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- } - - table {width: 100%; max-width: 100%;} - - .tdl { - padding-left: 1em; - text-indent: -1em; - padding-right: 0; - } - -} - -@media handheld -{ - body {margin: 0;} - - hr { - margin-top: .1em; - margin-bottom: .1em; - visibility: hidden; - color: white; - width: .01em; - display: none; - } - - blockquote {margin: 1.5em 3% 1.5em 3%;} - - .caption.floatl {text-align: left; float: none;} - .caption.floatr {text-align: right; float: none;} - - .poem-container {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%;} - .poem {display: block;} - .poem .stanza {page-break-inside: avoid;} - - .hang {margin: .5em 3% 2em 3%;} - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } -} - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Balloons, Airships, and Flying Machines, by -Gertrude Bacon - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Balloons, Airships, and Flying Machines - -Author: Gertrude Bacon - -Release Date: May 27, 2017 [EBook #54799] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BALLOONS, AIRSHIPS, FLYING MACHINES *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p class="p4 center vspace larger">THE<br /> - -<span class="large"><span class="smcap">Practical Science Series</span></span></p> - -<p class="p1 center"><i>The following Vols. are now ready or in the Press</i>:—</p> - -<blockquote class="hang"> - -<p>BALLOONS, AIRSHIPS, AND FLYING MACHINES. -By <span class="smcap">Gertrude Bacon</span>.</p> - -<p>MOTORS AND MOTORING. By Professor <span class="smcap">Harry -Spooner</span>.</p> - -<p>RADIUM. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Hampson</span>.</p> - -<p>METEOROLOGY; or, <span class="smcap">Weather Explained</span>. By <span class="smcap">J. -Gordon M‘Pherson</span>, M.A., LL.D.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="p2 center"><i>Others in Preparation</i></p> - -<div id="if_i_004" class="newpage p4 figcenter" style="max-width: 21.5625em;"> - <img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="345" height="481" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Authoress, her Father, and Mr. Spencer<br /> - making an Ascent.</span></p></div> - <div class="captionr"><p><i>Frontispiece.</i></p></div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<h1> -BALLOONS<br /> -AIRSHIPS <span class="smaller">AND</span> FLYING<br /> -MACHINES</h1> - -<p class="p2 center larger vspace wspace"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> -GERTRUDE BACON</p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace wspace">NEW YORK<br /> -DODD, MEAD & COMPANY<br /> -LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK<br /> -<span class="smaller">1905</span> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr nopad">CHAP.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr nopad">PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE ORIGIN OF BALLOONING</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">9</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE COMING OF THE GAS BALLOON</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">23</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">FAMOUS BALLOON VOYAGES OF THE PAST</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">38</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE BALLOON AS A SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">57</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE BALLOON IN WARFARE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">69</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE AIRSHIP</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">84</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE FLYING MACHINE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">105</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">CONCLUSION</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">119</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">9</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><span class="larger wspace vspace">BALLOONS, AIRSHIPS, AND<br /> -FLYING MACHINES</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE ORIGIN OF BALLOONING</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>One November night in the year 1782, so the -story runs, two brothers sat over their winter -fire in the little French town of Annonay, -watching the grey smoke-wreaths from the -hearth curl up the wide chimney. Their names -were Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, they -were papermakers by trade, and were noted -as possessing thoughtful minds and a deep -interest in all scientific knowledge and new -discovery. Before that night—a memorable -night, as it was to prove—hundreds of -millions of people had watched the rising -smoke-wreaths of their fires without drawing -any special inspiration from the fact; but -on this particular occasion, as Stephen, the -younger of the brothers, sat and gazed at the -familiar sight, the question flashed across his -mind, “What is the hidden power that makes -those curling smoke-wreaths rise upwards, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">10</a></span> -could I not employ it to make other things -rise also?”</p> - -<div id="ip_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;"> - <img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="288" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Medallion showing Brothers Montgolfier.</span></div></div> - -<p>Then and there the brothers resolved on an -experiment. They made themselves a small -fire of some light fuel in a little tin tray or -chafing-dish, and over the smoke of it they -held a large paper-bag. And to their delight -they saw the bag fill out and make a feeble<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">11</a></span> -attempt to rise. They were surely on the -eve of some great invention; and yet, try as -they would, their experiment would not quite -succeed, because the smoke in the bag always -became too cool before there was enough in it -to raise it from the table. But presently, -while they were thus engaged, a neighbour of -theirs, a widow lady, alarmed by seeing smoke -issuing from their window, entered the room, -and after watching their fruitless efforts for -some while, suggested that they should fasten -the tray on to the bottom of the bag. This -was done, with the happy result that the bag -immediately rose up to the ceiling; and in -this humble fashion the first of all balloons -sailed aloft.</p> - -<p>That night of 1782, therefore, marks the first -great step ever made towards the conquest of -the sky. But to better understand the history -of “Aeronautics”—a word that means “the -sailing of the air”—we must go back far beyond -the days of the Montgolfier brothers. -For in all times and in all ages men have -wanted to fly. David wished for the wings -of a dove to fly away and be at rest, and since -his time, and before it, how many have not -longed to take flight and sail away in the -boundless, glorious realms above, to explore -the fleecy clouds, and to float free in the blue -vault of heaven.</p> - -<p>And since birds achieve this feat by means -of wings, man’s first idea was to provide himself<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">12</a></span> -with wings also. But here he was at once -doomed to disappointment. It is very certain -that by his own natural strength alone a man -will never propel himself through the air with -wings like a bird, because he is made quite -differently. A bird’s body is very light compared -with its size. The largest birds in -existence weigh under thirty pounds. A -man’s body, on the contrary, is very heavy -and solid. The muscles that work a bird’s -wing are wonderfully powerful and strong, far -stronger in proportion than the muscles of a -man’s arm. To sustain his great weight in -the air, a man of eleven stone would require a -pair of wings nearly twenty feet in span. -But the possession of such mighty wings -alone is not enough. He must also possess -bodily strength to keep them in sufficient -motion to prevent him from falling, and for -this he would require at least the strength of -a horse.</p> - -<p>Such strength a man has never possessed, or -can ever hope to; but even as it is, by long -practice and great effort, men have succeeded -at different times, not exactly in flying, but -in helping themselves along considerably by -means of wings. A man is said to have flown -in this way in Rome in the days of Nero. A -monk in the Middle Ages, named Elmerus, -it is stated, flew about a furlong from the top -of a tower in Spain, another from St. Mark’s -steeple in Venice, and another from Nuremburg.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">13</a></span> -But the most successful attempt ever -made in this direction was accomplished about -200 years ago by a French locksmith of the -name of Besnier. He had made for himself a -pair of light wooden oars, shaped like the -double paddle of a canoe, with cup-like blades -at either end. These he placed over his -shoulders, and attached also to his feet, and -then casting himself off from some high place, -and violently working his arms and legs so as -to buffet the air downwards with his paddles, -he was able to raise himself by short stages -from one height to another, or skim lightly -over a field or river. It is said that subsequently -Besnier sold his oars to a mountebank, -who performed most successfully with them -at fairs and festivals.</p> - -<div id="ip_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18.8125em;"> - <img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="301" height="174" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Besnier and his Oars.</span></div></div> - -<p>But it was soon clear that the art of human<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">14</a></span> -flight was not to be achieved by such means; -and when men found that they were unable to -soar upwards by their own bodily strength -alone, they set about devising some apparatus -or machine which should carry them aloft. -Many ancient philosophers bent their minds -to the inventing of a machine for this purpose. -One suggested that strong flying birds, such -as eagles or vultures, might be harnessed to -a car, and trained to carry it into the sky. -Another gravely proposed the employment of -“a little imp”—for in those days the existence -of imps and demons was most firmly believed -in. A third even went so far as to give an -actual <em>recipe</em> for flying, declaring that “if the -eggs of the larger description of swans, or -leather balls stitched with fine thongs, be filled -with nitre, the purest sulphur, quicksilver, -or kindred materials which rarefy by their -caloric energy, and if they externally resemble -pigeons, they will easily be mistaken for flying -animals.” (!)</p> - -<p>The first man who appeared to have any -inkling of the real way of solving the problem -of a “flying chariot,” and who in dim fashion -seems to have foreshadowed the invention of -the balloon, was that wonderful genius, Roger -Bacon, the Learned Friar of Ilchester, the -inventor or re-inventor of gunpowder, who -lived in the thirteenth century. He had an -idea—an idea which was far ahead of his -times, and only proved to be true hundreds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">15</a></span> -of years after—that the earth’s atmosphere -was an actual substance or “true fluid,” and -as such he supposed it to have an upper -surface as the sea has, and on this upper surface -he thought an airship might float, even -as a boat floats on the top of the water. -And to make his airship rise upwards to -reach this upper sea, he said one must employ -“a large hollow globe of copper or other -similar metal wrought extremely thin, to have -it as light as possible, and filled with <em>ethereal -air</em> or liquid fire.”</p> - -<p>It is doubtful whether Bacon had very clear -ideas of what he meant by “ethereal air.” -But, whether by accident or insight, he had in -these words hit upon the true principle of the -balloon—a principle only put into practice five -centuries later. He saw that a body would -rise upwards through the air if it were filled -with something lighter than air, even as a -body will rise upwards through the water if it -is made of, or filled with, something lighter -than water. We know that if we throw an -empty bottle tightly corked into the sea it -does not sink, but rises upwards, because it is -filled with air, which is lighter than water. -In the same way exactly a light bag or balloon -which is filled with some gas which is lighter -than air will not stay on the surface of the -ground, but will rise upwards into the sky to -a height which depends upon its weight and -buoyancy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">16</a></span> -Later philosophers than Bacon came to the -same conclusion, though they do not seem to -have seen matters more clearly. As recently -as 1755 a certain learned French priest actually -suggested that since the air on the top of high -mountains is known to be lighter than that at -an ordinary level, men might ascend to these -great heights and bring down the light air “in -constructions of canvas or cotton.” By means -of this air he then proposed to fly a great -machine, which he describes, and which seems -to have been as large and cumbersome as -Noah’s Ark. Needless to say, the worthy -Father’s proposal has never yet been put into -practice.</p> - -<p>But it is time now that we return to the -two brothers Montgolfier and their paper-bag -of smoke. Their experiments proved at once -that in smoke they had found something -which was lighter than air, and which would, -therefore, carry a light weight upwards. But -of what this something was they had, at the -time, but a confused idea. They imagined -that the burning fuel they had used had given -off some special light gas, with the exact nature -of which they were unacquainted. The very -word gas, be it here said, was in those days -almost unknown, and of different gases, their -nature and properties, most people had but -the very vaguest notions.</p> - -<p>And so for some time the Montgolfiers -and their followers supposed that the presence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">17</a></span> -of this mysterious gas was necessary to the -success of their experiments, and they were -very careful about always using special kinds -of fuel, which they supposed gave off this gas, -to inflate their bags. Later experiments -proved, however, what every one now knows, -that the paper-bag rose, not because of the -gases given off by the fire, but by reason of -the hot air with which it became filled. Nearly -all substances, no matter how solid, expand -more or less under the influence of heat, and -air expands very greatly indeed. By thus -expanding heated air becomes lighter than -the surrounding air, and, because it is lighter, -rises upwards in the atmosphere, and continues -to rise until it has once more regained the -average temperature.</p> - -<div id="ip_17" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.1875em;"> - <img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="339" height="497" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Montgolfier’s Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p>Encouraged by the success of their first -humble experiment, the Montgolfiers next -tried their paper-bag in the open air, when -to their delight it sailed upwards to a height -of 70 feet. The next step was to make a -much larger craft of 600 cubic feet capacity -and spherical in shape, which they called a -“Balloon,” because it was in appearance like -a large, round, short-necked vessel used in -chemistry which was technically known by -that name. This great bag, after being inflated, -became so powerful that it broke loose -from its moorings, and floated proudly upwards -600 feet and more, and came down -in an adjoining field. After a few more successful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">19</a></span> -trials the brothers thought that the -time had come to make known their new -invention. Accordingly they constructed a -great balloon of 35 feet in diameter, and -issued invitations to the public to come and -see the inflation. This was successfully made -over a fire of chopped straw and wool, and -the giant rose up into the sky amid the -deafening applause of a huge multitude, and -after attaining a height of 7000 feet, fell to -the ground a mile and a half away.</p> - -<p>The news of this marvellous event spread -like wild-fire throughout the kingdom, and -soon not only all France, but all Europe also, -was ringing with the tidings. The French -Royal Academy of Sciences immediately -invited Stephen Montgolfier to Paris, and -provided him with money to repeat his -experiment. He accordingly constructed a -yet larger machine, which stood no less than -72 feet high, had it most magnificently -painted and decorated and hung with flags, -and sent it up at Versailles in the presence -of the King and all his court.</p> - -<p>This particular balloon is noteworthy as -having been the first of all balloons to carry -living passengers into the air. They were -three in number, a sheep, a cock, and a duck. -Breathlessly the assembled multitude watched -these innocent victims placed in the basket -and soar calmly and majestically above their -heads; and eagerly they followed the balloon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">20</a></span> -to where it fell half a mile away to learn -their fate. Would they have been suffocated -in those upper regions of the air which no -human being had yet explored, or would they -be dashed to pieces in the descent? But -they found the trio quite uninjured; the -unimaginative sheep grazing quietly, and the -duck cheerfully quacking. Forthwith the cry -then arose that it was time for a man to -hazard the ascent, and King Louis, who, like -every one else, was vastly excited over the -wonder, suggested that two criminals then -lying under sentence of death should be sent -aloft.</p> - -<p>But now a brave French gentleman—M. -Pilâtre de Rozier, a name ever to be remembered -in the history of the conquest of the air—uprose -in indignation. “Shall vile criminals -have the first glory of rising into the sky!” -he cried, and then and there he proudly -claimed for himself the honour of being first -among mortals in the history of the world -to sail the air. His courageous resolve was -wildly applauded, and forthwith preparations -were commenced for the new venture. A -yet larger balloon was made, in height as -tall as a church tower, with a mouth 15 feet -across. Around the mouth was fastened a -gallery of wicker-work, three feet wide, to hold -the passengers, and below all was slung with -chains an iron brazier of burning fuel.</p> - -<p>By way of precaution, when all was complete<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">21</a></span> -De Rozier made a few short captive -excursions, the balloon being fastened to -earth by a rope. But all proving satisfactory, -he decided to hazard a “right away” trip on -the 21st of November 1783, when he was also -to be accompanied by an equally courageous -fellow-countryman, the Marquis d’Arlandes. -It would be difficult to conceive a more daring -and perilous enterprise than these two brave -Frenchmen set themselves. They were to -venture, by an untried way, into unknown -realms where no mortal had been before; -they were to entrust their lives to a frail -craft whose capabilities had never yet been -tested, and at a giddy height they were to -soar aloft with an open fire, which at any -moment might set light to the inflammable -balloon and hurl them to destruction.