black-knot. The -Chaintre system endeavors, by furnishing the vine with more cells and -vessels, and thus a larger outlet for the sap, to overcome this -difficulty. The Chaintre system has, however, some great inconveniences. -It interferes considerably with the tillage of the soil. It increases -the cost of the vineyard through the extra stakes necessary to support -the vines,--inconveniences so great that I doubt whether the system will -ever be seriously adopted anywhere on this coast, even if it should -prove of any advantage. - -The time for the pruning depends upon the season. The only safe rule is -that vineyards may be pruned as soon as the vines are dormant. If pruned -too soon, a new growth will start, which will be killed by the first -frost. In many seasons the pruning may be done in November and December; -in large vineyards it must be begun early, so as to finish before the -plowing commences. Early pruning will cause the vines to start early in -the spring, while late pruning will considerably delay the starting of -the buds. When the spring frosts are to be feared, the pruning may be -deferred for some months, or until the end of January, as it delays the -budding out of the vine in the spring, sometimes as much as fourteen -days. But, on the other hand, the first warm spring weather is so -favorable to the development of the grapevines and the setting of the -fruit, that every advantage should be taken of the same. The very best -crops are generally had on early pruned vines. - - -_Bleeding of the Vines._--The bleeding of the vines after pruning in the -spring is by many considered injurious. So far as I know, no direct -experiments to prove this have been made in this country, but European -experiments with wine grapevines point to no ill effects from the -bleeding of the vines. The bleeding retards the budding out, and this -fact has led some growers to the practice of pruning twice. In the first -pruning an extra eye is left on every spur, and these eyes are again -clipped off shortly before the eyes begin to swell in the spring. The -bleeding of the vines thus causes the eyes to be retarded until the -frost is over. I believe such practice is both unnecessary and too -costly, and is not required in any of our raisin districts, and where -such practice must be employed the raisin grape cannot be perfectly at -home. Of late years spring frosts have become very rare in our principal -raisin districts, and the practice of double pruning is no longer -thought of. - - -_Summer Pruning, or Pruning Green Wood._--Summer pruning is a much -disputed vineyard operation, which, however, at least in some -localities, is of great importance. This summer, or rather spring, -pruning consists of cutting back the young growing shoots from one-third -to one-half just after the berries have set well. The proper time of the -year is in May, but the exact time must necessarily be different in -different localities and seasons. In Fresno the cutting back should not -be done later than May, and never except when the vines show a vigorous -growth. The principal object the summer pruner has in view is to force -the secondary branches of the vine as much towards the center of the -vine as possible, so as to form there a perfect canopy of shade to serve -as a protection to the young and tender berries. If let alone, the -branches of the vine will throw out these secondary shoots near the top -of the branches, thus leaving the head of the vine unprotected from the -sun. The shortening in of the branches necessarily throws the new shoots -to the center of the vine. A not less important object to be sought by -the summer pruning is the strengthening of the young branch. In May, -when the vines are covered by the young and vigorous shoots, they are -yet exceedingly brittle, and only a slight pushing is required to break -the branch off just at its junction with the old wood. A heavy wind at -this time sometimes does an immense damage, and the vineyard will look -as though every vine had been dragged over. Half of the branches may be -broken and hang partially attached to one side of the vine. A single -wind may ruin two-thirds of the crop. This can only be prevented by the -summer pruning of the vines. By a heavy shortening in of the branches, -the latter expose so much less surface for the wind to act on, that no -branches are broken, and we have failed to see the heaviest wind cause -any noticeable damage in vineyards which had their vines properly -shortened in. The summer pruning in no way injures the vines. The sap is -checked in its flow only for a few days, and within a week the new side -shoots make their appearance. But the vineyardist must be careful not to -summer prune after the hot summer weather has set in, as the hot weather -will burn or scald the young grapes and ruin them entirely. For the San -Joaquin valley raisin districts, I cannot advise summer pruning after -the first days of June; in Southern California, somewhat later. -Grapevines on sandy, dry and poor soil should not be summer pruned, or -only very lightly so. They have not strength to start a new growth and -will remain stunted all through the season. - -Many growers of Riverside, El Cajon and Fresno consider summer pruning -beneficial, if not necessary, and practice it every year regularly. It -is necessary to summer prune heavily or not at all. Cut back one-half of -the growth, or cut back leaving one or two leaves above the bunch of -grapes on every cane. If the young canes are only topped, the secondary -branches will come out near the ends of the canes and bear them down, in -time exposing the bunches to the sun as well as causing the second crop -to grow too far from the main trunk, the summer pruning thus acting the -opposite of which it was intended. In Greece the wine grapevines are -summer pruned, but the currants are never so treated. - - -_Root-pruning._--The pruning of the roots of grapevines, in order to -cause them to bear, is entirely unnecessary, and is never done by -experienced growers. Some growers have practiced the cutting of the -surface roots of the vines so as to cause the tap roots or the main -roots to go farther down, and they claim that by this method greater -crops are harvested. I am satisfied this is only a theory not supported -by facts. Surface roots are as necessary to plants as deep-soil roots, -and serve the plants in their way, bringing atmospheric air to the -circulation in the roots. If too many surface roots are formed, it is a -sure indication of too much water in the top soil, as too frequent -irrigation with a small stream of water will cause such roots to form. -The proper remedy is to irrigate less frequently, but more at a time. -The above does not refer to the pruning of the roots of grafted vines. -In cases where Muscats have been grafted on resistant stocks, it is of -importance that the graft should not make roots of its own, as these -would soon overpower the stock and in their turn succumb to the enemies -which it was the intention to avoid. When rooted vines are planted in -the vineyard, their roots should be well pruned, and all dead and -decaying, as well as dried-up, parts should be removed. If they are -allowed to remain on the vines, they will draw moisture from the sound -parts at a time when all the moisture is needed for the formation of new -roots. - - -_Suckering._--The object of this process is to relieve the raisin-vine -of superfluous wood before the latter has had time to draw on the -strength of the vine and deprive it of the elements necessary to support -the fruit-bearing branches. The proper time for suckering is early in -the spring, when the young wood is yet tender and easily broken. With a -hard and flat piece of wood, the lower suckers are dug out from below -the ground, while the upper suckers may be broken by hand. A sucker must -be understood to be any branch which does not produce fruit at a time -when the vine is old enough to bear. In strong and moist soil and on -strong vines even the lowest shoots produce grapes, and can therefore -hardly be called suckers. But as a rule even they should be removed, -unless we have a special object in view, such as renewing the trunk of -the vine, lowering its head, or in otherwise encouraging the lower -branches. - -While few vineyardists take sufficient care and time to sucker their -vines, there can be no doubt that the operation is of the greatest -importance, in order that as large and good a crop as possible may be -secured. It is not only best to remove all the non-fruit-bearing -branches which spring out from the root and the trunk, but also a little -later on, after the shoots have reached a foot or more, to cut any -branch from the head of the vine which does not produce fruit. In many -instances, however, it is necessary to renew the head of the vine, and -for that purpose lower suckers may be allowed to grow. For a year or two -these are pruned regularly and made to bear, and the old sickly head is -then removed. - - -VARIOUS VINEYARD TOOLS. - - -_General Notes._--It is not my intention to here describe the various -tools used in the vineyard so minutely that they can be made after the -description, but simply to enumerate and call attention to them in order -that as little repetition as necessary may be made. Every local -blacksmith or mechanic invents, improves or patents vineyard tools of -every description, and almost every year sees new tools introduced and -older ones discarded. Still a few of these tools have become standard, -and modifications of them are not always improvements. - - -_The Sheep’s-foot._--This is a very useful tool in planting grape -cuttings. It consists of a round rod of three-eighths-inch iron and -about three and one-half feet long, furnished with a cross handle at the -upper end. The lower end is very slightly flattened out and split to a -depth of one and one-half inches, the cleft thus formed being a little -wider at the point of the bar, while the interior angle of the cleft -should be rounded in order that the cutting may not be cut. The -sheep’s-foot is used in very soft ground only, where it can be pushed -down readily. In planting, the lower joint of the cutting is grasped by -the cleft in the rod, and both are pushed down together to the required -depth. A twist is then given the handle, so as to get the rod loose from -the cutting. The rod is then pulled up, and a tamp with the foot sets -the ground solid round the cutting. Care should be taken that the -cutting is not pulled up with the rod, as it will prove fatal to the -cutting. - - -_The Planting Bar._--This bar is used also in loose ground free from -rocks. It consists of a flat bar of iron two and one-half inches wide, -from three-eighths to one-half inch thick and three and one-half feet -long, and is furnished at the upper end with a handle. In using this -bar, it is first pushed in the ground, and a hole is made for the -cutting. The cutting is then pushed down into the hole, the bar inserted -alongside of it and pressed forward, in order to fill the hole and set -the soil solid around the cutting. - - -_The Dibble._--This tool is simply a hard piece of oakwood, with a -curved handle and pointed. It is a most useful instrument when the vines -are being pruned. By means of it the soil is scraped off from around the -trunk of the vine, to enable the pruner to cut off the suckers as close -to the trunk as possible. Every pruner should be furnished with a -dibble. - - -_Planting Chains._--These are best made of twisted wire, such as is used -for clothes lines. Lines made of cotton or hemp are apt to stretch when -dry, and shrink when wet. Copper wires are inserted to mark the -distances at which the vines should be planted. - - -_Spades._--Spades are often used for planting. Long-handled spades are -more useful than those with short handles. - - -_Hoes._--Besides the common, heavy hoes, very useful hoes can be made of -old shovels which are too worn to be of account as such. New handles are -set on the shovel blades at a right or sharp angle, thus transforming -them into veritable hoes. With these tools much more work can be -accomplished than with the common, manufactured hoe, which never cuts -well. The large, flat-faced Italian hoe imported to this country from -Italy is a most admirable instrument when planting cuttings in nursery -rows. In fact it is then indispensable. - - -_Plows._--Of plows, heavy double plows for two horses are used for -plowing in the center between the rows, and smaller plows for plowing -closer to the vines. As these can be had everywhere, and as every grower -has his own preferences, no description of them is required. - - -_Cultivators._--These are indispensable in the vineyard, and various -models are in use. The common, diamond-shovel cultivator for both one -and two horses is indispensable in every vineyard. The larger one of -these may be greatly improved by affixing to the posterior shovels a -cutter-bar, which should stand horizontal and on a level with the center -of the posterior shovels. - - -_Randel Disc Cultivators._--These are useful in ground that has baked -before the lately planted cuttings have begun to bud. They seldom cut or -injure any of the cuttings, and the whole field may be gone over -regardless of rows or cuttings. - - -_The Ash Trough._--The ash trough consists of a long trough on wheels, -all made of galvanized iron, and furnished with numerous perforated -holes. It is drawn by two or more horses through the vineyard, and the -cuttings are burned in it as it goes along, and the ashes are scattered -over the soil. As yet this trough is only used in a few of the largest -vineyards, but when perfected will be useful everywhere, as by its aid -the ashes may be saved for the vines instead of being wasted as is now -so often the case. - - -_Sulphuring Cans or Bellows._--These are of various shapes and patterns. -The cans have been superseded by the simple little burlap bag, which -does the same or better work. The bellows are similar to common bellows, -but are furnished with a distributing nozzle and with an air opening -through which the sulphur can be poured. - - -_The Cutter-sled._--This is simply a sled four feet long by two and a -half feet wide or more, under which has been fixed a horizontal bar of -iron in the shape of a shallow U. It is used in the vineyard after the -plowing and cultivation is finished, and when it is of importance to -kill the few remaining weeds. The driver stands on the sled, which is -pulled by one or two horses. It cuts all the weeds below the soil, and -is a most effective and useful tool. - - -_Vineyard Trucks._--These useful trucks are California inventions, and -of the greatest importance to the grower. They are now made of various -sizes, but should never be over four feet wide, while three feet is even -better, and their length should not exceed six feet. They are made to -turn readily anywhere by having the front wheels or wheel movable, -independently of the balance of the truck. By the aid of these trucks -the grower can use horse labor in distributing his boxes and trays in -the vineyard, even where the vines are planted so close that ordinary -wagons cannot pass. The vineyard truck is now used in all Fresno -vineyards, and is considered almost indispensable. The first truck ever -made for this purpose was designed and invented by J. T. Goodman of -Fresno. - - -_Shears._--These should be of the very best make of soft steel, and -furnished with double springs. So far no good pruning shears are -manufactured in this country, the best make coming from Switzerland, and -retailed here at $3.00 per pair. It pays any grower to buy the best -shears, as inferior ones not only last but a short time, but also do -poor and slow work, and in the long run cost more than the best and most -expensive make. With a good pair a pruner can in a day cut fifty per -cent more than with a poor pair, and from ten to twenty-five per cent -more than with an ordinary pair. It therefore can be readily seen how -the extra price can be saved in the first day or two. Such fine shears -should be handled and cared for very much like a razor. They should -never be ground on a revolving stone, but only honed with oil on a fine -hone. When the season is over they should be oiled, looked over and laid -away. Large shears with wooden handles are not needed for Muscat vines. -The best size shear is the medium size, which can be used with one -hand. - - - - -DRYING AND CURING. - - -CALIFORNIA SUN-DRIED RAISINS. - - -_Note._--In describing the processes of drying, curing, packing, -assorting, etc., I have followed only methods which should be used by -every conscientious raisin grower and packer. These methods are now -actually in use, not by every packer and grower, but by the best of -them, by those who strive to produce a very superior article, which will -compare favorably with and compete successfully with the best products -of Malaga or other foreign raisin districts. Too much poor curing and -packing is done in every raisin district, to the great detriment of the -district, its growers and its packers. The cause of so much poor work is -undoubtedly due to the method of selling the raisins in bulk for a -previously fixed sum, whether the crop is good, bad or indifferent. For -many years no inducements were held out to the grower to produce a very -superior article, and as a consequence the packer got very little -first-class raisins to pack. When raisins are paid for according to -their quality alone, there will be plenty of first-class raisins, and -both packers and growers will be the gainers. The former will get more -first-class fruit to pack, the latter will find it to their advantage to -produce it. During the last season (1889 to 1890), a change was -inaugurated, and a grading of prices according to the quality of the -raisins has been insisted on. When this system is fully carried out, and -when the grower knows at the beginning of the season that he can get a -higher price for his superior raisins, California will produce as many -high-grade raisins as Malaga or any other raisin district. Already now -our average raisins are better than the average Malagas, and all that -our growers ask for are inducements to produce the best. With a view to -promote the attainment of these expectations, the following has been -written. Raisins may be produced by cheaper methods than those which I -advocate, but only great care, judgment and study will accomplish the -best results. In the raisin industry it pays to produce the best, and to -attain this very little extra care is required. - - -_Time of Ripening._--Varying with different localities and seasons, the -Muscat grape ripens in California between the 10th of August and the -30th of September. The earliest points where raisin grapes are now grown -are probably Palm Valley in San Bernardino county and the plains of Kern -county. In both these localities Muscats have been known to be ripe as -early as July, but neither locality has yet produced any great quantity -of raisins, and can hardly be considered as a raisin center. The -earliness of the San Joaquin valley generally is probably caused by its -small elevation above the sea, which is about three hundred feet for -Fresno, and increasing as we go farther south. San Bernardino county -again, somewhat later as to ripening, is, as far as its raisin centers -are concerned, more elevated, or from one thousand to two thousand feet -or more. The nearness to the sea has there also some influence to retard -the maturing of the grapes, and it is certain that in Southern -California the later ripening of the raisin grapes is principally due to -this cause. Thus the picking in Riverside commences between the 10th and -the 30th of September, and while the other raisin districts in the -southern part of California may vary some, still the ripening season -coincides very nearly with that of Riverside. In Highlands the grapes -are said to ripen two weeks later than at Riverside. In El Cajon the -grapes ripen between the 1st and 10th of September. In Fresno the -Muscatel raisin grapes ripen in the end of August, and generally by the -20th of August the picking has begun everywhere on the drier soils, -while on the wet soils it is generally retarded from one to two weeks. -As a rule the dryness of the soil influences considerably the ripening -of the grapes, and even the quality of the soil is not without some -influence, as on sandy, warm soil grapes ripen much earlier than on -heavy land. As an illustration of such early ripening, we may mention -that, on certain gravelly soils northwest or north of Santa Ana, the -Muscat grapes ripen two weeks earlier than on the heavier and finer -soils in the immediate vicinity. The growers take advantage of this -early ripening to sell their Muscat grapes fresh instead of drying them. - -In Salt river and Gila valleys in Arizona the grapes are said to ripen -much earlier than in California, but so far the vineyards there are not -old enough to have been greatly benefited by this early ripening. On the -plains of Kern county the ripening is hastened by the nature of the -soil, and possibly also by the nearness to the desert and the desert -wind, by the greater distance from the sea, and by a less amount of -rainfall. In Malaga the grapes ripen several weeks earlier than in -Fresno; in fact, the whole Mediterranean region seems to be earlier than -California. As a general rule, we may state that the Muscat grapes ripen -later in Southern California than in the central portion of the State. -In regard to Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the farther we go -towards the south the earlier do the grapes ripen. But in every district -there are localities which are earlier than others. The Muscat and -Muscatel ripen earlier than the Sultana, which latter grape begins to -ripen earlier than the Muscat, but attains perfection much later than -any other of our raisin grapes. Thompson Seedless ripens in Yolo about -August 10th, and is thus our earliest raisin grape. - - -_Signs of Maturity._--There are three different ways by which the -ripeness of a grape can be tested,--saccharometer, taste or color. The -saccharometer is a well-known instrument, consisting of a graded glass -tube that will sink to different depths in liquors containing different -percentages of sugar. There are different kinds of saccharometers, but -the most practical one for the general raisin-grower is one divided in -one hundred degrees, each degree showing one per cent of sugar to every -hundred of water. Thus, if the saccharometer sinks down to twenty-five, -we know that the water or must contains twenty-five per cent of -saccharine water and seventy-five per cent of water. To properly test -the grapes, a few bunches should be picked from several vines, the -juice should be squeezed out and passed through a towel or otherwise -strained. The must is then poured into the test tube, and the -saccharometer inserted. If it shows twenty-five degrees or more of -sugar, the grapes will make good raisins, but for very superior raisins -several degrees more of saccharine are needed. It is not unusual to find -the grapes reach thirty degrees in favored localities and in favorable -seasons. Only inexperienced vineyardists will require the aid of the -saccharometer to determine the state of ripening of the grapes; the more -experienced judge by taste and color. - -The taste of course is the most commonly used method for ascertaining -the ripeness of the raisin grapes. Every grower experienced or not -should examine his grapes repeatedly. To give directions for tasting the -ripeness of the grapes is of course impossible; it must be learned, and -can only be learned by practice. It is enough to say here that the -grapes should taste very sweet, contain no acid, and if possible be -rather solid. - -The color is also a valuable adjunct in determining the ripeness of the -raisin grapes. Fully ripe and perfect fruit should be amber yellow, -somewhat transparent and waxy. If this color is combined with great -sweetness, and in Muscatels with absence of acidity, we can be sure that -the grapes are ripe. Some grapes do, however, especially when too much -exposed to the sun, acquire the yellow amber tint without being sweet, -but they are readily distinguished from the ripe grapes by their being -of smaller size and harder, tasteless and acid. Such grapes never -develop into good, mature grapes, and do not make good raisins. I may -also remark that not all ripe grapes become amber colored. Those that -grow in the shade and on very damp ground remain always green, although -they acquire a certain sweetness, and will make good raisins. The Muscat -grapes will make salable raisins even if not fully ripe, but in order to -make superior and good raisins all grapes should be “dead” ripe, -especially so if the grapes are to be dipped in lye. If unripe or -partially ripe grapes of Muscats and Sultanas are dipped, they make very -poor and red raisins; it would have been better-if they had never been -dipped. This is especially the case with the Sultana, which begins to -ripen and is eatable long before the Muscat, but which only makes a good -dipped raisin after the Muscat has been ripe for some time. Three or -four days make a great difference sometimes in the amount of sugar in -the grapes, and consequently in the quality of the raisins, and the -experienced grower will keep his grapes on the vines as long as possible -to attain the greatest possible amount of sweetness. But on the other -hand it takes judgment to foresee how sweet the grapes will be, as in -unfavorable seasons they will not attain their full sweetness even if -allowed to hang long on the vines. To know the time after which the -grapes do not increase in sugar requires much experience and -acquaintance with the locality where they are grown. In this respect -different years vary very much. - - -_Picking._--Many vineyardists pick their raisins too green or before -they are fully ripe. Not all raisins ripen at the same time, and to make -the best possible raisins out of the grapes, it is necessary to pick -over the vineyard several times, each time picking only the ripest -grapes. In places where there are two crops of grapes, at least two -pickings are absolutely necessary, and in many places two pickings are -enough. The green grapes of the first crop are then left to be picked -with the second crop, at which time they will probably be perfectly ripe -and very choice. But if the vineyard is small and manageable, and the -owner wishes to realize the most that he possibly can, he should make at -least three different pickings, each time taking care only to pick those -grapes which are fully ripe and which would make a first-class quality -of raisins. As long as the smaller vineyardists sell their raisins in -bulk at a contracted price of so much a pound for any kind or quality of -raisins, we cannot expect any great improvement in the too common mode -of picking, where good, bad and indifferent grapes go on the trays -together. But I am certain that in a few years this will or must change. -Raisins in sweatboxes will bring the price they are actually worth, and -it will be to the interest of every grower to pick his grapes at the -time they will make the best possible raisins, even if extra labor is -required for the work. The pickers generally use small, pointed knives -for separating the bunches, and they are preferable to small shears, as -better enabling the picker to reach farther in between bunches and -branches, and to cut the former without injuring the branch. - -In picking the bunches, great care should be taken, much more than is at -present in use. It is always best to begin picking in the poorest part -of the vineyard, as it will take some time for the pickers to learn; -they are almost certain to pick in the beginning too many green grapes. -The poorest part of the vineyard is also apt to have the ripest grapes. -The large, fine bunches should be handled with the utmost care, in order -that the bloom of the grapes may not be injured. The bunches generally -should be handled by the stems only, or, if this is impracticable, by -the stem as much as possible. In separating a large bunch from the vine, -the bunch should be cut as close to the stem as possible, and at the end -of the stem of the bunch there should remain a portion of that broader -part by which the bunch is attached to the main branch. There is nothing -prettier on a bunch of raisins than this broad end of the bunch; it -gives an idea of strength and oddity to the raisin cluster, showing the -buyer at a glance that it is a cluster which was once solidly attached -to the vine. Many raisin-packers place this broad end of the bunch so as -to protrude above or between the berries, as if inviting the purchaser -to take hold of it and thus lift the luscious bunch out of the box. With -the poorer and smaller bunches, no such care in cutting need be -exercised, and it would be to no benefit to so cut a small, poor bunch -that it would cause the purchaser to believe it was a large bunch. -Poorer bunches might therefore be cut with short stems. As to the -handling of the bunches, the intelligent grower will soon learn how to -instruct his men. If vine branches interfere with the lifting of the -bunch from the vine, some of them may be cut without any injury to the -vine, but too many branches cut this way will cause a new growth to -start, which often is derived from the best fruit buds for the ensuing -season, and which always is apt to be injured from frost. - -A picker should average not less than fifty trays a day of cleaned and -assorted grapes. At this rate the picking of twenty pounds of grapes -costs about two and a half cents. Some persons employing white labor -claimed to have lowered the cost of picking to one and three-quarter -cents per tray of twenty pounds, but I failed to learn how these grapes -had been handled, cleaned and assorted. The picking of the grapes is -facilitated by previous care given the vines. Neglected and entangled -vines are much more difficult and expensive to pick than those which -have been properly cared for and correctly pruned the season before. The -same may be said as regards vines between the branches of which weeds -have been allowed to grow. In picking from such vines, the grapes are -always torn, the best bunches destroyed and many grapes wasted on the -ground. - -[Illustration: Raisin Vineyard Truck.] - - -_Cleaning._--When the bunch is picked or cut from the stem, it should be -cleaned. If it is a first-class or even an ordinary layer bunch, every -sunburnt berry, every leaf, twig or other conspicuous foreign substance, -must be carefully removed with the picker’s right hand, while the left -hand holds the bunch by the stem. This cleaning must some time be done, -and at no time can it be performed with better results than when the -grapes are green. The stems are then soft and flexible, while later on -they are brittle, and in endeavoring to remove foreign substances many -berries will be detached, or sometimes even the whole bunch broken. This -cleaning of the bunch does not need to extend to third-rate or small -bunches, which are to be used for loose raisins. The latter can be -cleaned very rapidly with machinery, and it would only be a waste of -time to clean them by hand-picking. The use of a pair of bellows is also -very practical. With them much of the spider webs and smaller refuse can -be removed, which could not be gotten rid of in any other way. A few -hands should therefore go over all finer bunches and blow them clean, -especially if sand or dust have accumulated on the trays or bunches. If -the grapes are carefully assorted when picked, and the different grades -placed on separate trays as they should be, this cleaning is done -rapidly, as the largest part of the crop, which only will make loose -raisins, need not be cleaned. - - -_Drying on Trays._--As soon as the grapes begin to ripen, the trays -should be distributed along the rows in the vineyard. They may either -first be placed in piles at every row where the roads cross the -vineyard, or at once distributed along the vines. The former method is -to be preferred, as it protects the trays from dirt and dust, and in -distributing afterwards it gives the pickers a more varied labor, often -welcome as a change from the cramped position necessary in picking. -Muscat vines in proper bearing require one or two trays to the vine, -while for young vines one tray will suffice. The probable quantity -needed should be ascertained beforehand in order that the trays may be -properly distributed. The ripe grapes are always placed directly on the -trays, and not previously picked in boxes. In placing the bunches on the -trays, the proper way for each picker should be to have two trays, one -for each grade. On one tray he places all the large bunches that promise -to make first-class bunch raisins; on the other tray he places again all -inferior bunches and loose berries. The smaller bunches and loose -berries may be placed any way almost, as long as they are not heaped on -top of each other. The largest bunches should be placed with the stem -side down, as this side will, when cured, become the finest and will -eventually by the careful packer be placed upwards in the box. That part -of the raisin which in drying touches the tray will also present, when -cured, a flat surface with several concentric layers, which are -considered a prominent feature in the perfect raisin. - -The general method of drying is, however, to place good, bad and -indifferent bunches together on the same tray, with no attempt at -assorting. While this method may do when superior raisins are not -required, and when no higher price is paid for better grades, it will be -found a very inferior practice when the grower desires to pack himself, -in order to reap all the benefit he can out of his crop. For all -superior raisins, I therefore strongly recommend the assorting of the -raisins on the trays as having the following advantages. It requires -less handling of the large bunches. The large bunches dry the slowest, -and by having them from the beginning separated from the small and the -loose the latter can be brought away to the sweatboxes, when ready, -without necessitating the reassorting and handling from the trays, which -at this time, when the stems are very brittle, is always expensive as -well as injurious to the fine bunches. The larger bunches, which are to -produce layer raisins, require less drying, as they are to be sweated or -equalized before being packed. The smaller and inferior bunches, on the -contrary, must be stemmed and assorted by machinery before they are -equalized, and immediately after they are taken from the trays. In order -to “stem” readily these raisins must be rather overdried, as if soft -they would tear from the stems instead of having the latter broken. We -can therefore perceive the advantage of having the two grades on -different trays. Without the necessity of assorting we can simply take -up our “layer” trays when they are ready and allow our “loose” to remain -as long out as necessary, without fear of having the layers overdried. -By this assorting when green, each grade can be treated separately in a -quick and effective way. - -A tray two by three feet may be made to comfortably hold from eighteen -to twenty pounds of grapes. The first crop should be placed pretty close -on the trays, not allowing any part of the tray to be visible, as the -reflected heat will be too great and may injure the raisins. The second -crop should be packed less close, as the reflected heat from the -surface of the tray will help to dry the grapes. This of course only -refers to localities where the temperature during the first drying is -very high. The warmer it is the closer should the bunches be packed on -the trays, and on the contrary when later on in the season, or when the -drying weather is unfavorable, plenty of space should be given the -grapes. It is often said that grapes, to make good raisins, should not -only dry, but cure. There is much truth in this. Good raisins should dry -and cure at the same time, by which is meant that a chemical process is -taking place, which is something else than the mere evaporation of the -water in the grape. The heat necessary and favorable for drying the -grapes is different in different localities. At certain temperatures the -raisins will get cooked and spoil, assume a red color, lose their -sweetness, become sour and hard, and covered with large, sharply defined -corrugations,--signs of a very inferior or even entirely worthless -raisin. In Riverside the grapes are said to cook at from 98 to 100 -degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. In Fresno the grapes dry and cure well -up to a temperature of 105 degrees, and in El Cajon they do not spoil -until 103 degrees are reached. I would think that from 90 to 103 degrees -in the shade would be the best temperature for drying perfectly ripe and -sweet Muscat grapes. When the grapes are very ripe, a much higher -temperature will not injure them, while unripe and sour grapes, -especially of the second crop, will burn or cook at a lower temperature -than would be the proper one for ripe grapes. - -It is not always advisable to stop picking when the heat becomes too -great. A better method is to stack the trays in the field, so as to -protect the raisins from the sun. When the heat subsides, the trays are -again spread. The expense and trouble of stacking the trays is not as -great as may be supposed, and a few hours will generally suffice to -stack a large vineyard with the regular picking gang. Some packers have -suggested that to secure good raisins the trays should be stacked for -several weeks in the beginning of the period of drying. For the -production of our usual dark-colored raisins this is not necessary nor -even advisable, except when the heat is such that the raisins would cook -and spoil. With a little experience this cooking of the grapes can be -readily detected by the smell emitted by the grapes. As soon as they are -in the least injured by the heat, a cooked flavor begins to pervade the -whole vineyard. When this peculiar flavor is noticed, and when the -berries begin to show small red and soft blotches on the side facing the -afternoon sun, the stacking should be commenced as quickly as possible. -If the trays are kept in piles for several days, the injured grapes will -partially recover and at least to some extent regain their color. -Greatly injured grapes will dry much slower, sometimes remaining several -weeks behind those which were not injured by the sun. Slightly -discolored raisins may partially regain their color by sweating, but -they will not improve otherwise. - -After the trays are filled with grapes, the best way is to put several -rows of trays together, or rather to place the trays from three rows of -vines along one of the spaces between the rows. This gives more -compactness to the crop, makes it easier to handle the trays, and -facilitates the stacking of the trays, their turning and reversing, or -any labor with the trays that may be required. By thus clearing some of -the spaces between the rows, admission for trucks and wagons is had -close to the trays. - - -_Turning._--After the grapes have been exposed to the sun for some days, -they must be turned. By this time it will be found that the grapes have -dried principally on the upper side, while the lower side is yet -comparatively green. The time when the turning of the grapes should be -done depends entirely on the weather. One-half of the drying process -should be over, and this requires a longer or shorter time. When the -time for turning is at hand, it will be found that the under side of the -grapes, or rather the side of each berry that was placed against the -trays, has flattened out and shows concentric circles, which are -considered of much beauty, and greatly valued in all good raisins. When -they are well formed and established, it is generally time to turn. If -the grapes are turned before these concentric circles are hardened, the -latter will open and become less distinct. Another objection to turning -too early is that the upper side of the grapes, if not properly dried -before turning, will dry but very slowly afterwards, and often so slowly -that the raisins may have to be turned a second time, which will prove -both expensive and to the disadvantage of the raisins. One turning is -always enough, and the only one proper. There are several ways