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diff --git a/old/55053-0.txt b/old/55053-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b54a97d..0000000 --- a/old/55053-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10131 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. V, February 1885, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Chautauquan, Vol. V, February 1885 - -Author: The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -Editor: Theodore L. Flood - -Release Date: July 5, 2017 [EBook #55053] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. V, FEB 1885 *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. - ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._ - - VOL. V. FEBRUARY, 1885. No. 5. - -Officers of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - -_President_, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. _Chancellor_, J. H. Vincent, -D.D., New Haven, Conn. _Counselors_, The Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; -the Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C. -Wilkinson, D.D.; Edward Everett Hale. _Office Secretary_, Miss Kate -F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. _General Secretary_, Albert M. Martin, -Pittsburgh, Pa. - - - -Contents - -Transcriber’s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was -created for the HTML version to aid the reader. - - - REQUIRED READING FOR FEBRUARY - How English Differs From Other Languages 247 - Sunday Readings - [_February 1_] 250 - [_February 8_] 251 - [_February 15_] 251 - [_February 22_] 252 - Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics - Chemistry of Fire.—Ancient Fancies 252 - Temperance Teachings of Science: or, the Poison Problem - Chapter V.—Prohibition 255 - Studies in Kitchen Science and Art - V. Tea, Coffee and Chocolate 257 - Household Beverages 260 - Huxley on Science 261 - The Circle of the Sciences 264 - The Poet’s Vision 267 - The Homelike House - Chapter II.—The Family Parlor 268 - National Aid to Education 271 - The Parson’s Comforter 274 - The Smithsonian Institution 275 - Geography of the Heavens for February 279 - New Orleans 280 - The Upper Chautauqua 284 - Outline of Required Readings, February, 1885 285 - Programs for Local Circle Work 286 - Local Circles 286 - The C. L. S. C. Classes 291 - Questions and Answers 293 - The Chautauqua University - Can Language Be Taught By Correspondence? 295 - Editor’s Outlook 296 - Editor’s Note-Book 299 - C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for February 301 - Notes on Required Readings in “The Chautauquan” 302 - Talk About Books 305 - Special Notes 306 - C. L. S. C. Graduates 306 - - - - -REQUIRED READING FOR FEBRUARY. - - - - -HOW ENGLISH DIFFERS FROM OTHER LANGUAGES. - -BY RICHARD GRANT WHITE. - - -It has occurred to me that some readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN may have -been disappointed in these articles because in their judgment they have -been thus far not sufficiently “practical.” Many people, far too many, -desire chiefly to find some short, straight road to knowledge. They like -to have some man who is called an “authority” upon a certain subject -cut his knowledge up into small parcels or “chunks” of convenient size, -and arrange them with labels, alphabetically, in an article or a book, -so that they maybe referred to at need, and followed like a recipe for -making a pudding, and with as little thought. But there are no such -recipes for acquiring real knowledge. In this way an acquaintance with -facts may be made which, used blindly, may prove of some immediate -service, and may not. Nothing, however, learned in this perfunctory way -is worthy of the name of knowledge. For it is a barren process; it really -teaches nothing; it profits nothing; it does nothing for the education -of the person by whom it is adopted. Real knowledge comes only by a -thoughtful learning of the relations of facts. True as to all subjects, -this is eminently true as to language; because, language is eminently -a subject of relations. There is hardly a word that we use which has -not relations to other words, and other forms of speech; relations -historical, spiritual, almost moral; to set forth which in detail would -furnish occasion for a little essay. The mere learning to speak and to -write a language is only a matter of memory and practice; nothing more. -It is child’s work, and it is continually done, and is best done, by -children. A man may speak and write English, French, German or Latin -with unexceptionable correctness and fluency, and yet know no more about -that language than a well instructed parrot would which had been taught -to use all the words which he uses. His study would not be a study of -language; and in that which he had painfully learned he might be easily -and unconsciously surpassed by a child who had never studied at all. Now -what I hope to do here is to help my readers to some knowledge of the -English language, in so far as my own imperfect acquaintance with my -mother tongue and its literature will enable me to do so. - -We have seen what English is, of what stuff it is made, how it came -by its present compositeness of substance; how it became strong, and -full, and flexible, and fervent; let us now look a little into its -structure, _i. e._, the way in which it is put together, in doing which -we shall see by comparison how it differs from other languages. This -matter of structure, the formation of the sentence, is the distinctive -trait of a language. Mere words are not the essential difference between -languages. Many words are common (with slight phonetic variation) to all -the languages of the Aryan or Indo-European stock, as we have already -seen. Multitudes of words have been adopted into all the modern tongues -from other languages ancient and modern, dead and living, as most of -the readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN know. The bulk of English dictionaries -like Webster’s and Worcester’s is composed of words which are of Latin, -Greek, French or Italian origin, and which indeed are essentially the -same words in all these languages; their unlikeness being merely a -phonetic variation, mostly caused by difference in pronunciation, or -change in termination. For example, _flower_ is in Latin _flos_ (genitive -_floris_), in Italian _fiore_, in French _fleur_, in Spanish _flor_; -each language having somewhat changed the sound of the word, according -to rules or habits which are loosely called laws; but the word is in -all essentially the same. A sentence—many sentences—might be written -in English, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish and German, in which all -the words of subject-matter (all but verbs like _have_ and _be_, and -prepositions and conjunctions) should be essentially the same, and so -like that an intelligent person with some faculty for language, and who -understood any one of these languages, could apprehend the meaning of -any one of the supposed sentences with little difficulty. And yet the -sentences would be respectively English, Latin, French, and so forth. Why -and how? It is to the reason of this, that is the why and the how of it, -that we shall now give a little time and attention. - -The most important and significant distinction between languages is -in their grammar; that is, in the structure of the sentence. In the -languages mentioned above the greatest unlikeness in this respect is -manifested in English, Latin and German, or to name them in their -order of grammatical importance, Latin, German and English. The term -“grammar” has two senses; one large and vague, and called by some -“philosophical” or “scientific” (phrases commonly used with a deplorable -union of pretension and looseness), which includes all that relates to -the history, the substance and the structure of a language; the other -much narrower and simpler; the sense implied when the phrases “good -grammar” and “bad grammar” are used. To this sense I shall here confine -myself, and shall here repeat a definition of grammar which I have given -before.[A] - -Grammar concerns the forms of words and their dependent relations in the -sentence. - -To illustrate this: It is “bad grammar,” ludicrously, monstrously bad -grammar, to say in Latin, _Nos habeo bonus mater_, and yet these Latin -words, literally and simply translated in their order, mean, We have a -good mother, which in English is perfectly “good grammar.” In the Latin -(to call it Latin) every word is wrong; in English every word is right. -The reason of this is that in Latin words change their forms according -to their relations, not according to their essential meaning. _Habeo_ -means have; but it can not be used to express a plural having; that -requires for _we_ (_nos_) the form _habemus_. _Bonus_ means good; but it -can not be used to express the goodness of a feminine object, for which -the form _bona_ is required. Yet further: Even _bona_ can not be used -to qualify a noun which is the object of a verb, or, as we say, in the -objective (or accusative) case, for which the form _bonam_ is required. -_Mater_ means mother, but as the object of the verb _have_, _mater_ must -change its form to _matrem_. By these required changes of form the Latin -sentence becomes, _Nos habemus bonam matrem_, which is “good grammar,” -although poor Latin, but which, after all the changes, means simply, We -have a good mother; nothing more nor less. Yet further: The sentence, -as written above, although grammatical, is poor Latin because it is at -variance with the habit, or as it is sometimes called the spirit, or even -the genius, of the Latin language. In Latin the word _habemus_ (although -like _habeo_ it means simply, have) is so positively and distinctively -limited in use to the first person plural that the pronoun _nos_—we—is -quite superfluous, and is never used unless with an emphatic purpose; -_habemus_, without the _nos_, means, we have. Moreover it was the Latin -habit of speech to place the object generally before the verb; and good -Latin for, We have a good mother would be, _bonam matrem habemus_—_i. -e._, A good mother we have, or rather (literally) Good mother we have for -the Latin strangely has no articles, or none which correspond to our _an_ -(_or a_) and _the_, and which may be translated by them. - -This illustration, brief and simple although it be, is sufficient, I -think, to make the great and essential distinction between English and -Latin, and measurably between English and all other modern civilized -tongues, clear to the readers of these articles. The essential difference -is not one of words but of the construction of the sentence. In Latin and -other languages that construction depends not upon the thought and the -meaning of the words, but upon the forms of the words—their inflections. -Now the distinctive trait of English is that it is a language without -inflections—not absolutely so, but so to all intents and purposes; and, -being without inflections, it is therefore without grammar, which, as we -have seen, concerns the forms of words and their dependent relations in -the sentence. _Nos habeo bonus mater_ is bad grammar because the forms -of the words are incorrect according to the usage of the Latin language. -_Bonus_ means good; but for the expression of the quality good in its -barest, simplest idea _bonus_ takes on five forms in Latin; _bonus_ -for masculine goodness in the singular, _bona_ for feminine singular, -_bonum_ for neuter singular; _boni_ masculine plural; _bonæ_ feminine -plural, _bona_ neuter plural. To be brief; for use in various relations, -this word _bonus_ takes on no less than thirteen forms, of which more -need not here be given. _Mater_—mother—takes on eight of these forms -or inflections, which are called cases. But in English _good_ has but -one form. Singular, plural, masculine, feminine, neuter, nominative, -possessive, dative, objective, vocative—in whichever of these senses the -word which it qualifies is used it has but one form—_good_. Thus it is -with all English adjectives, and with articles (_an_ and _the_) which -are a kind of adjective. In all other languages adjectives and articles -have various forms adapted to the various numbers, genders, and cases of -nouns. In English nouns have two cases (strictly but one, the nominative -not being a true case), the second of which is the possessive: _e. g._, -mother’s; and they have a singular and a plural form, _e. g._, _mother_, -_mothers_. - -In other languages the verb is inflected into a multitude of forms, -expressive of voice (active and passive), person, number and time of -action. In English the variations of form in the verb are very few. There -is no passive voice. The English has but one passive verb; the obsolete -_hight_, which means, is called. As to time, there are only the forms -of present and perfect, e. g., _love_ and _loved_; as to person and -number, inflections only in the present tense, e. g., _love_, _lovest_, -_loves_; and of these one, _lovest_, is obsolete, or very obsolescent. -To these inflected forms there is to be added only the present or -indefinite participle _loving_. Beyond this there are in English, by -way of inflection, only the cases of the pronouns, e. g., _he_, _his_, -_him_, _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _etc._ And it is here to be remarked that -almost all the questions of “good grammar” and “bad grammar” that arise -in English relate to the use of pronouns. (For surely we may leave out -of consideration here the difficulties of those who say _I see_ or _I -seen him_, for _I saw him_, or _I have went_ for _I have gone_, and the -like.) Here, therefore, we have set forth, although very succinctly, the -distinctive grammatical position of the English language. - -That position is briefly this: In English words have (with the few -exceptions mentioned above) but one form; and as grammar is concerned -only with the formal relations of words in the sentence, English has no -grammar. Among languages it is the grammarless tongue. - -Let us further illustrate this point by a brief consideration of a -subject which is very perplexing to the learners of a foreign language, -and which is not less so to the historical students of language in -general; a subject which, I believe, has never been explained by the -latter with any semblance of satisfaction—gender. All other languages are -infested with gender; in English there is no such distinction in words -as that of gender. English, it should be needless to say, has words to -express difference of sex; that no language can fail to do, for failing -in that, it would not communicate the facts and thoughts of every-day -life. But grammatical gender has no relation to sex, no relation to the -essential characteristics of things. Gender, grammatical gender, is an -attribute of _words_. He creatures are male, she creatures female, and -the words which are their names are generally (but not universally) -masculine and feminine in all languages. Things neither male nor female -are neuter, which means merely, neither. But this is not gender. Gender, -as I have said before, is an attribute of words; of words only. For -example, the Latin word _penna_—a pen, or quill, is feminine; in French -the word _table_—table, is also feminine. It is needless to say that -there is no question as to the sex of a pen, or of a table; nor is -there any quality in either of those objects which has a sexual trait -or characteristic. In each case it is the word which is of the feminine -gender; and in all, or almost all, languages but English all or almost -all words are afflicted with this mysterious pest of gender. How annoying -and perplexing it is, and how it complicates the use of language, and -makes the acquisition of foreign languages difficult, no student needs -be told. For it creates an ever present and far-reaching perplexity. It -dominates the construction of the sentence and binds it up in bonds -of iron. For every adjective, and in French and other languages having -articles, every article which is applied to a noun must be of the gender -of that noun. You can not say in Latin _bonus penna_, a good pen, without -“bad grammar,” you must say _bona penna_. You can not say in French _un -mauvais table_, a bad table, but must say _une mauvaise table_; nor _le -table_, but _la table_—although both mean the table, nothing more nor -less. The absurdity of this is made very apparent when a feminine word -is applied to a male object. Thus _majesté_—majesty, is feminine; but -when a king is called your majesty, the words _sa majesté_ (her majesty) -are used because the _word majesty_ is feminine; and instead of saying -he (_il_) did thus or so, we must say she (_elle_) did it, although the -she was a man; the reason being that the word _majesté_ is feminine.[1] -All this has been swept clean away in English, in which language there -is no distinction of gender but only that of sex: male creatures, or -those so personified, are masculine, female, feminine; those which have -no sex are neuter; and there an end. English is eminently a language -of common sense; and one marked evidence of this trait is its freeing -itself entirely from the nuisance of grammatical gender along with other -grammatical trammels.[2] - -It has _freed_ itself from those trammels; for at one time it was -hampered by them sorely. Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, was an inflected -speech, and was tied up in the bonds of gender and other grievous -grammatical tetherings. This was long ago; but it was after Britain had -become England, or Engle-land, the land of the English people and of -English speech. When our English forefathers were little better than -semi-savages, bloody, barbarous, heathen, worshiping Thor and Woden, and -in a state of benighted ignorance of which it would be difficult for -those of my readers who have not tried to pierce the darkness of that -historical past to form even an approximate notion—at this time, and in -this social and intellectual condition of the speakers of the English -language, it was copiously provided with grammar. Even Greek had not much -the better of it in this respect. It had not only forms for person and -number, but gender forms, and cases galore.[3] Take, for example, a word -which was English a thousand years ago, just as it is to-day, _man_. This -simple word has undergone no change in all the thousand years, unless -by losing a little breadth of sound; it having probably been pronounced -_mahn_, of which sound the rustic _mon_ of provincial England is a relic -and representative. But _man_ could not be used pure and simple, under -all circumstances and in all cases, in the English of that day any more -than, as we have seen, _mater_ and _bonus_ could be so used in Latin. -There was the nominative singular—_man_, simply; the genitive _mannes_—of -a man; the dative _men_, to or for a man; accusative _mannan_—a man -objectively; nominative plural _men_; genitive _manna_—of men, or men’s; -and a dative _mannum_—to or for men. - -Of all these various forms or cases of _man_, the language has freed -itself, excepting the genitive singular, _mannes_, and the nominative -plural, _men_. These have been retained, not by accident, or neglect, but -at the dictate of common sense, because convenience and intelligibility -required their use. It was found necessary to distinguish the plural -from the singular; and the genitive or possessive idea from the simple -and absolute; but _man_ as a dative or accusative singular, and _men_ as -the same in the plural, were found quite as useful and convenient as the -old inflected forms; and therefore (or therefore finally and in a great -measure) the latter were discarded. The genitive or possessive has been -retained; but it has slightly changed its form; by contraction only, -however; _mannes_ has become _man’s_. The old sign of the possessive was -_es_; and it is this, and not the pronoun _his_ (as once was supposed) -that is represented in our possessive case, in which the apostrophe -merely marks the elision of the old _e_. There is really no good reason -for the use of the apostrophe, none which would not apply equally to many -other cases in which no elision is marked. In the Elizabethan era it was -not used, and with no consequent confusion. Mans folly, the boys hat, -Johns coat, are as clear in meaning as they would be with the apostrophe; -and the possible confusion of the possessive with the plural, as in that -fancy of the girls, and that fancy of the girl’s is so remote and so very -unlikely as to be worthy of little consideration. - -As to English in its earliest form (Anglo-Saxon) suffice it here to say -in this regard that it was so largely an inflected language, that is, it -varied the forms of its words so numerously to express time of action, -mode of action, person, number, case, and gender, that it is in this -respect almost as unlike modern English as Greek is, and is little less -difficult of acquirement to the English speaking student of to-day than -Latin. Its very articles had gender forms as well as case forms; and, -moreover, like the Mæso-Gothic and like the Greek it had preserved the -old dual number (for the expression of a plural of two) although only in -the personal pronoun. A comparative examination of the pronoun of the -first person and of the present tense of the verb _to have_ in their -ancient and modern forms will show the mode and the reason of the changes -by which English has assumed its present character. - -OLD ENGLISH PRONOUN OF THE FIRST PERSON. - - SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. - - N. _ic_, I. _wit_, us two. _we_, we. - - G. _min_, of me. _uncer_, of us two. _ure_, of us. - - D. _me_, to, for, with me. _unc_, to or for us two. _us_, to, for, - with us. - - A. _me_, me (objectively). _unc_, us two. _us_, us. - -The dual form has been swept away entirely as needless, and worse, -cumbrous and perplexing; but it will be seen that we have retained every -one of the other forms. _Ic_ has become I; _mine_ is still the possessive -of I; _me_ is still not only the objective form of the first person, but -the dative, “make me a hat,” or “buy me a horse,” being merely “make a -hat to or for me,” or “buy to or for me a horse.” _We_ and _us_ will be -recognized at sight, and _ure_ has only changed its pronunciation from -_oor_ to _our_. These forms have been retained in our modern English -partly because a pronoun is the most ancient of indestructible parts of -speech,[B] but chiefly because of their usefulness, their convenience. A -brief consideration of them by the intelligent reader will make this so -plain that more need not be said on the subject. - -Now let us see the unlike fate of the verb _to have_. This will be more -readily apparent if we look at it in Latin, in French, and in English (it -is actually the same word in all these languages, with slight phonetic -variation); and we shall thus also have another demonstration of the -manner in which English differs from other languages. - - SINGULAR. PLURAL. - - Latin. French. English. Latin. French. English. - - 1. _habeo._ _J’ai._ I have. _habemus._ _nous avons._ we have. - - 2. _habes._ _tu as._ thou hast. _habetis._ _vous avez._ you have. - - 3. _habet._ _il a._ he has. _habent._ _ils ont._ they have. - -It will be seen at once that the Latin and the French have each a special -plural form, and also three forms for the three persons of that number. -English has swept away this plural form entirely, and uses for the plural -in all its persons the simple _have_ of the first person singular. The -form of the second person singular has also virtually disappeared; the -simple _have_ appearing in its substitute, _you have_. Whether the form -of the third person singular will ever follow the other is doubtful; -but it is certain that our language has lost nothing in clearness, and -has gained much in simplicity by the doing away with all the formal -superfluity by which the old numbers and persons were distinguished. - -This simplification of the forms of words is not absolutely confined -to the English language. It appears to be a tendency of language; a -modern tendency, using modern in its widest sense. For this movement -toward simplification appears in the Latin, in the Romance tongues -formed from it, and in the Gothic languages. In none, however, does this -simplification, this destruction of superfluous forms, approach, even -remotely, that which has taken place in English. So different, indeed, -are the results, that the process seems, if not of another kind, at least -as having another motive. For example, all the other languages retain the -absurdity of gender. In this respect German is no better than French. And -let me here remark that the common notion that English and German are -most alike of all modern languages, and most nearly akin, is altogether -wrong. On the contrary, English and German are very unlike; the most -unlike of all the Gothic (or Teutonic) languages. English and French have -much greater likeness, both in substance and in structure. There are -more words now common to the English language and to the French than to -English and German; and the syntax of the French language is very much -more like that of the English, than German syntax is. A French sentence -literally translated in the French order of the words is, in most cases, -so like an English sentence that it requires little change to be correct -English, while a similar translation of a German sentence produces an -effect both harsh and ludicrous. - -The simple form of the English language is the result of two causes. -Of these the first in order of time was the conflict and subsequent -mingling of the Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and the Norman-French. When two -languages are thus brought together and are both spoken by two peoples, -all that is superfluous in the words of each soon begins to disappear. -Each people grasps only the essential in the foreign words which it is -obliged to use; each soon adopts the curtailed form of its speech used -by the neighbors of another race and speech with whom it is obliged to -live in daily communication; and ere long a composite speech of simpler -forms takes the place of two tongues—each of which was more complex in -structure, but less rich and varied in substance. By this process, out of -Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French, came modern English. But not only thus. -Other languages have mingled, but never before with such a result. Never -was there in any other amalgamation, such an esurience of superfluous -form; a devouring which has to all intents and purposes made English -a language of one-formed words, and therefore a language practically -without formal grammar. In this characteristic is its strength; from -this comes its flexibility, its adaptation to all the needs of man, the -highest and the lowest. Hence it is eminently the language of common -sense as well as of the highest flights of poetry. The English mind saw -that it was not necessary to have two words to express possession in the -singular and in the plural; that _good_ as clearly expressed the goodness -of a woman as of a man, and that of a dozen men as well as that of one; -that pens and tables needed no distinction of gender in their names; in -fact that nothing was gained, and that much was lost by these grammatical -excrescences; and therefore they were done away with very thoroughly, -almost entirely. The process was pretty well completed some three hundred -years or more ago; since when no noteworthy changes in this respect -have taken place. But it is still going on, although so slowly as to be -perceptible only on close examination. All the little specks of grammar -that English has are mostly to be found in the pronouns, as I have before -remarked. In the use of one of these a change is very gradually taking -place. _Whom_ has begun to disappear, began, indeed, a long time ago; but -of late is fading somewhat more perceptibly. For example: all speakers of -good English say, The man whom I saw, not The man who I saw; _whom_ being -the objective form of _who_. - -But now-a-days not one person in a hundred of the best bred and best -educated speakers of English asks, Whom did you see? but, _Who_ did you -see? Indeed, the latter form of the question may be regarded almost as -accepted English. Yet in the latter phrase, as in the former, the pronoun -is the object of the verb _see_, and should strictly have the objective -form. But, Whom did you see? would now sound very formal and precise, -almost priggish, like _gotten_ instead of _got_. When, however, the -pronoun is brought in direct contact with the verb, as in the phrase, The -man whom I saw, we shrink from insult to the little semblance of grammar -that our language possesses, and give the word its objective form. The -time will probably come, although it may be remote, when _whom_ will have -altogether disappeared. As to _gotten_, its use is now so confined to the -over-precise in this country as to make it almost an Americanism. Its -disappearance from our language in England is also one of the evidences -of the process of simplification which is still slowly going on. Another, -which has taken place within the memory of the elder living generation, -is the disappearance of the subjunctive mood, which is now obsolete, or -so very obsolescent as to be met with very rarely. But thirty-five or -forty years since correct writers used this mood, and wrote, for example, -_if he go_ instead of _if he goes_. Of the effect of this grammarless -condition of the English language we may see something in a subsequent -article. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[A] “Every Day English,” chapter xvii. - -[B] Certain uneasy manipulators of speech have lately set -themselves at making an impersonal English pronoun. Vanity of vanities! -Make a pronoun? As well undertake to build a pyramid. Better. There is -not a pronoun in use that was not hoary with age before the first stone -of Keops was laid. - - - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -SELECTED BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D. D. - - -[_February 1._] - -I find David making a syllogism, in mood and figure, two propositions he -perfected. - - (Ps. lxvi) 18. If I regard iniquity in my heart, the Lord will - not hear me. - - 19. But verily God hath heard me, he hath attended to the voice - of my prayer. - -Now I expected that David should have concluded thus: - - Therefore I regard not wickedness in my heart. - -But far otherwise he concludes: - - 20. Blessed be God, who hath not turned away my prayer, nor his - mercy from me. - -Thus David hath deceived, but not wronged me. I looked that he should -have clapped the crown on his own, and he puts it on God’s head. I will -learn this excellent logic, for I like David’s better than Aristotle’s -syllogisms, that, whatsoever the premises be, I make God’s glory the -conclusion. - - * * * * * - -Young King Jehoash had only a lease of piety, and not for his own, but -his uncle’s life (2 Kings xii:2): He did that which was right in the -sight of the Lord all his days, wherein Jehoiada the priest instructed -him. - -Jehu was good in the midst of his life, and a zealous reformer to the -utter abolishing of Baal out of Israel, but in his old age (2 Kings x:31) -he returned to the politic sins of Jeroboam, worshiping the calves in Dan -and Bethel. - -Manasseh was bad in the beginning and middle of his life, filling -Jerusalem with idolatry; only toward the end thereof, when carried into a -strange land, he came home to himself and destroyed the profane altars he -had erected. - -These three put together make one perfect servant of God. Take the -morning and rise with Jehoash, the noon and shine with Jehu, the night -and set with Manasseh. Begin with youth-Jehoash, continue with man-Jehu, -conclude with old-man-Manasseh, and all put together will spell one good -Christian, yea, one good, perfect performer. - -Constantly pray to God, that in his due time he would speak peace to -thee.… Prayers negligently performed draw a curse, but not prayers weakly -performed. The former is when one can do better, and will not; the latter -is when one would do better, but, alas! he can not.… - -Be diligent in reading the word of God, wherein all comfort is -contained.… Thou hast a great journey to go, a wounded conscience has -far to travel to find comfort (and though weary shall be welcome at his -journey’s end), and therefore must feed on God’s word, even against his -own dull disposition, and shall afterward reap benefit thereby.… - -Be industrious in thy calling; I press this the more because some -erroneously conceive that a wounded conscience cancels all indentures of -service, and gives them (during their affliction) a dispensation to be -idle. - -Let none in like manner pretend that (during the agony of a wounded -conscience) they are to have no other employment than to sit moping, -to brood over their melancholy, or else only to attend their devotion; -whereas a good way to divert or assuage their pain within is to take -pains without in their vocation. I am confident, that happy minute which -shall put a period to thy misery shall not find thee idle, but employed, -as some ever secret good is accruing to such who are diligent in their -calling.—_Fuller._[1] - - -[_February 8._] - -The Deity is intended to be the everlasting field of the human intellect, -as well as the everlasting object of the human heart, the everlasting -portion of all holy and happy minds, who are destined to spend a blissful -but ever active eternity in the contemplation of his glory.… He will -forever remain “the unknown God.” We shall ever be conscious that we -know little compared with what remains to be known of him; that our most -rapturous and lofty songs fall infinitely short of his excellence. If we -stretch our powers to the uttermost, we shall never exhaust his praise, -never render him adequate honor, never discharge the full amount of claim -which he possesses upon our veneration, obedience, and gratitude. When -we have loved him with the greatest favor, our love will still be cold -compared with his title to our devoted attachment. This will render him -the continual source of fresh delight to all eternity. His perfection -will be an abyss never to be fathomed; there will be depths in his -excellence which we shall never be able to penetrate. We shall delight in -losing ourselves in his infinity. An unbounded prospect will be extended -before us; looking forward through the vista of interminable ages we -shall find a blissful occupation for our faculties, which can never end; -while those faculties will retain their vigor unimpaired, flourish in the -bloom of perpetual youth, … and the full consciousness remain that the -Being whom we contemplate can never be found out to perfection … that -he may always add to the impression of what we know, by throwing a veil -of indefinite obscurity over his character. The shades in which he will -forever conceal himself will have the same tendency to excite our adoring -wonder as the effulgence of his glory; the depths in which he will -retire from our view, the recesses of his wisdom and power as the open -paths of his manifestation. Were we capable of comprehending the Deity, -devotion would not be the sublimest employment to which we can attain. -In the contemplation of such a Being we are in no danger of going beyond -our subject; we are conversing with an infinite object, … in the depths -of whose essence and purposes we are forever lost. This will probably -give all the emotions of freshness and astonishment to the raptures of -beatific vision, and add a delightful zest to the devotions of eternity. -This will enable the Divine Being to pour in continually fresh accessions -of light; to unfold new views of his character, disclose new parts of -his perfection, open new mansions of himself, in which the mind will -have ample room to expatiate. Thus shall we learn, to eternity, that, so -far from exhausting his infinite fullness, there still remain infinite -recesses in his nature unexplored—scenes in his counsels never brought -before the view of his creatures; that we know but “parts of his ways;” -and that instead of exhausting our theme, we are not even approaching -nearer to the comprehension of the Eternal All. It is the mysteriousness -of God, the inscrutability of his essence, the shade in which he is -invested, that will excite those peculiar emotions which nothing but -transcendent perfection and unspeakable grandeur can inspire.—_Robert -Hall._[2] - - -[_February 15._] - -We need not go far to seek the materials for an acceptable offering; they -lie all around us in the work of our callings, in the little calls which -divine Providence daily makes to us, in the little crosses which God -requires us to take up, nay, in our very recreations. The great point is -to have the mind set upon seeing and seeking in all things the service of -Christ and the glory of God, and, lo! every trifling incident which that -mind touches, every piece of work which it handles, every dispensation to -which it submits becomes a sacrifice. - - “If in our daily walks our mind - Be set to hallow all we find, - New treasures still of countless price - God will provide for sacrifice. - We need not bid for cloistered cell - Our neighbor and our work farewell, - Nor strive to wind ourselves too high - For sinful man beneath the sky; - The trifling round, the common task - Will furnish all we ought to ask, - Room to deny ourselves—a road - To bring us daily nearer God.” - -If we allow the beauties of nature to raise our heart to God, we turn -that into a sacrifice. If cross incidents, which could not be avoided -or averted, are taken sweetly and lovingly, out of homage to the living -will of God, this, too, is a sacrifice. If work be done in the full view -of God’s assignment of our several tasks and spheres of labor, and under -the consciousness of his presence, however secular in its character, it -immediately becomes fit for presentation on the altar. If refreshment and -amusement are so moderated as to help the spirit instead of dissipating -it, if they are to be seasoned with the wholesome salt of self-denial -(for every sacrifice must be seasoned with salt) they, too, become a holy -oblation. If we study even perverse characters, with a loving hope and -belief that we shall find something of God and Christ in them, which may -be made the nucleus of better things, and instead of shutting ourselves -up in a narrow sphere of sympathies, seek out and try to develop the -good points of a generally uncongenial spirit; if we treat men as Christ -treated them, counting that somewhere in every one there is a better -mind, and the trace of God’s finger in creation, we may thus possibly -sanctify an hour which would else be one of irksome constraint, and after -which we might have been oppressed with a heavy feeling that it had been -a wasted one. If a small trifle, destined to purchase some personal -luxury or comfort, be diverted to a charitable and religious end, this is -the regular and standing sacrifice of alms, recognized by the Scripture -and the Liturgy. And finally, if we regard our time as, next to Christ, -and the Holy Spirit, the most precious gift of God; if we gather up -the fragments and interstices of it in a thrifty and religious manner, -and employ them in some exercise of devotion or some good and useful -work, this, too, becomes a tribute which God will surely accept with -complacency, if laid upon his altar and united by faith and a devout -intention with the one Sacrifice of our dear Lord. - -Yes; if laid upon his altar; let us never forget or drop out of sight -that proviso. It is the altar, and the altar alone, which sanctifieth -the gift. Apart from Christ and his perfect sacrifice, an acceptable -gift is an impossibility for man. For at best our gifts have in them the -sinfulness of our nature; they are miserably flawed by defectiveness -of motive, duplicity of aim, infirmity of will. “The prayers of all -saints,” what force of interpretation must they have with God, if, as we -are sure, “the effectual, fervent prayer of a” (single) “righteous man -availeth much!” Yet when St. John saw in a vision “the prayers of all -saints” offered “upon the golden altar which was before the throne,” it -was in union with that which alone can perfume the tainted offsprings of -even the regenerate man. “There was given unto him much increase, that -he should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar -which is before the throne.” - -The increase is the intercession of Jesus. Place your offering, be -it prayer or alms, deed or work, or submission—in his hands for -presentation; pray him, as your only priest, to transact for you with -God, and he will do so. And the sense of God’s favor shall shine out upon -thy offering; and the dew of his blessing shall descend upon it, and ye -shall be gladdened with your Father’s smile.—_Goulburn._[3] - - -[_February 22._] - -_Heaven, as a place of residence and state of enjoyment, should always -be viewed in contrast with earth._ This is a state of pupilage and -probation, that of dignity and promotion. Here is conflict, there -victory. This is the race, that the goal. Here we suffer, there we -reign. Here we are in exile, there at home. On earth we are strangers -and pilgrims, in heaven fellow citizens with the saints; and, released -from the strife and turmoil, the bitterness and regrets of earth, are -incorporated forever with the household of God. - -This is triumph! How striking the contrast! How must earth and its -trials be lost sight of in such a vision! How must this contrast -strengthen the ties of confidence, and kindle the ardor of devotion! - -What did Moses care for the perils of the wilderness, when, from the -storm-defying steep of Pisgah, he viewed the land of promise, imaging -forth the green fields of heaven’s eternal spring! Look at Elijah, the -immortal Tishbite, exchanging the sighs and solitude of his juniper -shade, for wheels of fire and steeds of wind that bore him home to God! -Look at Paul—poor, periled and weary, amid the journeyings and conflicts -of his mission: the hand that once stretched the strong eastern tent, -or wore the dungeon’s chain, now sweeps in boldest strain the harps of -heaven.… Look at the Christian of apostolic and early times, exchanging -the clanking of his chains and the curses of his jailor—the dungeon’s den -and martyr’s stake—for the notes of gladness and lofty anthem pealing -from lute and harp, bedecked with eternal amaranth! The load of chain -with which he went out to meet the descending car of his triumph, with -its angel escort, was a richer dowry than the jewels of empire! The -taper that flickered in the dungeon of the sainted hero shot a ray more -glorious than ever spoke the splendor of the full-orbed moon! What are -the crowns or the diadems of all this world’s masters or Cæsars, compared -with the prospects of such an expectant! - - * * * * * - -Christians! what need we care, although on earth we were so poor and -low we had nor purse nor pillow; so few and trodden down we had no -power; and hamlets, huts and grottoes were the places where we wept and -prayed; if these are to be exchanged for a residence amid the jaspers and -chrysolites, the emeralds and sapphires of the heavenly Jerusalem! - -What though soiled by the dust of toil or damp with the dungeon’s -dew—struggling amid tattered want along our lone and periled path—when -even here we find ourselves invested with glory in the night of our -being, and sustained by hopes guiding and pointing us to the temple hymn -and the heavenly harp above! …—_Bascom._[4] - - - - -HOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. - -BY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D.D. - -Director of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science. - - -CHEMISTRY OF FIRE.—ANCIENT FANCIES. - -In all ages, and among all nations, fire has been regarded with peculiar -interest. Of the four great elements so essential to life—earth, air, -water, fire—the last has often been considered as divine in its origin -and influence. To the unscientific observer it seems more than matter, -and little less than spirit. Contemplating a flame, he sees that while -it has form, it lacks solidity. He may pass a sword through it, but like -the ghost of the story, no wound is made in its ethereal substance. Its -touch is softer than down, but it penetrates the hardest substances. The -diamond carves glass, but flame destroys the diamond. - -Men early found that fire was directly connected with their comfort and -progress, and even essential to their existence. How they first obtained -it is still matter of conjecture; whether it was brought down from -the skies, as the ancient Greeks supposed, struck out from the flinty -rock, evolved by the friction of dry wood, kindled by the lightning, or -obtained from the flaming torch of the volcano, we can not tell. - -Certain it is, that having once been obtained, all the early races were -very careful to preserve it. Among many it was regarded as sacred, and -kept perpetually burning, both in their places of worship and in their -homes. The officers appointed for its preservation were of the highest -rank and influence. Among the titles assumed by Augustus Cæsar was that -of keeper of the public fire. Whenever by accident the fire in the temple -of Vesta, at Rome, was extinguished, all public business was at once -suspended, because the connection between heaven and earth was believed -to be severed, and must be restored before business could properly -proceed. - -Grecian colonists carried fire to their new homes from the altar of -Hestia. The “Prytaneum”[1] of the ancient Greeks and Romans was a place -where the national fire was kept always burning; it was here the people -gathered, foreign ambassadors received, and hospitalities of the state -were offered. Here, too, heads of families obtained coals for lighting -their household fires, which in turn became sacred, so that every hearth -was an altar, where resided the Lares and Penates, the gods who presided -over the welfare of the home. - -Fancies akin to these beliefs of olden time may still be found among the -nations of the East and in northern Europe. - - -MODERN FALLACIES. - -No correct ideas of combustion were attained until the time of -Lavoisier.[2] This great French savant gave precision and accuracy to the -investigations of chemical science by the introduction of the balance. -He disproved the theory that “water is the ultimate principle of all -things,” and prepared the way for a clear apprehension of the truth -that matter, though constantly changing its form, is never destroyed. -He also announced the correct theory of combustion. Until this time -scientists had held what was called the “Phlogiston[3] Theory.” We can -but smile at the absurdity of this belief, and yet no hypothesis was ever -taught more positively, or maintained more tenaciously. It declared, in -brief, that when substances burned, they parted with a certain material -called phlogiston. When, at length, its advocates were asked to explain -the fact, discovered by Dr. Priestly,[5] that quicksilver, when burned, -weighed more than before, they were forced to put forward the ridiculous -statement that phlogiston possessed the property of “buoyancy” so that -when it was contained in a body its weight was lessened; which was as -wise as the brilliant supposition that a person can lift himself over a -fence by tugging at his boot straps. After a fierce struggle they were -forced to confess that they had placed “the cart before the horse.” -The truth was precisely opposite to their statement. Substances when -they burn take up something instead of giving it off. That something is -oxygen, and a body when burned, if it can be weighed, will be found to -weigh as much more as the added weight of the oxygen which has united -with it. Example: Iron-rust is iron, plus oxygen. - -[Illustration: MAGNESIUM RIBBON BURNING, AND PRODUCING MAGNESIC OXIDE -(MgO).[4]] - - -THE TRUE EXPLANATION. - -We shall here confine ourselves to the consideration of the heat and -light produced by chemical action. It will be remembered that by this -term (chemical action) is meant the process of uniting two or more -different elements to form a compound different from either. We usually -consider air essential to combustion, but this is not necessarily the -fact. Gold foil or powdered antimony, dropped into a jar of chlorine, -spontaneously ignites. Even in the interior of the earth, heat must be -produced by the uniting of any elements that have an affinity for each -other. - -[Illustration: BORACIC ACID IMPARTS A GREEN COLOR TO THE FLAME OF -ALCOHOL.[6]] - -The most common agent of combustion is oxygen. Of this interesting -gas some description has been given in a preceding article. It is the -fruitful source of almost all of our artificial heat. - -The fallen tree in the forest is slowly consumed by it, not less surely -than the flaming wood and coal in our stoves. The human body is a -furnace. In the minute corpuscles[7] of the blood, carbon is uniting with -oxygen as certainly as are the particles of carbon in the flame of our -lamps. - -Oxygen is the scavenger that partially cleans our gutters. It is a bird -of prey that devours the offal in our fields and woods. It is nothing -less than the gnawing tooth of old Father Time himself, which crumbles -cities and destroys all things. - -Combustion, as we now know it, consists simply in the union of some -combustible material with oxygen. The generic term for all this action -is “oxidation.” For convenience, special names are given to particular -modes. When metallic oxidation occurs we call the product “rusting.” -When oxygen unites with vegetable matter we call it decaying or rotting; -when with animal substances we term it rotting or putrefaction. When -flame is produced, the word combustion or burning is used. The amount of -heat generated is, in all cases, proportioned to the amount of chemical -action. Great ingenuity and skill have been shown in the discovery and -utilization of materials best calculated to combine readily with oxygen. -To these, as a class, has been applied the term - - -HYDRO-CARBONS. - -All substances composed essentially of the elements, hydrogen and carbon, -would come under this designation. These would include coal, wood, -petroleum, the fats, resins, wax and many others, with some of the gases, -among which may be named light and heavy carburetted hydrogen, CH₄ and -C₂H₄ respectively. - -[Illustration: PHOSPHORUS BURNING IN OXYGEN.[8]] - -In the days of our grandfathers tallow candles were almost universally -employed for lighting houses, and wood for warming them. It would not -be impossible to find even now, in our own country, homes illuminated -(?) by a rag burning in a saucer of fat. Some of us are not too young to -remember the bundle of candle-rods—nice, straight sticks used in dipping -candles—snugly put away for that purpose, alas! sometimes summoned forth -to assist in enforcing family discipline! - -[Illustration: GREEN FIRE COLORED BY A SALT OF BARIUM.