</p> - -<p>Wild indeed was the applause of the crowd -as the mighty craft, after due inflation, rose -majestically into the sky, carrying with it its -two brave <span class="locked">voyagers—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i6">the first that ever burst<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Into that silent sea;<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>and with what anxiety was its course followed -as, rising rapidly to a height of 3000 feet, it -drifted away on an upper current which bore -it right over the city of Paris. The travellers -themselves experienced various excitements -during their adventurous trip. They had -constantly to stir the fire and feed it with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">22</a></span> -fresh fuel; they had also with wet sponges -continually to extinguish the flames when -the light fabric from time to time ignited. -At one period they feared descending into -the river or on the house-tops, at another -a sharp shock gave them the impression that -their balloon had burst. But they came -safely in the end through all perils and -alarms, descending quietly, after a voyage -of twenty-five minutes’ duration, five miles -from their starting-place.</p> - -<div id="ip_22" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="344" height="269" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Early Hydrogen Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p>Thus was invented and perfected in the -course of less than a year the first of all craft<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">23</a></span> -which carried man into the sky—the Hot-Air -or Montgolfier Balloon. To this day large -hot-air balloons inflated by the same methods -employed a hundred years ago occasionally -take passengers aloft. Indeed, there now -seems a likelihood that the use of the Montgolfier -balloon will be largely revived for -military purposes, since, with modern improvements, -it would appear to be more -quickly and easily inflated than a gas balloon -in time of warfare. With miniature hot-air -balloons we are all familiar, for every schoolboy -has made them for himself of coloured -papers, and watched them float away on the -breeze with as much admiration and delight -as the two brothers of Annonay watched their -bag first float upwards to the ceiling.</p> - -<p>But almost before the invention of the hot-air -balloon had been completed, and before -Pilâtre de Rozier had made his ascent, a rival -craft had appeared upon the scene, to which -we must more specially refer in the next -chapter.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE COMING OF THE GAS BALLOON</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>During the time of which we are speaking -there was living in London a famous chemist -named Henry Cavendish. He was the son of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">24</a></span> -a nobleman, and a very rich man; but he -shut himself up entirely from the world, and -devoted his whole time and energies to the -study of science. So afraid was he of being -interrupted in his work that he lived the life -of a hermit, commanding his servants to keep -out of his sight on pain of dismissal, and -ordering his dinner daily by means of a -note placed on the hall table. In the year -1760—twenty-two years before the Montgolfier -brothers began their experiments—this -eccentric man had discovered what was then -known as “inflammable air,” but what we -now call hydrogen gas.</p> - -<p>Cavendish’s experiments proved that hydrogen -is the lightest of all known substances, -being about fourteen times lighter than atmospheric -air; and soon after he had made -known his researches, it occurred to a certain -Dr. Black of Edinburgh that if a sufficiently -thin and light bladder were filled with this -“inflammable air” it would rise upwards. -Dr. Black even went so far as to order a -special bladder to be prepared for the purpose; -but by the time it was ready he was -busy with other work, and the experiment -was never made; otherwise it is extremely -probable that the honour of inventing the -balloon would have been won for this country, -and not for France.</p> - -<p>A little later Tiberius Cavallo, an Italian -chemist living in England, came yet nearer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">25</a></span> -to the great invention, for he filled a number -of soap-bubbles with the newly discovered -gas, and saw them float high into the air. -He did not, however, think at the time that -his experiments would lead to any practical -result, and so the matter dropped entirely, -until the world was suddenly electrified by -the tidings of the wonderful hot-air balloon -invented by the brothers Montgolfier at -Annonay.</p> - -<p>The news of this discovery recalled to the -minds of many the almost forgotten experiments -of the past, and it was forthwith suggested -that balloons might be inflated with -hydrogen gas more successfully than with -hot air. It was resolved immediately to put -this theory to the test. A large subscription -to defray expenses was raised in Paris without -difficulty, for men’s minds were keen -on the new-found art of sailing the sky; -and M. Charles, Professor of Experimental -Philosophy, and two brothers, the Messrs. -Roberts, well-known mechanicians, were -appointed to construct a suitable balloon -and inflate it by the new method.</p> - -<p>But they were immediately confronted with -a difficulty. Hydrogen being the lightest -and most subtle of gases, they were at a loss -to know of what material to make their -balloon, to prevent the gas escaping. After -several failures they eventually constructed -a bag of a special kind of silk, and coated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">26</a></span> -it all over with a varnish made of indiarubber -dissolved in turpentine. As they found great -difficulty in manufacturing large quantities of -hydrogen, they were forced to make their bag -a comparatively small one, about thirteen feet -in diameter. On the 25th of August 1783 -the bag was successfully filled, and the ascent -was made in Paris in the presence of an -enormous crowd. The little balloon rose -upwards with immense rapidity, until it was -lost to sight in the clouds. Ascending yet -higher, it presently burst, and came to the -earth in a village, fifteen miles away, after -a voyage of three-quarters of an hour.</p> - -<div id="ip_26" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.3125em;"> - <img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="341" height="267" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Attack on the First Charlier Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">27</a></span> -In the field where the balloon fell a party -of peasants were at work; at its approach -they fled in abject terror. From a safe distance -they watched the strange new monster -settle to earth and lie prone, and then they -cautiously drew nearer to inspect it. The -silk still heaved with the escaping gas, and -the countrymen were fully convinced that -an actual living creature of mysterious nature -lay before them. One man seized his gun -and fired full at it, and then supposing it -to be mortally wounded, they all rushed in -with flails and pitchforks to complete its -destruction, finally tying it to the tail of a -horse, who galloped with it all over the -country, tearing it to shreds. It was small -wonder that after such an occurrence the -French Government issued a proclamation to -the people, telling them that these aeronautical -experiments were to be repeated, and -warning them not to be alarmed if they saw -a balloon in the air, since it was a perfectly -harmless machine filled with gas, and incapable -of injuring any one.</p> - -<p>This event took place about three months -after the first public ascent of the hot-air -balloon. The new craft was immediately -called a “Charlier,” after its inventor, and -to distinguish it from the “Montgolfier.” -There followed various exhibitions of the -rival airships, and after the voyage of Pilâtre -de Rozier and the Marquis D’Arlandes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">28</a></span> -Messrs. Charles and Roberts resolved also -to hazard an ascent in a balloon inflated with -hydrogen.</p> - -<p>A new machine was therefore constructed, -which differed in many important details from -all others which had previously been made. -It was twenty-seven feet in diameter, of -varnished silk, and over it was spread a net -of cordage. Instead of a gallery to carry -the passengers, as in the “Montgolfier,” a car -shaped like a boat was suspended from the -net with ropes and hung a few feet below -the balloon. A valve to let out the gas was -also provided, and the voyagers carried in -their car ballast and a barometer to indicate -their height. It will thus be seen that this -new balloon was in all practical details the -same as the balloon of the present day.</p> - -<p>The ascent took place on the 17th of December -in Paris. Stephen Montgolfier was -present, and launched a small hot-air balloon, -which amused the onlookers and indicated -the direction of the wind. Then MM. -Charles and Roberts stepped into the car, -and the balloon being liberated, they were -immediately carried up to a height of 6000 -feet, where a glorious panorama of Paris and -the adjacent country was spread out before -their delighted vision. After staying aloft -about a couple of hours they descended to -earth again, and Roberts got out of the car. -Charles decided to continue the voyage awhile<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">29</a></span> -by himself, and, lightened of his companion’s -weight, the balloon this time rose to 10,500 -feet. The sun had by this time set upon the -earth, but at this height Charles saw it rise -once more and set a second time. The thermometer -fell far below freezing-point, and -he was benumbed with cold and felt violent -pains in his ears. When at his greatest elevation -he was obliged to pull the valve to -prevent the balloon from bursting, and eventually -descended without mischance about -seven miles from where Roberts had left -him.</p> - -<p>It would be well now to describe a little -more fully the way in which the “Montgolfier” -and “Charlier” balloons were inflated. -Each of the rival methods had its -advantages and also its disadvantages. In -the case of the hot-air balloon a shallow pit -was dug, in which a quick-burning fire of -chopped wool and straw was lighted, and -the bag simply suspended over it. The -inflation was thus rapid, and its cost comparatively -small; the great drawback being -that as the bag was of very light material, -it ran considerable risk of being ignited by -the fire; and all the while it was filling it -was the uncomfortable duty of an unfortunate -attendant to stand actually inside, roasted -with the heat and choked with the smoke, -armed with a paddle with which to beat out -the flames whenever the bag caught alight.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">30</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_30" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.4375em;"> - <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="343" height="222" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Filling a Hot-Air Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p>This danger of fire was done away with -in the method of filling with hydrogen gas. -The balloon, suspended from aloft as before, -was connected by hose-pipes with a number -of casks containing iron or zinc filings upon -which dilute sulphuric acid was poured. The -effect of mixing these substances together is -to set up a brisk chemical action, in the course -of which hydrogen gas is given off. In this -case the hydrogen thus liberated came through -the pipes and filled the balloon. The great disadvantages -of this method of filling—which, -it may here be mentioned, is occasionally -employed at the present day—are the long -time it occupies, the great labour entailed, -and the enormous expense.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">31</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_31" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32.9375em;"> - <img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="527" height="324" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Filling a Hydrogen Gas Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">32</a></span> -It is said that when Roberts and Charles -returned from their adventurous voyage they -were immediately arrested and thrown into -prison by order of the King, who considered -it his duty to put a stop to his subjects risking -their lives in such dangerous enterprises. -Public opinion was too strong for him, however, -and the two heroes were quickly released, -and Charles was rewarded by a pension of -£200 a year for life. This newly discovered -art of sailing the heavens had indeed fired -popular imagination to an extraordinary degree. -Probably no invention has ever aroused -greater enthusiasm. Not only all France -but all the civilised world went wild with -excitement for the time. Most extravagant -statements were made and written. A new -kingdom, it was declared, had been given to -mankind to conquer; voyages might be made -to the moon and stars, and now it would even -be possible to take Heaven itself by storm!</p> - -<p>Ascent after ascent took place with the -“Montgolfier” and the “Charlier,” both in -France and in other countries; nor was it -long before the balloon made its appearance -in England. In August of the next summer -(1784) a Mr Tytler of Edinburgh made some -short voyages in a hot-air balloon of his own -manufacture, and in the following month a -much more adventurous attempt was successfully -carried out in London by a young -Italian of the name of Vincent Lunardi.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">33</a></span> -Lunardi was at this time secretary to the -Neapolitan Ambassador. He was keenly -interested in the subject of ballooning, and -presently became fired with a desire to repeat -in England those aerial experiments which -were creating such a sensation on the Continent. -He was -only a poor man, -and great difficulties -stood in -the way of accomplishing -his -object. He had -to excite public -interest in his -venture, to collect -subscriptions -to defray the cost -of his balloon, -which was to be -a “Charlier,” and -to find a suitable -site in London -for the inflation -and ascent. He met with disappointments -and disasters enough to discourage a less -enthusiastic man, but at length, after many -troubles, on the 15th of September his balloon -was ready and in process of filling in the -grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company, -in the city, where 150,000 people had -assembled to witness the new wonder.</p> - -<div id="ip_33" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 12.875em;"> - <img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="206" height="254" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Vincent Lunardi.</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">34</a></span> -Still Lunardi’s trials were not at an end. -The balloon was advertised to ascend at a -certain hour; but the supply of gas was insufficient, -so that when the time came it was -only partially filled, and a long delay ensued. -The vast crowd—more than half inclined to -believe the whole thing an imposture—began -to grow very impatient and unruly, and it was -only the presence of the Prince of Wales, -afterwards George the Fourth, which kept -them in restraint for another hour while the -filling continued.</p> - -<p>Even then the balloon was not full; but -Lunardi felt he could wait no longer. He -left behind him the companion who was to -have accompanied him, substituted a smaller -and lighter car, jumped inside and severed the -ropes. Instantly the balloon rose high over -the delighted city, as the crowd, led by the -Prince himself, rent the air with their cheers. -Wild was the excitement in every quarter. -At Westminster King George the Third was -in conference with Mr. Pitt and his other chief -Ministers of State, but when it was known -that Lunardi was in the sky the King exclaimed, -“Gentlemen, we may resume our -deliberations at pleasure, but we may never -see poor Lunardi again!” and with one accord -they adjourned to watch his progress through -telescopes. Tradesmen rushed out of their -shops, business men from their offices, even -judge and jury from their courts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">35</a></span></p> - -<div id="ip_35" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.125em;"> - <img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="338" height="486" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lunardi’s Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">36</a></span> -Lunardi continued his voyage over the town -into the country beyond. His balloon apparently -attained a considerable height, for he -found that the condensed moisture round the -neck had frozen, and the gas, which to begin -with had only two-thirds filled the balloon, -presently expanded so much that he was -obliged to untie the mouth to relieve the -strain. He had taken up with him as companions -a dog and a cat. The cat was very -ill at ease in the cold of the upper regions, -and he resolved to put her out; so, coming -down to the ground, he handed her to a country -woman standing in a field. Throwing out -ballast, he then rose again and continued his -voyage for some distance, eventually descending -in a meadow near Ware. Some labourers -were at work on the spot, but they at first -refused to come near him, and a young woman -was the first whom he could induce to help -him out of his car. A stone with a long -inscription, set up in a meadow in the parish -of Standon, near Ware, marks to this day the -place where the first of all English balloons -touched ground.</p> - -<p>The following year witnessed a yet bolder -enterprise. Blanchard, a French aeronaut, -and Dr. Jeffries, an American, determined -on an attempt to cross the Channel. On a -winter’s day, early in 1785, they had their -balloon inflated with hydrogen at Dover and -boldly cast off to sea. The cold air appeared to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">37</a></span> -chill the gas more than they had foreseen, and -long before they were across the Channel their -balloon began settling down upon the water. -They threw out all their ballast, then a number -of books they were carrying, then their anchor, -extra ropes, and other gear. Still it seemed -very doubtful whether they would reach the -French coast, and as a last resort they began -even to throw away their clothes to lighten -the balloon. Fortunately at this moment the -balloon shot up into the air again, and eventually -brought them down in safety near the -forest of Guiennes.</p> - -<p>So far, although several hundred ascents -had been made, and in spite of the many and -great dangers of the new-found art and the -inexperience of the early voyagers, no fatal -accident had marred the delight of sailing the -skies. Disasters, however, were soon to come. -It is sad to relate that the earliest to fall a -victim was the brave Pilâtre de Rozier himself, -the first of all men to go aloft in a balloon. -Fired with a desire to emulate Blanchard and -Jeffries, he decided that he himself would -cross the Channel, this time from France to -England; and to avoid, as he imagined, the -cooling of the gas, which had so nearly proved -disastrous on the previous occasion, he hit on -the extraordinary idea of combining the principles -of both the “Montgolfier” and “Charlier” -balloons, and suspending a fire balloon -beneath another filled with hydrogen gas. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">38</a></span> -seems a remarkable thing to us now that no -one in those days saw the awful danger of -such a combination. The inevitable happened. -When the balloon was high in the air the -furnace of the hot-air machine set fire to -the highly inflammable hydrogen, a fearful -explosion followed, and De Rozier and his -companion were dashed to pieces.