to turn. -The Malaga grower, with his raisin floors, must turn his raisins by -hand. The great advantage of our trays is that we can turn much quicker. -The turning is done in our vineyards by placing one tray on the top of -another and then turning them quickly over, when in changing the tray -the bottom side of the bunches will be found to be up. - -[Illustration: Raisin Tray Catcher.] - -This turning, however, requires some little knack, so as not to drop any -raisins on the ground. The trays may be turned either the short or the -long way. If the long way, one tray is first placed on the top of the -other, and two men catch hold of the long opposite sides of the trays by -placing their hands on the outside quarters of the edge and then -pressing firmly. This keeps the raisins steady between the trays, and in -turning rapidly, if the bunches are at all entire, few or no raisins -will be dropped. In turning the short way, the men grasp with their -opposite hands at the middle of the short sides, while with their other -hands they catch the outside quarters of one of the long sides. By -turning quickly over the long side that is held by the hands of the -turners, the operation may be performed without dropping any berries. In -small vineyards, where the owner must perform the work alone, he may -turn the trays without any help whatever, though, naturally, his work -will be somewhat slower. He can operate by the aid of a small -contrivance called the catcher, a most simple but very effective little -tool. It resembles a miniature stool like those used by the milkers of -cows. The seat or top may be twelve inches long by six wide, made from -one-inch lumber. On one side are inserted four pegs, each about six -inches long. The two opposite ones are inserted very close together, but -spread strongly outward. After one tray has been placed on the top of -the other, the catcher is pushed over the long edge of the trays, which -of course will cause them to jam tightly together on that side. By now -grasping the trays on the opposite edge, they may be turned without the -aid of any one else, and without any loss of raisins. Some use steel -clips for the same purpose, but the common home-made wooden catch is -undoubtedly the most practical method, as it is the cheapest. - -Turning should, as much as possible, be done in the morning or at least -in the forenoon while the air is yet cool and the stems of the raisins -damp. The pressure of the tray will not then cause the stems to break -off and the quality of the raisins to be lowered. If the bunch raisins -are on separate trays, which is best, they may be turned earlier in the -day than the second grade, which is not apt to be greatly damaged by the -breaking of the stems, as they are to be stemmed anyhow. - - -_Reversing._--This is an operation not properly understood by every -raisin-grower, but is still of the utmost importance, especially for the -first-class bunches of the first crop, which naturally dry more slowly -than the smaller bunches. But the method is also very useful for the -second crop, when late in the season the drying is slow and uncertain. -The reversing consists simply in reversing the trays on the ground in -such a way that the edges which first faced the north afterwards face -the south, or _vice versa_. The object of reversing is plain. It will -nearly always be found that the raisins at the top or on the side of the -tray nearest the north will dry much more slowly than those on the side -facing the south, especially so as soon as the weather begins to turn -colder. To prevent this and insure equal drying at the top and bottom, -the reversing is performed after the trays have first been turned. This -will enable the grower to get his raisins in several days sooner than he -otherwise would. Indeed, at the critical period of drying, when fall -rains may set in and injure the raisins, it is of the utmost importance -to hurry the crop as much as possible; the reversing is at this time -almost as important as turning. I have seen the second crop of many a -vineyard seriously injured by rain, and its drying delayed only through -neglect to reverse the trays. The effect of reversing is oftentimes very -striking, and one grower who reverses his trays in time may get his crop -in safely, while his neighbor who neglects reversing may lose a great -part of his. A few days’ delay at this time of the year is often fatal -to the whole second crop, and no pains should be spared in order to -hasten the drying by every possible means available. - - -_Slanting the Trays._--The practice of raising one end of the tray -higher than the other is of very questionable value. In the fore part of -the drying season, the heat from the sun is such that the raisins -receive all the heat they require without being raised at an angle -against the sun. Towards the end of the season, I have found that, when -the trays have been raised, those grapes which lie on the lower edge of -the tray, and accordingly nearest to the ground, dry the quickest, while -those at the upper edge dry considerably slower. The cause is that the -air a foot above the ground is much cooler than close to the ground; the -large space under the raised tray also serves as a cooling room to cool -the tray. In some direct experiments made, it was found that, as regards -the tail end of the first crop, the raised trays came in several days -later than the trays which had remained flat on the ground. In -advocating that the trays should not be tilted, I must not be understood -to mean that it is not beneficial to keep the tray in a tilted position -when there is a close background to sufficiently heat the air equally at -the upper and lower end of the trays. This can only be secured by either -placing the trays against the side of a hill or on specially prepared -drying floors, which are described further on. In this connection I may -suggest that when the heat of the sun is not great, and when the raisins -dry slowly, the placing of an empty tray behind the drying tray, in -order to reflect the sun on the raisins, will considerably hasten their -drying. This is a valuable aid in drying, especially when the second -crop is late. - - -_Elevating the Trays._--The practice of elevating the trays containing -the tail end of the second crop is a good one. The best way is to place -the trays on the top of the vines, when it will be found that the free -circulation of air underneath will help to dry the raisins and prevent -rot and mold. This method is only adopted after fall rains, but is then -of great help in drying the crop. - - -_Stacking Against Rain and Dew._--The stacking of the trays is also a -valuable help in keeping out dew and cold. Late in the season, when it -takes several hours of sunlight to dry the night dews, the stacked trays -will be dry when the first rays of the sun are out. When heavy rains are -expected, the grapes, whether partially dried or not, should always be -stacked. It will keep the stems from rotting off from the berries, and -will generally save the crop from being seriously injured. Some growers -have an idea that only the partially dried grapes should be stacked, but -the green ones are equally benefited. - -There are several ways of stacking. The flat-stacking is used -principally when the raisins are very dry, and when it is of importance -that no air should enter the trays. In flat-stacking, one tray is simply -placed on the top of the other, and the circulation of air thus brought -to a minimum. In rainy weather, however, the roof-stacking is to be -preferred. Instead of placing one tray on the top of another, the trays -are placed in two piles joining each other in such a way that the inner -end of every tray overlaps the edge of the tray in the adjoining pile. -This lifting up of one edge of the tray gives to the whole pile a -roof-like appearance, and the angle in which the trays join together -becomes steeper the higher the pile grows, until, at the height of -three or four feet, the trays slant so much that the raisins cannot rest -on them, but are in danger of sliding off, when, of course, the pile -should not be made any higher. It takes several times longer to stack -the trays in roof fashion than to simply pile them up flat. The -advantage of roof-stacking is that it admits more air, and sheds the -rain better. In damp weather the piles should not be covered on the -sides for any length of time, as the raisins will then mold more -rapidly. If, instead of joining two piles of trays, three piles are made -to join, the center stack will be flat, while much air is admitted to -the raisins. In this stacking the first two trays are placed flat on the -ground at almost the distance of one tray. Another tray is made to rest -on the inner edge of the lower trays and cover the intermediate space, -and so on. This method gives twice as much air space between the trays -as regular flat-stacking, and is to be recommended when the weather is -damp. A combination of this last method and roof-stacking is used by -some, every grower almost having his favorite way to stack. It must be -remembered that in very rainy weather no kind of stacking will be of any -value, while, when the showers are few and far between, stacking may -save the crop. - -Stacking is especially valuable in conjunction with dryers, when -protection during a few days only is all that is needed. One man can -stack about five hundred trays an hour, and the regular picking gang can -stack a whole vineyard in a few hours. Should the rain be very heavy and -no dryer handy, it is of no use to try to save the crop after the mold -has begun to make its appearance, and when the berries have begun to -rot. It is then far better to dump the whole crop in the field rather -than to spend time, money and anxiety on raisins which must in any case -become a total loss. - - -_Taking Up._--When, at last, the raisins are sufficiently dried, they -must be taken up as quickly as possible. This process again consists of -three different labors,--the stacking, assorting and boxing. It is of -great importance to know exactly when the raisins have sufficiently -dried to be ready for the sweatboxes. This can properly only be -ascertained by experience, still a few directions will materially help -the inexperienced grower in his judgment. A perfect raisin should be -neither too hard nor too soft. A raisin is too soft when, after rolling -it between the fingers, the least particle of juice exudes through the -cracked skin or meat. Such raisins will “sugar” in course of time, and -not keep a year. If the raisins, or a majority of them, on a bunch are -too wet, they should be spread to the sun for some time longer. If, -however, there are only a few underdried raisins in a bunch, the bunch -may be taken in, and the soft raisins clipped off afterwards. A raisin -is too dry when, in pressing and rolling it between two fingers, the -pulp does not move readily inside the skin. Such overdried raisins will -not again become first-class raisins; their skin will always be tough, -and their color will be somewhat inferior. If but slightly overdried, -they may be brought out by equalizing. To know when the raisins are in a -proper condition to take up is most important to every raisin-man, and -he should never neglect to watch his trays early and late. Upon his good -judgment and watchfulness depend the quality of his crop. To prevent -too rapid drying out after the raisins are nearly ready, the practice -now is to stack the trays in the field. - -This stacking simply consists in placing the trays which contain the -ready raisins on top of each other, in piles five feet high. On the top -of every such pile are placed several loose trays crosswise, so as to -shelter the pile from the sun, and possibly even from rain, and other -trays are raised up against the sides of the pile in order to exclude as -much air as possible. If, however, the raisins are rather underdried, -the side trays may be left out so as to allow the raisins to dry more. -It is always best to stack the trays before the raisins are fully dried, -as they will finish drying and curing in the stack much better than in -the sun. The underdried raisins will thus dry just enough, while the -overdried ones, or those just right, will not dry much more. - -After the stacking is done, the assorting is in order. This consists in -taking out every bunch that is not sufficiently dried to go into the -sweatbox, and placing them on new trays to dry more. At this time, also, -the bad or inferior and red berries may be taken out, if present in a -very large quantity on good bunches; but when there are only a few on, -it is better not to touch the bunch, as, in handling it, it is only too -apt to break. Any further picking out of bad berries had better be -deferred to the packing-house. The boxing and assorting, which may be -considered together, consist in transferring the different grades of the -now dried raisins to separate sweatboxes. This is done in two ways. The -number one bunches, which have been placed on separate trays, may now -simply be slid into the sweatbox, by a dexterous movement of the tray. -Between every two layers of these first-class bunches should be placed a -stout manilla paper cut so as to exactly fit the box. It is of -importance to have the paper just fit the box, and not be too large nor -too small, as in either case the raisins are apt to become mixed and the -bunches broken. But, if the grapes have not been assorted from the -beginning on separate trays, more work will be required to get them into -the sweatboxes. Every bunch must be carefully taken up by hand from the -tray, and then placed on the paper in the box. But in doing so many -bunches are necessarily broken, as even careful hands cannot help -frequent mishaps, while ignorant and careless workmen may do an immense -injury to the crop. Too few manilla papers are generally used. Some -packers require only two papers in every box, while six or eight, or at -least five, papers should be the proper number for every box of very -choice or even ordinary layers. We must remember that, the more papers -we use, the less apt are the bunches to be injured, but even the best -layer bunches will not suffer if placed two layers high between every -paper. On top and in the bottom of every box must be one paper, so as to -keep out dust. The loose and inferior raisins, which either have been -left on the tray after the layers are picked out, or which from the -beginning have been placed on separate trays, may now, when perfectly -dry, be simply dumped in sweatboxes without any paper. - -We have thus at least two kinds of sweatboxes. One kind contains those -raisins which are destined to make layers, and which require sweating -and equalizing before they can be packed. The other kind contains the -loose and drier berries, which are to go immediately to the stemmer and -grader, and which would not separate from the stems if they were made to -equalize. - - -_Covering._--If the weather has been favorable, the raisins may have -been dried and cured in twelve days. Of these twelve days, the first -seven or eight were used for drying the upper side of the raisins. On -the seventh or eighth day they were turned, and on the twelfth day they -were ready to put in the sweatboxes. But this is fast drying, and drying -under favorable circumstances, with a dry wind blowing gently all the -time. But sometimes it takes a much longer time to dry, say from -fourteen to twenty-one days. In Fresno, where the weather is less -favorable, the drying of the first crop may require from two to three -weeks. In El Cajon it always takes two or three weeks for the raisins to -dry, and in Orange county the drying sometimes requires from thirty days -to five weeks. In Malaga the drying is accomplished quicker than in -California, because there they cover the raisin floors every night with -canvas, and in the morning, when the canvas is unrolled, the raisins are -yet warm. The drying, then, has been continued all night, and the -raisins have not had time to cool when they meet the first rays of the -sun. In California, again, our raisins are cold, possibly even wet with -dew or rain, and it sometimes takes the sun until noon to dry up the -moisture accumulated through the night. - -To counteract this absorption of moisture, many of the raisin-growers in -Orange county, California, especially around Santa Ana and McPherson, -cover the trays with canvas every night. This method is to be -recommended wherever there is any difficulty in curing either the first -or the second crop. If this method is employed, I am satisfied that -raisins could be grown and properly cured in localities where otherwise -no raisin cult is possible. The method of covering the raisin trays at -Santa Ana is as follows, varied by different growers, but in the main -the same everywhere. The trays are placed together in long rows; about -twenty yards long is found to be most convenient. The width of the row -is just the width of two trays, or five feet. Thus the row of trays -laden with raisin grapes is about sixty feet long by five feet wide. -Along the north end of this long row of trays are driven down small -posts every six or ten feet, and left extending about two feet above the -ground. Along the south side of the row of trays smaller posts are -driven down at the same distances, but not allowed to extend so high -above the surface of the soil. These pegs or small posts may best be -slanting outward, or from the trays. Along the high posts is strung a -wire in such a way that it cannot easily get loose. To a long canvas -cover are now secured small rings for running on the wire, and on the -other side larger rings to hook over the smaller posts in front. If the -canvas is only one yard wide, two widths must be sewed together so as to -make the canvas six feet wide. The trays, which are two and one-half -feet by three feet, when placed side by side will just form a drying -floor of five feet, large enough to be covered by the canvas six feet -wide. The cost of canvas is six and one-half cents a yard by the bale. - -The manner of using the canvas is very simple. The canvas cover, which -is stationary, is attached to the wire and the higher posts. Every -evening the cover is thrown over the trays, the front or lower edge is -hooked by the aid of the rings over the pegs in the ground, and the -trays thus securely sheltered. In the morning, when the sun is up, the -cover is thrown back over the higher posts, and the trays fully exposed. -The trouble to cover is not very great; two men can cover forty tons of -grapes in half an hour, and generally it is considered that the -picking-gang can cover the whole crop in half an hour’s time every -evening, and it takes them as long to uncover in the morning. If well -cared for and properly dried, and stored away in the autumn after the -crop is all in, this canvas cover, with its posts, will last six or -seven years, and if painted or oiled would probably last still longer. -One yard of canvas can cover thirty pounds of grapes, and for the -purpose of utilizing the full space, the trays are made two and one-half -by three feet. - -Such is the process practiced in Orange county. If adopted elsewhere, it -would enable many localities to produce good raisins, where the climatic -conditions are such that no drying is now practicable. The process is -not as good as the one employed in Malaga, but it has some advantages -which make it very acceptable. It enables the grower to use trays, and -it makes drying-floors unnecessary, and the spaces in the vineyard can -be used without taking away room from the vines. On the other hand, the -drying-floors of Malaga are warmer and more secure, and almost -absolutely safe in case of rain. - - -_Drying-floors._--While, in some parts of California, the first crop -dries generally without any difficulty, in other parts rain and dew very -frequently interfere with the drying of even the first crop. In many -places where raisin-curing is not successful, the same could be -practiced profitably if we would adopt the system of drying-floors used -in Spain. Even in localities where the first-crop raisins dry well, the -second crop is always exposed to more or less rain, and the -raisin-grower annually loses large sums of money on account of not being -able to hasten the drying of the second crop. But it is doubtful if the -Malaga drying-floors will ever be found practical and come into general -use with us. They take considerable space from the vineyard, and are -very expensive, but they are very secure, and when once built are very -profitable. A limited number of such floors would be very useful in -every vineyard, especially for drying the second crop. At present no -such floors exist in this State. The following description gives an idea -of how they may be constructed: - -These drying-floors may be built of brick with the long sides as long as -required, while the short sides should be about twelve feet long. The -back wall is six feet high, while the front wall is only six inches -high, which, with the above length of side wall, would give enough -slope. In Malaga the interior is filled with black gravel and tamped -hard, but for our purpose probably nothing would be superior to -asphaltum, bituminous rock or cement. It must first be ascertained if -bituminous rock would not impart a flavor to the grapes, in which case -cement would be the most useful flooring. In order to allow the rain to -run off, the front wall should be pierced with small holes close to the -ground, but this would only be necessary in case the bed is filled with -gravel, or no cement floor exists on top of it. Along the back part of -the floor should be set a row of uprights of two by four lumber, driven -securely in the ground. On the top of each post is set an eyelet, -through which runs a stout wire along the whole back of the frame. A -canvas cover long enough to reach the whole length of the floor should -be used for covering, and, in order to secure it to the wire and the -posts, it should be hemmed and furnished with small rings to run on the -wire. In front similar rings are set in order that the canvas may be -secured to the smaller posts and kept down in case of wind. On such -floors common trays may be used. To make the canvas impervious to rain, -it may be painted with boiled linseed oil. The above are only -suggestions based on the Spanish drying-floors. For a full description -of them, I beg to refer to the article on Malaga. In using linseed oil, -care should be taken that only pure oil is used. There is linseed oil -which contains chemicals which rapidly rot the canvas. - - -_Dryers._--The subject of dryers is of great importance to the -California grower. The last few years have fully demonstrated that every -raisin vineyard, no matter where it is situated, should have one or more -dryers, in order that the last of the crop may be dried properly when -the rain sets in. Many years these dryers are not required, but from -time to time they prove of vast value, and if properly constructed are -much superior to any drying-floor. But so far no perfect dryer has ever -been constructed. Most dryers are too expensive, costing from three -thousand to seven thousand dollars, when of a capacity to dry from -twenty-five to fifty tons of green grapes at one charge. Nearly all late -dryers are constructed with a fan, which sucks the air out through one -end of the building. The large complicated dryers are all patented, but -there can be no doubt that good small dryers might be constructed by -every grower, which will do good service. As, however, so far no very -perfect dryers have ever been constructed, and as every owner of one -changes and rebuilds every year, we must leave the consideration of the -construction of these dryers to some future time when more knowledge or -experience will have been gained. Dryers large enough to hold a charge -of one ton of green fruit have been constructed at the price of two -hundred dollars by Ellwood Cooper of Santa Barbara. They dried their -fruit in twenty-four hours, but they were never used for raisins. - -But as this style of dryer may be adapted to raisins, I will give a few -hints at its construction. The heating apparatus consists of a large -iron drum, or radiator, seventeen and one-half feet long by two and -one-half feet wide, set on a furnace in which is burned wood. The -furnace and radiator are built into a bank, on top of which the dryer is -built. This dryer is simply a large wooden box about seventeen feet -square and six feet high, and looks, as seen from the outside, like a -chest full of drawers. These slide on frames, are deeper than they are -broad, and contain movable bottoms or trays made of small redwood ribs. -They begin about two feet from the top of the radiator; if closer, the -heat would be too strong for the fruit. The ventilation is had by small -sliding doors at the bottom of the chest, through which the air rushes -in, while it goes out through the drawers, which for this purpose are -left open an inch or two. The chest is covered over with an open shed, -which makes the labor pleasant, and enables the attendant to inspect any -drawer at any time without seriously disturbing the heat of the dryer. -The cheapness and effectiveness of such small dryers are such that every -one can afford them. A dozen such small dryers all set in a row in a -bank could be attended to by very few hands. They would also be -preferable to very large dryers on account of the short time required to -fill them, and their raisins can be dried long before a larger dryer has -been filled. - -As to the usefulness of steam or fire dryers there can be no doubt. The -idea is not to entirely dry the raisins in them, but only to finish up -the raisins when, on account of unfavorable climatic conditions, they do -not dry any more out-of-doors. The question as to which are best, -“machine-dried” raisins or those dried in the sun, is entirely -unimportant. No one would think of drying raisins entirely in the dryer, -as it would not pay. Raisins properly finished in the dryer are not -inferior to those entirely sun-dried. - - -_Sweatboxes._--The sweatboxes should be made of strong lumber one inch -thick. The length and width should be according to the size of the tray, -and always one inch larger every way than the tray, in order that the -raisins may be let down readily, or that they may receive a tray. The -height of a sweatbox should be from six to eight inches, no more, as a -greater depth will make them too heavy to be handled with ease by two -men. Six inches in depth is better than eight. In order to secure the -box and prevent it from splitting, the sides should be bound with hide, -iron bands or with twisted galvanized wire. The latter is the strongest -and best, costs the least, and is the easiest to put on. - - -_Trays for Drying._--The tray consists of a wooden frame made of -well-dried half-inch lumber, nailed to cleats of one inch by one and -one-half inch and of desired length. The lumber most commonly used is -well-seasoned spruce. Pine, if not well seasoned, is apt to give the -raisins a taste of the wood or of rosin, while redwood may discolor the -raisins if exposed to rain or very heavy dew. But as the lumber attains -age, it also becomes less injurious to the grapes. Cottonwood or -poplar-wood, which can be obtained in some places, make most useful -lumber for trays, as they do not contain any taste or other substance -apt to injure the raisins. The size of the tray varies according to the -idea of the raisin-grower, but the size generally adopted is two by -three feet. Formerly a smaller tray was used, but no smaller ones are -now made. A larger size, three by three feet, is used by several -growers, but, while it has the advantage of holding more grapes, it is -also less readily handled than the smaller tray. In the southern part of -California, a tray two and one-half by three feet is very popular. The -tops of the trays are bought in the shape of shingles, which should be -well dried before being nailed, as they will otherwise shrink up and -cause cracks to form in the tray, greatly to the detriment of the drying -of the raisins. Loss is also caused by loose raisins dropping through -such cracks. The cleats should be wet or green, or they will split in -nailing. If too dry, they should be soaked in water over night or for a -few hours. The shingles should be planed on the side which is to be -placed upwards. The cost of the lumber for the trays varies from nine to -twelve and one-half cents in the shooks. For nailing the trays together, -a frame is made of wood and iron. The cleats are placed on the two -short, opposite sides, with a heavy bar of iron immediately underneath -so as to clinch the nails. The planed shingles are then placed on top -and nailed to the cleats with round-wire nails, which clinch -automatically on the lower side as soon as they strike the iron bar. No -cleats are required on the long side of small size trays, but if a -larger tray is used a bar on each side may be required to give the tray -sufficient strength. A good workman, after a few days of practice, can -comfortably nail up four hundred trays a day. When the season is over, -every tray should be nailed up and washed, or at least swept clean and -stored dry. The age of a tray, if cared for, is about ten years. - - -CALIFORNIA LYE-DIPPED RAISINS. - - -_General Notes._--In California the dipping of raisins in solutions of -lye is yet in its very infancy, and I do not think that in the whole -State over ten tons of lye-dipped raisins have been placed on the market -yearly. But undoubtedly this process is destined to become of -considerable importance, especially in localities where the drying of -the first crop is accomplished with difficulty in the open air. The -first and also most important condition in producing superior dipped -raisins is that the grapes should be absolutely ripe. Unripe grapes will -not produce any good raisins when dipped, but will turn reddish and -otherwise become inferior. - - -_Dipping Process._--A good location for dipping raisins is by the side -of an irrigation ditch, provided the water in the latter can be depended -upon to flow constantly while the operation of dipping lasts. If not, -the water must be procured by pumping or by means of pipes from -reservoirs or water-works. Flowing water is of great importance in -producing good dipped raisins, and is required for the perfect washing -of the grapes. For this purpose, if no ditch is available, a large -trough may be used to advantage, and so arranged that the water in it -can be kept changing through a continuous flow. The following is a cheap -and efficient arrangement for dipping in actual use in one of the -largest raisin vineyards, and can be recommended on account of its -cheapness and easy working: On one side of the trough is a stationary -iron kettle with a fireplace underneath. By the trough is also placed an -upright post, about five feet high, and on this balanced a horizontal -beam with a double motion. It can be raised and lowered at either end, -or swung to the left or right with ease. On one end of the beam is a -hook on which to hang the grape bucket. On the other side of the trough -is a rough assorting table. Two or more buckets are needed. These -buckets are common galvanized-iron buckets, perforated thickly with -holes, the latter not large enough to let any loose grapes through. In -the kettle is kept constantly boiling a solution of water and potash. -Soda is not suitable. The very best potash should be used in the -proportion of about one pound to twelve gallons of water. The ripe -grapes are now brought to the table and emptied in the buckets. A bucket -is then hung on the beam, the latter swung and the bucket for a second -lowered first in the pure water and then in the boiling potash; but it -is immediately withdrawn and immersed in the water-trough. When rinsed -for a few seconds, the grapes are taken out and spread on common raisin -trays. If the weather is warm, the trays are stacked one on top of the -other, and the grapes thus prepared are dried in the shade. - -The rinsing of the fruit before drying is of great importance, and by -far not sufficiently understood. In Valencia the finest raisins are -treated that way and thoroughly rinsed before being dipped in the lye. -But nowhere in Spain are the grapes rinsed in water afterwards, and it -is yet an undecided question if this rinsing improves or injures the -raisins. It is certain that the washing cleanses the berries, as the -water in the kettle is sometimes dark and dirty; but if it is an -advantage to deprive the berries of the lye which more or less sticks to -them is very doubtful. It is well known here that lye-dipped raisins are -apt to mold if the rains set in while the drying lasts, while we are -told that in Spain the dipped raisins do not spoil even if subjected to -several showers of rain. From this it will seem as if rinsing after -dipping is not necessary or perhaps even injurious, but that, on the -contrary, rinsing before dipping is of the utmost importance. It may be -possible that the lye which adheres to the grapes will, in a great -measure, prevent them from molding. - -In Spain no olive oil is used for mixing in the lye, and it is not -likely that the oil process will come in vogue in California until it is -fully demonstrated that it not only greatly improves the grapes, but -that it also enables the grower to realize a correspondingly better -price for his raisins. Those who care to experiment with it cannot do -better than to follow the practice as it is used in Smyrna, for a full -account of which we beg to refer to the article under that heading. We -might here only point out that the oil-dipped raisins of Smyrna bring -many times the price of the lye-dipped raisins of Valencia. The -arrangement of dipping, kettles, etc., may, of course, be greatly -varied. Steam may be used for heating the lye and the rinsing water, if -it is desired to keep the latter hot, and regular trays might be used to -hold the grapes, instead of the buckets referred to above. Every grower -will no doubt vary these appliances to suit his own fancy, and improve -upon the methods of others. As an example of the devices used by another -grower, we here reproduce the following from an essay on bleaching -raisin grapes, compiled by the chief viticultural officer, and -especially referring to the system used by Mr. Byron Jackson: “Mr. -Jackson places the grapes on a tray made with a frame of iron, which is -covered with wire gauze with a quarter-inch mesh. The frame projects -upwards on the sides to prevent the fruit floating off while in the dip, -and is made to receive, as a cover, the wooden tray on which the fruit -goes to the dryer. When dipped and rinsed, the wooden tray is placed -over the dipping tray, and two men transfer the fruit by turning over -the two.” - -The length of time required for dipping can only be ascertained by -experience, and must differ with the strength of the lye, with the heat -of the solution, and with the thickness of the skin of the grapes. Thus -in different localities the strength of the lye and the length of -immersion must always be different, and may even differ from year to -year. When properly dipped, the skin of the grapes must show some very -minute cracks, similar to cracks in glass which has been heated and -suddenly immersed in or sprinkled with ice-cold water. Deep cracks are -not desirable, as they will cause the juice of the pulp to leak out, -after which the raisins will sugar. In Valencia the grapes used for -dipping are the various varieties of Muscats, while in Smyrna both -Muscats and Sultanas are used. Corinths are never dipped, as they dry -readily and make superior raisins without this process. - - -_Drying and Curing._--After the grapes are dipped, they must be -immediately dried either in the sun, or in sun and shade alternately, or -entirely in the shade. According to the circumstances attending the -drying of the grapes, the color of the raisins becomes more or less red -or yellow, transparent or opaque. The most perfect amber color is -attained in the shade, while in the sun the color rapidly changes to -reddish, a less desirable color in dipped raisins. The more favorable is -the weather for drying, the choicer will be the raisins, and the better -their color. If the sun is very warm and the chances are otherwise -favorable for drying, the trays should be exposed to the sun only long -enough to have their dip thoroughly evaporated, and for this purpose one -day in the sun may suffice. After this the stacking of the trays is -advisable, and only occasionally may the trays be spread if the drying -does not proceed rapidly enough. Such shade-dried dipped raisins will -assume a beautiful amber-yellow color, and bring several cents more than -those exposed to very warm sun. If, however, the weather is not very -warm, the grapes must be dried in the sun, and the grower has then to be -satisfied with the color that nature will give to his raisins. Dipped -raisins do not necessarily require turning, as they generally dry well -anyhow in from four to six days in fair weather. For this class of -raisins dryers are very useful to help finish the drying. Such dryers -must be almost air-tight, as sandstorms would invariably spoil the -raisins, which, on account of their stickiness, are almost impossible to -afterwards cleanse. Dipped raisins should always be dried on their -trays, and on special drying grounds, which should be so constructed -that no sand can blow on them, or at least so arranged that in case of -rain the sand from the ground will not be splashed over the trays. In -California we have at present no such drying-floors, but it will pay any -one who intends dipping his grapes to construct them either of bricks, -bituminous rock or lumber. - - -_Stemming, Grading and Packing._--Dipped raisins should be stemmed when -well dried, and then graded in two grades. The proper receptacles for -them are either sacks lined with paper, or twenty-pound boxes, in which -they may be packed without fancy paper, or in the same way as prunes or -other dried fruit. So far no uniform method of packing such raisins has -been adopted in this State. - -As to the usefulness and future of dipped raisins, not much can be said -at present. Our importations of Valencia raisins, which are mostly -dipped, are considerable, and as long as this class of cooking raisins -is in demand, there is no good reason why we should not compete and -endeavor to supply the demand. We can produce them as well as Spain can, -and the only reason why we have not competed with Spain so far is that -sun-dried raisins are so readily produced here, that it has not been to -our advantage to produce anything else. There are, however, many places -in our State which will grow Muscatel grapes of good quality, but with -too thick skins to make them proper for sun-dried raisins. For all such -localities the dipping process is to be recommended, as it will enable -the growers to produce marketable raisins, and to profitably supply the -demand for this variety of raisins now imported to this country from -abroad. In localities with early and copious fall rains, the dipping -process will enable the growers to finish quickly before the rains set -in. California dipped second-crop Muscatels and Sultanas have brought as -high as seven cents per pound wholesale. - - - - -THE PACKING-HOUSE. - - -BUILDINGS AND MECHANICAL APPLIANCES. - - -_The Packing-house._--The packing-house should be large and airy and, -whether it is made of lumber, brick or adobe, it should in preference to -anything else be large. Room is needed at every operation in the -packing-house, and it is hardly possible to get too much of it. So far -no very large and perfect buildings for packing-houses have ever been -erected in California; the raisin industry is too young for that, and -even the best of our buildings are only temporary ones. It is here not -possible nor desirable to give any instructions how to build and arrange -a raisin packing-house, as every packer will have his own ideas and his -own necessities in this respect, and not two packers would build alike. -All we can do here is to refer to what is needed in a general way, in -order that the reader will get some preliminary ideas of what he will -require when his raisin vineyard comes in bearing. - -The packing-house should contain the following apartments: First, the -general packing-room, in which the