[9]] - -Strands of twisted cotton wick were suspended from these sticks, and -successively dipped into a kettle of hot tallow, until external additions -made them of the requisite size. Tin candle moulds finally superseded -these. Then the wick was suspended in the center and the fat poured -in. In cooling, the candles contracted, and so slipped easily from -the moulds. Wax candles can not be cast in moulds, as they expand in -cooling. They are made by pouring successive additions upon them. They -are afterward given symmetrical form by rolling and shaping. Along the -sea coast I have seen women and children gathering bay berries,[10] -a fruit about as large as a grain of black pepper and covered with a -grayish-white, fragrant wax. When these seeds are placed in hot water the -wax dissolves and serves the same purpose as tallow, making delightfully -aromatic candles. - -Many of the hydro-carbons possess an agreeable odor. Sometimes the -woodmen gather the bark and chips of the hickory to smoke hams and -shoulders on account of the peculiarly pleasant flavor they impart. -In burning, a candle or lamp becomes a gas factory, manufacturing and -consuming its own product. The flame consists of three cones. The first, -that next to the wick, is composed solely of gas. It is not hot, as can -be shown by thrusting the end of a match into it, the match will not -ignite. If the match be placed across the flame at the same point it will -burn at the edges, but not in the center. A more striking illustration -of the fact that the flame is hot only where it comes in contact with -the air, can be shown in the following manner: Place on the bottom of an -inverted plate some alcohol, in the center set a tiny saucer containing -powder; ignite the alcohol, and the powder will remain undisturbed in the -center of the surrounding flame until a draft brings the _edge_ of the -flame against the powder, when it will at once explode. - -Look steadily at the flame of an ordinary candle and you can readily -discern the three cones; the first is gas, the second gas in rapid -combination with the oxygen of the air, the third the products of this -combination—watery vapor, carbonic anhydride, and, possibly, some -unconsumed carbon. - -[Illustration: RED FIRE COLORED BY A SALT OF STRONTIUM.[11]] - -The process that goes on in our stoves is essentially the same. The -carbon and hydrogen of the wood or coal unite with the oxygen that passes -through the draft. Now note a wonderful provision for our comfort. It -has already been remarked that the product of combustion consists of -the thing burned, plus oxygen. Suppose, in the case of our fires, this -product were a solid, we should then be forced to take out of the stove -more material than we put in. The Creator has, however, provided that -these resulting materials shall take the form of gas or vapor, so that -they can float away. The ashes that remain form but a small part of the -whole. The two most common products of combustion are watery vapor and -carbonic anhydride. - -The illumination of our towns and cities has long been accomplished -by the use of gas manufactured from coal. Bituminous coal is used for -this purpose, and the process consists in heating it to destructive -distillation, and afterward condensing and absorbing such portions of -the volatilized materials as might clog the gas pipes or interfere with -perfect combustion. - -Nature, it is now known, has her own gas works, on an immense scale. -Thirty-five years ago the village of Fredonia, N. Y., was partially -lighted with gas, and the supply is still unexhausted. Indeed, of late, -many private individuals have sunk pipes two or three hundred feet, and -thus supplied their homes with gas for illuminating, heating, and cooking -purposes. In Butler and McKean counties, Pennsylvania, the production of -these gas wells is enormous. Many have been burning day and night for -years, while others have been utilized for heating and lighting towns and -cities. Gas is now extensively used in rolling mills for smelting iron. -Petroleum, or rock oil, which is usually associated with this natural -gas, has now become of immense value to this and other lands. It is one -of the chief articles of export from this country, ranking perhaps as -fourth. Wells have recently been struck in Pennsylvania that flowed 5,000 -and 6,000 barrels per day. - -[Illustration: SODIUM BURNING ON HOT WATER.[12]] - -There is reason to believe that this material is the product of -distillation of organic matter in the earth. It is found in porous rock, -usually coarse sand, at depths varying from three hundred to two thousand -feet. When the rock above the sand containing oil is tight, the gas is -often retained, which by its expansion presses upon the oil and forces it -to the surface through the pipes put down for this purpose. This produces -a flowing well. When the gas has escaped a pump is necessary. - -The most useful hydro-carbon now employed is coal. Its use was first -introduced in the latter part of the twelfth century, and as late as the -thirteenth century petitions were made by residents of London demanding -its exclusion, on account of its injurious effect on the health. But now, -Great Britain mines annually more than one hundred million tons of coal. -Its uses are manifold. By it England has multiplied her power a thousand -fold. It is almost always employed in generating steam, and the aggregate -steam power of England is equal to the productive laboring force of -four hundred millions of men, or “twice the power of the adult working -population of the globe.” Most countries know its value. - -[Illustration: POURING CARBON DI-OXIDE FROM ONE VESSEL INTO ANOTHER TO -EXTINGUISH FLAME.[13]] - -Coal is the key that unlocks for us the treasures of the iron ore. It -seizes upon the oxygen in the ore, and liberates the pure metal. By a -wonderful provision they often exist in the same mountain, side by side. -I have seen in Pennsylvania, running out of the same tunnel in the hills, -car loads of coal and iron ore. - -Among the many advantages possessed by our own country is our immense -store of this precious hydro-carbon. With an area of 300,000,000 miles of -territory, we have more than 200,000 square miles of known coal producing -area, or one in fifteen. - -Great Britain has one-half of the coal fields of all Europe, but even -she has but one square mile of coal to twenty square miles of territory. -Beside, our coal seams are of great thickness, and lie comparatively -near the surface. In the far West, vast fields of lignite[14] have been -discovered, so that there seems no prospect of our exhausting our fuel -supply for ages to come. - -The diamond is crystallized carbon, and can be burned, though one would -hardly care to be warmed by so costly a fire. - -Cleopatra, in a freak of extravagance, dissolved a wonderful pearl, -but who could think of the wise queen of England using in so wasteful -a manner her Kohinoor.[15] Six of the great diamonds of the world are -called, by way of eminence, “The Paragons,” and a romantic interest has -been attached to this form of carbon among all nations. In point of -fact, however, the black diamonds of the coal pit are more interesting, -and of far greater value to mankind than these glittering gems from -Golconda,[16] Brazil and the Dark Continent.[17] - - - - -TEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE; OR, THE POISON PROBLEM. - -BY FELIX L. OSWALD, M.D. - - -CHAPTER V.—PROHIBITION. - - “Rugged or not, there is no other way.”—_Luther._ - -The champions of temperance have to contend with two chief -adversaries—ignorance and organized crime. The well-organized liquor -league can boast of leaders whose want of principles is not extenuated -by want of information, and who deliberately scheme to coin the misery -of their fellowmen into dollars and cents. But the machinations of -such enemies of mankind would not have availed them against the power -of public opinion, if their cunning had not found a potent ally in the -ignorance, not of their victims only, but of their passive opponents. -We need the moral and intellectual support of a larger class of our -fellow-citizens, before we can hope to secure the effectual aid of legal -remedies, and in that direction the chief obstacles to the progress of -our cause have been the prevailing misconceptions on the following points: - -1. COMPETENCE OF LEGISLATIVE POWER.—There can be no doubt that the -legislative authority even of civilized governments has been frequently -misapplied. The most competent exponents of political economy agree that -the state has no business to meddle in such affairs as the fluctuation -of market prices, the rate of interest, the freedom of international -traffic. On more than one occasion European governments, having attempted -to regulate the price of bread-stuffs, etc., were taught the folly of -such interference by commercial dead-locks and the impossibility of -procuring the necessaries of life at the prescribed price, and were thus -compelled to remedy the mischief by repealing their enactments. Usury -laws tend to increase, instead of decreasing, the rate of interest, by -obliging the usurer to indemnify himself for the disadvantage of the -additional risk. The attempt to increase national revenues by enforcing -an artificial balance of trade has ever defeated its own object. It -is almost equally certain that compulsory charities do on the whole -more harm than good. On the other hand, there are no more undoubtedly -legitimate functions of government than the suppression, and the, if -possible, prevention, of crime, and the enforcement of health laws; and -it can be demonstrated by every rule of logic and equity that the liquor -traffic can be held amenable in both respects. The favorite argument -of our opponents is the distinction of crime and vice. For the latter, -they tell us, society has no remedy, except in as much as the natural -consequences (disease, destitution, etc.) are apt to recoil on the person -of the perpetrator; the evil of intemperance therefore is beyond the -reach of the law. We may fully concede the premises without admitting the -cogency of the conclusion. The suspected possession or private use of -intoxicating liquors would hardly justify the issue of a search warrant, -but the penalties of the law can with full justice be directed against -the manufacturer or vender who seeks gain by tempting his fellowmen to -indulge in a poison infallibly injurious in any quantity, and infallibly -tending to the development of a body and soul corrupting habit; they -may with equal justice be directed against the consumer, stupefied or -brutalized by the effects of that poison. The rumseller has no right -to plead the consent of his victim. The absence of violence or “malice -prepense,”[1] is a plea that would legalize some of the worst offenses -against society. The peddler of obscene literature poisons the souls -of our children without a shadow of ill-will against his individual -customer. The gambler, the lottery-shark, use no manner of force in the -pursuit of their prey. By what logic can we justify the interdiction of -their industry and condemn that of the liquor traffic? By the criterion -of comparative harmlessness? Have all the indecencies published since the -invention of printing occasioned the thousandth part of the misery caused -by the yearly and inevitable consequences of the poison vice? The lottery -player may lose or win, but the customer of the liquor vender is doomed -to loss as soon as he approaches the dram-shop. The damage sustained -by the habitual player may be confined to a loss of money, while the -habitual drunkard is sure to suffer in health, character and reputation, -as well as in purse. And shall we condone the conduct of the befuddled -drunkard on account of a temporary suspense of conscious reason? That -very _dementation_ constitutes his offense. - -His actions may or may not result in actual mischief, but he has put the -decision of that event beyond his control. The man who gallops headlong -through crowded streets is punished for his reckless disregard of other -men’s safety, though the hoofs of his horse may have failed to inflict -any actual injury. A menagerie keeper would be arrested, if not lynched, -for turning a city into a pandemonium by letting loose his bears and -hyenas, and for the same reason no man should be permitted to turn -himself into a wild beast. - -“Virtue must come from within,” says Prof. Newman;[2] “to this problem -religion and morality must direct themselves. But vice may come from -without; to _hinder_ this is the care of the statesman.” And here, as -elsewhere, prevention is better than cure. By obviating the temptations -of the dram-shop a progressive vice with an incalculable train of -mischievous consequences may be nipped in the bud. Penal legislation -is a sham if it takes cognizance of moral evils only after they have -passed the curable stage. “It is mere mockery,” says Cardinal Manning,[3] -“to ask us to put down drunkenness by moral and religious means, when -the legislature facilitates the multiplication of the incitements to -intemperance on every side. You might as well call upon me as a captain -of a ship and say: ‘Why don’t you pump the water out when it is sinking,’ -when you are scuttling the ship in every direction. If you will cut off -the supply of temptation, I will be bound by the help of God to convert -drunkards, but until you have taken off this perpetual supply of -intoxicating drink we never can cultivate the fields. Let the legislature -do its part and we will answer for the rest.” - -All civilized nations have recognized not only the right but the duty -of legislative authorities to adopt the most stringent measures for the -prevention of contagious disease; yet all epidemics taken together have -not caused half as much loss of life and health as the plague of the -poison vice. - -2. MAGNITUDE OF THE EVIL.—Since health and freedom began to be recognized -as the primary conditions of human welfare, the conviction is gaining -ground that the principles of our legislative system need a general -revision. It was a step in the right direction when the lawgivers of the -Middle Ages began to realize the truth that the liberty of individual -action should be sacrificed only to urgent consideration of public -welfare, but the modified theories on the comparative importance of these -considerations have inaugurated a still more important reform. Penal -codes gradually ceased to enforce ceremonies and abstruse dogmas and -to ignore monstrous municipal and sanitary abuses. The time has passed -when legislators raged with extreme penalties against the propagandists -of speculative theories and ignored the propagation of slum diseases, -yet, after all, there is still a lingering belief in the minds of many -contemporaries that intemperance, as a physical evil, a “mere dietetic -excess,” does not justify the invasion of personal liberty. They would -consent to restrict the freedom of thought and speech rather than the -license of the rum-dealer, yet the tendency of a progressive advance -in public opinion promises the advent of a time when that license will -appear the chief anomaly of the present age. The numberless minute -prescriptions and interdicts of our law books and their silence on the -crime of the liquor traffic will make it difficult for coming ages to -comprehend the intellectual status of a generation that could wage such -uncompromising war against microscopic gnats and consent to gratify the -greed of a monstrous vampire. - -3. SELF-CORRECTING ABUSES.—Modern physicians admit that various forms -of disease which were formerly treated with drastic drugs can be safely -trusted to the healing agencies of nature. Many social evils, too, tend -to work out their own cure. High markets encourage competition and -have led to a reduction of prices. Luxury leads to enforced economy -by reducing the resources of the spendthrift. Dishonest tradesmen -lose custom, and a German government that used to fine editors for -publishing unverified rumors might have left it to the subscribers to -withdraw their patronage from a purveyor of unreliable news. But there -are certain causes of disease that demand the interference of art. -_Poisons_, especially, require artificial antidotes. If a child has -mistaken arsenic for sugar, its life commonly depends on the timely -arrival of a physician. The organism may rid itself of a surfeit, but -is unable to eliminate the virus of a skin disease. Alcoholism belongs -to the same class of disorders. We need not legislate against corsets; -the absurdities of fashion change and vanish like fleeting clouds, and -their votaries may welcome the change; but drunkards would remain slaves -of their vice though the verdict of public opinion should have made -dram-drinking extremely unfashionable. The morbid passion transmitted -from sire to son, and strengthened by years of indulgence, would defy all -moral restraints and yield only to the practical impossibility to obtain -the object of its desire. - -“A number of years ago,” says Dr. Isaac Jennings, “I was called to the -shipyard in Derby, to see John B., a man about thirty years of age, of -naturally stout, robust constitution, who had fallen from a scaffold in -a fit, head first upon a spike below. In my visit to dress the wounded -head, I spoke to him of the folly and danger of continuing to indulge his -habit of drinking, and obtained from him a promise that he would abandon -it. Not long after I learned that he was drinking again, and reminded him -of his promise. His excuse was, that it would not do for him to abandon -the practice of drinking suddenly. A few weeks after this he called at my -office and requested me to bleed him, or do something to prevent a fit, -for he felt much as he did a short time before having the last fit. I -said to him, ‘John, sit down here with me and let us consider your case -a little.’ I drew two pictures and held before him; one presented a wife -and three little children with a circle of friends made happy and himself -respectable and useful in society; the other, a wretched family, and -himself mouldering in a drunkard’s grave; and appealed to him to decide -which should prove to be the true picture. The poor fellow burst into -tears and wept like a child. When he had recovered himself from sobbing -so that he could speak he said: ‘Doctor, to tell you the truth, it is not -that I am afraid of the consequences of stopping suddenly that I do not -give up drinking. _I can not do it._ I have tried and tried again, but it -is all in vain. Sometimes I have gone a number of weeks without drinking, -and I flattered myself that the temptation was gone, but it returned, -and now if there was a spot on earth where men lived and could not get -spirits, and I could get there, I would start in a minute.’ I thought I -had understood something of the difficulties of hard drinkers before, -but this gave me a new impression of the matter, and most solemnly did I -charge myself to do what I could to _make a spot on earth where men could -live and couldn’t get spirits_.” - -4. LESSER EVILS.—Even in a stricter form than any rational friend of -temperance would desire its enforcement, prohibition would not involve -any consequences that could possibly make the cure a greater evil than -the disease. The predicted aching void resulting from the expurgation -of beer-tunnels could be filled by healthier means of recreation. -The grief of the superseded poison-mongers would not outweigh the -mountain-load of misery and woe which the abolishment of their cursed -trade would lift from the shoulders of the nation. When the state of Iowa -declared for prohibition the opponents of that amendment bemoaned the -loss entailed by the departure of “so many industrious and respectable -citizens,” _i. e._, from the exodus of the rumsellers! We might just -as well be asked to bewail the doom of the Thugs[4] as the subversion -of a prosperous industry. We might as well be requested to sympathize -with the respectable bloodhound-trainers and knout-manufacturers whom -the abolition of slavery threw out of employment. The liquor dealer -has no right to complain about the rigor of a law that permits him to -depart with the spoils of such a trade. We are told that the mere rumor -of Maine laws has deterred many foreigners from making their homes with -us; that the Russian peasants decline to come without their brewers and -distillers, and that by general prohibition we would risk to reduce our -immigration from every country of northern Europe. We must take that -risk, and let Muscovites rot in the bogs of the Volga if they can not -accept our hospitality without turning our bread corn into poison. Our -utilitarian friends would hardly persuade us to legalize cannibalism in -order to encourage a larger immigration of Fiji islanders. The absence -of such guests might not prove an unqualified evil. I shall not insult -the intelligence of my readers by repeating the drivel of the wretches -who would weigh the reduction of revenues against the happiness of a -hell-delivered nation, and I will only mention the reply of a British -financier who estimates that the increase of national prosperity would -offset that reduction _in less than five years_. - -5. EFFICACY OF PROHIBITION.—Will prohibition prevent the use of -intoxicating liquor? Not wholly, but it will answer its purpose. It will -banish distilleries to secret mountain glens and hidden cellars. It will -drive the man-traps of the poison-monger from the public streets. It -will save our boys from a hundred temptations; it will help thousands -of reformed drunkards to keep their pledge; it will restore peace and -plenty to many hundred thousand homes. More than a century ago the -philosopher Leibnitz[5] maintained that the plenary suppression of the -liquor traffic would be the most effectual means for reforming the moral -status of civilized nations, and experience has since fully demonstrated -the correctness of that opinion. A memorandum endorsed by a large number -of statistical vouchers describes the effect of prohibition in Sweden: -“The nation rose and fell, grew prosperous and happy, or miserable and -degraded, as its rulers and law-makers restrained or permitted the -manufacture and sale of that which all along the track of its history has -seemed to be the nation’s greatest curse.” … “The vigorously maintained -prohibition against spirits in 1753-1756, and again in 1772-1775, proved -the enormous benefits effected in moral, economical, and other respects, -by abstinence from intoxicating spirits.” … “This it is which has so -helped Sweden to emerge from moral and material prostration, and explains -the existence of such general indications in that country of comfort and -independence among all classes.” - -From the Edinburgh _Review_ for January, 1873, we learn that in -eighty-nine private estates in England and Scotland, “the drink traffic -has been altogether suppressed, with the happiest social results. The -late Lord Palmerston[6] suppressed the beer shops in Romsey as the leases -fell in. We know an estate which stretches for miles along the romantic -shore of Loch Fyne,[7] where no whiskey is allowed to be sold. The -peasants and fishermen are flourishing. They have all their money in the -bank, and they obtain higher wages than their neighbors when they go to -sea”—a proof that a small oasis of temperance can maintain its prosperity -in the midst of poison-blighted communities. - -Here and there the wiles of the poison-mongers will undoubtedly succeed -in evading the law, but their power for mischief will be diminished as -that of the gambling-hell was diminished in Homburg and Baden,[8] where -temptation was removed out of the track of the uninitiated till the host -of victims dwindled away for want of recruits. Not the promptings of an -innate passion, but the charm of artificial allurements is the gate by -which ninety-nine out of a hundred drunkards have entered the road to -ruin. It would be an understatement to say that the temptation of minors -will be reduced a hundred fold wherever the total amount of sales has -been reduced as much as five fold—a result which has been far exceeded, -even under the present imperfect system of legal control. “In the course -of my duty as an Internal Revenue officer,” says Superintendent Hamlin of -Bangor, “I have become thoroughly acquainted with the state and extent -of the liquor traffic in Maine, and I have no hesitation in saying that -the beer trade is not more than one per cent. of what I remember it to -have been, and the trade in distilled liquors is not more than ten per -cent. of what it was formerly.” “I think I am justified in saying,” -reports the Attorney-General, “that there is not an open bar for the -sale of intoxicating liquor in this county” (Androscoggin, including -the manufacturing district of Lewiston—once a very hotbed of the rum -traffic). “In the city of Biddeford, a manufacturing place of 11,000 -inhabitants, for a month at a time not a single arrest for drunkenness -has been made or become necessary.” And from Augusta (the capital of the -state): “If we were to say that the quantity of liquor sold here is not -one-tenth as large as formerly, we think it would be within the truth; -and the favorable effects of the change upon all the interests of the -state are plainly seen everywhere.” - -“It is perhaps not necessary,” says the Boston _Globe_, of July 29, 1875, -“to dwell on the evils of intemperance, and yet people seldom think how -great a proportion of these might be prevented by driving the iniquity -into its hiding places, and preventing it from coming forth to lure its -victims from among the unwary and comparatively guileless. Few young men -who are worth saving, or are likely to be saved to decency and virtue, -would seek it out if it were kept from sight. But when it comes forth in -gay and alluring colors, it draws a procession of our youth into a path -that has an awful termination. Nor does the evil which springs from an -open toleration of the way in which this vice carries on its traffic of -destruction fall only on men. A sad proportion of its victims is made -up from shop girls and abandoned women who are not so infatuated at the -start that they would plunge into a life of infamy if its temptations -were strictly under the ban, and kept widely separated from the world -of decency. But it intruded itself upon them. Its temptations and -opportunities are before their eyes, and the way is made easy for their -feet to go down to death.” - -“To what good is it,” says Lord Brougham,[9] “that the legislature -should pass laws to punish crime, or that their lordships should occupy -themselves in trying to improve the morals of the people by giving -them education? What could be the use of sowing a little seed here -and plucking up a weed there, if these beer shops are to be continued -to sow the seeds of immorality broadcast over the land, germinating -the most frightful produce that ever has been allowed to grow up in a -civilized country, and, I am ashamed to add, under the fostering care of -Parliament.” - -The prohibition of the poison traffic has become the urgent duty -of every legislator, the foremost aim of every moral reformer. The -verdict of the most eminent statesmen, physicians, clergymen, patriots -and philanthropists, is unanimous on that point. We lack energy, not -competence, nor the sanction of a higher authority, to gain the votes of -the masses. - -“We can prove the success of prohibition by the experience of our -neighboring state,” writes Dr. Herbert Buchanan, of Portsmouth, New -Hampshire; “all the vicious elements of society are arraigned against -us, _but I have no fear of the event if we do not cease to agitate the -subject_.” - -Agitation, a ceaseless appeal to the common sense and conscience of our -fellowmen can, indeed, not fail to be crowned with ultimate success. The -struggle with vice, with ignorance and mean selfishness may continue, but -it will be our own fault if our adversaries can support their opposition -by a single valid argument, and the battle will be more than half won if -a majority of our fellow-citizens have to admit that we contend no longer -for a favor, but for an evident right. - - - - -STUDIES IN KITCHEN SCIENCE AND ART. - -V. TEA, COFFEE, AND CHOCOLATE. - -BY BYRON D. HALSTED, SC. D. - - -We have here to consider the sources of the three leading dietetic -beverages. They are very unlike in general appearance, but all possess -the same vegetable principle, called an alkaloid,[1] though known under -different names. Thus modern chemistry has proved the identity of the -theine of the tea, the caffeine[2] of the coffee and the theo-bromine[3] -of the chocolate. This same vegetable alkaloid, remarkable for its large -per cent. of nitrogen, is found in small quantities in a few other -plants, most of which have been used to some extent for the making of -an exhilarating drink. It answers our purpose best to treat each of our -three subjects under its respective head. - -TEA (_Thea viridis_[4]).—The tea of commerce is the prepared leaves of -a shrub belonging to the order Camelliaceæ[5] represented in the United -States by loblolly bay[6] and Stuartia.[7] Perhaps the most familiar -near relative of the tea plant is the camellia of our green houses and -window gardens. The wild tea shrub grows from twenty to thirty feet high, -and is found native in China and Japan. When under cultivation the shrub -is pruned so as to not exceed six feet in height. The flowers are large, -white and fragrant; they are produced in clusters in the axils of the -simple, oblong, evergreen, serrate leaves. China and Japan are among the -leading tea-growing countries, its cultivation being chiefly confined -between twenty-five and thirty-five north latitude. Tea was in general -use in China in the ninth century, but it was not until the seventeenth -century that it was introduced into Europe. About the middle of this -century the East India Company imported tea into England, since which -time it has become the regular beverage of many millions of people in all -parts of the world. The importations of tea into the United States for -the year ending June 30th, 1884, were 67,665,910 pounds. It will be seen -that this gives somewhere near a pound and a quarter of tea for each man, -woman and child in this country. Most of our China tea trade is carried -on with Shanghai, Foo Chow and Amoy. - -In China the tea shrub is grown chiefly on the southern slopes of hills -in poor, well watered soil, to which manure is applied. The seeds are -dropped in holes at regular intervals, and during the third year the -first crop is obtained. In from seven to ten years the shrubs are cut -down and shoots spring up from the stumps, which continue to yield crops -of leaves. A single plant produces on an average between three hundred -and three hundred and fifty pounds of dried leaves. The leaves are picked -three times a year, in April, May, and June or July. The young, tender -leaves of the first gathering make the best tea, and this is very largely -consumed in its native country. The older leaves of the second and third -pickings make a poorer quality of tea which abounds in tannin,[8] and -contains but a small per cent. of the best elements of superior tea. -It was long supposed that black and green sorts of tea were made from -distinct varieties, or even species of plants; in fact, there has been -a great deal of mystery surrounding the culture and preparation of tea -until within the past score of years. Authorities now state that there -is only one species of plant yielding tea leaves, and from this all -sorts are made. The differences are natural, being some of them due to -climate and conditions of soil, etc., while others are the result of the -manipulation of the leaves after they are gathered. Black and green tea -may come from the same shrub, or even the same branch of a plant. The -leaves forming black tea undergo a fermentation before they are dried, -while those designed for green tea are at once submitted to a high heat -in iron pans, and not copper pans, as generally supposed. After the -leaves for black tea have been gathered they are placed in heaps, when -they become flaccid and turn dark from incipient fermentation. The leaves -are then rolled between the thumb and fingers or upon bamboo tables until -the desired twist is obtained. They next pass to a drying room and are -heated in an iron pan; again twisted, and afterward dried over a slow -fire. The principal difference between the preparation of black and green -tea is that in the latter the freshly gathered leaves go at once into the -heated pans. The repeated twisting and heating is nearly the same with -both classes. The green teas are sometimes artificially colored by using -turmeric[9] with gypsum or Prussian blue. A flavor is frequently given to -the tea by adding aromatic flowers, as those of the pekoe and caper.[10] -Among the leading varieties of black tea are: Bohea, a small leaf, crisp -and strong odor, with brackish taste; two sorts of Congous—the large leaf -with fine flavor, and the small leaf with a burnt smell. The Souchong is -the much prized “English Breakfast,” made from leaves of three-year-old -trees. Only a small part of the so-called Souchong is genuine. Pekoe is -made from the tenderest leaves gathered from three-year-old plants while -in bloom. Oolongs are common kinds of black teas, much used for mixing -with other sorts. Of the green teas the Gunpowder is round, like shot, -with green color and fragrant taste. The Imperial is more loosely rolled -than the Gunpowder. Young Hyson is in loose rolls, which easily crumble -to the touch; it gives a light green infusion. Old Hyson is the older -leaves in the picking for Young Hyson. Twankay consists of mixed and -broken leaves, and is of inferior quality. Japan teas are both colored -and uncolored, and come from Japan; they are very largely consumed in -this country. - -The chemical composition of a fair sample of tea is; Theine, 1. to 3. per -cent.; caseine,[11] 15.; gum, 18.; sugar, .3; tannin, 26.; aromatic oil, -.75; fat, 4.; vegetable fiber, 20.; mineral substances, 5.; and water, 5. -per cent. - -The tannin is an astringent, while the theine acts as a gentle excitant -upon the nervous system. This is probably enhanced by the warmth of the -infusion. The best authorities agree that tea is a valuable article of -diet for healthy, grown people. It however is not suitable for children -until growth is completed. Adults with irritable constitutions may be -injured by tea-drinking. Tea is the solace of old age. Cibber[12] wrote: -“Tea! thou soft, thou sober, sage and venerable liquid … thou female -tongue-running, smile-smoothing, heart-opening, wink-tippling cordial, to -whose glorious insipidity I owe the happiest moments of my life, let me -fall prostrate.” Waller[13] truthfully says: - - “Tea doth our fancy aid, - Repress those vapors which the head invade - And keep the palace of the soul.” - -Tea is extensively adulterated in many ways. In China exhausted tea -leaves and foliage of other trees are employed by millions of pounds -each year. Willow leaves are among the principal ones used for mixing -with tea. A British consul once related that at Shanghai there were at -one time 53,000 pounds of willow leaves in preparation to be sold as -tea. Mineral matters are used to color or “face” the tea. “The common -test,” states Mr. Felker, in his work “What the Grocers Sell Us,” “is -by infusion; this is poured off the leaves and examined for color, -taste, and odor, all of which are characteristic.… Impurities like sand, -iron filings and dirt may be seen among the leaves or at the bottom of -the cups. The leaves, too, betray by their coarseness and botanical -character, the nature and quality of the tea, for although the leaves -of the genuine tea differ much in form and size, yet their venation and -general structure are very distinctive.… ‘Lie tea,’ used to adulterate -Gunpowder tea, consists of tea dust mixed with mineral substances, starch -and gum, and then formed into little masses resembling tea.” Large tea -houses employ professional tea tasters who make steepings and judge upon -the flavor, purity, etc. - -COFFEE.—The coffee of commerce is the seed of a shrub, _Coffea -Arabica_,[14] belonging to the order Rubiaceæ,[15] which is represented -in the United States by the charming little “bluets” of our pastures in -spring. The cape jessamine and bouvardias[16] of the green house are -near relatives of the coffee plant. The name coffee is probably derived -from the Arabic word _Kahwah_, although some authorities contend that -it is traced to Caffa, a province of Abyssinia, where the coffee plant -flourishes in the wild state. The coffee shrub is an evergreen, growing -to the height of twenty feet, with long, smooth, shining leaves. The pure -white flowers are produced in clusters in the axils of the leaves and -followed by fleshy berries which, when ripe, resemble small, dark red -cherries. Each berry usually contains two seeds embedded in the yellowish -pulp. These seeds, when separated from the pulp and papery covering, form -the raw coffee of the stores. Each seed—improperly called a berry—is -somewhat hemispherical, with a groove running through the middle of the -flat side. Sometimes one seed is abortive in the berry, and the other -becomes round, as in the Wynaad coffee from India, sometimes called “male -berry” coffee. - -Coffee is cultivated in many countries lying between fifteen north and -fifteen south latitude. It may be successfully grown thirty degrees -from the equator. Like the tea plant, the coffee shrub favors the well -watered mountain slopes. The trees are set in long, straight rows, six -feet apart, and six feet from each other in the row. The coffee tree is -naturally a plant with long, straggling shoots, but under cultivation -it is pruned to make a shrub not exceeding six feet in height, with -long, lateral branches. A full crop should be obtained the third year. -The berries are gathered when the pulp begins to shrivel, and are at -once taken to the store-house, where they are pulped. The berries are -passed between large, rough rollers, which remove the pulp, but not the -parchment-like covering of the seeds. The berries with the pulp removed -are heaped up, covered with old sacking, and allowed to ferment for two -days. Water is turned on and all glutinous matter removed. The seeds are -spread out to dry, after which they are passed between wooden cylinders -that remove the thin, dry covering. The coffee seeds, after being -winnowed, are assorted into various sizes and packed ready for shipment. -A thrifty shrub yields two pounds of marketable coffee. The raw coffee -seed has a horny texture, without the peculiar aroma characteristic of -the roasted berry. - -The early history of coffee is obscure. It has been in use for over a -thousand years. The knowledge of its use was first brought into Arabia -from Abyssinia in the fifteenth century. “Its peculiar property of -dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken advantage of in -connection with the prolonged religious services of the Mohametans, and -its use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up a fierce opposition on -the part of the priests. Coffee was by them held to be an intoxicant -beverage, and therefore prohibited by the Koran;[17] and the dreadful -penalties of an outraged sacred law were laid over the heads of all -who became addicted to its use. Notwithstanding the threats of divine -retribution, and though all manner of devices were adopted to check its -growth, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly among the Arabians, -Mohametans, and the growth of coffee as well as its use as a national -beverage became as inseparably associated with Arabia as tea is with -China.” Coffee reached Great Britain in the seventeenth century. Charles -II. attempted to suppress coffee houses by proclamation, because they -“devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and scandalous reports -to the defamation of his Majesty’s government and to the peace and quiet -of the nation.” How different is this view from that held by those -interested in good government, peace and prosperity at the present day! -We now rejoice in the establishment of coffee houses, hoping that they -may supplant the much dreaded rum shops. - -It is worthy of note here that the three dietetic beverages treated in -this article were all introduced into Europe at nearly the same time. Tea -came through the Dutch; cocoa was brought from South America to Spain, -and coffee came from Arabia by the way of Constantinople. - -Coffee was for some time supplied only by Arabia, but near the beginning -of the eighteenth century its culture was introduced into Java and the -West India islands. At the present day its culture is general within the -tropics, Brazil leading the list in amount annually produced. In the -Eastern hemisphere the principal coffee regions are Java and Ceylon, -where a superior article is produced. The amount of coffee imported into -the United States during the year ending June 30th, 1884, was 534,785,542 -pounds, and 18,907,627 pounds in excess of the previous year. It is seen -that these figures give nearly ten pounds for each individual in this -vast country. This amount per capita is exceeded by only a few countries. -Holland leads all European states, with an average of twenty-one pounds -per head, followed closely by Belgium, Denmark and Norway. - -The dietetic value of coffee depends principally upon the alkaloid -caffeine or theine which it contains in common with tea and cocoa or -chocolate. Good coffee contains nearly one per cent. of this substance. -When obtained in a pure state it crystallizes in slender needles. The -peculiar aroma of coffee is due to the presence of caffeone,[18] which -develops in the process of roasting. It may be isolated as a brown -oil, heavier than water, by distilling roasted coffee with water. The -roasting of coffee is an operation requiring much good judgment, for by -carrying the process beyond a certain point the aroma is destroyed and a -disagreeable flavor is produced. - -Roasted coffee when ground quickly deteriorates unless kept in close -vessels. Mocha coffee, which is brought from Arabia, is the best, and -that from Java ranks next. Much of the so-called Mocha coffee is raised -in Brazil, or elsewhere, and shipped to Arabia, after which it finds its -way into the markets. The berries of the true Mocha coffee are small, -dark and yellow; those of Java are a paler yellow, while the West India -and Brazilian coffees have a greenish-gray tint. The last named coffee is -usually sold under the name of Rio, an abbreviation of the leading coffee -exporting port of Brazil, namely, Rio de Janeiro; Martinique and St. -Domingo coffees are two other kinds but little known. - -Coffee is principally valuable for its stimulating effects upon the -system. It produces a buoyancy of feeling, lightens the sensation of -fatigue, and sustains the muscles when under prolonged exertion. A cup -of rich, hot coffee seems to infuse new life into an o’er-tired body. -Equally with tea it is “the cup that cheers, but not inebriates.” - - “Coffee which makes the politician wise - And see through all things with his half-shut eyes.” - -Coffee is the subject of many adulterations, usually when sold in the -ground state. Several kinds of seeds resembling coffee in size have been -employed to adulterate the whole coffee, some of which need to be colored -before they will pass for the genuine. Many kinds of roots are sliced, -dried and roasted for the adulteration of coffee, among the leading ones -of which are chicory, carrot and the beet. Spent tanbark and even dried -beef’s liver have been thus employed. Many of these fraudulent additions -can be detected with the microscope. Ground coffee floats on water, while -most of the adulterations will sink or discolor the water. There is said -to be a machine in England for making false berries out of vegetable -substance. - -CHOCOLATE.—The chocolate of the shops is derived from a small evergreen -tree, native of South America, Mexico, and West Indias. This tree, -_Theobroma cacao_, has large, pointed leaves and rose-colored flowers, -which are followed by fruit pods six to ten inches long. The first part -of the botanical name is from the Greek meaning “food for the gods,” -and the second or specific word _cacao_ is the old Mexican name for the -tree. The order Sterculiaceæ[19] to which the theobroma or chocolate -tree belongs is not represented in our flora. It however is known to -many by a species of Mahernia[20] from the cape of Good Hope, cultivated -in conservatories. The order contains about 520 species, nearly all of -which are tropical. The long pods, while green, resemble cucumbers, and -when ripe contain from thirty to an hundred seeds, arranged in rows, and -of the size of sweet almonds. During the season of ripening the pods are -gathered daily, laid in heaps until they have fermented, when they are -opened by hand and the seeds spread in the sun to dry, after which they -are ready for market. Before the Spaniards visited Mexico the natives -made a beverage from the seeds, which they called _chocalat_, and from -this we derived our word chocolate. The Spaniards have the credit of -introducing this beverage into Europe. In the manufacture of chocolate -the _cocoa_ (which is a corruption of the original Mexican _cacao_) beans -are roasted similar to the roasting of coffee, and after the husk is -removed they are reduced to a paste. This paste is afterward mixed with -equal quantities of sugar and heated and turned into cakes of various -shapes familiar to all housekeepers. Cacao nibs are the bruised and -broken seeds, and cocoa shells are the thin coverings of the seeds or -beans which are separated before the seeds are ground to powder. Broma is -chocolate prepared for the market in a certain way, and is a trade name. - -The importations of chocolate for the year ending June 30th were -12,235,304 pounds, being an increase of nearly thirty-five per cent. over -the previous year. - -Of the three leading beverages herein briefly described tea is the only -one that has been grown as a crop in the United States. In a reply to an -inquiry recently addressed to the Commissioner of Agriculture, it was -stated that the tea plant is hardy at Washington, D. C., and that the -tea plantations near Summerville, South Carolina, are doing well. “There -is no trouble about growing the plant, but the question of profitable -culture for the manufacture of tea is quite another thing.… The purpose -of the Department of Agriculture … is to cheapen the present methods -or possibly suggest the placing of the teas on the market in a wholly -different shape from what is done at present.” We may be able to supply -our own demands for tea, but it is not likely that the same will be true -of coffee and chocolate. - - - - -HOUSEHOLD BEVERAGES. - - -At the breakfast table of a friend not long ago I heard the gentleman of -the house remark over his fragrant coffee: - -“I laughed at my wife when she went into the cooking school last summer, -I thought her a model cook before; but for some reason she has improved. -I never tasted such coffee as this.” - -My hostess answered: “The reason is simple enough. I had always cooked -by rule before. I learned in my studies in cookery to reason. It makes a -great difference.” - -It does make a difference, and never a greater than in preparing tea, -coffee and chocolate. There is rarely a cup of any one of these beverages -on our tables which is fit to drink; our coffee is bitter and muddy, tea -is either insipid or too strong, and chocolate has failed to become the -popular drink which it deserves to be, because so rarely well prepared. - -Few cooks understand the nature of either the coffee berry or the tea -leaf, and consequently do not know how to treat them in order to extract -their delicious flavor, aroma, and nerve-bracing qualities. - -Few cooks have an idea of the extreme delicacy of these articles, of how -scientifically, even artistically, they must be treated. To extract an -oil or flavor is one of the nicest experiments of the laboratory, and -one for which a chemist selects his materials with the greatest care, -attends strictly to the cleanliness of his vessels, watches every change -in temperature, and counts even seconds in time. Making these beverages -is nothing less than performing a delicate chemical experiment, and yet -we are so ignorant or careless about this important work that we attend -strictly to neither heat nor time, and often take just what we can most -easily get to work with. - -If you would have good tea, coffee and chocolate begin your care with -your buying. Tea is a most troublesome article to purchase. There are -so many varieties on the market, and so much adulteration that the -probability is that unless you are taking extreme precautions you are -getting an inferior article. Adulteration is astonishingly common, -poor teas being manipulated to make them appear like the first-class -grades; inferior black teas colored to look like high-priced green -teas, “lie tea” sold in vast quantities, and made-over teas[1] made to -pass for fresh. How to obtain the genuine article is the housewife’s -first problem. Careful examination may be made under the microscope for -coloring matter, the tea may be soaked to see if it unrolls into true -leaves, or after washing it in a little water the liquid may be tested -with chemicals for foreign substances. But all this means trouble that -few housewives care to take. Probably the most practical plan is to find -by careful experiment a thoroughly reliable[2] tea-house and then confine -your patronage to it. A pound of tea bought here and another there, as -convenience may dictate or some friend advise, will insure you nothing -but adulteration. The only safe plan is to find a house which sells -good tea. Your tea bought, it must be prepared. In making a cup of tea -the chemical composition and the effect of each step in its preparation -must be observed or your draught will be ruined. The constituents in the -leaf which you must look after are the theine, the aromatic oil, and -the tannin. Your tea must be treated in such a way that the first two, -which give to the drink its flavor and aroma, will be extracted, but that -the bitter tannin will be left undeveloped. The theine and oil are both -volatile substances, so that if your tea is steeped too long, or if it -is boiled, they will literally fly away, while the tannin extracted will -turn your cup into a bitter, herby drink. A rule is easily formulated -from this bit of science: - -Into a perfectly clean tea-pot, just scalded with boiling hot water, -put a heaping tablespoonful of tea for each person, and upon it pour a -cup and a half of boiling water for each spoonful. Cover your pot with -a “cosy”[3] if you have one, and let it stand on the back of the range, -where it will not boil, for from five to ten minutes. The length of time -required to steep each variety of tea must be determined by experiment, -some varieties taking longer than others. The exact length each housewife -must determine when she tries a new kind; and it may be said of the -exact proportion of tea to water that it as well must be determined by -experiment. No rule in cooking is inflexible. It must always be modified -by the good sense and the scientific care of the cook. - -The English custom of making tea on the table is the prettiest and the -most satisfactory. They pour upon the tea required a small quantity of -boiling water, this is placed upon the table, covered with the “cosy;” a -pot of water taken when boiling from the stove is kept hot by a spirit -lamp, and when the tea is steeped as much boiling water as the quantity -of tea used demands is poured into the tea-pot. It is allowed to stand -about three minutes and then poured into the cups and on the cream. -Remember, cream should always be poured into the cups first for both tea -and coffee, and tea is as much improved by cream as is coffee. - -The purchase of coffee is beset with the same trouble as that of -tea—adulteration. You may get a manufactured berry, you may get chiccory; -to avoid this careful tests must be applied and only reliable firms -patronized. Nothing but unbrowned coffee should be bought; the roasting -should be done at home. This process requires particular care. The coffee -berry is hard and horny, water has no effect upon it even when it has -been ground. It must be roasted in order that certain constituents may -become soluble. These constituents are a fragrant volatile oil called -caffeone, and the caffeine, which is identical with the theine of -tea. By roasting the oil is distributed through the berry and so made -soluble, while the caffeine is developed so that it may be absorbed by -water. Just the right amount of roasting must be done or the essential -constituents will be expelled and the bitter qualities will be made to -predominate. I have said that the roasting should be done at home. It may -be done in the shops, of course, but the operation there is carried on so -unscientifically that the aroma is lost on the town instead of being shut -up in the berry. Only a few days ago, passing up a business street of a -city, I was astonished to find the air heavy with the delicious aroma -of coffee. It scented the air for a square, and only when I came to a -large grocery store was the mystery explained. The grocer was browning -his coffee, and its odor was serving for an advertisement, effective, -perhaps, among the ignorant, but which would warn every wise housewife -not to purchase roasted coffee. The process is best carried on in one -of the very nearly perfect coffee roasters to be found in the shops; if -these are not at hand an ordinary dripping pan may be used. It should -be covered to prevent loss of aroma, and should be continually shaken -to prevent burning. The entire attention of one person should be given -the coffee during this operation. When turned to a rich chestnut brown -remove, keeping covered until quite cool. If left open the aroma escapes -very rapidly from warm coffee, but if kept covered much of that made -volatile by the heat is re-absorbed. A tight dish—an air-tight canister -is best—must be ready to keep it in. - -When using, grind only what you need, and take care that it is not left -coarse, when the strength can not be extracted, or that it is not too -fine, when the liquor will be muddy in spite of you; in this, as always, -experiment until you know the degree of fineness which ground coffee -should have. A heaping tablespoonful of ground coffee to a cup and a half -of water is the ordinary proportion for making strong coffee—the only -kind which should ever be prepared, by the way, the diluting ought always -to take place in the cup; to the required amount of coffee add the white -and shell of an egg and cold water to thoroughly wet the whole; stir up -these ingredients in your coffee pot and pour upon them the required -amount of _boiling_ hot water. Let it boil from ten to fifteen minutes, -pour in half a cup of cold water and remove to the side of the stove -where it can not boil. Do not boil longer than the exact time which you -have found necessary for the kind of coffee you are using, if you do -you lose your flavor and extract in its place a bitter principle which -is ruinous. Remember always what one of our famous cooks says: “There -comes a time in baking, frying or broiling when injured nature revolts -and burns up, but a thing may boil until not a vestige of its original -condition remains, and unless the water evaporates, it may go on boiling -for hours without reminding one by smell or smoke that it is spoiled.” - -Your coffee will settle in about five minutes. Now if you _must_ use a -different coffee urn, gently pour off the liquor so as not to disturb the -grounds. The settling of coffee is an essential point. The regulation -method of stirring an egg into the freshly ground berry is undoubtedly -best, but another and more economical practice may take its place. After -your freshly roasted berries are cool enough to be easily handled, add -to each pound a fresh egg and stir it in until each kernel is coated -smoothly with the mixture. Care must be taken that the coffee be not warm -enough to cook the egg. When eggs are expensive an economical method is -to wash the shells before they are broken, and use with cold water to -settle the coffee. - -After all these precautions there are still other points to guard. Not -the least is the condition of the inside of the coffee pot; it should -never be stained, burnt or coated, but kept perfectly bright by being -washed, and, if necessary, scoured after each meal. It would be a gain -in aroma if your coffee pot could always be kept perfectly tight so that -none could escape, and if it could go to the table in the same dish. The -pleasant, suggestive odors which precede a meal are always signs that -the most delicious flavors of your coming breakfast, dinner or tea are -escaping, that through the unskillfulness of your cook you are losing -what should give the greatest charm to your meal. - -_Café au lait_[4] is an excellent drink and easily prepared. Make in the -usual way a pint of strong coffee, and into your table urn or a pitcher -pour a cup and a half of fresh milk, scalding hot; to this add the coffee -and let the whole stand for five minutes in a hot place, or in a kettle -of hot water. - -Chocolate is a most delicious drink if properly prepared; it is, however, -so often raw, muddy and strong that we have not been able to educate -ourselves to its peculiar disagreeableness. Make it by the following -rule and you will find it both nutritious and pleasant: Select with care -the best make of chocolate, and into a little cold water rub smooth -five tablespoonfuls of grated chocolate; be sure that it be rubbed in -smoothly, a hard particle of chocolate is as unwelcome a visitor in your -cup as floating tea leaves or black bobbing bits of coffee berries. So -rub it smooth and stir it slowly into five cups of boiling water. Let it -boil for about five minutes, and in the meantime heat two cups of milk; -this must be stirred into the boiling chocolate and the whole allowed to -simmer for a few minutes longer. You may sweeten it on the fire or in the -cup. - - - - -HUXLEY ON SCIENCE.