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> - -<span class="subhead">FAMOUS BALLOON VOYAGES OF THE PAST</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Unfortunately the death of Pilâtre de -Rozier was but the first of a series of fatal -accidents which marred the early years of -the history of ballooning. Shortly afterwards -another French aeronaut, going up in too -shallow a car, fell overboard when at a great -height and was killed. A little later Count -Zambeccari, an Italian, ascended in a hot-air -balloon, which, on coming near the earth, -became entangled in a tree. The furnace it -carried set fire to the silk. To escape from -the flames, the Count leapt to the ground -and was killed on the spot. A few years -after, Madame Blanchard, wife of the man -who first crossed the English Channel, made -a night ascent from Paris with a number of -fireworks hung from the car. These, in some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">39</a></span> -way, ignited the balloon, which fell to the -ground, killing the unfortunate lady in its fall.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, many miraculous escapes -are on record. One of the earliest balloonists -spent the night alone aloft in the midst of a -terrific thunder-storm, with the lightning flashing -all around him, and yet descended in safety -when morning broke. M. Garnerin, a famous -French aeronaut of this date, also was lost in -a storm. His balloon became unmanageable, -and borne to earth was dashed against a -mountain side, the occupant losing consciousness, -until the balloon, which had ascended -again, brought him safely down once more -many miles away.</p> - -<p>A marvellous escape took place in 1808, -when two Italians ascended in a gas balloon -from Padua and attained a great height, -estimated as approaching 30,000 feet. Here -the balloon burst, and came precipitately to -the ground; and yet, despite the terrific fall, -the aeronauts escaped with their lives. The -explanation of this seeming impossibility was, -no doubt, the tendency which a balloon, -emptied of its gas, possesses to form a natural -parachute. During a rapid fall the lower -part of the silk will, if loose, collapse into -the upper portion to form a kind of open -umbrella, and thus very effectually break the -descent. Many balloonists have owed their -safety in similar accidents to this fortunate -fact.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">40</a></span> -The bursting of balloons when at high -altitudes has already been referred to as -happening on several previous occasions. It -is a danger which is always present when a -balloon is aloft, unless due precautions are -taken, and the neglect of these precautions -has probably led to more ballooning accidents -than any other cause. The explanation is -simply the varying pressure exerted upon the -bag of gas by the weight of the atmosphere. -When an inflated balloon is resting upon the -ground, the vast ocean of air above it is -pressing upon it with a weight of approximately -fifteen pounds to the square inch, and -it is this pressure which prevents the enclosed -gas from expanding beyond a certain limit. -The balloon then rises high into the air, where -the weight of atmosphere pressing upon it is -much diminished. The higher it rises the -less the pressure becomes, and the gas it -holds soon expands so much that, unless a -vent is provided for it, the balloon will burst. -At the present day the neck of a balloon is -always left wide open when the balloon is in -the air, to allow of the escape of the gas -during the ascent.</p> - -<p>A perilous adventure befell Mr. Sadler, an -English aeronaut, in 1812, whilst attempting -to cross the Irish Channel. He started from -Dublin with a wind which he hoped would -carry him to Liverpool, but had gone only -a short distance when he discovered a rent,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">41</a></span> -which seemed to be increasing, in the silk -of his balloon. Climbing the rigging with -difficulty, he contrived to tie up the hole with -his neckcloth. He was by this time over the -sea, and having passed near the Isle of Man, -found himself, as evening was approaching, -close to the coast of North Wales. Here he -endeavoured to seek a landing, but just at -the critical moment the wind shifted, as it -frequently does in this treacherous Channel, -and he was quickly blown out to sea again. -There he remained for another hour vainly -endeavouring to make the land, and then, -despairing of the attempt and seeing five -ships beneath him, he came boldly down on -the water, trusting they would come to his -assistance.</p> - -<p>But he came down too far away from them, -and one and all continued their course and -took no notice. He was obliged, therefore, to -throw out ballast and to rise into the air -once more. The sun was now set upon the -level of the water, but as the brave aeronaut -rose he beheld it once more above the horizon, -and was cheered by its beams. Presently he -saw beneath him three more vessels, which -signalled their willingness to help him, and -he immediately came down on the sea again -as close to them as he could. But the wind, -now rising fast, caught the half empty silk -of the balloon as it touched the waves, and -bore it along over the surface of the water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">42</a></span> -at a terrific pace; and although the vessels -came after in full pursuit, they were unable -to overtake it.</p> - -<p>Mr. Sadler then dropped his grappling-iron -to act as a drag, and this not proving sufficient, -took off his clothes and tied them to the iron -as a further expedient. Still the vessels failed -to overhaul him as he sped over the waves, -and he was at length forced to let out a -quantity of the gas still remaining, and so -cripple the balloon. But this was a dangerous -move, for the car now instantly sank; and the -unfortunate man had to clutch the hoop and -then the netting, to keep himself above water. -Chilled and exhausted, and frequently plunged -beneath the waves, he was soon at the point -of death; for the nearest ship, though now -close at hand, fearful of becoming entangled in -the netting, still held off. Fainting as he was, -Mr. Sadler yet managed to summon strength -to call to the sailors to run their bowsprit -through the balloon to stop its course, and -this being done, he was hauled on board more -dead than alive.</p> - -<p>Five years passed, and no more attempts -were made to cross the treacherous Irish Sea, -until Mr. Sadler’s own son, Mr. Windham -Sadler, determined himself to make the attempt -which had so nearly cost his father his -life. Choosing the same starting-ground for -his venture, he left Dublin on the longest day -of 1817, and, fortune favouring him, reached<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">43</a></span> -the Welsh coast not far from Holyhead, after -a voyage of 70 miles, lasting five hours. This -was the last attempt to cross the Irish Channel, -until November 1902, when the Rev. J. M. -Bacon and Mr. Percival Spencer, starting -from Douglas, in the Isle of Man, landed in -a rocky glen 15 miles beyond Dumfries, -after a journey of 80 miles, accomplished in -three hours. Brave Mr. Windham Sadler -unhappily lost his life in a terrible balloon -accident in 1824.</p> - -<p>But a more celebrated balloonist, perhaps -the most famous of all, had by this time come -to the fore—Charles Green, fitly called “The -Father of English Aeronautics.” It was he -who first introduced a new method of balloon-filling, -which quickly revolutionised the whole -art and practice. This was nothing more or -less than the employment of ordinary household -or coal gas for inflation, in place of the -costly and dangerous hydrogen.</p> - -<p>While balloons were inflated only with pure -hydrogen—for the uncertain and dangerous -method of filling with hot air was soon almost -entirely abandoned—no great strides could be -made in the art of sailing the skies. The -filling of a large balloon eighty years ago cost -no less than £250, and few people could be -found willing to provide so much money for -such a purpose. Coal gas, however, was by -then to be found in every town of any consequence; -and it was Green’s suggestion that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">44</a></span> -though this gas might be greatly inferior to -pure hydrogen in buoyancy or “lifting power,” -it yet contained a sufficient quantity of hydrogen -in it for all ordinary aeronautical purposes.</p> - -<p>The coronation of King George the Fourth -was the occasion chosen by Green to put his -new scheme to the test and fill a balloon with -coal gas. The experiment was entirely successful, -and henceforward balloon ascents became -much commoner throughout the world, -for Green’s discovery reduced the cost of filling -tenfold, and the trouble and anxiety a hundredfold. -Green himself became one of the most -famous men of his day, and lived to make a -thousand ascents, some of them of the most -daring and exciting description.</p> - -<div id="ip_44" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;"> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="320" height="492" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Great Nassau Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p>The most celebrated event in all his career, -however, was the voyage of the Great Nassau -Balloon, in November 1836. This voyage -created a tremendous sensation at the time, -and has always been considered one of the -most adventurous enterprises in the whole history -of aeronautics. How it came about was -as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>The managers of the Vauxhall Gardens, -London, had made, with Mr. Green’s assistance, -a very large and fine balloon of crimson -silk, which stood eighty feet high and held -90,000 cubic feet of gas, and which would -carry, if needed, more than twenty persons. -After it was made the proprietors proposed -exhibiting it in Paris, and there was some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">46</a></span> -question of how this valuable and fragile -property had best be conveyed so far. Mr. -Hollond, a young gentleman of considerable -wealth, and a great lover of adventure, at -once came forward, and proposed to take the -balloon to the Continent by sky. His offer was -accepted, and to make the ascent more noteworthy, -it was decided to start from London -and cross the sea by night, making as long a -voyage as possible, although it was already -winter time, and such a venture had never -before been made.</p> - -<p>Preparations were at once commenced. The -passengers were limited to three—Mr. Green, -who was to manage the balloon, Mr. Hollond, -and his friend Mr. Monck Mason. A ton of -ballast was to be carried, provisions for a whole -fortnight were laid in, and, since none could -tell to within a thousand miles or more where -they might be drifted, passports to every kingdom -in Europe were obtained.</p> - -<p>They left London late one November day, -and, rising under a north-west wind, skirted -the north of Kent. Passing presently over -Canterbury, they wrote a courteous message -to the mayor, and dropped it in a parachute. -Some time later, when the short autumn twilight -was beginning to wane, they saw beneath -them the gleam of white waves, and knew -they had reached the boundary of the hitherto -much-dreaded sea. Immediately afterwards -they entered a heavy sea fog, which hid all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">48</a></span> -things from their sight, and darkness and dead -silence reigned around.</p> - -<div id="ip_48" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32.1875em;"> - <img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="515" height="342" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Voyage Across the Channel.</span></div></div> - -<p>This lasted for fifty minutes, when they -emerged from the cloud and found the bright -lights of Calais beneath them. It was then -quite dark, and they sped on through the -night over unknown towns and villages whose -lights gleamed fainter and fewer as the time -went on. Then once again they entered the -fog-bank, and for long hours no sign or sound -of earth reached them more.</p> - -<p>As the night wore on they suddenly had -a startling and alarming experience. Their -balloon, which had been flying near the earth, -was presently lightened by the discharge of -ballast, and rose to a height of 12,000 feet into -the air. Immediately afterwards, when all -around was wrapped in the deepest silence -and the blackest darkness, there came the -sound of a sharp explosion from over their -heads, followed by a rustling of the silk, and -immediately the car received a violent jerk. -The same thing was repeated again and yet -again, and it is small wonder that the awful -conviction then seized the party that there, in -the darkness, in the dead of night, at that -fearful height, their balloon had burst, and -they were falling headlong to the ground. -Great indeed must have been their relief -when they found this was not the case, and -discovered the real reason of their alarm.</p> - -<p>It is the tendency of a balloon when flying<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">49</a></span> -near the ground to assume an elongated or -pear shape; and while their balloon was in -this position the netting, which was wet with -dew, had frozen hard and tight around it. -Immediately they rose to great heights the -gas had expanded, and the balloon had become -globular in shape, with a result that the -stiffened ropes sprang to their new position -with the crack and jerk which had so startled -the party. When day broke next morning -they found themselves over long tracts of -desolate forest land, and fearing they were -approaching the wild, inhospitable steppes of -Russia, they descended with all speed, and -discovered they were in the Duchy of Nassau, -in Germany, near Weilburg, where they were -received with the wildest enthusiasm and -delight. From start to finish they had accomplished -a voyage of 500 miles in eighteen -hours.</p> - -<p>After this event Green made many other -voyages in the great Nassau balloon, and met -with many exciting adventures. On one occasion, -ascending in a violent gale of wind, he -and a passenger covered twenty miles in a -quarter of an hour, and, on descending near -Rainham, in Essex, were blown along across -the fields at a furious pace, until the anchor -caught, and brought them up with such a -wrench that it broke the ring and jerked the -car completely upside down. Green and his -friend only escaped from being thrown out by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">50</a></span> -holding on to the ropes, and they were afterwards -dragged wildly through fences and -hedges until the balloon collapsed and came -to a stand, though not before they had both -been severely hurt.</p> - -<p>On another voyage the famous balloon met -with serious injury, for having been some time -above the clouds, during an ascent, Green -found himself carried out to sea, and was -obliged to come down in the water two miles -north of Sheerness. As in the accident which -befell Mr. Sadler in his attempt to cross the -Irish Channel, the wind caught the silk and -bore it along across the water too rapidly for -a pursuing vessel to overtake it. Green then -lowered his anchor, which by happy chance -soon became entangled in a sunken wreck, -and so brought the balloon up. A boat immediately -put out to his assistance, and he -and a companion were speedily rescued; but -the balloon was so restive in the wind that -it was dangerous to approach it. Green himself -then suggested that a volley of musketry -should be fired into the silk to expel the gas, -and this was accordingly done and the balloon -secured, though it afterwards took Green a -fortnight’s hard labour to repair the damage -done to the fabric.</p> - -<p>But the saddest event connected with the -Nassau balloon was the fatal accident which -befell Mr. Cocking in 1837, the year after the -great Nassau voyage. Before relating this,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">51</a></span> -however, it will be necessary to refer briefly -to the history of a most important accessory -of the balloon, hitherto unmentioned—the -parachute.</p> - -<p>The name parachute comes from two French -words, <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">parer</i>, to parry and <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">chute</i>, a fall, and it -signifies a contrivance, made more or less in -the form of an enormous umbrella, to break -the fall from a balloon or other great height. -The principle of the parachute was understood -even before the invention of the balloon. In -Eastern countries, in particular, where the -umbrella or parasol has been in familiar use -from earliest ages, parachutes were frequently -employed by acrobats to enable them to jump -safely from great elevations. In France also, -at the end of the eighteenth century, a captive -officer attempted to escape from a lofty prison -by similar means.</p> - -<p>The aeronaut Blanchard was the first to -construct a parachute for use from a balloon, -his idea being that it might prove of service -in the event of an accident while aloft. In -1785 he let down from a great height a parachute -to which was attached a dog in a basket, -which reached the ground gently and safely. -After this M. Garnerin, the famous balloonist -already referred to, hazarded a parachute -descent in person, and his attempt being -eminently satisfactory, parachute descents became -fairly common.</p> - -<p>In August 1814 Mr. Cocking, an English<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">52</a></span> -gentleman of scientific tastes, read a paper on -parachutes, suggesting an amendment in their -shape and construction, before the Society of -Arts, for which he was awarded a medal. His -theory was never put into practice, however, -till twenty-three years later, when, fired no -doubt by the interest aroused by the famous -Nassau voyage, he resolved to put his invention -to the test.</p> - -<p>He accordingly constructed his parachute, -which was of enormous size, of unwieldy -weight, and in shape rather resembling an -umbrella turned inside out. Despite the -warning of friends that the untried machine -was unwisely built, he insisted on making a -descent with it, and succeeded in persuading -Mr. Green to take him and his craft aloft -attached to the Nassau balloon.</p> - -<div id="ip_52" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20.9375em;"> - <img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="335" height="489" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cocking’s Parachute.</span></div></div> - -<p>On the 27th of July 1837 they started from -the Vauxhall Gardens, Mr. Green in the car -accompanied by Mr. Edward Spencer (grandfather -of the present well-known firm of -aeronauts), his friend and frequent companion; -Mr. Cocking seated in his machine slung -below. A height of 5000 feet was attained, -and then Mr. Cocking, after bidding a hearty -farewell to the others, pulled the rope which -liberated his parachute from the balloon. -Relieved from the enormous weight, the latter -rushed upwards into the sky with terrific -velocity, the gas pouring in volumes from the -valves and almost suffocating the occupants of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">54</a></span> -the car. Their position, indeed, for the time -was one of the greatest danger, and they were -thankful to reach the earth unharmed, which -they eventually did. But their fate was -happier far than that of the luckless Cocking, -whose parachute, after swaying fearfully from -side to side, at length utterly collapsed, and -falling headlong, was, with its inventor, dashed -to pieces.