raisins are assorted and packed. Then -the sweating-house or equalizing room, in which the boxes are stored for -several weeks in order to equalize the moisture in the raisins. Then the -stemming-room, in which the stemming and grading of the loose raisins is -carried on. Then we have the weighing room, where the raisins are -received from the field, and where they are weighed when this is -required. There should also be an office and a pasting room, where the -labels are pasted on the lining paper, and finally there should be -plenty of veranda or shed room all around the building, where boxes of -all kinds can be received and temporarily stored, either before the -raisins are packed, or afterwards when they are ready to be shipped. We -might also wish to have a room for a box factory, where boxes of all -kinds are nailed up. This can in our climate best be done in the shed or -under the veranda. The packing-house proper should be as large as all -the other rooms together. It can hardly be made too large, as during the -lively packing season hundreds of hands will here be busy, each one with -his special work. The floor of the packing-house should be of matched -lumber, and slanting towards the center, along which should run a small -gutter. Any other material, such as cement, may also be used, the only -object in view being that the floor can be washed from time to time and -the dirt carried off through the gutter as readily as possible. The -packing-room should have places for long narrow tables, at which the -packing and assorting is done, and these tables can most conveniently be -run the whole length of the room. At one end there should be room for -the presses and the nailing tables, as well as storage room for empty -and full boxes. - - -_The Sweating-house._--The sweating-house or sweating-room should -immediately adjoin the packing-room. It should be built either of -matched lumber or of brick or adobe, in order that the temperature may -be kept tolerably even and the moisture confined if necessary. The -sweating-room in the Fresno Raisin and Fruit Packing Co’s house in -Fresno is large enough to contain 40 tons of raisins at one time, and is -about 50 feet square, while the sweating-room on the Forsyth vineyard -measures about 35 feet by 50 feet, and is built of brick in two stories, -the lower one of which is used for raisins, the upper one for storage. -For those who wish figures, we might state as examples of buildings, -that the Forsyth packing-house, which also contains a sweating-room but -not a stemming-room, is 120 feet by 35 feet, and contains besides a -small platform outside for the reception of boxes, etc. The Fresno -Raisin and Fruit Packing Co’s building is about 150 feet by 75 feet. - -[Illustration: Raisin Stemmer and Grader.] - - -_The Stemmer and Grader._--This large machine is a California invention. -The principle on which it works is that the dry stems are separated by -revolving the raisins rapidly in a drum made of perforated galvanized -iron or of strong galvanized wire. After the stems are separated, the -raisins fall together on screens of wire with various size meshes, -through which the smaller berries are separated from the larger berries, -while the refuse and broken stems are blown away by a fan. The most -perfect stemmer and grader is the one on the Butler vineyard. The -raisins are first dumped into a hopper below the floor, and from there -they are run automatically on a belt to the top of the stemmer, where -they enter the drum. From the drum they fall on the separating screens, -which grade them in three grades, each one falling in a box of its own. -Somewhat similar stemmers are seen in all the large vineyards, all run -by steam and large enough to stem and grade from forty to sixty tons of -raisins a day. There is considerable difference as to the ingenuity with -which these stemmers are built, some requiring many more hands to run -them than others. The Butler stemmer requires, part of the time, only -one man for its successful running. The Forsyth stemmer stands under a -shed in the open air, apart from the packing-house, in order that the -dust may be freely carried away. The smaller vineyards have stemmers run -by hand, and have separate graders also run by hand, large enough to -stem and grade from five to eight tons of raisins per day. - -[Illustration: Raisin Lever Press.] - - -_The Presses._--These are of two kinds, screw presses and lever presses. -The screw press is much preferable (at least until the lever press may -be perfected), as with it we can gauge the pressure given the raisins. -The only press of this kind is found on the Raisina vineyard of T. C. -White. The press that is generally adopted, and the one that is most -handy, is the lever press, which is so constructed that four boxes of -raisins can be kept in the press at one time, or until the last box or -part of a box is ready. By a pressure with the foot, the levers are -released and the boxes freed from the pressure. While this press is -exceedingly handy and quickly worked, the pressure cannot readily be -gauged, and the raisins are apt to be injured by too heavy pressure. But -it is likely that improvements will soon be made which will remedy this -defect. - - -_Boxes and Cartoons._--The California raisin boxes are of three -kinds,--whole boxes of twenty pounds, halves of ten pounds and quarters -of five pounds. The wholes and the quarters are those most used, while -the halves are seldom used or required. The cartoons are made of paper -and contain two and one-half pounds of raisins each. The following are -the measurements of raisin boxes and cartoons, and of the lumber -required for making them. Twenty-pound box: 9 x 18 x 4¾ inches. -Ten-pound box: 9 x 18 x 2⅜ inches. Five-pound box: 9 x 18 x 1³⁄₁₆ -inches. The foregoing are inside measurements. The tops and bottoms are -one-quarter inch thick, 19½ inches long and 9¾ inches wide. The sides of -the twenty-pound box are 19½ inches long, 4¾ inches wide and -three-eighths inches thick. The ends of a twenty-pound box are 9 inches -long, 4¾ inches wide and three-fourths of an inch thick. The sides of -the ten-pound box are 19½ inches long, three-eighths of an inch thick -and 2⅜ inches wide. The ends of a ten-pound box are 9 inches long, -three-fourths of an inch thick and 2⅜ inches wide. The sides of a -five-pound box are 19½ inches long, three-eighths of an inch thick and -1³⁄₁₆ inches wide. The two and one-half pound cartoon is five inches -wide, ten inches long and one and one-half inches deep. - - -_Packing Frames or Packing Trays._--These are of two kinds, according to -the method of packing. For the top-up method, wooden frames large enough -to hold five pounds of raisins are used. In length and width these -frames correspond with the raisin box, but in height they are only -one-third of a whole box, or about one and one-half inches. The bottom -is a sliding one, and can be pulled out broadwise. The frame is first -lined on the inside with the necessary paper, and then five pounds of -raisins are placed in the paper. A follower or block of wood, large -enough to fill the form or frame, is then placed on top, the frame is -placed over an empty box, the sliding bottom quickly withdrawn, and the -whole contents fall in the box below undisturbed. For the top-down -method, frames of galvanized iron are used, slightly deeper than the -former, but the bottom is a drop-bottom, resting on a flange, instead of -a sliding bottom, as in the former tray. A loose plate of zinc is placed -on top of the frame, the latter is inverted and placed over the box, and -the zinc plate quickly withdrawn, when the contents covered by the loose -drop-bottom (or by the facing-plate) fall into the raisin box. - - -_Facing-plate._--This useful tool was invented by T. C. White. It -consists of a brass plate large enough to fit readily into the bottom of -the raisin box. In this plate are arranged small cavities, each one wide -enough to hold a large raisin. For large boxes the plate is made to -contain eleven raisins the short way and eighteen the long way. The -plate is first placed in the bottom of the iron frame in place of the -loose bottom. A raisin is placed in each cavity and lightly pressed, and -loose raisins are carefully filled in on the top. When this frame is -afterwards reversed and the raisins and the plate as follower are -received in the box, it will be found that the top layer has retained -its arrangement and is regularly faced. This facing-plate enables the -packer to face quickly and cheaply, but it can only be used when the -top-down method of packing is used. The standard plate is nine inches by -eighteen inches, and the plate for cartoons is five inches by ten -inches, both made of heavy brass. - - -_Scales._--For weighing the quantity of raisins necessary for every -layer, scales must be found on every weighing table. Any ordinary -grocery scales which work with springs may be used. Generally one pair -of such scales are used at each end of the assorting table. - - -_Labeling Press._--Of late every large packer labels his boxes before -they are nailed together. This is done by passing the shooks through a -labeling press, which prints under pressure the required label on each -side or top, the name, etc., appearing in concave type on their face. -These presses are run by machinery and work very rapidly. - - -_Tables._--In the packing-house are tables of various kinds; they are -generally long and narrow, and about four feet wide. The assorting -tables should be furnished with square holes at intervals of five or six -feet, so that the loose raisins may be scraped through them into boxes -below. The assorting and weighing tables are furnished with a low flange -or guard all around, to prevent any raisins falling on the floor. - - -_Bags and Bag-holders._--Two kinds of bags are used,--cotton sacks or -jute sacks. The former are white like flower sacks, the latter coarser -and brownish. In the former no paper linings are used, but in the latter -a paper bag is stitched, in order that the air may not penetrate and dry -the raisins. Both kinds of bags are used to an equal extent. The cotton -sacks contain either thirty or sixty pounds, while the jute sacks are -made to contain an average of eighty pounds each. Patented bag-holders -are used everywhere for holding the bags open while they are being -filled. - - -_Trucks._--For inside work, trucks very similar to those used in the -vineyard are now generally adopted. They are handled with ease, and for -moving boxes of various kinds are absolutely indispensable in the modern -raisin packing-house. - - -_Trays for Weighing._--These are small, shallow boxes, made of zinc or -tin, and large enough to hold five pounds of raisins each. One short -side of the tray should be slanting outward in order that the raisins -may fall out readily. They are only used in weighing the raisins which -are to go in each five-pound layer in the whole boxes. - - -_Followers._--These are wooden blocks of the size of a quarter box of -raisins, inside measurement. They should be lined with zinc on the flat -sides, in order that they may be washed readily, and also to prevent the -sugar of the raisins from adhering to them. They should be large enough -to just fit inside a box or frame, and are used to keep the raisins -steady while being changed from the frame to the box. They are also -placed on top of the raisin frames when they are being pressed. - - -_Paper._--Several kinds of paper are used in the raisin business. Heavy -yellow manilla paper is used to place in the sweatboxes, one sheet -between every two layers of raisins. The paper should be heavy, and cut -to fit the box. Many growers use too short paper, which always has the -inconvenience of causing the raisins to mix and become entangled. Only -one whole sheet of paper should be used at a time; two short sheets will -not answer, as, in lifting out a layer of raisins, the assorter takes -hold of the four corners of the paper, and thus readily lifts out the -raisin block. Lighter paper for lining the raisin boxes is used, both -for layers and loose. The paper generally used is common book paper -twenty-one by twenty-eight inches, and forty, fifty or sixty pounds to -the ream in quality. Previous to being used, this paper is cut to fit -the tray, a square piece being cut out of every corner. When placed in -the tray, the central part of the paper fits the bottom of the tray, -while the sides of the paper extend sufficiently over the sides of the -tray to meet on top when folded over the raisins. Waxed tissue paper -should always be placed on the top of the raisins in order to prevent -the moisture from the raisins injuring the colored and artistic labels. - -Colored lithographs or chromos of various designs and qualities are used -for all raisins packed in boxes. When bought they come in three sizes. -The central label should be nearly the size of the face of the box. The -top labels are shorter pieces, almost as wide as the box, but only a few -inches long. They are previously pasted to the top flaps of the lining. -The side labels are twice as long as the face of the box, but not quite -half as wide; they are similarly pasted on the long side flaps of the -lining. There is a great variety of designs used, some of which are not -appropriate. Whatever designs we use, it will be to the advantage of -every country not to imitate, but to use labels characteristic of the -country and locality where the raisins are made. - - -_Tin Boxes._--For packing raisins for tropical countries, boxes made of -tin should be used. The dampness in those countries causes raisins -packed the common way to mold and spoil. No box should contain more than -ten pounds of raisins, and the top should be so soldered on that it can -be removed without cutting or injuring the box. The French system of -soldering on by means of a narrow strip of tin, which can be wound up, -is admirable, and could hardly be improved upon. Five ten-pound boxes -should be packed in a _light_ case made of light timber, and the whole -package when closed should not weigh over sixty pounds. Four such cases -will make one mule-load, and two such cases can be conveniently carried -by one man. - - -LOOSE RAISINS. - - -_Stemming and Assorting._--It must be understood that all the mechanical -appliances and tools mentioned above should now be on hand ready for -use and properly placed. The several different operations in packing, -stemming, assorting, etc., of both loose and layers, will at times be -carried on in different parts of the packing establishment at the same -time, so as to meet the requirements of mixed lots or orders, the -general shipments being of that nature. Loose and layer raisins are -produced more or less from almost every sweatbox brought into the -packing-house, and the only delay to their being immediately disposed of -is because the layer raisins must be sweated or equalized before they -are ready for use. The loose raisins, provided they are properly or -sufficiently dried, are ready to be handled as soon as brought from the -vineyard. A loose raisin, or a bunch from which loose raisins are to be -made, must be overdried rather than underdried; at any rate, it must be -so dry, that no juice will come out of it when the raisin is squeezed -heavily or even torn. But a matter of greater importance even is that -the stems should be brittle or sufficiently dry to break off readily. If -they do not break, the raisins cannot be easily separated from the stem. -The stems, instead of breaking off, will tear off, and the raisins will -be open to the entrance of air, which will cause them to undergo a -chemical change, to sugar and deteriorate. - -As soon as a perfectly dried sweatbox of third-grade or loose raisins -enters the packing-house, it should be taken to the stemmer. Any delay -in this is injurious to the raisins, as they will rapidly undergo a -sweating or equalizing, causing the stems to soften and to lose their -brittleness. It will, therefore, be seen that loose raisins must on no -account be sweated or equalized before they have been stemmed. Besides, -if the raisins are in any way moist, they will not shed the dust and -dirt when being passed through the stemmer. It is therefore to every -raisin-grower’s interest to so hasten the drying of the loose raisins -that as many of them as possible can be out of the way when the layers, -which take longer to dry, come in. This, as we have shown before, can -only be done by assorting the raisins while green, and at the moment -they are being picked from the vines. The different size bunches dry at -different times, and the loose can then be partially disposed of when -the layers are ready. The stemmer and grader should separate the raisins -in at least three grades: Number one, large loose; number two, smaller -loose; number three, smallest seedless, to which may be added a number -four, or rubbish. The large loose bring always a good price, and great -care should be taken with them. After having passed through the stemmer -and assorter once, they should be passed through a second or third time, -in order that all the inferior or smaller raisins may be eliminated. In -this way, a fine, large number one is had, which is sure to give -satisfaction. Number two loose may be passed through a second time if -the stemmer has not done its full duty, and the same may also be done -with number three seedless. It always pays to do a thing well, and this -holds good with raisins as with everything else. Colonel Forsyth, who -has acquired a high reputation for his loose raisins, advocates and -practices this repeated assorting, especially of the number one grade, -in order that it may be entirely uniform. Too many poor raisins are -generally found among the small seedless, and if they are to be made to -partially replace the seedless Sultanas or the Currants in the same -manner as the number two is expected to replace the imported Valencias, -they must be made clean from all rubbish. Only by producing a superior -article can we hope to replace the imported dipped raisins by our loose -Muscatels. - - -_Packing and Cleaning._--The number one and two loose are always put up -in whole boxes of twenty pounds each, never in quarter boxes, but -sometimes in cartoons, to be used as samples or as holiday gifts. In -packing whole boxes, they may either be faced or not. If not faced, the -work is very simple. The raisins are first brought to a large separate -table with a guard all around its edges, so as to prevent the raisins -from falling to the floor. On each such table are one or more small -scales. The workmen gather the raisins with small shovels, and place -them in quantities of twenty pounds each in tin trays, with the guards -slanting at one end, in order that the raisins may fall out readily. -These trays are then immediately carried by other hands to the -packing-table close by. Here the proper papers are being placed in -regular whole raisin boxes, the loose raisins are poured in from the -trays, and from time to time looked over and cleaned. All poor or -inferior raisins should be carefully eliminated, and only good ones -allowed to be boxed. Finally the paper leaves are folded over, and the -boxes are taken away to be nailed up. Number two undergoes the very same -process when packed in boxes. - -[Illustration: Raisin Truck for Packing-house.] - - -_Sacking._--A very large trade is springing up in sacked raisins, and -the demand for them is increasing every year. Both numbers two and three -grades loose are now exported this way either in cotton sacks, or in -jute sacks lined inside with paper. The jute sacks are by many preferred -on account of their showing the dirt less, the cotton sacks generally -arriving soiled at their destination. If cotton sacks are used for -shipment East, they should be first placed in common burlap sacks, in -order to arrive clean and attractive. The extra expense is not great, as -the cheapest kind can be used for this purpose. - - -_Facing, Top-up Method._--The facing is quickly done with the aid of -White’s facing-plate, but it can also be accomplished without it if the -packer may so desire. The facing-plate, however, is greatly to be -preferred, as we shall show directly. If no plate is used, the operation -is as follows: At the filling table, fifteen pounds of loose raisins are -weighed off directly in the twenty-pound boxes. Then five pounds loose -are weighed separately in a tin tray. The whole boxes are taken to the -packing-table and placed close to the press, one on top of the other, -the smaller trays, with five pounds each, are brought to the facer, who -now takes one of the loose wooden frames with a sliding bottom and -places in it the necessary papers. He then fills in the five pounds of -loose raisins, smooths and spreads them out, and sees that no bad -berries are among the good ones. This operation may also be performed by -different hands, so as to divide up the work. This is probably the best -and most economical way. The next step is to take the tray to the press -and subject it to a certain pressure, so as to get a smooth upper -surface on which to face or place the raisins in rows. When this is done -the tray is taken to the facer. The facer now has in front of him a tray -filled with the ornamental papers and the five pounds of raisins. The -surface of the raisins is smooth and even. The next operation is to -place large raisins in rows on the top surface. A small box with loose, -large raisins should be at the side of the facer, who in taking each one -of them at first presses it towards the table with the thumb of either -hand, thus flattening out the raisin in order to make it appear large. -When the tray is faced, it may again be subjected to slight pressure, -but generally this is not needed. The contents of the tray are now -transferred to the twenty-pound box, which already contains fifteen -pounds of loose. These loose raisins, which will be on the bottom of the -box, are not generally wrapped in paper, although such would very much -improve their appearance. The box is now ready for nailing. This top-up -method is very inferior to the top-down method, as will be described -further on. In packing with this method, only the wooden frame with the -sliding bottom is used. The drop-bottom frame is only used for the -top-down method. - - -_Facing, Top-down Method._--In using this method, the top layer is -finished first, and the bottom last. The packing is done as follows: In -the bottom of a tin or galvanized-iron tray, previously described, is -placed one of White’s facing-plates. As will be remembered, the frame -has a loose drop-bottom, which falls out as soon as the tray is turned -over. The facing-plate is placed either directly on this loose bottom, -or on the flange supporting it, and always with the facing-cups upward. -The facer now places loose selected raisins, one in each hollow, presses -his finger on the raisin and works it in the hollow until it becomes -flattened. When all the cavities are filled, loose raisins are carefully -filled in until the tray is full, when but a gentle pressure is required -to steady the raisins and make them keep their places. In the meantime, -fifteen pounds of raisins have been put in twenty-pound boxes and -_gently_ pressed. Some packers of choice raisins use a wrapper and label -for every layer of five pounds, which greatly improves the general -appearance of the box. After all is ready, a loose zinc plate is placed -over the filled frame or tray, the latter is reversed and placed -directly over the raisin box, in which has already been placed the -required paper wrapper. The zinc plate, which only served to steady the -raisins while the frame was being turned, is now quickly withdrawn, and -the five-pound faced layer falls down in the box entirely undisturbed, -kept so by the facing-plate which here acted as follower. The box is now -ready for nailing, after a label and wax paper have first been placed on -top of the plate. Without the facing-plate, a skilled facer can face -some forty boxes a day, while from twenty to thirty boxes is a low -average. With the facing-plate, the facing can be accomplished with more -speed and accuracy. - - -_Comparative Value of the Two Methods._--The top-up method has several -disadvantages. It requires a heavy pressure of the raisins to create a -smooth, flat surface on which to face. But even if no facing is done, -the top layer will always be more or less uneven, and requires heavy -pressure to make it smooth, and appear well and to advantage. This heavy -pressure always bursts many of the raisins, and causes them to sugar and -spoil. It has also another disadvantage, that the facing of the top -layer can only be done with the fancy paper previously placed in the -box. In facing and manipulating the raisins, this paper becomes more or -less soiled and wet. In using the top-down method, the paper is placed -in the box at the last moment, just before the final five-pound layer is -emptied from the tray upon the fifteen-pound layer below. I consider -these advantages so essential that I must strongly indorse the top-down -method, and I believe that, in course of time, it will be generally -adopted by all packers who care for the keeping qualities of their -raisins. As to the time and expense required by these two methods, there -is but very little difference. The top-down method is possibly a little -slower and more expensive, but it is by far the better, and the -difference in expense of packing is not great enough to be taken into -consideration. - - -LAYER RAISINS. - - -_Sweating or Equalizing._--This is a process by which the overdried -raisins are made to attract sufficient moisture from the underdried -raisins in the same box or bunch, and whereby the overdried raisins are -made moister, while the underdried ones become drier. Equalizing also -moistens the stems sufficiently to prevent them from breaking when being -handled. In our California climate, where the air is so dry, this -equalizing process is an absolute necessity, and no first-class raisin -pack can be produced without the raisins having first been equalized. -The word “equalizing” is to be preferred to “sweating,” as the latter -word may be misunderstood as meaning that a certain amount of heat is -developed by storing the raisins. Heat is indeed necessary, but it -should come from the outside air, not from the inside or from the -raisins. If from the latter the raisins will be in a fair way to become -spoiled. In the foregoing I have described the construction and workings -of the sweathouse. It may be suggested that, if there is no sweathouse -on the vineyard, a large sail or canvas may be used as a substitute. The -latter is simply thrown over the boxes where they are piled -out-of-doors, and answers to some degree in keeping the raisins moist. -But as this is only a substitute, I shall not dwell longer on its -usefulness. It may, however, be said in favor of this appliance, that -it is used by one of our largest packers, and by him considered as of -equal value if not superior even to a regularly constructed equalizing -house. - -The raisins which are to be sweated are only the clusters or layers, and -not the loose, which as we have seen should at once be taken from the -field to the stemmer, while the stems are yet crisp and dry. It is -therefore of importance that the bunches or layers should be separated -from the loose already in the field, or, which is much preferable, -before they are dried, at the time when they are picked from the vines. -If the latter is done properly, there will be only a small quantity of -loose which will go in the sweating-house with the layers. The layers -should at any rate be placed at once in sweatboxes when taken from the -trays, and between every two layers of bunches there should be a stout -sheet of manilla paper, in order that the bunches may not become mixed. -When taken to the sweathouse the boxes should be so placed that air can -enter every one. It will not do to place one box on top of another so as -to cover up the top entirely, as the raisins are then apt to ferment in -a very short time, and, before the raisin-packer is aware, whole piles -may be absolutely spoiled. It is not necessary to place the boxes -crosswise, as it is enough to allow the short side of each box to -overlap the underlying box a little; sufficient air will then enter. In -very dry weather the floor of the sweathouse may be sprinkled with -water, but this is generally not needed, as the underdried raisins will -give out moisture enough to soften those that are too dry, as well as -the stems. Every day the sweathouse should be aired, and it is a mistake -to believe that all air should be excluded. If air is not daily -admitted, the raisins will mold and spoil, and it is even advisable to -keep a circulation of air constantly through the house during the -daytime. The attentive packer will soon learn to regulate this, and -nothing but actual experience with his particular sweathouse will enable -him to decide how much air should be let in and to what extent the doors -should be closed. - -At the end of from ten days to three weeks, the equalizing process -should be over, and the layers ready for further packing. When the boxes -are removed, it will be found that the majority of those raisins which -had been too moist or underdried have dried sufficiently, while on the -contrary the overdried raisins, as well as the formerly brittle stems, -will have acquired sufficient moisture to enable the packer to -manipulate them without risk of breaking the bunches. The raisins should -be pliable, and stand moderate pressure without cracking or breaking. -But while equalizing is an important operation, and one which we cannot -dispense with, it is always to the grower’s interest to so dry his -raisins previously that they will require as little equalizing as -possible, as even the most carefully sweated raisins which have once -been overdried will never afterwards equal those which were at once -properly dried in the field. The overdried raisins will always have a -tougher skin and be inferior in color; but on the other hand they will -keep better than raisins which have been dried less. - - -_Grading and Weighing._--The next step after the raisins have been -equalized is to remove them to the grading tables. This should not be -done by dumping the contents of a sweatbox on the table, as in this way -but very few of the real choice bunches are saved for the packer. If, -however, the raisins have been placed carelessly in the boxes, without -sufficient or perhaps without any manilla papers between the layers, the -only way is to dump out the contents. By first placing the sweatbox on -the long side, and then turning it over, the raisins are but slightly -disturbed. But to get these out afterwards from the chunk is the great -difficulty, and many bunches must necessarily be broken. If, again, the -raisins have been carefully handled and consigned to the sweatboxes, -with four papers in every box, not counting in the top cover, the care -and handling of the sweatboxes will be much simplified. The sweatbox is -then placed alongside of the grading table, and each layer with its -paper is lifted out carefully, and placed on the table. The assorting is -now to begin. The bunches are taken up one by one, all inferior berries -are clipped out, all soft ones are separated and placed in a box by -themselves to be further dried. As each bunch is examined and cleaned, -it is put in one of the weighing trays resting on small scales at either -end of the table, and, when the scales indicate that five pounds of -raisins are in the tray, the latter is removed to the packing table. - -In the meantime all loose or inferior bunches are raked down through the -openings in the grading tables and received in sweatboxes below, to be -either further dried or to be stemmed and graded at once. In packing -several grades of layer raisins, the grading of the bunches should be -made at this table. No great choice in selecting the bunches should be -left to the packer, as his time should alone be occupied with the -packing of his box. The best way is to have differently colored scales -for number one and number two layers, and when taking them out of the -sweatbox assort them at once by placing them in different trays. The -graders can never be too careful. No moist raisins, no small ones, no -red and poor raisins, should ever be allowed among a better quality. -They will lower the grade of the whole box, while the good quality of -high-grade raisins will not raise the grade of a generally poor box. -Thus, while the many good raisins in a poor box are not paid for -according to their value, the few poor raisins which will be -accidentally or carelessly smuggled in a good box will lower the value -of the whole. Few packers will sufficiently understand this, which is -really the principle of all good packing, and which should be -scrupulously adhered to. Even inferior size berries, if otherwise ever -so good, should be carefully clipped from the large-berried bunches. It -is astonishing how quickly the buyer will notice a few small berries, -and how readily he will ignore the value of the largest raisins in the -box. - - -_Packing Layers, Top-up Method._--As with packing the loose raisins, -there are two methods, the top up and the top down. The top-up method -can be as little recommended in this case as in the former, but as it is -used by many of the packers I will here describe it: The trays -containing the five-pound layers are placed in front of the packer on -the packing table, so as to be within easy reach of the packer. The -trays or frames with the sliding bottom are now used. The first move is -to place one of the inner paper wrappers in the tray, and next the -layers are placed in the frame as carefully as possible. There are two -ways in vogue in which this is done. One of them is to crowd the raisins -to one side,--“bunch” them, so to say, beginning at one end of the tray -and gradually working towards the other end. This is the _wrong_ way, -which I am sorry to say is used by very many packers, who desire speed -above everything, thus sacrificing care and quality and even appearance. -Raisins packed this way point their ends upwards in a slanting way, -which not only detracts from their appearance, but causes them to get -entangled in each other. Such bunches when pressed will generally break, -and, when lifted out of the box afterwards, will be very different from -what they were when they were placed there in the first instance. The -raisins, whatever method is used, should always be placed flat on the -bottom of the tray. Care should be taken to arrange them so that they -will fit, and only _very_ few broken bunches should be allowed to fill -unoccupied corners or spaces in the box. It is better even to leave such -spaces empty than to tear up good bunches in order to get the small -quantities needed, or in using inferior berries to fill up the holes. - -[Illustration: Riverside, Showing Orange Orchards and Raisin -Vineyards.] - -When at last the tray is full, and all the five pounds of raisins from -the weighing tray are in, the upper surface should be smooth so as to -require as little pressure as possible. When full the trays are taken to -the press and stored on a side table until actually used. The presses -are generally arranged for four trays. These are now placed under the -press, a follower is placed on the top of every tray, and only -sufficient pressure applied. Frequently too much pressure is used, and -the raisins are flattened out to their greatest possible extent, many -even crushed and so broken that the juice runs out. All such crushed -raisins will sugar in a few months, and the whole box containing them -will spoil and deteriorate in value. If, again, the raisins have been -properly pressed, they will keep for months or even years. After the -trays have been sufficiently pressed, which generally is accomplished in -one minute’s time, the pressure is released, the follower removed, the -folders turned over the raisins, and the trays removed to the boxing -table, on which they may be allowed to accumulate until the boxer is -ready to fill his boxes. On this table the final packing or “making up” -of a box is done. It takes four of these five-pound frames to fill one -whole box. Each tray is in its turn placed over a box, the sliding -bottom is quickly removed, and the five-pound layer drops down in the -box undisturbed. Every fourth frame should, in addition to the common -paper wrapper, have labels and fancy paper pasted on the folders, or, as -is sometimes done, an extra fancy folder or wrapper is placed on the -third layer, and on the top or inside of it the fourth layer is dropped. -Each layer will thus be found in its own wrapper, but the upper layer -will have two, the outside one of which is fancy. Fine layers should -have a waxed paper immediately above the raisins, in order that the -moisture or sugar from them may not spoil the labels. On the top of the -waxed paper the chromo or label is placed. The box is now ready for -nailing. - - -_Packing Layers, Top-down Method._--This method I advocate as the most -proper one to use. Thin galvanized-iron trays with a drop bottom are -used. On the top of the drop bottom is placed a heavy follower of metal. -White’s facing-plate, turned over, can be used to great advantage, even -where no facing is required. The choicest bunches are now selected and -spread evenly on the bottom of the tray; other bunches are placed on top -of them, and so on until the tray is full. Great care must be taken in -packing so as to make the bunches fit each other and lie solid; -otherwise they are very apt to be disturbed, or they will require too -heavy pressure to be kept in place. When the tray is full, it is gently -pressed, and the pressure kept up for a few seconds. A loose zinc plate -is then placed over the tray, the latter is turned over and placed over -the box, in which the necessary wrapping papers have been previously -placed, the loose zinc plate is quickly withdrawn, and the contents fall -into the box. The heavy follower keeps the top layer steady, and with a -little care the raisins are not disturbed. - -The top-down method for packing layers has the following advantages over -the top-up method. It gives a smooth surface on which to pack the top -layer, without necessitating pressure to first create such a surface, -the packing being done on a hard plate. The wrappers are not soiled, as -they are not first placed in the frames. The packer is enabled to pack -and select his choicest bunches for the top layer while he has plenty to -select from, and any odd berries and broken or smaller bunches come -naturally in the bottom of each layer. In the top-up method all such -odds remain for the top, where they _must_ go in, in order to make up -the required five pounds. - -A raisin-packer averages seventy-five trays of five pounds each per day, -for which she is paid two cents each. Some pack more than this; but very -excellent packing proceeds slower, and a packer of very choice layers -can only pack twenty-five trays of five pounds each per day, for which a -correspondingly higher price is paid. In Malaga, a trained and expert -packer receives between two and three dollars per day. In California, -they do not receive any more. In our raisin district, the girls are -rapidly becoming expert packers, and the same ones are reëngaged year -after year by the same packing-house. - - -_Filling._--The filling of the raisins is a trick to make them appear -larger than they are. This filling was invented in Spain, and is used -there especially on Dehesa boxes and where very expensive packing is -required. It is done in the following manner. The raisin is first -flattened out as much as possible, then the edges are bent, making the -raisins slightly concave. In placing the concave side downwards, a -smaller raisin is slipped underneath so as to cause the manipulated -raisin to keep its shape. These filled raisins are used for facing only. -The Spanish filled raisins have been handled to such an extent that all -the bloom is lost, and the raisin looks anything but attractive. The -California method of filling is a great improvement on the Spanish way. -When the facing-plate is used, the raisin is first placed in a cavity -on the plate, then worked out by a pressure with the finger, and when -sufficiently concave another raisin is dropped in the hollow and pressed -tightly. The faced raisin is thus filled, and when