[C] - - -All the time that we are awake we are learning by means of our senses -something about the world in which we live and of which we form a part; -we are constantly aware of feeling, or hearing, or smelling, and, unless -we happen to be in the dark, of seeing; at intervals we taste. We call -the information thus obtained sensation. - -When we have any of these sensations we commonly say that we feel, or -hear, or smell, or see, or taste something. A certain scent makes us say -we smell onions; a certain flavor, that we taste apples; a certain sound, -that we hear a carriage; a certain appearance before our eyes, that we -see a tree; and we call that which we thus perceive by the aid of our -senses a thing or an object. - -Moreover, we say of all these things, or objects, that they are the -causes of the sensations in question, and that the sensations are the -effects of these causes. For example, if we hear a certain sound, we -say it is caused by a carriage going along the road, or that it is the -effect, or the consequence, of a carriage passing along. If there is a -strong smell of burning, we believe it to be the effect of something on -fire, and look about anxiously for the cause of the smell. If we see a -tree, we believe that there is a thing, or object, which is the cause of -that appearance in our field of view. - -In the case of the smell of burning, when we find on looking about, that -something actually is on fire, we say indifferently either that we have -found out the cause of the smell, or that we know the reason why we -perceive that smell; or that we have explained it. So that to know the -reason why of anything, or to explain it, is to know the cause of it. -But that which is the cause of one thing is the effect of another. Thus, -suppose we find some smouldering straw to be the cause of the smell of -burning, we immediately ask what set it on fire, or what is the cause -of its burning? Perhaps we find that a lighted lucifer match has been -thrown into the straw, and then we say that the lighted match was the -cause of the fire. But a lucifer match would not be in that place unless -some person had put it there. That is to say, the presence of the lucifer -match is an effect produced by somebody as cause. So we ask, why did any -one put the match there? Was it done carelessly, or did the person who -put it there intend to do so? And if so, what was his motive, or the -cause which led him to do such a thing? And what was the reason for his -having such a motive? It is plain that there is no end to the questions, -one arising out of the other, that might be asked in this fashion. - -Thus we believe that everything is the effect of something which preceded -it as its cause, and that this cause is the effect of something else, and -so on, through a chain of causes and effects which goes back as far as -we choose to follow it. Anything is said to be explained as soon as we -have discovered its cause, or the reason why it exists; the explanation -is fuller, if we can find out the cause of that cause; and the further -we can trace the chain of causes and effects, the more satisfactory is -the explanation. But no explanation of anything can be complete, because -human knowledge, at its best, goes but a very little way back toward the -beginning of things. - -When a thing is found always to cause a particular effect, we call that -effect sometimes a property, sometimes a power of the thing. Thus the -odor of onions is said to be a property of onions, because onions always -cause that particular sensation of smell to arise, when they are brought -near the nose; lead is said to have the property of heaviness, because -it always causes us to have the feeling of weight when we handle it; a -stream is said to have the power to turn a waterwheel, because it causes -the waterwheel to turn; and a venomous snake is said to have the power -to kill a man, because its bite may cause a man to die. Properties and -powers, then, are certain effects caused by the things which are said to -possess them. - -A great many of the things brought to our knowledge by our senses, such -as houses and furniture, carriages and machines, are termed artificial -things or objects, because they have been shaped by the art of man; -indeed, they are generally said to be made by man. But a far greater -number of things owe nothing to the hand of man, and would be just what -they are if mankind did not exist—such as the sky and the clouds; the -sun, moon and stars; the sea with its rocks and shingly or sandy shores; -the hills and dales of the land; and all wild plants and animals. Things -of this kind are termed natural objects, and to the whole of them we give -the name of Nature. - -Although this distinction between nature and art, between natural and -artificial things, is very easily made and very convenient, it is needful -to remember that, in the long run, we owe everything to nature; that -even those artificial objects which we commonly say are made by men, are -only natural objects shaped and moved by men; and that, in the sense -of creating, that is to say, of causing something to exist which did -not exist in some other shape before, man can make nothing whatever. -Moreover, we must recollect that what men do in the way of shaping and -bringing together or separating natural objects, is done in virtue of the -powers which they themselves possess as natural objects. - -Artificial things are, in fact, all produced by the action of that part -of nature which we call mankind, upon the rest. - -We talk of “making” a box, and rightly enough, if we mean only that we -have shaped the pieces of wood and nailed them together; but the wood is -a natural object and so is the iron of the nails. A watch is “made” of -the natural objects gold and other metals, sand, soda, rubies, brought -together, and shaped in various ways; a coat is “made” of the natural -object, wool; and a frock of the natural objects, cotton or silk. -Moreover, the men who make all these things are natural objects. - -Carpenters, builders, shoemakers, and all other artisans and artists, are -persons who have learned so much of the powers and properties of certain -natural objects, and of the chain of causes and effects in nature, as -enables them to shape and put together those natural objects, so as to -make them useful to man. - -A carpenter could not, as we say, “make” a chair unless he knew something -of the properties and powers of wood; a blacksmith could not “make” a -horseshoe unless he knew that it is a property of iron to become soft and -easily hammered into shape when it is made red-hot; a brickmaker must -know many of the properties of clay; and a plumber could not do his work -unless he knew that lead has the properties of softness and flexibility, -and that a moderate heat causes it to melt. - -So that the practice of every art implies a certain knowledge of natural -causes and effects; and the improvement of the arts depends upon our -learning more and more of the properties and powers of natural objects, -and discovering how to turn the properties and the powers of things and -the connections of cause and effect among them to our own advantage. - -Among natural objects, as we have seen, there are some that we can get -hold of and turn to account. But all the greatest things in nature and -the links of cause and effect which connect them, are utterly beyond our -reach. The sun rises and sets; the moon and the stars move through the -sky; fine weather and storms, cold and heat, alternate. The sea changes -from violent disturbance to glassy calm, as the winds sweep over it with -varying strength or die away; innumerable plants and animals come in -being and vanish again, without our being able to exert the slightest -influence on the majestic procession of the series of great natural -events. Hurricanes ravage one spot; earthquakes destroy another; volcanic -eruptions lay waste a third. A fine season scatters wealth and abundance -here, and a long drought brings pestilence and famine there. In all such -cases, the direct influence of man avails him nothing; and, so long as he -is ignorant, he is the mere sport of the greater powers of nature. - -But the first thing that men learned, as soon as they began to study -nature carefully, was that some events take place in regular order and -that some causes always give rise to the same effects. The sun always -rises on one side and sets on the other side of the sky; the changes of -the moon follow one another in the same order and with similar intervals; -some stars never sink below the horizon of the place in which we live; -the seasons are more or less regular; water always flows down-hill; fire -always burns; plants grow up from seed and yield seed, from which like -plants grow up again; animals are born, grow, reach maturity, and die, -age after age, in the same way. Thus the notion of an order of nature and -of a fixity in the relation of cause and effect between things gradually -entered the minds of men. So far as such order prevailed it was felt that -things were explained; while the things that could not be explained were -said to have come about by chance, or to happen by accident. - -But the more carefully nature has been studied, the more widely has -order been found to prevail, while what seemed disorder has proved to -be nothing but complexity; until, at present, no one is so foolish as -to believe that anything happens by chance, or that there are any real -accidents, in the sense of events which have no cause. And if we say that -a thing happens by chance, everybody admits that all we really mean is, -that we do not know its cause or the reason why that particular thing -happens. Chance and accident are only _aliases_[1] of ignorance. - -At this present moment, as I look out of my window, it is raining and -blowing hard, and the branches of the trees are waving wildly to and -fro. It may be that a man has taken shelter under one of these trees; -perhaps, if a stronger gust than usual comes, a branch will break, fall -upon the man, and seriously hurt him. If that happens it will be called -an “accident,” and the man will perhaps say that by “chance” he went out, -and then “chanced” to take refuge under the tree, and so the “accident” -happened. But there is neither chance nor accident in the matter. The -storm is the effect of causes operating upon the atmosphere, perhaps -hundreds of miles away; every vibration of a leaf is the consequence of -the mechanical force of the wind acting on the surface exposed to it; if -the bough breaks, it will do so in consequence of the relation between -its strength and the force of the wind; if it falls upon the man it will -do so in consequence of the action of other definite natural causes; and -the position of the man under it is only the last term in a series of -causes and effects, which have followed one another in natural order, -from that cause, the effect of which was his setting out, to that the -effect of which was his stepping under the tree. - -But, inasmuch as we are not wise enough to be able to unravel all these -long and complicated series of causes and effects which lead to the -falling of the branch upon the man, we call such an event an accident. - -When we have made out by careful and repeated observation that something -is always the cause of a certain effect, or that certain events always -take place in the same order, we speak of the truth thus discovered as -a law of nature. Thus it is a law of nature that anything heavy falls -to the ground if it is unsupported; it is a law of nature that, under -ordinary conditions, lead is soft and heavy, while flint is hard and -brittle; because experience shows us that heavy things always do fall if -they are unsupported, that, under ordinary conditions, lead is always -soft, and that flint is always hard. - -In fact, everything that we know about the powers and properties of -natural objects and about the order of nature may properly be termed a -law of nature. But it is desirable to remember that which is very often -forgotten, that the laws of nature are not the causes of the order of -nature, but only our way of stating as much as we have made out of that -order. Stones do not fall to the ground in consequence of the law just -stated, as people sometimes carelessly say; but the law is the way of -asserting that which invariably happens when heavy bodies at the surface -of the earth, stones among the rest, are free to move. - -The laws of nature are, in fact, in this respect, similar to the laws -which men make for the guidance of their conduct toward one another. -There are laws about the payment of taxes, and there are laws against -stealing or murder. But the law is not the cause of a man’s paying his -taxes, nor is it the cause of his abstaining from theft and murder. -The law is simply a statement of what will happen to a man if he does -not pay his taxes, and if he commits theft or murder; and the cause of -his paying his taxes, or abstaining from crime (in the absence of any -better motive) is the fear of consequences which is the effect of his -belief in that statement. A law of man tells what we may expect society -will do under certain circumstances; and a law of nature tells us what -we may expect natural objects will do under certain circumstances. Each -contains information addressed to our intelligence, and except so far as -it Influences our intelligence, it is merely so much sound or writing. - -While there is this much analogy between human and natural laws, however, -certain essential differences between the two must not be overlooked. -Human law consists of commands addressed to voluntary agents, which -they may obey or disobey; and the law is not rendered null and void by -being broken. Natural laws, on the other hand, are not commands, but -assertions respecting the invariable order of nature; and they remain -laws only so long as they can be shown to express that order. To speak -of the violation, or the suspension, of a law of nature is an absurdity. -All that the phrase can really mean is that, under certain circumstances -the assertion contained in the law is not true; and the just conclusion -is, not that the order of nature is interrupted, but that we have made a -mistake in stating that order. A true natural law is a universal rule, -and, as such, admits of no exceptions. - -Again, human laws have no meaning apart from the existence of human -society. Natural laws express the general course of nature, of which -human society forms only an insignificant fraction. - -If nothing happens by chance, but everything in nature follows a definite -order, and if the laws of nature embody that which we have been able to -learn about the order of nature in accurate language, then it becomes -very important for us to know as many as we can of these laws of nature, -in order that we may guide our conduct by them. - -Any man who should attempt to live in a country without reference to the -laws of that country would very soon find himself in trouble. And if he -were fined, imprisoned, or even hanged, sensible people would probably -consider that he had earned his fate by his folly. - -In like manner, any one who tries to live upon the face of this earth -without attention to the laws of nature will live there for but a very -short time, most of which will be passed in exceeding discomfort; a -peculiarity of natural laws, as distinguished from those of human -enactment, being that they take effect without summons or prosecution. In -fact, nobody could live for half a day unless he attended to some of the -laws of nature; and thousands of us are dying daily, or living miserably, -because men have not yet been sufficiently zealous to learn the code of -nature. - -It has already been seen that the practice of all our arts and -industries depends upon our knowing the properties of natural objects -which we can get hold of and put together; and though we may be able -to exert no direct control over the greater natural objects and the -general succession of causes and effects in nature, yet, if we know -the properties and powers of these objects, and the customary order of -events, we may elude that which is injurious to us, and profit by that -which is favorable. - -Thus, though men can nowise alter the reasons or change the process -of growth in plants, yet having learned the order of nature in these -matters, they make arrangements for sowing and reaping accordingly; they -can not make the wind blow, but when it does blow they take advantage -of its known powers and probable direction to sail ships and turn -wind-mills; they can not arrest the lightning, but they can make it -harmless by means of conductors, the construction of which implies a -knowledge of some of the laws of that electricity of which lightning is -one of the manifestations. Forewarned is forearmed, says the proverb; -and knowledge of the laws of nature is forewarning of that which we may -expect to happen, when we have to deal with natural objects. - -No line can be drawn between common knowledge of things and scientific -knowledge; nor between common reasoning and scientific reasoning. In -strictness all accurate knowledge is science; and all exact reasoning -is scientific reasoning. The method of observation and experiment, by -which such great results are obtained in science, is identically the -same as that which is employed by every one, every day of his life, but -refined and rendered precise. If a child acquires a new toy, he observes -its characters and experiments upon its properties; and we are all of us -constantly making observations and experiments upon one thing or another. - -But those who have never tried to observe accurately will be surprised to -find how difficult a business it is. There is not one person in a hundred -who can describe the commonest occurrence with even an approach to -accuracy. That is to say, either he will omit something which did occur, -and which is of importance, or he will imply or suggest the occurrence of -something which he did not actually observe, but which he unconsciously -infers must have happened. When two truthful witnesses contradict one -another in a court of justice, it usually turns out that one or other, or -sometimes both, are confounding their inferences from what they saw with -that which they actually saw. A swears that B picked his pocket. It turns -out that all A really knows is that he felt a hand in his pocket when B -was close to him; and that B was not the thief, but C, whom A did not -observe. Untrained observers mix up together their inferences from what -they see with that which they actually see in the most wonderful way; and -even experienced and careful observers are in constant danger of falling -into the same error. - -Scientific observation is such as is at once full, precise, and free from -unconscious inference. - -Experiment is the observation of that which happens when we intentionally -bring natural objects together, or separate them, or in any way change -the conditions under which they are placed. Scientific experiment, -therefore, is scientific observation, performed under accurately known -artificial conditions. - -It is a matter of common observation that water sometimes freezes. -The observation becomes scientific when we ascertain under what exact -conditions the change of water into ice takes place. The commonest -experiments tell us that wood floats in water. Scientific experiment -shows that, in floating, it displaces its own weight of the water. - -Scientific reasoning differs from ordinary reasoning in just the same way -as scientific observation and experiment differ from ordinary observation -and experiment—that is to say, it strives to be accurate; and it is just -as hard to reason accurately as it is to observe accurately. - -In scientific reasoning general rules are collected from the observation -of many particular cases; and, when these general rules are established, -conclusions are deduced from them, just as in everyday life. If a boy -says that “marbles are hard,” he has drawn a conclusion as to marbles -in general from the marbles he happens to have seen and felt, and -has reasoned in that mode which is technically termed induction. If -he declines to try to break a marble with his teeth, it is because -he consciously or unconsciously performs the converse operation of -deduction from the general rule “marbles are too hard to break with one’s -teeth.” - -You will learn more about the process of reasoning when you study logic, -which treats of that subject in full. At present, it is sufficient -to know that the laws of nature are the general rules respecting the -behavior of natural objects, which have been collected from innumerable -observations and experiments; or, in other words, that they are -inductions from those observations and experiments. The practical and -theoretical results of science are the products of deductive reasoning -from these general rules. - -Thus science and common sense are not opposed, as people sometimes fancy -them to be, but science is perfected common sense. Scientific reasoning -is simply very careful common reasoning, and common knowledge grows into -scientific knowledge as it becomes more and more exact and complete. - -The way to science then lies through common knowledge; we must extend -that knowledge by common observation and experiment, and learn how to -state the results of our investigations accurately, in general rules -or laws of nature; finally, we must learn how to reason accurately -from these rules, and thus arrive at rational explanations of natural -phenomena, which may suffice for our guidance in life. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[C] From Science Primers. Introductory. By Prof. T. H. Huxley, -F.R.S. - - - - -THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES. - - -Science means classified knowledge. There may be much general knowledge -that is not science. It attains to that dignity only when the particular -facts known are generalized, and arranged in some order, instead of being -jumbled together, and lying about loosely in the memory, to be taken up -at random. Especially must the basal facts of the science be verified, -not assumed. - -Information that is general and assured, though as yet lacking system and -a proper ordering of the elementary facts, may, and usually will in time -advance to the dignity of science. History warrants this expectation. -Only let not the boast be made, or the honor conferred prematurely. -Geography, chemistry, and political economy are all now sciences. The -first has been recognized among the sciences from an early day, though -it has advanced rapidly during the present century. The last two are -comparatively new members, having held their place in the “Circle” -scarcely a hundred years. True, many of the facts of chemistry, and -the principles of political economy had been known for ages, but the -knowledge men had of them lacked either system or certainty, or both. So, -also, in respect to mineralogy, botany, and zoölogy, a store of known -facts had been for ages accumulating, before they could rightly be called -sciences. To reach that distinction the quality and orderly arrangement -of the things known are as necessary as the quantity. - -In the heading of this series of articles, “Circle” does not suggest the -rim of a wheel, or a curved line all the points of which are equally -distant from the center around which it is drawn, but rather a group -of sciences, just as “social circle,” and “circle of friends” indicate -the amicable relations of the persons without saying anything of their -positions in the place of their meeting. It is a goodly group, this -family of the sciences, and the members now so numerous and having -such distinctive characteristics will be introduced, not as a body but -severally, and in five classes: The Mathematical, Physical, Mental, -Moral, and Social Sciences. They hold such intimate relations with each -other, mutually giving and receiving aid, that we will not attempt to -keep the members of classes from mixing occasionally in our account of -them, as they often do in reality. - -Mathematics is the science of quantities and numbers. Its principles are -of the first importance, and are of service in all the departments of -science. In several of its subdivisions, of which brief mention will be -made, it uses known quantities for the determination of those unknown, -reasoning from certain relations existing between them. The qualities -it discusses are represented by diagrams, figures, or symbols, adopted -for the purpose. It is customary to speak of _pure_ and _mixed_, or -_abstract_ and _applied_ mathematics; the former treating of laws, -principles, and relations in the abstract, or without any special -reference to anything as actual or existing. The latter discusses the -principles, laws and relations in connection with existing phenomena. The -operations with numbers and symbols in pure mathematics, dealing only -with abstract quantities, do not necessarily imply the idea of matter. -Those of the science as applied have much to do with material phenomena. -The elements that enter into the calculations in both cases are axioms or -self-evident truths, things that are known intuitively, or grasped by the -reason soon as presented, only in applied mathematics, used more or less -in all sciences, these same axiomatic, self-evident truths are employed -in the discussion of natural objects, the laws, properties, and relations -of which are learned mostly by experience and induction. - -The sciences classed as pure mathematics are Arithmetic, Geometry, -Algebra, Analytical Geometry and Calculus. Arithmetic is eminently the -science of numbers, and treats of, or practically illustrates their -nature and uses. It employs the nine Arabic digits or figures with -the addition of the cipher, giving them various positions to express -numerical values, and not the native qualities or functions of the things -to which they are applied. The methods are the same, and the results -obtained equally true, whatever may be the nature of the quantities about -which inquiry is made. The elementary or fundamental idea in arithmetic -is unity, expressed by the figure 1, from which, with the help of the -other eight digits, and the individually valueless cipher, 0, expressions -for all the other values, whole or fractional, are formed. - -As arithmetical processes underlie, or enter into, the work of nearly all -mathematical calculations, its great importance as a science is evident; -though as often taught in our schools and used in business, it is simply -a method of reckoning or computation. - -Algebra is a kindred science, that, by the use of letters and symbols, -enables us to solve more readily all difficult questions relating to -numbers. It is, indeed, a kind of universal arithmetic. In the ordinary -arithmetic the numbers or figures employed, taken separately, have always -the same value, and the result, when, sometimes by a tedious process, -obtained, is applicable only to the particular question proposed, but -in solving the problem by algebra, since we employ letters to which any -values may be attributed at pleasure, the result obtained is largely -applicable to all questions of a particular class. Thus, having the sum -and difference of two quantities given, we readily obtain an algebraic -expression for the quantities themselves. By the new method the goal -is reached speedily, and the cabalistic terms, that may, at his first -attempts, perplex and discourage the young student, become his delight; -and in many difficult processes greatly shorten the work, enabling him -with ease to solve problems that to the common arithmetician are tedious, -if not impossible. - -Geometry, one of the oldest of sciences, measures extension, treats of -order and proportion in space. Its working elements are not numbers or -symbols, but points, and lines, either straight or curved, and surfaces, -with volumes, or solids. The simpler problems, when successfully -demonstrated, are used in solving those more complicated, making the -progress easy. - -Lines are made up of points, and have extension only in one direction. -Surfaces have length and breadth, and are distinguished as triangles, -quadrilaterals, polygons, etc., according to the number of lines that -circumscribe them. Solids have length, breadth, and thickness. From -a few elementary facts, much geometrical science has been deduced, -by very simple, logical processes. It is intimately related to other -sciences, and of much practical importance; but, if there were no other -advantage derived, as a discipline of the reasoning faculty there can -be nothing better. To pursue the study profitably there is little need -of an instructor. Class recitations are helpful, but let any one intent -on personal culture, and having only a little time for the work, get -a good elementary treatise on plane and solid geometry, and study it. -The exercise will become a delight, will give strength and grip to the -faculties, and furnish protection against the mental dissipation caused -by spending much time in the hasty, careless reading of what is fitly -called light literature. - -Analytical geometry is that branch which examines, discusses and develops -the properties of geometrical magnitudes by the use of algebraic symbols. -The questions or problems are solved, not, as in plane geometry, by -diagrams or figures drawn to show certain relations of magnitudes, but by -making algebraic symbols represent them, and thus solving the problems. -Analysis is much used in simple algebraic processes, but more in -analytical geometry, and in differential and integral calculus, which has -been called the transcendental analysis. It is useful as a higher branch -of the science, and without it the best achievements of the greatest -mathematicians would scarcely have been possible. These last named -branches are generally best pursued in our higher academies and colleges. -A college course would be sadly deficient without them, but only for -exceptional cases would it be advisable to put them in a course of study -to be pursued privately. - -If this brief mention of the higher mathematics kindles desire for -further knowledge, and you hesitate to grapple with them alone, by -all means go to college, and after a proper introduction, wherein the -chief embarrassment is felt, even calculus will be found an agreeable -acquaintance. - -Under the head of “Mixed Mathematics,” applicable to both laws or -abstract principles and facts, the discussion of things as actual -and possible, we have first, mechanics, the science that treats of -the various forces and their different effects. By _force_ is meant -any power that tends to prevent, produce, or modify motion. Three -are recognized—(1) gravitation, or the attraction of bodies toward -each other; (2) the cause, whatever it may be, of light, heat, and -electricity; (3) life, an equally mysterious power producing the actions -of animals and the growth of plants. These forces, though entirely unseen -and their causes unknown, are definite quantities. We readily conceive -of one force as equal to, or greater than another, and know that equal -forces, applied in opposite directions, balance each other. To everything -that moves there is force applied greater than the resistance to be -overcome. A number of forces may act on an object at the same time, -accelerating, retarding, or changing the direction of the motion given -to it. When the forces are so balanced as to hold the body on which they -act in a state of equilibrium, their action and consequent phenomena -are investigated under the head of STATICS, or the science which treats -of bodies at rest. When motion is produced, DYNAMICS considers the laws -that govern the moving bodies and the phenomena that result. These -branches of mechanical science are of great practical importance, and a -knowledge of them would save from many blunders and failures resulting -from incompetence. The same laws govern in the movement of all bodies, -whether solid or liquid. Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Hydraulics, etc., -are branches of the same science, and worthy of separate mention only -because they apply the general principles of statics and dynamics to the -phenomena of rest or motion in liquids. The foundation for all that is -peculiar in these branches with the lengthened names, and that together -may be called Hydro-mechanics, lies in the properties that distinguish -the liquid from other states of material bodies, whether gaseous or -solid, viz.: in the presence of cohesion, but with great mobility of -parts and more or less elasticity. Some peculiarities are so noteworthy -as to deserve mention even in this limited presentation. Because of the -only slight cohesive attraction, and entire freedom of motion among the -particles, liquid bodies possess no definite form of their own, but adapt -themselves to the form of the excavations or vessels containing them. -They, of course, vary much in their fluidity, the mobile liquids, as -water and alcohol, flowing more readily than molasses, heavy oils, and -tar. Fluids at rest press equally in all directions, upward, downward, -and laterally. In this, also, they differ from solids that press only -down, or in the direction of the center of gravitation. If not confined -they can not be heaped up, but their particles seek a common level. An -absolute water level is, of course, possible only when the area covered -is so limited that lines joining all the points on the surface with -the center of gravity are practically parallel, or their convergence -an inappreciable quantity. In large bodies of water, as the ocean, the -surface corresponds with the general rotundity of the earth. - -The fact of the equal pressure of liquids in all directions, and with -the same intensity, is found of great importance in practical mechanics. -The strong pressure of a small column of water is finely illustrated -by simple experiment with the water bellows, or hydraulic paradox, in -which one pound of water in a tube lifts a hundred pounds on the top -of the bellows, and the greater the disproportion between the diameter -of the tube and that of the top of the bellows, the greater weight it -will raise. More than two hundred years ago Pascal showed the enormous -pressure exerted by a lofty column of water in a small tube. A strong -cask was filled with water, and a small tube forty feet high closely -fitted in its head, when a few pints of water poured into it burst the -cask, and would have done so if it had been made of the strongest oaken -staves and bound with hoops of iron. This is the power used in the -hydraulic press, a very simple machine of much value in the industrial -arts when there is a demand for great force that can be slowly and -steadily applied, as in compressing cloth, oil cake, paper, gunpowder -and numerous other things. Its parts are so few that it can be described -without a model to represent it. A small, upright cylinder, with a -closely fitting piston used as a pump to draw and force the water, and -connected at the base by a tube with a much larger cylinder directly -under the substance to be pressed, in which there is also a piston to -be moved upward, though water tight. The whole is secured in position -by powerful frame work. Beneath the piston the water is received. And -knowing the principles of hydrostatics we can estimate its power. If -the areas of the lower surfaces of the two pistons are to each other as -one to four hundred square inches, one pound pressure on the small one -will deliver to the lower surface of the large one a pressure equal to -four hundred pounds weight. But let the arms of the lever used as the -force pump handle be to each other as one to fifty. Then when a force -of fifty pounds is applied at the end of the long arm of the lever it -will descend with a force of 50×50=2,500, and there will be delivered on -the lower surface of the large piston a power to raise it expressed by -50×50×400=1,000,000. Some allowance must be made for friction or other -impediments, say one fourth, which is more than enough, and still a man -or boy at the end of that pump handle would be able to lift at least -three hundred and seventy-five tons. - -The sciences we have been considering under the general name of -mechanics, which is derived from a Greek word that means to contrive, -invent, construct, have much to do with machinery, with the methods of -construction, the propelling forces, and the phenomena produced. There -were machinists and some simple machines propelled by human or brute -force, by weights and springs, by falling or running water, and air in -motion before the laws of motion and forces were understood, or the rude -mechanic arts began to assume the character of a science. The machines -were, of course, imperfect, and lacked efficiency, while many of those -now in use seem nearly perfect and adapted to the work expected of them. -But notwithstanding the marvelous advance that has been made in the -manufacture of machinery, and the intelligent application of mechanical -powers, we look for still greater things as possible in the future. - -It is well, however, never to forget that whatever the seeming may be, -the most perfect machine of human invention does not create force. That -is as impossible for man as it is to give life or create matter. All he -can do is to collect, concentrate and use, to the best advantage, the -forces that exist. He may by skillful appliances gain a great mechanic -advantage, and overcome very formidable resistance, but he must be -content to do it very slowly; and it has been often said that “what he -gains in power he loses in speed.” In many cases this seems a necessity, -and he must submit to it. His simplest machine, if the fulcrum is placed -very near the weight, gives a man tremendous power gained by his position -at the long arm of the machine. But the point at which he applies the -force must move much faster and a greater distance than the object -against which it is directed. So when a man with a system of pulleys -raises to the top of a tower a block of granite that four men might lift -from the ground he sacrifices in speed what he gains in the new way of -applying the force he has for the purpose. - -You visit a large manufacturing establishment or the mechanical -department of a great national or international industrial exposition and -see a whole acre of machinery of all kinds, shafts, wheels, saws, lathes, -and spindles in rapid motion, and, astonished at the complications, -inquire for the power that carries the whole. You will possibly find it -is in some remote part of the premises, and shut up in the motionless -boiler where the steam is said to be generated, which only means that the -water heated expands and struggles to escape from its confinement, while -man understanding the laws of its action manages to liberate the force -under conditions that make it his servant. - -The science of numbers and magnitudes, useful in discussing the -distances, measurements, and motions of terrestrial bodies, is especially -so in its application to astronomy. - -Astronomy as a physical science will receive consideration in the next -number; here only the mathematical elements are noticed, and they are -everywhere manifest. The same general laws control all material bodies, -those near to us, and those seen at a distance. So the science of the -stars is not now mere theory, but has all the elements of mathematical -certainty. When dealing with such vast numbers and magnitudes as engage -the astronomer’s attention, with a few known principles or laws, and -abundant recorded telescopic observations for the basis of their work, -men can calculate even more accurately than they can count or measure. -Having once prepared their theorem, aided by the logarithms of Napier[1] -that simplify and shorten the more difficult arithmetical calculations, -they can readily determine the distance, magnitude and motions of a -planet, and know that it is done with sufficient exactness. The distances -of the heavenly bodies are generally determined by their parallax, that -is the difference between the directions of the bodies as seen from two -different points. The inclination of the lines thus drawn is the angle -of parallax. By supposing the lines prolonged to the sun, and other -lines drawn through the points selected to the center of the earth a -quadrangle is formed, all the angles and sides of which are easily found. -In measuring very minute parallaxes it may not be possible to determine -the exact position of the body as projected on the celestial sphere, but -in that case recourse can be had to relative parallax, or the difference -between the parallaxes of two bodies lying nearly in the same direction. -The best opportunity for this is afforded by the transit of Venus, and -on this account great interest is felt in that phenomenon, and extensive -preparations are made for taking accurate observations. - -The figure, size and density of the celestial bodies have all been -calculated with approximate certainty. The orbits, through which they -pass in their revolutions, described, and their velocities ascertained. - -There is a solar system of which the sun is the center, and in its -relation to the planets stationary, though really moving on through -infinite space; the orbits through which planets move are not circles, -but more or less elliptic, having the sun at one focus of the ellipse. - -That planets move in ellipses was announced by Kepler[2] as the first law -governing their motions, and a second deduced from this and confirmed by -observations, is that they do not move with equal velocity in all parts -of their orbits; and that _a line drawn from the center of the earth to -the center of the sun passes over equal spaces in equal times_. He also -found as a third law that _the squares of the times of the revolutions of -the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from -the sun_. - -Navigation shows how vessels are directed in their course upon the great -waters. In proportion as the “paths of the seas” have become open, safe -and free for all, they are found paths of knowledge and civilization. The -science, small at its beginning, has grown to its present advanced state -by slow degrees, helped by contributions from the most opposite sources. -Practical but uneducated seamen have doubtless done much, as their -ingenuity is often, in emergencies, taxed to supply means of safety and -success that are wanting. More has been contributed by scholars, secluded -philosophic men whose lives are spent “in communion with the skies,” -in observing the motions of the heavenly bodies and studying the laws -by which they are regulated. But perhaps the most valuable service has -been rendered by another class who combine an experience of the sea with -much knowledge of astronomical science, men acquainted with the needs -of seamen and qualified to meet them. The introduction of the mariner’s -compass early in the fifteenth century was an epoch in the history of -navigation, as it made seamen in a measure independent of the sun and -stars. This was an incalculable advantage, as soon became apparent to -those who adopted the compass as their guide. Of the many improvements -and helps in the science of navigation we can only name, as conspicuous, -the invention of Mercator’s chart[3] in 1569, Davis’s quadrant[4] about -1600, and Hadley’s quadrant a century later. The character of the -instruments and a glance at the Nautical Almanac will show how largely -both mathematics and astronomy enter into the science of navigation. Nor -is it quite safe to take passage with a shipmaster who has but limited -knowledge of either. He should at least thoroughly understand his -instruments and be a ready, accurate computer. - -Geometry grew out of the practice of surveying, and now embodies many -of the laws and principles of the science. There are several distinct -systems of surveying, classed according to the purposes contemplated. -It is astronomically employed in determining the figure of the earth -by the actual measurement of arcs. A fair knowledge of mathematics -and trigonometry is required in what are known as coast surveys. Land -surveying is of the plainest kind, and employed in finding the contents -of areas, or in dividing large tracts into lots of smaller dimensions. -The chief difficulty is in getting the exact bearing of the lines and the -measure of the angles when the plot is an irregular polygon. - -Topographical surveying, beside the measurement of lines and angles, -takes note of variations of level, that the draft may properly represent -superficial inequalities. Maritime surveying is an important branch, -fixing the positions of shoals, rocks and shore-lines. Mine surveying -determines the location of works in the mine and decides whether the -excavations conform, as required, to lines on the surface. The compass -and chain are the surveyor’s most common instruments, but others are -used according to the nature of the surveys to be made. Incompetency or -carelessness in surveys often occasions serious trouble and loss. - -Fortifications for the defense of cities and the protection of soldiers -are as ancient as the existence of armies. The former, built in time of -peace, of such form and materials as military science and experience -suggest, are called “permanent fortifications;” and the temporary -works constructed as the exigencies of a campaign require are “field -fortifications.” The art and science have been practiced and studied in -all ages, and there is now an immense literature on the subject. - -As methods of defense must be adjusted to those of attack the earlier -permanent fortifications, in the progress of society and after the -introduction of artillery, became nearly worthless. High stone walls are -a protection while they stand, but, however strong, they can be battered -down by heavy siege guns that have less effect when directed against -earth works, which seem less formidable. A place thoroughly fortified is -seldom taken by a sudden assault. The United States have fortified less -than most of the great European nations, but are by no means defenseless. -Previous to 1860 there had been expended on our forts more than -$30,000,000; and all the exposed positions have been greatly strengthened -within the last twenty-five years. - -_End of Required Reading for February._ - - - - -THE POET’S VISION. - -BY MARY A. LATHBURY. - - - My Lady Lily, the waters sleep, - And the winds are among the clover; - Would I could hear the tale you told - The Poet once, till with voice of gold - Singing it over and over - - He came to the court and cried, “O king, - My song of thy state and glory - Is dead on my lips! I am done with strife, - And courts, and conquests. A song of life - I have learned from a water lily.” - - “Carol us then thy pretty song, - Sir Poet!” the king cried, sneering; - So standing stateliest of them all - The length of the royal banquet hall, - And flinging a look unfearing, - - Full on the king and his court, who sat - Smiling in fine derision, - He sang or chanted as chants a seer - When sense is fading, and draweth near - The high beatific vision. - - He sang of life in the soil of death, - A seed of a heavenly sowing; - Asleep in the murk and mire of earth, - In silence waiting its wondrous birth, - Of death or of life unknowing. - - He sang of the Sun of Life—His quest - In our death-deeps dark and chilly; - Of love that quickens to life the dead, - As the sun rays seek in the river-bed - The germ of the water lily. - - He sang of Faith—of the eye that seeks - With a sightless aspiration - The source of Love and the fount of Light, - Till far in the folds of the utmost night, - Storm-swept with fierce temptation, - - A light breaks through like a faint white star, - That grows and grows like the dawning, - Till, veiled in vapors, it hangs above - The wakened soul as the face of Love, - And Life has begun its morning. - - He sang of Life in the spring o’ day, - Of patience, and truth, and duty,— - The narrow ways to the full release, - When, lapped in light and a dream of peace, - It bursts as a flower to beauty. - - He sang—and his words fell thick and fast— - Of the resurrection glory; - Of good from evil, of life from death, - And then, with hesitant, bated breath, - The God-man’s marvelous story. - - Then silence fell on the king and court, - And out through the open portal - The poet passed with a solemn stride - Into the midnight spaces wide, - Or into the life immortal. - - My Lady Lily, you will not wake, - Wrapped in your dreams Elysian, - But this is the mystic tale you hold, - Deep in your tremulous heart of gold; - And this was the Poet’s vision. - - - - -THE HOMELIKE HOUSE. - -BY SUSAN HAYES WARD. - - -CHAPTER II.