</p> - -<p>While Charles Green was making his -famous ascents in England, an equally celebrated -aeronaut, John Wise, was pursuing the -same art in America. During a long and -successful career, unhappily terminated by an -accident, Wise made many experiments in the -construction of balloons, their shape, size, -varnish, material, and so forth. His results, -which he carefully put together, have been of -the greatest value to balloon manufacturers -until the present time. In the course of his -many voyages he met with various exciting -adventures. On one occasion while aloft he -saw before him a huge black cloud of particularly -forbidding aspect. Entering this, he -found himself in the heart of a terrific storm. -His balloon was caught in a whirlwind, and -set so violently spinning and swinging that he -was sea-sick with the motion, while, at the -same time, he felt himself half-suffocated and -scarce able to breathe. Within the cloud the -cold was intense; the ropes of the balloon -became glazed with ice and snow till they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">55</a></span> -resembled glass rods; hail fell around, and the -gloom was so great that from the car the silk -above became invisible. “A noise resembling -the rushing of a thousand mill-dams, intermingled -with a dismal moaning sound of wind, -surrounded me in this terrible flight.” Wise -adds, “Bright sunshine was just above the -clouds;” but though he endeavoured to reach -it by throwing out ballast, the balloon had no -sooner begun to rise upwards than it was -caught afresh by the storm and whirled down -again. Neither was he able, by letting out -gas, to escape this furious vortex from beneath; -and for twenty minutes he was swept -to and fro, and up and down in the cloud, -before he could get clear of it, or regain any -control over his balloon.</p> - -<p>On another occasion Wise made an exceedingly -daring and bold experiment. Convinced -of the power which, as has before been said, -an empty balloon has of turning itself into a -natural parachute, he determined to put the -matter to the test, and deliberately to burst -his balloon when at a great height. For this -purpose he made a special balloon of very thin -material, and fastened up the neck so that -there was no vent for the gas. He then -ascended fearlessly to a height of 13,000 feet, -where, through the expansion of the hydrogen -with which it was filled, his balloon exploded. -The gas escaped instantly, so that in ten -seconds not a trace remained. The empty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">56</a></span> -balloon at first descended with fearful rapidity, -with a strange moaning sound as the air -rushed through the network. Then the silk -assuming parachute shape, the fall became less -rapid, and finally the car, coming down in -zigzags, turned upside down when close to -the ground, and tossed Wise out into a field -unhurt.</p> - -<p>It was John Wise’s great desire at one time -to sail a balloon right across the Atlantic from -America to Europe. Long study of the upper -winds had convinced him that a regular current -of air is always blowing steadily high aloft -from west to east, and he believed that if an -aeronaut could only keep his balloon in this -upper current he might be carried across the -ocean quicker, and with more ease and safety, -than in the fastest steamship. Wise went so -far as to work out all the details for this plan, -the size of the balloon required, the ballast, -provisions, and number of passengers; and -only the want of sufficient money prevented -him from actually making the attempt. Curiously -enough, about the same time, Charles -Green, in England, was, quite independently, -working at the same idea, which he also believed, -with proper equipment, to be quite -feasible.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">57</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE BALLOON AS A SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>So far, in our history of aeronautics, we have -referred to ballooning only as a sport or pastime -for the amusement of spectators, and for -the gratifying of a love of adventure. It is -now time to speak of the practical uses of the -balloon, and how it has been employed as a -most valuable scientific instrument to teach -us facts about the upper atmosphere, its -nature and extent, the clouds, the winds and -their ways, the travel of sounds, and many -other things of which we should otherwise be -ignorant.</p> - -<p>Before the invention of the balloon men -were quite unaware of the nature of the air -even a short distance above their heads. In -those days high mountain climbing had not -come into fashion, and when Pilâtre de Rozier -made the first ascent, it was considered very -doubtful whether he might be able to exist in -the strange atmosphere aloft. Charles and -Roberts were the first to make scientific -observations from a balloon, for they took up -a thermometer and barometer, and made -certain rough records, as also did other early -aeronauts. The most interesting purely scientific<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">58</a></span> -ascents of early days, however, were made -in the autumn of 1804, from Paris, by Gay -Lussac, a famous French philosopher. He -took up with him all manner of instruments, -among them a compass (to see if the needle -behaved the same as on earth), an apparatus to -test the electricity of the air, thermometers, -barometers, and hygrometers, carefully exhausted -flasks in which to bring down samples -of the upper air, birds, and even insects and -frogs, to see how great heights affected them. -In his second voyage his balloon attained the -enormous altitude of 23,000 feet, or more than -four miles and a quarter, and nearly 2000 feet -higher than the highest peaks of the Andes. -At this tremendous height the temperature -fell to far below freezing-point, and the aeronaut -became extremely cold, though warmly -clad; he also felt headache, a difficulty in -breathing, and his throat became so parched -that he could hardly swallow. Nevertheless, -undismayed by the awfulness of his position, -he continued making his observations, and -eventually reached the ground in safety, and -none the worse for his experience.</p> - -<p>Gay Lussac’s experiments at least proved -that though the air becomes less and less dense -as we ascend into it, it remains of the same -nature and constitution. His second voyage -also showed that the limit to which man -could ascend aloft into the sky and yet live -had not yet been reached. Almost sixty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">59</a></span> -years later other scientific ascents threw fresh -light on this point, and also continued the -other investigations that Gay Lussac had -commenced.</p> - -<p>Towards the close of Charles Green’s famous -career, scientific men in England woke up to -the fact that the use of a balloon as an important -means for obtaining observations on -meteorology and other matters had of late -been very much neglected. The British Association -took the matter up, and provided -the money for four scientific ascents, which -were made by Mr. Welsh of Kew Observatory, -a trained observer. Green was the -aeronaut chosen to accompany him, and the -balloon used was none other than the great -Nassau balloon, of whose many and wonderful -adventures we have already spoken. Green -was then nearly seventy years of age, but his -skill as an aeronaut was as great as ever, and -Welsh was able to obtain many valuable -records. During the last voyage a height was -attained almost as great as that reached by -Gay Lussac, and both men found much difficulty -in breathing. While at this elevation -they suddenly noticed they were rapidly approaching -the sea, and so were forced to make -a very hasty descent, in which many of the -instruments were broken.</p> - -<p>The veteran Green lived to a ripe old age, -dying in 1870, aged eighty-five. When a very -old man he still delighted in taking visitors to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">60</a></span> -an outhouse where he kept the old Nassau -balloon, now worn out and useless, and, handling -it affectionately, would talk of its famous -adventures and his own thousand ascents, during -which he had never once met with serious -accident or failure. After his death the old -balloon passed into the hands of another -equally famous man, who, after Green’s retirement, -took his place as the most celebrated -English aeronaut of the day.</p> - -<p>This was Henry Coxwell. He was the son -of a naval officer, and was brought up to the -profession of a dentist. But when a boy of -only nine years old he watched, through his -father’s telescope, a balloon ascent by Green, -which so fired his imagination that henceforward -balloons filled all his thoughts. As -he grew older the fascination increased upon -him. He would go long distances to see -ascents or catch glimpses of balloons in the -air, and he was fortunate enough to be present -at the first launching of the great Nassau -balloon. He did not get the chance of a -voyage aloft, however, till he was twenty-five; -but after this nothing could restrain his -ardour, and, throwing his profession to the -winds, he made ascent after ascent on all possible -occasions.</p> - -<p>In one of his early voyages he met with what -he describes as one of the most perilous descents -in the whole history of ballooning. The -occasion was an evening ascent made from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">61</a></span> -Vauxhall Gardens one autumn night of 1848. -The aeronaut was a Mr. Gypson, and besides -Mr. Coxwell there were two other passengers, -one of whom was the well-known mountaineer -and lecturer, Albert Smith. A number of -fireworks which were to be displayed when -aloft were slung on a framework forty feet -below the car.</p> - -<div id="ip_61" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.625em;"> - <img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="346" height="241" alt="" /> - <div class="caption floatl"><span class="smcap">Coxwell.</span></div> - <div class="caption floatr"><span class="smcap">Glaisher.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The balloon rose high above London, and -the party were amazed and delighted with the -strange and lovely view of the great city by -night, all sight of the houses being lost in the -darkness, and the thousands of gas lamps, outlining -the invisible streets and bridges, twinkling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">62</a></span> -like stars in a blue-black sky. Coxwell -was sitting, not in the car, but in the ring of -the balloon, and presently, when they were -about 7000 feet above the town, he noticed that -the silk, the mouth of which appears to have -been fastened, was growing dangerously distended -with the expanding gas. By his advice -the valve was immediately pulled, but it was -already too late; the balloon burst, the gas -escaped with a noise like the escape of steam -from an engine, the silk collapsed, and the -balloon began to descend with appalling -speed, the immense mass of loose silk surging -and rustling frightfully overhead. Everything -was immediately thrown out of the car to -break the fall; but the wind still seemed to -be rushing past at a fearful rate, and, to add -to the horror of the aeronauts, they now came -down through the remains of the discharged -fireworks floating in the air. Little bits of -burning cases and still smouldering touch-paper -blew about them, and were caught in -the rigging. These kindled into sparks, and -there seemed every chance of the whole balloon -catching alight. They were still a whole mile -from the ground, and this distance they appear -to have covered in less than two minutes. -The house-tops seemed advancing up towards -them with awful speed as they neared earth. -In the end they were tossed out of the car -along the ground, and it appeared a perfect -marvel to them all that they escaped with only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">63</a></span> -a severe shaking. This adventure did not in -the least abate Coxwell’s ardour for ballooning, -and exactly a week later he and Gypson successfully -made the same ascent from the same -place, and in the same balloon—and loaded -with twice the number of fireworks!</p> - -<p>But Coxwell’s most celebrated voyage of all -took place some years later, on the occasion -of a scientific voyage made in company with -Mr. James Glaisher. In 1862 the British Association -determined to continue the balloon -observations which Mr. Welsh had so successfully -commenced, but this time on a larger -scale. The observer was to be Mr. Glaisher -of Greenwich Observatory, and Mr. Coxwell, -who by this time had become a recognised -aeronaut, undertook the management of the -balloon. The first ascents were made in July -and August. Mr. Glaisher took up a most -elaborate and costly outfit of instruments, -which, however, were badly damaged at the -outset during a very rapid descent, made perforce -to avoid falling in the “Wash.” On -each occasion a height of over four miles was -attained; but on the third voyage, which was -in September, it was decided to try and reach -yet greater altitudes.</p> - -<p>The balloon with its two passengers left Wolverhampton -at 1 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>—the temperature on the -ground being 59°. At about a mile high a -dense cloud was entered, and the thermometer -fell to 36°. In nineteen minutes a height of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">64</a></span> -two miles was reached, and the air was at -freezing-point. Six minutes later they were -three miles aloft, with the thermometer still -falling; and by the time four miles high was -attained the mercury registered only 8°.</p> - -<p>In forty-seven minutes from the start five -miles had been passed; and now the temperature -was 2° below zero. Mr. Coxwell, who -was up in the ring of the balloon and exerting -himself over the management of it, found he -was beginning to breathe with great difficulty. -Mr. Glaisher, sitting quietly in the car watching -his instruments, felt no inconvenience. -More ballast was thrown out, and the balloon -continued to rise apace; and soon Mr. Glaisher -found his eyes growing strangely dim. He -could not see to read his thermometer, or -distinguish the hands of his watch. He noticed -the mercury of the barometer, however, and -saw that a height of 29,000 feet had been -reached, and the balloon was still rising. -What followed next had best be told in -Mr. Glaisher’s own <span class="locked">words:—</span></p> - -<p>“Shortly after I laid my arm upon the table, -possessed of its full vigour, but on being -desirous of using it, I found it useless. Trying -to move the other arm, I found it powerless -also. Then I tried to shake myself and succeeded, -but I seemed to have no limbs. In -looking at the barometer my head fell over -my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my -body again, but could not move my arms.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">65</a></span> -Getting my head upright for an instant only, -it fell on my right shoulder; then I fell backwards, -my body resting against the side of the -car, and my head on the edge. I dimly saw -Mr. Coxwell and endeavoured to speak, but -could not. In an instant intense darkness -overcame me; but I was still conscious, with -as active a brain as at the present moment -while writing this. I thought I had been -seized with asphyxia, and believed I should -experience nothing more, as death would come -unless we speedily descended. Other thoughts -were entering my mind, when I suddenly became -unconscious as on going to sleep.” Mr. -Glaisher adds: “I cannot tell anything of the -sense of hearing, as no sound reaches the ear -to break the perfect stillness and silence of the -regions between six and seven miles above -the earth.”</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, as stated, Mr. Coxwell was up -in the ring, trying to secure the valve-line, -which had become twisted. To do this he -had taken off a pair of thick gloves he had -been wearing, and in the tremendous cold of -that awful region the moment his bare hands -rested on the metal of the ring they became -frost-bitten and useless. Looking down, he -saw Mr. Glaisher in a fainting condition, and -called out to him, but received no answer. -Thoroughly alarmed by this time, he tried to -come down to his companion’s assistance; but -now <em>his</em> hands also had become lifeless, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">66</a></span> -he felt unconsciousness rapidly stealing over -him.</p> - -<p>Quickly realising that death to both of -them would speedily follow if the balloon -continued to ascend, Mr. Coxwell now endeavoured -to pull the valve-line; but he -found it impossible to do so with his disabled -hands. Fortunately he was a man of great -bodily strength, as well as of iron nerve, and -by a great effort he succeeded in catching -the valve-line <em>in his teeth</em>. Then, putting his -whole weight upon it, he managed to pull -open the valve, and hold it until the balloon -took a decided turn downwards. This saved -them. As lower regions were reached, where -the air was denser, Mr. Glaisher began to -recover, and by the time they came to the -ground neither of these two brave men -were any the worse for their extraordinary -experience.</p> - -<p>Neither Mr. Glaisher or Mr. Coxwell were -able to note the exact elevation when they -were at their greatest height; but from -several circumstances they were convinced -that it must have been 36,000 or 37,000 feet, -or fully <em>seven miles high</em>. Later aeronauts -have been inclined to doubt if this surmise -can be quite correct; but whether it is so -or not is of no great moment, for this great -balloon ascent will always stand unrivalled -in the history of ballooning. Since that day -nearly as great, or perhaps even greater,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">67</a></span> -heights have been reached in balloons; but -nowadays those who attempt to ascend to -great elevations always provide themselves, -before they start, with cylinders of compressed -oxygen gas. Then when the atmosphere -aloft becomes so thin and rare as to -make breathing difficult, they begin to fill -their lungs with the life-giving gas from the -cylinders, and at once recover.</p> - -<p>After this perilous voyage Glaisher and -Coxwell made several other scientific balloon -ascents. They met with various experiences. -On one occasion, during a lofty ascent, they -lost sight of the earth above the clouds for -a while, but, the mist suddenly breaking, they -found themselves on the point of drifting out -to sea. Not a moment was to be lost, and -both men hung on to the valve-line until -it cut their hands. The result was a tremendously -rapid descent. The balloon fell -four and a quarter miles in less than a quarter -of an hour, covering the last two miles in -only four minutes. They reached earth close -to the shore, and were fortunate to escape -with only a few bruises, though all the instruments -were once more broken in the shock.</p> - -<p>Mr. Glaisher was able to make many -interesting notes of the condition of the -winds and clouds at high levels. He observed -how frequently different currents of -air are blowing aloft in different directions -at the same time. These differing winds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">68</a></span> -affect the shape of the clouds among which -they blow. High above the ground he -frequently met with a warm wind blowing -constantly from the south-west; and he believed -that it is largely due to this mild air-stream -passing always overhead that England -enjoys such much less rigorous winters than -other countries that lie as far north of the -equator. This mildness of our climate has -long been attributed to the Gulf Stream, -that warm current of the sea which sweeps -up from the tropics past our shores. But it -may well be that there is besides an “Aerial -Gulf Stream,” as Mr. Glaisher calls it, blowing -constantly above our heads, which also serves -to warm the air, and make our winter climate -mild and moist.