seen from the other -side will appear much larger than otherwise. When, again, the top-up -method of packing is used, a small block of wood may be employed. This -block contains a single cavity of the size, that a raisin when pressed -will fill it. The counterpart of this block is furnished with a convex -protuberance, and when the two halves are placed together with a raisin -between, and pressure is brought to bear, the raisin flattens out and -becomes concave just enough to receive the filling. - -In this way no handling with the fingers is done, and the raisin keeps -its bloom undisturbed. Nothing is more attractive than a raisin with its -bloom untouched; similarly the raisin that has lost its bloom always -gives the buyer an idea that it has been fingered. Its appetizing -quality is gone. Spanish Dehesas are generally both faced and filled. -Some objection to this method is that it deceives, but as long as people -not only are willing to be deceived but are actually anxious to pay for -the deception, there is no reason why the filling should not be used. -The deception, besides, is a very innocent one. It has also another -excuse: A well faced and filled box is really a work of art; it will -help to educate the people up to the appreciation of what fine raisins -and fine packing should be. Filling and facing combined are practiced -but little in California, and it is doubtful if filled facing will ever -grow in much demand here. - - -_Nailing and Trimming._--The boxes are next moved to the nailing table. -Two nails are put in the short sides and two in the long sides of the -cover. The boxes when nailed are passed to the trimmer, who with a -drawknife trims the edges and cuts off the comers diagonally. The latter -prevents the boxes or covers from splitting. The best nails are French -wire nails for the sides and ends, one and one-quarter inches long, and -for tops and bottoms one inch long. - - -_Labels._--I cannot finish this part without adding some words about our -labels. It is of importance that our labels and colored lithographs -should be appropriate. The time has come when our raisins should stand -upon their own merits, and should be designated with appropriate names. -I should wish to see only California names used, California layers -instead of London layers, California scenes instead of foreign scenes, -which give no idea of our conditions, and which do not help to advertise -our State and its resources. Whatever our labels may represent, they -should be distinctly Californian. Another point which is but seldom -observed on these labels is the shape and color of our raisin grapes. -The latter are often represented on the labels, but their shape is -seldom observed. Nowhere have we seen on them a true Gordo Blanco or a -true Muscat of Alexandria represented, the grapes there pictured being -impossible as raisin grapes, or even well-known wine or table grapes, -out of which no raisins could be made. The packer has a right to protest -against such misrepresentations of our fair grapes, especially as the -lithographer could just as readily and just as cheaply have followed -the originals. A beautiful label is well worth its price. As a work of -art, it is seldom thrown away, but is carefully kept and made to adorn -the walls of many a humble home, in which the name and fame of our State -will soon be a household word. Let these labels go out by the million -yearly to tell of our climate and of our soil, and of the land where the -luscious raisins are produced, with the same care as apples or garden -stuff in countries less favored by nature. - - - - -STATISTICS OF IMPORTATION, PRODUCTION AND PRICES. - - -_Production of Raisins in California from to 1889:_ - - Twenty- - pound - boxes. - 1873 6,000 - 1874 9,000 - 1875 11,000 - 1876 19,000 - 1877 32,000 - 1878 48,000 - 1879 65,000 - 1880 75,000 - 1881 90,000 - 1882 115,000 - 1883 140,000 - 1884 175,000 - 1885 500,000 - 1886 700,000 - 1887 800,000 - 1888 963,000 - 1889 1,000,000 - -The California crop, from 1885 to 1889, was divided between the various -raisin districts of the State about as follows: - - ==============================+=======+=======+=======+=======+======= - | 1885. | 1886. | 1887. | 1888. | 1889. - ------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Fresno |107,000|225,000|350,000|440,000|475,000 - Riverside and San Bernardino |129,000|195,000|190,000|270,000|265,000 - Orange County and Los Angeles}|139,000|180,000| 85,000| 42,000| 8,000 - County }| | | | | - Woodland and Davisville | 67,000| 75,000|125,000 115,000|120,000 - San Diego | 10,000| 25,000| 20,000| 40,000| 75,000 - Tulare | 6,000| 8,000| 10,000| 11,000| 15,000 - Kern | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4,000 - Scattering | 12,000| 15,000| 20,000| 25,000| 25,000 - +-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - |470,000|723,000|800,000|943,000|987,000 - ------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - - -_Number of Acres in Raisin Grapes in California in 1890:_ - - Fresno district 30,000 acres. - Balance of San Joaquin valley 10,000 “ - San Bernardino district 5,000 “ - San Diego and El Cajon 6,000 “ - Yolo and Solano 8,000 “ - Balance of the State 7,000 “ - ------ - 66,000 “ - -This includes grapes in bearing, as well as vines lately set out. - - -_California and Malaga Prices, Importations, etc., from 1871 to 1889:_ - -The following statistics of prices of California and Malaga raisins have -been mostly compiled from various sources, such as the Fresno -_Expositor_, the San Francisco _Journal of Commerce_, the _Fruit -Grower_, etc. These statistics and notes will give a fair idea of the -progress made by the raisin industry in this State since 1873, the year -when our raisins first cut any conspicuous figure in the market of this -continent. The first struggle of the raisin-producers of this Coast was -directed against the importers of Malaga raisins, and against the -prejudice of our own consumers. It took about ten years to supersede the -Malaga product by our own. The following table gives the importation of -Malaga raisins to this State from 1871 to 1884: - - Twenty- - pound - boxes. - 1871 16,534 - 1872 36,153 - 1873 27,692 - 1874 35,447 - 1875 22,228 - 1876 29,187 - 1877 13,357 - 1878 14,824 - 1879 10,884 - 1880 3,988 - 1881 1,719 - 1882 1,218 - 1883 633 - 1884 1,437 - 1885 800 - 1886 -- - 1887 -- - 1888 -- - 1889 -- - -It will be observed that the imports began to fall off in 1875, being -that year more than 13,000 boxes short of the preceding year. In 1876 -the importations struggled back to 29,187, still being more than 6,000 -boxes short of the importations of 1874; and then the battle was -practically won, for in the succeeding years the importations dwindled -away until in 1883 only 633 boxes were imported. The figures from 1886 -to date are not obtainable, but are so insignificant as to be considered -unnecessary to record. - - -_1873._--In 1873 the market was liberally supplied with Malaga raisins, -which brought at wholesale the following prices: Layers, whole boxes, -$3.00 to $3.75; half boxes, $3.62½; quarters, $3.75; eighths, $4.00 to -$4.25; London layers, $4.50. - - -_1874._--Coming down to 1874, the Malaga still holds the fort, layers -bringing $3.25 for whole boxes, and $3.12½ for half boxes, with the -customary advance on fractions. In all this time the California raisin -was too insignificant for notice, and was not quoted by commercial -papers. - - -_1875._--On January 14, 1875, this significant comment appears in the -_Journal of Commerce_: “A decided change is being wrought in the markets -of this coast respecting the use of Malaga raisins, figs, Zante -currants, Hungarian prunes, almonds, walnuts, etc. In fact, from this -time forward Pacific Coast supplies of bunch raisins and dried fruits -generally are to be produced here in large quantities, and in favorable -seasons we will doubtless have a large surplus of almonds (hard, soft -and paper shells), English walnuts, chestnuts, hickory nuts, raisins, -figs, etc.” - -On November 4, 1875, it was recorded that up to the 1st of November -there had been received 6,000 boxes of California raisins, “the quality -generally good,” worth from eight to ten cents per pound, say $2.00 and -$2.25 per box of twenty-two pounds net; London layers, $3.50 and $3.75. - - -_1876._--In January of 1876 Malagas were quoted at $3.25 and $3.50, -California raisins bringing ten and twelve and one-half cents per pound. -The following comment was made at that time, which may be considered as -another mile-stone in the progress of the California industry: “Malaga -raisins have been imported to very much less extent the present than -last season, owing to the large products of California cured, which -latter have amounted to upwards of 30,000 boxes, about one-half of which -have been of prime quality, suitable for table use, a portion being -poorly cured and considerably inferior to the imported, but have sold at -lower rates for ordinary cooking purposes.” - -The California raisin was now fairly on its feet, so to speak, and was -in lively competition with the Malaga dried grape. The market reports -spoke well of Blowers’ California Muscatels and Briggs’ bunch raisins. -The jobbers, however, were loth to give up the Malaga; but to sell that -article they had to import an extra choice quality, as the public was -beginning to show a marked preference for the home product. In proof of -this the following extract, dated November 9, 1876, is given: “The -quality of the Malaga raisins now here is superior to any ever before -imported, and have a preference over our best California raisins. This, -however, will not always be the case, as experience makes perfect, and -in a few years we will be entirely independent of the Old World for all -sorts of dried fruits.” - - -_1877._--In November, 1877, very complimentary notice is made of -Blowers’ layer raisins from Woodland, which brought $2.75 and $3.00 per -box. Briggs’ raisins were worth $2.25 and $2.70. This extract, dated -January 18, 1877, is still another landmark in the raisin industry: “The -consumption of raisins has been fully up to the average of past years, -yet divided between Malaga imports and our own California production. Of -the latter, upwards of 20,000 boxes have been already marketed; and, had -it not been for the unusual and unexpected heavy rainfall in October, -there is every reason to believe that our home crop of bunch and layer -raisins would have reached 50,000 boxes of twenty pounds each. Blowers’ -Muscat raisins were superior and in every way equal to the imported. -Briggs, of Marysville, also turned out several thousand boxes of bunch, -and others have made a creditable beginning. Enough has been done here -in this line to satisfy our grape-growers that raisin-curing is to be, -in the near future, a prominent California interest, and, to do it -successfully, the sun-drying process is infinitely superior to that of -machine-drying. Sheds must be erected and prepared in time to protect -the fruit from early rain, and then the working process is sure to all -who have the right kind of grapes. Then uniform weight in twenty, ten -and five pound boxes, all handsomely put up in fancy papered boxes, and -California then will be prepared to secure all the raisin trade west of -the Rocky Mountains, and a good part of that of the Eastern States. As -it is, those of our merchants importing Malaga raisins from New York -confine themselves to London layers and others of the best and choicest -quality, leaving the home market to be cared for, in a great measure, by -those of our own production. As a result, raisins have ruled low all the -winter, and are likely to do so for a long time to come.” - - -_1878._--In 1878 several carloads of California raisins were sent to -Chicago, New York and Boston, and were well received by the trade. In -October of that year, California layers were bringing $2.50 and $3.25. -Imports had fallen away more than forty per cent from the figures of -1874. - - -_1879._--In 1879 the ruling prices for California raisins, in lots of -250 boxes and upwards, were: Common layers, $2.00 for wholes, $2.25 for -halves, $2.50 for quarters, $3.00 for eighths; London layers, $2.25 to -$2.50 for wholes, $2.50 to $2.75 for halves, $2.75 to $3.00 for -quarters, $3.25 to $3.50 for eighths. - - -_1880._--In October, 1880, the following quotations were made: Briggs’ -layers, $2.00 and $2.75 per box. California raisins, in lots of 250 -boxes and upwards, common layers, $2.50 and $2.25 per box; London -layers, $2.50 per box. - - -_1881._--In November of 1881, Malaga ruled high in the East, and in -consequence prices were generally higher here, quotations for the -California article running $2.50 for wholes, $2.75 for halves, $3.00 for -quarters, and $3.25 for eighths, in lots of one hundred boxes. London -layers, twenty-five cents per box more. - - -_1882._--In 1882 prices ran $2.37½ and $2.75. During all the period just -reviewed, the duty was two and a half cents per pound on raisins; but in -March, 1883, the duty was reduced to two cents, and yet importations for -that year were only 633 boxes,--a rather singular fact. The reduction in -duty does not seem to have had a very bad effect on prices, because, as -is easily evident from the small importation, no competition to speak of -was encountered in the local market, and, as in that year the imports at -New York from Spain were many thousands of boxes short, Eastern -competition was reduced to a minimum. Prices here ruled through the year -at an average of from seven to eight cents a pound, anything especially -choice bringing better prices. - - -_1883._--In 1883 California made a big stride forward in packing and -curing, and fancy raisins were put up in layers and cartoons. The Dehesa -brand and other fancy brands made their appearance, and as high as one -dollar was paid for quarters of five pounds each, and T. C. White’s and -Miss Austin’s brands became famous. - - -_1884._--In 1884, the year following that in which the duty was reduced -to two cents, the following prices prevailed: - -In January the following quotations are recorded: Malaga layers, $3.50 -for wholes, $5.00 for halves, and $5.50 for quarters in frames. Valencia -raisins, fifteen cents per pound. Loose Muscatels, $1.60. London layers, -$4.00. Briggs, wholes $2.50,--usual advance of twenty-five cents on -fractions. Blowers, wholes $----, quarters $3.50, eighths $3.75. Other -raisins, $2.50 in large lots; quarter and eighth boxes twenty-five cents -higher. - -In August the following were the quotations: Malaga layers, $3.50 for -wholes, $4.00 for halves, and $4.50 for quarters in frames. Valencias, -fifteen cents per pound. Loose Muscatels, $1.90. London layers, $3.00. -Briggs, wholes $1.40, halves $1.75, quarters $2.25, eighths $2.75. -Blowers, wholes $2.25, halves $2.50, quarters $2.75, eighths $3.00. - -In October the following quotations are to be found: Common layers, -$1.00 to $1.25 for wholes, $1.50 for halves, $1.75 for quarters, $2.25 -for eighths. London layers, $1.35 to $1.50 for wholes, $1.95 for halves, -$2.00 for quarters, $2.50 for eighths. - -In November, 1884, the following comment is made: The California raisin -pack will probably be 100,000 boxes. There would have been much more but -for the October rains, that prevented proper curing. The crop in Europe -is short, too, and prices are much higher than they were a year ago. It -is said that 15,000 boxes have been sold for the East. We quote: Malaga -layers, $3.75 for wholes, $4.00 for halves, and $4.50 for quarters in -frames. Valencia raisins, fifteen cents per pound. Loose Muscatels, -$1.90. London layers, $4.00. Briggs, wholes $1.75, halves $2.00, -quarters $2.35 to $2.50. Blowers, wholes $2.00, halves $2.25, quarters -$2.50, eighths $2.75. California layers, wholes $1.50, halves $1.75, -quarters $2.00. - - -_1885._--In 1885 the market showed a gratifying ability to absorb at -profitable rates a good article, for prices ran: California common -layers, $1.75 for wholes, $2.00 for halves, $2.25 for quarters. Briggs, -wholes $2.00, with an advance of twenty-five cents on fractions. -Blowers, $2.25 for wholes, with an advance of twenty-five cents on -fractions. - - -_1886._--In 1886 quotations show that only extra choice Malagas were -imported, and that, too, for a limited trade. Prices were: Malaga -layers, $4.00 for wholes, $4.25 and $4.75 for halves and quarters. -Valencia raisins, fifteen cents per pound. London layers, $3.00. -California layers, wholes $1.75,--usual advance of twenty-five cents on -fractions. Briggs, wholes $2.00, halves $2.25, etc. Blowers, wholes -$2.25,--usual advance on fractions. - -For 1886 the market is reviewed as follows: The past year has been the -greatest for California dried fruit that the State has ever seen. There -has been an increase in every item, and a specially heavy increase in -the matter of raisins, the production of which has increased so fast -that they have become a leading article of merchandise. Where we were -large importers and generous consumers, more in proportion to our size -than any one else in the world, we have almost totally ceased -importation and are among the largest producers and exporters in the -world, next to Spain itself. The total receipts of imported raisins at -New York for the season of 1886-87 were as follows: 911,816 boxes of -Valencias, 427,936 boxes of Malagas, 400 half boxes of Malagas, 88,657 -boxes of Sultanas. The California pack is this year almost doubled, and -shows great improvement in quality and packing. - - -_1887._--In October, 1887, prices were quoted as follows: London layers, -per box, $2.00 to $2.25. Loose Muscatels, from $1.50 to $1.80. - -Riverside, El Cajon and Fresno raisins of excellent quality are now in -the market, and Butler and Forsyth raisins in Fresno begin to rival the -very best imported brands. Many large packing-houses are established in -Fresno, Riverside and El Cajon. - - -_1888._--The pack reaches in California 850,000 boxes, and the Fresno as -well as the Riverside raisins are very large and choice. Forsyth and -Butler raisins take the lead, some of the choicest layers bringing as -high as one dollar per five-pound quarter box. Only 112,000 boxes of -Malaga raisins are imported to the United States. - -In October, 1888, the following prices were obtained for imported -raisins at auction sale in New York: 645 boxes best London Layers, $3.25 -to $3.12½; 348 Imperial Cabinets, $3.35 to $3.20; 200 fine Dehesa -Bunches, $4.50 to $3.75; 50 Imperial Dehesa Bunches, $5.65; 104 Dehesa -Bunches, $4.05 to $4.00; 100 Finest Selected Clusters, $4.45 to $4.40; -50 Finest Royal Clusters, $4.75; 3 Imperial Excelsior Dehesa Loose -Muscatels, $5.00; 140 Imperial Loose Muscatels, $3.30 to $2.15; 1 -Imperial Excelsior Dehesa Clusters, $5.50; 9 Imperial Dehesa Clusters, -$5.12½ to $5.00; 2 Dehesa Dessert Fruit, $4.10; 1,194 Finest Valencia -Layers, 8⅛ to 8 cents; 899 Finest Valencia Raisins, 7 to 6¾ cents; 150 -half boxes Finest Valencia Layers, 8⅛ to 8 cents; 246 boxes Finest -Sultanas, 8¼ to 8 cents. - -At the same time California layers were quoted at from $1.80 to $2.25 -for medium grades, while for Dehesa and Imperial quarter boxes from -eighty cents to one dollar were realized. Raisins in sweatboxes were -bought by packers at five cents per pound, prices not rated according to -quality. - - -_1889._--The crop of 1889 was not as large as at first calculated, on -account of loss through unusual and heavy rains. It was especially the -second crop which suffered. The first crop was good, and brought good -prices, average layers bringing from $1.75 to $2.25 per box of twenty -pounds. Great improvement is made in packing and labels, and our average -raisins are better than the average imported Malagas. Our choicest -layers, however, do not yet equal in size, curing and packing the -choicest Malagas, and no efforts have been made to compete with them. -There are at least four higher grades packed in Malaga which we do not -produce here. During last season raisins in sweatboxes have ruled higher -than before, and have been bought by packers at from three to seven -cents. - - -_1890 (to July)._--The crop promises to be as large as last year. It is -greatly in demand, and representatives of Eastern and California dealers -have already bought up the most of the coming crop at prices averaging -one-half a cent more per pound than last year. - -From the above statistics we learn that through the production of -raisins in California the price of sun-dried raisins to the consumer on -this coast has been lowered from $3.00, $3.75, $4.00 and $4.50 in 1873 -to $2.00 and $2.50 in 1890. The importation of Malaga raisins in the -United States has greatly diminished, while that of Valencia or “dipped” -raisins has increased. In 1873, the United States imported 35,271,312 -pounds of raisins, for which it paid $2,292,948, while in 1888 our -importation was 40,340,117 pounds, or about five million pounds more, -for which we paid $2,098,503, or about $200,000 less. - - -_Exports of Valencia Raisins from 1850 to 1889, according to English -estimates:_ - - =====+========+========+========+======= - YEAR.|England.|America.| Other | Total - | | | Places.| Tons. - -----+--------+--------+--------+------- - 1850 | 9,423 | 165 | -- | 9,588 - 1851 | 8,491 | 285 | 787 | 9,563 - 1852 | 8,844 | 320 | -- | 9,164 - 1853 | 7,883 | 99 | 70 | 8,052 - 1854 | 7,206 | 296 | 50 | 7,552 - 1855 | 7,464 | 736 | 85 | 8,285 - 1856 | 8,909 | -- | 12 | 8,921 - 1857 | 9,485 | -- | -- | 7,900 - 1858 | 13,542 | 654 | 182 | 14,378 - 1859 | 9,546 | 163 | 113 | 9,822 - 1860 | 7,257 | 2,831 | 454 | 10,542 - 1861 | 8,072 | 63 | 143 | 8,278 - 1862 | 7,564 | -- | 238 | 7,900 - 1863 | 12,290 | 125 | 100 | 12,515 - 1864 | 8,655 | 38 | 182 | 8,875 - 1865 | 9,863 | 362 | 12 | 10,237 - 1866 | 12,735 | 403 | 473 | 13,611 - 1867 | 12,701 | 668 | 177 | 13,546 - 1868 | 14,293 | 3,095 | 794 | 18,182 - 1869 | 8,434 | 1,857 | 25 | 10,316 - 1870 | 10,060 | 2,210 | 110 | 12,380 - 1871 | 12,578 | 5,210 | 625 | 18,413 - 1872 | 15,677 | 4,088 | 535 | 20,300 - 1873 | 10,796 | 2,960 | 710 | 14,466 - 1874 | 13,724 | 5,513 | 439 | 19,676 - 1875 | 12,568 | 6,590 | 595 | 19,753 - 1876 | 15,272 | 3,816 | 676 | 19,764 - 1877 | -- | -- | -- | -- - 1878 | -- | -- | -- | -- - 1879 | 15,231 | 9,525 | 1,244 | 26,100 - 1880 | 13,026 | 8,977 | 892 | 22,895 - 1881 | 17,507 | 10,169 | 969 | 28,625 - 1882 | 18,121 | 21,593 | 1,732 | 41,346 - 1883 | 19,644 | 16,722 | 3,983 | 40,349 - 1884 | 10,210 | 9,686 | 4,289 | 24,185 - 1885 | 10,250 | 9,397 | 3,596 | 23,243 - 1886 | 15,194 | 15,687 | 16,113 | 36,994 - 1887 | 16,648 | 18,831 | 3,479 | 38,958 - 1888 | 15,524 | 12,245 | 4,655 | 32,424 - 1889 | 12,000 | 14,645 | 1,724 | 27,369 - -----+--------+--------+--------+------- - - -_Exports of Malaga Raisins from 1864 to 1889:_ - - =====+=========+=======+=======+=======+=======+ - YEAR.| U.S. | Brit- | Great |France.| North | - | | ish | Brit- | |Europe.| - | | Col- | ain. | | | - | | on’s. | | | | - -----+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - 1864 | 879,794| 45,906|258,458|137,379| 59,659| - 1865 | 879,794| 75,708|269,072|171,743| 64,319| - 1866 | 907,305| 72,208|220,756|178,862| 62,076| - 1867 | 966,724| 96,124|166,737|129,391| 58,222| - 1868 |1,053,726|125,407|222,426|163,306| 64,262| - 1869 | 767,321| 58,265|175,602|117,612| 82,472| - 1870 |1,331,937|120,039|216,015| 90,193| 57,687| - 1871 |1,147,633| 98,817|183,916|161,123| 69,800| - 1872 |1,325,705| 95,024|383,890|230,046| 72,788| - 1873 |1,368,822| 45,495|241,325|196,239| 99,424| - 1874 |1,320,000| 43,490|240,000|200,000| 99,500| - 1875 | 976,000| 42,000|271,000|203,000| 98,000| - 1876 |1,321,000| 52,000|357,000|276,000|115,000| - 1877 |1,250,000| 56,600|250,000|300,000|100,000| - 1878 |1,182,088| 58,242|194,471|330,767| 99,661| - 1879 |1,146,228| 30,598|237,659|368,420|107,888| - 1880 |1,115,101| 46,717|174,126|297,412|108,222| - 1881 |1,043,727| 31,730|141,415|251,382|101,828| - 1882 | 967,571| 38,431|176,349|277,253|130,646| - 1883 | --| --| --| --| --| - 1884 | --| --| --| --| --| - 1885 | --| --| --| --| --| - 1886 | --| --| --| --| --| - 1887 | --| --| --| --| --| - 1888 | --| --| --| --| --| - 1889 | 120,000| --| --| --| --| - -----+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - - =====+=======+=======+=========+====== - YEAR.| South | Sun- | Total | Total - | Am. | dries.| Boxes. | Tons. - | | | | - | | | | - -----+-------+-------+---------+------ - 1864 |109,741|209,000|1,200,000|13,200 - 1865 | 96,658|255,000|1,800,000|19,800 - 1866 |115,305|191,000|1,750,000|19,250 - 1867 |116,762|135,000|1,670,000|18,370 - 1868 |103,082|215,000|1,950,000|22,450 - 1869 | 67,634| 80,800|1,350,000|14,850 - 1870 |113,755|270,000|2,200,000|24,200 - 1871 | 87,242|274,000|2,200,000|24,200 - 1872 |119,042| --|1,920,000|21,120 - 1873 | --|140,000|2,500,000|27,500 - 1874 | --| --|2,160,000|23,760 - 1875 | --| 98,000|1,670,000|18,370 - 1876 | --| 91,000|2,252,000|24,772 - 1877 | --| --|2,200,000|24,200 - 1878 | 98,429|211,000|2,180,000|23,980 - 1879 | 63,688|170,000|2,125,000|23,372 - 1880 | 75,456|197,000|2,015,000|22,165 - 1881 | 81,196|147,000|1,800,000|19,800 - 1882 | 98,007|178,000|1,200,000|13,200 - 1883 | --| --| --| -- - 1884 | --| --| --| -- - 1885 | --| --| --| -- - 1886 | --| --| --| -- - 1887 | --| --| 850,000| 9,350 - 1888 | --| --| 850,000| 8,250 - 1889 | --| --| 750,000| -- - -----+-------+-------+---------+------ - - -_First Cost of Crop of Valencia Raisins, according to the “California -Fruit Grower:”_ - - 1884, from $4.00 to $6.00 per hundred pounds. - 1885, “ 5.00 to 6.00 “ “ “ - 1886, “ 3.00 to 5.00 “ “ “ - 1887, 4.00 “ “ “ - 1888, from 2.00 to 4.00 “ “ “ - 1889, 3.50 “ “ “ - - -_Production and Distribution of Smyrna Raisins from 1844 to 1884, -according to U. S. Consular Reports:_ - - 1844 8,000 tons. - 1868 19,000 “ - 1871 48,000 “ - 1872 31,000 “ - 1879 75,000 “ - 1881 49,000 “ - 1884 95,000 “ - -According to English estimates, the raisin crop of Smyrna only reached -27,000 tons in 1876, and was divided as follows: - - _Red Raisins._--Chesme 5,100 tons. - Vourla 5,000 “ - Yerly 2,800 “ - Carabourna 1,600 “ - ------ - 14,500 tons. - - - _Sultanas._--Chesme 7,400 tons. - Vourla 3,100 “ - Yerly 1,150 “ - Carabourna 800 “ - ----- 12,450 tons. - ------ - 26,950 tons. - -This crop was distributed as follows: - - _Red Raisins._--England 2,699 tons. - North of Europe 6,488 “ - Trieste 2,260 “ - Russia and Turkey 2,995 “ - ----- 14,442 tons. - - - _Sultanas._--England 7,945 tons. - North of Europe 1,525 “ - Trieste 2,820 “ - Russia, etc. 285 “ - ----- 12,575 tons. - ------ - 27,017 tons. - - -_The World’s Raisin Production in 1889:_ - - Greece 125,000 tons. - Smyrna 120,000 “ - Valencia 28,000 “ - Lipari, Calabria and Pantellaria 15,000 “ - California 10,000 “ - Malaga 8,000 “ - Scattered 5,000 “ - Chile 1,000 “ - ------------- - 312,000 tons. - -The above does not include dried wine grapes from Italy, California and -Algiers, nor any raisins made in Australia (Victoria). - - -_Statement Showing the Quantity and Value of Currants, Figs and Raisins -Imported and Entered for Consumption in the United States from 1873 to -1878:_ - - ====+=======================++=====================++ - YEAR| RAISINS. || CURRANTS, || - END-| || ZANTE AND ALL OTHER.|| - ING +----------+------------++----------+----------++ - JUNE| QUANTITY.| VALUE. || QUANTITY.| VALUE. || - 30. | | || | || - +----------+------------+++---------+----------++ - | Pounds. | Dollars. || Pounds. | Dollars. || - 1873|35,271,312|2,292,948 83||14,141,797|566,386 49|| - 1874|36,419,922|2,544,605 95||19,319,191|752,694 00|| - 1875|30,501,316|2,443,155 50||19,334,458|771,384 56|| - 1876|32,221,065|2,425,277 14||20,911,061|856,425 62|| - 1877|32,419,637|2,109,333 60||17,152,664|749,488 00|| - 1878|32,931,736|1,904,866 13||17,941,352|776,827 00|| - ----+----------+------------++----------+----------++ - - ====++==================== - YEAR|| FIGS. - END-|| - ING ++---------+---------- - JUNE||QUANTITY.| VALUE. - 30. || | - ++---------+---------- - || Pounds. | Dollars. - 1873||7,995,035|506,205 45 - 1874||5,630,292|391,300 16 - 1875||4,659,860|357,823 99 - 1876||5,056,779|361,835 53 - 1877||5,889,011|398,982 22 - 1878||3,873,884|262,428 15 - ----++---------+---------- - - -_Statement Showing the Quantity and Value of Currants, Figs and Raisins -Imported and Entered for Consumption in the United States, with Rates of -Duty, etc., from 1879 to 1888:_ - -RAISINS. - - ====+==========+============+=======+============+========== - YEAR| QUANTITY.| VALUE. | Rate | AMOUNT OF |Additional - END-| | | of | DUTY | and - ING | | | Duty. | COLLECTED. | Discrim- - JUNE| | | | | inating - 30. | | | | | Duty. - ----+----------+------------+-------+------------+---------- - | Pounds. | Dollars. |Per lb.| Dollars. | Dollars. - 1879|38,523,535|1,943,941 14|2½ c. | 963,088 42| 92 51 - 1880|39,542,925|2,274,763 00|2½ c. | 988,573 19| 48 43 - 1881|39,654,755|2,711,771 74|2½ c. | 991,368 94| 80 50 - 1882|43,779,867|3,260,033 74|2½ c. |1,094,496 71| -- - 1883|51,487,389|3,495,599 45|2½ c. |1,287,184 77| 20 70 - 1884|56,676,658|3,543,916 15|2 cts. |1,133,533 15| 52 70 - 1885|39,778,695|2,728,847 46|2 cts. | 795,573 90| 247 35 - 1886|37,999,306|2,782,599 76|2 cts. | 759,986 12| 50 00 - 1887|40,660,603|2,297,469 30|2 cts. | 813,212 06| 34 00 - 1888|40,340,117|2,098,503 00|2 cts. | 806,802 34| 80 10 - ----+----------+------------+-------+------------+---------- - -CURRANTS, ZANTE OR OTHER. - - ====+==========+============+=======+============+========== - YEAR| QUANTITY.| VALUE. | Rate | AMOUNT OF |Additional - END-| | | of | DUTY | and - ING | | | Duty. | COLLECTED. | Discrim- - JUNE| | | | | inating - 30. | | | | | Duty. - ----+----------+------------+-------+------------+---------- - | Pounds. | Dollars. |Per lb.| Dollars. | Dollars. - 1879|17,405,347| 520,831 07|1 ct. | 174,053 47 | -- - 1880|18,007,492| 600,603 40|1 ct. | 180,074 92 | -- - 1881|21,631,512| 845,773 00|1 ct. | 216,315 12 | -- - 1882|32,592,231|1,388,886 00|1 ct. | 325,922 31 | -- - 1883|31,171,171|1,247,504 00|1 ct. | 311,711 71 | -- - 1884|32,743,712|1,220,575 16|1 ct. | 327,437 12 | -- - 1885|25,534,507| 723,415 00|1 ct. | 255,345 07 | -- - 1886|22,623,171| 744,784 00|1 ct. | 226,231 71 | 117 80 - 1887|29,196,393|1,062,326 00|1 ct. | 291,963 93 | -- - 1888|30,636,424|1,176,532 76|1 ct. | 306,364 24 | -- - ----+----------+------------+-------+------------+---------- - -FIGS. - - ====+==========+============+=======+============+========== - YEAR| QUANTITY.| VALUE. | Rate | AMOUNT OF |Additional - END-| | | of | DUTY | and - ING | | | Duty. | COLLECTED. | Discrim- - JUNE| | | | | inating - 30. | | | | | Duty. - ----+----------+------------+-------+------------+---------- - | Pounds. | Dollars. |Per lb.| Dollars. | Dollars. - 1879| 3,369,475| 247,075 06|2½ c. | 84,236 89| -- - 1880| 6,266,413| 440,507 00|2½ c. | 156,660 34| -- - 1881| 3,420,427| 379,382 55|2½ c. | 85,510 72| -- - 1882| 8,874,186| 678,341 87|2½ c. | 221,854 70| -- - 1883| 5,345,324| 489,108 38|2½ c. | 133,633 09| -- - 1884| 7,840,634| 504,532 02|2 cts. | 156,812 68| -- - 1885| 7,774,492| 516,083 63|2 cts. | 155,489 84| 6 50 - 1886| 6,988,642| 499,985 80|2 cts. | 139,772 84| -- - 1887| 8,752,898| 488,632 00|2 cts. | 175,057 96| 137 00 - 1888| 9,965,584| 495,541 50|2 cts. | 199,311 68| -- - ----+----------+------------+-------+------------+----------- - - -_Statement of Consumption of Currants and Raisins per Head of Total -Population in 1884:_ - - United Kingdom of Great Britain. 4.38 pounds. - United States of North America. 1.70 “ - - -_Prices Ruling in the California Raisin Districts:_ - -It is not my intention to give here a regular prospective estimate of -the cost of a raisin vineyard and the profits to be derived therefrom. -Such an estimate, applicable to every case, cannot be made out; about it -not two raisin-growers with equal experience would agree. Below I simply -give isolated statistics of costs of the various operations necessary in -the raisin industry. Each one can figure for himself, and my advice is -to add liberally to the calculated expenses, if disappointment would be -avoided. - -As to the profits of a raisin vineyard, the reader will by this time -understand how it might vary, how it must depend upon nice little -circumstances, never foreseen and only to be taken advantage of or -counteracted by the experienced grower. The high statements which have -been given in these pages as samples of how much might be gained from an -acre of raisin-vines can never be counted on as regular. From fifty to -several hundred dollars per acre may be obtained as net profit by care, -skill and favorable circumstances, but an average of seventy-five -dollars per acre can be considered a conservative sum, which the owner -of a good irrigated vineyard may calculate on as a safe net profit. Many -do not reach even that. But, even with that profit per acre, how many -horticultural industries can be counted on to produce better results? -Very few, if any. For the benefit of those who desire figures to guide -them, the following statistics are offered. They have been carefully -compiled in company with T. C. White, one of the most prominent -raisin-growers the State has ever had. These statistics refer especially -to the Fresno district, but they will be found to differ but little from -those elsewhere in this State. - -Land suitable to raisins can be had at from fifty to two hundred dollars -per acre. No one not thoroughly acquainted with the requirements of -raisin land should attempt to rely on his own judgment alone in making a -selection. - -Vines, already rooted, at from ten to twenty dollars per thousand vines. -An average would be fifteen dollars. The cost of _rooting_ vines is from -one dollar to two dollars and fifty cents per thousand, according to -locality and circumstances. - -Cuttings, from two to three dollars per thousand, more or less, -according to size and quality. - -Planting rooted vines, one cent per vine. Planting cuttings, half a cent -per cutting. - -Plowing yearly, one dollar and fifty cents per acre. - -Harrowing, fifty cents per acre. - -Leveling land for irrigation, according to the quality of the land. -Leveling the land in from one-half to three-quarter acre checks, -including small ditches, etc., can be done for from ten to fifteen -dollars per acre, if the land is fair. Rougher land will cost -twenty-five dollars or thereabouts, and if the land is rolling and -contains hardpan the expense may reach from fifty to one hundred dollars -per acre. The more “naturally” level the land is the better suited it is -to raisin-vines under irrigation. - -Irrigation and cultivation, until the vines come into bearing, including -suckering and pruning, all in large tracts of from forty to one hundred -acres, ten dollars per acre. If in smaller tracts the expense will be -larger. - -Pruning when the vines are in bearing, from two to three dollars per -acre. - -Sulphuring twice, two dollars per acre. Sulphur costs from two to three -cents per pound. It takes about one ton to twenty-five acres and one man -can sulphur from five to six acres a day. - -Topping, about fifty cents per acre. - -Trays, twenty-four by thirty-six inches, cost ten cents in shooks, -nailing one cent, nails one cent, total about twelve cents per tray. - -Sweatboxes, fifty cents apiece when ready. - -Packing-boxes: Wholes of twenty pounds, in shooks, six cents, nailing -and nails two cents, total eight cents each. Halves of ten pounds, in -shooks, four cents, nailing and nails one and one-half cents, total five -and one-half cents. Quarter boxes of five pounds, in shooks, three and -one-half cents, nailing and nails one and one-half cents, total five -cents each. - -Twenty pounds of layer raisins will contain about one-half pound of -stems. - -Cost of curing cannot be calculated. It depends upon the manner in which -it is done. - -Picking: One man can pick from twenty-five to fifty trays of twenty -pounds each a day, at a cost of say from two to three cents per tray, or -about a half a ton of grapes a day, equal to a cost per ton of two -dollars and fifty cents. This places the grapes on the trays, but does -not assort them. By assorting the grapes when picking, the cost is -increased, but better raisins and more good raisins are obtained. - -Turning: Two men can turn twenty acres of grapes a day. - -Packing London Layers: One man can pack “carefully” ten wholes or forty -trays (of five pounds each) per day. Cost about twelve and a half cents -per box. - -Packing Dehesas: One man can pack ten quarters of five pounds each a -day. Cost twelve and one-half cents per quarter box. This includes -facing. - -Packing Loose: One man can pack one hundred boxes per day. - -Facing-plate (T. C. White’s): Large plate, size nine by eighteen inches, -five dollars per plate. Cartoon plate, size five by ten inches, two -dollars and fifty cents per plate. - -Manilla paper for sweatboxes, one hundred and fifty pounds per ream at -fifteen dollars per ream, size thirty-six by forty-eight. The sheets to -be cut in two to fit the boxes. - -Stemming: Steam stemmers can separate and assort fifty tons a day. Hand -stemmers run by two men can separate about five tons per day. - -Papers for boxes cost, according to quality, three cents per box, more -or less. - - - - -THROUGH THE CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS. - - -THROUGH SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY TO FRESNO. - -We are on our way up the valley. The train left San Francisco in the -morning. We have crossed the bay and rounded the Contra Costa Mountains, -and Mount Diablo, with its majestic twin peaks, lies already behind us. -We have just crossed the San Joaquin river not far from its mouth; the -west side of the valley is on our right; on the left looms up the Sierra -Nevada, far away it is true, but grand and imposing, gradually -decreasing, as it were, towards the south, finally to disappear among -the clouds at the farther end of the valley. It is in the middle of -August; the day is warm, but there has been a shower in the mountains, -as is usual at this season of the year, a sprinkling of rain has -purified the atmosphere in the foothills, which stand out clear and -bright, a contrast to the dusty road in the center of the valley, over -which the smoking train carries us at a rapid speed. On both sides of us -stretch apparently endless plains, thirty miles wide,--to the Coast -Range on one side, to the Sierra Nevada on the other,--plains dry and -yellow, parched in the brilliant sun, shaded by no clouds, but cooled by -a steady breeze from the northwest following us up the valley. Up, we -say, but it is hardly any more up than down, the ascent being about one -foot to the mile; it is rather a journey over one of the most level -plains on the continent, but still the popular usage insists upon saying -“up the valley.” Acres and acres of already harvested grainfields are -seen on both sides, crossed by roads at right angles; here and there are -stacks of grain which have not yet been threshed, or heaps of straw, -where the threshing engine has done its work; on almost every section of -land we see a farmhouse and barn, a few gum-trees or cottonwoods, and -many a windmill and elevated tank informs us where the farmer gets his -water for his house and his scanty trees. All this we see under a -blazing sun and a quivering air. - -This is the great San Joaquin valley, the fertile center of California. -Of the much spoken of irrigation of California, we see almost nothing; -the land is dry and thirsty, the soil is loose, and the engine forces -the dust in a cloud before us. Nothing green is seen anywhere except a -few scattered trees far, far apart. Here and there we pass a little town -with wooden houses and dusty streets, with wooden churches whose spires -do not pierce the sky. We cross many streams, several of which are dry, -or have sluggish waters, while some wind their way down the valley -between banks covered with willows and cottonwoods. Yet there is -something grand in this immense stretch of open, level country, with its -frame of snowy mountains, with its fertile fields waiting for the -winter’s rain or irrigating ditch to produce abundantly of almost -anything that can be grown in any temperate country in the world. The -numerous grain stacks speak of the fertility of the soil and of abundant -harvests, while the vegetation along the rivers indicates that water is -all that is needed to make this large valley like a fruitful garden. - -We have passed Lathrop and Modesto and numerous smaller stations -between; the