—THE FAMILY PARLOR. - - From the gay world we’ll oft retire - To our own family and fire, - Where love our hours employs; - No noisy neighbor enters here - No intermeddling stranger near, - To spoil our heartfelt joys. - - —_N. Cotton._ - -The room which above all others should be furnished with the most loving -thought and lavish expense is the household parlor, or family sitting -room. Here the father reads his evening paper, the mother busies herself -with her ready needle, the children “with books, or work or healthful -play.” This should be to eye and body preëminently a restful room, -commodious, cheerful. If the reception room for visitors needs the cheer -of firelight, how much more the _living room_ of the household. - -Whittier’s description of the homely comfort of an old New England farm -house remains unexcelled in the literature of house furnishing: - - “Shut in from all the world without - We sat the clean-winged hearth about, - Content to let the north wind roar - In baffled rage at pane and door, - While the red logs before us beat - The frost line back with tropic heat; - And ever, when a louder blast - Shook beam and rafter as it passed, - The merrier up its roaring draught - The great throat of the chimney laughed. - The house-dog on his paws outspread - Laid to the fire his drowsy head, - The cat’s dark silhouette on the wall - A couchant tiger’s seemed to fall, - And, for the winter fireside meet, - Between the andiron’s straddling feet - The mug of cider simmered slow, - The apples sputtered in a row. - And, close at hand, the basket stood - With nuts from brown October’s wood. - What matter how the night behaved? - What matter how the north wind raved? - Blow high, blow low, not all its snow - Could quench our hearth-fire’s ruddy glow.” - -For the sake of restfulness to the eye, the walls and carpet should be -neutral in tone, making a good background to the family figures; the wall -paper being of a good all-overish pattern that will not detract from -pictures that may hang on it, and the carpet or rug well mixed, of not -too loud a pattern, and without strong contrasts of light and dark. Blue -wall papers are hard to deal with, but creams, fawns, soft greenish or -olive-grays, and simple leaf patterns with slight variations of color -or shade are all good for walls that are to be hung with pictures, as -a sitting room should be. Common butchers’ paper, put on in sheets, -the better textured cartridge paper, or sheathing paper with a pretty -variation introduced by way of frieze or dado are all restful to the -eye and good for the sitting room walls. The greens used should not be -sharp and crude, but should be modified, making them yellowish, bluish, -or grayish. So with reds, which will be better yellowish, slightly -bluish (not purplish), or brownish; and yellows which must be modified -into creams, old-golds, or fawns. This rule is for large surfaces. A -little pure, bright color can be introduced here and there by way of -decoration, and must appear somewhere in the room if it is to have a -cheerful look, but wait till your pictures are hung before you introduce -much brilliant color. It may take the life out of them. Picture-rods are -a great convenience, and, after the first expense, save much trouble, -and much marring of walls by driving nails. The picture-rod should -run below the frieze, and a box of picture-hooks of suitable size for -the rods should be kept ready to hand, and picture-wire so that a new -painting or engraving when it comes home may find its place at once and -not stand on the floor for a month waiting till the master can drive -a nail. As for the wall decorations, there should be a looking-glass -for family convenience either in this parlor or the entry way (the -parlor is the better place), and the best pictures the house affords, -always making sure that they are good pictures. Better always a good -photograph, or wood-cut, or etching, than a poor chromo, steel engraving, -or water-color; and better, a hundred fold, a good water-color than a -poor oil painting. If your family portraits are poor, consign them to the -garret or the upstairs hall, but, if possible, have at least one good -painting in your home-room, even if it does cost money; and remember that -a first-hand sketch by a good living artist is better than a second-hand -copy of an old master. But one good painting in a house, whether a copy -or an original, is a continual art lesson. A woman of taste will not -mix all manner of pictures together on one wall. If possible, she will -keep oil paintings by themselves, and not put them in juxtaposition with -water-colors—nor will she put a picture suited only to a gallery in a -family sitting room. Nor will she put Bacchantes in the same group with -worshiping cherubs. There is a vast deal of stuff purely ephemeral that -women are apt to load their walls with—Christmas, New Year, Easter and -birthday cards, and painted panels, which may do very well to exhibit -during the holidays or the day or two after the birthday; then, having -had their day, they should cease to obtrude if not to be. There should be -a box or receptacle for all this clutter; such souvenirs are admirable -for their suggestions to the amateur decorator or embroiderer of the -family, but they should not be allowed to spot the walls, to hang from -the side brackets or to decorate the looking-glass. “God bless our home” -is a devout aspiration which is better carried out in a godly life than -worked in cross-stitch and hung over the sitting room door. I have seen -Scripture texts deftly inwrought into the mural decoration of a sea-side -cottage, verses from the sailors’ Psalm being painted in a decorative -way between border lines of frieze or dado, where they did not seem out -of place, but the summer boarders were well nigh driven from another -cottage because of a card-board abomination hung over the mantel piece -of their sitting room, with indigo clouds and grass-green waves, with -a three-quarters-length Christ in all colors of the rainbow uttering -the magic words worked in shaded reds—“Peace, Be Still.” The matter -of mottoes has been overdone, and it is always safe to leave them out -altogether. - -Paintings upon plush must be exceedingly good to make them worth hanging -anywhere. Usually such decoration is a waste of expensive material. -Any way, plush is too easily spoiled by dust or careless handling -to make it welcome in the family room. Painting upon picture and -looking-glass frames is another misuse of decoration. A London artist -with rare ingenuity paints a stalk of lilies to hide a flaw in his -hall mirror, and straightway the “Decorative Art” salesrooms all over -our land effloresce with blooming mirror frames whose unpruned vines -straggle and trail over every glass. The beauty of a mirror is to have -it absolutely clear and free from dust and dirt, finger marks or paint -blotches, throughout its entire surface. Flower painting in polychrome -upon frames and easels is utterly out of place, as it calls the eye off -from the picture which the frame or easel holds, and reminds one of a -servant decked out in finery surreptitiously borrowed from her mistress’s -wardrobe. - -Marble mantel pieces, to be good, must be expensive. A simple pine -mantel piece with a little incised ornament is far better than white or -cold gray marble. Raised, stuck-on ornament is objectionable, whether -in wood or stone, but mantel pieces, book-cases and cabinets give a -fine opportunity for domestic carving, and one can but wonder that -more home ingenuity is not expended on the construction and carving of -mantels and other woodwork in our rooms, such as doors and windows. I -have seen a wooden mantel piece small, plain, and somewhat cheap and -inferior-looking, so improved by a little carving, judiciously introduced -by the man of the house—a small panel set in here, and the edge of the -shelf prettily finished—that the whole thing grew dignified at once and -became a worthy ornament of the “spare room,” when painted in harmony -with the rest of the woodwork. The youngest whittlers might be taught to -use tools for the family good, if parents were only willing to go to a -little trouble and expense in providing models, tools and wood for their -use, and a comfortable chimney nook where the work could be carried on. -In the schools of Philadelphia Mr. Leland has shown how much may be done -by boys and girls when their efforts are wisely directed. - -When there is no room in the house specially set apart as a library, -cabinets and book cases form an important part of the sitting room -furniture. I would have book shelves of some sort in every room of a -house; but in the room where the family gathers there should be a special -shelf for books of reference. An encyclopædia is of as much value to the -household as a wood lot is to the farm. Better wear your old silk gown or -shabby overcoat another year, or two years even, and have your book of -reference always at hand for the general good. The unabridged dictionary -is a necessity, and should stand in its rack easy of access to school -children and their elders as well. A household book of poetry, Dana’s or -Bryant’s, or whatever may be better, and an equally comprehensive volume -of religious verse like Gilman’s, or Palgrave’s choice “Golden Treasury,” -should be well thumbed by the children, and should be placed temptingly -at hand, not locked behind glass doors. Glazed doors are demanded by -collectors who revel in vellum, uncut leaves, and rare editions, but -cases that are well backed and that have leathern, or even moreen or -flannel, valences tacked to the shelves, will serve well enough to -protect books in a house where all the reading matter is for daily use or -study. - -A low book case three or four feet high and broad enough to fill a -generous wall space, running, if need be, across one side of the room, -may be found ample enough for a family whose library is limited. Pictures -and vases can be ranged upon its top. I know a room that holds three -or four such book cases of ebonized pine, filled with books and made -gay with valences of scarlet moreen, which yet scorns to be called “the -library,” and is only known as the family “sitting room.” Valences of -leather or wool are sufficient to protect the books from dust if the -cases are well backed. - -In addition to the book case, hanging shelves for children’s books, or -cabinets for collections of any sort, can be made of pine, and when -absolutely plain, if neatly varnished, need not prove unsightly. They may -even be made very ornamental by a bright curtain, plain or embroidered, -with rings attached that run lightly over a brass rod or wire, and screen -the contents of the shelves from the too inquisitive eye. - -It is really a happy day for a household when one of its members develops -a hobby and begins to make a collection—not of buttons or business cards, -but of something on which genuine study will not come amiss, and there is -hardly any line in which one is likely to interest himself where he may -not often pick up for a mere trifle much that will be of special value to -his collection, much that, by itself, would be comparatively worthless, -but which in a collection has added worth and dignity; and any collection -makes a new point of interest in a home. In a quiet country town where I -once lived, the boys of the village took to collecting butterflies and -insects. Farmers carried turpentine or benzine in their pockets, and -would come home from their haying fields with hats gay with the captured -moths and butterflies they were taking to the collectors of their -several households. Thus homes hitherto utterly wanting in any æsthetic -influence, seemed to brighten into something positively charming, when -father and mother, son and daughter clustered about the drawers in the -front parlor, exhibiting to any chance visitor the fragile treasures so -carefully arranged within them, and when a new specimen was captured the -collector would - - “Run it o’er and o’er with greedy view, - And look and look again, as he would look it through.” - -Think of the many lines in which the collector may work! The postage -stamp craze was by no means to be despised; it was a good geography -lesson for the children, and well up to the times, throwing in a little -history as well. Coin collecting is yet more profitable in the same -lines, and when confined to the coins of one’s own land, gives a wide -enough range for the average collector. For the out-of-door student there -are shells, sea mosses and birds’ eggs, flowers to press, and minerals -to secure. One boy hunts up Indian relics, another collects weapons of -various sorts, from - - “The old queen’s arm which Gran’ther Young - Fetched back from Concord, busted,” - -to an Australian boomerang or a South Sea Island club brought by the -sailor uncle from some voyage of long ago. One dear, old lady has a -choice collection of bits of lace all dated and named; another of -pieces of brocade, an admirable commentary on silk manufactory. Here we -find a treasurer of fans, and there of snuff-boxes; here of children’s -photographs, and there of photographs or autographs of famous men; and -everywhere, all over our land, will be found the covetous collector of -rare, old china and pottery. Let the children be encouraged to interest -themselves in some such lines as these, not so as to make nuisances of -themselves and museums of their homes—there will be little danger of -that—but enough to give them a wholesome enthusiasm in some particular -line of study. A vast deal of general information is disseminated through -a household, unconsciously absorbed, as it were, when each one has a -hobby of his own, and gives out of his choicest discoveries for the -common good. - -As to the sitting room furniture, there are a few essentials that must -be emphasized. There should be a table large enough for half a dozen -people to sit around of an evening—a round one is best—strong, solid, -and covered with a serviceable cloth. There are handsome woolen table -covers that grow yet handsomer with age as their colors mellow together, -but the best is expensive. A square of plain felt does very well, and -is in better taste than the scarlet and green felt cloths stamped with -black figures that were so prevalent twenty years ago. A figured cloth -shows spots less than a plain one. If a mat of some sort, or even a -newspaper, is always laid down under any lamp that burns kerosene, and if -a blotter is always used where writing or painting is going on, a plain -cloth ought to last for years. Light should abound where the family sit -together, sunlight by day and good gas or lamp light by night should be -generously supplied. A good duplex burner or a double student lamp uses -no more oil than several small lamps dotted down here and there, about -the room, and it brings the family together about the central table. So -with the drop light, which is an essential where gas is used. The wise -woman discards gas in her sitting room, however, and uses good oil, -which is far better for the eyes. There should be a writing desk in the -room. The old-fashioned secretary was a valuable piece of sitting room -furniture, and many a good one has been recalled from the attic within -the last few years, and, by a judicious use of soda water, has been freed -from old paint, and when scrubbed and rubbed, it has shone as good as -new, and much more useful than the modern Davenport. There should be -large, easy chairs, not too low, for the use of the men of the house, -and for elderly people who find it hard to rise gracefully and with ease -from soft, low chairs. There should also be low chairs with broad seats, -and short arms, or none at all, for those who must busy themselves with -sewing, knitting, and embroidery, and comfortable camp chairs that can -be lightly lifted by the children and carried here and there about the -room. Let the chairs, in fact let everything be strong and comfortable -in this room. A heavy man is often put to great inconvenience because -the chairs at his disposal are too flimsy to bear his weight. There are -countless stories told of the Rev. Phillips Brooks, and men of his build, -who dare not laugh at a dinner party lest their chairs resolve themselves -into kindling wood at the first mirthful shake. In my own parlor there is -one chair deep, broad, and of marvelous strength, bought with an eye to -the needs of a friendly neighbor of grand dimensions. “This is a chair -that Mr. B. can’t break,” said the kindly donor who had witnessed the -collapsing of ordinary parlor chairs under his ponderous weight. Remember -that no chair should be expected to do service that has not connecting -rungs between the legs. - -There should be, also, a lounge or sofa in this room, with ample pillow, -not a round horse-hair cylinder, but something useful, restful, and not -too fine. Let the color be as perfect as may be, but if the material -of which it is made be really too splendid for daily use, its glories -should be veiled behind a strong, washable tidy. I have seen a gray linen -square or towel, with drawn work at the ends, such as costs fifty cents, -perhaps, at the linen shops, with a few long-stemmed poppies bending -together in a row at one end, wrought in outline, with the familiar -legend, “We are all nodding, nid, nid, nodding,” running sleepily down -the center. That had just sentiment enough, and art enough for its place -and use. Tidies are mere clutter if not intended to be brushed against -and used. Paintings on blue satin, decked out with lace, are out of taste -in any room, however fine, and out of place on any chair. No chair should -be too daintily dressed out to be sat upon; and no painting should so -hang as to invite shoulders clad in black broadcloth to rub themselves -against it. “Tidies” or “chair backs,” if used at all, should be of a -firm material, not easily crumpled, should be firmly attached, should -give off little or no lint, and should be washed when they are soiled, or -thrown away. They are better when off the white. - -There should be a wrap of some sort, afghan, Mexican or army blanket, -railway rug or shawl thrown over the foot of the sofa, with which to -cover up the invalid of the household, or any one who is tempted to -lounge awhile. - -Other sitting room comforts, though not essentials, are a sewing table, -stand or basket with drawers or pockets attached, for the convenience of -needlewomen, a portable screen, two-leaved and not too large, that can -shut off draughts from rheumatic shoulders, and an occasional hassock or -footstool—“crickets” our grandmothers called them in New England. - -The covering of tables, chairs, etc., affords an opportunity to introduce -color into the room, but it is not at all necessary that the chairs -should all be covered with stuffs of the same quality or color. Unless -very well chosen, plain colors are apt to stare, like the sharp green -“rep” that was so long popular, and whose good wearing qualities made it -so hard to displace. If the manufacturers had only kept pace with the -times, and produced the stuff in good, plain shades that would keep their -colors, or figured in good designs, it would still hold its own against -all the so-called tapestry goods that the upholsterers offer us. “Rep,” -however, was utterly unsuitable for curtains; it was stiff and wiry, and -hung in ungainly folds. - -For our sitting room some light drapery at the windows is advisable. If -the room has no blinds, there should be some sort of thick shades or -venetian blinds. There is a yellowish brown holland that is admirable -for the purpose; but with outside or inside blinds, a thin curtain like -Madras muslin is all that is necessary to shade the blackness of the -windows at night, or to temper the brightness of the sunlight by day. The -advantage of Madras muslin or Cretan cloth over lace, muslin, or cheese -cloth curtains lies in the color and figure; colored and figured curtains -showing to better advantage against the light than plain white, and -looking fresher much longer; they “furnish” a room more. - -Whatever curtains are used, they should be hung with rings from rods of -brass, bamboo, or wood—varnished pine is good enough—so that they can -be pushed entirely to one side with ease. Rods should not be too large -and should be finished at the ends with some simple ornament, as a plain -ball which pulls off at one end, so as to allow the rings to slip over -the rod. The curtains may be long, if hung outside the window frame, and -just reach the floor, or they may hang from the upper sash and just reach -to the window ledge, so as to cover only the window; or they may be half -curtains hanging from a small rod or wire so as to screen only the lower -sash. It is not at all necessary to treat the windows alike. A bay window -may have a long, heavy curtain running across the bay and forming a nook -where two or three may sit cosily together, and the other windows may be -treated to sash or half-sash curtains of soft silk, Madras muslin, or -even Turkey red calico. Where a window is filled with plants, the little -half curtain running upon a brass wire and falling over the lower sash -serves, on winter nights, as a slight protection for the plants from -outer air, and can be thrust to one side by day, and tucked up out of -sight. A little drapery is a great relief in a room where there are bare -floors and much display of woodwork in doors and window frames. Then, -a portière in place of a closet door, a hanging before a book case, or -curtains at the windows would relieve the bareness of the room as nothing -else could. Curtains should not repeat the color of the walls, nor should -portières be of the same material and color as the curtains. Woodwork, -however, when painted should repeat the wall color, though it should be -somewhat lighter in shade. - -There lacks but little to make our home parlor complete. A piano, if -practice thereon will not interfere with the occupancy of the room by -the household; otherwise let the piano be kept where music lessons given -and studied will not disturb the family serenity; for many reasons the -drawing room is the best place for the piano, it is more likely to be -treated with respect by mischievous fingers there than in the living -room; and a clock, the plainer the better—no little French fanciful -affair, but something substantial, that can last like the tall, ancestral -eight-day time piece. Should the clock stand on the mantel it is not -essential to have balancing ornaments on either side. The choicest -treasures of the house should indeed adorn the mantel piece, but it is -never necessary to have two of a kind standing at equal distances from -the center. - -This is the room in which all things should seem to grow into a likeness -to the household, and to grow old with it. Here no changes should be made -but for good cause, and always for the better, never by the wholesale. -Nor should furniture be introduced that is so staringly new and gay as to -put the rest out of countenance and make it look shabby by comparison. -There are plenty of good stuffs subdued enough in color to harmonize -with any long used parlor, no matter how old the carpet nor how faded -the chair seats. Whatever is good and old, though worn, let us respect, -preserve, and repair. - - - - -NATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION. - -BY GENERAL JOHN A. LOGAN, - -U. S. Senator from Illinois. - - -To bring to light and expose to public gaze our national defects or -social deformities is an unpleasant and generally thankless task, but -so long as we shirk it, just so long will they remain to our national -detriment and disgrace. To be conscious of disease, to locate and -properly diagnose it, is to be half-way on the road to good health. - -It is not necessary in this age of enlightenment to dwell upon the -manifest and manifold advantages to a people and to a nation, of -education. They are palpable, and conceded by all men. Illiteracy, -then, must as plainly be a disadvantage to a nation, a hindrance to -the advancement and welfare of its people, and an evil which should be -eradicated. - -We Americans boast, and boast rightfully, of the high position in the -scale of intelligence we occupy as a people; but pride in that fact -should not blind our eyes to our existing imperfections. We are proud of -the attainments of our men of letters; we rejoice in the achievements of -our scientists and inventors; we glory in our rapid advance among the -nations to wealth and power; and we fail to give serious heed to the -hundreds of thousands of our people who are growing up every year in -clouded ignorance, without even the rudiments of education. - -If we examine with care our census returns and the reports of our -Bureau of Education, we will be startled by some of the facts they -reveal. To follow many of these revelations in detail might lead to an -accusation of making invidious distinctions, but there are enough to -which the attention of the country may be called without the shadow of -justification for such a charge. Let us look at these. - -Take the Bulletin of “Illiteracy in the United States,” as returned at -the tenth census, and its first line reveals the deplorable fact that of -the 36,761,607 persons of ten years of age and upward, 4,923,451 (over -one-seventh) are unable to read, and 6,239,958 (nearly one-sixth) are -unable to write. - -It appears, moreover, from other census tabulations presented[D] to the -United States Senate that, of the 50,155,783 persons constituting our -population in 1880, there were equally proportioned between the white -and colored races, 4,204,363 of both sexes over twenty-one years of age -unable to write, or about 2,000,000 “illiterates” out of the 10,000,000 -persons at that time entitled to vote; or, in other words, one of every -five voters in the United States unable to write his name. From other -statistics of that census it appears also that 1,640,000 voters were -unable to read. Thus we have the astounding assurance that while one in -every five voters can not write the ballot that he wishes to deposit, one -in every six voters can not even read the ballot that he places in the -box! - -It is this one illiterate voter in every five (or six) voters who holds -the balance of power at our elections. - -While a very large proportion of our population, and also of that portion -of it which exercises the elective franchise, can both read and write, -yet a great number of these are very little the more intelligent because -their limited ability to do either or both is so imperfect and so rarely -availed of. Alluding to these, a committee of the United States Senate -(Report 101, Pt. 2, first session, Forty-eighth Congress), said: “Of -those who can write, multitudes do not place a sentence on paper twice in -a lifetime. Thousands never get an idea from the printed page.” Yet these -are the men who may at any time subject the country to their control—men -who hold the weighty balance of political power. - -To the patriot, to the lover of republican institutions, to the advocate -of unrestricted individual suffrage, this fact is appalling. But it is -none the less a fact that should be known. Nor may the advocates of -monarchical systems of government and of restricted suffrage take comfort -from that fact. That the deciding ballot in our political contests may -be an ignorant one does not prove the evil or folly of unrestricted -suffrage. Not at all. Cancer in the breast does not prove the folly of -life. Nor is a jammed finger necessarily fatal. These simply remind us -that in the one case the knife, and in the other the lotion, should be -quickly and efficiently used. So with the ignorant ballot. Its existence -merely proves the absolute necessity of prompt and vigorous action to -enlighten it—of educating him who casts it—of taking counsel from the -past and present and providently guarding the future. It teaches us -that while we are properly horrified at any desecration of the sacred -right of suffrage—whether by bulldozing, ballot-box stuffing, false -counting, or other methods of intimidation or of fraud—it is high time -to arouse ourselves to a state of facts existing around us and under our -very noses, constituting a sacrilege only differing from these others -in degree; to realize, in time to remedy it, that at every election -we witness, at almost every voting precinct in the land, a constant, -never-failing, almost winked-at desecration by power-clad ignorance of -that right; to realize the great dangers from this source that we have -thus far happily escaped; to properly apprehend the possible perils thus -stored up for us in the bosom of the future, and by timely, energetic and -sufficient action to arrest them. Thus the very knowledge that one in -every five of our voters exercises ignorantly this undue and prodigious -power must nerve a free and enlightened people to make immediate and -adequate provision both to aid and to make obligatory the elementary -education of those who in due time will inherit from us the right of -suffrage. - -It can not be too often or too strongly urged, under the light of -this revelation from the census returns, that an ignorant ballot is -a dangerous ballot, because it may be at once heedless, and easily -deceived; that an educated ballot is, to the degree of education, an -enlightened ballot—possibly wrong-headed or mistaken at times, but -as a rule careful, brave and pure; and that, as the ballot is placed -in the hands of all Americans, education—the means by which they may -discriminatingly cast that ballot—should be open and free to all. - -The very existence of the Republic depends upon the proper use of the -potential ballot. Education alone can teach that proper use. Hence it is -that “education to all” is the chief corner stone of the Republic; and -to make that secure, no effort however great, no expense however large, -should be withheld. - -Here then, with the fact staring us in the face, that the one potential -vote of every five votes that decides all the great political questions -of the day—questions involving the most complex and far-reaching -principles of government—questions of finance, of diplomacy, of commerce, -of trade, of the tariff, of the relations of capital and labor, and -others whose solution perplexes the minds of our very ablest statesmen—is -an utterly ignorant vote, can the American people hesitate to demand of -Congress not only immediate but adequate remedial legislation in the -shape of ample national aid to elementary education for all of school -age, and obligatory attendance within reasonable limits? - -But this is not the only fact bearing heavily upon the question of the -necessity of national aid to our public school system. If we examine -the details of these census tabulations we shall find that much the -larger portion of this illiteracy is found in some thirteen or fourteen -states. Taking these states and territories in which the proportion of -“illiterates” (those unable to write) to the total state or territorial -population of ten years of age and upward exceeds 25 per cent., we find -that ratio to be: In Alabama, 50.9 per cent.; Arkansas, 38; Florida, -43.4; Georgia, 49.9; Kentucky, 29.9; Louisiana, 49.1; Mississippi, 49.5; -New Mexico, 65; North Carolina, 48.3; South Carolina, 55.4; Tennessee, -38.7; Texas, 29.7; and Virginia, 40.6. Massing these twelve states and -one territory together, we find they include a population of 10,079,130 -of ten years of age and upward, of which number no less than 4,324,513, -or over two fifths, are unable to write—forty-three out of every one -hundred unable to sign their own names—while of the 26,682,477 persons -of like age in the remaining states and territories, the number of such -illiterates is but 1,915,445, or a little over seven in every one hundred. - -We are all of course aware that this large proportion of illiteracy -in the states named is largely owing to the presence of the colored -population. Nevertheless the fact remains that these people, to whom all -the rights of citizenship have been accorded, and who will hereafter form -a very important and possibly predominating factor in the administration -of the affairs of many of these states, as well as an important factor in -national affairs, must remain for a long time in ignorance unless some -other means of educating them be adopted than that which now obtains. - -But let no one deceive himself with the idea that this undue and -lamentable ratio of illiteracy in these particular states is due wholly -to the presence of the colored population. Unfortunately illiteracy -prevails to a very considerable and almost an alarming extent among their -native white population also. Thus the census tabulations show that -the proportion of “illiterates” (those unable to write), in the total -native white population, ten years of age and upward, is: In Alabama, 25 -percent.; Arkansas, 25.5; Florida, 20.7; Georgia, 23.2; Kentucky, 22.8; -Louisiana, 19.8; Mississippi, 16.6; New Mexico, 64.2; North Carolina, -31.7; South Carolina, 22.4; Tennessee, 27.8; Texas, 13.9; and Virginia, -18.5. Massing them we find that of the 6,010,714 native whites, ten years -of age and upward, within the territorial limits mentioned, there are as -many as 1,395,441—being 23.2 per cent., or nearly one in every four of -the whites—unable to write. It is evident, therefore, that the surprising -illiteracy in these states is not wholly attributable to the presence -therein of the colored race. - -It is somewhat humiliating to have to confess to the world by our own -official figures that one out of every four of the native whites over ten -years of age in twelve states and one territory of our Republic is unable -to write his own name, especially when we compare it with the additional -fact, derived from the same tabulation, that the illiteracy of the -foreign born of these same localities does not rise in any instance above -10.9 per cent. - -Turning to the other side of the picture we may find some grains of -comparative consolation in observing the fact that of the remaining -19,775,075 native whites, ten years of age and upward, in the United -States only 860,019—or 4.3 per cent., being one in twenty-three—are -unable to write. This favorable condition of one part of the country, -however, only serves to bring out in sharper contrast the sad condition -of the other part, and should spur the philanthropist and statesman to -renewed and more strenuous effort to obliterate, or at least ameliorate, -this alarming sectional inequality in the degree of illiteracy. - -Were it not for the hope of ultimately removing this inequality by -attaining an educational homogeneity or equality on the higher level -as between the sections, one might almost be tempted to wish for an -educational equalization on the lower grade; for as long as that -inequality continues to exist, so long must it prove a source of -irritation and danger in a thousand forms. - -As to the situation in the old slave states, where the colored population -is proportionately large, it is not difficult to understand it. We can -appreciate the dread on the part of the whites of an “uprising,” as it -is termed, of the colored people. But the words of Jefferson[E]—possibly -prophetic unless averted by the exercise of wisdom and fairness—have in -them a depth of meaning that none but those whites can fully realize -when, speaking of the slaves, he says: “And can the liberties of a -nation be thought secure when we have removed their only firm basis, a -conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are the gift -of God? That they are not to be violated but with his wrath? Indeed I -tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just; that his justice -can not sleep forever; that considering numbers, nature and natural means -only, a _revolution of the wheel of fortune, an exchange of situation is -among the possible events_; that it may become probable by supernatural -interference! The Almighty has no attribute which can take sides with us -in such a contest.” - -Aside from the overawing influence of a large standing army there is -but one thing that can prevent a race-conflict, the very possibility of -which we dread to contemplate, and that is the benign and liberalizing -influence of education, resulting in a free and untrammeled exercise -of the elective franchise. Give the former and you will unquestionably -secure the latter. - -That the local as well as sectional inequality in education can be -overcome by no other means than by national aid, will be further -demonstrated. Nor is it just that we should expect or ask it to be -otherwise. No matter now what may have caused this inequality, the fact -that it exists is that which now momentously concerns us. We know it -can not be removed by recurring to the cause; and it will become more -and more evident as we examine the subject that only by speedy and -efficient congressional action can we now insure that future educational -equilibrium, not only between the races and between the sections, but -also between the people in each state, which will have so important a -bearing upon the destinies of this nation, and is so essential to the -continued peace, prosperity and contentment of its people. - -Another fact of great importance, as bearing upon the necessity for -national aid to education, is revealed by the census returns. It is a -curious as well as an important revelation, because it shows that the -ratio of children or persons under twenty-one years of age to the adults, -is considerably larger in some states than in others, and correspondingly -increases the educational burden. - -The principle involved in this condition of affairs may be simply -illustrated thus: Suppose the head of each family had to pay directly for -the education of his own children. Then, even with an equality of means, -the burden would, as a matter of course, fall heavier on the one with a -numerous than the one with a small progeny. - -To make apparent the effect of this inequality in the proportion of -minors to adults in different parts of our common country, let us suppose -that the mean average cost of schooling is four dollars per annum for -each child. - -It appears that in Connecticut, out of every one hundred persons, -fifty-nine are adults, and forty-one are minors. At this supposed rate, -then, the fifty-nine adults would have each to pay two dollars and -seventy-eight cents per annum in order to make up the one hundred and -sixty-four dollars per annum needed for the education of the forty-one -children. It appears also that in South Carolina, out of every one -hundred persons, forty-three are adults and fifty-seven are minors. At -the supposed rate, then, these forty-three adults would have each to -pay five dollars and thirty cents per annum in order to make up the two -hundred and twenty-eight dollars per annum needed for the education of -the fifty-seven children. - -Now, this is a very important fact, indeed, and must lead all fair minded -advocates of education to modify somewhat the criticisms they may have -made touching the expenditure in the South for education as compared with -that in the North and West; for here it becomes palpable that two dollars -and seventy-eight cents per adult in Connecticut is equivalent to five -dollars and thirty cents per adult in South Carolina for the schooling of -the children respectively, in those states. Nearly twice as much in one -state as in the other. - -But this result is from an assumed uniform mean average standard of the -cost of educating each child in the Union. Let us test the matter by a -comparison founded on actual cost. Take, for instance, the states of -Maine and Mississippi. - -In Maine there are fifty-eight adults to forty-two minors in every -one hundred persons. In Mississippi there are forty-three adults to -fifty-seven minors in every one hundred persons. In Maine[F] the -educational expenditure per capita of the school population is four -dollars and sixty-seven cents per annum. This enforces an annual -expenditure for this purpose of three dollars and thirty-eight cents by -each adult. An equal school tax of four dollars and sixty-seven cents per -annum for each scholar, imposed upon the adult population of Mississippi -would call for six dollars and nineteen cents from each adult—or nearly -twice what the adult of Maine must pay. - -The effects of this disparity will be more fully dwelt upon at a later -period. But it must surely be already apparent that this inequality of -the educational burden created by the disparity existing between the -populations of various portions of our country can alone be met and -remedied by some aid from the general government. - -It is true that the facts thus far adduced indicate rather the necessity -for national assistance to certain sections or states than for general -and uniform aid to all. But a further study and the development of other -facts will, as we proceed, more fully reveal, not alone the wisdom and -necessity of such aid to all, but the character and extent of the aid -required. - -Before we reach that period, however, there are facts touching other -phases of inequality of burden that are worthy of close and careful -consideration. - -Careful tabulations from the census returns show that a school enrollment -of 22.4 per cent. of the total population of Missouri amounts to but 88.6 -per cent. of the school population of that state, fixing the standard of -school age as between six and sixteen years; while a school enrollment -of 22 per cent. of the total population of New Jersey is equal to[G] -101.5 per cent. of her school population. Hence, although Missouri has a -somewhat larger percentage in school of her total population than has New -Jersey, yet she lacks more than 11 per cent. of having all her children -of school age enrolled as scholars; while a slightly smaller per cent. of -her total population places more than all the school age children of New -Jersey in school. So also with Vermont, where a school enrollment of 22 -per cent. of the total population gives 109.5 per cent. in school, of all -of school age. - -Comparing Nebraska and Connecticut, we find that while 22.3 per cent. of -the total population of the former state enrolled in the schools amounts -to but 95.4 per cent. of her children of school age, 21.3 per cent. of -the total population of the latter state enrolled in the schools is -equivalent to 110.3 per cent. of her children of school age. - -Massachusetts has to send 19.2 per cent. of her total population to -school in order to equal 104.8 per cent. of her children of school age, -while Illinois has to send to school 24.5 per cent. of her population to -reach a like ratio of enrolled scholars to children of school age. - -Even in states situated so near to each other as Pennsylvania and -New York we observe this inequality. In the former, where the school -enrollment is 22.8 per cent. of the total population, it is but 99.4 per -cent. of the children of school age, while in New York 23 per cent. of -the total population enrolled in the schools is 112.4 per cent. of her -children of school age. - -Thus far have been selected for comparison some of those states the -ratios of whose school enrollment to the total population were about the -same. But while these contrasts bring out very clearly the inequality in -the burden of educating the children of our country, yet there are more -marked illustrations at hand. - -Take Arkansas, West Virginia and New York, for instance. In Arkansas the -school enrollment is 13.5 per cent. of population, and but 51.3 per cent. -of the children of school age. At the same ratio a school enrollment of -23 per cent. of total population in Arkansas would be but 87.4 per cent. -of the children of school age. West Virginia has a school enrollment of -23.3 per cent. of total population, which is only 87.9 per cent. of her -children of school age. Yet New York, as we have already seen, by an -enrollment of 23 per cent. of her total population secures schooling for -113.3 per cent.—more than all—of her children of school age. - -Comparing other states, one with the other—such as Alabama with Maine, -Georgia with New Hampshire, Tennessee with Rhode Island, Mississippi -with Massachusetts, etc.—we see similar, and in some cases even greater -inequality. - -Let us now apply these facts practically, and thus reach a clearer -understanding of the effect of this great disparity. - -The actual mean average cost of the schooling of each public school -scholar in the United States is about ten dollars. Assuming then that -the adult population of each state bears the burden of educating its -children, and that all the children of school age in each state are -enrolled in the schools—as they should be—let us ascertain how much the -tax per capita would be on the adults bearing this burden in each state -and territory. In other words, let us discover how much in each state and -territory must every adult (male or female) pay every year in order to -supply the ten dollars per annum that it costs to educate each and every -child in that state or territory. - -It would cost each adult in Montana, $1.95; in Wyoming, $2.12; Nevada, -$2.12; Colorado, $2.20; Arizona, $2.34; New Hampshire, $2.78; Idaho, -$3.00; Massachusetts, $3.23; Dakota, $3.30; Rhode Island, $3.22; -California, $3.33; Connecticut, $3.27; Maine, $3.43; Vermont, $3.46; New -York, $3.56; District of Columbia, $3.77; Washington, $3.94; New Jersey, -$4.02; Michigan, $4.15; Oregon, $4.29; Delaware, $4.31; Pennsylvania, -$4.26; Ohio, $4.55; Maryland, $4.55; Nebraska, $4.77; Minnesota, $4.70; -New Mexico, $4.65; Wisconsin, $4.86; Illinois, $4.88; Indiana, $5.00; -Iowa, $5.10; Missouri, $5.28; Kansas, $5.32; Louisiana, $5.54; North -Carolina, $5.67; Virginia, $5.59; Texas, $5.86; Kentucky, $5.65; Florida, -$5.78; Utah, $6.07; Alabama, $6.12; Arkansas, $6.12; Georgia, $5.98; -South Carolina, $5.98; Tennessee, $6.00; West Virginia, $5.86, and -Mississippi, $6.28—while, massing the entire Union, the cost to each -adult in it would be $4.70. - -Thus we find that while the school tax on each adult in New York would -be but $3.56, in the adjoining state of Pennsylvania it would be $4.26; -that while in Massachusetts it would be but $3.23, in Illinois it would -be $4.88—a difference of $1.65 per capita to the adult; that while in New -Hampshire it would be but $2.78, in Mississippi it would be more than -double that amount. But the reader can himself, by a glance at the list -presented, perceive even more glaring inequalities than these in the -relative burdens which would be imposed upon the adult population of the -various states and territories, were that burden to be placed entirely on -their shoulders. - -If it be the true policy of a nation to equalize, as far as possible, -the necessary burdens imposed upon its people, then we certainly have -before us in these statistics, a condition of facts demanding serious -consideration and efficacious action by the general government. - -If inequality in the burdens imposed in order to educate our children be -any argument in favor of national aid to education—and who will venture -to deny it?—then we have in these statistics positive evidence of very -great and possibly hitherto unsuspected inequalities; inequalities of -which none could be aware without a close and critical analysis of the -figures, the developments of which as previously hinted, may well cause -us to modify somewhat the reproaches we may have felt inclined to cast -upon some of our states for what seemed to be a lack of proper effort on -their part in the direction of education. - -While, however, reproachful criticism of them still appears to -some extent justifiable, yet the deductions from rearrangement and -classification of the census and educational bureau tables show that -the fault does not altogether lie at the doors of those among whom the -greatest amount of illiteracy is found. - -In order to make this clear let us examine the ratio of children enrolled -in schools, not to the state, but to the adult population. That ratio is, -in Alabama, 34.6 per cent.; Arkansas, 31.4; California, 35.2; Colorado, -17.7; Connecticut, 36.1; Delaware, 34.6; District of Columbia, 32.1; -Florida, 35.8; Georgia, 42; Illinois, 50; Indiana, 54.3; Iowa, 56; -Kansas, 53.8; Kentucky, 36.3; Louisiana, 19.8; Maine, 40; Maryland, 31.4; -Massachusetts, 33.5; Michigan, 44; Minnesota, 47.8; Mississippi, 48.6; -Missouri, 47.7; Nebraska, 45.5; New Hampshire, 31.3; New Jersey, 40.7; -New York, 40.3; North Carolina, 40.7; Ohio, 47.8; Pennsylvania, 42.2; -Rhode Island, 30.2; South Carolina, 32.3; Tennessee, 49.1; Texas, 25.2; -Utah, 44.4; Vermont, 38; Virginia, 35.4; West Virginia, 51.8; Wisconsin, -50.4, and in the entire Union, 42 per cent. - -Now, the mean average number of children in the United States enrolled -in the schools being forty-two to every one hundred adults, what is our -surprise to find, in the figures just given, that every New England -state, as well as New York, New Jersey, and the District of Columbia, -falls below this average, while on the other hand, every northwestern -state (including Ohio, Missouri and Kansas), as well as Mississippi, -Tennessee and West Virginia, stands above it! - -That in proportion to the adult population of those states, there are -more children at school in Mississippi, Tennessee and West Virginia, than -in any of the New England states, is, indeed, an astounding revelation. - -Supposing, then, the cost of educating a child in those states to be the -same, it follows that each one hundred adults in Mississippi, Tennessee, -and West Virginia are paying more to educate their children than is paid -by the same number of adults in any New England state! - -At first sight these statistical results fairly stagger one, and give -rise to doubts of their accuracy. But a careful examination of them -will satisfy any reasonable mind that these developments are veritable -facts, if the census returns and the school enrollment reported by the -Commissioners of Education are to be accepted—being based upon and -directly calculated from them. Even supposing the existence of some -deficiencies in the returns or some minor errors in the calculations, the -general facts they reveal must be accepted as true. - -[TO BE CONTINUED.] - - -FOOTNOTES - -[D] By Senator Butler, of South Carolina. - -[E] “Notes on Virginia, Fourth American Edition, N. Y. 1801,” p. -241. - -[F] See Report of Commissioner of Education for 1881, page 49. - -[G] The surplus of percentage being due doubtless to the -attendance at school of some children beyond the school age prescribed by -law. - - - - -THE PARSON’S COMFORTER. - -BY FREDERICK LANGBRIDGE. - - - The parson goes about his daily ways - With all the parish troubles in his head, - And takes his Bible out, and reads and prays, - Beside the sufferer’s chair, the dying bed. - - Whate’er the secret skeleton may be— - Doubt, drink, or debt—that keeps within his lair, - When parson comes, the owner turns the key, - And lets him out to “squeak and gibber” there. - - It seems a possibility unguessed— - Or little borne in mind, if haply known— - The he who cheers in trouble all the rest - May now and then have troubles of his own. - - Alas! God knows, he has his foe to fight, - His closet-atomy, severe and grim; - All others claim his comfort as of right, - But, hapless parson! who shall comfort _him_? - - A friend he has to whom he may repair - (Beside that One who carries all our grief), - And when his load is more than he can bear - He seeks his comforter, and finds relief. - - He finds a cottage, very poor and small, - The meanest tenement where all are mean; - Yet decency and order mark it all:— - The panes are bright, the step severely clean. - - He lifts the latch—his comforter is there, - Propt in the bed, where now for weeks she stays, - Or, haply, seated knitting in her chair, - If this be one of those rare “better days.” - - A tiny woman, stunted, bent, and thin; - Her features sharp with pain that always wakes; - The nimble hand she holds the needles in - Is warped and wrenched by dire rheumatic aches. - - Sometimes, but seldom, neighbors hear her moan, - Wrung by some sudden stress of fiercer pain; - Often they hear her pray, but none has known, - No single soul has heard her lips complain. - - The parson enters, and a gracious smile - Over the poor pinched features brightly grows; - She lets the needles rest a little while; - “You’re kindly welcome sir!”