</p> - -<p>One fact these experiments seemed to -establish was, that when rain is falling from -an overcast sky, there is always a higher layer -of clouds overhanging the lower stratum. -Nothing surprised Mr. Glaisher more than -the extreme rapidity with which the whole -sky, up to a vast height, could fill up entirely -with clouds at the approach of a storm. -Another point noted was that, when a wind -is blowing, the upper portion of the current -always travels faster than that next the -ground. This is due, of course, to the -obstacles the wind meets as it sweeps over -the earth, and which check its onward -progress.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">69</a></span> -These, and very many other facts of the -greatest interest to the meteorologist, were -the outcome of Mr. Glaisher’s experiments. -Later voyages of a similar kind have added -greatly to our knowledge of the condition -of the air, and it seems certain that in the -future the balloon will be much more used -by scientific men, and by its means they will -be able to predict the weather more accurately -and further ahead than at present, and learn -many other things of which we are now in -ignorance.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE BALLOON IN WARFARE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>But there is another practical use for the -balloon to which we must now refer, and -that a most important one—its employment -in war-time. It was not long after the invention -of this ship of the skies that soldiers -began to realise what a valuable aid it might -be to them in times of battle, enabling them -to see inside a camp, fort, or beleaguered -city, or watch the enemy’s movements from -afar off. The opportunity for first putting -the matter to the test very soon arose. -Within a very few years of the earliest balloon -experiments in France there commenced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">70</a></span> -in that very country the dreadful French -Revolution, and soon the nation found itself -at war with all the world, and forced to hold -its own, alone, against the armies of Europe. -This danger quickened the minds of all to -the importance of making use of every possible -means of defence in their power. It -was suggested that the newly discovered -balloon might be turned to account, and -immediately a school for military ballooning -was established near Paris. Fifty young -military students were trained in the new -art, and suitable balloons were provided. -The value of their work was soon apparent. -In June 1794 was fought the battle of -Fleurus, between the French and Austrians. -Before the fight a balloon party had carefully -observed the position of the Austrian forces, -and, through the information they gave, the -French were able to gain a speedy and decisive -victory. In this way, and at this early -stage, the value of the war balloon was at -once established.</p> - -<p>Curiously enough, Napoleon would make -no use of balloons in his campaigns, and even -did away with the balloon school at Paris. -The reason given for his prejudice is a curious -one. At the time of his coronation a large, -unmanned balloon, gaily decorated, and carrying -thousands of lights, was sent up from -Paris during the evening’s illuminations. It -was a very beautiful object, and behaved<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">71</a></span> -splendidly, sailing away into the night, amidst -great popular rejoicing, until it was lost to -sight in the darkness. But at daybreak next -morning it was seen approaching the city of -Rome, where it presently arrived, actually -hovering over St. Peter’s and the Vatican. -Then, as if its mission were fulfilled, it settled -to earth, and finally fell in Lake Bracciano. -But as it fell it rent itself, and left a portion -of the crown with which it was ornamented -on the tomb of the Roman Emperor Nero. -Napoleon, who was always a superstitious -man, saw in this extraordinary voyage some -dreadful forecast of his own fate. He was -much disturbed, and forebade the matter -ever to be mentioned in his presence; nor -would he henceforward have any more to -do with balloons.</p> - -<div id="ip_71" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.625em;"> - <img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="346" height="269" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">American War Balloon.</span></div></div> - -<p>Military balloons were used by the French -again, however, during their war in Africa in -1830. The Austrians also used them in 1849, -and it is said the Russians had them at the -siege of Sebastopol in the Crimean War. A -Montgolfier balloon was made use of by the -French in 1862 at the battle of Solferino; -and the Americans also employed balloons -during the Civil War a year later. The -American war balloons were comparatively -small ones, inflated with hydrogen. The -hydrogen was manufactured in the way already -described, by pouring dilute sulphuric -acid upon scrap-iron. For making the gas<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">72</a></span> -upon the field two large tanks of wood called -“generators” were used. In these the water -and scrap-iron were placed and the acid poured -upon them, the gas produced being carried -to the balloon through pipes, passing first -through vessels filled with lime-water to cool -and purify it. When on the march four -waggons were sufficient to carry the whole -apparatus. The inflation, which took some -time, was made as close to the scene of -action as was considered safe, and when -the balloon was once full a party of men<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">73</a></span> -could easily tow it about to where it was -needed.</p> - -<p>But the time when the balloon was most -largely and most usefully used in time of -war was during the Siege of Paris. In the -month of September 1870, during the Franco-Prussian -War, Paris was closely invested by -the Prussian forces, and for eighteen long -weeks lay besieged and cut off from all the -rest of the world. No communication with -the city was possible either by road, river, -rail, or telegraph, nor could the inhabitants -convey tidings of their plight save by one -means alone. Only the passage of the air -was open to them.</p> - -<p>Quite at the beginning of the siege it occurred -to the Parisians that they might use -balloons to escape from the beleaguered town, -and pass over the heads of the enemy to safety -beyond; and inquiry was at once made to -discover what aeronautical resources were at -their command.</p> - -<p>It was soon found that with only one or -two exceptions the balloons actually in existence -within the walls were unserviceable or -unsuitable for the work on hand, being mostly -old ones which had been laid aside as worthless. -One lucky discovery was, however, made. -Two professional aeronauts, of well-proved -experience and skill, were in Paris at the time. -These were MM. Godard and Yon, both of -whom had been in London only a short time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">74</a></span> -before in connection with a huge captive balloon -which was then being exhibited there. -They at once received orders to establish two -balloon factories, and begin making a large -number of balloons as quickly as possible. -For their workshops they were given the use -of two great railway stations, then standing -idle and deserted. No better places for the -purpose could be imagined, for under the -great glass roofs there was plenty of space, -and the work went on apace.</p> - -<p>As the balloons were intended to make only -one journey each, plain white or coloured -calico (of which there was plenty in the -city), covered with quick-drying varnish, was -considered good enough for their material. -Hundreds of men and women were employed -at the two factories; and altogether some -sixty balloons were turned out during the -siege. Their management was entrusted to -sailors, who, of all men, seemed most fitted -for the work. The only previous training -that could be given them was to sling them -up to the roof of the railway stations in a -balloon car, and there make them go through -the actions of throwing out ballast, dropping -the anchor, and pulling the valve-line. This -was, of course, very like learning to swim on -dry land; nevertheless, these amateurs made, -on the whole, very fair aeronauts.</p> - -<p>But before the first of the new balloons was -ready experiments were already being made<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">75</a></span> -with the few old balloons then in Paris. Two -were moored captive at different ends of the -town to act as observation stations from -whence the enemy’s movements could be -watched. Captive ascents were made in them -every few hours. Meanwhile M. Duruof, a -professional aeronaut, made his escape from -the city in an old and unskyworthy balloon -called “Le Neptune,” descending safely outside -the enemy’s lines, while another equally -successful voyage was made with two small -balloons fastened together.</p> - -<p>And then, as soon as the possibility of -leaving Paris by this means was fully proved, -an important new development arose. So -far, as was shown, tidings of the besieged city -could be conveyed to the outside world; but -how was news from without to reach those -imprisoned within? The problem was presently -solved in a most ingenious way.</p> - -<p>There was in Paris, when the siege commenced, -a society or club of pigeon-fanciers -who were specially interested in the breeding -and training of “carrier” or “homing” pigeons. -The leaders of this club now came forward -and suggested to the authorities that, with -the aid of the balloons, their birds might be -turned to practical account as letter-carriers. -The idea was at once taken up, and henceforward -every balloon that sailed out of Paris -contained not only letters and despatches, but -also a number of properly trained pigeons,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">76</a></span> -which, when liberated, would find their way -back to their homes within the walls of the -besieged city.</p> - -<p>When the pigeons had been safely brought -out of Paris, and fallen into friendly hands beyond -the Prussian forces, there were attached -to the tail feathers of each of them goose -quills, about two inches long, fastened on by a -silken thread or thin wire. Inside these were -tiny scraps of photographic film, not much -larger than postage stamps, upon which a large -number of messages had been photographed -by microscopic photography. So skilfully was -this done that each scrap of film could contain -2500 messages of twenty words each. A bird -might easily carry a dozen of these films, for -the weight was always less than one gramme, -or 15½ grains. One bird, in fact, arrived in -Paris on the 3rd of February carrying eighteen -films, containing altogether 40,000 messages. -To avoid accidents, several copies of the same -film were made, and attached to different birds. -When any of the pigeons arrived in Paris their -despatches were enlarged and thrown on a -screen by a magic-lantern, then copied and -sent to those for whom they were intended.</p> - -<p>This system of balloon and pigeon post -went on during the whole siege. Between -sixty and seventy balloons left the city, carrying -altogether nearly 200 people, and two -and a half million letters, weighing in all -about ten tons. The greater number of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">77</a></span> -these arrived in safety, while the return journeys, -accomplished by the birds, were scarcely -less successful. The weather was very unfavourable -during most of the time, and cold -and fogs prevented many pigeons from making -their way back to Paris. Of 360 birds brought -safely out of the city by balloon only about -60 returned, but these had carried between -them some 100,000 messages.</p> - -<p>Of the balloons themselves two, each with its -luckless aeronaut, were blown out to sea and -never heard of more. Two sailed into Germany -and were captured by the enemy, three -more came down too soon and fell into the -hands of the besieging army near Paris, and -one did not even get as far as the Prussian -lines. Others experienced accidents and -rough landings in which their passengers were -more or less injured. Moreover, each balloon -which sailed by day from the city became -at once a mark for the enemy’s fire; so much -so that before long it became necessary to -make all the ascents by night, under cover -of darkness.</p> - -<p>They were brave men indeed who dared -face the perils of a night voyage in an untried -balloon, manned by an unskilled pilot, -and exposed to the fire of the enemy, into -whose hands they ran the greatest risk of -falling. It is small wonder there was much -excitement in Paris when it became known -that the first of the new balloons made during<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">78</a></span> -the siege was to take away no less a personage -than M. Gambetta, the great statesman, who -was at the time, and for long after, the leading -man in France. He made his escape by -balloon on the 7th of October, accompanied -by his secretary and an aeronaut, and managed -to reach a safe haven, though not before -they had been vigorously fired at by shot -and shell, and M. Gambetta himself had -actually been grazed on the hand by a -bullet.</p> - -<p>Another distinguished man who hazarded the -same perilous feat, though for a very different -reason, was M. Janssen, a famous astronomer. -On the 22nd of December of that year there -was to take place an important total eclipse -of the sun, which would be visible in Spain -and Algeria. It had long been M. Janssen’s -intention to observe this eclipse, and for this -purpose he had prepared a special telescope -and apparatus; but when the time drew near -he found himself and his instruments shut up -in besieged Paris, with no possible means of -escape except the dangerous and desperate -hazard of a voyage by sky.</p> - -<p>But so great was the astronomer’s enthusiasm -for his work, that he resolved to -brave even this risk. Taking the essential -parts of his telescope with him, and, as aeronaut, -an active young sailor, he set sail in -the darkness of a winter’s morning, long -before dawn, passed safely over the enemy’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">79</a></span> -lines, and continued the voyage till nearly -mid-day, when they sighted the sea, and -came down near the mouth of the river -Loire, having travelled 300 miles in little -more than five hours. Neither Janssen or -his telescope were injured in the descent, -though the wind was high at the time; and -both reached Algeria in time for the eclipse. -It must have been a most bitter disappointment -to the ardent astronomer, after all his -exertions, that when the great day arrived -the sun was hidden by clouds, and he was -unable to observe the sight for which he had -risked so much.</p> - -<p>Since the Franco-Prussian war, military -ballooning has been largely developed, and -now all great armies possess their properly -equipped and trained balloon corps. The -balloons in use in the British Army at the -present day are made, not of silk, but of gold-beater’s -skin, a very thin, but extremely tough -membrane prepared from the insides of oxen. -This is, of course, much stronger and more -durable than ordinary balloon fabric, but much -more expensive. The balloons are comparatively -small ones, of 10,000 feet capacity, and -are inflated with hydrogen. The hydrogen is -now no longer made upon the field, but is -manufactured in special factories, and carried -compressed in large steel cylinders. By this -means the time occupied in filling the balloon -is much reduced, but the weight of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">80</a></span> -cylinders is very great. As will be remembered, -balloons were made of considerable use -during the late Boer War. At the siege of -Ladysmith they were thought of much value -in directing the fire of the British Artillery, -and again at Spion Kop and Magersfontein -are said to have done good service.</p> - -<p>So far we have shown of what use balloons -may be in times of peace and war. Every -year sees fresh improvements and developments -in balloons for military purposes and in -those employed for making meteorological and -other similar observations; and there is no -doubt that great advances may shortly be -expected in both these directions. But there -is yet another and totally different science to -which the balloon may lend its aid, and help -greatly to add to our knowledge; and this is -the science of geography, or the study of the -earth’s surface.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest ideas suggested by Montgolfier’s -invention was that the balloon might -be turned to practical account in the exploring -of unknown and inaccessible tracts of the world. -It was suggested that in a balloon men might -sail over and survey country that they were -not able to reach in any other way. Deserts -could be crossed in this fashion, forests and -mountain ranges, and even the desolate ice-tracts -of the North and South Poles.</p> - -<p>All this is, in truth, perfectly possible, and -another day may be accomplished; but at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">81</a></span> -present great difficulties and dangers stand in -the way of exploring by balloon, and up to -the present time, with one great exception, -no special attempt has been made. It has -already been mentioned that both Wise and -Green wished to cross the Atlantic by sky, -and indeed at the present moment plans are -actually being made on the Continent for a -similar voyage. This, however, can scarcely -be called exploring. Other suggestions -which may presently be put to the test -are the crossing of the Sahara, and also of -another great desert in Central Arabia, into -which no white man has ever succeeded in -penetrating. Recent expeditions both to the -North and South Poles have also taken with -them balloons to be used captive for the -observation of the state of the ice ahead, -and for obtaining wide views around.</p> - -<p>The one great attempt at exploring by -balloon which has so far been made has, unfortunately, -met with hopeless and terrible -disaster—this was the ill-fated voyage to the -North Pole of Andrée and his companions. -The idea of reaching the Pole by balloon -was first proposed many years ago, and both -French and English aeronauts at different -times have made suggestions as to the best -way in which it might be accomplished. -Nothing, however, was attempted until about -the year 1894, when M. S. A. Andrée, a well-known -Swedish balloonist, who had already<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">82</a></span> -met with exciting experiences in the air, made -up his mind actually to risk the venture.</p> - -<p>His plan was to take a suitable balloon, and -the apparatus for inflating it, to a place as far -north as a ship could safely go, then to fill -the balloon and wait for a favourable wind -which should carry him right over the Pole and -beyond until inhabited country was reached. -By the summer of 1896 all his preparations -were complete. His balloon was an enormous -one, capable of holding 162,000 cubic feet of -gas, and was fitted with a rudder sail and a -long trail-rope, by means of which Andrée -hoped to be able to some extent to steer his -course across the ice. Two companions were -to accompany him on his voyage, and on June -7th the party embarked with all their apparatus, -and were conveyed to Spitzbergen.