picture is everywhere the same. At Atwater we met the first -signs of irrigation, and saw young vineyards and orchards on either -side, and as we approach Merced we pass large irrigating ditches flowing -with water, and in the distance many houses and farms. The country is -getting greener, and the deep color of the soil is a sign that it is -rich and fertile. At Merced there is a Yosemite air. The large El -Capitan Hotel stands out like a landmark, and the garden with its -flowers and shade trees, and the marble fountain with its rippling -waters, speak loudly of beauty and refinement. - -Close to Merced are situated some of the new promising colonies which -are making raisin-growing one of their specialties, and in whatever -direction we look we see signs of such new enterprises, all young, of -course, as irrigation has only lately been brought in here, where no -dense settlements could exist without it. Much of the land is yet held -in very large tracts, but they are being rapidly subdivided and sold out -to actual settlers as fast as there is any demand for them. To our right -lies a splendid body of perfectly level land occupied by the Yosemite -Colony with many settlers already on the land, whose new and cosy -cottages mark their future homes. - -In the distance, on the slope of the low hills, stand out prominently a -number of houses, some of them quite pretentious, white and gleaming in -their new dress. This is the Rotterdam Colony, a settlement of -Hollanders who have only lately arrived here. There is not a colony -anywhere which promises to be more interesting, and which is likely to -prove a greater success. The Dutch as a people had succeeded with -colonization long before any other nation began a similar work, and, as -immigrants to this State, they are most desirable. Industrious, saving, -intelligent and persevering, with good land, plenty of water at all -times of the year, and with a good location which insures health and -comfort, there is no reason why they should not succeed. The colony is -most beautifully situated on high sloping ground,--a veritable mesa land -overlooking the vast Merced plains, and only four or five miles distant -from the city. These Hollander colonists are the very best kind of -settlers the State can get,--not the ignorant peasantry of Europe, but -intelligent and well-educated people, which any community can be proud -of. There is great activity in the colony just now. Thousands of acres -are covered with magnificent grain, which, without any more rain, would -give a profit of from twenty to twenty-five dollars per acre, and thus -materially help to pay for the land. A hundred or more horses and mules -with their drivers are plowing and harrowing the soil; and such a -plowing is not often seen anywhere. The plows are set about a foot deep, -and the work is done by the canal company just to help the settlers -along and give them a good start. What more can they expect? Good -treatment is in Merced dealt out to everybody,--a good policy which -should be followed in every new colony in the land. We stop at the -newly-built house of Mr. Canne, a gentleman of middle age with a large -family, and hearty and pleasing, as is so characteristic of the Dutch. -His house is large, very comfortable and airy, with large verandas -overlooking the country far and wide. Inside everything is cosy and -neat, with lots of mementoes from quaint old Holland, with colored china -on the walls and odd tables and odder bric-a-brac, family heirlooms from -generations back. The old grandma, with her eighty-one years, has come -along with the younger folks, happy as they, and, as they, meeting -bravely and with confidence new times and experiences in the new country -which they have chosen as their home. Our wishes for good luck are not -needed; it is sure to come when such people are settled upon such land, -and when everybody enjoys everybody else’s good-will. The land which is -now being broken is to be planted to olives, almonds, oranges, peaches -and vines,--a very good selection indeed, and one which cannot fail to -prove profitable. The deep red soil on the mesa will grow almost -anything, and with proper care and management this colony must in the -near future become one of the most attractive and prosperous in the -State. - -The Rotterdam Colony is bounded on one side by the now famous and often -described Crocker and Huffman reservoir. Those who believe that a -reservoir in the foothills is not the proper thing should come and take -a look at this one, and be convinced that it is. The location is a most -favorable one, being ninety feet above the town of Merced, and elevated -sufficiently to irrigate the whole of the level surrounding district, -containing two hundred and sixty thousand acres. The water covers now -about six hundred and forty acres which were formerly a real and natural -valley, across the mouth of which the dam checking the water was thrown. -The average depth of water is about thirty feet, while in some places it -is fifty odd feet deep. The statistics of this reservoir and dam have -been given often enough, but more or less correctly. The dam checking -the water is four thousand feet long, two hundred and seventy-five feet -wide at the base, twenty feet on the top and sixty feet high in the -center. It took four hundred mules and two hundred and fifty men two -years to build it. The reservoir and canal tapping Merced river cost -together two million dollars to build, and the work was constructed in -such a substantial and scientifically correct manner, that it will be -likely to last for ages. There is no other irrigation system in the -State that is as well planned and carried out. This can and must be said -to the honor of the constructors. The canal which taps the river is -twenty-seven miles long, from sixty to seventy feet wide on the bottom, -one hundred feet on the top, and has fall enough to carry four thousand -cubic feet of water per second. - -We have already remarked that the country between the dam and the city -of Merced is a magnificent and level body of land, all eminently suited -for irrigation. From the water tower in the reservoir, we overlook all -this land, now in its spring dress a very beautiful sight indeed. The -vast sheet of water, like a placid lake, in which the Sierra Nevada -reflects its snowy peaks, the prairie extending far and wide, divided -between luxuriant grainfields and unbroken lands now covered with their -spring carpet of flowers in the colors of the rainbow,--yellow, white, -blue, violet, red and shades of each, and dotted over with the new -settlers’ homes, freshly built and freshly painted,--what more lovely -view could we wish, a sight of beauty and of plenty. As we drive back to -town, we are more than at first impressed with the lay of the land. The -surface is level and without hills or knolls, but is cut through by many -natural channels or creeks from fifteen to twenty feet deep, insuring a -natural drainage, invaluable in a country where irrigation is required. - -The soil in this part of Merced county appears to be made up entirely of -alluvial deposits from the various creeks which in winter irrigate the -plains with their natural overflow. The largest of these creeks is Bear -creek, its deep channel resembling rather an irrigation ditch -constructed on the latest engineering principles than a natural stream. -Its banks are even and slanting, while its bed is deep below the -surface. - -But our time to stay was short. We have left Merced and many smaller -towns behind us, crossed many more dry streams, and passed the large -vineyards at Minturn, where sherry and port of excellent quality are -made. We have again crossed the main channel of the upper San Joaquin, -not far from where it emerges from the Sierra Nevada, its silvery waters -winding their way over the thirsty plains between steep and barren -banks. We have crossed a few irrigating ditches full to overflowing with -water, and see a few orchards and vineyards with their bright green -scattered about on the yellow plains. There is suddenly a general stir -in the cars, hats and bundles are taken down from the racks, most of the -passengers prepare to move, the locomotive whistles, houses and trees -are seen on both sides through the car windows, the train comes to a -standstill, there is a hum of voices, a waiting crowd swarms around the -cars, a throng of people pushes in, and another throng pushes out. We -are among the latter, as we are now in Fresno, the largest raisin center -on the continent. - -Fresno, as seen from the railroad station, is not as inviting as it -might be, and the thousands of travelers who pass by on the cars, headed -farther south, can judge but little of the town and the district behind -it. The country is so level, that the only way to get a good view of the -country is to ascend some elevated building, the courthouse being the -highest, and through its location the best suited building for the -purpose. The early forenoon, before the noonday sun has acquired its -full power, is the best time for this. Once up there, the view is -decidedly magnificent, and more extensive than we had ever expected -while below. Under us lies a lovely park of trees,--umbrella, elm, -locust and fan palms, covering about four blocks. From it stretch the -regular streets in all directions, lined by cottages as well as with -costly dwelling-houses, shaded with stately trees of various kinds. The -business portion of the town presents itself particularly well,--large -and costly hotels, with comforts that the tired travelers enjoy so much, -imposing bank blocks of brick and stone, with towers and ornamental -roofs, solid structures with continuous lines of stores, etc., mark this -part of town. For a mile in every direction the town stretches out, the -center thickly built, the outskirts with sparsely scattered houses. -Adjoining these the country begins,--vineyards as far as we can trace, -groups of houses shaded by trees in different tints of green, while -broken rows of endless poplars traverse the verdant plains and lose -themselves in the distant horizon. The Sierra Nevada, with their -snowclad summits, and the Coast Range in the west, cloudy and less -distinct, form the frame for two sides of this attractive picture, while -to the north and the south the open horizon, where sky and plains meet, -limits the extensive view. - -The street-car lines of Fresno do not run very far out in the country, -and to see the latter we must procure a team. The colonies or -settlements of small farms immediately join the town limits; we are thus -with one step out in the country. On either side we see continuous rows -of vineyards,--the leaves green and brilliant, the vines planted in -squares and pruned low, with the branches trailing on the ground. To -begin with, the houses stand closely, almost as in a village. As we get -farther out there is a house on every twenty-acre farm, or every -one-eighth of a mile. The cottages are neat and tasty, surrounded by -shade trees, while rose-trees and shrubbery adorn the yard, and climbers -shelter the verandas from the sun. At every step, almost, we pass teams -going in various directions,--teams loaded with raisin boxes, teams with -raisin trays, teams crowded with raisin pickers hurrying out to the -vineyards, teams driven by raisin-growers or colonists generally, who -rush to and from town to transact business connected with their one -great industry. Everywhere is bustle and life; every one is in a hurry, -as the grape-picking has begun, and the weather is favorable; no one has -any time to lose. Some of the avenues are lined with elm-trees, others -with fig-trees, with their luscious, drooping fruit, others again are -bordered with evergreen and towering gums, with weeping branches and -silvery bark. Every acre is carefully cultivated; there is room for only -a few weeds. As far as we drive the same scene is everywhere, a scene -like that in the outskirts of a populous city, where villas and pleasure -grounds alternate with the cultivated acres, here those of the -raisin-grower, and where every foot of ground is guarded with zealous -care and made to produce to its utmost capacity. It is a pretty sight, a -sight of thrift and intelligence, of enterprise and of success, of -wealth and of refinement, found nowhere else outside of the -fruit-growing and raisin-producing districts of California. - -The raisin harvest has just begun; the vineyards are full of workers, -grape-pickers are stooping by every vine, and are arranging the grapes -on small square or oblong trays, large enough to be easily handled; -teams with trucks are passing between the vines distributing the trays -or piling them up in small, square stacks at every row. Some trays with -their amber grapes lie flat on the ground in long continuous rows -between the vines, others again are slightly raised so as to catch as -much of the sun as possible. In some vineyards the laborers are turning -the partially cured and dried raisins by placing one tray on top of -another, and then turning them quickly over. In other places, again, the -trays with the raisins already cured are stacked in low piles, so as to -exclude the sun and air, and at other stacks a couple of men at each -are busy assorting the grapes, and placing the various grades in -different sweatboxes, large enough to hold one hundred pounds each. In -every vineyard, large and small, we find the hands at work, and every -one able and willing to do a day’s work is engaged to harvest the large -crop. The most of the pickers are Chinese, at least in the larger -vineyards, while in the smaller vineyards, where large gangs of men are -not absolutely necessary, white men and boys are generally employed. The -fame of the raisin section and the harvest has spread far and wide, and -at picking time laborers gather from all parts of the State to take part -in the work, and find remunerative wages at from $1.25 to $1.50 per day. -The country now swarms with pickers of all nationalities,--Germans, -Armenians, Chinese, Americans, Scandinavians, etc., and as the schools -have closed in order to allow the children to take part in the work, -boys of all sizes are frequently seen kneeling at the vines. - -The crop this year is very heavy, many vines yielding two trays or even -three, containing twenty pounds each, and, as the trays are generally -placed in alternate rows between the vines, we see, as we pass, -continuous lines of them filled with grapes in various stages of curing, -from the green to the amber-colored and the dark of the fully-cured -raisin. The aroma from the drying berries is noticeable, and the breeze -is laden with the spicy and pronounced odor of the Muscatel raisins. - -The average size of a colony lot is twenty acres. Many settlers own two -or three lots, a few owning four or five. But it must not be understood -that the whole of these lots are planted to raisin grapes. While most of -the larger tracts are almost exclusively planted to raisin grapes, the -smaller farms of twenty acres contain as a rule only a few acres of -vines, the balance being occupied by alfalfa, berries, garden, fruit -trees, and yard for houses and barns. From three to fifteen acres of -raisin-vines are found on every twenty-acre farm; none is without its -patch of raisin-vines. We step off and inspect many of the places, large -as well as small. Magnificent vineyards are owned by T. C. White, one of -the oldest and most successful vineyardists, and by other parties, only -second in importance to his. The vineyard of the late Miss Austin is yet -in its prime, the evergreen trees and hedges being as inviting as in -days of old. New vineyards which have not yet come into bearing are seen -on every side, while in places whole orchards or single rows of trees -have yielded to the axe to be replaced by the better-paying -raisin-vines. - -Some of the best-paying and largest vineyards are found east of Fresno -City. From the very outskirts of the city we pass through raisin -vineyards, very few fields being planted with anything else. Near the -town some vineyards have given place to town lots, and whole villages -are growing up in the old vineyards. We pass by the large vineyard of -Frank Ball, containing about 120 acres, all in vines except a small -reserve for house, barn and alfalfa field. Adjoining on the same road is -the Bretzner vineyard of forty odd acres, the vines loaded with grapes. -We turn to the left and, passing the vineyards of Merriam and Reed, see -on our left the magnificent Cory vineyard of eighty acres, bordered by -a wonderfully beautiful row of umbrella trees, with crowns as even as -veritable gigantic umbrellas, and through the foliage of which not a ray -of light can penetrate. A little farther on, also to the left, is the -Gordon vineyard, lined by fan palms and fig trees. A large sign across -the main road announces that we now enter the Butler vineyard, the -largest and most famous vineyard in the State, with its six hundred -acres nearly all in vines,--the largest vineyard in one body and owned -by one man in the world. Magnificent avenues of poplars, magnolias and -fan palms stretch in various directions leading to the outbuildings, of -which the packing and drying houses appear most prominently. Mr. -Butler’s home is one of the most attractive, shaded by umbrella trees -and fantastic fan palms, and surrounded by flowers and evergreens. From -his vineyard alone over five hundred carloads of raisins have been -shipped, the yearly product being over one hundred thousand boxes of -raisins,--a thousand tons. The vineyard now swarms with laborers; the -teams wait in long lines to load the ready raisin-boxes, while the -spaces between the vines, as far as we can see, are almost covered with -continuous rows of trays, all loaded with Muscat grapes in all stages of -drying. - -We travel constantly eastward; on both sides are raisin vineyards, large -and small. The four hundred acres owned by the Fresno Vineyard Company -are devoted to wine grapes, and large wineries and cellars built of -adobe show the wealth and extensive business of the place. No vacant -land anywhere, nothing but vineyards, the only breaks being groves of -trees shading the homes, wine cellars or packing-houses of the -proprietor. Farther to the north lies in an unbroken row the well-known -Eisen vineyard, where the first raisins were made in this district, but -where now principally wine is produced; the Nevada and Temperance -Colonies, devoted mostly to raisins; the Pew, the Kennedy, the Forsyth, -Woodworth’s, Duncan’s, Goodman’s and Backman’s raisin vineyards, all -splendidly cared for and lined by fig trees. Of these the Forsyth -vineyard deserves more than a passing notice, as it is more inviting to -an hour’s rest than any other. Containing 160 acres, nearly all in -vines, it is one of the best properties of the county. The place shows -an uncommon taste and refinement, and is beautified by avenues of -poplars and magnolias, by groves of acacia and umbrella trees, by palms -and flowers, and by roses and climbing plants. A pond with its lilies, -overhung by weeping willows and shaded by stately elms, is an unusual -sight even in this county of abundant irrigation. The packing-houses and -dryer all display a taste and practical arrangement hardly seen -elsewhere. A climb to the top of the tank-house is well worth the -trouble. The view becomes wonderfully enlarged; we overlook the level -plains, all in vines, with houses and groves scattered about like -islands in a sea,--no wild, unbroken country anywhere. In the distance -is Fresno City, to the north the view is hemmed in by new vineyards and -colonies,--a mass of trees and vines in straight and regular rows. The -courteous owner conducts us through his packing-house and shows us how -the bunches are placed in layers and carefully made to fit every corner -in the box, how the boxes are covered with papers and artistic labels -and finally made ready for the market. As we pass out we get a glimpse -of the equalizing room, crowded to the ceiling with sweatboxes, in which -the raisins assume an even and uniform moisture. And what luscious -bunches they are, large, sweet, thin skinned and highly flavored. Malaga -produces nothing better, and much not as good. And, when we are all -through tasting and admiring, we are invited into the cosy and -artistically furnished dwelling, where in the cool shade the lunch and -the rest are as welcome and interesting as the vineyards and -packing-houses outside. - -As we turn again towards town, we pass the well-kept Goodman vineyard, -after which we enter the large Barton vineyard, now partly owned by an -English syndicate. The old 640 acres are nearly all in wine grapes, -while several hundred acres of young raisin grapes have lately been -added. One of the most extensive wine cellars in the State is found -here, all kept in splendid shape,--hardly a speck of dirt, not a foot of -waste land seen anywhere. The mansion is stately, situated on a small -hill surrounded by fine groves of gum-trees, evergreen hedges and -ornamental grounds. Should we care to go farther east, we might visit -the Eisen vineyard, where the first Muscats were planted in the county. -The famous avenue is half a mile long, and one of the most beautiful in -the State, lined on both sides with blooming and beautiful oleanders -alternating with poplars over a hundred feet high. We might also visit -the Locan vineyard and orchard, and admire the orange-trees, which speak -of what the country can produce in this line. But the time is too short; -we might travel a week over this level but beautiful country, and every -day, every minute, see something new and interesting among all these -vineyards, with their packing-houses, and raisins exposed on trays to -dry. - -When we return to town, a visit to the packing-houses is one of the most -interesting that can be made. Of these packing establishments Fresno has -four or five, besides several in the colonies or in the larger -vineyards. Three of these packing-houses are the largest in the State. -The building of each one of them, though large, is full and overcrowded. -Women at long tables pack the raisins in boxes, at other tables men -weigh and assort raisins and take them out of the large sweatboxes in -which they left the field. At some tables fancy packing is done, and -women “face” the boxes by placing large selected raisins in rows on the -top layers. At another table the raisin-boxes are covered with fine -colored labels, then nailed and made ready for shipment. Some four -hundred men and women are busy with this work under one roof, all -earning wages of from one to two dollars a day each. We catch a glimpse -of the equalizing room, where fifty tons of raisins are stored at one -time for a week or more in order to become of even moisture, the floor -being sometimes sprinkled with water to make the air sufficiently moist. -As we go out we see the raisin-boxes already packed being loaded on cars -and shipped east by the train-load, from four to six such raisin trains -leaving every week, each train of from ten to twenty cars. On the other -side of the packing-house is a continuous row of teams from the country, -all loaded with raisins, brought by the country growers to the packers -in town. It takes a gang of men to receive, weigh and unload them. In -another department we see the large stemmer and grader, which runs by -steam, and stems and assorts from thirty to forty tons per day, the -clean and uniform raisins running out in a continuous stream, each grade -in separate boxes. There is a restless activity on every side. The large -raisin crop this year is very large; it must be handled in a few months, -and every grower and packer is pushing the work to his utmost ability. - -When we consider that most of the crop, which this year will reach five -hundred thousand boxes, comes from the country immediately surrounding -Fresno City, and that the San Joaquin valley is 250 miles long by 75 -miles wide, almost all the land capable of being highly cultivated and -of producing abundant crops of one thing or another, then alone can we -realize what the future has in store for this wonderful valley, an -agricultural empire in the very center of California. - - -FROM LOS ANGELES TO SANTA ANA. - -We are fairly out of Los Angeles when the character of the scenery -changes. The railroad here runs through one of the most fertile counties -in the State,--the rich bottom lands being formed by the deposits of -ages from the overflow of rivers and creeks from the Sierra Madre range. -Not an acre of waste land is to be seen anywhere. Everything is clothed -in the softest green, and only in the far distance are seen the hills -and higher mountains of a brownish violet color, with the boldest -outlines against the sky. A more diversified farming district is seldom -seen. Orchards of prunes, walnuts, apples and figs are met with on -either side of the track, here and there expansive vineyards with their -characteristic green, or groves of straight and stately gums, like -immense square blocks of verdure, planted all along from the nearest -fields to the far distant hills. We pass in succession Ballona, -Florence, Downey and Norwalk. The country around the two latter places -seems especially attractive,--orchards as far as we can see, vineyards -and native pastures. We pass villages and farmhouses, here and there a -more pretentious villa, and, in some spots more lovely than the -surrounding, many a mansion has been erected with luxury and taste. - -We are soon in Orange county, and the scene changes some, the soil -being, if possible, more fertile. We pass large orange groves of the -deepest green, and immense fields of corn, squashes, pumpkins, peanuts, -beans, and here and there walnut groves and plantations of young fig -trees. Anaheim, Orange and Santa Ana come in quick succession; we are in -the center of a raisin district of the very greatest interest. We can -hardly realize the change. Not having been here since the boom, -everything seems almost new. Santa Ana has grown to be the queen of the -valley, and is undoubtedly, together with its two sister cities, Orange -and Tustin, one of the most prosperous as well as lovely places to be -found in the beautiful South. As we board the street car and ride up -town from the depot, we realize the change even more. On every side are -signs of wealth and refinement, of new ideas and new capital, both -mostly imported from the East. Broad avenues one hundred feet wide, on -either side, lined with trees of various kinds, cultivated fields -immediately beyond, which, with cottages, villas and churches, all speak -of a prosperous and intelligent population. - -Santa Ana has her share of these stately structures. The Brunswick is as -fine and substantial a building as any one could wish,--lofty and airy -and of imposing architecture, large rooms and spacious halls. The boom -that has been so much misjudged has done much more than settle up the -country and bring capital. It has left behind substantial improvements -and a taste for architecture, the arts and sciences, which can but be of -permanent value to the country. It brought the country at one bound from -its former frontier life and characteristics to a high degree of -civilization and refinement. It brought capital, soil, climate and -energy together in a way that is hardly found anywhere else out of our -State. The boom is over, but the benefits of the boom are yet here, and -are permanent. - -Santa Ana, Orange and Tustin are like three precious stones in a ring of -verdure. Only a few miles apart, they are like the villas on the -outskirts of a central imaginary city, from which the wealthy and poor -likewise fled to a more retired country life, to enjoy both seclusion -and society, both the pleasures of country life and the advantages of an -active city, where every luxury and necessity can be found at the door -of every home. - -Santa Ana has a fine, large, central business street, with new and -costly brick blocks containing stores of every description. In this -climate, however, we can see no necessity for ice, and the manufacturer -and mixer of cool drinks can but find his business unprofitable. Up and -down this street a line of cars runs all day long at fixed hours, -connecting with other lines in Tustin and Orange. A trip or two on any -of the lines is one of real pleasure. - -Tustin is only two or three miles away, nearer the hills. The car, an -open one with many seats, winds its way under shady lanes on either -side, bordered by large and graceful pepper trees covered with spicy and -fragrant blossoms. Here and there we see alongside the pavement an -enormous sycamore tree, a monument of olden days and the native -vegetation of the country. On both sides of the avenue are sidewalks of -cement, and they who prefer walking can do so for miles under the shady -trees without getting dusty or becoming heated by the sun. These -sidewalks are marvels of beauty and comfort. On one side are old and -graceful trees with drooping limbs, on the other are well-kept cypress -hedges trimmed square and even, or long natural barriers of -ever-blooming geraniums in numerous varieties, of every favorite shade -of color from crimson to palest pink. Over the hedges we look into -blue-grass lawns, green and well kept and exceedingly attractive. -Suddenly we are in the middle of Tustin City. A beautiful, even -magnificent bank building on one corner, a store on the opposite, two or -three smaller shops and the inevitable splendid and elaborate hotel, and -the town is fully described. Immediately adjoining are the beautiful and -evergreen lawns and trees,--the city and country actually combined. - -A trip to Orange reveals the very same features, only we pass through a -more fertile country, with vineyards and orchards on every side, orange -groves of various ages, walnut orchards, fields of tall corn, peanuts, -beans and melons. Between all wind the shaded avenues with pepper and -gum, cypress, pine or yellow flowering grevillea. The soil is everywhere -of the richest kind, of a color between ashy green and chocolate. -Nowhere have we seen such magnificent Indian corn,--whole fields where -the stalks are from twelve to sixteen feet high. Orange is a more -pretentious town than Tustin, but hardly any more beautiful, and far -less secluded and quiet. There are two large and fine hotels, the one of -brick being in town, while the other, the family hotel, lies in the -suburbs in bowers of evergreen trees and gardens. In the middle of the -town there is a plaza with a fountain and an exquisite little garden -well planned and better kept. The lawns are like the softest velvet, and -are bordered with blue and green flowers, with beds of sweetest -mignonette, while bananas and palms spread their stately foliage in the -center. - -The climate of this part of Southern California is excellent. The -thermometer stands at midday at eighty in the shade; in the evening -there is always a breeze. Many of those I meet complain as usual, and -greet me with the inevitable, “How warm it is to-day,” and our as -inevitable answer is, that we cannot feel it, and that it just seems -delightful to us. People here observe and feel the changes of -temperature much more than we do farther north. With us they share the -habit of complaining even if there is nothing to complain of. - -The vineyards of Santa Ana have suffered much from a vine disease which -may be compared with consumption or the Oriental plague in man. But -every one thinks here that the pest will run its course and become -harmless, and even now some of the vineyards are being replanted with -fresh vines. The oranges do eminently well, but they must be sprayed and -constant watch kept for the red scale imported here from Australia by an -enterprising nurseryman. The plantations of walnuts are being rapidly -extended, and nurseries of young walnut trees just appearing above the -ground are seen in many places, the plants probably amounting to -millions. The walnut generally planted is the seedling soft-shell and -the common Santa Ana walnut, than which there is none choicer and more -valued on the coast. Prunes are also a favorite crop, and pay well if -not allowed to overbear, in which case the succeeding crop will be -small. The same may be said of the apricot. These trees are here fine -and healthy, and of a deeper and finer green than is seen almost -anywhere else; but last year the trees bore too much, and this year the -crop is by far not what it should be. - -The resources of this country are such that the partial failure of a -single crop will cause no serious injury. New resources are developed -every day; there are few plants that do not thrive here. In the gardens -as well as in the fields we see the tender semi-tropical plants, which -cannot stand any frost, growing close to varieties from the North. -Bananas, date palms, walnuts and oranges grow in the same field with -peaches, apples and prunes. Pepper and camphor trees and the tender -grevillea are on one side of the avenue, while on the other side we may -find elm, eucalyptus or even the beautiful umbrella. - -Irrigation is practiced on every farm. Fifteen thousand acres are -covered by water stock, but not all irrigated yet. Just now the orange -groves are irrigated, and I observe their methods. The land is always -leveled before anything is planted, as there is too little water here to -waste any on unlevel land. One way to irrigate an orchard is to plow -furrows in between the rows of trees, and then let the water run in -them. Another way is to check the whole orchard with small levees, -inclosing thus a little square around every tree, and the square check -of one tree meeting the same of the adjoining tree. This is actually -flooding the land. Deciduous trees and vines grow without irrigation, -but to get a good crop irrigation is necessary. The large, dry and rocky -creek beds speak of the water that is wasted in winter time in flowing -to the sea. Practically nothing of it is then saved. Irrigation -districts under the Wright law are formed and forming, and everybody -seems hopeful that in course of time there will be water enough to -irrigate all the land that is good enough to be irrigated. Some of the -finest ranches in the State lie right at the feet of Santa Ana. The San -Joaquin ranch contains one hundred thousand acres, I am told, and it is -not yet cut up, and thus some of the best land around Santa Ana is yet -only used as pasture. The owners failed to sell in the time of the boom -and must now wait until the land that is already covered with ditches -will be fully settled before they can sell, but the time, we predict, is -not very far off. - - -SANTA ANA TO SAN DIEGO. - -A railroad trip from Santa Ana to San Diego offers many points of -interest. It carries us through both the most highly cultivated and -through the absolutely vacant, not to say barren, lands. We leave the -orange grove and walnut plantations of Santa Ana, and are carried almost -immediately past the lovely and shaded Tustin, where pepper groves and -lime hedges, gardens and splendid villas, combine nature with art, taste -and enterprise to create a veritable oasis for those favored ones who -can remain there. We rush for a few minutes through these highly -cultivated lands, and suddenly find ourselves out on a wide, open plain, -comprising about eighty thousand acres, without a house to be seen -anywhere, with no orchards, no vineyards, no signs of civilized life. -And still the soil is the richest, the native vegetation of grasses the -most luxuriant. The soil is apparently subirrigated, and could grow -almost anything the farmer might plant there. Along the horizon, -stretching from the mountains way down on the plains like an immense -plumed serpent in its wavy and coiling track, is seen a continuous band -of sycamore trees, outlining the bed of a stream. It is like stepping -out of one room into another. What can be the reason of the sudden -change? This vast body of land, containing over 126,000 acres, is an old -Mexican grant, the remnant of one of those Mexican cancers, which to -such an extent has retarded the development of California. Sure enough, -we see wire fences everywhere, and cattle with spreading horns and -sheep without number. But we see no sign of the cultivator, no horses, -no signs of progress. The owner held onto the land, probably expecting -it to bring a price many times the sum it was worth. He died, and so -died the boom, and now the land is under administration. When the time -comes that this large San Joaquin grant can be sold to farmers in small -tracts, it will very greatly increase the cultivable area of Orange -county. - -But we pass on, leaving the open country; we are soon in among the -rolling lands, among foothills not unlike those of the Sierra Nevada in -the San Joaquin valley. To the left are the San Bernardino Mountains, -here and there a peak of boldest outline, and streams and cañons winding -their way to the sea. At El Toro a number of passengers got off to take -the stage to Laguna, a seaside hotel, where the farmers and business men -of every color, from the heated interior valleys, delight to spend a day -in fishing, hunting for abalones, or in watching the breakers roll -against the sandy beach. A little farther on we stop at El Capistrano, -or rather at San Juan Capistrano, the old ruined mission, situated in -the most beautiful little valley, with its winding and sycamore shaded -creek. The mission must have been one of the very largest in the State. -The ruins are yet very extensive, consisting of long and regular adobe -walls, and one-half of a yet magnificent looking church, in the regular -Spanish style of architecture. A rather large size town of Mexican -houses, with a Mexican population, and venerable fig trees, tall and -wavy palm trees, and large but unkempt gardens, give the place a rather -more important look than it perhaps deserves. There is but little sign -that the boom was ever here. Still the valley is so beautiful and -evidently so fertile, that it needs only work and taste to make it equal -to the very best. We see yet the old mission pear trees, large and -untrimmed, not unlike our drooping oaks, loaded with pears to such an -extent that there appears hardly room for a blackbird to get through. -The mission grapevines are all dead. Gigantic vines, which covered -trellises and arbors, and which perhaps bore tons of grapes, with trunks -as heavy as the body of a boy, are there yet, but without leaves and -young shoots; they are dead, having surrendered to the vine pest of the -country. - -After leaving Capistrano we follow the little creek to the sea. The -valley is from one-half to one mile wide. Here and there are flourishing -little vineyards, but mostly pastures and cornfields or patches of -beans. At last we reach the sea, the Pacific, calm and blue, with -breakers lashing the shore. To the right we leave the rocky promontory -of the Capistrano Mountains, and for an hour or more run on the very -beach. In stormy weather the spray of the breakers must wet the cars, -which run only a stone’s throw from the water’s edge. This part of the -route is the most interesting and the most refreshing to one coming from -the interior plains. We are now in San Diego county. The shore is abrupt -and bluffy, the hills bordering on the sea. - -At Oceanside we meet the first of the boom towns, one of those that -sprang up for pleasure and profit, towns of magnificent villas, broad -streets and avenues, lined with infant blue gums, with rows and hedges -of the ever-bright geraniums, and with large and splendid-looking -hotels, with airy balconies, verandas and lookout towers, swept by the -fresh breezes of the sea. The vicinity of every such station is heralded -by the characteristic white stakes that mark the town lots, and by rows -of small, intensely blue, gums; by a sprinkling of cottages, small and -large, perhaps a mile or two before the whistle of the steam-engine -brings us to a standstill. The first things that meet our eye at every -station are large and splendid lawns, young plantations of palm trees -and other plants characteristic of the Southern coast climate, flowers -of brightest hue, all started by the enterprising immigrants who came -here to buy climate, sun and air, and to enjoy the breakers and the -ocean every day in the year. After Oceanside, we touch at Carlsbad and -Del Mar, both seaside resorts with magnificent villas costing from -twenty to forty thousand dollars each, and