—ah! that he knows. - - He takes the Book, and opens at the place— - No need to ask her which her favorite psalm; - And, as he reads, upon her tortured face - There comes a holy rapture, deep and calm. - - She murmurs softly with him as he reads - (She can repeat the Psalter through at will); - “He feeds me in green pastures, and He leads, - He leads me forth beside the waters still.” - - The reading’s done, and now the prayer is said; - He bids farewell, and leaves her to her pain; - But grace and blessing on his soul are shed— - He goes forth comforted and strong again. - - He takes his way, on divers errands bound, - Abler to plead, and warn, and comfort woes; - That is the darkest house on all his round, - And yet, be sure, the happiest house he knows. - - - - -THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. - -BY G. BROWN GOODE. - - - “Let the trust of JAMES SMITHSON to the United States of - America be faithfully executed by their representatives in - Congress, let the result accomplish his object, ‘the increase - and diffusion of knowledge among men,’ and a wreath of more - unfading verdure shall entwine itself in the lapse of future - ages around the name of Smithson, than the united hands of - tradition, history, and poetry have braided around the name of - Percy through the long perspective in ages past of a thousand - years.”—_John Quincy Adams._ - -The name of the Smithsonian Institution is a household word throughout -North America, and its fame is current wherever printed literature -exists. Abroad it is regarded as the chief exponent of the scientific -activities of the people of the United States, and the administrative -scientific department of our government. At home, its actual relations -to the administration are better understood, and it is looked upon in -its proper capacity—that of an organization closely affiliated to the -government and tenderly cherished by its officers, yet, in virtue of its -independent foundation, independent of political favor, and ready to -encourage, advise and coöperate with any public or private enterprise -without the necessity of annual appeals to the congressional committees -on appropriations. - -Visitors to the national capital usually carry away pleasant memories of -the quiet old building among the trees in the mall, with its mediæval -battlements and turrets of brown stone conspicuous from every point of -view, and the multitude who enter its halls are at least impressed with -the fact that the national treasure houses are becoming filled with -valuable collections rather faster than the available money and space -will allow to be properly arranged and displayed. Only a very few, -however, of the four hundred thousand persons who visited the buildings -last year can have had the opportunity to inspect the administrative -offices or the scientific laboratories, and very few indeed of those -who are acquainted with the general nature of the operations of the -establishment, have the slightest conception of their meaning and -importance. - -No class of American people, except indeed our scientific investigators, -better understand and appreciate the work of the Institution than do -our members of Congress, as is clearly shown by the uniform liberality -with which, throughout many successive terms, regardless of changes in -the political complexion of the administration, they have supported -its policy, by the care with which they disseminate its reports, by -the judgment with which they select their representatives in its board -of regents, and above all, by the scrupulous care with which they -have protected its independence from political complications. Through -the disinterested labors of Washington correspondents, novelists, and -playwrights, the average congressman of current, popular belief, is not -a person remarkable either for manners, honesty or intellect. Residents -of Washington, however, do not find the representative men at the Capital -counterparts of the eminent politicians depicted by the author of -“Democracy,” but in their stead, practical men of business, hard-working -in their committees and hard-worked by their constituents. It is its -support by these men, and through them by the people of the United -States, that has enabled the Smithsonian Institution to do its work in -the past. It is to such support that it will owe its efficiency in the -future, and it seems right that every opportunity should be taken to -explain its operations to the public. Representatives of the best classes -of thinking Americans will no doubt thoroughly appreciate the benefits -which education has received and will continue to receive from the proper -administration of the Smithsonian bequest. - -The story of the foundation of the Institution sounds more like a romance -than like fact. Its history seems like the fulfillment of some ancient -prophecy—even more strikingly so because it is evident that the future -is to fulfill the promise of the past. The father of the founder of the -Smithsonian Institution was one of the most distinguished members of -the English peerage. Upon the plate of his coffin in Westminster Abbey, -where he was buried “in great pomp” in 1786, he is described as “the -most high, puissant and most noble prince Hugh Percy, Duke and Earl of -Northumberland, Earl Percy, Baron Warkworth and Lovaine, Lord Lieutenant -and Custos Rotulorum of the Counties of Middlesex and Northumberland, -Vice Admiral of the County of Northumberland and of all America, one of -the Lords of His Majesty’s most Honorable Privy Council and Knight of -the most noble Order of the Garter, etc., etc.” While his aged father -was sustaining this overwhelming accumulation of dignities, and while -his elder brother, Earl Percy, was acting as Lieutenant-General in -the war against the rebellious British colonies in North America (he -commanded the reinforcements at the battle of Lexington in 1775, and led -the column that reduced Fort Washington, near New York in 1776), James -Smithson, a youth of modest fortune, inherited from his mother, was -laying the foundations of a scientific education in the English schools -and colleges, receiving the degree of Master of Arts at Pembroke College, -Oxford, in 1786, the year of his father’s death. He was then known as -James Louis Macie, Esq., and did not assume the name of Smithson until -fourteen years later, after he had attained to some reputation as a man -of science. His mother was not the Duchess of Northumberland, but a -cousin of her father’s, Elizabeth Hungerford, who was subsequently known -as Mrs. Macie. She appears to have been the daughter and heiress of Sir -George Hungerford of Audley and the Hon. Frances Seymour, sister of the -Duke of Somerset and aunt of Algernon Seymour, Lord Percy, by marriage -with whose daughter Sir Hugh Smithson was enabled to assume the name of -Percy and the title of Duke of Northumberland. The Smithsons were an -old Yorkshire family, Sir Hugh Smithson, the great-grandfather of James -Smithson, having been created baronet in 1660 by Charles II. after his -restoration. The names of Percy and Northumberland were, as has been -stated, assumed by James Smithson’s father. These barren, genealogical -details are referred to because they seem to be necessary to the -understanding of James Smithson’s career. - -Proud of his descent he undoubtedly was. In his will he describes his -identity himself in these words: “I, James Smithson, son of Hugh, first -Duke of Northumberland and Elizabeth, heiress of the Hungerfords of -Audley, and niece to Charles the Proud, Duke of Somerset.” He was, -however, a man of broad, philosophic mind, in whom a thorough training -in the best scientific methods of his day, and associations with leading -investigators in Germany and France, and his brother Fellows of the Royal -Society of London, had developed a generous appreciation of the value of -scholarship and scientific culture. - -In one of his manuscripts was found the following sentiment, which I have -already referred to as prophetic in its ring: - -“The best blood of England flows in my veins; on my father’s side I am -a Northumberland, on my mother’s I am related to kings, but this avails -me not. _My name shall live in the memory of man when the titles of the -Northumberlands and the Percys are extinct and forgotten._” - -These words came to my mind last summer in London when I saw the present -Duke of Northumberland, grandson of Smithson’s half-brother, a feeble -old man, still one of England’s greatest dignitaries, following in the -train of the Prince of Wales, and rising to falter out a feeble speech -proposing a vote of thanks to His Royal Highness for presiding at one -of the conferences of the International Fisheries’ Exhibition, upon the -occasion of an address by Prof. Huxley, president of the Royal Society. -The name of the Smithsonian Institution has a world-wide fame; but who -outside of English court circles ever heard of Algernon George Percy, -Duke of Northumberland? - -Smithson seems early in life to have become imbued with the scientific -spirit of his time. In 1784, while still an undergraduate at Oxford, -he made a scientific exploration of the coasts of Scotland in company -with a party of geologists. In 1787 he was admitted as a Fellow of the -Royal Society, and during the remaining forty-two years of his life, a -considerable portion of which was passed upon the continent, in Berlin, -Paris, Rome, Florence and Geneva, he was the associate of the leading -men of science, and devoted himself to research. He made an extensive -collection of minerals, which was destroyed by the burning of a portion -of the Smithsonian building in 1865, and always carried with him a -portable chemical laboratory. His contributions to science are included -in twenty-seven memoirs, chiefly upon topics in mineralogy and organic -chemistry, but a number of them relating to applied science and the -industrial arts. - -His work was by no means of an epoch-making character, but seems to have -been remarkable for its minute accuracy. Smithson was a much greater man -than his published writings would indicate. In his eulogy the president -of the Royal Society remarked: “He carried with him the esteem of various -private friends, and of a still larger number of persons who admired -and appreciated his acquirements.” He was evidently a man of broad, -general culture, who understood thoroughly the needs of the world in the -direction of scientific endowment, and whose action in bequeathing his -estate to the people of America was deliberate and well considered. - -In his admirable little monograph entitled “Smithson and His Bequest,” -Mr. W. J. Rhees has shown the tendency of the time of Smithson to have -been in the direction of establishing permanent scientific institutions. -Between 1782 and 1826, over twenty of the most important academies and -societies now in existence were organized. This period he remarks “was -not less marked by the gloom occasioned by long protracted and almost -universal war, and the extent and rapidity of its social changes, than -by the luster of its brilliant discoveries in science, and its useful -inventions in the arts. Pure, abstract science had many illustrious -votaries, and the practical applications of its truths gave to the world -many of the great inventions by means of which civilization has made such -immense and rapid progress.” He quotes in support of these statements -the words of Lord Brougham, the representative statesman of the day. “To -instruct the people in the rudiments of philosophy,” Brougham remarked, -“would of itself be an object sufficiently brilliant to allure the -noblest ambition.” - -He recommended this idea to the wealthy men of England, pointing out how, -by the promotion of such ends, a man, however averse to the turmoil of -public affairs, may enjoy the noblest gratification of which the most -aspiring nature is susceptible, and may influence by his single exertions -the character and fortunes of a whole generation. - -Very closely do these ideas agree with those expressed by Smithson -in various passages in his note books, especially with that which is -used for a motto upon the publications of the Institution: “Every man -is a valuable member of society who, by his observations, researches, -and experiments, procures knowledge for men.” Or this: “It is in his -knowledge that man has found his greatness and his happiness, the high -superiority which he holds over the other animals who inherit the earth -with him, and consequently, no ignorance is probably without loss to him, -no error without evil.” - -It was with a mind full of such thoughts as these, with perhaps the -support and inspiration of Lord Brougham’s words quoted above from his -“Treatise on Popular Education,” printed in 1825, with such models in -mind as the Royal Society, whose object is “the improvement of natural -knowledge,” the Royal Institution “for diffusing the knowledge and -facilitating the general introduction of useful mechanical inventions and -improvements, and for teaching the application of science to the common -purposes of life,” and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge -established in London in 1825, that in 1826 Smithson drew up his will -containing the following weighty provision: “_I bequeath the whole of -my property to the United States of America to found at Washington, -under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the -increase and diffusion of knowledge among men._” - -No one has been able to show why he selected the United States as the -seat of his foundation. He had no acquaintances in America, nor does he -appear to have had any books relating to America save two. Rhees quotes -from one of these, “Travels Through North America,” by Isaac Weld, -secretary of the Royal Society, a paragraph concerning Washington, then -a small town of 5,000 inhabitants, in which it is predicted that “the -Federal city, as soon as navigation is perfected, will increase most -rapidly, and that at a future day, if the affairs of the United States go -on as rapidly as they have done, it will become the grand emporium of the -West, and rival in magnitude and splendor the cities of the whole world.” - -Inspired by a belief in the future greatness of the new nation, realizing -that while the needs of England were well met by existing organizations -such as would not be likely to spring up for many years in a new, poor, -and growing country, he founded in the new England an institution of -learning, the civilizing power of which has been of incalculable value. -Who can attempt to say what the condition of the United States would have -been to-day without this bequest? In the words of John Quincy Adams: “Of -all the foundations of establishments for pious or charitable uses which -ever signalized the spirit of the age or the comprehensive beneficence of -the founder, none can be named more deserving the approbation of mankind.” - -When the fact of the bequest became known, some six years after -Smithson’s death, much opposition was shown in Congress toward its -acceptance. Eminent statesmen like Calhoun and Preston argued that it -was beneath the dignity of the United States to receive presents, and -that it was too cheap a way of conferring immortality on the donor. The -wise counsels and enthusiastic labors of John Quincy Adams, who seems to -have had from the first a thorough appreciation of the importance of the -matter, finally prevailed, and the Hon. Richard Rush was sent to England -to prosecute the claim. He entered suit in the Courts of Chancery, in the -name of the President of the United States, and in less than two years—an -event unparalleled in the Court of Chancery—had obtained a favorable -decision. The legacy was brought over in the form of 104,960 gold -sovereigns which were delivered September 1st, 1838, to the Philadelphia -mint, where they were immediately recoined into American money, producing -$508,318.46, as the first installment of the Smithsonian legacy. This was -increased in 1861 to $534,529.09. - -For eight years the legacy lay in the Treasury, while the wise men of the -nation tried to decide what to do with it. In this instance the adage -that in the multitude of counselors there is wisdom did not appear to -be applicable in the ordinary interpretation. The delay, though irksome -to those who desired to see immediate results, was, however, the best -thing in the end for the interests of the trust. Every imaginable -disposition of the legacy was proposed and discussed in Congress; -the debates fill nearly three hundred and fifty pages of Rhees’s -compilation of Smithsonian documents. Letters by the hundred, advisory, -expostulatory and dissuasive were received from representative thinkers -and from societies at home and abroad. Every man had a scheme peculiar -to himself, and opposed all other schemes with a vigor proportionate to -their dissimilarity to his own. Schools of every grade, from a national -university to an agricultural school, a normal school and a school for -the blind were proposed. A library, a botanical garden, an observatory, a -chemical laboratory, a popular publishing house, a lecture lyceum, an art -museum, any and all of these and many more were proposed and advocated by -this voluntary congress of many men of many minds. It is not necessary in -this place to discuss the history of the period at length, nor to relate -the manner in which the prevalence of wiser councils was brought about. -It is sufficient to say that though the new institution was burdened from -the start with various undertakings which have since proved unprofitable -or better suited to the capacity of other institutions, such have been -the flexibility of its organization and the vitality of its membership -that it has been able to work out a career for itself unparalleled in the -history of benevolent foundations. - -It need not be said that the accomplishment of these effects was the -result of long continued effort on the part of men of unusual ability, -energy and personal influence. No board of trustees or regents, no -succession of officers serving out their terms in rotation could have -developed from a chaos of conflicting opinions, a strongly individualized -establishment like the Smithsonian Institution. The names of Joseph -Henry and Spencer F. Baird are so thoroughly identified with that of the -Institution that their biographies combined would form an almost complete -history of its operations. A thirty-two years’ term of uninterrupted -administrative service has been rendered by one, thirty-four years by the -other. It is very doubtful whether any other institution has ever had the -benefit of such an uninterrupted administration of thirty-eight years, -beginning with its birth and continuing in an unbroken line of consistent -policy a career of increasing usefulness and enterprise. - -Joseph Henry, the first secretary, entered upon his duties at the end -of the year 1846, a man already famous as an investigator in physical -science, a professor of fourteen years’ standing in Princeton College, -and recognized as eminent in scientific and general acquirements. From -the age of forty-seven to that of seventy-nine, his life was merged in -that of the Institution. Professor Asa Gray has pointed out so clearly -the deep impression which he made upon the Institution while it was -yet plastic, that I venture to quote his words in order to explain -the character of this new force in the evolution of good results from -the Smithson benefaction. “Some time before his appointment,” writes -Professor Gray, “he had been requested by members of the Board of Regents -to examine the will of Smithson and to suggest a plan of organization by -which the object of the bequest might, in his opinion, best be realized. -He did so, and the plan he drew was in their hands when he was chosen -secretary. The plan was based on the conviction ‘that the intention of -the donor was to advance science by original research and publication; -that the establishment was for the benefit of mankind generally, and that -all unnecessary expenditures on local objects would be violations of -the trust.’ His ‘Programme of Organization’ was submitted to the Board -of Regents in the following year, was adopted as its governing policy, -and has been reprinted in full or in part in almost every annual report. -If the Institution is now known and praised throughout the world of -science and letters, if it is fulfilling the will of its founder and the -reasonable expectations of the nation which accepted and established the -trust, the credit is mainly due to the practical wisdom, the catholic -spirit, and the indomitable perseverance of its first secretary, to -whom the establishing act gave much power of shaping ends, which as -rough-hewn by Congress were susceptible of various diversion. Henry took -his stand on the broad and ample terms of the bequest, ‘for the increase -and diffusion of useful knowledge among men,’ and he never narrowed his -mind and to _locality_ gave what was meant for mankind. He proposed only -one restriction, of wisdom and necessity, that in view of the limited -means of the Institution, it ought not to undertake anything which could -be done, and well done, by other existing instrumentalities. So as -occasion arose he lightened its load and saved its energies by giving -over to other agencies some of its cherished work.” The character of -the work done in manifold directions will be discussed topically below; -its spirit is sufficiently indicated in Dr. Gray’s terse summary just -quoted. Professor Henry died in 1878. “Remembering his great career as -a man of science,” remarked President Garfield, “as a man who served -his Government with singular ability and faithfulness, who was loved -and venerated by every circle who was blessed with the light of his -friendship, the worthiest and the best, whose life added new luster to -the glory of the human race, we shall be most fortunate if ever in the -future we see his like again.”[H] His statue, erected by Congress, stands -in the Smithsonian Park. - -Concerning the influence of Professor Baird, upon whom the mantle of -his predecessor has descended, it would perhaps be premature and out of -taste to speak. His eminence as a naturalist and his patriotic service as -Commissioner of Fisheries are too well known to need mention, and indeed -may be quite as appropriately discussed elsewhere. As assistant secretary -from the age of twenty-four he was intimately associated with Professor -Henry for twenty-seven years, and his executive ability found full scope -in the development of the systems of publication and international -exchange, as well as the museum, and the explorations, biological -and ethnological, which were from the beginning under his charge. As -secretary his policy has been a direct continuation of that of Professor -Henry. The services of Mr. William J. Rhees, for thirty-two years chief -clerk, merit also especial notice. - -The formal direction of the Institution is vested in a board of regents, -consisting of the Vice President and Chief Justice of the United States, -three members each from the Senate and the House of Representatives, and -six persons citizens of the United States appointed by Congress. The -President and his cabinet are _ex officio_ members of the Institution, -and there is a provision, not at present carried into effect, providing -for the election of honorary members of the Institution. The secretary is -the only executive officer of the board, and is responsible to the board -for his conduct of affairs. The regents meet once a year in January. Many -eminent men have served in the capacity of regents, and the records of -their proceedings indicate that their interest in the work under their -charge has been uniformly very active. - -The building occupied by the Institution and bearing its name is an -ornate structure of Seneca brown stone, occupying a prominent position -in the “Mall” which extends from the Capitol to the Washington monument. -This building was begun in 1847 and completed in 1855. It is hybrid in -character, combining features selected from both Gothic and Romanesque -style, and is more admired by the public than by connoisseurs in -architecture. It is doubtful if a building more unsuited to the purposes -for which it was designed was ever constructed. The diversion of the -funds of the Smithsonian bequest to this building was one of Professor -Henry’s greatest griefs, and before the close of his life by careful -economy of the annual income, he had succeeded in restoring the entire -sum, amounting to about $450,000 to the permanent endowment fund, beside -increasing this fund nearly $150,000 over and above the original bequest. -The eastern wing of the building, for so many years the hospitable home -of the secretary, has been reconstructed internally, and the offices of -the Institution are all established within its walls. The remainder of -the building is occupied by laboratories and exhibition halls connected -with the National Museum. Another building has recently been built -east of the Smithsonian for the reception of a portion of the national -collections. This was put up by congressional appropriation, and Congress -has at last recognized the justice of the claim, so many years urged upon -them by the secretary, that the Smithson money should not be used to -provide shelter for the government cabinets, and has assumed the care of -the Smithsonian building and votes money for its repairs and maintenance. - -Few people who visit Washington make the proper discrimination between -the Smithsonian Institution proper, and the establishments under its -custody. What they see is the National Museum. The relations of the -Museum to the Institution will be discussed more fully in a separate -article, but it is necessary to state just here that it is not the -property of the Institution, but rather its ward—its management being -intrusted by law to the Institution which is provided with funds for its -maintenance by annual congressional grants. In early days the Smithsonian -supported collections of its own, but these were not primarily for public -exhibition, but for the uses of scientific investigators. Professor Henry -always maintained that not one cent of the Smithson fund could with -propriety be applied to the support of the National Museum, and his view -is now the accepted one. - -In the Smithsonian proper, little is to be seen by visitors. In the -regents’ room is an interesting collection of relics of the founder, -including his portrait, his scientific library, and certain of his -pictures and personal effects. Beside the regents’ room there are -offices, store rooms and packing rooms occupied by busy clerks and -mechanics. The Smithsonian is, first of all, an executive establishment, -to which have been confided various trusts, to be mentioned hereafter. -It is also a publishing house, and an “exchange” for the reception and -transmission of scientific materials. The great masses of books in -brown wrappers and cases of papers, apparatus and specimens constitute -therefore the greater bulk of the material with which it has to deal. - -The leading feature of the plan proposed by Professor Henry was from -the first “to assist men of science in making original researches, to -publish them in a series of volumes, and to give a copy of them to every -first-class library on the face of the earth.” The manner in which the -first item of policy has been carried out can not be described here. -Those who wish to know how it has been done must consult the thirty-four -thick volumes of the annual reports, presented to and printed by -Congress. It is safe to say, however, in general terms that there is -probably not a scientific investigator in America to whom the helping -hand of the Institution has not at some time been of service, and that -assistance of this sort has been by no means restricted to this side of -the Atlantic. Books, apparatus and laboratory accommodations have been -supplied in thousands of instances, and every year a certain number of -money grants have been made. Not less important has been the personal -encouragement afforded, especially to beginners and persons remote from -other advice, in the hundreds of thousands of letters which have been -written by the two secretaries during the seventy years of their added -terms of office. No communication is ever passed by unnoticed and the -archive rooms of the Institution packed from floor to ceiling with letter -files and letter copy books are well worthy of inspection. - -The publications of the establishment are as numerous as those of a great -publishing house, and as a matter of fact, they are all given away; -although there is a provision for their sale at cost price, I doubt if -a thousand dollars’ worth has been sold in five years. There are three -series, the aspect of which must be familiar to every observing person -who has ever spent a day among the shelves in any American library of -respectable standing. The Smithsonian “Contributions to Knowledge,” now -including twenty-three stately volumes quarto with 116 memoirs, in all -12,456 pages, and numerous fine plates, the Smithsonian miscellaneous -collection, in octavo, containing 122 papers with 20,299 pages, and -thirty-five annual reports. The papers included in these volumes are all -published separately, the number of separate volumes printed up to this -time being above 500. These include papers varying in length from 4 to -1,000 pages, by the most eminent specialists in every branch of science. -The most recent work, one now in progress, two volumes having been -published, is a systematic work on the botany of North America by Dr. -Asa Gray; another is an illustrated work on prehistoric fishing, by Dr. -Charles Rau. - -I have never seen an estimate of the value of the books distributed -during the thirty-eight years, but I should judge that it can not fall -below $1,000,000, estimating the prices at standing publishing rates. - -In addition to the direct publications of the Institution let us look at -the numerous magnificent volumes of scientific reports printed in more or -less direct coöperation with the Institution by the various government -surveys and exploring expeditions, at government expense. Who can doubt -that the extent of this literature, which is a constant source of comment -in foreign scientific journals, where it is desired to stimulate European -governments to publish scientific researches in a similar way, is largely -a product of the influence of the Institution? - -One of the main features of the Institution in its early days was its -library. Its publications were distributed throughout the world to every -scientific and literary institution of good repute, and in exchange -they sent their own publications. In this way an immense collection of -scientific periodicals and journals was received, and the Smithsonian -library became one of the most extensive in the world in this department. -Books came in freely from other quarters and the support of the library -became a great burden to the Smithson fund. The same policy which led -to the abandonment of the Smithsonian cabinet, led to a transfer of the -library, and in 1866 the books were transferred to the Capitol where they -are cared for as a section of the national library under the name of “The -Smithsonian Deposit.” The books come in as heretofore, in exchange and as -donations, and are sent weekly to their place of custody at the other end -of the mall. The increase in 1883 amounted to 11,739 books and pamphlets, -and the total deposit amounts to about 100,000 volumes. Several thousand -volumes are retained in the working libraries of the Institution. - -At the time of the Smithson bequest the endowment of research had -scarcely been attempted in America. There were schools and colleges -in which science was taught and certain of the professors employed in -these institutions were engaged in original investigation. There were -a few young and struggling scientific societies, the American Academy -of Sciences in Boston, and the Boston Society of Natural History, the -Connecticut Academy of Sciences, the New York Lyceum of Natural History -(now the New York Academy of Sciences), the American Philosophical -Society, and the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. The -American Association for the Advancement of Science was not organized -until 1840. The publications of these societies were necessarily very -limited in extent and influence, but then together with the monthly -journal published at New Haven, by Professor Silliman, they embodied -the chief outcome of American scientific work. Science in America was -an infant in swaddling clothes. Forty years have passed and American -science now stands by the side of the science of Britain, of Germany, of -France, a fellow worker, competing on an equal footing in nearly every -field of research. No one is likely to question the statement that the -Smithsonian Institution has done what was absolutely indispensable to the -rapid and symmetrical development of American scientific institutions, -and it is equally certain that the progress of American science has had -an immense influence upon the welfare of America in every department of -intellectual and industrial activity. It has offered a helping hand to -every institution and every individual in America capable of profiting -by its generous aid, and has stimulated coöperation by them with similar -workers abroad. In this way its influence has been enormous, but still -greater has been the benefit of its stimulating powers upon the policy of -the general government toward scientific ends. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[H] “One trait,” remarks Professor Gray, “may not be wholly -omitted from the biography of one who has well been called ‘the model of -a Christian gentleman,’ and who is also our best example of a physical -philosopher. His life was the practical harmony of the two characters. -His entire freedom from the doubts which disturb some minds is shown in -that last letter which he dictated, in which he touches the grounds of -faith, both in natural and revealed religion; also in his sententious -declaration upon some earlier occasions, that the person who thought -there could be any real conflict between science and religion must be -either very young in science or very ignorant of religion.” - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR FEBRUARY. - -BY PROF. M. B. GOFF, - -Western University of Pennsylvania. - - -THE SUN. - - “Now when the cheerless empire of the sky - To Capricorn the Centaur Archer yields, - And fierce Aquarius stains the inverted year; - Hung o’er the farthest verge of heaven, the SUN - Scarce spreads o’er ether the dejected day. - Faint are his gleams, and ineffectual shoot - His struggling rays in horizontal lines, - Through the thick air; as clothed in cloudy storm, - Weak, wan, and broad, he skirts the southern sky; - And, soon descending, to the long dark night, - Wide-shading all, the prostrate world resigns.” - -But as the days go by, his rays no longer struggle “through the thick -air” in “horizontal lines,” nor does he so closely “skirt the southern -sky,” but higher mounting pierces with penetrating power the dark -shadows, lessening “the long, dark night,” driving “the dusky shades -away.” So rapidly do these changes occur that in four weeks our daylight -increases one hour and seven minutes, or our length of days from ten -hours and nine minutes on the 1st to eleven hours sixteen minutes on the -28th. On the 1st, 16th and 28th the sun rises at 7:09, 6:52 and 6:34 a. -m., and on the same days sets at 5:18, 5:36 and 5:50 p. m. respectively. - - -THE MOON - -Presents us with great regularity her changes: Last quarter on the 6th at -5:29 p. m.; new, on the 14th, at 9:13 p. m.; first quarter, on the 22d, -at 5:23 a. m.; and full on the 28th, at 10:52 p. m. In apogee (farthest -from earth) on the 9th, at 7:24 p. m.; in perigee (nearest the earth) -on the 25th, at 6:24 p. m. Least elevation, 10th, amounting to 30° 9´; -greatest elevation, 24th, equal to 66° 45´. - - -MERCURY, - -“The fleet-footed,” makes a direct motion of 43° 18´ 37´´, moving -from about the middle of the constellation _Sagittarius_ and through -_Capricornus_, and is the companion of Venus throughout the month (see -“Venus”). Rises on the 1st at 5:55 a. m., and sets at 3:13 p. m.; on the -16th, rises at 6:12 a. m., sets at 3:50 p. m.; on the 28th, rises at 6:22 -a. m., sets at 4:46 p. m. On the 11th, at 7:00 p. m., is 44´ south of -Venus; on the 12th, at 4:00 a. m., farthest from the sun; on the 13th, at -5:42 a. m., 5° 56´ south of the moon. - - -VENUS - -And Mercury are both morning stars during the entire month, and are so -intimately connected as to afford a fine opportunity for making the -acquaintance of the latter. On the 1st Venus is about one and a half -degrees east and 1´ 38´´ north of Mercury; but as Mercury moves more -rapidly than Venus, he will overtake and pass her on the evening of the -11th at a point 44´ south; on the 22d, he will cross her orbit to the -north, and at a distance of 3½° east; and on the 28th will be found -nearly 6° east and 53´ north of her. Before the 11th Mercury will rise -earlier than Venus; on the 11th they will practically rise at the same -time; after the 11th Mercury will rise later than Venus. On the 1st -Venus rises at 6:00 a. m.; on the 16th, at 6:05 a. m.; and on the 28th, -at 6:03 a. m. She sets on the corresponding days at 3:18, 3:51 and 4:19 -p. m. respectively. Her motion is direct and amounts to 35° 54´ 10´´; -on the 13th, at 5:18 a m., she is 5° 9´ south of the moon. Her diameter -decreases from 11.2´´ on the 1st to 10.6´´ on the 28th. - - -MARS - -Will during this month be both evening and morning star, changing his -relation on the 11th, on which date he will be in conjunction with the -sun, and will not be visible to the naked eye. His motion will amount to -21° 25´ 32´´ direct, and his diameter remain at 4.2´´. On the 14th, at -10:44 p. m., he will be 4° 30´ south of the moon; on the 28th, at 2:00 p. -m., in perihelion, or nearest the sun. On the 1st he will rise at 7:26 a. -m. and set at 5:22 p. m.; on the 16th, rise at 6:58 a. m., set at 5:24 p. -m.; on the 28th, rise at 6:35 a. m., set at 5:25 p. m. - - -JUPITER - -Rises on the 1st at 6:48 p. m., and sets on the 2d at 8:06 a. m.; rises -on the 15th at 5:48 p. m., sets at 7:12 a. m. on the 16th; rises at 5:47 -p. m. on the 28th and sets the next day at 5:17 a. m. On the 1st, at 2:07 -a. m., he is 4° 9´ north of the moon; on the 19th, at 2:00 a. m., in -opposition to the sun, that is, on the opposite side of the sun from the -earth; on the 28th, at 6:43 a. m., he is again in conjunction with the -moon, being 4° 27´ north of our satellite. During the month his diameter -increases two-tenths of a second, and he has a retrograde motion of 3° -24´ 8´´. The statement that Jupiter retrogrades some 3½° may puzzle some -of our younger readers, who have doubtless been instructed in what is -a fact, that not one of our planets has a retrograde motion; but that -all move from west to east about the sun as a center. What we mean by -retrograde is really only _apparent_ retrograde; and it was something -very puzzling to the early astronomers, particularly to those who thought -that the earth and not the sun was the center of our system; that the -sun and all the heavenly bodies revolved each day about our earth. When -it was discovered that the earth revolved each day on its axis, and -all the planets revolved about the sun, the retrograde motions were -_comparatively_ easy to understand. Let us see if we can obtain a clear -idea of Jupiter’s actions for this month. As we view him on the night -of the 1st he appears about five degrees _east_ and 1° 2´ south of the -bright star _Regulus_, which can be seen almost the entire night as the -brightest of the six stars forming the sickle in the constellation _Leo_. -Noting his position again on the night of the 28th, we find that he has -moved westward about 3½°, and is only about 1½° _east_ and 17´ north of -Regulus; thus, as we say, having retrograded about 3½°. To assist us in -understanding this, let us take an orange to represent the sun, a grain -(of mustard, for example) to represent the earth, a pea to represent -Jupiter, and a point of some kind for Regulus. Now place these objects -on a stand in the following order: In one line, at the beginning, the -orange; two inches distant, the grain; eight inches farther, the pea. -Next draw a line through the center of the orange so as to make an angle -of five degrees with the line through the orange, grain and pea, and at -as great a distance as convenient, stick a pin to represent Regulus. Now -move the grain and pea (the former about two and one-fourth times as -fast as the latter) about the orange as a center, in the direction of -the movement of the hands of the clock (that is, from left to right). We -can readily see that on account of the more rapid motion of the grain, -together with its being nearer the orange, that the pea will _fall -behind_; and if we sight along the line of the grain and pea, the latter -will be seen nearer the line joining the orange and the pin; and should -we continue the moving of the grain and pea, making similar observations, -we should find the pea approaching nearer and nearer, and perhaps even -passing the line through the orange and pin. These relative motions -we can see will continue until the grain makes nearly one-fourth of a -circumference, after which the pea appears to make a movement in exactly -the opposite direction. Now the foregoing represents tolerably well the -relative positions and movements for this month of the bodies named. -The earth, Jupiter and Regulus are on the same side of the sun; the -earth nearest, Jupiter next (about five times as far as the earth), and -Regulus next (at a distance of say 20,000,000,000,000 miles), and five -degrees west of the line joining the earth and Jupiter. (These bodies -we know move at the average rate of 18.38 and 8.06 miles per second -respectively.) Our standpoint is the earth, and as we move eastwardly so -much more rapidly than Jupiter, we find him dropping back each day, and -apparently approaching nearer to Regulus, till at the end of the month we -find him as before stated, only about 1½° _east_ of that star. Should we -watch him through March and April, we should find him retrograding during -the former month and twenty-two days of the latter, on the 23d of April -being 1½° _west_ of Regulus; and on the same date, as the earth would be -going directly away from him, he would appear stationary; and immediately -afterward would seem to start again toward the east. Jupiter, as we know, -is one of the superior planets, and an explanation of his retrograde -motion explains that of all the others of his kind. A little ingenuity, -putting the earth for Jupiter and Mercury or Venus for the earth, will -show what is meant by the retrograde motion of the inferior planets. - - -SATURN - -Rises at 12:58 p. m. on the 1st and sets at 3:34 a. m. on the 2d; rises -at 11:58 a. m. on the 16th and sets at 2:35 a. m. on the 17th; rises -at 11:12 a. m. on the 28th and sets at 1:48 a. m. on March 1st. On the -16th, at 4:00 a. m., stationary; on 23d, at 3:21 a. m., 3° 44´ north of -the moon. Diameter diminishes one second. Will be an evening star during -the entire month, and thus afford most convenient opportunities for -observations. - - -URANUS - -Has a retrograde motion of 49´ 53´´; diameter, 3.8´´. On the 3d, at -3:25 a. m., is 1° 7´ north of the moon; on the 31st of January it rises -at 9:25 p. m. and sets on the 1st at 9:23 a. m.; on the 15th, rises at -8:24 p. m. and sets on the 16th at 8:22 a. m.; rises on the 27th at -7:35 p. m. and sets on the 28th at 7:35 a. m. It is now a little south -of the equator, in the constellation _Virgo_, and will remain in that -constellation some six years. - - -NEPTUNE - -Is only mentioned, lest the omission of his name might be regarded as -a “slight.” He is a slow-goer, and, except that his presence confirms -a law, we hardly know what he was created for. However, his habits are -quite regular; and we note that he takes the _rôle_ of evening star, -setting on the 2d at 1:22 a. m.; on the 17th, at 12:23 a. m., and on -the 28th, at 11:37 p. m. Has a direct motion of 14´ 35´´; a diameter of -2.6´´; and on the 8th, at 9:00 p. m., is 90° east of the sun. - - - - -NEW ORLEANS. - -BY GEORGE ALFRED TOWNSEND. - - -New Orleans is our most pleasing American city to persons from a northern -climate. Florida presents no place important enough to illustrate a large -general society. Texas has rising towns, but the Anglo-Saxon domination -there brings them more and more into resemblance to our own settled -English, or rather, British communities. In San Francisco we are charmed -not only with a complete change of foliage, scenery, and climate, but -with unexpected varieties in the population, there being a little tinge -of the south of Europe as well as of Mexico and of the Celestial Kingdom -in the speculative yet placid elements there. Yet New Orleans is not -so hard as even San Francisco. It is a land not merely of fruit, but -of the sugar-cane. It lies on that warm gulf whose farther shores were -more historical three hundred years ago than now. As time advances and -we complete our own connections and general developments we see more -and more that the American destiny must be southward. Canada, which has -had a much longer history than the United States, presents even now but -a thin rim of settlement, and her entire population from the banks of -Newfoundland to Vancouver’s Island is not equal to that of the single -state of New York. On the other hand, Mexico, through which the Americans -have built costly railroad systems piercing to the very capital city, has -a population certainly twice that of Canada, and probably three times -the number, considering the extension of Mexico toward Central America. -American diplomacy has little other ground to cover for the near future, -than the republics to the south of us. The surfeit of enterprises and of -productions in the United States compels us to consider a time when we -must not only find markets in the Spanish American states, but shall -become, if not pioneers, as we once were, certainly competitors in the -Pacific Ocean, of the English, Germans, and other modern nations. We have -opened a way to the Pacific by railroad, but the canal long contemplated -across Central America will operate more impartially toward shippers, -will cheapen the movement of goods, and incline the United States rapidly -toward an understanding of the new peoples to our southwest, in methods -no doubt providentially designed. New Orleans has been so clearly -understood by our railroad magnates that they have hastened, almost -without public assistance, to connect her not only with great points -like Hampton Roads, Richmond, Cincinnati and Chicago, but the railroads -are finished from San Francisco to New Orleans, and the only continental -railroad system from ocean to ocean under a single management, does not -pass by Chicago, but by New Orleans. The Americans originally stimulated -by the governmental credit to build from the Missouri River to San -Francisco, have upon their own credit and earnings stretched a railroad -through California nearly to the gulf of that name, and then across the -deserts and Texas, until New Orleans is at this moment the Atlantic -seaport of California. Mr. Gould, who succeeded Colonel Thomas A. Scott, -has stretched another railroad system parallel to Mr. Huntington’s from -the desert through Northern Texas and down the Red River to New Orleans. - -Near the close of the past year another important railroad was built -from Memphis directly to New Orleans. A little earlier last year the -Cincinnati Southern Railroad was extended directly to New Orleans by the -great syndicate which had leased it. Therefore, there now run into New -Orleans four lines of rail east of the Mississippi River, and two great -lines west of the Mississippi. Contrast this with the railroad facilities -which existed there only fourteen years ago. At that time New Orleans had -only one railroad to the north, and that had certain connections, and was -under no consolidated sway. It was not even connected with its adjacent -city of Mobile by rail. It had no railroad facilities whatever to reach -Texas, except a little piece of road which ran to the Gulf near the mouth -of the Atchafalaya, and there found steamships for Galveston. - -While other cities in the South have shown a cheerful energy to revive -themselves, and while new cities have started up at many points, and have -become respectable centers of trade, New Orleans has retained all that -imperial promise under freedom which she had in the palmiest days of -slavery. Perhaps no city in the South, or in the world, has so thoroughly -changed its ideas, political and social, in spite of sharp contests for -party supremacy there. - -The great exhibition of the present year is the best instance that New -Orleans means to lead the industrial spirit of the South, and to become -no longer the great filibuster in the tropics, but the energetic merchant -and projector there. No lawless impulse guided the erection of the great -buildings which are now crowded with the productions of America and -Mexico. - -The attempt to let the sugar interests of Louisiana and Mississippi go -in favor of the productions of Cuba and the East Indies, distinctly -points the people at the mouth of the Mississippi to the fact that their -alliance is probably to be with the Northern states, not merely in -politics, but in commerce. - -New Orleans is not the only French city in the United States, but it is -the only one which preserves the French quality and language perfectly, -and in that respect resembles Montreal and Quebec. St. Louis had a -French and Spanish basis, but when that post became American the small -Latin element was compelled, in self-defense, to adopt the language -and living of the Anglo-Saxons. New Orleans, however, had a sufficient -start when the Americans occupied it in 1803, to grow relatively with -the American settlers and consequently two cities arose side by side, -which still preserve their differences as much as if a quarter