</p> - -<p>They landed at Dane’s Island, where their -first work was to build themselves a shed. -They then got their gas-making apparatus -into order, and filled the balloon, and by the -27th of July were all ready for a start. But -the wind was contrary, and day after day they -waited in vain for a change, until at last the -captain of the ship which had brought them -warned them they would be frozen in for the -winter unless they returned without delay. -Very reluctantly, therefore, they abandoned -their venture for that year, and went home, -leaving behind them the shed and gas-generator -for another occasion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">83</a></span> -The winter passed, and by the end of next -May they were back again at Dane’s Island. -Their shed and apparatus had suffered damage -during their absence, and had to be repaired, -and their preparations were not complete until -the end of June. But again the wind was -contrary, and for three weeks more they waited -impatiently. All this while the balloon remained -inflated, and by the long delay must -have lost a considerable amount of its buoyancy. -At last the wind changed, and though -it was not exactly in the direction they wished, -being a little west of south, instead of due -south, Andrée felt he could wait no longer, -and at half-past two in the afternoon of July -11th set sail, with his two friends, on his daring -voyage.</p> - -<p>What followed is soon told. Eleven days -later one of the carrier pigeons taken by -Andrée in his balloon was picked up by a -fishing-boat off Spitzbergen. Fastened to it -was the following message:—“July 13th, -12.30 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span> 82° 2´ north lat., 15° 5´ east long. -Good journey eastward. All goes well on -board.—<span class="smcap">Andrée.</span>”</p> - -<p>This was the latest news ever heard of the -ill-fated voyagers. Later on two of Andrée’s -buoys, thrown out from the balloon, were -found; but the messages these contained were -dated on the evening of July 11th, only a few -hours after the start. If the date of the first -found message can be relied on, it would seem<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">84</a></span> -that after forty-eight hours Andrée’s balloon -was still sailing well, and he had already -accomplished the longest voyage aloft ever -made.</p> - -<p>Of his subsequent fate, and that of his companions, -nothing is known. Search expeditions -have failed to find any trace of them or -of the balloon, and the many rumours received -have been proved to be false. There can be -no possible reason to doubt that these brave -men perished in their daring attempt, and that -their bones lie in the Arctic Sea or in the waste -of ice and snow that surrounds the Pole.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE AIRSHIP</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>So far in our story we have traced the origin -and progress of the balloon, showing how from -small beginnings it has grown to be an important -invention, of great use to the scientific -observer, the soldier, and the explorer, and the -means of teaching us much fresh knowledge.</p> - -<p>But in spite of the high hopes of early -aeronauts, and the extravagant prophecies -made when the first balloons ascended into -the sky, it has long been evident that the -balloon alone has not solved the problem of -human flight or accomplished the conquest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">85</a></span> -of the air. An ordinary balloon is, in fact, -nothing more than a mere lifting machine, -no more capable of sailing the sky, in the -proper sense of the word, than a cork floating -in the water is capable of sailing the sea. It -has no movement of its own, but drifts simply -at the mercy of the wind, and quite beyond -control. By the discharge of ballast, or by -the letting out of gas, the aeronaut can indeed -cause it to rise or sink at pleasure, and sometimes -when two currents of air are blowing -aloft in different directions at the same time -he may, by passing from one to the other, -“tack” his balloon to some extent across the -sky. Otherwise he has no power of guiding -or directing it in the least degree, and should -he lose sight of the earth above the clouds, -has even no method of telling in which -direction he is travelling.</p> - -<p>Early inventors thought they would be able -to steer balloons by means of sails, like a boat, -but they soon found that this was impossible. -The effect of hoisting a sail at the side of -a balloon was merely to swing the balloon -round until the sail was in front, while meantime -it continued its course unaltered. The -use of a rudder and other means were also -tried, but without success; nor can such -methods ever hope to succeed so long as a -balloon floats in the air at the same pace as -the wind that carries it forward. A balloon -travelling with the wind may be compared<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">86</a></span> -to a boat drifting idly with the tide. As -long as she drifts she refuses to answer her -rudder, which swings idly. But presently the -boatman hoists a sail, and the wind carries the -boat onwards faster than the tide, and then -immediately the rudder comes into action. -Or should there be no wind, he may accomplish -the same thing by dragging an anchor -or other weight in the water, and so slowing -his boat down until it moves slower than -the current; he will then again find that his -boat will answer her helm.</p> - -<p>To steer his course in a balloon, therefore, -the aeronaut must so arrange that he is -travelling faster or slower than the wind in -which he finds himself. To travel faster, he -must employ some sort of engine or motor -to drive his craft onwards. To travel slower, -he must trail something along the ground -beneath to act as a drag.</p> - -<p>Part of the equipment of every balloon is -a long trail-rope, which, when the balloon -is aloft, hangs some 300 feet below the car. -The object of this rope is to break the force -of the fall when the balloon comes down to -the earth at the end of the voyage. In the -greater number of cases a balloon, in its final -swoop to the ground, falls the last few hundred -feet with considerable, and often uncomfortable, -speed. But when provided with a trail-rope, -as it descends more and more of the -heavy rope will lie along the ground, and so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">87</a></span> -lighten the weight of the balloon, and lessen -the shock of falling.</p> - -<p>If then a trail-rope were used of such length -that it would sweep along the ground while -the balloon was flying in the air, the effect -would be to put a drag or brake on the -balloon, and so render it capable of being -steered to some extent with a sail; and this -is what has actually been done in all attempts -of the kind. But since a long rope dragging -rapidly across the country is a very dangerous -object, capable of doing great damage, and -also liable to catch in trees and other obstacles, -such experiments can only be tried with safety -over the sea, or, as in the case of Andrée’s -voyage, over desert or uninhabited country.</p> - -<p>The best way of steering a balloon, therefore, -is to provide it with some mechanical -power which shall urge it onwards at a greater -speed than the wind; and when this is done, -it has ceased to be a balloon in the popular -sense of the word, and has become an “airship.”</p> - -<p>There is a great deal of confusion between -the terms “airship,” and “flying machine,” -and the two words are often considered as -meaning the same thing. But while, strictly -speaking, neither word in itself has any very -definite meaning, it is gradually becoming -more general to apply them to two widely -different objects. According to this plan, -although both names stand for an aerial vessel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">88</a></span> -capable of travelling in the sky by its own -motion, an airship is a machine supported -in the air by reason of its buoyancy, while -a flying machine is kept aloft only by virtue -of its onward movement.</p> - -<p>In other words, part of the construction of -an airship consists of a bag or balloon, filled -with gas or hot air, which causes the whole -to rise and maintain its position in the air. -This balloon part is quite independent of the -machinery which drives the airship forward, -and indeed if the engine ceases working, the -vessel becomes nothing more than an ordinary -balloon in its nature, and will behave like -one. An airship, therefore, is in principle -an apparatus lighter than air.</p> - -<p>A flying machine, on the contrary, is -heavier than air, and maintains its position -aloft merely by the power it obtains from its -engines, assisted by its special construction. -The inventors of flying machines take as -their analogy the flight of birds. Birds are -creatures heavier than air, which yet manage -to rise and fly by reason of the strength and -construction of their wings. In the same -way the heavy flying machine essays to fly -by the power of its machinery. And, as a -bird aloft, if its wings became disabled, would -instantly drop towards earth, so a flying -machine would immediately commence to -fall if its engine stopped or ceased to move -with sufficient power. The airship and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">89</a></span> -flying machine, therefore, may be regarded -as rival aerial vessels, and their inventors and -advocates, sometimes known as “lighter-than-air-ites” -and “heavier-than-air-ites,” though -both working for the same end, are endeavouring -to accomplish their aim by widely different -methods.</p> - -<p>Up to the present day the airship—to which -we will first turn our attention—has been -much more largely and successfully experimented -with than the flying machine. It is, -however, the opinion of many, including the -great authority Sir Hiram Maxim, that in the -future the flying machine will become the -more important invention of the two. “In -all Nature,” says Sir Hiram, “we do not find -a single balloon. All Nature’s flying machines -are heavier than air.” And from this he argues -that, as Nature is ever our best guide and example, -a flying machine heavier than air will -be in the end most likely to succeed.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest airships which achieved -any success was invented by a Frenchman, -M. Giffard, about the year 1852. He made -his balloon of an elongated or cigar shape, a -form adopted by airship inventors as offering -less resistance to the air than the ordinary -globular or pear shape. To this balloon, -which was 104 feet long and 39 feet in -diameter, he attached a steam-engine of -three-horse power, weighing 462 lbs. and -working a screw-propeller, which, by its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">90</a></span> -rapid revolutions, urged the balloon onwards -through the air, even as the screw of a steamship -urges the vessel through the water. -With this apparatus he succeeded on one -occasion, for a very short while, in obtaining a -speed of six and a half miles an hour. Twenty -years later another Frenchman, M. Dupuy de -Lôme, constructed another airship; but fearing -to place an engine so near the gas of his balloon, -he used the strength of eight men to work -his screw. This was a very wasteful mode of -supplying energy, for the weight of the men -was very great in proportion to their strength, -and this machine, during its trial, did not -attain as great a speed as Giffard’s. Twelve -years after a third Frenchman, M. Tissandier, -took up the same experiments. His elongated -balloon was smaller than the two previous, -and his engine was an electric motor of one -and a half horse-power. On one occasion -a speed of nearly eight miles an hour was -attained.</p> - -<p>By this time the French Government had -become interested in the work, and provided -money to continue investigations. The result -of this was that in 1885 two officers of the -French army, Captains Renard and Krebs, -brought out by far the most successful airship -yet constructed. It was 165 feet long, 27 feet -in diameter, and was driven by an electric -motor of nine horse-power. That this machine -proved itself perfectly capable of being guided<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">91</a></span> -in the air is amply shown by the fact that -it returned to its shed five times out of the -seven on which it was publicly taken out. -It also attained a speed of fourteen miles an -hour, and indeed it would seem that Renard -and Krebs, although their names are now -almost forgotten, accomplished nearly as great -things twenty years ago as the popular airship -inventors of the present day.</p> - -<p>One of the greatest difficulties with which -early inventors had to contend was the enormous -weight of their engines. The machinery -they were obliged to use to drive their airships -through the air weighed more than their balloons, -unless made of unwieldy size, had power -to lift. The same difficulty indeed exists at -the present time, though to a much less degree. -Of late years, and especially since the introduction -of the motor-car, great progress has -been made in the construction of light but -powerful engines, or motors, and the employment -of petrol vapour instead of coal or oil -has very greatly lessened the weight of the -fuel which has to be carried.</p> - -<p>In consequence of this improvement many -airships have recently been made which have -met with varying success, and many more are -at the present moment in process of construction. -Among the host of inventors, whose -names it would here be impossible even to mention, -three stand out from the rest in special -prominence—Zeppelin, Santos Dumont, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">92</a></span> -Stanley Spencer—all three the inventors of -airships which have, by actual experience, -proved their power of steering a course across -the sky.</p> - -<p>Of these rival airships, by far the largest -and most elaborate was that built by the first -named, Count Zeppelin, a distinguished veteran -soldier of the German army. For many -years he had spent his time and fortune in -making experiments in aerial navigation, and -at length in 1900, having formed a company -and collected a large sum of money for the -purpose, he produced an enormous airship, -which, from its size, has been compared to a -man-of-war. In shape Count Zeppelin’s invention -resembled a gigantic cigar, 420 feet in -length, pointed at both ends. The framework -was made of the specially light metal -aluminium, covered over with silk, and though -from outside it looked all in one piece, within -it was divided into seventeen compartments, -each holding a separate balloon made of oiled -silk and absolutely gas-tight. The object of -this was to prevent the tendency the gas has -to collect all at one end as the ship forces its -way through the air. These balloons were -filled with pure hydrogen, the cost of the inflation -alone being £500. Beneath was slung a -long gangway, 346 feet in length, with two -cars, also made of aluminium, attached to it. -In these cars were placed two motor-engines -of sixteen horse power each, driven by benzine,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">93</a></span> -and working a pair of screw-propellers attached -to the balloon. A steering apparatus was -placed at each end, and the whole machine, -with five passengers, weighed about eleven -tons.</p> - -<div id="ip_93" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.6875em;"> - <img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="347" height="270" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Zeppelin’s Airship over Lake Constance.</span></div></div> - -<p>To lessen the effects of a possible fall, the -experiments were carried out over water, and -the great airship was housed in a shed built on -Lake Constance. The cost of this shed alone -was enormous, for it was elaborately constructed -on pontoons, and anchored in such -a way that it could be turned round to allow -the airship to be liberated from it in the best<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">94</a></span> -direction to suit the wind. The trial trip was -made one evening in June 1900, when a very -light wind was blowing. The great machine -rose into the air, carrying Zeppelin and four -companions to a height of 800 feet. The -steering apparatus then being put into action, -it circled round and faced the wind, remained -stationary for a short while, and then sank -gracefully and gently upon the water. A few -days later another and more successful trial -was made. The wind at the time was blowing -at sixteen miles an hour, but in spite of -this the airship slowly steered its course against -the wind for three and a half miles, when, one -of the rudders breaking, it was obliged to come -down. On one or two other occasions also it -made successful voyages, proving itself to be -perfectly manageable and capable of being -steered on an absolutely calm day. The expense -of the experiments was, however, tremendous; -money fell short, and the great machine, the -result of many years’ labour and thought, has -since been abandoned and broken up.</p> - -<div id="ip_94" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.6875em;"> - <img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="347" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Santos Dumont’s Airship.</span></div></div> - -<p>A far happier fate has so far attended the -efforts of the brave young Brazilian, Albert -Santos Dumont. The wealthy son of a successful -coffee-planter, he had always from his -boyhood been keenly interested in aeronautics, -and, coming to Paris, he constructed in 1898 -an airship of a somewhat novel kind. His -balloon was cigar-shaped, 83 feet long, and -holding 6500 feet of pure hydrogen. Attached<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">95</a></span> -to the balloon, and working a propeller, -was a small motor like those used for motor -cycles, and astride of this Santos Dumont -rode, bicycle fashion, steering his course with -a rudder. In this ingenious machine he -ascended from the Botanical Gardens in Paris -and circled several times round the large -captive balloon then moored there, after which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">96</a></span> -he made a number of bold sweeps in the air, -until an accident occurred to his engine and -he came precipitately to the ground. Though -shaken he was by no means discouraged, and -declared his intention of continuing his experiments -until he should have invented an -airship which, in his own words, should -be “not a mere plaything, but a practical -invention, capable of being applied in a -thoroughly useful fashion.”</p> - -<p>Accordingly he constructed one machine -after another, gaining fresh knowledge by -each new experience, and profiting by the accidents -and failures which continually beset him -in his dangerous and daring work. Before -long also he received an additional incentive -to his labours. Early in the year of 1900 it -was announced by the Paris Aero Club, a -society of Frenchmen interested in aeronautical -matters, that one of its members, -M. Deutsch, had offered a prize of 100,000 -francs—about £4000—to the man who, starting -from the Aero Club grounds at Longchamps -in a balloon or flying machine, should -steer his course right round the Eiffel Tower -and back to the starting-place—a distance of -three and a half miles—within half an hour. -If the prize were not won within a certain -time, his offer was to be withdrawn, and -meanwhile he promised a certain sum of -money every year for the encouragement of -aeronautical experiments.