with fine but young -plantations and gardens. I was especially charmed with Del Mar, with its -large, tasteful hotel on the bluff, and quite a large colony of villas -and mansions in various sizes and styles close around,--a bright and -charming picture, a place where a traveler feels at home at once, where -he would like to pass the balance of all the days he can spare from -business and toil. - -The scene changes again as the cars carry us through the foothills, -along the bed of creeks, or across lagoons connected with the sea, or -over gaping chasms. We look down deep into the valleys below, where -shady sycamores and white cottages mark the farmers’ homes, and where -vine-clad hills offset the native brown of the country. I am surprised -to see how the grapevines thrive so luxuriantly so very close to the -shore. In some places there are fine and thrifty vines within a stone’s -throw of the breakers, only protected by a slight undulation in the -ground from the most direct wind. Of course, grapes on those vines -cannot be expected to be very sweet; it is wonderful enough that they -are there at all. - -The water supply of this part of San Diego county has been very much -underrated. The railroad crosses perhaps a dozen different creeks, all -showing living water, and which are far from being entirely dried up. -With a Supreme Court more enlightened, and with proper legislation as to -the needs of the country, San Diego county may yet be able to store -water enough to irrigate very large areas of land, where colonies of -thrifty farmers may create and maintain prosperous orchards and -vineyards as a support and backbone to the many pleasure resorts. - -But we are out of the hills. Smiling and glistening in the evening sun -lies San Diego Bay, with the elevated Point Loma, the ever-present -breakers on the bar, and away out on the low peninsula the gigantic and -turreted pile of the Hotel del Coronado, to say nothing of San Diego -itself, with its miles of marked town lots and villas. But I shall not -endeavor to describe this town and its bay and climate. The latter may -possibly not be excelled anywhere; the former lacks a most essential -thing,--an abundance of trees and vegetation. Still, with the water that -has lately been brought here the trees and flowers will come soon enough -we hope, when green lawns, bananas and palms will be ready to tell the -tale, and young plantations will be seen on the hills and around -roadway homes. But I forget I am bound for El Cajon and its raisin -vineyards, and must catch the train. - - -EL CAJON. - -The country lying between San Diego and El Cajon does not at this time -of the year present many attractive features. The little train, -consisting of a locomotive, tender and a passenger car, wriggles itself -between brown, rolling hills, over small cañons, dry and sandy, without -any other vegetation than grass, and here and there a few evergreen -shrubs. Close to San Diego we pass along the Chollas valley and creek, -where an attempt has been made at colonization, as we understand it in -the San Joaquin valley. The land is divided up in ten and twenty-acre -tracts and dotted over with small and unpretentious cottages, as well as -with fine and expensive mansions. Young orchards of pears, olives, -prunes, oranges and figs are seen wedged in between vacant and unbroken -land. In the river bottom are Chinese gardens, with windmills, and -patches of cabbage, corn and small truck. Much of this land is irrigated -with water from the Sweetwater dam, some twelve miles away on the -Sweetwater river. On the bottom land there are a few Muscat vineyards, -for the supply of the San Diego market. I noticed the grapes there. They -were of the Muscat of Alexandria variety, very large and fine both as to -bunch and berry, and very sweet. I have seen no finer Alexandrias -anywhere. - -But we have hardly time to observe this cultivated spot before we are -out again among the rolling hills. The engine pants heavily, and we are -constantly ascending. The same low hills everywhere,--no settlers, no -gardens, no plantations of any kind. The soil is brown adobe mixed with -gravel and small boulders; in fact there is nothing to see and admire. -For twenty miles there are two or three small stations, but there were -no station houses to be seen nor any settlements around. The railroad is -apparently made to tap a better country in the interior. But even in -this uninhabited country the boom started to penetrate in earnest. Large -signs announcing the sale of town lots, wide streets once plowed up -across each other at right angles, square blocks which are plowed around -or otherwise mapped out, here and there a white post with a number and a -name, and we have a good idea of a town where the lots sold for $250 -apiece or more. - -All at once the engine whistles, the area widens and we see in front of -us a large, flat valley, apparently almost circular, from four to five -miles across, bounded by lower and higher hills, behind which a few -higher peaks look down gray and solemn. This is El Cajon. We step out on -the platform of the station, and the view is fine. The valley lies below -us, the bottom is apparently flat, but in reality slightly undulating -and somewhat sloping towards the center. Rows of vines begin at the -station, and from here vineyards stretch in all directions for miles and -miles, sometimes in large blocks of regular shape, then again in -irregular patches among otherwise cultivated lands half way up on the -lower hills. Dotted all over the valley are farmhouses in all styles, -elegant and tasty or plain and simple, enough only to keep out the rain -and the sun. Around every such cluster of buildings there is a little -plantation of eucalyptus and cypress, and a few ornamental plants. Here -and there at long intervals is seen a row of gums, black and somber, as -if they were on duty as shields from wind and fog. We are soon in the -bus on the way to town. The roads are straight and well kept, bordered -with young eucalyptus and cypress, and with vineyards on both sides with -the rows of vines remarkably distinct; we can follow each one of them -distinctly for several miles over the undulating ground until they end -on the steeper slopes of the hills, or run into the little cañons -bordering the valley. El Cajon has no pretentions to being a town; it is -an unassuming and quiet little village, whose inhabitants, when they -speak of “town,” always mean San Diego, twenty miles away. El Cajon has -a dozen houses, all told, one of each kind of the most necessary stores -and shops, but Wells, Fargo & Co. have not yet discovered this quiet -place. Nevertheless, it has two hotels, one small and unassuming, which -runs a bus to the station, and where everybody seems to meet; the other, -large and pretentious, both as to bay-windows and name,--Corona del -Cajon, but apparently void of much internal life. The railroad to El -Cajon was finished only some eight months ago. If it had been running -three years ago during the Southern boom, the valley would perhaps -to-day be rivaling Pasadena and Riverside in thrifty farms and -residences. - -El Cajon is the most important raisin-producing district in San Diego -county, and so exclusively and to such an extent have the raisin grapes -been planted here that we hardly see anything else. Vineyards as far as -we can see in all directions; vineyards in the rolling bottom of the -valley; vineyards also on the steeper slopes of the hills; nothing else -than Muscats of Alexandria for business, and only a few other vines -around the cottages for home use. A drive through the valley brings us -in close contact with what we saw from the more elevated station. One -vineyard joins the other, with only a road between, and there are no -rows of poplars and only very rarely a row of eucalyptus or cypress. The -view is open on every side, and from every point we can see over the -valley and the low hills surrounding it. The vines have at this time of -the year left off growing and have assumed a dark green color, not -relieved by any young and more vividly colored shoots. The grapes hang -ripe under the branches, and the trays are in many places distributed in -piles over the field. There are two packing-houses in the valley; the -one now under way is 40 by 130 feet, being built of redwood, and -apparently most carefully put up. I see no sign of irrigation anywhere, -and every one tells me that it is not required. But I cannot help -thinking that a little water judiciously used would have kept the vines -growing much longer, and would have naturally increased the crop, which -now only averages two and one-half tons of green grapes per acre. There -are many very beautiful mansions in the valley, surrounded by very -praiseworthy attempts at landscape gardening, but the absence of water -for irrigation makes itself felt everywhere, both in regard to the size -of the plants and their color. Water can be had in abundance at a depth -of from only twelve to eighteen feet, and windmills and reservoirs would -do much towards a substitute for ditches. As we drive through the valley -and up the divide between El Cajon and the Sweetwater valley, the view -is very attractive indeed,--on one side the many well-kept vineyards of -El Cajon, on the other, way below us, the narrow and winding valley of -the Sweetwater. - -The Sweetwater valley, or rather continuation of valleys, is much -smaller than El Cajon, perhaps only a quarter or half mile wide, but it -is more favorable to raisins, grapes or vegetation of any kind. Olive -orchards of good size trees, vineyards with large and yet growing vines, -cornfields and pastures, and the winding and shaded little creek in the -center of the valley, give the latter a freshness and beauty not -surpassed anywhere. - -On our way on the railroad as well as through El Cajon valley, we have -frequently passed alongside of or under the now famous Cuyamaca flume, -carrying water to San Diego and Coronado. This flume is a fine -structure, running sometimes in the ground, sometimes again on elevated -trestle-work over the ravines, or spanning the gaps between lofty hills. -The whole length of the flume is thirty-six miles, and the cost of -construction was $112,000. Its size is five feet, ten inches wide, and -sixteen inches deep, but by an addition of two more boards the depth of -the water can be increased to three feet, ten inches,--a large body of -water for this country, where water is comparatively scarce. The flume -heads in a magnificent dam at the head of San Diego river, and it would -suffice to irrigate quite a large stretch of country if the people were -only willing to use the water. But the farmers here have been so -repeatedly told that the land absolutely needs no irrigation, and indeed -would be ruined by the same, that the most of them now fully believe -this to be the case. The water is therefore not diverted anywhere along -the route of the flume, and even in El Cajon and other places, where the -crop of almost every kind of fruit would be doubled by judicious -irrigation, no effort to use the same is made. I could find no one who -irrigated, and as a consequence the company that owns the flume have not -yet put in the extra boards that would more than double the carrying -capacity of the flume. - -One of the most interesting places in San Diego county is the famous -Sweetwater dam. It takes only two and one-half hours to visit it and -return, and a trip to it will repay the trouble. We start out southeast -and cross to National City, only a few miles from San Diego, and really -a suburb of that town. National City is decidedly new, an attempt at -something grand, which it will take sometime to finish. The most -interesting thing there, in a horticultural sense, is the olive orchards -of Kimball Brothers. They are scattered in two or three places, and -comprise about fifty acres altogether. The trees are as large as good -size apple trees, bushy and silvery, and are heavily laden with fruit. -The land around each tree was checked up, each tree having a little -square for itself, and a Chinaman with a hoe was busy irrigating. In -one corner of the orchard was a large circular reservoir five or six -feet high, and perhaps twenty feet across, to facilitate the irrigation. -The train starts from here directly in among the hills, following the -bed of the Sweetwater river. The bottom land is now being settled up by -farmers and gardeners, who were busy taking their first lessons in -irrigation. The plantations of course are very young, the irrigation -works having been finished quite recently. At Sunnyside there are a few -older orchards of oranges and olives, but, as a whole, the country is -uncultivated. - -Five minutes more and we are at the dam. There is no station, except a -little wooden platform, and we had to scramble over a rough hill to get -down to the dam. The gorge there is probably one hundred feet wide and -several hundred feet deep, with almost perpendicular sides. There is no -other vegetation visible than grass and a few low shrubs scattered -around. It is a most excellent place for a dam. The Sweetwater dam is -built almost entirely of masonry and cement, and, both as regards -construction and size, is one of the very best in the world. It is built -in the shape of an arch, with the convex part up stream, and gives an -impression of solidity and safety not always found in structures of this -kind. The masonry dam is forty-six feet wide at the bottom, at the top -twelve feet. The length of the top is 340 feet, and at the bottom of the -cañon the base of the dam is about one hundred feet, while the height is -about ninety feet in the center. At one end of the dam is a wasteway and -gates for letting the water out in case of a flood. The gates slide on -an inclined plane, and consist simply of three-inch boards with pegs in -each end, which are caught by a hook when they are to be raised. The -capacity of the wasteway is said to be fifteen hundred cubic feet per -second, or as much as the Sweetwater river is ever likely to carry, even -during flood time. For one who is accustomed to headgates and waterways -in the Fresno canals, this waterway looks very small indeed. But the -engineers say it is large enough, and we suppose they must be right. The -water is delivered through a large iron pipe thirty-six inches in -diameter, covered for some distance down the cañon with masonry. For -29,807 feet, this pipe line runs down the valley or on the mesa lands -adjoining it. It will deliver fifty million gallons of water per day, -and can now irrigate ten thousand acres of land. The whole cost of -construction was $502,000, and the time consumed in building was two -years. - -The reservoir, as it now stands, is a magnificent sheet of water with -tributary watersheds of 186 square miles, and a water surface of about -three and one-half square miles. It is a grand illustration of the -enterprise of the San Diego capitalists, of the skill and success of the -California engineers, and of what may possibly be accomplished on nearly -every stream in San Diego county. It is a structure of which any country -might be proud, and which has few equals and no superiors anywhere in -the world. - -On our way back we meet a picnic party of schoolgirls, who with their -teachers have spent the day in the country. They fill the cars with -smiles and chat, with flowers in bouquets and garlands, in baskets and -by the armful. We are treated to flowers and to beautiful Muscat grapes -culled from the vineyards,--enormous bunches and berries almost as large -as plums. These grapes are a revelation to me, grown here within the -reach of the fogs of the ocean, and irrigated with water from the dam or -flume. Verily, I have never seen choicer grapes anywhere, and I am -satisfied that they could not be surpassed by any for raisins. What a -fertile country this will be when irrigation is better understood and -more practiced. Could we but see it when that time comes. - - -RIVERSIDE. - -There is no place in Southern California where the effects of a close -and intelligent study of horticultural matters are so visible as in -Riverside. Money alone may build villas and mansions; but the -intelligent and ever watchful horticulturist alone can, out of climate, -soil, water and capital, produce a Riverside. It is charming beyond -description; it must be seen to be realized. The best time to get a full -and good view of Riverside is early in the morning, just at sunrise, and -there is no better place to view it from than the hill on which the -Hotel Rubidoux was to have been built. I arose before sunrise, and -struggled up the steep hillside. It well repaid me for the trouble, as -few more beautiful views can be had. The whole settlement can be taken -in at a glance,--the town close by imbedded in orange groves and -vineyards, and the dense verdure of the country stretching for ten miles -down the valley, and almost connecting with the yet farther off South -Riverside. On the eastern side we see the San Bernardino Mountains, with -the “Old Greyback,” and between the mountains and the settlements a -lower range of steep hills appear, which in a continuous range either -bar the way or like isolated islands shoot boldly up from the mesa land. - -The Riverside colony forms a continuous settlement along the mesa, -skirting the river, the deep green of the orange orchards harmonizing -splendidly with the lighter green of the vineyards. At close intervals -there are houses in every direction, with the bluest smoke rising -straight up from their chimneys, and thence carried in long, tiny bands -and columns down the valley just level with the tree tops. It is a pity -the hotel on this hill was never finished--a great many more would then -have enjoyed the almost unequaled view. An extension of the main -business street in town leads up to this hill. On both sides of the -street there are fine orange orchards and neat houses,--real country -homes, sidewalks of cement where rows of fan-palms take the place of -regular shade trees along their sides. The business portion of Riverside -is confined to two streets crossing each other at right angles. If we -stand in the center of this crossing we take it all in, the houses -extending a block and a half in the four different directions. Some of -the houses and brick blocks are very large and expensive, while many -again are smaller, but all are costly and elegant, with new and perhaps -startling ornamental designs. Whatever Southern California does, it does -well, and even the cheapest structures have an air of character and -taste which can hardly be too much admired. - -When one speaks of Riverside he means the whole settlement that is -irrigated, and to live in Riverside may mean to live in town, or it may -mean a suburban residence ten miles away. In the latter locality the -benefits of the country are happily combined with the luxuries of city -life. Street cars run from the center of the business part of town down -to the end of the settlement. It is a cheap way to view the settlement -to board one of these early cars. You can see as much as any one may -care to see, but of course cannot stop and examine. The whole drive is -one not to be matched anywhere else. From the moment you leave town you -pass orchards and vineyards separated from each other by only a road or -cypress hedge. Every foot of ground is taken up. The main effort of all -the settlers appears to be to make everything attractive, from the very -sidewalk to the elaborate garden and the villa. Nearer town, every -street has sidewalks of cement, and bordering them are continuous hedges -of cypress trimmed in various styles, and in front of every house are -lawns and plats of shrubbery and flowers, as neatly kept as if visitors -were expected day or night. Some of the villas partake of the character -of mansions, with towers, balconies and painted windows, while here and -there in some of the finest orchards are yet seen some of the first -houses built, small and unpretentious. The individual tastes of the -owners are clearly discernible. One has a row of palms running along his -sidewalk, another has palms and grevilleas, while others prefer the -pepper and gum. The manner of trimming the hedges is charming; it has -here become quite an art. Some hedges have square, others roofed tops, -and at every corner there is a little pillar of cypress with diamond or -globular top, not at all artificial or stiff. - -The vast majority of the plantations consist of orange groves. The color -of the trees is splendid, every leaf being bright and shining, and there -is no sign of smut or scale. The large and upright Seedlings are easily -distinguished from the smaller but bushy Navels. The tendency is now to -plant mostly the latter, and most of the old Seedling trees are being -budded over. The original Navel tree, which is the prime cause of the -prosperity of Riverside and of the fame of its oranges, is yet standing -by a modest cottage, which appears not to have kept pace with the times. -The tree is small, perhaps twelve feet high, having been constantly cut -back for buds. From this tree have sprung all the rest. No other Navel -tree imported from Brazil or Australia resembles it in quality of fruit -or in bearing capacity. It is probably a chance “sport” originally -imported by the Agricultural Department at Washington, its companion -trees being different in the most essential points which make this -variety so valuable and so famous. This beautiful and choice orange, now -generally known as the “Washington Navel,” is slightly oblong or -egg-shaped, and the skin is very smooth, with no ridges at the poles, -the latter being characteristic of the other Navel varieties. The crop -of Navels this year is good. Many growers expect from three to four -boxes to the tree, and, as each box brings from three to four dollars, -it is evident the business pays. The valuable and permanent improvements -everywhere show this to be the case; the account books of the grower -need not be searched to demonstrate it. Here and there we also see a -lemon orchard with its larger trees of a different green. A few years -ago many lemon orchards were dug up, as no one understood the secret of -saving the lemons till the warm season, when alone they can bring a good -price. But at last one of the growers wrung the secret from Nature, and -now buys up all the young lemons he can find and stores them away to be -used from six to ten months later, just when they are most in demand. In -company with that courteous horticulturist, the editor of the Riverside -_Press_, E. W. Holmes, we visited this gentleman, G. W. Garcelon. To him -is due much credit for having discovered the process. He presented us -with lemons of the small and proper size that had been picked green -eight months ago. They were equal to the best imported, both as to -smallness of size, acidity, thinness of skin and quality of juice. These -lemons bring now five dollars per box, at which price lemon culture -proves more profitable than that of the orange. - -The only variety that should be planted is the Lisbon lemon, the Eureka -having too bitter a peel, and the much recommended Villa Franca being -round and thus unacceptable. We passed several vineyards, the Muscat -vines being large and the vineyards well kept. The grapes are just -ripening, but it will be some two weeks yet before they are ready to -cut. The only variety grown here is the Muscat of Alexandria, the real -Gordo Blanco being unknown, or at least not generally planted. - -The far-famed Magnolia avenue is near at hand. The center is occupied by -a continuous row of old pepper trees, with gracefully drooping branches, -under which the cars run. The outside rows are different in various -places, generally palms with alternating grevilleas, or gum or pepper -trees. The custom now is to replace the outside trees with palms, and -many of the stately gums are being cut away. Beyond the sidewalks are -the trimmed cypress hedges, and behind them orange orchards, only -interrupted by open lawns and gardens partially hiding the tasty -dwelling-houses of the horticulturists. All that we see, now so -luxuriant and beautiful, is the effect of water on the otherwise barren -plains. Everything is irrigated several times a year by means of flowing -water brought from distant points, from the mountain cañons, or from the -artesian wells in the river bottom higher up, several miles away. - -The canals are all on the highest ground, and are dug on technical -principles. There is no washing and no filling up, no broken-down gates -and overflowing and stagnant ponds. Some ditches are cemented, and look -magnificently clean, without any weeds or mud. The water in them is like -the water of a spring, clear and pellucid. In course of time all the -ditches will be cemented, the cost for doing the work being paid for in -a short time by the water saved and the absence of the necessary -cleaning out. - -Riverside is indeed to be envied its Chinatown. The latter was, some -years ago, moved a mile from town into a hollow, and now every house -there is surrounded by cypress hedges and windbreaks of cypress and gum. -Moreover, every house there is connected with the sewerage system, and -the usual smell is not noticed on the outside. Indeed, one can drive by -and not know the nature of the town, for it looks like any other country -village, almost hidden in evergreens. - -In a few weeks the raisin harvest will commence, and from that time on -Riverside, along its whole extent, will be life and bustle. When the -grapes are all in, the oranges will be ready for harvesting, and the -country will again boast of its thousands of carloads of the golden -fruit. - - -REDLANDS. - -We have reached the object of our journey in the upper end of the San -Bernardino valley. One of the features of South California, not Southern -California, as we in the center all used to say, is the motor roads, not -electric motors, but regular little steam engines, that will pull you -anywhere, and which will not shock you with anything except perhaps with -their smoke. Such motor roads lead almost everywhere, connecting the -outlying colonies way up in the mesa with the headquarters on the -regular railroad. And these motor roads are neither neglected, nor do -they go begging for customers and freight. They are as much or more -patronized even than the regular railroads, and they pay well. The cause -of this is evident. They are more accommodating; they can without -inconvenience stop wherever required, and passengers get on or off at -almost every corner. The little train stops with equal readiness at the -call in front of the rich man’s villa, to enable him and his family to -embark, as at the poor man’s garden, to allow him to get on with a load -of greens or with a basket of eggs. Thus managed, it rushes along with -short and frequent stops, always full of passengers and freight. - -Going up the San Bernardino valley from Riverside is a trip that no one -should neglect. It takes us through one of the best improved parts of -South California, through a veritable garden spot, with a radius of six -or seven miles. From Riverside we pass for several miles over the level -mesa land, just brought into cultivation through the new Gage canal -system. Over two thousand acres have been planted here within the last -two years to oranges, lemons and vines, and the fine and regularly -planted trees with the large distances between show us how much the new -settlers have been able to profit from the experience of the older ones. -For several miles there are young plantations, each with its neat and -substantial residence and outhouses, indicating that the settlers mostly -are people of some means and of much refinement and taste,--just the -class of people that we all would choose for our nearest neighbors. -Everywhere are school-houses of artistic designs, most magnificent ones -in the older settlements, smaller but tasty ones in those of almost -yesterday. As we pass along the mesa, the upper San Bernardino valley, -closed in by steep and lofty mountains, lies on our right, and in front -the Santa Ana river courses through the center of the valley, with its -vast broad river bottom covered with wild vegetation, pastures or -cultivated fields. We cross several ditches, one laid in cement, with -the water running in them as clear as that in the washbowl. - -Once across the river bottom we are almost directly at Colton on the -Southern Pacific Railroad. The first thing that attracts our attention -is the beautiful plantation on the railroad reservation. Fine green -lawns, fountains, beds of evergreens and flowers, the whole inclosed in -pepper trees, gives the traveler immediately the impression that -something beautiful in the way of gardening can be accomplished, where -there is only a will and a taste. Such beautiful places everywhere in -the South show that the people who came here, came not alone to make -money, but also to enjoy life and to cultivate those pleasures and -occupations which help to prolong and beautify the same. - -From Colton up to San Bernardino the whole country is settled up and -resembles the outskirts of a large city, where the business men have -their suburban residences. The level and gradually sloping mesa is -dotted over with little hills and knolls, just the place for a -residence. Every such place has been taken advantage of, and fine -residences with towers, balconies and airy awnings crown every little -eminence, each one through its peculiar situation seemingly dominating -the valley. - -San Bernardino has been greatly benefited by the boom. The old and the -new are there in strong contrast, the new decidedly predominating. -Magnificent brick blocks grace the principal business streets, and the -nearest streets crossing them, blocks that must have cost large sums of -money, and which for design and substantial structure can nowhere be -surpassed in any city of this size. The fine large hotels erected lately -are kept up with style and even splendor. The large Stewart House is not -inferior to the best town hotel that can be seen anywhere, and its -interior arrangements, with a large covered court, are most admirable. -My stay in San Bernardino was only too short; a long stroll around town -and a little longer shake hands with the veteran journalist and -horticulturist, L. M. Holt, took all the time I had to spare. - -From San Bernardino to Redlands is but half an hour’s ride through the -bottom lands of the Santa Ana river. We approach rapidly the upper end -of the valley, where the elevated mesa spreads out all around like a -perfect ampitheater, backed by the loftiest mountains in Southern -California. The mesa is now in close view, and Redlands, Lugonia, -Terracina, Crafton, all different points of the same settlement, lie in -front of us at an elevation of about fifteen hundred feet above the sea, -like a map or extensive panorama, where roads, orchards and houses are -so clearly and distinctly seen that they can be observed at a glance. -The mesa land here slopes about four hundred feet to the mile, and the -different orchards or settlements lie apparently one above the other, -all in full view. If I am asked for the place in this part of the -country with the finest view, with the freshest air, with the purest -water, and with the coolest breezes, and where business and the comforts -of life can be combined, I will say, and say it again, Redlands. In all -these points there is nothing here that surpasses it, and few are the -places indeed that even can pretend to equal it. From whatever point we -stand, be it at the lower end of the railroad depot, at any orchard or -home in the center of the settlement, or at the upper end close to the -rolling hills, from every point we see every other point, some below, -some above us, all equally distinct. And this extensive and magnificent -view, that requires no tedious and tiresome climbing to see, extends -away down the valley for sixty miles, over slightly rolling hills, over -level mesas with their dark-green orchards and vineyards, over the -steeper hills, over the lofty Sierra Madre range in the northwest. If we -turn to the right we are immediately met by the snowy peaks and the bare -walls of the San Bernardino range, here and there cut by the cañons and -gorges of the tributaries of the Santa Ana river. - -The business part of Redlands is as neat and tasty as any,--brick blocks -and cement sidewalks, horse cars, and water under pressure. - -No explanation is required to be made of the quality of the Redlands -climate and soil. A trip over the settlement will reveal all to any one -with open eyes. Orange orchards, young of course, but thrifty, on every -side, alternating with Muscat vineyards, according to the taste of the -owner; beautiful homes of the horticulturists, the stately mansions of -the bank presidents and those that became wealthy quickly, and the grand -view common to all,--these are some of the good things this settlement -enjoys. The water for irrigation is all under pressure, either coming to -the surface in open flues or in iron pipes. The orange orchards are -being irrigated everywhere, in a way which should make a San Joaquin -valley man stare. Iron pipes are laid all over the orchard, and at the -beginning of every row of trees there is a faucet. These faucets are all -opened at the same time, and a tiny stream of water issues forth and -runs on each side of the young orange trees down to the other end of the -check. It is left to run for several days at a time. At the other end of -the check the water is not wasted, but runs into a little wooden spout -at every row of trees and through the same into a cement ditch which -carries the water to another place. The system of irrigation is simply -perfect; if it were not so, the land could not be irrigated. With this -system there is no waste, no weeds, no malaria, no hoeing nor other work -of any kind. Irrigation is here as easy as the washing of your hands in -a patent washstand: you open the faucet and let the water run. The -general opinion by people not acquainted with the colony is that water -here is very scarce; this is a mistake. There is water enough to -irrigate all the land; most of it is now only running to waste to the -sea; to be utilized it must only be stored. The Bear valley reservoir, -when perfected, as it soon will be, will hold water enough to irrigate -over twenty-six thousand acres of ground, which is about all the -irrigable land tributary to Redlands. There are other reservoir sites in -the mountains, and the possibilities of future irrigation can hardly be -comprehended. Although young, only four years old, the upper San -Bernardino colonies produce already considerable quantities of fruit. -Six thousand acres are now under cultivation, eight hundred of which are -in Muscat grapes, the balance mostly in oranges and other fruits. Last -year they produced fifty carloads of grapes and forty carloads of -raisins, and altogether about 149 carloads of fruit, dried or fresh. No -better showing could be expected of any place, and there is no better -advertisement of the resources of the country. - -I have yet a thing to add, a thing to praise. Everywhere in the South -magnificent drives are laid out, avenues are planted with shade trees, -evergreens and palms, street cars take you everywhere, and the comforts -of pedestrians and riders are always assured. The roads are all -sprinkled, and the dust is an unknown quantity except in by-lanes and -corners, where the sprinkler cannot reach. Riverside sprinkles the whole -of her business streets, and her Magnolia avenue effectively and -continually for about ten miles down the valley. Other places do the -same, perhaps only not to as liberal an extent. In many places the tired -pedestrian finds little wooden benches to rest on under a shady tree, -close to a fountain of drinking water, all placed there by the kind -society, W. C. T. U. Comparisons are not in place; but how many times I -have wished such a thing had been met with in some other places I know -of where the sun is just as hot, and where the dust is just as deep. - - -AN HOUR IN A PACKING-HOUSE. - -The following sketch of a Fresno packing-house, where already cured -raisins are bought and packed, may prove interesting to those of my -readers who have not had time or opportunity to visit any similar -establishment. The same kind of work is going on in each packing-house, -whether it be large or small, except that the number of hands are -varied. In the two or three largest packing-houses in Fresno, as many as -four hundred hands are sometimes employed at one time when the work is -pressing; as it slackens, less hands are used. These large city -packing-houses are all situated close to the railroad; they buy the -raisins already cured and dried from the colonists, who bring them in -sweatboxes to town. The time of the greatest activity is from the last -week in August to October 15th. The largest of these city packers are -Messrs. Cook & Langley, who own packing-houses both in Riverside and -Fresno; Schacht, Lemcke & Steiner, successors to George W. Meade, the -oldest packing-house in Fresno, superintended by H. W. Shram; Chas. -Leslie & Co., Griffin & Skelley, etc. - -The pioneer packing company of Fresno, known as the Fresno Raisin & -Fruit Packing Company, is doing at this time a large business. Every day -five or six carloads of raisins are sent away, while a string of from -twenty to thirty, two and four horse teams are waiting outside of the -weighing shed to have their raisins weighed and received. These raisins -come both from large and small vineyards from all over the country, but -principally from the colonies, where they are the products of -twenty-acre vineyards. Some of the best raisins in fact came from the -smallest vineyards, where they had the best care, and where the owner -has given the vineyard all his time. Mr. H. W. Shram, the superintendent -of this large and old packing-house, has had years of experience in the -packing business, and has followed the Fresno raisin business from its -infancy. As soon as the raisin boxes are unloaded they are immediately -weighed. It takes eight men to attend to this part of the business, one -weighing and one clerk to keep accounts. The dried wine grapes, such as -Zinfandel, Malagas, and even Sultanas, are immediately wheeled into the -stemmer-house to be separated from the stems and cleaned. This stemmer -is one of the largest in the State, and the only one of its kind as -regards construction. It stems, cleans and assorts, in from three to -four different grades, sixty tons of raisins a day. Nine men are -working this machine, some feeding, others pushing wide but shallow -boxes under the spouts, others again wheeling them away when full. The -steam engine of ten horse-power and boiler are fired principally with -separated stems, refuse raisins, and stones of peaches and apricots. The -separated dried grapes are packed and shipped in eighty-pound sacks, and -go in this way to the East, or even to Europe. Every day one or two -carloads of these dried grapes are shipped. The Muscatel layers, -however, go first to the sweating-room, before anything is done with -them. This sweating-room is one hundred by fifty feet, and has the walls -and floor filled around with one foot in thickness of sawdust, so as to -prevent the outside air from entering. This sweating room is constantly -filled with raisin boxes from floor to ceiling, and seldom contains less -than forty tons of raisins at one time. It takes from ten to thirty days -to equalize the moisture in the raisins as well as to properly soften -the stems so that the grapes will not fall off. This is of the utmost -importance. If it is not done the stems will break and the berries fall -off, and instead of a first-class layer raisin we would only get a -first-class loose. - -After having sweated for several weeks the raisins are brought out to be -assorted. We see several rows of oblong tables, each one with a border -around like a deep and large tray, and with a hole at each end in which -the loose raisins are pushed. It takes eighteen of these tables to -receive the grapes to be assorted, and as it also takes six girls at -each table, it is evident the work is one of great importance. Only -girls are used, as boys and men could not as properly do the work. It -takes a girl’s nimble fingers to handle the raisins, so that none break. -They are also more patient, and are, in every way, suited for the work. -As the raisins are