of London -and a quarter of Paris had been cut out and united. Besides, there was -a large rural and planting element in Louisiana, of the French stock, -which has assisted to keep up the French infusion, and hence the market -at New Orleans is the most characteristic thing in the city, where the -_habitants_ and the hucksters, the fishers from the Gulf, and the porters -and carters, carry us back to a scene anterior to the France of to-day, -or before republican ideas had reached the far French colonies. New -Orleans, too, constantly received emigration from neighboring French and -Spanish islands and coasts as they were affected by negro insurrections, -or by internal revolutions. Naturally the fleeing planters from Hayti -and the Lesser Antilles made their way to the nearest large town, and -the steam shipping of the Gulf all concentrates at the two centers of -the ellipse, New Orleans and Havana. The Mississippi River, which is the -only river of the first class on the globe to pass through a cultivated -land and an enlightened population, sufficiently marks New Orleans as -the eye of its destiny adjacent to its mouth. There are many Americans -who have never been to New Orleans, who are unaware that it, like New -York, has two distinct harbors or outlets. As New York has Long Island -Sound and the Bay of New York, one opening a hundred miles to the east -of the other, so New Orleans has a lake system close by which gives her -internal communication far to the east, or almost to the bay of Mobile, -and saves her two hundred miles of round-about river navigation to reach -her own coasts. It may be thought that New Orleans is too far from the -mouth of the Mississippi to command that the commerce of the Gulf should -come a hundred miles up that river for her benefit, yet Philadelphia -and Baltimore are quite as far from the ocean, and these cities have -easily commanded a great interior trade through the communications they -possessed, and from the products they had to supply. Coal, for example, -makes the most effective article of the commerce of both Baltimore and -Philadelphia, and coal is more valuable in the Gulf because farther from -the mines, than it is on the near east coast. The coal furnished to the -shipping at New Orleans has descended the entire line of the river, yet -by such easy facilities that at New Orleans it is probably the cheapest -coal in the world for the distance it has to come to get a market. Great -floats, of which dozens are hauled by a small tug or tow boat, go down -the Ohio to its mouth, and pass on to New Orleans and are there so easily -discharged that the lumber in them finds a market with the coal. - -Besides, the railroad projectors, without other inducement than their own -sagacity, have concurred in running all their railroads to New Orleans, -for the country at the mouth of the Mississippi is neither so healthy -nor so strategical for trade as this old town which was founded by the -French under the direction of their government when they picked slowly -and carefully the sites of future trade and military empire. These same -French located St. Louis, and it has not been found advisable by any -succeeding generation to try a better situation. - -We may ask whether New Orleans has as great an antiquity as our own -English cities? It is not as old as Philadelphia by almost thirty years, -and is somewhat younger than Charleston, and is about fifteen years -older than Savannah. Of course it does not compare in antiquity with -the colonial cities of the northeast, such as New York, Albany, Boston, -Montreal and Quebec. But it is nearly a century older than any of our -important Anglo-Teuton cities of the West. It is more than half a century -older than Cincinnati, and we may almost call it a century older than -Chicago. St. Louis was its Albany, or upstream neighbor, and was under -the same political domination. Mobile was the parent place the French -established on the Gulf, and Governor Bienville made New Orleans his -capital as late as 1723, or about nine years before the birth of General -Washington. - -Soon after this a levee was built in front of the new town, and the early -French authors and novelists took pleasure in visiting it, and even at -that date they called it “the famous place.” As in Quebec and Montreal, -the early French settlement was almost simultaneous with the bringing out -of monks and nuns, and soon a cathedral was conceived and nunneries were -built. The French, however, had not the vigorous nature of the English -in founding new places, and after nearly half a century of occupation -there were hardly three thousand persons in it to transfer to the -Spanish who took possession of the place in the midst of a revolution, -and had some of the best French citizens shot in order to be a terror -to what the Spanish governor, O’Reilly, already suspected to exist in -French Louisiana, the spirit of independence, which Spain wanted to -extirpate in all her colonies, fearing that they would speedily rise to -importance and overwhelm the parent power. Spain had been dismembered -by a treaty early in the eighteenth century, and was left with enormous -American possessions, and with a very small Spain to handle them. The -Spanish cabinet then conceived the policy of preventing the growth of the -colonies, so as to keep them down, use them merely for trade, and not let -that spirit of municipal independence which makes great fermentations in -states commence anywhere. Some of the Spanish governors, however, ordered -public buildings to be constructed, and the American residents at New -Orleans say that the Spanish sway of about forty years has left better -monuments than the French. - -A Spanish infusion of settlers marks the present population, and the -Americans call all the Latin races, no matter whether they come from -France and her islands, or Spain and her coasts, by the name of Creoles. - -A curious feature of New Orleans is the existence of considerable -elements there from states as foreign to ourselves as Yucatan. - -At the close of the American Revolution there were less than five -thousand persons in New Orleans. During that Revolution a considerable -number of respectable British settlers who wanted to avoid the War -of Independence, settled in West Florida and about Natchez, and in -other spots contiguous to New Orleans. Hence the Revolution was hardly -over before the first chapter of manifest destiny was directed from -Pennsylvania, Ohio and Kentucky upon the opening of the Mississippi -River. That physical achievement was so important to the producers on -the Ohio and the Tennessee Rivers that schemes of every sort were tried -to hasten the opening of commerce to the Gulf. One Senator of the United -States was expelled from his place for an intrigue partaking of the -nature of treason with the British who still backed up the Spanish on -the Gulf; and a Vice President was actually pursued nearly to the Gulf -and brought back and tried for treason at Richmond. How long the United -States might have had to wait the slow course of diplomacy or the rough -chance of war to get New Orleans, is uncertain, but Napoleon, who had -acquired Louisiana by his mastery over Spain, believing that he could -not hold it against the English fleets, made haste to sell it to the -Americans for a sum of money and old commercial claims. - -Eighty-two years ago, or about the rounded lifetime of an old man, the -Americans occupied New Orleans, and much of the city burnt up the year -our forefathers were voting for the first President of the United States. -A French newspaper had been issued in New Orleans several years before -the American possession. There were perhaps eight thousand persons in -the city when it was transferred to us. Twelve years after the transfer, -the Americans under General Jackson had to give battle to hold the city, -which the English attacked with the best troops they had used in Spain -against Napoleon who had already fallen. Napoleon was contemplating his -last endeavor to astonish the world at Waterloo, when the English and -Americans, unconscious that a treaty of peace had been made between -themselves, fought the battle of New Orleans, which resulted in more -disaster to the British arms than any battle on land during our second -conflict for independence. In St. Paul’s Cathedral stand the monuments -and statues of Packenham and Gibbs who lost their lives in the marshes -around New Orleans. - -In 1862, Farragut with his fleet took New Orleans. His victory drove an -entering wedge into the heart of the Confederacy and gave to the navy -of the United States a prestige which it had never enjoyed and which in -its present enfeebled state it is rapidly losing. New Orleans was the -wealthiest and most populous city of the Confederacy; it was four times -larger than either Charleston or Richmond, and before the war had the -largest export trade of any city in the world. Commanding mid-continental -navigation and being the key to the Gulf, its military value was equal to -its commercial importance. - -The plan for the capture of New Orleans by the navy, and the reduction of -the forts which guarded the approach to it from the south, originated in -the Navy Department in the fall of 1861. The credit for proposing this -plan has been claimed by more persons than one, and it is likely that it -was conceived and developed from suggestions and hints received from a -variety of sources. It was determined that a naval expedition should be -sent against New Orleans. The plan found little favor with army officers, -but the President became interested in it and Secretary Welles set about -carrying it into effect. The attention of military men was concentrated -on a proposed combination of the forces of the army and the navy for the -capture of New Orleans, in an expedition which was to descend to the -city from the upper waters of the Mississippi River. This scheme seemed -more attractive, and the idea of taking New Orleans by means of a fleet -advancing from the Gulf had never been entertained in military circles. -When Stanton became Secretary of War and was told of the proposed naval -expedition, he was astonished at the originality and audacity of the -idea and exclaimed: “An attack upon New Orleans by the navy! I never -heard of it! It is the best news you could give me.” Secretary Stanton -entered cordially into the spirit of the project and increased the number -of the troops which General McClelland had promised, from ten thousand -to eighteen thousand. Shortly after this, General B. F. Butler was made -acquainted with the purpose of Secretary Welles and he was given the -command of the military force which was to hold New Orleans after the -fleet had taken it. There is no evidence that General Butler suggested -any of the important plans or details for the expedition or that he had -any definite plans concerning it. - -Congress had ordered the blockade of 3,500 miles of coast line. There -were scarcely ships enough to maintain it, and the vessels for the New -Orleans expedition had to be built or procured from other sources. -After the Secretary of the Navy had decided to send a fleet against New -Orleans and had given orders for the construction of it, the most serious -question which presented itself was the selection of a commander. All of -the naval officers of high rank were suggested and considered. It was to -be the most powerful and splendid fleet ever gathered under the stars and -stripes, and the Department moved cautiously in the matter of choosing a -leader for it. Finally the name of David Glasgow Farragut was proposed. -The Secretary of the Navy remembered that years before in the war with -Mexico, Farragut had offered a daring plan for the capture of the strong -fort of San Juan de Ulloa, at Vera Cruz. He proposed that the fort be -“boarded” by attaching long ladders to the masts of the attacking ships, -which should then be towed up to the walls of the fort. Secretary Welles -was impressed at the time with the boldness and dash of the scheme, and -though he had not seen Farragut since that day, and really knew very -little of him, yet after some consultation he decided to offer him the -command of the fleet. Farragut, who had never had a squadron, gladly -accepted the honor and the responsibility. He had been trained by a life -of study and active service for some great emergency like this, which -came late in life, in his sixty-second year, but he was prepared for it -and he knew it. Farragut adopted the plans which had been considered by -the Navy Department and made them his own. He grasped the work before -him with a degree of earnestness and enthusiasm unusual in men of his -age. Secretary Welles says of him at that time: “In every particular he -came up to all that was expected or required of him. He determined to -pass the forts and restore New Orleans. He might not come back, he said, -but the city would be ours.” After his arrival at Ship Island on the -25th of March, 1862, Farragut wrote: “I have now attained what I have -been looking for all my life—a flag—and having attained it, all that is -necessary to complete the scene is a victory. If I die in the attempt it -will only be what every officer has to expect. He who dies in doing his -duty to his country and at peace with his God, has played out the drama -of life to the best advantage.” Here was a genuine pious hero of the old -school, determined to do or to die. His task was a herculean one. New -Orleans was defended by two forts erected at the lowest favorable point -for the location of military works, above the Gulf. Fort St. Philip -occupied the left bank of the river, and a short distance below it on the -right bank stood Fort Jackson. These forts mounted in all one hundred -and fifteen guns. A fort on the site of Jackson in 1815 held the British -fleet in check for nine days. The rebel forts were garrisoned by 1,500 -men commanded by General J. K. Duncan. A short distance above the forts -lay fifteen rebel vessels. This fleet included the iron ram “Manassas” -and a great floating battery clad with railroad iron. Below the forts a -heavy chain supported by the hulks of eight dismasted ships obstructed -the river. Farragut was to break through the chain, fight his way by -the forts, destroy or capture the rebel fleet and then steam up to New -Orleans and place that city under his guns. The attack was commenced -by the mortar fleet. For six days the mortars poured a ceaseless fire -of shells into the fort. The shells were flying through the air at all -times; nearly six thousand were thrown, but the forts were damaged very -little and the Confederate loss was only fourteen killed and thirty-nine -wounded. It was determined to pass the forts on April 24th. At sunset on -the 23d there were indications of the approaching conflict on every ship -in Farragut’s fleet. The attack was to be made under cover of darkness. -At eleven o’clock that night an officer signaled that an opening which -had been made in the chain was still clear. Five minutes before two -o’clock in the morning two red lights were displayed from the peak of the -flag ship. It was the signal to steam up the river. In about one hour -the fleet of seventeen vessels, in three divisions, was moving. The moon -was rising, but its light was lost in the fierce flames from bonfires -and fire rafts. Both forts opened fire upon the first ship as she passed -through the row of hulks. Five minutes later the little “Cayuga” was -pouring grape and canister into Fort St. Philip, and in ten minutes more -she had passed from the range of its guns and was in the arms of the -rebel fleet. It was a lively moment for the brave little boat. Eleven -rebel gunboats tried to demolish her at once. She could not go forward, -she would not go backward. There was nothing to do but to close with the -enemy. She drove an “eleven inch” shot through one of her antagonists and -it ran aground and burned up. Another one was crippled by a well directed -shot, and the “Cayuga” was about to grapple with the third when two ships -of the Union fleet came to her aid, the “Oneida” and the “Varuna.” - -The former ran into one of the rebel ships and almost cut her in twain. -The “Varuna” was rammed by the “Manassas” and another ship and went to -the bottom in fifteen minutes. While she was going down she fired into -one of her adversaries and so damaged her that she had to surrender to -the “Oneida,” and she sent a shell into another rebel gunboat which -exploded its boiler. All the time the remaining vessels of the first -division were steaming by the forts, pouring tremendous volleys into them -and receiving tremendous discharges in return. Farragut’s flag ship, the -“Hartford,” led the second division of the fleet. She was a noble vessel, -splendidly equipped; she steamed into the fight and was followed by the -long line of ships in the second and third divisions. By this hour day -was dawning, but heavy clouds of smoke hung over the river and no light -from the east reached the battling ships. The cannonading which all along -had been terrific was now growing sublime. Three hundred heavily shotted -guns were flashing and roaring over the dark water. The Union ships -advanced to the fray like the famous “Light Brigade,” with cannon to the -right of them, to the left of them and before them. Probably it was the -most picturesque naval battle in the world’s history. Thirty-four armed -vessels and two great forts were struggling in the early morning. The sun -seemed to stand still in the heavens. The light of the guns was brighter -than the orb of day, and Farragut’s gunners had to aim at the cannon -flashes from the rebel forts. The forts themselves were not visible. The -vessels of the enemy were not visible. Our ships were striking great -blows in the dark and they always struck with deadly effect. From points -above the rebels pushed great fire barges loaded with blazing pitch and -cotton into the stream. These rafts came floating down and when they did -not ignite our ships they illuminated them for the Confederate marksmen. -A flaming fire raft was hurled against the “Hartford” and flames ran from -the water’s edge to the mast top. The well trained crew extinguished the -fire and within five minutes the “Hartford” destroyed a rebel steamer -filled with boarding parties. The “Brooklyn,” another Union ship, -encountered a fire raft and for a time lay helpless before the merciless -guns of Fort Jackson. Disentangling herself, she steamed up to the fort -and poured such withering broadsides into it that its guns were silenced -for a time, and the gunners were seen by the ship’s crew as they peered -through the cannon-lighted portholes, to be fleeing from their guns. At -this time the vessels which had passed the forts were doing good work, -and the stream was filled with wrecked and burning Confederate gunboats. -Fire rafts and wrecks came drifting down side by side, and frequently -one of the latter would explode with a loud report. The low, curved iron -rams glided about like gigantic serpents of the sea. Boarding parties -were overrunning some vessels and being repulsed from others. It was an -awful, dazzling and furiously shifting panorama. The last ship to pass -the forts on that memorable morning was the “Penola.” In the light of a -blazing raft she received the discharge of the forty guns of St. Philip, -and passed on to join the victorious fleet above. “And thus,” says -Farragut’s son, “was accomplished a feat in naval warfare which had no -precedent, and which is still without a parallel except the one furnished -by Farragut himself two years later at Mobile.” - -On the morning of the next day the fleet moved up to New Orleans. At -noon Captain Bailey was sent to demand of the mayor of the city its -unconditional surrender, and that the flag of Louisiana be removed from -the City Hall. The mayor refused to haul down the flag or to make a -formal surrender of the city. While the officers and men of the fleet -were attending divine service the next day, they were startled by the -discharge of a howitzer from the main mast of the “Pensacola.” The -watchman in the rigging had seen four men tear down the flag of the -Union from the roof of the mint, and had at once fired the gun which was -trained on the flag staff. - -On the 28th the forts surrendered to Commander Porter, who had been -pounding away at them with his mortars. May 1st, General Butler and his -troops entered New Orleans, and Farragut turned the city over to him. -His administration was vigorous, but was hateful to the citizens. He -hanged Mumford, the leader of the mob which tore the Union flag from the -mint; he issued his celebrated woman order which placed every female who -insulted a Union soldier on the level of the street walker; he treated -with severity a Mrs. Phillips, who jeered at the remains of a Union -soldier. He is condemned for all of these things by very many people. -Many dishonest things were done during his administration, but repose, -vigor and security were the characteristics of it. General Butler was -a just, efficient, straightforward tyrant, not cruel, but possessed of -an inflexible determination to make his will the law and to make his -cause succeed. After General Butler came General Banks. He endeavored to -restore loyalty to the state by good treatment, but fell into the error -of reposing trust in a type of men who could not understand freedom nor -adopt even a business patriotism for the sake of their own prosperity. - -By the census of 1880 New Orleans showed for three-quarters of a century -of American rule a population of 216,000 people, of whom 175,000 are -natives of the United States, and only 58,000 are colored people. New -Orleans stood the tenth of American cities, with more than 36,000 houses, -and more than 45,000 families. Although the manufactures of New Orleans -were in their infancy they had an annual product of nineteen million -dollars, and paid nearly four million dollars a year wages. Looking over -the list of states to discover the origin of the people of New Orleans, -the remarkable fact appears that of her 216,000 people more then 151,000 -are natives of Louisiana. The neighboring state of Mississippi has not -put thirty-eight hundred souls into New Orleans. Alabama, which is within -two or three hours’ ride by cars, has not two thousand native children in -New Orleans, but New York has over two thousand of her progeny settled in -New Orleans, and Virginia has 4,300. Of the 41,000 foreign population, -nearly 7,000 are natives of France, showing that there is a constant -immigration, as in the days of Bienville, from old France to new France. -Germany has contributed to New Orleans 14,000 emigrants. About the same -number have come to New Orleans from Great Britain and Ireland. Spain -has contributed about 800 of her natives, Italy about 2,000, Switzerland -nearly 500, Mexico only 300, and the West Indies scarcely 400. These -are suggestive figures, and show that since the great rebellion those -elements go to the far South which have the most original emigrating -spirit and the greater variety of self-sustaining trades and pursuits. -A man who can do nothing, make nothing, improve nothing, has the least -of all motives to emigrate. The debt of New Orleans was about seventeen -million dollars at the last advices, considerably less than the debts of -Baltimore and Washington, but some four millions more than the debt of -Chicago. Railroads and other municipal improvements were responsible for -a good deal of this debt. - -Since the war New Orleans has been transformed from the likeness of a -quiet old French city like Orleans which gave it name, to the appearance -of a new French city with pretty relics here and there, and strong -cosmopolitan attachments. The great river which sweeps in splendid curves -past this city has compelled the streets to conform to some extent to -its shores, but the consequence is a charming disposition of streets to -both those who hate crooked streets, and those who hate straight ones. -The town may be likened to the spokes of a wheel with streets laid -out between the spokes in both directions, and conforming to them to -some extent. In front of the city stretches the great bank called the -levee, at the foot of which ride the majestic steamers which come from -all portions of the Mississippi valley and are often like palaces in -cardboard, and since the jetties have been made a success by Captain Eads -and the United States engineers, you also see at New Orleans, riding -cosily, the huge steamships from New York, Liverpool and Cuba. The chief -maritime lines from New York to Texas now stop at New Orleans and the -journey is continued by rail. This great levee, which is an artificial -hill thrown up to keep the river back, is lined with the sugar hogsheads -and cotton bales of the South, with coal and iron, plows and stoves, kegs -of nails, merchandise assembled from all parts of the globe, and massive -presses driven by steam to further compress the bales of cotton and -reduce them in bulk for shipment. A canal runs through the city, and its -other termination is on Lake Pontchartrain. At the lake is a beautiful -new resort built in recent years, nearly as agreeable as Chautauqua Lake, -and the peculiar Creole and negro cooking of New Orleans is to be found -in perfection there, as well as at the Spanish fort, in the environs -of the city. The shops of New Orleans are open to the air all winter -long, and art of a local nature is taking root there. Whatever the Gulf -produces is to be seen at the Creole capital, and a visit to it for even -a few days is the next thing to a trip to Europe. - - - - -THE UPPER CHAUTAUQUA. - -BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - -There is a Chautauqua further on. First, there is a lake level, and -just above it is the level of the “Point,” with its pleasant grass, its -winding walks, its old Auditorium, shaded and hallowed with memories -that have grown through multiplying years. The old cottages, and many -of the old cottagers remain about this Auditorium—reminders of the old -times, and the oldest times, of Chautauqua, when the first vesper service -announced that “The Day Goeth Away,” and the “Nearer My God to Thee,” -rang out under these forest arches. Who that was there can ever forget -that hour? The altars were aglow that night, and hearts on fire. It was -an experiment, but from the first it was an assured success. The time -will come when the remaining sharers in that first feast in the evening -light will be very few, and the last of them will receive honor, and the -children of Chautauqua will listen to their story as with quivering lips -and kindling eye they speak about that first evening under the trees, -the words that broke the sacred silence, the songs that bore praise and -wonder and joy to the heavens, and the friendships that were formed there -never to be broken. - -How many who joined in the first Chautauqua service have already “fallen -on sleep” and gone out into a world sleepless and without nightfall, -where, for vesper chant are substituted the hallelujahs of an eternal -morning. - -But let us go up higher. Beyond the Point and Auditorium level are the -terraces that run along the hillside, one above another, gardens and -cottages, with pathways and winding roads, leading up under welcome -shadows to a higher Chautauqua—a long stretch of table-land crowned now -with Temple and Chapel, Pyramid, Museum and Hall of Philosophy, while -beyond, in the open fields toward the north we reach the highest point -of our Assembly grounds, one of the highest on the lake. Thus from the -landing and the beginning of our journey we ascend from the lowest to the -highest, and find beauty, delight, pleasant welcomes and rewards all the -way. - -This study in the lay of the land which makes the physical Chautauqua is -an allegory. There is an upper Chautauqua. And not all who visit the -place see it, and not all who become Chautauquans reach it. - -The Chautauqua movement is progressive, and its friends and students -are expected to make advancement in the line of its conceptions and -provisions. It has court beyond court in which it unfolds its progressive -aims and introduces its disciples to the higher privileges of culture -which it provides. No fences or lines mark these successive stages. They -do not correspond with the topographical elevations, although we have -found in the one a figure or symbol of the other. But such gradation -exists, and I shall point it out. - -I. THE ASSEMBLY—Is the first point of approach to the true Chautauqua. -It is the outer court open to the whole world. It has no restraints upon -those who come, save those which are necessary to guarantee a financial -support to the institution, and those rules of ordinary decorum which -are essential to the quiet enjoyment and profit of those who pay their -tribute and wait for the promised compensation. And this compensation -comes in lectures on the widest range of topics, from the “Philosophy -of Locke and Berkeley” to the light and cheery discussions about “Fools -and their Folly.” Concerts by gifted artists, characterizations by rare -impersonators, illustrations of life and manners in remote regions, -by the aid of costumer and _tableaux vivants_, stories of travel, -with photographic accompaniments colored, magnified, and illuminated; -sermons by able ministers, lessons by competent teachers, attractions -for lighthearted youth and wearied but rational age, in bonfires, -processions, fireworks, illuminated fleets—these are the features of -the outer court of Chautauqua for the entertainment, awakening, and -broadening of people who come with no far-reaching or serious purpose, -but who come to “hear” and “see” and have “a good time.” They are simply -recipients. The will-power lies dormant, save as some stirring statement -of lecture or sermon, or some unsyllabled passage in music opens the -soul to the worlds all about it replete with marvel, beauty and power. -So much for the outer Chautauqua. There are those who see this—only this -and nothing more. They come and go. They wonder why they and others -come, and yet they think they may come again—but are not sure. They do -not forget Chautauqua, and they do not “go wild” over it. They smile at -other people, whom they call “fanatics,” because they are full of it, and -“bound to come again,” and to “come every year,” and always, and “would -be willing to live there.” These have seen the Upper Chautauqua—for -beyond the “Assembly” is - -II. THE CIRCLE.—It is another court—further in, and a little higher -up—with a white-pillared hall among the trees—“The Hall in the Grove,” -about which a book has been written, and in which songs are sung and -weird services held, and where strange inspirations fall on people. For -those who belong to the Circle—the “C. L. S. C.” as everybody calls -it—are advanced Chautauquans. They know why they come to the place. And -they know when to come. They keep a calendar, and they mark the feasts, -and they know what to do when they are there. They seem at home. There -are hosts of them—all knowing each other, and apparently bound together -by some secret association which has a mystic power. They wear badges on -certain days, badges of different styles and colors and legends. In all -this there is something singular and beautiful. - -This “Circle” is a company of pledged readers in wide ranges of -literature. The “Assembly” contains people who listen. The “Circle” -is made up of people who read. The “Assembly” covers a few weeks. The -“Circle” casts its canopy over the year and the years. The “Assembly” is -at Chautauqua. The “Circle” carries Chautauqua to the world’s end—to the -east and to the west, to Canada, to Florida, to Scotland, to the Sandwich -Islands, to India, and Japan, to Cape Colony—everywhere. - -The members of the “Circle” stand on a higher plane than the Assembly, -because they put will into the work. They read what they ought, for -months and years, everywhere, getting larger views of the world, and -worthier views of life, and nobler views of the race, and of God the -Father of all. - -The “Circle” takes a wide sweep in the world of letters. Its themes -are those of the college world. It puts the preparatory and college -curriculums into good, readable English, and helps people out of college -to know what is going on there; what the young people study in history, -language, and literature; what authors they read, and what estimate is to -be placed on them and their work. It gives glimpses of science, physical -and metaphysical—pointing down to the rocks and up to the stars, and -about to the fields and seas and the forms of life in plant and animal. -Whatever college boys study, the “Circle” provides in some form and -degree for parents to read, that home and college may be one in outlook -and sympathy, in aim and delight. But there is something beyond. - -III. THE INNER CIRCLE.—Beyond the readers are the students—those who -have completed the four years’ reading in the “Circle,” and the members -of the “Society of the Hall in the Grove;” have filled out the various -memoranda; have certain seals on their C. L. S. C. diplomas, testifying -to this fact, and to the reading of the additional books. These walk on -the higher levels. Their names are enrolled in the “Order of the White -Seal.” Their faces are turned toward the Upper Chautauqua. - -It is possible that the members of the C. L. S. C. who walk in the -inner circle may meet those who rank with them, although they have come -hither by other routes—through the “Chautauqua Teachers’ Retreat,” -the “Chautauqua Spare Minute Courses,” and the “Chautauqua Assembly -Normal Courses.” As students, they all rejoice in the larger places of -Chautauqua. But there are heights beyond these heights. - -“Hearers,” “readers,” “student-readers,” successively mark the three -ascending grades of the Chautauqua movement, as outlined in the -“Assembly,” the “Circle,” and the “Inner Circle.” Beyond these three -stages, we come to - -IV. THE UNIVERSITY CIRCLE.—Here are members of “The League of the Round -Table,” whose seven seals on the C. L. S. C. diploma entitle them to -this higher honor. Here, too, are advanced students in the “Chautauqua -School of Languages;” these walk in the outer courts and among the sacred -corridors adjoining the University itself. Chautauqua now means more than -ever to them. The towers of the University rise above them. They ask why -its doors may not open to them, and why they may not rejoice in work, -real work, with after-tests in genuine examinations, and after-honors in -diploma and degrees. - -Some remain in this goodly place, hearing the songs that float down from -the higher halls, enjoying converse with their fellows of the grander -degree, and encouraging other and younger and more vigorous companions to -go up and possess the land. Others knock at the door by the upper step, -and as it opens, they enter the fifth and highest form of the Chautauqua -movement— - -V. THE UNIVERSITY, with its schools, colleges, and _academiae_; -its teachers and professors, its text-books and tasks, its rigid -examinations, and its promotions. Concerning the UNIVERSITY, I shall -write later on. - - - - -OUTLINE OF REQUIRED READINGS. - - -FEBRUARY, 1885. - -_First Week_ (ending February 7).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page 83 -to 107. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters I, II and III. - -3. “How to Help the Poor,” from page 1 to 32. - -4. “How English Differs from other Languages,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -5. Sunday Readings for February 1, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Second Week_ (ending February 14).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page -107 to 133. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters IV and V. - -3. “How to Help the Poor,” from page 32 to 66. - -4. “Temperance Teachings of Science” and “Home Studies in Chemistry and -Physics,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -5. Sunday Readings for February 8, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Third Week_ (ending February 21).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page -133 to 154. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters VI and VII. - -3. “How to Help the Poor,” from page 66 to 92. - -4. “Kitchen Science and Art,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -5. Sunday Readings for February 15, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Fourth Week_ (ending February 28).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page -154 to 187. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapter VIII. - -3. “How to Help the Poor,” from page 92 to 125. - -4. “The Circle of Sciences” and “Huxley on Science,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -5. Sunday Readings for February 22, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - - - -PROGRAMS FOR LOCAL CIRCLE WORK. - - -FIRST WEEK IN FEBRUARY. - -1. Essay—The Life of Plato. - -2. Selection—“Translators of Homer.” From the “Prose Writings of William -Cullen Bryant,” vol. ii. - -3. Fifteen minutes’ talk on Home Decoration. - -4. Select Reading—Extracts from the Life of Pericles, found in “The Young -Folks’ Plutarch.” - -Music. - -5. Essay—Lavoisier and the Phlogiston Theory - -[In the “History of the Inductive Sciences,” by Whewell, a good reference -will be found.] - -6. What we have all seen (mentally, perhaps,) at New Orleans this week. -[Reports being made by each one of what he has read, heard or witnessed.] - -7. Report of Critic, who is to be appointed at the beginning of the -evening, and who is to note and correct all mistakes. - - -MONTHLY PROGRAM. - -1. Roll call—Quotations from Æschylus, taken from the “College Greek -Course.” - -2. Essay—Socrates. - -3. Select Reading—“Valentine’s Day.” By Charles Lamb. [Found in his -“Elia.”] - -Music. - -4. A General Talk on Huxley and his Teachings. [Let each one come -prepared to read or tell something about him.] - -5. Essay—The Greek Drama. - -6. Debate—Resolved, that it is wrong to feed tramps. - - -FOUNDER’S DAY—FEBRUARY 23. - - “He tried the luxury of doing good.” - -Music. - -1. Roll-call—Quotations on the Companionship of Books. - -2. Essay—New Departures in Education. - -[Reference can be made to Pestalozzi, Froebel, Col. Parker, and others.] - -Music. - -3. Recitation—Alone with My Conscience. - -[Found in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for October, 1884.] - -4. A Paper on the Chautauqua Institutions. - -Music. - -5. Select Reading—Proper Method of Employing Time. By Addison. - -6. A _Conversazione_—Subject: What Chautauqua has done for me. [Entered -into informally by all members of the circle.] - -Music. - - -LONGFELLOW’S DAY—FEBRUARY 27. - - “High as our hearts he stood.” - -1. Roll call—Quotations from Longfellow. - -2. Let several members who have been appointed beforehand give brief -accounts of different periods of the poet’s life, such as: His early -life, his years in college, his life as a college professor, his travels -abroad, his literary work, his home in the Craigie House, and his love -for children. - -Music. - -3. Recitation—“The Hanging of the Crane.” - -4. Select Reading—Extracts from “Outre-Mer.” - -Music. - -5. Essay—Longfellow’s Characteristics as a Writer. - -6. Recitation—“The Poet and the Children.” By John G. Whittier. - -7. A Paper—The Tributes to Longfellow by Eminent Men and Women. - -8. An analytical study of the poem “Sandalphon.” - - * * * * * - -A delightful Longfellow entertainment may be arranged from “Evangeline” -or “Miles Standish.” The poem chosen should be carefully cut so as not to -require more than an hour for reading. Let a good reader be chosen, and -as he reads let the most picturesque and striking passages be represented -by tableaux. - -Help in preparing programs for Longfellow’s Day may be found in the -following articles: _The Century_, June, 1882, “Henry Wadsworth -Longfellow,” poem; _The Century_, October, 1883, “Longfellow;” _The -Century_, November, 1878, “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow;” Allibone’s -“Dictionary of Authors;” Griswold, “Poets and Poetry of America;” -Duyckinck, “Cyclopædia of American Literature,” vol. ii.; _North American -Review_, January 1840, July 1842, July 1845, and January 1848; _Fraser’s -Magazine_, March 1848; _British Quarterly Review_ for January and -April 1864; _The Literary World_, vol. xii., No. 5; “Homes of American -Authors,” by George William Curtis; “American Classics for Schools,” vol. -i; “Longfellow Leaflets”—these convenient little slips have been prepared -for schools, but will be found very useful for large circles. They may be -had of Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. - - - - -LOCAL CIRCLES. - - -C. L. S. C. MOTTOES. - -“_We Study the Word and the Works of God._”—“_Let us keep our Heavenly -Father in the Midst._”—“_Never be Discouraged._” - - -C. L. S. C. MEMORIAL DAYS. - - 1. OPENING DAY—October 1. - - 2. BRYANT DAY—November 3. - - 3. SPECIAL SUNDAY—November, second Sunday. - - 4. MILTON DAY—December 9. - - 5. COLLEGE DAY—January, last Thursday. - - 6. SPECIAL SUNDAY—February, second Sunday. - - 7. FOUNDER’S DAY—February 23. - - 8. LONGFELLOW DAY—February 27. - - 9. SHAKSPERE DAY—April 23. - - 10. ADDISON DAY—May 1. - - 11. SPECIAL SUNDAY—May, second Sunday. - - 12. SPECIAL SUNDAY—July, second Sunday. - - 13. INAUGURATION DAY—August, first Saturday after first - Tuesday; anniversary of C. L. S. C. at Chautauqua. - - 14. ST. PAUL’S DAY—August, second Saturday after first Tuesday; - anniversary of the dedication of St. Paul’s Grove at Chautauqua. - - 15. COMMENCEMENT DAY—August, third Tuesday. - - 16. GARFIELD DAY—September 19. - -One of the most profitable half hours of the local circle evening is -that spent in general conversation on a particular topic. It furnishes -a practice which is of incalculable value. At the same time it is not -possible to put a number on a program of which it is more difficult to -make a perfect success. Of course many circles have learned the art of -talking. At SHILOH, N. Y., the “Atlantic” circle of sixteen members, a -busy, prosperous organization, to introduce variety into their programs, -often hold a “meeting of informal conversation,” but very many of us can -not succeed. At the root of our trouble lies that totally false idea -that the ability to converse is the gift of a few. When leaders suggest -a _conversazione_ the difficulties presented seem almost insurmountable. -The members contend that they can not talk; they will not try; they urge -that while history and science make excellent studies, they are too -“heavy” for conversation; they fly the subject and intrude a chit-chat -which totally destroys serious conversation. Some time ago we saw -successfully tried in a circle of about twenty members, the following -method for cultivating conversation: The subject was introduced by the -leader in a brief and earnest talk. He showed the barrenness of ideas -and the lack of fine and exact expression in our social converse. He -urged the possibility and the duty of every one becoming an entertaining -talker. An interest was thoroughly aroused, and a vote was carried by -the society to devote a half hour to talking on subjects suggested by -the C. L. S. C. readings. Each member promised to confine himself to -the subject, to come prepared to follow the whole subject, and to give -particular items on certain points. Members were bound to ask questions, -to look up pictures to illustrate, anecdotes to enliven and wise words -to enforce the points brought out. They learned to talk, and to talk on -worthy subjects. Their experience soon grew to be a little like that -which happened to a member of the HOLLISTER, CALIFORNIA, circle. A lady -meeting her, remarked: “I am getting jealous of those Chautauquans, for -if two of them meet they can talk of nothing but those old Greeks.” -Our friends grew to talk so well that a lady, applying for admission, -said: “I want to join your society, for it seems to me that a society -which inspires so much intelligent conversation must be very valuable.” -Every circle of the C. L. S. C. which has had experience in this work -should lend to others its ideas and suggestions. But now let us turn -to something which is much easier to chat over than are methods for -improving ourselves in conversation—our circles. - -NOVA SCOTIA gives no hint in its report from the HALIFAX C. L. S. C. -of the bleakness which we usually associate with its stormy northern -coast. This Halifax circle announces itself in a flourishing condition, -with a regular membership of fifteen and with twenty or thirty regular -attendants. The growth of the work in Nova Scotia is apparent to them and -they look for an addition of many members soon. Already the number of -members in Nova Scotia is nearly double that of last year. - -At the extreme eastern point of MAINE, in the pretty village of LUBEC, -the “Pansies” have taken root. The busy little “Quoddy” circle of eight -members forms the nucleus around which, we trust, will collect a future -legion of as interested members as are our present friends.——Another -Pine-Tree state town, BROWNFIELD, has a circle reading its third year’s -course. It would be difficult, they think, to find more enthusiastic -workers.——On the southern point of the beautiful Moosehead Lake, in the -town of GREENVILLE, a circle of “Plymouth Rocks” was founded in November, -1884. The class express increasing interest in their readings, and are -confident of a large growth in numbers during the year. The “North Star” -is the pretty name they have chosen for their circle. - -NEW HAMPSHIRE sends two year-old circles to our columns this month. -One from TILTON reorganized last fall with twenty-four members. They -meet fortnightly and remember all the memorial days. May their name, -“Winnipisaukee,” prove auspicious, and the “smile of the Great Spirit” -be ever with them.——The “St. Paul” circle, which was organized in the -fall of 1883, at MANCHESTER, N. H., but not reported to THE CHAUTAUQUAN, -was reorganized last fall with a membership of thirty-seven. They have -in the circle twenty-one of the class of ’88, while only five are of the -class of ’87—a proof that the “Chautauqua Idea” is growing in favor. They -prepare interesting programs consisting of essays, readings, talks, etc. -Also, they use the “Chautauqua Songs,” and find them a great help. - -The circle at PLAINFIELD, VERMONT, consists of fourteen hard working -members and is in its first year. They find great enjoyment in their -reading. Last November, the loss by death of one of their most active and -loved members, Mrs. F. A. Drinell, threw a shadow over their circle, but -they have persisted in their work.——To the numbers of pretty programs -which have come to our table has been added a neatly painted one from -RUTLAND, VT., a souvenir of the Milton Memorial Reception held by the -“Alpha” branch of the C. L. S. C. This entertainment was very highly -complimented by the local press. - -A member of the “Mizpah” circle of NEW BEDFORD, MASS., pays a very high -compliment to the character of that circle’s work. He writes that he has -learned more of Greek history and literature in the four meetings which -their circle had held when he wrote, than in all the time he gave last -year to solitary study. Certainly the circle must be accomplishing its -design of doing “solid work.” Nor are their numbers, though but six, -a drawback. A small circle, if perfectly congenial, has some strong -advantages.——Last month EAST WEYMOUTH, MASS., reported the circle which -has had such a vigorous growth this year. Now we hear of a new circle -in the sister city of SOUTH WEYMOUTH, and very soon we may hope to do -something more than formally introduce our new friend.——The “Parker -Hill” local circle, of BOSTON, organized in September, 1883, has become -so much interested in the circles which month after month send their -greetings and their suggestions to THE CHAUTAUQUAN’S columns, that it -joins our number. Very glad we are to present it—the only circle, so -far as we remember, composed entirely of young men. Thirteen of them -form this club, all of them connected with the Highland Congregational -Church, of which the Rev. A. E. Dunning, the honored president of the -“Plymouth Rocks,” has been pastor. A particularly happy suggestion, it -seems to us, is contained in a special feature of their program. They -require each member to suggest at each meeting, in writing, some subject -for the next meeting’s program. These suggestions being read by the -president, the circle selects from them a sufficient number of topics to -occupy the allotted time. The subjects are then assigned to the various -members.——From two other Massachusetts circles come pleasant letters. One -from CAPE COD says: “We call ourselves the ‘Seaside’ circle, and our name -is very appropriate, for ‘the sea’ lies both east and south of us. We are -located in the ‘elbow’ of the ‘right arm’ of Massachusetts, and scarce -an hour in our lives passes that we do not feel the invigorating breezes -of the Atlantic Ocean. At present we number fourteen regular and three -local members, one ’85, four ’87s, and the rest ’88s. Our enthusiasm is -great, and, as is the experience of every local circle, increases with -every meeting.”——And another from FALMOUTH: “Our ‘Neptune’ circle is -prosperously started this year with twenty-three active members. We are -encouraged, as this is more than double our last year’s membership. We -try to keep the line of study for each evening separate, one evening -being devoted to science, another to Greek. Last week we took up the -‘Iliad,’ different members giving five-minute sketches of its gods and -heroes. At other meetings we have had successful experiments in carbon -and hydrogen. Our local badges bear the letters C. L. S. C., with the -trident, the symbol of our circle.” With this letter the writer sends a -bit of experience which is very interesting. “Last summer,” she writes, -“while visiting the ‘Morning Star,’ as she lay at the wharf before -starting on her noble life work, I found the C. L. S. C. books in the -captain’s library. I never before so fully realized the bond of sympathy -between Chautauquans. Mrs. Bray, the captain’s wife, told me that she and -her husband belonged to the class of ’85. They take the readings together -while far out on the deep.” - -CONNECTICUT has a goodly array of items for the month. NORWICH sends us -several of its capital programs; peculiarly attractive is the one for -Milton’s Day.——BRISTOL reports a circle of twenty-four members, organized -in October last, and boasts, most justly, of ten school teachers in -its ranks. All the regular work arranged for circles they have been -performing, and report most pleasant special meetings on Bryant and -Milton Days.——WINSTED has sent us a New Year greeting. A happy circle -they are, with their enormous membership of sixty-one members, and “not -one lazy one in our ranks,” the secretary writes.——At NEW BRITAIN the -Milton Day service was very pleasant. The professor of English literature -in the State Normal School gave a talk on Milton, and the evening closed -with a question match. - -The plan of reviewing each work read has been adopted at BRISTOL, R. I. -An unusually interesting review was prepared on the “Art of Speech.” The -epitome which the writer gives of the opening chapter will not only be -interesting, it may serve to disentangle some one’s ideas on the puzzling -growth of English: - - With Chapter first our toil begins, - ’Tis like a penance for our sins - To try to read it over. - We read it once, we read it twice, - With close attention read it thrice, - Its meaning to discover. - - We find, at last, that English speech - Through long succeeding years, doth reach - Back to primeval ages. - From Aryan root it sprang at first— - How long ago, tell us who durst— - And grew by easy stages. - - Teutonic trunk and German branch - And Saxon twig grew strong and stanch, - And Norman foliage crowned it; - From Latin grafts it gained new strength - And from Greek scions, too, at length - Grew thrifty leaves around it. - - The fruits upon the wondrous tree, - If we should test, we soon should see - Have many foreign flavors. - From Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese, - Italian, Indian, and Chinese, - Have they derived their savors. - -The “Knowledge Seekers,” of JAMESTOWN, R. I., form a new circle. Until -this year they were a branch of the local circle in NEWPORT, but as six -members were added they have formed a circle of their own.