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">97</a></span> -The offer of this reward set many inventors -to work upon the construction of various -aerial vessels of all kinds, but from the beginning -Santos Dumont was well to the fore. -By the middle of 1901 he had completed what -was his sixth airship—a cigar-shaped balloon, -100 feet long, its propeller worked by a motor-car -engine of fifteen horse-power—and with it, -on July 15th, he made a splendid attempt for -the prize. Starting from the Club grounds, -he reached the Eiffel Tower in thirteen -minutes, and, circling round it, started back -on his homeward journey. But this time his -voyage was against the wind, which was really -too strong for the success of his experiment; -part of his engine broke down, and the balance -of the vessel became upset; and although he -managed to fight his way back to the starting point, -he arrived eleven minutes behind time, -and so failed to fulfil M. Deutsch’s conditions.</p> - -<p>Again, on the 9th of August, having in the -meantime made further trials with his machine, -he embarked on another attempt to carry off -the prize. He chose the early hours of the -morning, starting shortly after six from the -Club grounds, where only a few friends, among -them the keenly interested M. Deutsch, were -present. The day was apparently perfect, and -when, after the lapse of five minutes only, he -had reached the Tower and swung gracefully -round it, every one was convinced that this -time the prize was certain to be won. But<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">98</a></span> -the homeward journey was all against the -wind, which was blowing more powerfully -aloft than on the ground, and suddenly the -onlookers were horrified to see the fore part of -the balloon double right back. By so doing -the silken envelope became torn and the gas -began escaping. Rapidly the balloon appeared -to wither up and shrink together. The engine -was seen still to be working, though no progress -was now being made. Then the whole -apparatus collapsed utterly, and fell with sickening -speed upon the house-tops.</p> - -<p>Deutsch and his companions watched the fall -horror-struck, and jumping into their motorcars -hurried to the spot, convinced that a fatal -accident must have occurred. But they found -that, although the airship was smashed to -pieces, its plucky inventor had almost miraculously -escaped unhurt. The wrecked machine -had fallen upon the roof of a house in such a -way that the keel had caught upon a corner, -and the car, which was fastened to it, hung at -a perilous angle down the side of a wall. Fortunately -Dumont was secured to his car by a -leather belt, and he managed to hold on, -though in considerable danger lest the keel -should break and let him fall, until rescued by -a fireman with a rope. His machine was -hopelessly ruined; but when asked what he -intended to do next he merely answered: -“Begin again. Only a little patience is necessary.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">99</a></span> -A new machine, “Santos Dumont VII.,” -was ready in less than a month, and tested on -the 6th of September. It behaved beautifully, -and all went well until the trail-rope caught -in a tree. In liberating it the framework became -bent, and the airship was being towed -back to its shed when a sudden gust of wind -tore it away from those who held it. It immediately -rose into the air, and on Dumont -opening the valve the whole collapsed and fell -to earth with a great shock. Again the lucky -inventor escaped unhurt, though owning this -time that he had “felt really frightened.” Ten -days later, in another trial, the airship came -in contact with some trees, which pierced -the silk and let out the gas, so that it fell -precipitately twenty feet. But the aeronaut -appeared to bear a charmed life, for once more -he was none the worse for the fall. Several -other unsuccessful trials followed, and then, -on the 19th of October, Santos Dumont made -another grand attempt for the prize.</p> - -<p>Starting with the wind in his favour, his -machine travelled at the rate of thirty miles -an hour, and rounded the Eiffel Tower in nine -minutes. But in the journey homewards the -airship had to struggle with a wind blowing -at thirteen miles an hour. In endeavouring -to “tack” the machinery became upset, and -Dumont, leaving his car, crawled along the -framework to the motor, which he succeeded -in putting in order again. But this naturally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">100</a></span> -occasioned some delay, and though he accomplished -the rest of his journey in eight minutes, -the Committee at first decided he had exceeded -the allotted time by forty seconds, and so had -lost the prize. Great popular indignation was -excited by this decision, for public sympathy -was all with the daring and persistent young -Brazilian, and M. Deutsch himself was most -anxious he should receive the award. Finally, -he was considered to have fairly won it, and -the money, which he afterwards divided among -the poor, was formally presented to him.</p> - -<p>Early in the next year Santos Dumont continued -his experiments at Monaco, and on one -occasion came down in the sea, and had to be -rescued in the Prince of Monaco’s own steam -yacht. After this there was a talk of further -voyages being made in England, but the project -came to nothing, and although Dumont -made other ascents in Paris in the summer of -1903, he does not appear to have eclipsed his -previous record.</p> - -<p>But although Santos Dumont came through -all his accidents and perils so happily, his -example led to terrible disaster on the part -of a luckless imitator. In 1902 M. Severo, -also a Brazilian, was fired with a desire to -share his fellow-countryman’s fame, and he -also constructed an airship with which he -proposed to do great things. But while -Dumont was a skilled aeronaut of large experience, -as well as a mechanician, Severo<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">101</a></span> -knew scarcely anything about the subject, -and had only been aloft once or twice. Proof -of his ignorance is shown by the fact that his -motor-engine was placed only a few feet away -from the valve through which the gas from -the balloon would escape.</p> - -<p>The ascent took place in Paris early in the -morning of the 12th of May, and was witnessed, -unhappily, by Severo’s wife and son. -Bidding them good-bye, he stepped into the -car, and, accompanied by an assistant, rose -above the town. The balloon rose steadily, -and appeared to steer well. Then Severo -commenced to throw out ballast, and when -the airship had risen 2000 feet it was suddenly -seen to burst into a sheet of flame. -A terrible explosion followed, and then the -whole fell to the ground a hopeless wreck, -and the two men were dashed to pieces in the -fall. It is believed that this dreadful disaster, -which recalls the fate of Pilâtre de Rozier, was -caused by the hydrogen gas, which escaped -from the valve during the rapid rise, becoming -ignited by the engine, which, as has been said, -was placed dangerously close.</p> - -<p>Nor was this, unhappily, the only accident -of the kind in Paris during the year. Only -five months later, on the 13th of October, -Baron Bradsky ascended with an assistant in -a large airship of his own invention. Through -faulty construction, the steel wires which fastened -the car to the balloon broke, the two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">102</a></span> -became separated, the car fell, and its occupants -were killed on the spot.</p> - -<p>So far, the credit of the only English airship -which has yet flown rests with Mr. -Stanley Spencer, the well-known aeronaut. -Mr. Spencer comes of a race of aeronauts. -His grandfather, Edward Spencer, was the -great friend and colleague of Charles Green, -and shared with him some of his chief ballooning -adventures, notably the terrible voyage -when Cocking lost his life. Green stood -godfather to Edward Spencer’s son, who was -christened Charles Green after him. He also -grew up to be an aeronaut, and made several -inventions and improvements relating to balloons -and flying machines. His love of ballooning, -inherited from his father, has been passed -on to his children, and his three eldest sons, -Percival, Arthur, and Stanley, are chief among -British aeronauts, and indeed have practically -the monopoly of professional ballooning and -balloon manufacture in Great Britain. Nor -have they confined themselves to this country. -All three have taken their balloons and parachutes -to distant parts of the world, and -among their many hundreds of ascents, both -abroad and at home, have met with all manner -of exciting and perilous adventures, though -never yet with serious mishap. Their knowledge -of practical aeronautics, then, is unrivalled, -and Mr. Stanley Spencer had the -experience of three generations to guide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">103</a></span> -him when, in 1902, he set to work to -build an airship which he had long been -devising.</p> - -<p>His first machine was a comparatively small -one, capable only of lifting a light man. It -took the usual form of a cigar-shaped balloon, -the framework of which was built of bamboo, -driven forward by a screw-propeller worked by -a small petrol engine. Warned by the fate -of the unfortunate Severo, Mr. Spencer placed -his engine far away from the valve. Profiting -also by Santos Dumont’s experience, he constructed -his balloon in such a manner that, -should it become torn and the gas escape, the -empty silk would collapse into the form of a -parachute and break the fall. Furthermore, -there was an arrangement by which, while -aloft, ordinary air could be forced into the -balloon to replace any loss of gas, and so -keep the silk always fully inflated and “taut”—a -very important factor in a machine that -has to be driven forward through the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>With this airship Mr. Spencer, as also his -equally daring wife, made several highly successful -trials at the Crystal Palace, when it -was found to steer well and answer its helm -most satisfactorily. Mr. Spencer also made -two long voyages, from London and from -Blackpool, on both of which occasions he -found he could manœuvre his airship with -considerable success, make circular flights,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">104</a></span> -and sail against the wind, provided it was -blowing only at moderate speed.</p> - -<p>Encouraged by his success, he next built a -similar but much larger machine, nearly a -hundred feet long, holding 30,000 cubic feet -of gas, and driven by a petrol motor of twenty-four -horse-power. In this case the propeller, instead -of being placed at the rear, as in general, -is at the front of the airship, thereby pulling -it forward through the air instead of pushing -it from behind. By this arrangement Mr. -Spencer thinks his balloon would have less -tendency to double up when urged against a -strong wind. The steering is done by a rudder -sail at the stern, and to cause his machine to -sail higher or lower, the aeronaut points its -head up or down by means of a heavy balance-rope.</p> - -<p>This new airship was ready by the summer -of 1903, but the unfavourable weather of that -stormy season again and again interfered with -the experiments. On the 17th of September -Mr. Spencer announced his intention of sailing -from the Crystal Palace round the dome of -St. Paul’s, and returning to his starting-place. -The Cathedral was indeed safely reached, but -the increasing breeze, now blowing half a gale, -baffled all his attempts to circle round. Again -and again, till his hands were cut and bleeding -with the strain of the ropes, he brought his -machine up, quivering, to the wind, but all to -no purpose, until at length, abandoning the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">105</a></span> -attempt, he sailed with the current to Barnet. -More favourable results may doubtless be -looked for with better weather conditions.</p> - -<p>In France during 1903 the brothers Lebaudy -made some successful trips with an airship of -their own construction. Many other airships -are now being built in all parts of the world, -in preparation for the aeronautical competitions -to take place in America on the occasion -of the St. Louis Exhibition of this year.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE FLYING MACHINE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>It is now time we turn our attention from -the airship to its important rival, the flying -machine.</p> - -<p>At first sight it may perhaps appear that -so far the flying machine has accomplished -less than the airship, and gives less promise -of success, since up to the present time no -flying machine has taken a man any distance -into the air, or indeed done much more than -just lift itself off the ground. Nevertheless -those who have made a study of the matter -are full of hope for the future. Many experts -declare that already the limits of what can -be done with the airship, which depends upon -the lifting power of its gas to raise it and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">106</a></span> -to sustain it in the air, are being reached. It -has indeed been proved that on a calm -day, or with only a light breeze, this form -of sky vessel can be steered safely about the -heavens, and doubtless as engines are constructed -yet lighter and more powerful in -proportion to their weight, more successful -voyages still will be accomplished. But it -is extremely doubtful whether an airship -can ever be constructed which shall be able -to stand against a gale of wind.</p> - -<p>So long as a balloon sails only with the -breeze it offers no resistance to the force of -the wind, and can be made of the lightest -and thinnest material. But directly it has to -face the wind, and fight its way against it -as an airship must do, then it has to be -made of sufficient strength and rigidity to -withstand the wind’s power, or it will be -blown to pieces. To make so large a thing -as an airship withstand a rough wind, it -must be built of very strong and rigid -materials. To do this means to add to the -weight of the machine. To lift the increased -weight, a larger machine which can hold -more gas is needed. The larger the machine -the more surface it offers to the wind, and -the stronger therefore must be its construction. -It will now be seen that we are arguing -in a circle, and we can understand that a point -must be reached in the making of airships -when, with our present materials, the advantage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">107</a></span> -gained by increase of strength will be -more than counterbalanced by increased -weight. On this point Sir Hiram Maxim -says: “It is not possible to make a balloon, -strong enough to be driven through the air -at any considerable speed, at the same time -light enough to rise in the air; therefore -balloons must always be at the mercy of a -wind no greater than that which prevails -at least 300 days in the year;” adding, -“Those who seek to navigate the air by -machines lighter than air have, I think, come -practically to the end of their tether.”</p> - -<p>With the flying machine, on the contrary, -the same difficulty does not arise. Since it -is at all times heavier than air, and is kept -aloft simply by its motive power and mechanism, -its weight is of no consequence, provided -only its engine is sufficiently powerful. -It may, therefore, be built as rigidly as need -be, while, from its size—which is much -smaller in proportion to its lifting power than -in the case of the airship—and also from -its construction, it is much less liable to be -affected by the wind.</p> - -<p>In constructing a flying machine which is -heavier than air the inventor has before him -two examples of bodies which, though heavier -than the atmosphere, yet contrive to rise upwards -into the sky; these are, firstly, birds, and -secondly, the familiar schoolboy toys, kites. -To imitate the flying powers of birds and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">108</a></span> -kites, he must first understand the means by -which their flight is accomplished; and he -will find, on examination, that to a large -extent the same principle underlies each—the -principle of what is termed the “aeroplane.”</p> - -<div id="ip_108" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 16.0625em;"> - <img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="257" height="229" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Kestrel.</span></div></div> - -<p>As we watch birds—especially large birds, -as hawks and gulls—winging their way about -the sky, we may notice that their flight is -accomplished in two ways; either they are -moving through the air by flapping their -wings up and down, or else with wings wide -outstretched they are soaring or sailing in the -air for long times together without apparently -moving their wings at all. Certain birds, such -as vultures and albatrosses, possess this power<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">109</a></span> -of soaring flight to an extraordinary degree, -and the exact way in which they keep themselves -poised aloft is indeed still a mystery. -We cannot, however, as we watch, say, a -hawk, hovering in the air with motionless -wing, help being struck by its resemblance -to the schoolboy’s kite, kept afloat high in -the sky by the action of the wind properly -applied to its surface, and we can at once -see that the bird makes use of the same -principle as the kite in its soaring or hovering -flight. Indeed, just as a kite sinks to earth -when the wind drops, so in a dead calm even -an albatross has to flap its wings to keep -afloat.</p> - -<p>It is to the principle of the kite, therefore, -that the inventor of the flying machine must -turn. He must adapt the same principle to -his apparatus, and this he does in his aeroplane, -which, as will be seen, is an all-important -part of his machine, and which, in its simplest -form, is nothing more or less than a kite.</p> - -<p>We know that if a light flat body, such -as a kite, is lying upon the ground, and the -wind gets under it so as to tilt it, it will be -lifted by the wind into the air. The string of -a kite is so adjusted that as the kite rises it -is still held at an angle to the wind’s force, -and so long as the kite remains tilted at the -necessary angle so long it will continue to -rise or poise itself in the air while the wind -blows. When schoolboys fly their kites they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">110</a></span> -choose an exposed spot, and a day when the -wind is blowing freshly and steadily. One -boy throws the kite into the air, while another, -holding the string to which it is fastened, -draws it tight by running with it against -the wind. By this means the kite, if rightly -adjusted, is held at the proper angle to the -wind, and started without dragging along -the ground to begin with. As soon as the -wind has fairly caught the kite and carried -it up into the air, the boy who holds the -string need run no longer, but if the breeze -suddenly fails, and the kite begins to drop, -he may still keep his toy aloft by running -quickly along and dragging the kite after -him; the artificial wind he thus creates making -up for the lack of the other.</p> - -<p>Now let us suppose that there is no string -to hold the kite in proper position, and no -boy to run with it; but that their places -are supplied by a motor and propeller to -drive it through the air; while at the same -time it is so balanced as to preserve a fitting -angle against a wind of its own making. -We should then have a true flying machine, -heavier than air, and yet capable of sailing -through the sky.</p> - -<p>This is the kind of flying machine that -inventors at the present moment are trying to -produce. They have, in their machines, to -reproduce artificially two essential conditions -that cause a kite to fly. They have to provide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">111</a></span> -a substitute for the strength of the wind, and -also a substitute for the pull of the string which -keeps the kite at the best angle to profit by -that strength. The first they achieve by using -a suitable engine or motor, and the second by -supplying it with what are called “aeroplanes”—large -flat surfaces, light but rigid, inclined -at a suitable angle to the horizon. By the use -of these the power of the engine is employed to -best advantage in causing the machine to sail -through the sky.