being assorted, the different grades are clipped from -the same bunches, and placed in different trays. Thus one and the same -bunch may contain four different grades of raisins. Each one is -separated at these tables, to make different brands of raisins. The -trays, with five pounds of raisins each as they leave the graders, are -placed in large piles on the floor, and are from there taken away at -leisure, first to be packed and afterwards to the press. This is a -department of its own. It takes great experience to press the raisins -just so much, that they will look well, but not so much as to burst. A -broken raisin will sugar and spoil, and would cause complaint and -dissatisfaction. The public is constantly being educated as to what fine -raisins are, and now wants only the best. Each tray is pressed, and it -takes four trays to make up a box of twenty pounds. A tray is placed -over the box, the sliding bottom is pulled out, and the whole cake of -raisins with paper and all drop in the box below. - -After the raisins are assorted they have to be packed. Twenty girls are -occupied with this, the most pleasant, but also the most skillful, work -in the packing-house. No bad raisins go in here, and if any there should -be, they are separated and placed with a lower grade, as even one or two -raisins would spoil an otherwise good box. This requires a great deal of -care and attention, but the girls are being educated, and the same ones -are re-engaged from year to year. Fresno is getting an army of girls -educated for the business, and we find much less trouble now to get the -raisins well packed than a few years ago, when everything was -comparatively new. Now there is hardly a girl in any of the colonies who -does not know something about raisin-packing, and who is able to make -good wages during packing time. Several cents a tray are paid for -packing, and many girls earn two dollars a day, while none earn less -than one dollar a day. The first quality raisins are packed under the -Lion Brand, while the second quality goes by the name of the Golden -Gate. Both brands are equally popular and are readily sold. The loose -raisins are as important as the bunches and layers. The American -housewife has learned that she gets more for her money if she buys loose -raisins than if she buys layers, which always contain a large percentage -of stems. Loose raisins are therefore now very popular. The loose -raisins have all been sweated, and the best of them have come from -large, fine bunches, from which they have simply dropped off, and -magnificent they look indeed as they are separated and graded into -several grades, the largest of course to make the very choicest brands. -The process of packing is quite different from that of packing layers. -In loose, the boxes are simply filled with fifteen pounds of loose -raisins; then a tray containing five pounds, and which has been faced, -is placed on top, this making up twenty-pound boxes. - -The facing is a most important and interesting work. It takes from forty -to fifty girls to do it, and only expert hands are allowed at the facing -tables. The facing consists in placing large, fine and flatted raisins -in layers on top of the box, as an advertisement that the contents -underneath are equally carefully assorted and choice. A careful and -skillful facer can face forty boxes a day, while from twenty to thirty -boxes is a low average. Mr. Shram buys raisins and dried grapes from -every one who has any that are really choice. For Feherzagos three to -three and one-half cents are paid, for Malagas four cents, and for -Muscatels three and one-half to five cents, according to quality. All -the work in the packing-house is done by piece work, and from two to -five cents are paid for different qualities of the work, such as -assorting, picking over, picking and facing. Four hundred girls and boys -are daily employed. The present raisin pack, Mr. Shram affirms, is the -best of any he has ever handled. They are shipped to every large town in -the East, and are constantly increasing in demand. Besides raisins, Mr. -Shram handles peaches, figs, apricots, and in fact any dried fruit we -have. Tons and tons of Adriatic figs are brought from the colonies every -day at six cents per pound, an enormous price when we consider the yield -of a fig tree. But, says Mr. Shram, they are in demand, and as long as -we can sell them again when packed and sweated to advantage we can -afford to pay a good price. - -When sufficient boxes are packed, they are loaded in cars and made up -into trains exclusively loaded with raisins. The various packing-houses -combine to do this. Generally during the packing season two such -train-loads are sent away every week, each one consisting of from ten to -fifteen cars of raisins, each car containing one thousand boxes. Five -hundred and thirty such cars were shipped from Fresno last year (1889). -Some of the packers packed one hundred thousand boxes each. - - - - -RAISIN GROWERS AND THEIR VINEYARDS. - - -The following sketches are intended to convey to those not living in the -raisin districts of our State an idea of the men who have made a -specialty of the raisin industry,--men through whose experiences and -intelligent work others are now profiting. - -While the raisin growers and packers can now be counted by the hundred, -and while all of them have in some way contributed to the development of -the industry, and as such deserve to be mentioned in the annals of this -industry, it has only been practicable to here refer to a few of the -most prominent. Where exactly to draw the line was not easy to decide, -and my intention has been not to slight or neglect any one, and should -any one find himself omitted he should account for it through my -ignorance of real facts. I should especially have wished to add to these -short notes more extensive accounts of the work and vineyards of R. B. -Blowers of Woodland, of the late G. G. Briggs of Davisville, and of -Robert McPherson of McPherson, but I have not been able to procure the -necessary data. These three gentlemen have all greatly contributed to -the development of the high standing of the raisin industry in this -State. - - -G. G. BRIGGS. - -Mr. Briggs was the first large raisin-grower in the State, and owned -vineyards in both Solano and Yolo counties aggregating seven hundred -acres or more. Subirrigation by means of perforated pipes, in which the -water was made to circulate under pressure, was first tried extensively -in Mr. Briggs’ vineyard at Davisville, by which means the grape crop was -almost doubled. Later on Mr. Briggs planted extensively in the -Washington Colony at Fresno, but he died before his vineyard there came -into bearing. He is said to have imported raisin grapes direct from -Spain, and a grape now growing in the vineyard of G. E. Freeman at -Fresno is said to be of that variety. It resembles the Muscat of -Alexandria in growth, but the berries are those of the Gordo Blanco. Mr. -Briggs advised to give the raisin-vines more room, and following his -ideas several vineyards as well as his own were planted with the vines -ten by sixteen feet. - - -R. B. BLOWERS. - -R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo county, planted his first vines in 1863, -and produced his first raisins in 1867. From 1870 to 1873 he planted the -principal part of his vineyard. He was the first one in California to do -any really careful packing, and he may justly be said to be the father -of the raisin industry in this State. Mr. Blowers was the first to -irrigate the raisin-vines by means of pumping and flooding, for which -purpose he constructed his afterwards so famous well. The first -successful raisin dryer was invented and built by him at a time when -every one else doubted the propriety and desirability of drying grapes -by artificial heat, and the dryer thus constructed has never yet been -surpassed. One of the characteristics of the Blowers dryer was the -blower or suction fan, by which means the air was changed in the dryer, -the moist air being sucked out, while dry air was allowed to rush in. -Mr. Blowers improved nearly every branch of the raisin industry, and -studied every operation, such as plowing, irrigation, curing and -packing, more thoroughly than any one ever did before or has done after -him. Mr. Blowers’ raisins were the best in the State at their time, and -wherever exhibited received the first premium. At the World’s Fair at -Philadelphia, they received the first premium, and attracted much -attention. I may add that Mr. Blowers is the inventor or at least the -perfector of the “face-down” method of packing, the best method for -packing raisins. Mr. Blowers has published a short essay on raisins, -referred to elsewhere in this book. - - -ROBERT McPHERSON. - -Robert McPherson was for Southern California what G. G. Briggs and R. B. -Blowers were for the Northern part. The McPherson vineyard extended once -over 360 acres of land, and one year he shipped over one hundred -thousand boxes. Many of the practical devices for irrigating, curing and -packing raisins now generally in use in the southern part of the State -were invented by him. The McPherson vineyard was situated in Orange -county in the southern part of this State. Robert McPherson was -certainly the largest and most prominent raisin-grower in Southern -California. He is now no longer in the business. - - -T. C. WHITE. - -The “Raisina” vineyard was the first thoroughly conducted raisin -vineyard in Fresno. It was planted by T. C. White in 1876, ’77 and ’78, -and from that time gradually extended until it contained one hundred and -twenty acres, of which sixty-five acres are in Muscatel grapes of the -variety known as Gordo Blanco, brought there from the Blowers vineyard -at Woodland. The vineyard also contains some Seedless Sultanas and White -Corinths. The soil of the vineyard is white ash, the location two miles -south of Fresno, in the old Central California Colony. The soil is now -partly subirrigated. T. C. White has done a great deal to develop and -perfect the packing and curing of raisins, and he has also given much -time and study to the other branches of the industry, such as growing, -pruning and cultivation. Through the study of the imported Spanish -raisins, as well as of those produced by R. B. Blowers, Mr. White -succeeded in packing a very superior brand, which has never been -surpassed in this State. The brands packed at the Raisina vineyard were -as follows: Dehesa Clusters, London Layers, California Layers, Loose -Muscatels, and cartoons of two and one-half pounds. The largest pack at -one time was thirteen thousand boxes of twenty pounds each. In order to -“face” the boxes accurately and rapidly, T. C. White invented the -facing-plate elsewhere described in this book. Experiencing considerable -difficulty in properly facing his Dehesas, it occurred to him that a -block or plate might be made with cavities in which the raisins could be -placed quickly and without danger of being disturbed. His idea was -entirely original, and the facing device as made by him is a perfect -machine which has not been improved upon. This device is now covered by -patents. - -In packing T. C. White employed the Blowers’ method, or the “face-down” -method, which he so improved upon that it has not since been excelled. -Many of the fine points in raisin curing and packing were perfected by -him, and the raisin industry will always be benefited by the work he has -done. Below I give a list of the premiums taken by T. C. White’s raisins -at various fairs: 1885, silver medal and special first premium for best -raisins at the Mechanics’ Fair in San Francisco; 1886, first premium and -gold medal at the Mechanics’ Fair in San Francisco; 1888, first premium -and one hundred dollars for best raisins at the State Fair. Same year -they received first premium and gold medal at the Fresno District Fair; -1889, first premium at the Fresno District Fair. - - -MISS M. F. AUSTIN. - -The story of Miss M. F. Austin and her success with the Hedge Row -Vineyard reads like a beautiful tale. A schoolteacher by occupation, -Miss Austin possessed many prominent qualities and elevated ideas, among -others that horticulture should become a business for women as well as -for men. Acting upon these ideas, Miss Austin removed to Fresno in 1878 -in company with a lady friend and teacher, Miss L. H. Hatch, and she -began immediately to improve her Hedge Row Vineyard, a part of which had -been planted two years before by Bernhard Marks, the founder of the -Central California Colony. The vineyard was gradually extended until it -contained one hundred acres, nearly all in Gordo Blanco vines. Miss -Austin must be given credit for having improved upon many operations in -the vineyard and in the packing-house. She first discovered that under -proper conditions the sulphuring should be done in the flowers of the -grapevines. By this method she one year largely increased her crop of -grapes. In packing she showed her womanly taste and refinement, and not -only succeeded in producing superior Layer and Dehesa raisins, but made -several innovations in packing which to this day are imitated. Among -these we may mention the packing in cartoons, and in small ornamented -paper bags, which latter were again placed in paper boxes. Miss Austin -and T. C. White were the originators of fancy packing in this State. - -The largest pack of the Hedge Row Vineyard was seventy-five hundred -boxes, while the total of one year’s pack reached sixteen thousand -boxes. Miss Austin built the first raisin dryer in Fresno, and -demonstrated that machine-dried raisins were a success if not a -necessity as regards the last crop. The pluck and intelligence of Miss -Austin soon became extensively known, and many were the ladies who, -imitating her, engaged in horticulture and in the raisin industry. -Fresno county and the State at large owe her a debt of gratitude for -what she has done. Those who had the pleasure and honor of her -friendship lost in her a dear and faithful friend, a brilliant and -intelligent companion, and a person who had few equals in any path of -life. - - -JOSEPH T. GOODMAN. - -The owner of the Floreal vineyard arrived in Fresno in 1879, and -purchased a then already started plantation, which, however, he soon -greatly remodeled, enlarged and improved. Mr. Goodman, formerly one of -the brilliant newspaper men and literary writers of this coast, and -publisher of the _Territorial Enterprise_ of Virginia City, Nevada, has -probably more than any other man studied the characteristics and -requirements of the raisin grapes. His vineyard, while not the largest, -is in our opinion the best cared for in the State, and newcomers could -perhaps not do better than learn from it. It now comprises one hundred -and twenty acres, mostly in Gordo Blanco. For the curing of the grapes, -thirty thousand trays or more are needed, while a separate packing-house -and tray-shed are prominent features of the vineyard. The land was all -leveled with great care before planting, and every check can be flooded -if necessary. The soil is the very richest, being the chocolate-colored -loam, which in Fresno is considered the best and strongest soil for -Muscat grapes. The location of the vineyard is the old sink of Red Bank -creek, in the same district where Forsyth’s and Butler’s vineyards are -situated. As regards planting, pruning, sulphuring, topping and other -vineyard operations, Mr. J. T. Goodman is an authority from whose -verdict there is no appeal. The Floreal vineyard always bears good -crops, which must be exclusively attributed to the care given the -vineyard and to the judgment with which all operations there are -conducted. Mr. Goodman has invented several appliances for facilitating -the vineyard work, most prominent among which I may mention the vineyard -truck, by the means of which the expenses of harvesting and some other -vineyard labors are greatly reduced. He also suggested the facing-plate -independently of T. C. White. - - -A. B. BUTLER. - -The largest raisin vineyard in Fresno county or in the State of -California, as well as in the world, is owned by A. B. Butler. The -vineyard is situated about three miles southeast of Fresno, on the sink -of Red Bank. It contains about six hundred acres, nearly all of which is -planted in Muscat grapes of the Gordo Blanco and Alexandria varieties, -and a few Sultanas. The vines are planted at various distances, such as -ten by sixteen feet, and six by twelve feet, etc. The pruning is all -“low standard,” except the Sultanas, which are staked four feet high. -The only trees in the vineyard consist of two or three avenues of fig -and poplar interspersed with fan palms, while some poplar trees line the -outside boundaries of the vineyard. The first vines were set in 1879, -and since that time the planting has been carried on until the whole six -hundred acres are now in vines in full bearing. Mr. Butler himself -superintends the general work of the vineyard, and during the packing -time carefully watches the packing. The latter is accomplished in a -large building containing packing-rooms, storerooms, steam dryer, -separator, box factory and storeroom for labels. The dryer has a -capacity of fifty tons charge of green fruit, and is considered one of -the best in the State. There are two dryers, the large one just -mentioned and one smaller, of twenty-five tons capacity, situated in the -center of the vineyard. The Butler raisins are celebrated all over the -continent, and are most excellently packed. The labels used are very -fine and are manufactured to order in France. The principal brand packed -is “Butler’s Cluster Raisins.” - -Mr. Butler acquired much experience in Spain, where he spent -considerable time studying the raisin business. The output of the -vineyard has been as high as one hundred thousand boxes per year. -Similar to the other vineyards in this district, the soil of the Butler -vineyard is among the very best in the county, all now subirrigated. Mr. -Butler is the largest packer in the State, and his raisins have gained a -continental reputation. As regards Spanish methods of packing, Mr. -Butler is better posted than any other packer in the State. An -interesting essay on Mr. Butler’s experiences in California and in Spain -is published in monthly _California_ for March, 1890. The crop this year -promises to be of extra quality. - - -WILLIAM FORSYTH. - -The owner of the Forsyth vineyard and the producer of one of the two -finest brands of raisins in this State arrived in Fresno in 1881, and -planted his present vineyard of one hundred and sixty acres in 1882 and -1883. The vineyard is situated in the sink of Red Bank creek, some four -miles east of Fresno, and consists of heavy reddish or chocolate-colored -soil of unusual richness. The vines used are almost entirely the Gordo -Blanco variety, with a few Sultanas. The land is all leveled, was -irrigated the first year only, and is now subirrigated and drained, -requiring no further irrigation of any kind. The vines, set eight by -eight feet, are pruned low, and given short spurs. The outbuildings -consist of a packing-house, and equalizing or sweating house combined, -thirty-five by one hundred and seventy feet. A dryer of late pattern, -with steam boilers and flues, has a capacity of forty tons at a charge. -The houses for the laboring men as well as the Colonel’s dwelling-house -are most elegant and complete, and show the care and refined taste of -the owner. Over fifty thousand trays for drying the raisins are used in -curing, the trays being three feet square, large enough to hold thirty -pounds of grapes. The grove of palms, ornamental and shade trees, the -flowers and shrubbery surrounding the Colonel’s home in the center of -the vineyard, are all models of beauty and testify to the culture and -prosperity of one of our foremost raisin-growers. - -The vineyard produces yearly from fifty to sixty thousand boxes of -twenty pounds each, of the highest quality of raisins. The raisins are -remarkable for their high grade and even packing. The brands are: -Forsyth’s Imperial Clusters, the “Tiger” brand and the “Forget-me-not” -brand. During the packing and picking season some two hundred and fifty -hands are employed daily in the various departments, all under the -direct supervision of Colonel Forsyth himself, who has gained his -experience both by practical work in California and by visits to the -raisin districts of Spain. During the latter he has gained much -experience about foreign methods, which he has not been slow to apply in -his own business. As regards location, the Forsyth vineyard is not -surpassed by any, and as regards appointments it is the most complete -and handsome establishment that can be found anywhere. The Forsyth -raisins excel in quality of berry, grade, uniformity of size and in the -elegance and care with which they are packed. They stand at the head of -the California raisin product. Col. Forsyth has been appointed -Commissioner for California at the World Fair in Chicago, 1892. - - -A. D. BARLING. - -Among our younger raisin-growers and packers, Mr. A. D. Barling occupies -a prominent place. A sketch of his life and connection with the raisin -industry is most interesting. He came to the raisin district with only a -dollar in his pocket. To-day he is a wealthy grower and packer, whose -raisin brand is among the best in the State. - -Mr. Barling, formerly of Michigan, was educated at Ann Arbor. In 1873 he -left college and started West, settling in Merced county, California. -There he became connected with the Farmers’ Canal Co., as their chief -engineer, which position he held for seven years, and in that capacity -conducted the water of the Merced river down to Livingston on the S. P. -R. R. From Merced he went to Mexico in the employ of the Mexican Central -Railroad, but returned to San Francisco, California, in 1882. Here he -had charge of the construction of the large wharf at Alameda point, then -being constructed by the S. P. R. R. Co. - -Becoming tired of working for a salary, Mr. Barling went to Fresno and -rented a lot in the Central Colony. By dint of hard work, not having any -capital at all to start with, he and his wife saved one thousand -dollars, with which they purchased the present El Modelo vineyard, -paying forty-five dollars per acre for the rough land in 1885. Mr. -Barling and his wife went to work with a will and set out the land in -Muscat cuttings, but through unfortunate and unforeseen circumstances -all the first planting was lost. Undaunted they replanted in 1886 with -great success, and to-day they own one of the finest and best-paying -150-acre vineyards in the county, having yearly added new territory to -the first purchase. Last season they packed sixteen thousand boxes of -Muscat raisins, and established the El Modelo brand, which in the market -is considered second to none, and which has established an enviable -reputation for its packers. This year’s pack is estimated to reach fifty -thousand boxes of twenty pounds each. Mr. Barling’s thorough education -and skill and experience as an engineer has materially contributed to -his success. He has also held the position of assistant cashier in the -Fresno Loan & Savings Bank for the last five years. - - -FRANK H. BALL. - -The Ball Vineyard adjoins the town of Fresno, and is situated in the -rich red lands, the sink of old creeks. The one hundred and twenty acres -in Muscatels are among the best cared for in the district. Mr. Ball -possesses the faculty of doing the necessary work at the right time and -doing it thoroughly. The crop is annually sold in the sweatboxes to -packers in Fresno City, no raisins being packed on the vineyard. Mr. -Ball is the author of an excellent essay on raisin-grape growing and -curing, published in the _California_ for July, 1890. His methods of -culture and curing are the best, and the raisins produced by them are -not surpassed by any in the State. Mr. Ball is one of our most -successful raisin-men. - - -SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY RAISIN PACKERS, 1889. - - ===============+=========+==============+==============+============== - NAME. |LOCATION.| BRANDS. | LOCAL AGENTS |EASTERN AGENTS - | | |AND ADDRESSES.|AND ADDRESSES. - ---------------+---------+--------------+--------------+-------------- - American Raisin|Fresno. |Eagle, Star. |Noble Bros., |Delafield, - Co. | | |Fresno. |McGovern & - | | | |Co., Chicago. - | | | | - Barling, A. D. |Fresno. |El Modelo, |Townsend, |Delafield, - | |Golden Gate. |McGovern & |McGovern & - | | |Co., San |Co., Chicago, - | | |Francisco. |New York and - | | | |St. Louis. - | | | | - Barton Estate |Fresno. |Peacock. | | - Co. | | | | - | | | | - Butler, A. B. |Fresno. |Butler’s |H. M. Newhall |J. K. Armsby - | |Cluster. |& Co., S. F. |Co., Chicago, - | | | |etc. - | | | | - Cal. Raisin and|Fresno. |Seal, Eclipse.|Williams, |C. M. Webber & - Fruit Co. | | |Brown & Co., |Co., Chicago. - | | |S. F. | - | | | | - Camp, G. W. |Armona. | | | - | | | | - Cook & Langley.|Fresno. |Horseshoe, |Cook & |Ariel - | |Lily, Eureka. |Langley, Los |Meinrath, - | | |Angeles. |Kansas Cy. & - | | | |Chicago. - | | | | - Cook, H. E. |Fresno. |Cook’s. |S. L. Jones & | - | | |Co., S. F. | - | | | | - Curtis Fruit |Oleander.|Greyhound, San|H. M. Newhall |J. K. Armsby - Co. | |Joaquin. |& Co., S. F. |Co., Chicago, - | | | |etc. - | | | | - Forsyth, |Fresno. |Imperial, |Townsend, |Delafield, - William | |Tiger, Forget-|McGovern & |McGovern & - | |me-not. |Co., San |Co., Chicago, - | | |Francisco. |New York and - | | | |St. Louis. - | | | | - Fowler Fruit |Fowler. |Pride of Cal.,|Brown & May, | - and Raisin | |Comet. |Fresno. | - Packing Co. | | | | - | | | | - Fresno Fruit & |Fresno. |Lion, Golden |Schacht, |Rossiter & - Raisin Co. | |Gate. |Lemcke & |Skidmore, New - | | |Steiner, S. F.|York. - | | | | - Fresno Raisin |Oleander.|American Flag.|Brown, May & | - Co. | | |Co., Fresno. | - | | | | - Gould, E. H. |Malaga. |Olivet, El |D. L. Beck & |U. H. Dudley - | |Monte. |Son, S. F. |& Co., New - | | | |York. - | | | | - Griffin & |Fresno. |Griffin & |Griffin & |Delafield, - Skelley. | |Skelley’s. |Skelley, S. F.|McGovern & - | | | |Co., New York. - | | | | - Holton, S. B. |Selma. |Golden West. |Townsend, |Delafield, - | | |McGovern & |McGovern & - | | |Co., San |Co., Chicago, - | | |Francisco. |New York and - | | | |St. Louis. - | | | | - Leslie, Chas. |Fresno. |Liberty, |Geo. & John H.|Geo. & John - | |Royal. |Leslie, |H. Leslie, - | | |Fresno. |Chicago. - | | | | - Mau, Sadler & |Fresno. |Sierra Park, | | - Co. | |Parrot. | | - | | | | - Miller, James. |Fresno. | | | - | | | | - Paige & Morton.|Tulare. |P. & M., Brown|Paige & | - | |& Co. |Morton, S. F. | - | | | | - Reese, J. W. |Fresno. |Cartoons. | | - | | | | - Rodda & |Fowler. |Maple Park. |Townsend, |Delafield, - Nobmann. | | |McGovern & |McGovern & - | | |Co., San |Co., Chicago, - | | |Francisco. |New York and - | | | |St. Louis. - | | | | - Viau, N. |Malaga. |Viau’s. | | - | | | | - Viau, S. P. |Malaga. | | | - ---------------+---------+--------------+--------------+-------------- - - - - -LITERATURE. - - -The literature of the raisin industry is a very scant one, and as far as -I have been able to ascertain not a single work especially devoted to -this industry has appeared in any language. The various cyclopedias -contain articles on raisins, but they are all more or less confused and -unreliable, and of no great use to any one who wishes only reliable -information, and who must depend upon the same for practical purposes. -As regards California, much information has been given about raisin -growing and curing in almost every newspaper published in the State. To -mention them all would be to enumerate all the papers of the Pacific -Coast. I can here refer only to a few of the principal ones, where the -student who has time and inclination to follow up the subject may find -material for a more detailed history of the raisin industry than the one -I have written. - -First among these papers I must mention the _Pacific Rural Press_, -edited by that distinguished horticulturist, Professor E. J. Wickson, -and published by Messrs. Dewey & Co. of San Francisco. In the files of -this weekly, from 1873 to the present time, 1890, may be found scattered -many interesting articles referring to our subject. A paper -contemporaneous with it was the San Francisco _Merchant_, which -contained many interesting articles on raisins and raisin grapes, -especially during the period from 1881 to 1887. In the issues of the -_Press and Horticulturist_ of Riverside, San Bernardino county, -California, we find during a series of years occasional notes and -articles referring to the raisin industry of that section of the -country. As regards the Santa Ana and Orange county district, the -Anaheim _Gazette_ will prove the most reliable guide, as recording the -rise and decline, and, as we believe, also the revival, of the raisin -industry of that section. The Yolo _Democrat_ and the Woodland _Mail_ -published at Woodland, Yolo county, have devoted much space to the -raisin industry of that section. In Fresno county the Fresno -_Republican_, between the years 1882 and 1887, contained weekly a -separate department for viticulture and horticulture edited by the -author of this book, and that paper has ever afterwards devoted much -space to recording the progress of the raisin industry of the country. -The Fresno _Expositor_, the oldest paper in Fresno county, has contained -much information about raisin grapes and vineyards since 1873, when the -first raisin-vines were planted in the county. During the period from -1888 to 1890, this paper contained almost daily editorials upon the -raisin industry, mostly contributed by this author. - -The California _Fruit Grower_, a weekly horticultural paper mentioned -below, has since its beginning a few years ago made dried fruit its -specialty, and has contained many important articles on our industry, -and in its columns may be found the most reliable raisin statistics -published in this State. The San Francisco _Examiner_ contained in 1888 -a series of articles on raisins, contributed by this author. The San -Francisco _Chronicle_ has from time to time given much space to the -raisin industry, and its horticultural editor, George F. Weeks, has most -ably contributed to the dissemination of knowledge about our California -raisins. A special raisin edition of this paper appeared February 2, -1890. Another San Francisco paper, the _Journal of Commerce_, contains -much information as regards raisin statistics and the progress of the -raisin industry generally, and its files may be consulted with much -interest and profit. Among Eastern journals I wish only to call -attention to the _Fruit Trade Journal_ published at New York up to date -(June, 1890); it contains weekly statistics of raisin sales, etc., all -of great interest to the grower and packer. An important contribution to -the history of the raisin industry is the work by Professor E. J. -Wickson,--“California Fruits, and How to Grow Them.” It contains several -chapters on grapes, most conscientiously written and very reliable. This -book will always remain as a standard work of reference upon the -subject. Professor E. W. Hilgard has during a number of years published -essays upon topics related to our industry, all most valuable to the -practical grower. They are enumerated below. - -I may also mention the _Rural Californian_, published in Los Angeles. It -devotes from time to time some space to the raisin industry of the -southern part of the State. In the Reports of the State Board of -Horticultural Commissioners will be found several papers upon the raisin -industry, all mentioned below. Similarly the Reports of the State Board -of Viticultural Commissioners contain several important and very -interesting essays on raisins, etc., which are duly mentioned below. In -these reports we find articles by T. C. White and W. B. West and others, -as well as interesting discussions by growers. The _California_, a -journal of rural industry, which commenced publication this year (1890), -and is issued weekly and monthly, makes the raisin industry a specialty. -It has already contained many articles contributed by our most -successful growers, such as A. D. Barling, T. C. White, A. B. Butler, -Frank Ball, Wm. Forsyth, etc., and also by this author. In the way of -illustrations, California is fortunate to possess a most exquisite work -on grapes. We refer to the very fine colored prints of California grape -varieties published by Edward Bosqui. Among the number are our Muscat of -Alexandria and Seedless Sultana. Each one of these plates is a work of -art, than which there is nothing superior produced anywhere. - -Below follows an enumeration of books, which to a greater or less degree -refer to the raisin industry. For access to many of them I am indebted -to the kindness of the proprietor of the Sutro Library, Mr. Adolph -Sutro, of San Francisco, and to his librarian, Mr. George Moss. - - ANSTED, D. T.: Ionian Islands in 1863. London, 1863. - - ARQUIMBAU, JOHN D., United States Consul at Denia: Raisins in Denia. - United States Consular Reports, No. 41½, pages 681 and 682. 1884. Mr. - Arquimbau is the largest packer in Valencia. - - AUDIBERT, JOSEPH: Les Raisins Secs. Paris, 1884. This work treats - almost exclusively of dried grapes imported from Turkey and Greece to - France for wine-making. - - BALL, FRANK H.: My Work in the Raisin Vineyard. MS. to be published in - _California_ for July, 1890. - - BARLING, A. D.: Culture and Curing. In Vol. I, No. 4, of monthly - _California_, a Journal of Rural Industry, El Verano, Cal.; also in - same weekly No. 14, April 12, 1890. - - BEAUJOUR, F.: Tableau du Commerce de la Grèce. Paris, 1880. - - BLOWERS, R. B.: Report on Raisin-making in California. First Annual - Report of the State Board of Viticultural Commissioners. San - Francisco, 1881. Pages 13 to 15. - - BORDE, ANDREW: Breviary of Health. 1542. - - BULLETIN, THE SAN FRANCISCO: Published by Messrs. Pickering and Fitch, - San Francisco. The Bulletin was the first of the large San Francisco - papers to devote time and space to the horticultural and viticultural - interests of California, and its weekly issues between 1875 and 1890 - have been full of valuable information upon these subjects. - - CALIFORNIA, a Journal of Rural Industry: Published by The California - Company, San Francisco. Gustav Eisen, Horticultural Editor. Contained - a series of articles on Raisins, by the author, commencing January, - 1890, to date (June, 1890). - - CHAMPIN, AIMÉ: Vine Grafting. Translated by J. H. Wheeler, in Second - Annual Report of the Chief Executive Viticultural Officer to the Board - of State Viticultural Commissioners for the year 1882-83, Appendix - III. Sacramento, 1883. - - CHIPMAN, GEN. N. P.: Report Upon the Fruit Industry of California. - Published by the Board of Trade. San Francisco, 1889. - - CHRONICLE, THE SAN FRANCISCO: Published by M. H. de Young, San - Francisco. This large daily paper contains in the weekly and Sunday - issues much valuable information about horticultural subjects. The - issue of Feb. 2, 1890, was especially devoted to the raisin industry, - and was most ably edited by George F. Weeks, its horticultural editor. - - COLMET: Dictionary of the Bible. 1838. Grapes of Eschol, seedless. - - CORYAT, THOMAS: Crudities. London, 1776. - - DAVY, JOHN: Notes and Observations on the Ionian Islands and Malta. - London, 1842. - - DIRECTORY OF THE GRAPE-GROWERS AND WINE-MAKERS OF CALIFORNIA; compiled - by the State Board of Viticultural Commissioners of California. - Sacramento, 1888. - - DODOENS, REMBERT (Dodonaeus Rembertus): Histoire des Plantes. Antwerp, - 1557. - - DOWLEN, E.: Several Reports on the Mysterious Vine Disease to the - State Board of Viticultural Commissioners of Cal.; published in the - San Francisco _Merchant and Viticulturist_ during 1889-90. These - reports of carefully conducted experiments are highly interesting. - - EISEN, GUSTAV: Raisin-grape Growing. A series of articles on the - Growing, Curing and Packing of Raisin Grapes. Published in the San - Francisco _Examiner_, both in the daily and weekly, during the months - of September and October, 1888; also a series of articles on Raisins, - in _California_ for 1890. - - ENGLISH SOURCES: Under this heading I have referred to a pamphlet on - Dried Fruits, by an unknown English author, privately printed and - circulated. The part pertaining to raisins is very detailed and - contains much information of which I have made free use in this book. - It was kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. Thomas Nelmes, of Pasadena. - The book being without title and the author unknown, I cannot refer to - it in any other way. The pamphlet appears to have been printed in - 1876. - - EXAMINER, THE SAN FRANCISCO: Published by W. R. Hearst, San Francisco. - Contained during the months of Sept, and Oct., 1888, a series of - articles upon Raisin-grape Growing by the author of this book. In - March, 1890, appeared a special Fresno number, with much information - about the raisin industry (author unknown). - - FARLOW, W. G.: On the American Grapevine Mildew. Bulletin of the - Bussey Institution, March, 1876. Boston, Mass. - - GALLOWAY, B. T.: The Journal of Mycology. Published by the U. S. - Department of Agriculture, Washington. Several volumes published in - serial to date, 1890. Contains articles on Grape Fungi, etc. - - GRASSET DE SAINT SAUVEUR, JACQUES: Voyage dans les Iles et Possessions - des Venetiennes. Paris, 1800. - - GROCER AND COUNTRY MERCHANT, THE SAN FRANCISCO: Published by Briggs - and Harrington, San Francisco. Devotes much attention to raisins, as - well as to other rural industries of California. - - HACKLUYT, RICHARD, REV.: Principal Navigations, Voyages and - Discoveries made by the English Nation. London, 1589. - - HARKNESS, H. W.: Fungi on the Pacific Coast. Bulletin of the - California Academy of Sciences. Vol. II, 1886 to 1887. San Francisco, - 1887. - - HARTEMA, LUDOVICUS DE: In Hakluyt. Principal Navigations, Soc. ed., p. - 77. Mentions seedless raisins from the Town of Reame in Arabia Felix. - - HEAP, G. H., United States Consul-General at Constantinople: Fruit - Culture in Turkey. United States Consular Reports, No. 41½, pages 726 - to 740. 1884. - - HILGARD, E. W.: Alkali Lands, Irrigation and Drainage, etc. University - of California, College of Agriculture, Appendix VII, Report for the - year 1886. Sacramento, 1886. - - ---- Investigation of California Soils. Appendix I, Report of the - Professor in Charge, etc. University of California, College of - Agriculture. Sacramento, 1882. - - ---- The Rise of Alkali in the San Joaquin Valley. University of - California, Agricultural Experimental Station, Berkeley, Cal. Bulletin - No. 83. - - ---- Abnormal Deposits on Vine Leaves. In _same_. Bulletin No. 70. - - ---- Mysterious Death of Vines. _Same._ Bulletin No. 70. - - ---- Sulphuring of Vines. _Same._ Bulletin No. 56. - - ---- Irrigation, Drainage and Alkali. Bulletin No. 53. - - ---- Examination of Tule, Marsh and Alkali Lands. Bulletin No. 28. - - LE BRUN (or BRUYN) CORNEILLE: Voyage au Levant, Delft, 1700. Mentions - seedless raisins in Persia. - - LITHGOW, WILLIAM: Adventures and Peregrinations. 1614. - - LOCKE, JOHN: Histoire de la Navigation. Paris, 1722. - - MARSTON, H. C., United States Consul at Malaga: Fruit Culture in - Malaga. United States Consular Reports, No. 41½ pages 682 to 689. - 1884. - - ---- Malaga Raisins. United States Consular Reports, No. 10. - Republished in said Reports, No. 41½, pages 691 to 693. 1884. - - MAS ET PULLAT: Le Vignoble. Paris, 1876-77. On page 73, tome I, we - find a figure of a Muscat of Alexandria with round berries, and which - undoubtedly is nearly related to the Gordo Blanco. It is not the true - Muscat of Alexandria. As synonyms are given Gordo Blanco and (Don - Simon Roxas is referred to as authority) also Uva Zibeba. The latter - is undoubted the same as our Muscat of Alexandria. Another synonym is - Muscatel Romano, which again is only another name for Gordo Blanco. - The French authors have undoubtedly everywhere confounded the two - varieties. In the same work, page 31, tome I, we also find the White - Corinth referred to as the currant grape of Zante, which is erroneous. - - MORYSON, FYNES: Itinerary, containing Twelve Years’ Travels through - Turkey, France, etc. 1617. - - NIEBUHR, CARSTENS: Description de l’Arabie (Trans, from German). - Copenhague, 1773. Mentions “Kishmish” seedless raisins from Arabia. - - NOUVEAU DUHAMEL ou Traité des Arbres et Arbustes. Paris, 1815. On pl. - No. 65, tome 7, figures Muscat d’Alexandria. This variety differs from - our Muscat of Alexandria by having the berries less tapering, like - the “Malaga.” On pl. 72, tome 7. there is a figure of White Corinth, - but the bunch is too loose to be characteristic. - - PACIFIC RURAL PRESS: Edited by Prof. E. J. Wickson. Published by Dewey - & Co., San Francisco; weekly. It contains in its pages occasional - references to the raisin industry. The issue of Mays, 1877, contained - an article on Huasco Grapes of Chile. - - PALLAS: Voyages dans pl. Provinces de l’Empire de Russie. I, b 13, - “Kyshmish” seedless raisin grapes from Astrachan. - - PIERCE, N. B.: The Mysterious Vine Disease. Essay read before the - State Horticultural Convention in Los Angeles, March, 1890. Published - in _California_, a Journal of Rural Industry, Vol. III. No. 18, pages - 2 and 3, 1890. - - PLINIUS: Historia Naturalis. Lib. xiv cap. iv, _a_, mentions _raisins_ - such as Duracinæ and Amineans; cap. ii, _b_, Muscadella and Apiariæ; - _c_, Corinth grapes. - - RANDOLPH, BERNARD: Present State of Morea, Island of Zante, etc. 1689. - - REPORTS OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF CALIFORNIA: First Raisins - Produced in California. Sacramento, 1863. Page 88. - - REPORTS OF THE STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE OF CALIFORNIA: Biennial - Report for 1885 and 1886; also Appendix for 1887. Sacramento, 1887. - - ---- Third Biennial Report. Sacramento, 1888. - - ---- Official Report of the Tenth Fruit-growers’ Convention of the - State of California, etc. Sacramento, 1889. - - ---- Official Report of the Eleventh Fruit-growers’ Convention, etc. - Sacramento, 1889. - - ---- Annual Report of the State Board of Horticulture. Sacramento, - 1890. - - RICHARDSON, CHARLES: Dictionary of the English Language. 1836. - - ROXAS, DON SIMON: Essai sur les Variétés de Vignes de l’Andalusia. - Gordo Blanco is here designated as the raisin grape of Malaga. - - SCRIBNER, F. LAMSON: Report to the Mycological Section of the - Department of Agriculture. In the Reports of the Department of - Agriculture. Washington, D. C., 1886. - - STEVENS, W. E., United States Consul at Smyrna: Fruit Culture in Asia - Minor. Pages 744 to 748 of United States Consular Reports, No. 41½. - June, 1884. - - STURTEVANT, E. LEWIS: Seedless Fruits. Memoirs Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. - I, No. 4. New York, 1890. - - TABLADO, JOSÉ HIDALGO: Tratato del Cultivo de la Vid, y Modo de - Mejorarla. Madrid, 1873. This, the standard authority on viticulture - in Spanish, refers only briefly to the Gordo Blanco as the raisin - grape of Malaga, and gives as synonyms Muscatel Romano and Muscatel - Real, but the description of the grape is unsatisfactory. - - TAVERNIER, JEAN BAPTISTE: Six Voyages in Turquie, etc. 1676. - - THE CALIFORNIA FRUIT-GROWER: Published by B. N. Rowley, San Francisco; - weekly Horticultural Journal. Contained during 1889 and 1890 several - articles on raisins, among others: White Muscat of Alexandria, in No. - 2, Vol. VI; Statistics of Malaga Raisins; also article on Currants, by - L. C. Crowe, etc. - - VERNGE, F. DE LA: Mémoire sur la Maladie de la Vigne. Bordeaux, 1853. - I Pl. - - WARNER, RICHARD: Antiquitates Culinariæ, 1791. Mentions “The Forme of - Curry,” 1390. a work in which “Raysons of Coraunte” are first - mentioned in English. - - WEST, W. B.: Raisin-making in Spain. First Annual Report of the State - Viticultural Commissioners. San Francisco, 1881. Pages 33 to 39. - - ---- Raisins and Shipping Grapes. Essay read before the Third Annual - State Viticultural Convention in San Francisco, December, 1884. - Published by the San Francisco _Merchant_ in 1884. - - WHEELER, J. H.: Bleaching Seedless Sultana Raisins. Annual Report of - the Board of State Viticultural Commissioners for 1887. Sacramento, - 1888. - - ---- Grafting to Muscats. Appendix 14 to the Annual Report of the - Chief Executive Viticultural Officer for the year 1888. Sacramento, - 1888. Contains reports from forty-eight grape-growers as regards their - views and success with the grafting of muscats. - - WHELER, SIR GEORGE: Journey in Greece. 1682. - - WHITE, T. C.: Raisins--Drying, Packing and Preparing for the Market. - Report of Sixth Annual State Viticultural Convention of California. - Sacramento, 1888. - - WICKSON, E. J.: California Fruits, and How to Grow Them. Dewey & Co., - San Francisco, 1889. This, the standard work on fruit-growing in - California, contains much reliable information about the raisin - industry of California. - - - - -INDEX - - - PAGE - Acarnania 29 - Acres in Raisins 48, 169 - Ætolico 29 - Agrotis 101 - Aidin 31 - Albuñol 12 - Alfilerilla 99 - Algarve 9 - Alicante 10, 15 - Alkali 72 - Andalusia 8, 9 - Antidotes for Alkali 74, 75 - Arabs 22 - Argentine Republic 59 - Argos 29 - Arizona 134 - Armona 214 - Arquimbau, J. D. 21 - Arundo donax 20 - Ash-trough 131 - Assorting 138, 159 - Austin, M. F. 39, 122, 210 - Australia 11, 59 - Australian Salt Bush 74 - Average Price 21 - - Back-furrowing 115 - Bag-holders 157 - Bags 151 - Bairdir 31 - Ball, Frank H. 213, 216 - Barling, A. D. 213, 216 - Baskets 18 - Bearing Quality 79 - Belvidere 9, 10, 36 - Bermuda Grass 74 - Bidwell, Gen. J. 44 - Bittern 73 - Borates 72 - Boxes 156, 180 - Brands of Raisins 15, 51 - Briggs, G. G. 38, 41, 42, 89, 208 - Black Currants 90 - Black-knot 102 - Black Smyrnas 10 - Bleeding 26, 128 - Blowers, R. B. 38, 42, 208, 209 - Bluestone 95 - Butler, A. B. 20, 126, 211, 212, 216 - Butte County 44 - - Calcium Chloride 73 - Calabrian Raisins 9, 10, 36 - California 97 - California Dipped 10, 149 - California Malagas 10 - California Raisin Districts 38 - California Sultanas 10 - California Sun-dried 10, 133 - Cañezos 20 - Canvas Covering 145, 146 - Carabourna 31, 176 - Carbonate of Lime 72, 74 - Care of Currant Cuttings 25, 27 - Care of Vines in Smyrna 32 - Cartoons 156 - Cascalina Currants 30 - Castellon 15 - Castille 8 - Catacolo 30 - Catcher 140 - Caterpillars 100 - Cephalonia 27, 29 - Chains 131 - Chaintre System 127 - Chandler, S. R. 121 - Chapman, W. S. 38 - Chemicals 74 - Chenopodium 74 - Chesme Raisins 10, 31, 34, 176 - Chico 44 - Chile Guano 13 - Chile Raisins 11, 36 - Chios 23 - Choice Layers 15 - Clark, R. G. 39 - Clay for Grafting 26 - Cleaning 137, 160 - Cleats 149 - Climate 12, 17, 30, 37, 40, 41, 48, 56, 60, 67 - Coast Vineyards 66, 67 - College City 44 - Collins, W. E. 48 - Color 79 - Colure 57, 93 - Colusa County 44 - Consumption of Currants 29 - Cooking 18, 139 - Cooper, Ellwood 147 - Copper Sulphate 95 - Corauntz 6 - Corens 6 - Corinth 7, 22 - Corone 29 - Cortez of Cadiz 8 - Corynthe 7 - Cos 31, 67 - Cost of Valencia Raisins 176 - Cost of Vineyards 28, 35, 113 - Cotton Sacks 51 - Covering 123, 145 - Cowdung 27 - Crimea 38 - Crocker-Huffman Reservoir 188 - Crop 40, 42, 47, 50, 54, 169 - Cropping 74 - Cross-plowing 115 - Crow, L. C. 29 - Crusades 11, 23 - Cucamonga 48 - Cullera 15 - Cultivation 115, 131 - Curing 18, 27, 30, 33, 37, 54, 58, 133, 151 - Currants 6, 10, 22, 106, 109, 110, 111, 178 - Cutter-sleds 116, 131 - Cuttings 179 - - Damage to Raisins 61 - Davy, Dr. 61 - Dehesa Raisins 7, 9, 13, 15, 87, 90 - Deilephila 100 - Delano 45 - Delmas, A. and D. M. 38 - Denia 9, 15, 16 - Dibble 130 - Dipped Raisins 6, 10, 19, 33, 149 - Discoloration 139 - Diseases 16, 73, 93 - Disposing of Crop at Denia 20 - Distances of Vines 13, 18, 25, 30, 46, 104 - Dodoens 7 - Double Plow 114 - Dowlen, E. 97 - Downy Mildew 95 - Drainage 84 - Dried Grapes 10 - Dryers 147 - Drying 14, 20, 22, 33, 37, 58, 133, 139, 151 - Drying Floors 14, 146, 147 - Drying in the Shade 10 - Dry Season 60 - Duracinæ 22 - Duty 177, 178 - - Eisen Vineyard 38 - El Cajon 39, 55, 62, 63, 134, 195, 196 - Elche 15 - Elemê Raisins 10 - Elevating the Trays 142 - Equality Price 21 - Equalizing 162 - Erodium 99 - Erythroneura 42, 98 - Escondido 59 - Estremadura 8 - Etiwanda 48, 52 - Exhausting the Soil 76 - Exports 22, 34, 115, 176 - Extent of District 15, 30, 45 - - Facing 157, 160 - Fall Rains 60 - Faro Raisins 10 - Feher Szagos 92 - Fertilizing 75 - Figliatra 29 - Figs 177, 178 - Filling 166 - Finest Dehesa 15 - First Crop 135 - Flat Stacking 143 - Flavor 90 - Flooding 81 - Floreal Vineyard 89 - Fogs 46, 66 - Follower 157 - Foreign Districts 10 - Forsyth, Wm. 39, 212, 216 - Fowler 45, 214 - Frames 156 - Freeman, George A. 89 - Fresno 39, 44, 134, 184, 185, 186, 187 - Frost 63 - Furrowing for Irrigation 82 - - Gandia 16, 22 - Gargaliano 29 - Gastuni 29 - Gila River Valley 59, 134 - Glauber Salt 73 - Goodman, J. T. 39, 88, 211 - Gordo Blanco 13, 45, 50, 87, 88 - Gould, E. 41 - Grading 151, 153, 164 - Grafting 25, 117 - Graham, George 21 - Grasset, St. Sauveur 23 - Grasshoppers 102 - Great Reasons 5 - Grecian Islands 9, 74 - Gridley 44 - Grocers Company 6 - Guadalaviar 18 - Gypsum 73, 75 - - Hakluyt 23, 24 - Happy Valley 44 - Haraszthy, A. 38 - Hardpan Soils 70, 71 - Harkness, W. H. 95, 96, 97 - Harrowing 179 - Health of Vines 79 - Heap, G. H. 34, 67 - Heat for Drying 139 - Highlands 48 - Hilgard, E. W. 216 - Historical 5, 22 - Hoeing 117, 131 - Holland 7, 29 - Huasco Raisins 36, 89 - Hurdles 61 - - Ideal Conditions 67 - Imbat 31 - Imperial Clusters 47 - Imperial Dehesa 15 - Importation 30, 38, 179 - Injury to Raisins 65, 139 - Insect Pests 93 - Ionian Islands 23, 26, 61 - Irrigation 17, 18, 37, 49, 54, 60, 77, 85 - Italian Raisins 36 - Ithaca 24, 29 - - Jabea 16 - Jackson, Byron 150 - Jalon 16 - Jaraco 16 - Jerrea 16 - Jucar River 18 - - Kalamata 29, 30 - Karabournou 31 - Kaweah River 46 - Kells, R. C. 121 - Kern 45, 46, 134 - Kettles 150 - Kyparissia 29 - - Labeling Press 157 - Labels 169 - Labor 15 - Labors of the Year 124 - La Mancha 14, 65 - Land Scraper 105 - Land Plaster 73 - Large Black Raisins 35 - Large Red Raisins 35 - Latitudes 60 - Leaching 73 - Leaf-hopper 42, 57, 98 - Leon 8 - Lepanto 23, 29 - Lerdo 45 - Levante 65 - Lever-press 155 - Lexias 9, 10, 15 - Ligudista 29 - Limits of Raisin Districts 60 - Lipari 9, 22, 36 - Literature 215, 216, 217, 218 - Lithgow 24 - Lixivium 9 - Location 12, 60 - Locke, J. 23 - London Layers 15 - Longevity of Vines 70 - Loose Raisins 21, 158 - Lye 19, 149 - Lye-dipped 9 - Lyeometer 34 - - Machine-dried Raisins 9 - Madeira 94 - Madera 45 - Magnesium Chloride 73 - Malaga 7, 9, 12, 15, 91, 134, 176 - Malaga (Cal.) 45 - Mai Nero 64, 98 - Marking out Vineyard 105 - Manilla Paper 158, 180 - Manuring 13 - Marbella 12 - McPherson Bros. 39, 55 - McPherson, Robert 209 - Mediterranean Basin 11 - Merced 45, 46, 182 - Merino 8 - Mesta 8 - Mildew 93 - Mirabelle Vineyard 30 - Mission Vines 98 - Missolonghi 29 - Modern Raisin District 11 - Modone 29 - Moisture 54, 66 - Morea 23, 27, 29 - Moryson, Fynes 24 - Moors 7, 16, 22 - Moss, Geo. 216 - Murcia 8 - Musca 7 - Muscatels 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 43, 87 - Muscat of Alexandria 16, 50, 57, 87, 88 - Mussel Slough 44 - - Nailing 167 - Nathaligo 24 - Nauplia 29, 30 - Naxos 23 - Neglected Vines 137 - Nice, Climate of 12 - Nisi 29 - Northern Raisin Districts 43 - North, J. W. 39, 52 - - Off-stalk 21 - Oidium 93 - Oleander 214 - Olive Oil 150 - Olivo 16 - Olympia 29 - Ondara 16 - On-stalk 21 - Ontario 48, 52 - Orange County 39, 52, 145, 146, 189 - Orland 44 - - Packing-frames 156 - Packing-house 153, 205, 206, 207, 214 - Packing Raisins 14, 20, 151, 160, 164 - Palermo 44 - Pantellaria 36 - Paper 158 - Pasas 22 - Pasture Lands 8 - Patras 24, 29 - Pedreguer 16 - Pergos 29 - Peronospora 95 - Petrasso 24 - Philampelus 100 - Phœnician 16 - Pickers 137 - Picking 135, 180 - Pierce, N. B. 97 - Placer County 43 - Planting 18, 25, 41, 53, 104 - Planting-bar 88, 130 - Plowing 114 - Plows 131 - Portugal 15 - Powdery Mildew 93 - Preparing Land 25 - Presses 155 - Prices 34, 38 52, 58, 115, 170, 179 - Prodenia 101 - Production 22, 34 - Profits 51, 55, 53 - Pruning 13, 18, 26, 47, 124, 128, 131, 180 - Pupæ 100 - Pylia 30 - Pylos 29 - - Quality of Raisins 18, 57, 79 - - Racemus 5 - Radiator 147 - Rain 12, 32, 55, 61 - Raisin Districts 10 - Raisin Grapes 87 - Raisin Packers 214 - Raisins 5 - Raisins, Import of 178 - Raisin Vineyards 30, 38, 104 - Raysins of Corauntz 23 - Reasons 5 - Red Currants 91 - Redding 44 - Redlands 48, 202, 203, 204 - Red Raisins 176, 177 - Red Spider 100 - Retoria 16 - Reversing 141 - Reysin 5 - Ringing the Branches 27, 123 - Rinsing 150 - Ripeness 135 - Ripening 31, 33, 50 - Riverside 39, 48, 134, 199, 200, 201 - Roberts, Lewis 22 - Ronda 12 - Roof-stacking 143 - Rooted Vines 106, 112, 179 - Root-pruning 129 - Rosedale 45 - Rosine 5 - Ross, Newton 51 - Rotterdam Colony 182 - Royal, Finest Dehesa 15 - - Saccharine 134 - Salt 73 - Salt River Valley 134 - Samos 31 - San Bernardino 39, 48 - San Diego 55, 192 - Sandy Soils 70 - Sanger 45 - San Joaquin Valley 44, 181 - Santa Ana 14, 52, 55, 134, 145, 190 - Santa Maura 24, 29 - Scalding 19 - Scales 154 - Seabreezes 31 - Secadero 19 - Second Crop 136 - Seedless Grapes 9, 90 - Seepage 84 - Selma 45, 214 - Sequero 14 - Shasta County 44 - Sheep’s-foot 88, 130 - Slanting the Trays 142 - Smirna 9 - Smyrna Raisins 10, 30, 176 - Soils 12, 16, 25, 37, 41, 45, 49, 53, 56, 60, 67, 68, 69, 70 - Solano 41 - Solis 9, 10 - Spades 131 - Spring Frost 64 - Spring Rain 60, 62 - Stabler, B. G. 89 - Stacking 142, 144 - Stanchio 31 - Stationers Company 6 - Statistics 169 - Stems 136 - Stemming 151, 154, 158, 180 - Stevens, W. E. 32, 35, 61 - Stock for Grafting 121 - Strentzel, Dr. J. 138 - Subirrigation 83 - Subsoil 70 - Suckering 129 - Sulphates 73 - Sulphuring 47, 121, 131, 180 - Sultana Raisins 6, 9, 10, 45, 135, 177 - Summer Pruning 128 - Sun-dried Raisins 9, 10 - Surface Water 48 - Sutro, Adolph 216 - Sutro Library 216 - Sutter County 43 - Sweatboxes 148, 180 - Sweat-house 153 - Sweating 162 - Sweetwater Valley 55, 59 - - Taking-up 143 - Tehama County 44 - Temperature 31, 48 - Terral 18 - Thermalito 44 - Thinning the Grapes 123 - Thompson Seedless 10, 43, 91 - Tin Boxes 158 - Tools 106, 130 - Tray-catcher 140 - Trays 20, 148, 156, 157 - Trieste 29 - Trifylla 30 - Trimming 167 - Trucks 131, 137, 157, 160 - Tulare 45, 214 - Turkish Raisins 92 - Turning 140, 180 - Tying-over 122 - Tyra 31 - - Uncinula 93, 94 - Uva Alexandria 11 - Uva Apiariæ 7, 11 - Uva Muscæ 11 - Uva Passa 26 - Uva Zibeba 11 - - Valencia raisins 9, 10, 15, 21, 175, 176 - Varieties of Grapes 13, 35, 37 - Velez Malaga 8 - Venetians 6 - Vergel 16 - Villa Joyosa 15 - Vine Plague 96 - Vostizza 24, 29 - Vourla 31, 176 - - Ward, C. T. 89 - Weed-cutter 116 - Weeks, George F. 216 - Weighing 164 - West, W. B. 216 - White Corinths 45, 91 - White, T. C. 38, 122, 156, 209, 210, 216 - Wickson, E. J. 216 - Winds 65 - World’s Production 177 - - Yerly 31, 176 - Yield 13, 55 - Yolo 41 - Yuba 43 - - Zante 23, 29 - Zea 67 - - - - -Additional Notes for 1890. - - -The first crop suffered considerably from mildew and climatic conditions -unfavorable to the setting of the grapes. The second crop, however, is -large and very good, and altogether the yield is a satisfactory one. The -prices have ruled higher than before and raisins in sweatboxes have been -contracted for readily at from 5½ to 6½ cents per pound or even higher. -Wine grapes dried here sold for 3 to 4 cents per pound, and Malaga and -Feherszagos raisins have brought from 4 to 5 cents. No such prosperous -year has before been experienced by the raisin men of this State, and -reports come in that many growers are realizing from $250 to $450 per -acre from vines in full bearing. - -The weather all through the summer has been unusually temperate and thus -very favorable to the full development of the grapes, and so far the -drying weather has been very favorable for the proper curing of the -raisins. Many new packing houses have been established, and the crop is -being better cared for than in previous years. The health and general -condition of the vines is better than it was last year and the vine -plague is less virulent, and according to some reports even on the -retrograde. The demand for the raisin product has never been as large as -now and there will apparently be no surplus left over, as the demand is -rapidly increasing. The above refers especially to the central part of -the State, to Merced, Fresno, Tulare and Kern counties, where the -prosperous season will encourage increased planting. In Southern -California the crop will be fair both in quality and quantity. In El -Cajon valley it is reported as very good, and as being one-half larger -than last year. Prices here ruled to begin with at from 4½ to 5 cents -but rose rapidly to 5½ and 6 cents in sweatboxes. - -The duty on raisins has this fall been raised from 2 cents to 2½ cents -per pound, which insures an additional profit to the raisin men. - - * * * * * - - -_Rain-fall of 1889-90._--The rain-fall of 1889-90 in the Central and -Northern raisin districts of California was as follows: - - ======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====== - |Oct.|Nov.|Dec.|Jan.|Feb.|Mar.|Apr.|May.|Total. - ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+------ - Fresno|3.10|1.43|3.80|2.16| .65| .92| .29| .25|12.60 - Tulare|4.17| .43|2.60|2.75| .74| .81| .22| .20|11.92 - Kern |2.04| .22|1.75|1.20| .16| .24| | .06| 5.67 - Yolo |8.14|3.04|9.62|6.36|3.69|3.35|1.60|2.21|37.41 - Yuba |5.87|3.73|9.01|4.44|4.65|6.71|1.85|2.55|38.81 - ======+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====== - -The above figures are from the “tables of rainfall in the principal -agricultural counties” of California, compiled and published by Albert -Montpelier, Esq., Manager of the Grangers’ Bank, San Francisco, but no -report is made of the rain-fall in the counties of San Bernardino and -San Diego, and statistics of those counties are not at hand. - - * * * * * - - -_Duty on Raisins._--The revised tariff of 1890 makes the duty on -imported raisins 2½ cents per pound, an increase of ½ cent on the old -schedule. Currants, Zante and others, are now on the free list and pay -no duty. - - - - - ~RAISIN BOXES, RAISIN TRAYS, SWEAT BOXES.~ - - KINGS RIVER LUMBER CO., - - SANGER, FRESNO COUNTY, CAL. - - San Francisco Office, 109 California St., San Francisco, California. - - Manufacturer of and Wholesale and Retail Dealer in all kinds of - - Lumber, Boxes, Doors, Sash, Blinds and Mouldings. - - This Company has at Sanger the best appointed Box Factory, Door, Sash - and Blind Factory and Planing Mill in the State. - - Special Mill Work of all kinds Estimated on and Furnished. - - [Illustration: BOXES] - - ALL KINDS OF BOXES MANUFACTURED AND IN ANY QUANTITY RAISIN AND ORANGE - BOXES A SPECIALTY. - - This Company manufactures, at its works at Sanger, Raisin Boxes of all - sizes from the very best of Sugar Pine, cut from its own lands, which - for quality of material, perfection of workmanship and printing have - no equal. - - THE COMPANY HAS AT ALL TIMES IN STOCK AND FOR SALE - - LUMBER OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS, GRAPE STICKS, POSTS, SHINGLES, SHAKES, - PICKETS AND LATH. - - ORDERS SOLICITED AND PROMPTLY EXECUTED. - - * * * * * - - - [Illustration: WATER TOWER AT LAKE YOSEMITE.] - - YOSEMITE COLONY. - - This Colony is two miles from Merced City, California. Merced, from - its fine fountains, is now known as “The Fountain City.” It is the - county seat of Merced County. The Southern Pacific Railroad, a - transcontinental line, passes through this place, from San Francisco - to New York. The Oakdale Line from the north also starts from Merced - City, giving direct communication by rail with Sacramento Valley, - Oregon, Washington, and all points north. Merced City is the nearest - point in the San Joaquin Valley to the great Yosemite Park, and - commands the only passable railroad route to this “World’s Greatest - Wonder.” Merced City also lies in a direct line from Yosemite, through - Pacheco Pass, in the Coast Range, to Del Monte, on the Bay of - Monterey. These great natural advantages are now being developed on a - scale commensurate with nature’s own great gifts. The largest and most - costly irrigating canal in the United States has been completed, and - is now discharging the crystal snow waters, fresh from the Yosemite - Falls, into Lake Yosemite, one mile from this colony. Thus we find - ourselves in the possession of a combination of nature and art, which - present advantages in climate, health, water privileges, wealth of - soil and their productions which are not as fully possessed by any - other locality in California. And, as an enduring crown to our - prosperity, we point to the late Act of Congress of the United States - in setting apart the Yosemite Park, with her giant Sequoia and - sugar-pine forests, insuring and perpetuating the annual snow and rain - on the watershed of our canal system. The Yosemite Colony contains - about 5,000 acres, and is beautifully situated by the side of Lake - Yosemite, and bounded on the north by the fine Colony of Rotterdam. - “The Yosemite” was the first colony subdivided and placed on the - market after the perfection of our irrigating system, two years ago; - and a large main ditch was then brought by the proprietor from Lake - Yosemite to and through these lands. Young Orange Groves, Almonds, - Prunes and Apricots, Figs, Pomegranates, Peaches, etc., etc., have - already been planted; also several fine young Raisin Vineyards, of - only two years’ growth, which this autumn produced raisins of the most - superior quality. The soil is from four to twelve feet in depth, with - under strata of heavy, rich clay, which will always insure an - abundance of moisture, when with proper irrigation. These lands are - all free from alkali, and about one-half of them situated on the rich, - alluvial plain; the other half are gently rolling, and extend into the - red gravelly soils, so much prized for Olives, Oranges, Lemons, Wine - Grapes and Strawberries, while the lower levels are especially prized - for the famous Muscat Raisin Grape, as well as for the Prune, Almond, - Pear, Apricot, Alfalfa and Vegetables. Merced City, situated one - hundred and fifty miles from San Francisco by rail,--one hundred miles - from the coast,--in the center of the San Joaquin Valley, is also the - exact geographical center of the State--north, south, east and west. - - We are not offering you land that has not been thoroughly tested to - produce what we advertise. Neither are we offering you hog wallows, - salt grass and alkali flats; but we offer you a block out of one of - the richest fields of California. As to health, we challenge the whole - world to surpass us. Our locality is free from malaria; and fogs in - summer and autumn are unknown in this dry and equable climate. Not - only is our locality free from fog, and fanned by the gentle - invigorating sea-breezes from the south and southwest, but we are - protected from the harsh, desiccating northwest winds, offering a - retreat to the weak and ailing; and its rich and attractive location - contributes greatly to its charms. - - For scenic beauty it has but few, if any, superiors in California. - Standing at the lake, or on any other elevated point on the Colony, a - most inspiring panorama is presented to the eye. The vision reaches - one hundred and fifty miles south and east, and takes in the ever - snow-capped Sierra Nevada; thence south and southwest we follow the - long blue line of the Coast Range to the Mt. Diablo, one hundred and - thirty miles to the northwest, in the vicinity of San Francisco. - Looking to the north and east, you see looming up the grand Sierra - Nevada, with its mantles of perpetual snow, seemingly so near in the - pure air that, although it is one hundred miles to the summit, - strangers are almost tempted to quit the green colony fields and visit - them as an afternoon stroll. - - A fine school-house has been erected on the Colony, at a cost of - $5,000, and is now in good working order. Trees of one and two years’ - growth border most of the avenues, including Palms, Locust, Olive, - Magnolia, Eucalyptus, Mulberry, etc., etc. - - Under our irrigation system the owner of the land purchases water from - the Canal Company which is filed in the County Recorder’s books, and - is then inseparable from the land, and is always conveyed as a part of - the realty. - - We now offer you this land, together with perpetual water-right, at - from $150 to $200 per acre, according to quality and location. No land - will be deeded to any persons except actual settlers. As inducements - to families, we will plow and prepare the land ready for planting, as - our aim is to settle these lands with families. Payments may be made - in installments to suit purchasers. We make the following liberal - offer to those who do not feel able to pay cash for the land: The - purchaser is to build and occupy a neat and substantial cottage; also - build all needed outhouses, paint or whitewash the same, and plant the - land to such trees and fruits as may be agreed to be the best. This - done the first payment will be deferred for five years, one-quarter to - be paid annually thereafter. Said sum agreed to be paid to bear eight - per cent interest per annum from date of sale. Deed will be given - purchaser when he builds and plants, and the purchase price secured by - mortgage on the premises. A family with from $1,500 to $2,000 to make - their improvements can settle down and safely wait until their fruits - or raisin vineyard come into bearing. The whole purchase price should - be produced from the lands the fifth year. - - For those who have not experience, or are desirous of avoiding the - expense of team and tools, we will plant, cultivate, irrigate and care - for their orchard and vineyard until it comes into bearing. It will be - worth about $25 per acre to furnish and plant the first year, and $10 - to $15 per acre each year thereafter. The above figures mean - compensation for good, first-class work. - - We have already some fine planted tracts for sale, embracing Raisin - Vineyards, that will come into bearing next year (1891), also young - Orange Groves, as well as deciduous Fruit Orchards. We also aim to - keep a vacant cottage on the Colony, for the accommodation of each - newcomer until such time as he can build on a lot of his own choice. - Deciduous Fruit Trees can be planted commencing January 1st, and as - late as the 1st of April. Orange Trees in March and April. Grape - vines, rooted or cuttings, should be planted in February or March. - Peaches and Apricots will bear light crops the third year. Pears, - Almonds, Figs and Oranges will begin to bear the fourth year. Raisins - begin to bear, from the cuttings, in the third year. One year’s time - is gained by planting rooted vines. It is safe to expect $50 per acre - the third year from rooted vines, and $100 per acre the fourth year, - at least, gross product. A respectable cottage should be built, with - from four to five rooms, at a cost of from $500 to $800; barn, $200. - One pair of horses and harness, $150; milch cow, $25; tools, $25; wood - is high, $7 per cord; flour, $3 to $4 per barrel of 200 lbs.; beef, - from 6 cts. to 10 cts. per lb.; hens, from $5 to $7 per dozen; eggs, - from 25 cts. to 50 cts. per dozen; building lumber, $25 per M. in the - valley or farming sections of the State. Male labor on the farm, $30 - per month, except four or five months in the summer, when they receive - $1.50 to $2 per day. Female labor has never been ample, and commands - from $20 to $30 per month. Families coming out here can bring with - profit all clothing, bed-clothing, table cutlery and such articles as - would not be bulky. Large furniture or farming implements will not - bear transportation. - - The very favorable conditions existing for small farming in this rich - valley of California, where water can be obtained to render crops - certain, are not generally known in the East and Europe. For instance, - our breadstuffs (wheat) must be shipped around Cape Horn to Liverpool - to find a market. Beef and pork the same. Our wool also has to go - around the Horn or across the Continent. The consequence is that the - fruit farmer eats the cheapest bread and beefsteak of any people in - the world. Our woolen mills are able to furnish the finest and - cheapest clothing worn. Labor is high, and everything the small farmer - produces is high, including poultry, vegetables and fruit, and will - always be so. The big farmer can’t get at this business with his steam - engine and long sickle. We can close Europe and the United States out - of the fruit-producing business, and force them to become consumers. - Why? Because of the certainty of our crops, and because we have the - whole valley for a drying house. - - Address or call upon the undersigned, owners and proprietors, - - V. C. W. HOOPER &. SON, - - MERCED, MERCED COUNTY, CALIFORNIA. - - * * * * * - - - EISEN & STEWART, - - Real Estate and Horticultural Land Brokers, - - * DELANO, * - - KERN COUNTY, ---- CALIFORNIA. - - ~We make horticultural lands a specialty, and offer special bargains - in the Kern and Tulare Irrigation District, and in the Poso Irrigation - District. These lands are suited to Olives, Raisins, Oranges, other - fruits and alfalfa. They are now cheap, but will soon rise in value, - and become as high priced as any in the State.~ - - ~We also attend to the business of absent owners, and we guarantee - satisfaction.~ - - ~_Correspondence solicited._~ - - * * * * * - - - THE - - YOST WRITING MACHINE - - Acknowledged by Experts to be The Best. - - ~THE YOST is full of New and Valuable Improvements, and is guaranteed - to do as represented~. - - FOR CATALOGUES, TESTIMONIALS, ETC., SEND TO - - J. P. MIGHELL & CO. - - 413 MONTGOMERY STREET - - SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. - - * * * * * - - - Thompson’s Seedless Grape - - MAKES ABSOLUTELY - - SEEDLESS RAISINS - - The very best for Culinary Use! - - This Grape has been thoroughly tested in California, having been grown - and raisins made of it, in Sutter County, for the past fifteen years. - - It is far superior to the Sultana, being much sweeter, a heavier - cropper, more easily dried, and ripens earlier. - - For rooted vines, guaranteed true to name, address, - - B. G. STABLER, - - YUBA CITY, - - Sutter County, California. - - Prices reasonable; given on application for both one and two-year old - rooted vines. Will also send _sample of raisins, if desired_. - - * * * * * - - Described by Prof. Eisen. - - In a communication to _California_, a Journal of Rural Industry, May - No., 1890, entitled “With the Fruit Growers in Sutter County,” Prof. - Eisen thus refers to Mr. Stabler, and his work: “Mr. B. G. Stabler - makes a specialty of dried peaches and seedless raisins, and has - succeeded well with both. The principal raisin-grape of this vicinity - is the little-known seedless grape, Lady Decoverly, here known as the - Thompson Seedless, he being the first to grow it. Years ago, about - 1872, this gentleman saw advertised in an Eastern Catalogue a seedless - grape, said to come from Constantinople, and was called the Lady - Decoverly. It proved to be very different from the common Sultana, - being of yellow color, and of oblong shape. It is certainly strange - that this singular variety of grape should have existed here so many - years, and failed to attract general attention. It is an enormous - bearer, heavier even than the Sultana, and ripens early in August. It - makes very choice raisins for cooking purposes. The color is similar - to that of the Muscatel, and makes a raisin of beautiful color. Among - other novelties in the way of fruit, Mr. Stabler has a Chance Seedling - Apricot, which promises to be something extraordinary. It is not yet - in bearing, * * * but think of apricot leaves six inches in diameter, - and limbs many times as long and strong as those of ordinary apricot - trees,” etc. - - * * * * * - - - FRESNO AND MERCED - - COUNTY LANDS - - TO RENT AND FOR SALE. - - 75,000 ACRES OF WHEAT AND SUGAR-BEET LAND in the above counties to - rent for a term of years; also =100,000 acres= of fine Raisin, Fruit, - Alfalfa and Sugar-Beet Land, with water for irrigation, for sale in - tracts of from twenty acres to large tracts suitable for colony - purposes. - - For particulars apply to - - E. B. PERRIN, - - 402 Kearny Street, - - SAN FRANCISCO. - - * * * * * - - - FRESNO AGRICULTURAL WORKS - - [Illustration] - - MANUFACTURERS OF - - Raisin · · - - Machinery; - - All KINDS OF - - Vineyard Tools - - LEVELING and - CANAL SCRAPERS. - - SEND FOR - - Descriptive - - Catalogue. - - ADDRESS, - - JAMES PORTEOUS, FRESNO, CAL. - - * * * * * - - - GUSTAV EISEN, - - HORTICULTURAL LAND AND RAISIN EXPERT. - - I have had twenty years of experience in fruit growing, raisin-grape - growing, raisin making, and in other horticultural industries, in - California, Central America, Mexico and Europe. I make it a specialty - to assist and advise those engaged in horticultural pursuits. Whether - you wish to select land or plant it to vines and trees, whether you - are a capitalist, the member of a syndicate or a farmer, my services - will be a thousand times more valuable to you than the reasonable - charge I make for them. If you are not acquainted with land, soil, - climate or the profits of the horticultural industry you intend to - engage in, you will find it to your advantage to engage me to make you - thorough and truthful reports. - - All matters strictly confidential and charges reasonable. - - Address, - - =GUSTAV EISEN=, - - CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, - - ~_San Francisco._~ - - * * * * * - - - YOSEMITE | ILLUSTRATED IN - | COLORS - - PUBLISHED BY - - H. S. CROCKER & COMPANY - - 215 BUSH STREET, SAN FRANCISCO - - _THE FINEST | _It has no rival. Each book is wrapped in heavy - | paper and enclosed in a specially made box, suitable - HOLIDAY GIFT_ | for presentation to friends. For shipment East, we - provide an extra heavy box. Size of book, 12 x 16 inches._ - - Full Morocco, or Undressed Kid $15.00 - Half Undressed Kid 12.50 - Full Cloth, elegant paper edges 11.00 - - * * * * * - - - H.S. CROCKER | 215, 217, 219 - | BUSH STREET - & COMPANY | SAN FRANCISCO - - Wholesale Stationers - Printers, Lithographers and Bookbinders - - A FULL AND ELEGANT LINE OF - - FRUIT AND RAISIN LABELS AND PAPERS ALWAYS ON HAND - - _OUR SPECIALTIES ARE_ - - _Incorporation Outfits_ _Bank Supplies_ _Copperplate Engraving_ - _Map and Pamphlet Printing_ _of Visiting-Cards and_ - _Stationery Outfits_ _Wedding Invitations_ - - CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED - - * * * * * - - - THE FRUIT REGION OF MERCED. - - The fruit lands now offered for settlement by the Crocker Land and - Water Company are situated in the very center of California. Besides - being so favorably located, they offer advantages which are not - possessed by any other lands in the State. The fifty-five thousand - acres, which are now for the first time subdivided, consist of virgin - pasture and wheat lands, which have become too valuable to be devoted - to their former use. They are now being irrigated by the most - expensive and magnificent irrigation system on the continent, by a - canal capable of carrying 4,000 cubic feet of water per second, and by - the artificial lake Yosemite, the most extensive irrigation reservoir - ever built in America. The water from this system is abundant and - continuous; it comes from the snow-capped Sierra, from the Falls of - the Yosemite, and will suffice to irrigate and fertilize hundreds of - thousands of acres more than are offered for sale. - - These fruit and horticultural lands are situated in the warm belt of - the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, protected by sheltering hills, - traversed by natural creeks and surrounded by the grandest scenery - known to man. The famous Yosemite is almost within sight, and the - high-peaked Sierra can be reached in a day’s journey. The Coast Range, - with Mt. Diablo, is in full view, while the fresh breezes from the San - Pablo Bay temper the climate, and contribute to make it one of the - finest, most salubrious and most enjoyable in the world. Through the - irrigation water always at the command of the horticulturist, our - lands are being transformed into beautiful orchards, vineyards and - meadows. The peach, the prune, the apricot, the pear and the - raisin-grape are made to flourish, and the olive to produce its - valuable oil, the orange and the lemon their golden fruit. The - colonies already established are situated in the thermal belt of the - Sierra, in the finest citrus region of the State, in a district equal - to the best anywhere, and in a territory remarkable for its earliness - and productiveness. Every variety of temperate and semi-tropical fruit - is now growing within sight of the colonies,--the almond, the olive - and orange upon the more elevated land; the peach, the prune, the - apricot, the pear and the raisin-grape upon that of a more alluvial - nature. The Rotterdam Colony contains now over a hundred settlers from - Holland; other colonies are being established by English and American - farmers, by doctors, lawyers and professional men of every station in - life. The people whom we invite, and who have responded to our call, - are the most desirable, the most intelligent, the most energetic and - the most refined classes. They are now building up horticultural - communities of the most prosperous nature. - - The lands we offer are situated six hours by railroad from San - Francisco. They are traversed by two railroads, and the principal - colony is only four miles from Merced City, the county seat, while - some of our land joins, and actually surrounds, that town. Our prices - are low, and our terms very reasonable. We offer various grades of - land, all eminently suitable for the highest state of horticulture, at - prices ranging from $75 to $175 per acre, with water. - - For particulars address the - - Crocker-Huffman Land and Water Company, - - MERCED, - - Merced County, Cal. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - - Inconsistent and unusual spelling, hyphenation and capitalisation have - been retained, unless mentioned below; this also applies to - non-English words and phrases. - - Robert McPherson and Robert MacPherson are presumably the same person. - - Page 29, table: the data given do not add up to the totals given. - - Page 216, Audibert: the full title is L’Art de faire le vin avec les - raisins secs. - - - Changes made: - - Some minor punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected - silently. - - Footnotes have been moved to directly under the paragraph where they - are referenced. - - Several tables have been split or otherwise re-arranged to fit the - available width. - - Page ii The Raisin Grapes moved up one level as in text; - Page 6 Venitians changed to Venetians; _Dipped and Sultana_ changed - to _Dipped_ and _Sultana_; - Page 7 Dodoen’s changed to Dodoens’s; - Page 10 elemes changed to elemês; Pantallaria changed to - Pantellaria; - Page 15 known as Velencias changed to known as Valencias; - Page 26 Ionion Islands changed to Ionian Islands; - Page 31 Stan-chio changed to Stanchio; - Page 96, illustration caption: _c._ changed to _b._; its Tuberous - Mycelium changed to their Tuberous Mycelium; - Page 119 illustration captions combined into single caption; - Page 133 as high-grade raisins changed to as many high-grade raisins; - Page 182 about a feet deep changed to about a foot deep; - Page 205 Shacht changed to Schacht; - Page 214 table row Mau, Sadler & Co. moved to before Miller, James; - Schact changed to Schacht; - Page 217 Grasset de Saint Sauveur, Jacque changed to Grasset de Saint - Sauveur, Jacques; Noveau Duhamel On Traité des Arbres ... - changed to Nouveau Duhamel ou Traité des Arbres ...; Rambert - changed to Rembert; - Page 218 varietés changed to variétés; - Page 219 Aetolico changed to Ætolico; Albunol changed to - Albuñol; Cascalira changed to Cascalina; Cooper, Elwood - changed to Cooper, Ellwood; - Page 220 Crocker-Hoffman Reservoir changed to Crocker-Huffman - Reservoir; Eleme changed to Elemê; Gargalino changed - to Gargaliano; - Page 222 Sweat-boxes changed to Sweatboxes; Entry Quality of Raisins - moved to before Racemus; - Index some page numbers have been corrected. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Raisin Industry, by Gustav Eisen - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RAISIN INDUSTRY *** - -***** This file should be named 54790-0.txt or 54790-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/7/9/54790/ - -Produced by MWS, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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