</p> - -<p>The great advantage of the aeroplane over -any other mode of flying is thus described by -Major Baden-Powell, one of our greatest living -authorities on aeronautical matters: “When -people realise that in the case of the aeroplane -a contrivance like the awning of a small steam -launch is capable of supporting the man and -the engines, and that in the case of the balloon -a mass like a big ship is necessary to lift the -same weight, one can readily understand the -advantages of the aeroplane, especially when -to the drawbacks of the bulky balloon are -added the great difficulties inherent in the -retention of a large volume of expensive, -inflammable, and subtle gas, ever varying in -its density.”</p> - -<p>The most successful inventors of flying -machines at the present day are all Americans, -though one of them has made his experiments -on this side of the Atlantic. They are Sir -Hiram Maxim, inventor of the famous gun,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">112</a></span> -and one of the greatest mechanicians living; -Professor Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian -Institute, Washington; and the brothers -Wright.</p> - -<p>Mr. Maxim, as he then was, commenced -his experiments in the early nineties. As -we have already shown, he went to Nature -for his guide, and in constructing his flying -machine took as his analogy the flight of -birds. Birds urge their way onwards in the -air by reason of the strength of their wings. -A flying machine must do the same by the -power of its engine; and as a bird’s wings -must be strong in proportion to the bird’s -weight, so the strength or horse-power of the -engine must stand in a certain proportion -to the number of pounds it weighs. Mr. -Maxim’s first task, therefore, was to discover -what proportion this must be, and by his -experiments he arrived at a conclusion which -Professor Langley in America, working at -the same task at the same time, but quite -independently, had also proved to be true, -namely, that the faster a machine travels -through the air the greater weight it may -carry; or, in other words, the quicker a body -moves through the atmosphere the less tendency -will it have to fall to the ground. A -quick-flying bird like an albatross, therefore, -flies with less exertion, and so could carry a -greater weight, than a slow-moving bird like a -goose. It must therefore be to the advantage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">113</a></span> -of the flying machine that its engines should -attain as great a speed as possible.</p> - -<p>Maxim’s next task was to construct a suitable -engine. Light but powerful engines had -not then reached the pitch of perfection they -have now, and his results proved at the time a -perfect revelation of what could be done in -this direction, and led to great advances being -made.</p> - -<div id="ip_113" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21.125em;"> - <img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="338" height="264" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Maxim Airship.</span></div></div> - -<p>Next came the designing of the great -machine itself. It was an enormous apparatus, -weighing over three tons, capable of carrying -three men, and supported by no less than 4000<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">114</a></span> -square feet of aeroplanes, placed one above the -other. Its steam-engine was of 363 horse-power, -and worked two screws of nearly 18 -feet in diameter. Before such a machine could -rise from the ground it must first have attained -a very great forward impetus, and this it was -to receive by running at a great speed on -wheels along a railway track specially laid -down for it. To prevent the apparatus rising -unduly, a reversed rail was erected a short -distance above, on which the machine would -begin to run as soon as it lifted itself off the -lower track. Along this railway the flying -machine was tested, and it was found that as -soon as a speed of thirty-six miles an hour was -reached the wheels were lifted clear off the -ground, and were running only upon the upper -rail. On the last occasion a speed of forty-two -miles an hour was attained, when the lifting -power became so great that the restraining rail -broke away altogether, and the great flying -machine actually floated in the air for a few -moments, “giving those on board the sensation -of being in a boat,” until, steam being shut off, -it fell to the ground and was broken.</p> - -<p>The enormous expense of his experiments -has not prevented Sir Hiram Maxim from -repeating them, and he hopes soon to have -a much improved machine. Nevertheless his -experience and calculations have been of great -value to those who would follow in his footsteps, -and have proved the possibility of constructing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">115</a></span> -a flying machine which shall fly by -virtue of its own motion.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile in America Professor Langley -was experimenting, independently, almost on -the same lines. He also was bent on producing -a flying machine, but instead of starting to work -upon a large apparatus like Maxim, he began -by making models, and gradually worked his -way up to bigger things. For many months -he studied to understand the principle of those -ingenious little toys sometimes seen, which, by -means of the tension of a twisted india-rubber -band, will keep afloat in the air for a few -seconds. Next he constructed small models -driven by steam, in which he found his great -difficulty was in keeping down the weight. -For years he persevered in his work without -any great success, until in 1896 he produced -a model machine which he called an “aerodrome.” -It was quite small, weighing with -its engine only 25 lbs., and measuring but -14 feet from tip to tip of its aeroplanes. The -experiments were made over water, and the -necessary momentum was given by dropping -it from a platform 20 feet high. On more -than one occasion this little flying machine -rose with great steadiness in the face of the -wind to a height of 100 feet, moving so -smoothly that it might have carried a glass -of water without spilling a drop; and then, -the steam of its engine being exhausted, sank -down gracefully upon the water, having flown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">116</a></span> -about half a mile in a minute and a half. -This success encouraged Professor Langley -next to construct a full-sized flying machine -on the same lines; but this on its first voyage -plunged headlong into the water and was hopelessly -damaged. The United States Government -have since granted him a sum of money -to continue his experiments.</p> - -<p>Latest of all the airship inventors, and -perhaps so far the most successful, are the -brothers Wright. Up to the date of writing -this the full details of their work are not yet -made public, but it is known that on the 17th -of December 1903, their machine, which consists -of two large aeroplanes driven forward by -an engine of sixteen horse-power, after being -started along a short track on level ground, -rose into the air and flew for about half a -mile.</p> - -<p>It remains for us now to make brief mention -of how men have tried, and are still trying, to -imitate the soaring or gliding flight of birds -without the use of machinery to assist them. -We have seen how an albatross can, when the -wind is blowing, convert itself, as it were, into -a kite, and keep aloft in the air for a while -without moving its wings. Similarly many -people have attempted, by attaching themselves -to a large supporting surface or aeroplane, -and casting themselves off from a -height, to glide with the wind across wide -stretches of country. In this mode of soaring<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">117</a></span> -flight some have made considerable progress. -Herr Lilienthal, a German, was perhaps for a -time the most successful. He started from -small beginnings, jumping off a spring board -a few feet high, and gradually increasing the -height as he became more accustomed to his -apparatus. Later he had a large artificial -mound made specially for him, and from the -top of this he would throw himself into the -air, and with a favourable wind sail a distance -of four hundred yards at a considerable height -above the ground. Lilienthal’s experiments, -however, came to a sad end. On August the -11th, 1896, after he had glided along in the air -for about two hundred yards, a sudden gust of -wind caught the wide-spread wings of his -apparatus, and tilted it upwards. This caused -him to lose his balance, and he fell from a -height of sixty feet and broke his spine. A -similar accident also caused the death, a few -years later, of a young Englishman, Mr. -Percy S. Pilcher, who had been following up -Lilienthal’s experiments.</p> - -<p>The greatest difficulty now to be overcome -in solving the problem of human flight, whether -with soaring apparatus or flying machine, may -be summed up in one word—“balance.” Every -schoolboy knows that the great art of kite-flying -consists in so adjusting the point of -attachment of the string and the length of -the tail that his kite is properly balanced, and -is not liable to turn over or “dip” when in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">118</a></span> -the air. Every observer of birds, too, has -noticed how largely the question of balance -enters into their flying. A bird in the air is -continually and instinctively adjusting its -wings to its position, and to every puff of -wind, even as a man on a bicycle is continually, -though unconsciously, adjusting his -handle-bar to the inequalities of the road; -and as a cyclist requires practice before he -can ride his machine, or a skater before he -can keep his feet on the ice, so even a bird -has to learn how to balance itself before it -can use its wings.</p> - -<p>Dwellers in the country are familiar with -the way in which the parent birds teach their -fledglings to fly, instructing them by example, -and encouraging them in their first short flights -until they have become familiar with their -powers and can balance themselves aright in -the air. And if even birds, with whom flying -is an instinct, have to learn the art of balancing -themselves in the air by practice, how much -more so must such a clumsy creature as a -man, to whom flying is entirely unnatural. -Only by long and painful efforts can he ever -hope to succeed at all, and unfortunately all -such efforts are necessarily very dangerous. -Many disastrous accidents have already -occurred, and although great progress has -been made, and the time may not now -be far distant when, by means of improved -machines, men will actually fly, it will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">119</a></span> -be at the cost of much labour, and, it is to -be feared, at the sacrifice of many more -brave lives.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="vspace"><a id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">CONCLUSION</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In our last chapters we have, in some measure, -brought our aeronautical history up to the -present day, though of necessity many important -points and notable voyages have been -passed over unnoticed. It now remains to us -but to gather up the loose ends of the story, -and then briefly to indicate the direction in -which we may expect new advances in the -future.</p> - -<p>And, first of all, it may be well to mention -a few ballooning “records.” The largest -balloon ever known was used as a captive -at the Paris Exhibition of 1878. It was of -883,000 cubic feet capacity, and capable of -lifting more than fifty passengers at a time. -Other mammoth balloons of almost as great -dimensions have also been employed for captive -work; but the largest balloon intended specially -for “right away” ascents was the “Giant,” -built in Paris in 1863 by M. Nadar. It held -215,000 cubic feet of gas, and was made of -22,000 yards of best white silk, at 5s. 4d. a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">120</a></span> -yard. The car was particularly elaborate, -almost as big as a small cottage, being of -two stories, and divided into several rooms. -It proved, however, to be a very dangerous -adjunct, for on the two occasions it was -used those within received very serious injury -during rough landings, and it was soon put -aside and replaced by an ordinary basket. -None of these monster sky craft appear to -have been very successful, and at the present -day the largest balloons in general use do not -exceed 50,000 or 60,000 cubic feet capacity.</p> - -<p>The honour of the longest aerial voyage -ever made rests with the unfortunate Andrée, -who, if his dates are to be relied upon, had -been forty-eight hours aloft in his balloon -when he despatched his last found message. -Not far behind in point of time, however, was -Count de la Vaulx, who in the summer of -1901 attempted to cross the Mediterranean by -balloon. Contrary winds in the end baffled -his venture, and he was forced to descend on -the deck of a steamer which was following his -course, but not before he had spent forty-one -hours in the sky. The year previous the Count -had also achieved a record long-distance voyage -in connection with some balloon competitions -held during the French “Exposition” of 1900. -Starting from Paris, he descended in Russia, -1193 miles away, having been aloft thirty-six -hours all but fifteen minutes.</p> - -<p>For lofty ascents the palm still rests with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">121</a></span> -Glaisher and Coxwell, whose famous voyage -of 1862, when, as related, a height of 37,000 -feet (or seven miles) is said to have been -reached, has never been equalled. The exact -altitude attained on this occasion is, however, -as we have explained, only conjectural, neither -being capable at the last of taking observations, -and no height being <em>registered</em> over -29,000 feet. On July 31st, 1901, two German -scientists, Dr. Berson and Dr. Suring, ascended -from Berlin to a <em>registered</em> altitude of 34,400 -feet, or well over six miles. They were provided -with compressed oxygen to breathe, but -even then became unconscious during the last -800 feet of the ascent. Three years before Dr. -Berson had made a very lofty ascent in England, -accompanied by Mr. Stanley Spencer, when -a height of 27,500 feet was reached. A terrible -accident occurred in connection with a lofty -scientific ascent made from Paris in 1875 by -Tissandier, inventor of the airship already -mentioned, and two companions. Their object -was to attain a record height, in which -they indeed succeeded, reaching 28,000 feet. -But despite the artificial air they took with -them to breathe, they all three became unconscious -in the extreme upper regions, and -when, after one of the most awful voyages -in the whole history of ballooning, Tissandier -came to himself, it was to find the bodies of -his two friends stiff and cold beside him in -the car.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">122</a></span> -Coming to the aeronautical work of the -present day, it is humiliating to have to -confess that, through lack of public support, -England has somewhat fallen behind other -nations. In America and on the Continent -large sums of money are subscribed for experiments -with balloons, airships, and flying -machines; but in our own country all efforts in -these directions are due to private enterprise -alone. Among those most keenly interested -in aeronautical progress may be mentioned -Mr. P. Alexander, of Bath; Major Baden-Powell, -President of the English Aeronautical -Society; and the Rev. J. M. Bacon. The -latter has made many scientific balloon ascents -for the study of meteorology, acoustics, and -other kindred sciences, and his observations -have proved of much interest and value. -During his voyages he has met with several -adventures, though no serious mishaps. On -one occasion, when the writer accompanied -him, during a night ascent made to observe -the great shower of Leonid shooting stars -foretold for the 16th of November 1899, -the balloon became unmanageable while lost -above the clouds. For ten hours it refused -to come down, during much of which time -the sea was heard beneath, and the voyagers -believed themselves blown out over the Atlantic. -A very stormy landing, in which the -writer broke her arm, was eventually made near -the coast in South Wales as before mentioned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">123</a></span> -In November 1902, Mr. Bacon, accompanied -by Mr. Percival Spencer, crossed the -Irish Channel by balloon, the second time -only this dangerous passage has been made, -the first occasion being the voyage of Mr. -Windham Sadler, eighty-five years before. -Mr. Bacon’s voyage was partly undertaken for -the Admiralty, who lent the services of a gunboat -to follow the balloon’s course over the -sea. One of the special objects of investigation -was to test a theory, long held, that from -a considerable height aloft the bottom of the -sea becomes visible, even in rough weather -when the surface is troubled with waves. -This point was very successfully settled, for -although the sea was very rough, Mr. Bacon -not only saw, but succeeded in photographing, -from a height of 600 feet, the beds of sand and -rock lying in ten fathoms at the bottom of -the Irish Channel—a feat never before accomplished.</p> - -<p>In scientific observations of the upper -atmosphere a valuable ally to the balloon -has been found in the kite. The making of -kites has now reached a high pitch of perfection, -and by their means self-recording -scientific instruments can be raised to vast -heights in the air, and even men carried aloft -with safety. A kite which latterly has -excited much attention is the Cody kite. -With this, during the autumn of 1903, its -inventor, a Mexican, hazarded a bold venture.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">124</a></span> -Harnessing it to a light boat, and -waiting for a favourable wind, he started -from Calais at eight o’clock one November -evening, and was safely towed all night across -the Channel, reaching Dover at five the next -morning.</p> - -<p>The aeronautical competitions at the St. -Louis Exhibition, in America, have given -a great impetus to one branch at least of -aeronautics, while the labour of many -scientific workers throughout the whole world -is directed to the improvement of our present -modes of exploring the heavens, and the -turning to best account of the means already -at our disposal. Never since the days when -the Montgolfier brothers floated their first -frail craft has so much interest as now been -manifested in the conquest of the sky, and -never has progress been more rapid and sure. -Whether the day will ever come when man -will rule the atmosphere as he now does the -sea is, as yet, uncertain, but there are many -who hope and believe not only that he will, -but that the day is not far distant when the -birds will no longer hold undisputed sway -over the empire of the air.</p> - -<p class="p2 center smaller vspace"> -Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.</span><br /> -Edinburgh & London -</p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained.</p> - -<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Balloons, Airships, and Flying Machines, by -Gertrude Bacon - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BALLOONS, AIRSHIPS, FLYING MACHINES *** - -***** This file should be named 54799-h.htm or 54799-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/7/9/54799/ - -Produced by deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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