——“Pawcatuck” -local circle, of the ’88 class, C. L. S. C., was organized September -23, 1884, in the village of CAROLINA, a small manufacturing place in -southern Rhode Island. The circle has now twenty-four members and meets -weekly. Considering the fact that there are only about 375 inhabitants -in the place, in all, and that fully one half of this number are mill -operatives, the size of the circle is remarkable. The members are all -thoroughly interested in the work, and are taking hold of it in a very -commendable manner. - -From all directions throughout NEW YORK STATE good news of growing -circles reaches us. Away up north, in JEFFERSON COUNTY, in the village of -ADAMS, there has been organized “a real live C. L. S. C.” It is modeled -on the broad Chautauquan platform, and has three churches represented -in its officers. The program of their Bryant Memorial Day exercises was -a model of happily chosen selections, and we learn from the columns of -their local paper that it was as happily rendered.——A very profitable -plan of assigning subjects is followed at KINGSTON, N. Y., in their -circle of seven members. Each member is given, at the beginning of the -year, a subject from the C. L. S. C. readings, to which he devotes his -entire attention; thus our correspondent writes that during last year -she furnished outlines and questions upon the subject of “Art,” and that -this year her theme is “Kitchen Science and Art.” We like the plan.——In -the pleasant town of MOUNT KISCO, not far from New York City, there -is a circle which dates back to a public meeting in the interests of -the C. L. S. C. held by one of the pastors of the town, in the fall of -1882. A thriving circle of the class of 1886 still exists there. Their -plan of work is very comprehensive, including Chautauqua music, general -discussions, essays and social observance of the special days.——The -ITHACA, N. Y., C. L. S. C. has a membership of forty-six of the classes -of ’85, ’86, ’87 and ’88. The meetings, held bi-monthly, are full of life -and interest. They observe memorial days generally. One of their most -active members has moved to CAZENOVIA, N. Y., Mrs. Rev. H. F. Spencer, -vice president. She writes: “Our circle, here, is in embryo—think -how prosy to come down to a circle of three or four.”——The NEWFIELD -circle of fifteen members was organized last fall, and held their -meetings every Friday evening. Their president, the Rev. W. H. Rogers, -is a graduate of the class of ’82.——In an interesting letter from the -president of a circle at BINGHAMTON, N. Y., we have found some very good -hints. He says: “Here in Binghamton our circle numbers twenty. We call -ourselves the ‘F. F. F.’ circle, from our motto: ‘Fortiter, fideliter, -feliciter’—bravely, faithfully, successfully. Two things our programs -all include: First, devotional exercises, remembering that ‘we study the -_Word_’ as well as ‘the works of God.’ We use the Chautauqua hymns, all -singing together and greatly enjoy it. Secondly, roll call. This is one -of our most interesting exercises. We respond by quotations from one or -more authors, specially designated for the evening, and keep a record of -every quotation given. In this way we are compiling what promises to be -a very interesting book of choice quotations. Our members are very much -in earnest, and every meeting finds them all present.”——The history of -one of the circles at OLEAN, N. Y., has been sent us by its secretary: -“The ‘Whitney’ circle (Baptist) was so named in honor of the venerable -Dr. Whitney, one of the fathers of the First Baptist Church. This circle -was organized in the fall of 1883, with a membership of thirty. This -fall we have reorganized, with a membership that bids fair to double -that of last year. Each member, in alphabetical order, takes part in the -exercises, and are nearly all active workers. Our meetings open with the -‘Chautauqua Songs,’ followed by the roll call, each member answering with -an apt quotation from the readings. Our program then consists of a drill -on subjects gone over in the readings for the past two weeks. Two essays, -on subjects in harmony with the readings, are read each evening. We also -have interesting scientific experiments conducted by Dr. S. J. Mudge, a -scientist of this city. We have introduced a novel feature called the -‘Tug of War,’ in which sides are chosen in spelling-down style, and -questions asked on a book which has been completed. Guesses at the Greek -alphabet and Greek words are also features of our programs. We also -observe some of the memorial days. Last summer our superintendent, the -Rev. MacClymont, secured Chancellor Vincent to lecture for us. We invited -the M. E. circle, and had a splendid lecture. Taken altogether, we may -say our circle is in a prosperous and flourishing condition.” - -The KEYSTONE STATE is in no way behind New England and its EMPIRE -neighbor this month in reports. From CONNELSVILLE, on the banks of the -Youghiogheny, comes a hearty greeting to all C. L. S. C. classmates. -It is from the sturdy “Spartans,” of the class of ’88. The circle, -organized on Opening Day, numbered at its start twenty-four members. -The “Athenian” circle of ’86 and the “Pansy” circle of ’87 proposed a -consolidation of forces; so large was the circle that a public meeting -place was necessary. The best talent of the city is in the circle, and -to belong to its rank is a good recommendation wherever the circle is -known.——At MOUNT PLEASANT, PA., a circle was formed in October consisting -of fifty-one members, all but four of which belong to the class of ’88. -They promise us a full report when fairly started in their work.——A -friend at VERONA, PA., writes: “Our name is the ‘Verona Resolutes,’ our -age two months, our number fifteen. We owe our existence to the fact -that three of our new members attended Chautauqua Lake Assembly, and one -Mountain Lake Park Assembly, where they caught the C. L. S. C. fever, -and upon returning home spread the disease until fifteen are found upon -the fever list. We are enjoying it, though, and hope our recovery will -be slow, if _recovery_ means loss of interest.”——WEST PHILADELPHIA has -a new circle—the “Parsonage” circle. They number six and promise to try -to increase their list. No doubt their efforts will succeed, the present -circle being due to the efforts of three members who last year read -alone.——The _Elizabeth Herald_, of ELIZABETH, PA., contained recently -the following pleasant notice of the circle in that town: “CHAUTAUQUA -CIRCLE.—This flourishing institution is pursuing a course of study and -research and enjoying an exchange of ideas, which is a veritable reveling -in intellectual and social pleasures, unknown to many of the community -whose congenial tastes and capabilities would, if properly directed -and cultured, lead them to a sharing of these delights, so far above -the frivolities too common to young life. For instance, at the regular -meeting of this week, in addition to the regular quiz and discussion of -the set topics, the Milton Memorial Day was observed with services of -an appropriate nature. The evening was a most pleasant one throughout, -and after the regular program was concluded the members, loth to leave, -remained, singing and talking in pleasant, informal fashion, for some -time.”——We are pleased to notice here, a kindly compliment to the -president of the flourishing circle of thirty at WASHINGTON, Professor -Lyon, of Washington and Jefferson College. Our friend says of him: “In -our studies in chemistry, etc., we have the benefit of his knowledge and -skill, and obliging disposition, for he always carries from the college -to our rooms the apparatus needed for explanation and experiment.” This -circle held a “sociable” on the evening of December 11th, each member -inviting a friend. It was an enjoyable affair and may be the means of -adding members.——In kind remembrance of Mary Vincent, the mother of -Chancellor Vincent, the members of the C. L. S. C. at PETERSBURG, PA. -have named their circle the “Mary Vincent” circle—a peculiarly fitting -tribute, Mrs. Vincent having been well known and deeply honored by many -Chautauquans in that vicinity. - -The CINCINNATI, OHIO, members of the S. H. G. held their yearly reception -to the new class, in the pleasant parlor of the First Presbyterian -Church, in October. The “Irrepressibles” were right royally received. The -president of the society, Mr. J. G. O’Connell, welcomed the class into -the society. The following were the toasts, to which hearty responses -were given: “The Class of ’82;” “Class of ’83;” “Class of ’84;” “The -Founder of the C. L. S. C.—Chancellor J. H. Vincent;” “Chautauqua, the -Mecca of the C. L. S. C.;” “Cincinnati Circles;” “Chautauqua Music.” The -musical part of the program was unusually fine. The collation was a part -of the program in which every one present took part. The following are -the officers for the ensuing year: President, Mr. J. G. O’Connell, ’82: -vice presidents: Class of ’82, Mrs. M. J. Pyle; class of ’83, Mrs. I. W. -Joyce; class of ’84, Miss Sarah Trotter; recording secretary, Miss Julia -Kolbe; corresponding secretary, Mr. M. S. Turrill; treasurer, Miss Selina -Wood. The society separated brimful of enthusiasm for the success of the -C. L. S. C. Bryant’s Day was celebrated by the Cincinnati circles at the -Third Presbyterian Church. Mr. S. Logan presided. Among the excellent -things on the program were an essay on W. C. Bryant, by Mr. J. A. -Johnson, a piano solo by Miss Belle Burnham, and a recitation, “Waiting -by the Gate,” by Miss Nellie Allan. A union vesper service was held by -the circles at Grace M. P. Church, on the Special Sunday, November 9th. -The service was conducted by the Rev. Mr. Spohr, of Grace Church, and Dr. -Ridgeway, of Mount Auburn, gave a very fine address upon “Praise.” This -being the “Greek” year in the C. L. S. C. course, the various circles -have added to their names that letter of the Greek alphabet which will -indicate their rank in order of organization.——The local circle of MOUNT -PLEASANT, OHIO, came into existence in October of 1883. The circle has -the usual officers, and meets twice a month at the homes of the members. -The enrollment is nineteen, with a large average attendance. They have -local talent enlisted, and the meetings are instructive and interesting. -The work of 1883 and 1884 was thoroughly accomplished. - -One new circle enters the list this month from FRIENDSWOOD, IND. It -is formed of twelve members—enthusiastic and brave they must be, for -they report themselves as living in the country several miles apart. -Not only are they overcoming the difficulty of regular meetings under -these circumstances, they are contemplating enlisting others in their -work.——Another zealous INDIANA circle is at CORYDON. It is a year old, -and believes itself to have done better work than any other circle in the -country, an assertion that their method warrants, for they have adopted -the novel plan of a C. L. S. C. school, where one member is appointed to -hear the lesson and every other comes prepared to recite. Our Corydon -friends gave a delightful Milton reception to over thirty guests.——The -C. L. S. C. local circle of FORT WAYNE began its fifth year’s work on -Garfield Day—officers were elected, and seventeen new members added. -The subjects under consideration are conducted in a conversational -manner. One evening was devoted to chemistry, with highly interesting -and successful experiments given by the leader, who is professor of -science at the M. E. College. They have held one “Sunday Evening Vesper -Service,” which proved such an inspiration that they purpose having more. -“At the age of five years,” they write, “we are truly ‘Irrepressible,’ -‘Invincible,’ and as firm and steady as old Plymouth Rock itself.” -Altogether “we are a live and enthusiastic circle, possessed with the -true ‘Chautauqua Idea.’” - -A letter received from a lady well known to readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, -Mrs. E. J. Bugbee, says of a circle lately started at EVANSTON, ILL.: “I -am happy to report from this glorious Athens of the West a flourishing -circle of the C. L. S. C., organized on the first Monday evening in -November, and numbering now between forty and fifty members. We have -started out with an enthusiasm which we hope will not abate, and indeed -we do not expect it to do so under our present fortunate leadership. -We have for president Mr. Weeden A. Sawyer, of this place. He presides -with dignity and ease, and carries forward the business of the circle -with promptness and dispatch. We are also happy in our instructor, the -Rev. F. Clatworthy, pastor of the Baptist church of Evanston, who shows -wonderful adaptation for this work, and is heartily in sympathy with -the Chautauqua Idea, and endeavors closely to follow out the plan for -local circles.”——At HINSDALE, ILL., a circle was organized in the fall -of 1882. The circle was conducted in a very informal manner, having but -one officer—secretary—“each member taking her turn as leader, and our -exercises were merely the discussions of the past week’s reading. In the -fall of 1883 we again organized, this time admitting gentlemen, electing -a president and secretary, and taking to ourselves a name, ‘The Alpha -Chautauqua Circle.’ Our membership increased to eighteen. Meeting every -Monday evening, our exercises were the same as during the preceding year. -We celebrated three of the memorial days, which proved not only pleasant -and interesting, but very instructive. This last fall our Chautauquans -were so enthusiastic that the first meeting was called for September -4th. We reorganized with only nine members; since then have admitted two -more. If it can be possible, our work this year seems more interesting -than ever. We continue to meet weekly, and have now decided to take one -text-book, or one month’s reading in THE CHAUTAUQUAN at a time, finishing -one subject before taking up another; thinking thereby to obtain a better -understanding of the same. Shall also use the questions and answers in -THE CHAUTAUQUAN, said lessons to be conducted the same as a spelling -match. The members respond to the roll call with appropriate quotations, -thus far from Greek authors. We have been too busy to observe the -memorial days this year, otherwise than by quotations from the author in -question. Two of our circle are members of the ‘Pansy’ class. One of our -number graduated last year, who is now an honorary member of the local -circle, acting as critic; and we shall have one graduate this year.” - -A genuine proof of good work is this bit of experience from TECUMSEH, -MICH.: “At the beginning of this year,” the president writes, “we members -of ’86 reviewed thoroughly our Greek history for the benefit of those -of our circle belonging to the classes of ’87 and ’88. We were highly -gratified with the proficiency of the class of ’86. How well we remember -two years ago the despondency of many of the members at the hard Greek -words, and now they pronounce them with ease and fluency. Any one would -have been convinced of the benefits of the C. L. S. C. who could have -listened to those reviews of Greek history.”——The Bryant memorial was -very pleasantly observed by the local circle of ESCANABA, MICH. Mrs. W. -H. Tibbals, ’86, invited the members to dinner at 6 o’clock. Nine of the -members were present. After the repast, at which each member present -received as a souvenir a pallet painted by the hostess, the literary -feast was enjoyed. Select reading, “Early Life of the Author;” selection, -“The Rivulet;” selection, “The Autumn Woods;” essay, Bryant and his -Contemporaries; selection, “The Planting of the Apple Tree;” selection, -“The Crowded Street;” essay, Bryant, the Poet; analytical study of the -“West Wind;” questions prepared by the president. - -Sad news and a beautiful tribute to the C. L. S. C. come to us from -WAUPAN, WIS., whence the secretary writes: “Our C. L. S. C. opens this -year with added enthusiasm in its membership, and an increasing number. -The Bryant Memorial Day was observed in a fitting manner by sentiments, -readings, discussion, and a biographical sketch, all bearing upon the -great poet. The selections and topics were in accord with our feelings, -as we had just met with our first loss since organizing five years ago, -in the death of one of our youngest and brightest members, Mrs. Jennie -Weed Hinkley. As we review the life of our beloved sister, we can see -a symmetry and beauty of character that needed no further lights and -shades. Our studies make us better mothers and housekeepers, better -able to take our places in the prayer meeting, better able to guide our -children, and to understand the work they do in the school room.”——The -“Pansy” class of SPARTA, WIS., also sends its greetings to all the -members of the People’s College. A friend telling the story of the -circle says: “Our little Spartan class passed through the first year -of its existence without a break in the circle, and profiting by the -favorable circumstances, observed among others, Shakspere Memorial Day -with more than the ordinary preparation, closing with a basket picnic, -served at the house of one of the members. This year, however, sickness -has overtaken two of the members, and one still remains an invalid; -nevertheless, our progress has been steady. We have observed Bryant’s and -Milton’s Days by interesting exercises.” - -The C. L. S. C. is coming well to the front this year in ST. PAUL, MINN. -The year was begun by a lecture from Dr. Vincent on Monday evening, -October 6th, on the “Chautauqua Idea.” This aroused the enthusiasm of -the old Chautauquans and brought in a large addition of new members. -On Thursday evening, October 23d, the “Pioneer” circle was reorganized -with nineteen members, which have since become twenty-five. On Monday -evening, November 3d (Bryant Day), the “Canadian American” circle was -formed, with ten members. There have been at least four other circles -formed, with a membership of about eighty. On the evening of November -27th, Thanksgiving night, the “Pioneer” circle held its regular meeting -in the parlors of the First M. E. Church. All the other circles in the -city were represented, about eighty persons being present. Among the -other visitors they were delighted to welcome Prof. J. L. Corning, of -Ocean Grove, N. J., a name well known to all Chautauquans. His address -on the C. L. S. C. at Ocean Grove and the Chautauqua University was both -instructive and enjoyable. The program was in celebration of both Bryant -and Thanksgiving Days, and included essays on Bryant’s life and works and -the origin of Thanksgiving day, with selections from Bryant’s works and -Thanksgiving day poems. Altogether the evening was a very pleasant one. -They are making arrangements for forming a central circle somewhat after -the plan of the Toronto central circle and the Troy circle. - -Three new circles are reported this month from IOWA. At WAPELLO a circle -of five members; at PARKERSBURG one of nine members; and at ELVIRA, one -of ten. Each reports the work as a delightful revelation, and expresses -the hope that they may be able to largely increase their numbers.——In -the fall of 1883 a circle was organized in MISSOURI VALLEY, IOWA. It -consisted of some fifteen members, some of whom, for want of time, failed -to do the reading. During the past year a number of the members left the -town, one of whom—President Sabine—graduated in the class of 1884. Though -the class is scattered, several are doing the reading. - -We are always particularly glad to hear from the BLUE GRASS STATE, -perhaps because our friends there have not sent us frequent reports. This -month a friend writes of the circle at HARDENSBURG: “The C. L. S. C. of -this place is prosecuting its work with unabating energy and zeal. We -organized early in September, with eighteen members, that we might be -entirely ready for Opening Day. However, there was so much severe illness -in our town, and especially among some of the friends of our circle, that -it was late in the Circle year before we did anything more toward having -a meeting. When at last through the Father’s providence we were permitted -to meet again, we found that nearly every member had ‘read up’ to date. -We meet on Tuesday evening of each week and carry out the program as -furnished for each week in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. We keep each memorial day.” - -Another Southern state to report is LOUISIANA. From LAKE PROVIDENCE this -letter comes: “We have twenty-two members between fifteen and twenty-one -years old. We meet once a week; at roll call each answers by reciting, -‘We study the Word and works of God,’ ‘Let us keep our Heavenly Father -in the midst,’ ‘Never be discouraged.’ We assign lessons from the C. L. -S. C. course for each week as given by THE CHAUTAUQUAN. In our class -the member who is most attentive, whose conduct is best, who learns the -lessons recited most thoroughly, is made president of the class. The -places of vice president, secretary, etc., are filled in this way. The -lessons which have been memorized by particular members, are learned at -their recital by the other members who were not appointed to learn these -lessons. In this way the work is done thoroughly, and for hours the -interest and enthusiasm do not cool; however, we change from one study to -another to prevent any from becoming monotonous. Nineteen members of our -circle are college students, but for the most of them this will be their -last year at school; so we are trying to fill them with the Chautauqua -spirit of learning, morality, truth and Christian worth, that it may -linger with them and develop them through all the future into strong -and true, noble and pure womanhood and manhood. Having established this -circle among the young, we are now working to originate one among the -grown. We talk of it a great deal in our social life; have induced eight -to become members of the C. L. S. C., and hope to largely increase the -numbers.” - -SPRINGFIELD, MISSOURI, sends the following interesting history: “In -October, 1883, a wave of Chautauqua enthusiasm reached our beautiful city -of the Ozarks. Through the influence of two or three energetic ladies, -it resulted in the organization of the ‘Queen City’ circle of the C. L. -S. C. The circle began with a membership of fifteen ladies, representing -eight religious denominations. Regular meetings were held once a week, -all the memorial days kept, and the year’s work finished in June. In -October, 1884, our circle was reorganized with the same officers. Our -members returned full of enthusiasm and ready for work. On Opening Day -we endeavored to lay before our new members and visitors—having opened -our doors to all interested—the object, the magnitude and the blessing -of the ‘Chautauqua Idea.’ Those interested, and others to whom the -‘Idea’ was entirely new caught the enthusiasm, and many applications for -membership were presented from both gentlemen and ladies. As the ‘Queen -City’ circle is a woman’s circle exclusively, holding its meetings in the -afternoon, it was thought best to organize another circle, to which both -ladies and gentlemen could be admitted. On Bryant’s Day the new circle -was formed, with a membership of thirty-one. Their meetings will be held -on Tuesday evening of each week. It is the intention of the two circles -to work together as closely as possible. The ‘Queen City’ circle meets -once a week in a pleasant parlor, which we owe to the courtesy of one -of our members. We study the readings for the week thoroughly. Topics -are assigned by our instruction committee a week in advance for special -study, greater research and more thought being thus brought to bear upon -the lesson. Criticism upon pronunciation, inaccuracies of speech, etc., -is unsparingly given to all. We are trying to make thorough study of our -text-book on ‘Parliamentary Practice,’ and endeavor to observe all the -rules of a deliberative body. Our work is both profitable and delightful, -and I think it safe to say that our circle can never languish. Already -the ’87s are living in joyful anticipation of the day when they will be -permitted to pass beneath the Arches at Chautauqua.”——A word also comes -from KANSAS CITY. There are six circles there, the oldest of which is -the “Kansas City” circle, whose interest was so great that the weekly -meetings were kept up during last summer, without any vacation. October -1st, they reorganized, with a membership of twenty-five. Two graduates -are reading with this circle this year. - -A pleasant account of work done in the interest of the C. L. S. C. has -reached our table from HIAWATHA, KANSAS. A graduate of the class of ’84 -it comes from: “I have talked C. L. S. C. to my friends until I have -declared that it will soon be necessary for me to get a new tongue. I -went to our editor to-day and asked his assistance in spreading the work. -He has kindly consented to print whatever we wish. There are many things -in THE CHAUTAUQUAN that would enlighten the people concerning the C. -L. S. C.—what it is, and what it is doing—but the very ones who most -need this information do not take THE CHAUTAUQUAN. By the assistance of -our editor we can bring this knowledge to the people. I tell my friends -that I can not help being enthusiastic on this subject, because I am an -‘Irrepressible.’ A ‘Pioneer’ and an ‘Invincible’ moved to our town this -fall. Beside these we have a few ‘Progressives,’ ‘Pansies,’ and ‘Plymouth -Rocks.’ We meet in one of the offices in the court house for our regular -meetings—it being a more central point for all—but I invited the circle -to my home for a late meeting. I wished to show them the growth of -the Persian empire and Alexander’s dominions as pictured on Adams’s -‘Synchronological Chart.’ I bought one this summer at Chautauqua. Since -my return I made an easel for the chart of hard pine, open-mortised four -cross-pieces, on two of which I fastened the chart, and chamfered the -edges. The boards were ‘in the rough’ when I took them, but I smoothed -them, sand-papered and oiled them, then blackened the chamfered edges and -varnished the easel. Several carpenters have examined my work and all say -my joining is perfect and the work well done, and yet I never handled -tools until I went to Chautauqua last summer and took instructions.”——A -new circle has been organized at HARTFORD, KANSAS. It consists of -seventeen members, representing a variety of professions and employments. -The work has proven pleasant and profitable to them thus far. - -Right glad we are to hear from NEBRASKA. A breezy letter comes from -the circle at YORK, in which the writer tells us: “We have twenty-four -members. We feel quite encouraged when we remember that we began last -year with only four. Nearly every meeting adds a new name to our roll. -Our members are all enthusiastic and in earnest, preferring to let -anything else go rather than miss one ‘C. L. S. C.’ I really think -nothing less than a ‘Nebraska blizzard’ or cyclone would keep some of our -members away. We pursued the Chautauqua plan of questions and answers -last year very successfully, and are proceeding in the same way this -year, although our programs vary according to the option of the leader. -Each member leads in the order his name stands on the secretary’s roll. -In this way the timid ones of our circle are brought out. We usually have -written questions on the readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN; they are either -handed to the secretary to be read, or exchanged. We are fortunate in -having a professor of our college as a member, and just now he is making -the study of chemistry very interesting and pleasant. We certainly do -appreciate our C. L. S. C.” - -WYOMING TERRITORY is the western limit of our circle travels for -February. At CHEYENNE, the “J. L. Taylor” circle organized in 1883 has -reorganized with a membership of twelve. The secretary writes: “While we -are all young people, having many daily duties and cares, our interest in -Chautauqua steadily increases, as we feel it broadens our outlook over -the world, and draws us nearer and nearer to our ideal of a higher life. -We hope to be able to report much good work done in the future—as we feel -that we can not stop with only moderate endeavors.” - - - - -THE C. L. S. C. CLASSES. - - -CLASS OF 1885. - -“_Press on, reaching after those things which are before._” - - -OFFICERS. - - _President_—J. B. Underwood, Meriden, Conn. - - _Vice President_—C. M. Nichols, Springfield, Ohio. - - _Treasurer_—Miss Carrie Hart, Aurora, Ind. - - _Secretary_—Miss M. M. Canfield, Washington, D. C. - - _Executive Committee_—Officers of the class. - - Class badges may be procured of either President or Treasurer. - - * * * * * - -The badges for ’85, phœnix-like, have risen from their ashes and can now -be furnished promptly. - - * * * * * - -President Underwood would be glad if circles composed of members of -the Class of ’85 would inform him of their existence and send name of -president and secretary, that he may visit them when possible. - - * * * * * - -A Canadian classmate writes: “I am prosecuting my studies in connection -with the C. L. S. C. all alone in a remote corner of our country, and -find my greatest pleasure in holding communion with the good and great of -the present and past ages. I am well pleased with the motto for our class -and hope to be among those who verify its appropriateness by passing -through the Gates next summer at Chautauqua.” - - * * * * * - -One member of ’85 writes: “Having just read the December column of ’85 -in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, have concluded to show my enthusiasm by sending for -our colors.” We can all say amen to this: “Please place my name on the -roll of the Invincibles, and may God for dear Jesus’ sake help us all to -‘Press on, reaching after those things which are before.’” - - * * * * * - -Another says: “Although I was nearly fifty years of age when I commenced -study in this way, yet am greatly interested and love it more and more. I -hope to ‘press on, reaching after those things which are before,’ until I -can stand in the immediate presence of Him whom my soul loveth.” - - * * * * * - -From Kentucky comes this testimony: “I am hoping to be able, literally, -to ‘pass through the Gates’ next August and receive from Chancellor -Vincent my diploma. I was at Chautauqua in ’83, and will not be content -till I go again. My interest and enthusiasm increase as the four years -draw to a close. During this time I have pursued my studies alone, having -failed entirely to form even a ‘straight line’ in my neighborhood, five -miles from Versailles. Although I would doubtless have enjoyed being -connected with a circle, I know that studying the course, even alone, has -very greatly benefited me. One of these benefits, and by no means the -least, has been the increasing and strengthening of my taste for solid -reading.” - - * * * * * - -NEW YORK.—“I have often wished that I could express my gratitude for, -and appreciation of, my C. L. S. C. studies and associations, but when -I attempt it my list of adjectives seems all too meager and inadequate. -Since taking up the course, life and all that pertains to it assume a -different aspect. I have gained an outlook which gives life a charm and -attractiveness of which I had never dreamed. I had passed my forty-fifth -year when I comprehended the C. L. S. C. plan sufficiently to see that -it was for such illiterate people as I. The benefits I have received are -past computation.” - - * * * * * - -Our Class Memorial to our loved alma mater must not be forgotten. We -want to prepare for a memorial, a present worthy our _name_ and _aim_. -Fifty-five (55) names have up to this time been sent to the treasurer, -with contributions to the class fund (some sending more than the amount -requested). That is but a small beginning of the hundreds to hear from. - - -CLASS OF ’86. - -“_We study for light, to bless with light._” - - -CLASS ORGANIZATION. - - _President_—The Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Maine. - - _Vice Presidents_—The Rev. J. C. Whitley, Salisbury, Maryland; - Mr. L. F. Houghton, Peoria, Illinois; Mr. Walter Y. Morgan, - Cleveland, Ohio; Mrs. Delia Browne, Louisville, Kentucky; Miss - Florence Finch, Palestine, Texas. - - _Secretary_—The Rev. W. L. Austin, New Albany, Ind. - - * * * * * - -The officers of ’86 send greeting to their classmates and co-workers. - - * * * * * - -The new class badge will soon be ready to send out. The color of the -badge remains the same, but the class emblem and motto will be added. - - * * * * * - -From Colorado—Durango—comes this encouraging bit of class news: “We have -eleven members in our class and are pursuing our studies this winter with -unabated interest. Belonging to the class of ’86, we mean to be true -to the name ‘Progressives.’ We hold our meetings every Monday evening, -and follow the program laid out in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. There seems to be -a growing interest in the Chautauqua work, and we hope to have another -class organized in our little town before many months. The members of the -present class are busy workers, teachers, mothers and housekeepers, but -they have continued the course with increasing interest to this the third -year, and purpose finishing the full course.” - - -CLASS OF 1887.—“THE PANSIES.” - -“_Neglect not the gift that is in thee._” - - -OFFICERS. - - _President_—The Rev. Frank Russell, Mansfield, Ohio. - - _Western Secretary_—K. A. Burnell, Esq., Chicago, Ill. - - _Eastern Secretary_—J. A. Steven, M.D., Hartford, Conn. - - _Treasurer_—Either Secretary, from either of whom badges may be - procured. - - _Executive Committee_—The officers of the class. - - Class paper may be procured from Mr. Henry Hart, Atlanta, Ga. - -The Canadian Pansies are doing good work in the promotion of the -Chautauqua Idea. - - * * * * * - - The leaves swung lazily and slow, - The wind hummed low its reverie, - Chautauqua bells with loving chime - Pealed forth their sweetest melody. - - Their quaint, weird music rolling on, - Mingling with heaven’s azure ray, - Enwrapped the earth with bright, new joy; - It was our “Pansies’” natal day. - - Remembrance fond brings back the hour - When on our breast the pansy blue - We placed, with earnest, fervent prayer - That to its trust we might be true. - - Again, again, and yet again, - Our widening circle grew apace; - And pansies bloomed on every side; - North, South and West each claimed a place. - - And now a year with hurried tread, - Has paced its tiny cycle round, - Girdled with moments richly spent - In wanderings on classic ground. - - Methinks we scarce could well have crowned - The year agone with richer gems - Than these bright visions of the past, - Tho’ culled from monarch’s diadems. - - A goodly company our band— - Twice seven thousand now we claim; - And purpose with a royal love - Thro’ every land to spread its fame. - - Tinted is the horizon’s rim - With wisdom’s deep, ethereal blue, - Yet all may reach its shining goal, - If firm their trust and true. - - E’en though the path may rugged be, - And lengthening shadows bar the way, - Onward we’ll press with firmer zeal, - Knowing success shall crown the day. - - * * * * * - -The New England Branch of the Pansy class held its reunion November 28th -in the People’s Church in Boston. The first hour, from one to two p. m., -was spent in social enjoyment. Prof. Sherwin then introduced himself -in one of his characteristic speeches and concluded by presenting the -New England president, the Rev. F. M. Gardner. He was unknown to many -of the members, as he was elected on the last day of the Framingham -Assembly, when many of the class had gone home. The president made an -appropriate and pleasing address. The secretary, Miss Corey, then read -her report. The pupils of the Boston Conservatory of Music, under the -direction of Prof. Sherwin, gave a delightful musical entertainment. At -the close of the musical program the Rev. J. W. Hamilton, pastor of the -church, addressed the class in a very happy and interesting manner. -A class poem was read by Miss Nell Robinson, of Lowell, Mass., which -finds its place in this Pansy column this month. After some business the -meeting was closed by singing a Chautauqua song. Nearly one hundred and -fifty were present at this meeting. During the session the secretary -called attention to the samples of class paper which had been sent on -from Atlanta by direction of the committee appointed at Chautauqua last -summer. The samples met the approval of those present. - - -CLASS OF 1888.—“THE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.” - -“_Let us be seen by our deeds._” - - -CLASS ORGANIZATION. - - _President_—The Rev. A. E. Dunning. - - _Vice Presidents_—Prof. W. N. Ellis, Brooklyn, N. Y.; the Rev. - Wm. G. Roberts, Bellevue, Ohio. - - _Secretary_—Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio. - - _Treasurer_—Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio. - - * * * * * - -All items for this column should be sent to the Rev. C. C. McLean, -Jacksonville, Florida. - - * * * * * - -The Class of ’88 will undoubtedly increase its numerical strength at the -Florida Chautauqua, to be held at Lake De Funiak, February 10th to March -9th, 1885. - - * * * * * - -Miss Ella Pearsall, the secretary, writes that in October a C. L. S. C. -was organized in Matteawau, New York, taking as its motto, “Labor and -Progress.” - - * * * * * - -One from New Haven, Conn., writes objecting to our name, “Plymouth Rock.” - - * * * * * - -Mrs. C. H. Pike, of New Haven, Conn., informs us that at one of their -meetings, they made successful experiments in chemistry, before a -delighted audience. Speaks well for our ’88s. - - * * * * * - -The Rev. H. L. Brickett, of Linnfield Center, Mass., class ’88, was -appointed as a committee of one to confer with the granite companies of -New England in regard to a base of granite for the proposed new Hall of -Philosophy at Chautauqua, and has been successful in having donated one -from the best granite, to be highly polished, bearing our name, monogram, -motto, and year of our class. It is valued at $100. We extend to him, in -the name of the “Plymouth Rocks,” the ’88s, more than thanks. - - * * * * * - -The Rev. Dr. Dunning, of Boston, has consented to deliver the address at -our first annual “spread” in August next. - - * * * * * - -Stationery and badges for ’88 may be secured of Henry Hart, Atlanta, Ga. - - * * * * * - -Good for ’88. In the eight or ten circles found in St. Paul, Minn., about -four fifths of the members are of the class of ’88. - - - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “COLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH,” “CHEMISTRY,” -AND “HOW TO HELP THE POOR.” - -BY A. M. MARTIN, - -General Secretary C. L. S. C. - - -I.—TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “COLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN -ENGLISH”—FROM PAGE 83 TO PAGE 187. - -1. Q. Who is foremost among Greek philosophers? A. Socrates. - -2. Q. Who is foremost of Greek philosophical writers? A. Plato. - -3. Q. What four works have been the fruit, direct or indirect, of Plato’s -“Republic?” A. Cicero’s “De Republica,” St. Augustine’s “City of God,” -Sir Thomas More’s “Utopia,” and Bacon’s “New Atlantis.” - -4. Q. In any just representation of Plato, who could not but be a very -conspicuous figure? A. Socrates. - -5. Q. In the first extract given from Plato’s “Republic,” what does the -speaker, Glaucon, undertake to set forth for Socrates to overthrow? -A. A notion which he avers to be current and accepted among men, that -injustice is better policy than justice. - -6. Q. From the discussion of the nature of justice and injustice, to what -does Plato make a very unexpected passage? A. To that form of discussion -which has given its name to the “Republic”—the ideal state. - -7. Q. Who has recently made a scholarly and adequate translation of -Plato’s entire works into English? A. Mr. Jowett. - -8. Q. How is the so-styled “Platonic love” defined in the “Republic?” A. -“A friend should use no other familiarity to his love than a father would -use to his son, and this only for a virtuous end, and he must first have -the other’s consent.” - -9. Q. What was the “Socratic dæmon” to which Plato alludes in his -“Republic?” A. A benign and beneficent influence—a kind of divinity -within him that governed the conduct of Socrates. - -10. Q. How is the Timæus of Plato described? A. As of all the writings -of Plato the most obscure and most repulsive to modern readers, while the -most influential of all over the ancient and mediæval world. - -11. Q. What are some of the other best known works of Plato? A. -“The Laws,” the “Symposium,” the “Phædrus,” the “Gorgias,” and the -“Parmenides.” - -12. Q. What is the name of the dialogue in which Plato tells of the end -of Socrates? A. The “Phædo.” - -13. Q. What was the sentence of antiquity in regard to Plato? A. That -Zeus, if he had spoken Greek, would have spoken it like Plato. - -14. Q. Who was a distinguished pupil of Plato? A. Aristotle, and in -influence on human thought he equaled and rivaled his master. - -15. Q. How does our author state the difference between ancient tragedy -and modern, in a single antithetical sentence? A. Modern tragedy presents -real life idealized; ancient tragedy presents an ideal life realized. - -16. Q. What did Greek tragedy have for its chief purpose? A. To teach. - -17. Q. How were Greek tragedies represented? A. By daylight, in the -open air, before assemblages that numbered their tens of thousands of -spectators. - -18. Q. What is said of the dress of the actors? A. The actors wore masks -on their faces and buskins on their feet. Beside this they wore a kind of -wig designed to make them look taller, and dressed with padding to make -them look larger. - -19. Q. Who were the three masters of Greek tragedy? A. Æschylus, -Sophocles and Euripides. - -20. Q. When and where was Æschylus born? A. In 525 B. C., in an Attic -village near Athens. - -21. Q. In the present volume, from what tragedy of Æschylus are -selections presented? A. “Prometheus Bound.” - -22. Q. Who was Prometheus? A. A mythical being of superhuman rank, who -stole fire from heaven and brought it to men. For this offense against -Zeus he was condemned to be chained alive to a rocky cliff in the -Caucasus. - -23. Q. What other great tragic poet was contemporary with Æschylus? A. -Sophocles. - -24. Q. From what masterpiece of Sophocles are the selections of the -present volume made? A. “Œdipus Tyrannus, or Œdipus the King.” - -25. Q. How is this tragedy considered by, perhaps, the majority of -qualified critics? A. To be not only the best work of Sophocles, but the -“bright, consummate flower” of all Greek tragedy. - - -II.—TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “CHEMISTRY”—FROM BEGINNING OF -BOOK TO PAGE 84. - -26. Q. Of what does chemistry treat? A. All kinds of material substances. - -27. Q. What is said of the number of the various kinds of matter already -existing on our earth? A. The number is so great that the various kinds -have never been so much as counted, much less described, in any list or -volume. - -28. Q. Of what are all things known to chemists made up? A. A few simple -substances, either existing alone or in richly various combinations. - -29. Q. What are called chemical elements, and what compounds? A. The -simplest substances when alone are called the chemical elements, or -elementary substances; the things resulting when different elements are -united are called compounds. - -30. Q. What does the two-fold character of chemical study involve? A. -First, the examination of elementary substances and their compounds. -Second, a consideration of the many general and special laws and forces -which determine the various possible combinations. - -31. Q. How many elementary substances are there now generally recognized -as such? A. Sixty-six. - -32. Q. About how many of the elements possess names that are familiar to -ordinary readers? A. About one sixth of them. - -33. Q. Of what two elementary substances is it probable that three -fourths of our globe is composed? A. Of oxygen one half, and of silicon -one fourth. - -34. Q. What general name is given to most of the elements? A. Metals. - -35. Q. What symbol and what weight has each element? A. An atomic symbol -and an atomic weight. - -36. Q. How is an atom of each elementary substance designated? A. By a -symbol, usually the initial letter of the native or Latin name of the -substance. - -37. Q. What are three properties an elementary substance accepted as a -metal should possess? A. It must possess the property of existing in a -solid condition; it should possess the metallic luster; and it should -possess the power and tendency to readily form a chemical union with -oxygen. - -38. Q. What are called binary and what ternary compounds? A. Compounds -having only two kinds of elements are called binaries. Compounds having -three kinds of elements are called ternaries. - -39. Q. What four binary compounds are given as examples? A. Hydric -chloride, sulphur di-oxide, sulphur tri-oxide, and plumbic oxide. - -40. Q. Under what two heads are the principal ternaries grouped? A. Acids -and salts. - -41. Q. What are the two principal ternary acids used by chemists? A. -Nitric acid and sulphuric acid. - -42. Q. What is meant by the term atom? A. It is that portion of any kind -of matter that is to human beings indivisible in fact. - -43. Q. With what invisible, occult power is each atom and each molecule -endowed? A. A power called chemical affinity. - -44. Q. What are three of the peculiarities of chemical affinity? A. -Each kind of atom has its peculiar chemical affinities. Each atom has -a certain equivalence or atom-fixing power. Chemical changes produce -striking results. - -45. Q. What is the most common way of producing hydrogen? A. By bringing -together sulphuric acid and zinc. - -46. Q. What are some of the properties of hydrogen as a gas? A. It is -colorless, odorless, tasteless, and, bulk for bulk, it is the lightest -substance known in nature. - -47. Q. What is the most interesting chemical property of hydrogen? A. Its -power to unite with oxygen. - -48. Q. What is said of the uses to which hydrogen may be put? A. As an -elementary gas it finds but few applications in the arts. - -49. Q. For what standards is hydrogen used by chemists? A. As the -standard of equivalence or atom-fixing power; the standard of atomic -weight, and the standard of density for gases. - -50. Q. What did the remarkable lightness of hydrogen early suggest? A. -The fitness of that gas for the inflation of balloons. - - -III.—TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “HOW TO HELP THE POOR.” - -51. Q. What is the aim of the book, “How to Help the Poor?” A. To give a -few suggestions to visitors among the poor, and to lead all such visitors -to attend the conferences which are now held weekly in almost every -district of our large cities. - -52. Q. What is one of the most direct commands in the Christian -Scripture? A. “Give to him that asketh.” - -53. Q. Why need there be no beggars in our American cities? A. Labor is -wanted everywhere, especially educated labor; nowhere is the supply of -the latter equal to the demand. - -54. Q. What do the people crying continually “give to us” really need? A. -A chance to learn how to work, and sufficient protection in the meantime -from the evils of idleness, drunkenness and vice. - -55. Q. What is “out-door relief?” A. It is the giving of money (or its -equivalent) which is raised by taxing the people, if the applicants come -under certain rules and laws. - -56. Q. To what conclusion does Mr. Seth Low, of Brooklyn, N. Y., come -in regard to “out-door relief?” A. That out-door relief, in the United -States as elsewhere, tends inevitably and surely to increase pauperism. - -57. Q. Of what three parts is the conference of a district composed? A. -First, the district committee; second, the representatives of societies -and officers; third, the visitors. - -58. Q. How does one writer state that the disciplining of our immense -poor population must be effected? A. By individual influence; and this -power can change it from a mob of paupers and semi-paupers into a body of -self-dependent workers. - -59. Q. What does not, and what does visiting the poor mean? A. Visiting -the poor does not mean entering the room of a person hitherto unknown to -make a call. It means that we are invited to visit a miserable abode for -the purpose, first, of discovering the cause of that misery. - -60. Q. What does Dr. Tuckerman say of every child who is a beggar? A. -Every child who is a beggar, almost without exception, will become a -vagrant and probably a thief. - -61. Q. What is the only just reason for taking children from their -natural homes? A. To lift them out of moral poverty. Material poverty, -alone, is not sufficient cause. - -62. Q. What do the statistics of the Labor Bureau show in regard to -homeless young women in Boston? A. That there are twenty thousand -homeless young women in Boston whose wages average only four dollars per -week. - -63. Q. What is the first suggestion made for the better care of the aged? -A. By patient study of each individual, and by ingenious experiment of -one plan after another, some fit occupation can often be found which -shall bring both happiness and profit. - -64. Q. When does not private charity do its full part? A. While any -other than almshouse cases are allowed to fall into the care of the city -authorities. - -65. Q. What does experience, as the opportunities for observation widen, -induce the writer to believe? A. That every human being can do something -if he has a chance, and is intended to fill some gap in the universal -plan. - -66. Q. What does Edward Denison say of the crime of begging? A. It does -not consist in the mere solicitation of alms. The gist of the offense is -the intention of preying upon society; and of this intent the asking alms -is only evidence—not proof. - -67. Q. What is the root of a very large proportion of the suffering of -the poor in the cities of America? A. Drunkenness. - -68. Q. What is one of the first duties of a visitor in entering a -tenement house? A. To use his senses. - -69. Q. What knowledge means physical salvation, and thus a better -prospect for understanding the spiritual? A. How to make even the -smallest home clean and attractive, and to get the largest return from -every dollar earned. - -70. Q. What is one of the earliest and most important topics which should -engage the attention of the visitor? A. That of helping people to save. - -71. Q. What drives people into solitude? A. Trouble of any kind, and -especially any misfortune which has a tendency to lower a person in the -social scale. - -72. Q. What is said of many of the poor who most deeply need visitors? -A. They are lonely persons, and the fact of finding a friend at last is -encouragement to them and the beginning of better times. - -73. Q. What is almost the only true help of the worldly sort which it is -possible to give the poor? A. To teach them how to use even the small -share of goods and talents intrusted to them. - -74. Q. What truth has been made clear in regard to the expenditure of -money and goods alone? A. That it does not alleviate poverty. - -75. Q. What has experience taught differently from the assertions that -certain evils can not be helped, and that we may as well let things -alone? A. That evils can be helped, and to let things alone is to lend -ourselves to wrong. - - - - -THE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY. - -CAN LANGUAGE BE TAUGHT BY CORRESPONDENCE? - -BY PROF. R. S. HOLMES, A.M. - - -Can a language be taught by correspondence? Unhesitatingly, yes! -Experience, though brief, gives warrant for the answer. The constantly -increasing number of advertisements appearing in journals of wide -circulation gives evidence that teachers at least believe instruction -by this method both possible and profitable. It is in this belief that -the only danger to the system lies. Incompetency in this field must -fail. It can be hidden by no outward show. No would-be teacher, with -text-book and printed question in hand, can parade before a class and -_hear a recitation_. Only a teacher, a real teacher, can hope for success -in this work, and that must come by methods entirely foreign to the -ordinary methods of the class-room. Born a teacher, not made; such must -be he who would successfully use the correspondence system in his work of -teaching. Such teachers are rare, even in comparison with the multitudes -of those who already fill the places in our hundreds of thousands of -schools, and still more rare in the ranks of the throng which, filling -the avenues leading to them, is expectantly awaiting the constantly -occurring vacancies. For this reason we have said that the growing demand -for correspondence schools constitutes their principal danger; for -persons aware of this demand and allured by the hope of swelling moderate -incomes, though they have no peculiar appreciation of the particular -requirements demanded to fit one for the work, will yet enter the lists -as competitors in this field. The inevitable results must be failure by -the teacher, discouragement to honest and earnest students who can find -no other means for acquiring education, distrust of the practicability -of the system, and discredit for correspondence teachers as a class. To -avoid this, to provide only competent instructors, and to arrange and -systematize as broad and comprehensive a course of study as is furnished -by an institution is one of the purposes of the Chautauqua University. In -such a course languages, ancient and modern, must be taught, and must be -taught by correspondence, or not at all. But while it will be conceded -that instruction by correspondence is possible, in ordinary branches, yet -the honest inquirer will ask in view of the peculiarities surrounding the -subject of foreign languages, the question which begins this paper: Can a -language be taught by correspondence? Again we answer, unhesitatingly, -yes! and in no dubious way, but with a measure of success fully equal to -that possible by oral instruction. The question of the time necessary -to complete any given topic is not germane to this discussion. Yet in -passing, it may be said, that of two persons who should be able to devote -their whole time to study, one using oral and the other correspondence -methods, we see no reason why the first should have any advantage in -point of time required for the completion of any prescribed course of -study. - -We present four reasons in support of the answer we have so positively -given: - -FIRST—_The class of students seeking this instruction is more teachable -than can be easily found elsewhere._ Its members rank in earnestness and -intensity of application with the best of those pursuing post-graduate -or special courses in resident and special institutions. They are men -already in professional life, physicians, attorneys, pastors, journalists -and teachers. They are men who, having long looked wistfully from a -distance at our great educational institutions without being able to -avail themselves of their advantages, suddenly find excellent educational -advantages brought to their very doors and offered on terms which -they can easily accept. They are young men and women who during their -school days felt the necessity of making the best use of their time, -and acquired habits of steady application, of critical study, and of -economy in the use of spare moments; but whose school days were limited -by unconquerable circumstances to the village academy or high school, or -even to the less ambitious country district school. These classes are -easier to teach than almost any other, since they are ready to do to the -fullest extent the work which alone can make any teaching successful. - -SECOND—_More skill is required in the work of preparing and assigning -lessons than is ordinarily shown._ The art of assigning lessons should -form a part in every scheme of pedagogical instruction. Unfortunately, -the methods with which most who have memories of the class room are -familiar are worthy subjects for criticism. The recitation hour passes -rapidly in question and answer over the technicalities of the text. The -closing moments are sufficient to direct a continuation of the advance -reading, a review of previous lessons, and the assignment of certain -portions from the grammar. There is no definite direction as to special -points to be examined; no provision for particular work in etymology, or -analysis, or comparison; no synthetic outline for the next day’s thought; -no aids to help the student to test his own work or to detect his own -errors before the next recitation assembly. Such methods or lack of -methods in the correspondence school would surely cause its failure. How -to assign lessons becomes here the crucial test of the teacher’s power. -He must so lay out the work to be done that the pupil whom he has never -seen will be stimulated to effort and not grow discouraged; will be led -from the world of the known at his feet, into the world of the unknown -in which the teacher lives; will be allowed to make no misuse of time in -unprofitable study; will be wisely directed in the acquirement of lexical -and grammatical knowledge, and will be enabled to test his own work with -ever increasing accuracy. Such a teacher can not fail of success in his -effort to teach a language by correspondence. - -THIRD—_More care is required in the matter of interrogation._ Thorough -mastery of the art of interrogation is an essential; almost priceless in -any teaching—here it is a _sine qua non_. The presence of teacher and -pupil in the class room makes questioning easy; the oral question is -quickly given, quickly answered, and many questions may be used to elicit -a single truth, or to impress a single lesson. But the correspondence -teacher is not so favored. His questions must be so framed that one, or -at the most two, shall suffice. Again, the oral teacher through lack of -memory and long custom, may allow his questions to become a mere matter -of routine, and daily tread the same monotonous round. We speak from -memory when we assert of a college class, that it became so familiar with -the questions asked during Greek hour in junior year, as to be able to -answer the coming question almost before its utterance. This will not do -for the correspondence teacher. His questions must be only such as his -lesson directions have suggested; they must be committed to paper, in -remorseless ink; they are to be subjected to scrutiny; they must not be -obscure, or repetitious; and their range must be as wide as his students’ -knowledge. Such questioning can not fail of success. - -FOURTH—_More earnest and thorough study is required of the student._ He -has in a certain sense the work of two persons to perform, his own and -his teacher’s; his own, in that he investigates and acquires as directed; -his teacher’s, in that he must prove and test that which he has done and -is doing, by efforts of memory, by work of comparison, and by strict -grammatical rule. He must recite to himself, ask of himself the questions -which he must answer, and correct himself before finally his finished -work is returned to his teacher for revision. - -We think we have made sufficiently plain the possibility of success in -teaching a language by correspondence. The reasons seem to us conclusive. -That which remains to be said is even more potent. After all thinking, -reasoning and objecting is done, after all testimony for or against -has been received the established fact remains, successful teaching of -languages, ancient and modern, by correspondence alone, has been done -within the years just past, is now being done, and will be yet more -effectively and widely done with each advancing year. - -In support of these statements, which we believe are true, we present a -testimonial from an experienced teacher, who has been and is a member of -the College of Modern Languages in the Chautauqua University. It is as -follows: - -“I have been a member of the German class in the Chautauqua -Correspondence School of Languages for two years, and I consider -this plan of study, including the six weeks’ instruction each year -at Chautauqua, superior to any other. The method is not only more -comprehensive, it also advances the pupil much more rapidly, makes him -more thorough, broadens his culture, enables him to become familiar with -history, with literature, with art, and better than all, teaches him how -to acquire knowledge.” - -We add two statements of fact which can be verified as proofs of popular -opinion regarding correspondence schools: - -FIRST—That the Director of the Department of New Testament Greek in the -Chautauqua School of Theology has students to the number of almost four -hundred who rely for instruction entirely upon correspondence lessons. - -SECOND—That the Dean of the Department of Hebrew in the same institution -has under instruction by the same methods, in the different enterprises -with which he is connected, about seven hundred students. Could there be -anything more significant? - - - - -EDITOR’S OUTLOOK. - - -“MINOR MORALS.” - -The importance of good breeding can not be too diligently insisted upon. -But what is good breeding? This is hardly to be understood as synonymous -with good manners, though certainly involving them. Nor is it quite -the same thing as exemplary or agreeable behavior, though likely to -insure it. The latter is entirely the product of constant practice. Good -manners, polished behavior, are the fruit of long discipline—perfection -herein being reached only when these manners become habitual, natural, -instinctive. - -True courtesy, meanwhile, involves something deeper than mere manners -or motions. It has its seat in the heart—its root in the moral nature. -Fundamentally it consists in an inward kindly, neighborly, tender feeling -toward every one, an interest in, and a desire to promote everybody’s -welfare. Genuine courtesy, in a word, is born of love, springs from a -benevolent disposition, a brotherly, chivalric impulse. - -But what is good breeding? It consists in this inward principle of -good will, and the outward _habit_ of graceful demeanor combined—it -consists in the aforesaid inward gracious impulse, rooted in the heart, -and finding natural outward expression, or interpretation, through -that disciplined elegance of deportment of which I have spoken. To the -inward impulse, or sentiment, duly awakened, the outward, educated -habit naturally, instinctively responds; and we have the deportment, or -carriage, of the truly polished or accomplished gentleman or lady. - -These twin principles, the inward nurture and the outward culture or -training, working together, underlie what in the highest sense is to be -understood as good breeding. - -The practical value of the accomplishment under consideration can -not well be overestimated. How charming, truly, this gentlemanly, -lady-like conduct—this kindly, graceful, genial way of carrying one’s -self socially. True courtesy, verily, is as delightful as a song. More -eloquent is it, we may say, than any oratory. It is a fine art. Better -still, it is Christian. - -Is it not at once a privilege and a duty to promote the pleasure of -others? As has just been suggested, how may we more effectually minister -to the pleasure of others than by a charming behavior? - -By cultivated, agreeable manners, moreover, we immensely enhance our -personal influence—our power for good. A person of agreeable manners, -by uniformly pleasing, will, naturally, always be popular—have hosts -of friends. While, whatever one’s worth or attainments, we yet shun his -presence if he be disagreeable or offensive in manner or speech; on the -other hand, we instinctively covet the society of one who, in any way, -delights us. - -The irresistible charm of polished manners, even when cultivated solely -for commercial purposes, is well illustrated by a remark said to have -been made by Mr. Beecher concerning the clerks in the shops of Paris. -They were, he said, so polite and engaging in their attentions that his -first impression always was that he must have met them somewhere before. -And who has not, indeed, under the influence of the benign spirit, the -genial and engaging manners, the kindly and obliging offices of the -accomplished tradesman, often felt his prejudices give way, his original -intentions to purchase nothing yield, and, instead, a purpose gradually -spring up in his mind to do just the opposite of what he originally -designed? - -Nothing can be more evident, therefore, than that this matter of manners -and breeding is a no unimportant part of one’s education, constituting, -truly, a no insignificant part of every true man’s character. How -greatly, then, does that youth stand in his own light, who, for any -cause, neglects his manners. The thoroughly courteous youth, other things -equal, will surely win his way to success. Personally agreeable in all -his ways, he conciliates opposing prejudices, charms the indifferent, and -makes every one he meets his friend. The boorish man, on the contrary, as -inevitably blocks his way to fortune by awakening, on the part of those -with whom he has to do, only sentiments of aversion and disgust. - -Girls, for some reason, seem to take more naturally and kindly to -graceful ways, to gentle courtesies, than boys. Young America, we think, -is characteristically boorish, if not clownish. The boy of the period -manifestly places no adequate value on good manners. Doubtless this -matter of breeding—this careful cultivation of a genial and amiable -deportment—is sadly neglected in our day. The youth of our day should be -taught not only that rudeness and vulgarity never pay; but that while -awkwardness is disagreeable and burdensome, the slightest approach to -rowdyism is detestable and unpardonable. - -Some one has very happily represented good manners as “minor morals.” And -certain it is that vulgarity and vice are intimately related; that the -low, vulgar fellow will ever be found but a few removes from a positively -vicious one. - -Love, refinement, social cultivation are all closely allied with -righteousness; these, always and everywhere, constitute the true -gentleman and lady. - - -THE COUNCILS AT BALTIMORE. - -It was a noteworthy fact that two of the three great religious bodies -of this country were holding councils in the same city in the last days -of 1884. The city of Baltimore enjoys the distinction of being both a -Catholic and a Methodist city. The former is the older claimant, since -it was founded by English Catholics; but Methodism, also founded by -Englishmen, has a Baltimore history which occasioned the centennial -conference of last month. It was in Baltimore, Christmas 1784, that a few -circuit riders organized the Methodist Episcopal Church. It is doubtless -through the effectiveness of that organization that Methodism holds its -position as the religious union of the largest _population_ embraced -in any one organization in this country. The Catholics are ordinarily -reckoned the most numerous, because they count population and Methodists -count only members; but taking the former basis as a common measure, -the various branches of Methodism are doubtless the most numerous; -and it is probable that by the same tests the Baptists outnumber the -Catholics. If the Presbyterian bodies could be counted together, and the -Lutherans and Congregationalists included, we should have a third great -body of Protestants which may possibly outnumber the Catholics. Two -other communions, the Protestant Episcopal and the Unitarian, would be -in the first rank of religious influence if we attempted to measure and -compare by this test. Taking account of members only, the most difficult -problem of religious statistics is to determine whether any religious -organization is relatively increasing. The unattached population, and the -independent Protestant organizations, have been growing in numbers for a -score of years; and the Protestant communions can not count by population -without including the same persons in more than one church. It is not -surprising that the Catholics most easily make an imposing array in the -statistical tables. The precise count is not important in this place. The -Catholics and Methodists are large bodies of American Christians, and -they have some common features as well as some striking contrasts. - -Both communions owe their success (if we take worldly measurement) to -their vigorous management and subordination of their clergy for the -good of the common cause. A Methodist itinerant and a Catholic priest -resemble each other very little, but they are alike in being men who are -“sent,” and who “obey orders.” Their personal choices and well-being are -subordinated to a service and devotion. They alike resign at the doors -of the temple their rights to serve and please themselves. It may be -said that all Christians should do this; but this self-surrender is to -the priest and the itinerants _objective_ as well as _subjective_. It -means that they go where they are sent by a human authority which they -identify with the divine will. They are sacrificed to the general good; -they suffer that others may rejoice—always under an external and visible -authority. Another point of resemblance is the _practical_ liberty of -laymen in both churches. Theoretically the Catholic and the Methodist -laymen are both bound to considerable service and duties. Methodism began -in a rigor of religious duties which makes one wonder how John Wesley -missed founding a new Catholic order of world-renouncing priests and -lay brothers. Catholicism is theoretically even more rigorous. In the -progress of this century, both laities have achieved more liberty than -is good for them; the priest and the itinerant serve and sacrifice for -all. A bright-eyed Methodist editor called attention some years ago to -the fact that his church tolerates no heresy in ministers and pays little -attention to the doctrinal vagaries of its laymen. It is doubtless true -of both Catholics and Methodists; though neither church is prepared to -make any admission of the sort or ever will be. The theory in each case -calls for sound believing; and it is probably a just judgment which says -that liberty is the atmosphere required for the growth of sound faith. - -Another point of resemblance between Catholic and Methodist is that both -communions have had a great mission to preach to the poor; and that they -have preached to such effect that large numbers of their poor have become -rich, not so obviously in faith as in worldly goods. We mean not to -sneer, but to put our finger on the _objective_ reality which lies before -us. He is a careless man who fails to see that Methodism and Catholicism -have produced industry, thrift, temperance and wealth in classes of -people who were miserably poor at the outset. The fact has long been -understood of Methodists; a special fact has obscured this large one -among Catholics. There has been a steady inflow of poverty from the Old -World and the Catholics have received into their communion a very large -portion of this poverty. Their needy have been most abundantly recruited -and continue to be. But at the same time their poor have grown wealthy -all over the land. The Puritan farmer is disappearing in New England and -the Irish Catholic is taking his place. Wealthy Catholics abound in all -the large cities. - -There are many points of contrast between the two communions. We suggest -a single one, still looking at externals and not at creeds. While -Methodism has for a quarter of a century been one of the most influential -factors in politics—not at all as a machine, but altogether as an -influence—Catholicism has during the same period almost lapsed out of -sight as a political element. This resulted from the foreign character -and training of the majority of the priests and people, and from wise -avoidance of occasions of odium by the Catholic prelates. We suggest this -contrast without drawing any inferences from it. For the near future, -it is safe to predict a change on the Catholic side. Their Baltimore -council will, by force of associations which are full of significance, -tend to produce change. In Baltimore the Catholic may properly remember -his claims to be and live an American of the Americans. That church has -had a vast body of foreigners to naturalize; it has done the work under -an array of obstacles which seemed too formidable to be overcome. It is -a near day when the Americanism of the Catholics of this country will -come to the proof of its quality and value. At Baltimore the thoughtful -priest must have been moved to remember what claims he has on the country -and what claims the country has on him. We shall as a people suffer some -bitter trials and humiliations if the Catholics are not to be genuine -Americans and ardent patriots. They are too many to be neutral or hostile. - - -A POOR MAN’S MOTOR. - -The labor problem has not yet received a solution. Its central difficulty -is to secure to workmen a fair share of the blessings of life. No one -supposes that, taking the world together, they do now receive a fair -share. In this country, workmen have fared uncommonly well; but there is -a belief, resting on some facts, that the actual rewards of labor, as -measured in the blessings of life, are rapidly declining, and must go -on declining under the existing industrial system. Some theories on the -subject are no longer tenable. The workman’s theory that capital robs him -is not sound. Money, once worth ten per cent., has fallen to three per -cent. for perfectly safe loans; when higher interest is paid, it is paid -for conducting the business of lending (as in banks) or for risks of the -loans. The government can borrow a thousand and more millions at two and -one-half to three per cent.—and this shows what a hard time of it capital -is having. The risks of manufacturing probably bleed labor; but the -bleeding is not in the form of which the workman thinks. It is not profit -but loss which drives the lancet in to the hilt. Political economists -have shown (and they are entirely unanimous) that the high profits -produce a competition which brings down profits. Capital is cheap; large -profits can be made only in conditions which are monopolistic. - -Our system of industrial exchange has one very weak place, called -_credit_. This credit is a hole in the net through which industrial gains -are dropped into the bottomless sea; and the system is so fixed upon us -that there is no hope of reform in our day. To pay when we buy more and -more offends something in our make-up. A wise man proposed that one, two -and five dollar bills be abolished, in order that we might circulate, as -the French do, a large amount of silver. A member of Congress immediately -amended the suggestion thus: “No. Put this silver in the United States -Treasury, and let us use ‘silver notes.’” We insist upon having even a -credit money, and object to “the trouble” of handling coin. This refined -and transcendental sentiment, or taste, or æstheticism about coin runs -through us. The man who always pays, as well as the sneak who never pays -if he can avoid it, says, “Charge it,” when he buys goods. Goods are -sold by the manufacturer to the jobber on credit; the jobber sells to -the wholesale houses on credit; the wholesale dealers sell to retailers -on credit; the retailers sell to consumers on credit. It is within the -mark to say, that more is lost in these four credit traps than capital -gets—much more. It is not, in fact, the capitalist, but the well-dressed -and the shabbily-dressed thieves who cheat and rob labor. - -At first sight, the reader will wonder how the losses of the four -credits come home to labor. We reply: they are merely the aggregate -of the risks incurred in making staple goods—all other risks being -insignificant in such manufacturing. The order of things is like this: -what the jobber loses the manufacturer loses by the failure of the -jobber. The jobber loses what the dealers between him and the consumers -lose. Not quite all, perhaps, for the capitals of the dealers must be of -some worth; but the consumer has, in the end, to pay all these losses, -and the result is an enhanced price. In other words, a bale of goods -starts out with a burden of risk which grows as it travels, and adds to -the cost of goods so much that the consumer can not buy as much as he -needs. The from 250 to 300 or more failures each week tell a part of the -workman’s trouble; another vast body of his losses does not go to record -at all. It is the fifty-cents-on-a-dollar compromise system between -wholesalers and retailers. - -Workmen ought to get what consumers pay, less three per cent. on capital -and about as much more for risk of ordinary kinds and a fair cost of -handling goods. We maintain a system of extraordinary risks, called a -credit system, which consumes two or three times as much as capital. It -is plain that workmen can not get (we write of such staples as cotton -cloth) pay for lost goods. Wherever they are lost, the sums lost can not -reach labor. We do not enter into the details of this argument; we have -suggested reasons for believing that a cash system would stop one of the -great leaks of the industrial system. - -There are other great wastes in the existing forms of industrial -management which, like the credit system, come out of the bones and blood -of the workman. We pass them by to suggest that the industrial system -has gone wrong, and can never go right, under the empire of steam. Steam -is a centralizer. It concentrates industry, and by packing laborers into -a small compass _enhances the cost of living_ and enlarges the area of -losses on sales and of distress in hard times. And to go at once to our -solution of the labor problem, we will describe it as decentralization. -A writer in _MacMillan’s Magazine_ suggests that electric motors may -prove to be the decentralizing force. Of course, it is not in the power -of any material agent to effect great changes except as it coöperates -with our inclinations. The expensiveness of steam machinery coöperated -with our inclination to congregate in cities. We have congregated there. -The larger half of our growth is in towns. The result is dear food, dear -rent, pestilential diseases, moral degradation. When we grow sick of the -experiment of building a modern Babel, our inclinations may coöperate -with a motor energy which is plebeian and democratic. Let us suppose, -then, that a workman can make any of the innumerable small articles which -have iron or steel for a material. This workman has his bits of machinery -and tools in his house. They do not cost more than a carpenter’s chest -of tools. He has the skill; he has the tools; he wants power. But a -neighbor tells him that he can buy in quart or gallon cans stored-up -electricity, and by a little contrivance, which may cost fifty cents, he -can attach his machinery to this democratic motor and be an independent -workman, with all the advantages of machinery. He can make all these iron -and steel contrivances in the middle of a prairie and sell them to his -neighbors for cheap food and cheap rent. The _divisibility_ of electric -power may make it the poor man’s friend. You can not buy five cents’ -worth of steam; there is now no reason to doubt that electric power may -be sold in five-cent packages if there is a demand for it in such form. -There is a vast aggregate of small manufacturing. Of course there are -great industries to which our solution would not apply; but if half the -laborers of the country could work profitably, each man by himself, -in his own house—just as cobblers work—then the strain on the large -industries, such as iron and steel making, would be so far reduced that -workmen in those branches would probably command, permanently, excellent -wages. - -This article aims to do nothing more than to open a window of hope. We -shall need to change a great deal; but the poor man’s motor will probably -help us to change. A good many monopolies have grown up because steam -favored their growth; others are the fruits of general ignorance. Under -the sway of ignorance, the trade-mark becomes a tyrant, a grasping -monopolist. For example, there are no patents on sewing machines, but -machines of certain firms, wearing a certain trade-mark, command a -monopoly price. Any good mechanic can build a good sewing machine for ten -dollars. There might be men in every town engaged in supplying the local -wants in the matter of sewing machines. No large factories, no heavy -transportation bills, no eloquent traveling agents would be needed. There -are thousands of things to which the same rule will apply when there is -a poor man’s motor and such a diffusion of intelligence that the poor -man can make, and people will buy, the home-made articles. The empire of -the trade-mark will disappear when the motor and the intelligence come -along, and both seem to be coming. It will not be necessary—if the motor -arrives—to herd people together like cattle, or to transport goods long -distances. The workmen will carry their kits of tools to the villages and -live independently and cheaply in the midst of their customers. Is this a -dream? But why should it not come true? - - -REFORMED CRIMINALS. - -The French government is considering a proposition to restore the custom -of deporting criminals. It is remarkable that the practical argument on -this subject is decidedly favorable to this system. The argument against -it is a sentimental one. The unsettled question about punishments for -other than capital offenses is, how to secure the reform of criminals. -Under the best managed prisons, reform of a lasting kind is rare. The -best management seems to succeed until the prisoner is set at liberty. -Then the reformed man finds himself an object of suspicion to orderly -people and of special interest and sympathy to the criminal classes. -The former will not employ him and the latter will. The result is, in -most cases, that he relapses into crime. Perhaps there is some hope that -the better classes may improve in their habits; but unless they do, it -is well nigh useless to reform criminals in prison. The poor men who -come out into an unsympathetic world which does not believe in their -reformation, and in which unreformed ex-convicts are numerous enough to -keep the general distrust of their class alive, have nothing like a fair -chance to begin the world over again. If there were any hope that prisons -could be perfected so as to reform all convicts, public prejudice could -be broken down; but it is too much to expect that the general public will -acquire a habit of distinguishing between good and bad ex-convicts. This -is the difficulty for which no device has yet been found which will take -it out of the path of humanitarian prison discipline. No faith is more -stable than that which, among the public at large, affirms the total -depravity of _some_ men; especially of ex-convicts. - -Turning to penal colonies, experience is most favorable to the belief -that it opens the road to reform. The reports on the British penal -colonies are especially cheerful from this point of view. The majority -of the criminals sent abroad during three centuries reformed their -lives. Australia ought to be the most disorderly country on the globe, -if deporting criminals to a colony could produce a bad society. But -notwithstanding the fact that England sent a large criminal population to -that colony, Australia is one of the most orderly and respectable of the -English dependencies. The only possible explanation is that the official -reports are true, and that the convicts did actually reform. If Botany -Bay did not reform them, the honest opportunities of that vast island -did coöperate with their good purpose and promote their reform. England -deported criminals from 1597 to 1867—a period of 270 years. During the -War of Independence she suspended deportation and enrolled her convicts -in the armies sent to subjugate us. In 1838 more than 100,000 criminals -had been sent to Australia. An official report sets forth that in 1850 -an enumeration of ex-convicts in Australia accounted for 48,600, and -that all of them except an insignificant fraction were living honestly. -But it will be said that Australia protested against the continuance of -the system. This is not the exact fact. In dealing with the question, -the English government threw upon the Australians all the expense of the -surveillance of the deported criminals. The colonial government demanded, -most righteously that England should pay this bill of expense; but -rather than pay it the English Parliament chose to abolish the system of -deportation. The colonists did make sentimental objections to receiving -convicts, but they did so on the ground that the cost of watching the -criminals of England was unjustly thrown upon them. A French writer -remarks that in this case, as in the quarrel with us, the money question -was allowed to prevail over statesmanship. The British ex-convict is -worse off than our own because there are fewer opportunities for men -under the reproach of prison service. - -The French proposition to resort again to penal colonies, or rather -to dumping ship-loads of criminals on new and undeveloped countries, -suggests the seriousness of the question. Every French colony will -object to receiving the vicious cargoes of humanity; but the objections -will lose their violence if the home government shall send a proper -proportion of French gold with each cargo. The testimony on the subject -seems to show that if the transported men are such as to give signs of -real reform, ninety-five per cent. of them will make good citizens. The -open country, the new moral scenery, the necessities of that new world, -conspire with good resolutions to maintain reformed habits. What shall -_we_ do with our reformed prisoners? It is not improbable that in a few -years England will imitate France and restore the system of deportation. -Why should not we make an experiment? Alaska, at least, might safely be -used for the purpose. It would not be difficult to devise a system under -which the best class of reformed men should be offered land and a small -outfit in some remote corner of our country. By selecting the best, and -making their removal voluntary, we might save to society the larger part -of the men whom our prisons reform. We do not wish to disguise the fact -that, however remote the place, the men who have lived by crime and -escaped punishment would endanger the virtue of the ex-convict. But the -criminal classes do not flow to the farthest frontiers except in scanty -streams; and the Alaskan territory is as yet as safe as a wilderness can -be. Some scheme of the sort is worth the devising. We are making little -headway under our present best systems, simply because the ex-convict has -no chance. Can he be given a fair chance? - - - - -EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. - - -The Civil Service Reform League—and every reform is dependent upon an -organization—has addressed a letter to President-elect Cleveland, asking -him what he proposes to do about removals from office. Mr. Cleveland -answers, with full information, that he believes in the doctrine of civil -service reform. We think that the practical application of the letter to -the civil service will make a real and safe basis for judgment. Till we -see this, we deem it wise not to express an opinion. - - * * * * * - -The old “Liberty bell,” which was on exhibition during the Centennial at -Philadelphia, has been taken to the New Orleans Exposition in charge of -a committee. The council of Philadelphia passed a resolution authorizing -its removal from Independence Hall for that purpose. - - * * * * * - -Our national Congress is the subject of a shameful scandal, and the -worst feature of it is, our Senators and Representatives know it, but -fail to correct it themselves. It is this: By figures prepared by the -Public Printer, it appears that during the last four congresses nearly -six hundred speeches have been published in the “Congressional Record” as -a part of the debates and proceedings of Congress, but not one of them -was ever delivered in the House of Representatives. Here is a number of -printed but undelivered speeches of Senators. This is an unnecessary -expense entailed on the government. It is a falsehood and makes the -“Record” a lie, for you can not tell by reading it what has been said -or done in Congress. Senator Vest has introduced a resolution into the -Senate to abolish the practice, but it is still an open question whether -a body of men who do such things will have the moral courage to vote -their undelivered speeches out of the “Record.” - - * * * * * - -Our readers will find the article by General John A. Logan, elsewhere -in this impression, full of interesting and very remarkable statements -concerning rudimentary education in the different states. We think -his points concerning the common schools in the Southern states will -be a surprise to many people. Another article on the subject from the -General’s pen will appear in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for March. - - * * * * * - -A number of _Bradstreet’s_, issued in the latter part of December, shows -that at that time the whole number of men out of employment in the -United States, because the establishments had shut down, and by reason -of strikes, etc., was 316,000, or thirteen per cent. of the whole number -employed in 1880, which was 2,452,749. - - * * * * * - -Concerning General B. F. Butler, it is announced that he has signed an -agreement with a publishing house to write his political reminiscences, -in two volumes, for which he is to receive $50,000 in cash and a royalty -beside. The advent of Messrs. Blaine and Butler into the literary world -is suggestive. It is altogether probable that both of these men regard -literary fame, when compared to political favor, as a more substantial -and enduring quantity, and believe that their names will live longer -in literature than in politics. Of course, there may be other motives -prompting them, but to some men _fame_ hath its peculiar charms. - - * * * * * - -It was a surprise and sorrow to Christian people to learn that the -management at New Orleans had decided to keep the Exposition open on the -Sabbath. The very liberal—perhaps we ought to say lax—ideas about the -observance of the Sabbath which prevail throughout the country deserve -serious thought. Certainly to extend opportunities for making sight -seeing and pleasure seeking part of the day’s work should be emphatically -discouraged. - - * * * * * - -One of Chautauqua’s staunchest friends and most devoted workers, the Rev. -S. McGerald, has entered a new field of work. In a recent issue of the -Buffalo _Christian Advocate_ we find his name announced as the future -editor of that paper. Mr. McGerald’s new and important position is sure -to be well filled. He has the hearty good wishes of all Chautauquans in -his new enterprise. - - * * * * * - -The Indians of Arizona made an exhibit at the recent fair of that -territory, which ought to open the public mind to the degree of -civilization which some Indians have attained, and suggest, as well, the -possibility of such civilization for all Indians. The first premium for -the best modern plow displayed was awarded them, and to show their taste -for the antique as well as the modern, it may be mentioned that a wooden -plow was displayed which was an exact counterpart of those used 2,000 -years ago in the valley of the Nile. - - * * * * * - -There is no doubt of it—the cause of much human failure and misery is -insomnia. Mr. Gladstone has found the only panacea in Christendom which -prevents and cures this dread disease, and he gave the secret to the -world recently, when he said: “I never allow business of any kind to -enter my chamber door. In all my political life I have never been kept -awake five minutes by any debate in Parliament.” - - * * * * * - -Now that Mark Twain is attempting to become his own publisher, it may be -of interest to read the record of his occupations. He has been in turn, -practical printer, steamboat pilot, private secretary, miner, reporter, -lecturer and book-maker. Should he succeed in his publishing scheme, -he may start a fashion among successful writers which will be hard on -publishing houses. - - * * * * * - -A winter resort where the thermometer falls frequently to 40° below zero, -is fully launched at Saranac Lake, in the Adirondacks. The hotels are -reported full, and prices of lots have gone up with the usual nimbleness -which characterizes embryo resorts. If peculiar, this new fashion may -serve as a blessing to the idle and half sick people who are apt to -patronize fashionable resorts by bringing into use many vigorous and -healthful winter sports. - - * * * * * - -The wonderful Fish River caves, discovered last year in New South Wales, -have been given a new name by the government of that country, and will -henceforth be known as the Jenolan caves. Astonishing discoveries are -reported to have been made there recently. Our own Kentucky wonder begins -to dwindle before the reports of these new subterranean palaces and -gardens. - - * * * * * - -A reading people we know ourselves to be, but it is rather astonishing to -discover that we publish twelve times as many daily papers as the United -Kingdom. _The Athenæum_ calls attention to the fact that while the United -States has one daily paper to every 10,000 inhabitants, the English have -one to every 120,000. It would be gratifying if we could feel sure that -the quality stood in the same ratio. - - * * * * * - -The work of the Chautauqua University is attracting attention far and -wide. In a recent issue of the _Irish Christian Advocate_, published in -Belfast, we notice in answer to a correspondent’s query, as to “What is -the Chautauqua University?” a long and enthusiastic article upon the -plan. The adaptation of the “Chautauqua Idea” to all people and all -countries is very wonderful. - - * * * * * - -A lady is said to have recently offered $50,000 to the Boston school -authorities, to be devoted to the filling of the teeth of children whose -parents were too poor to employ dentists. Should she devote her money -to the purchase of tooth brushes and toothpicks, and employ a police of -teeth, who would compel their daily use by children from babyhood up, she -would confer an inestimable benefit upon future generations. - - * * * * * - -Frances Power Cobbe, well known to the readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, -concludes her powerful article on “A Faithless World,” in the December -issue of _The Contemporary Review_, with these strong words: “We have -been told that in the event of the fall of religion, ‘life would remain -in most particulars and to most people much what it is at present;’ it -appears to me, on the contrary, that there is actually _nothing_ in life -which would be left unchanged after such a catastrophe.” - - * * * * * - -A wise thing is being done in London. A series of popular lectures upon -the subject of precautions—national, local and personal—to be taken -against cholera, has been begun. Now that the menace of this dread -disease hangs over our own country, it would be a sensible plan for -cities and villages to provide a similar course of instruction. It could -be easily arranged, too. - - * * * * * - -We are happy to extend congratulations to a well known contributor to -THE CHAUTAUQUAN, Mr. C. E. Bishop. Mr. Bishop was married in Buffalo, -December 31st, to Miss Emma Mulkins, of that city. As the former editor -of the Jamestown (N. Y.) _Journal_, of the Buffalo _Express_, and at -present of _The Countryside_, of New York, as an editorial writer on _The -Assembly Herald_, as the author of “Pictures in English History,” and of -frequent entertaining articles in our columns, Mr. Bishop is widely and -favorably known. - - * * * * * - -The assignee’s sale of the stock of imported books and fine art -publications of Mr. J. W. Bouton, of New York, is now advertised. It -is a real shock to know that this rare collection must be sacrificed. -For years his rooms have been a resort for book lovers, and a liberal -education to the loiterers about his counters. Perhaps there is no -collection in America, outside of the libraries, the sale of which would -cause such general regret. - - - - -C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR FEBRUARY. - - -COLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH. - -Articles on Plato may be found in the following works: Plato’s -“Republic,” De Quincey; “Plato,” Encyclopædia Britannica; Smith’s “Greek -and Roman Biography,” at the beginning of the various editions of his -works; Mahaffey’s “Classical Greek Literature;” Müller’s “Literature of -Ancient Greece;” “Against the Atheists,” _Christian Examiner_, vol. xl, -p. 108; “Life of Plato,” _Methodist Quarterly_, vol. xx, p. 368; “On the -Immortality of the Soul,” _Christian Repository_, vol. xxii, p. 507; -“Platonism,” _Baptist Quarterly_, vol. i, p. 22; “Ethical Philosophy,” -_American Church Repository_, vol. xxii, p. 175. - -P. 86.—“Cicero,” etc. The “De Republica” was a dialogue on what is -the best form of the state; the “City of God” treats of the body of -Christians in distinction from the City of the World, or those out of the -church. St. Augustine wrote this book after the sack of Rome by Alaric to -answer the assertion that the destruction of the country was a punishment -for the desertion of the pagan deities; “Utopia” is the story of an -imaginary land supposed to have been discovered by a companion of Amerigo -Vespucci, where the laws were perfect; the “New Atlantis” was an island -in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, where Bacon represents himself to -have been shipwrecked, and where he found societies for cultivating art -and the sciences. - -P. 96.—“Dæmon.” “This demon or genius of Socrates, which was not -personified by himself, was regarded by Plutarch as an intermediate being -between gods and men, by the fathers of the church as an evil spirit, -by Le Clerc as one of the fallen angels, by Ficino and Dacier as a -good angel, and by later writers as a personification of conscience or -practical instinct, or individual tact.” - -P. 98.—“Origen.” (185?-254?) This eminent writer of the early church -fathers made an effort to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, and in -his commentaries on the Scriptures used the allegorical method almost -entirely. “The literal sense is always secondary; and the critic never -fails where it is possible to find in the simplest fact or the plainest -exhortation some hidden meaning.” - -P. 99.—“Lemma.” When in demonstrating a proposition a second proposition -is introduced and assumed as true, or demonstrated for immediate use, it -is called a _lemma_. - -P. 100.—“Oneida Community.” A society founded at Oneida, New York State, -by one John Humphrey Noyes, a perfectionist. He introduced into this -community his peculiar views, persuading them to practice a community of -women and of goods, to allow women equal business and social privileges -with the men, and to live in a “unitary home.” - -P. 104.—“Silenus.” An attendant of Bacchus. He is represented as a very -ugly old man, fat, with a bald head and pug nose, and always intoxicated. -Generally he rode an ass or was carried by the satyrs. Silenus was also -represented as an inspired prophet. When drunk and asleep he was in the -power of mortals who could compel him to sing and prophesy by surrounding -him with chains of flowers. - -P. 105.—“Marsyas.” See C. L. S. C. Notes, page 57 of THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -October. - -“Corybantian reveler.” So called from the Corybantes, the priests of -Cybele in Phrygia. They celebrated her worship in the wildest, most -frenzied dances. The drum and cymbal accompanied this dance. - -P. 107.—“Brasidas.” The most famous of the Spartan leaders in the -Peloponnesian War. After taking many Athenian cities in Macedonia he -was killed at Amphipolis, where he defeated Cleon. He was honored by the -inhabitants as a hero. - -“Nestor.” An aged Greek hero of the Trojan war, whose wisdom and advice -were considered equal to the gods. “Antenor” held a position among the -Trojans similar to that of Nestor among the Greeks. His advice, however, -was not followed by his countrymen, and he offered to deliver the city to -the Greeks. Upon the capture of Troy he was spared by the victors. - -P. 108.—“Boreas.” The North Wind was fabled to live in Thrace. The -allusion here is to the story that he carried away Orithyia, the daughter -of the king of Attica, for his wife. - -“Agra;” the demus south of Attica was called Agra. It contained two -temples; one to Diana, the other to Ceres. - -“Typhon.” A monster born of Tartarus and Gæa, who attempted to revenge -the overthrow of the Titans. His head reached to heaven, his eyes poured -forth flame, and serpents were twined about his body. Jupiter killed him -with lightning. - -P. 109.—“Agnus Castus,” or the “chaste tree,” the name given to a plant -native to the Mediterranean countries, which became associated with the -idea of chastity, it is said, from the similarity of the name _agnus_ to -the Greek word _chaste_. Grecian matrons strewed their couches with its -leaves during the feast of Ceres, and in the convents of Southern Europe -a syrup made of its fruit was used by the nuns. - -“Achelous.” A river god—a son of Oceanus—from the earliest times -worshiped generally throughout Greece. At one time he took the form of -a bull in a fight with Hercules, who conquered him and took one of his -horns. This horn the Naiads afterward changed into the horn of plenty. - -P. 118.—“Sunium.” The promontory forming the southern extremity of -Attica; a town of the same name stood upon it. - -P. 121.—“Swan’s Utterance.” Referring to the fable told of the swan, that -it sings its sweetest song at death—“the sweetest song is the last he -sings.” Thus in “Othello,” “I will play the swan and die in music.” - -P. 127.—The chapter on Æschylus may be supplemented by the following -readings: “Theory of Greek Tragedy,” De Quincey; Müller, Mure, and -Mahaffy on Æschylus, in their histories of Greek Literature; Talfourd’s -“Tragic Poets of Greece,” from “History of Greek Literature;” Symond’s -“Studies of the Greek Poets,” _Christian Examiner_, Vol. xliii, p. 140; -_Contemporary Magazine_, Vol. iii, p. 351; _Biblia Sacra_, Vol. xvi, p. -354; _North American Review_, Vol. lxvii, p. 407. - -P. 129.—“Cyprid.” A poem, author unknown, called Cyprid or _Cypria_, -“either because the author came from Cyprus, or because it celebrated the -Cyprian goddess, Aphrodite, and detailed from the commencement her action -in the Trojan war.… The poem was an introduction to the ‘Iliad,’ telling -a vast number of myths and leading the reader from the first cause of the -war up to the tenth year of its duration. It is easy to see that such a -vast subject, loosely connected, must have failed to afford the artistic -unity which underlies the course of the ‘Iliad.’” - -“Little Iliad.” A poem by Lesches, a Lesbian. It relates the complete -story of the sack of Troy, from the contest of Achilles to the fall -of Troy. The “Competition for the Arms,” we have had in the “Iliad.” -“Philoctetes” was the chief archer of the Greeks, having been instructed -by Hercules in the use of the bow. On the voyage to Troy he was bitten -by a snake and left on the island of Lemnos. In the tenth year of the -war the oracle declared the city could not be taken without the arrows -of Hercules. Philoctetes was brought, and having slain Paris, the city -was taken. “Neoptolemus,” a son of Achilles, was one of the warriors that -the oracle declared necessary for the capture of Troy. He was one of the -heroes concealed in the wooden horse. “Eurypylus” who came from Ormenion -to Troy, played a prominent part in battle, slaying many Trojans; he -was wounded by Paris. “Ulysses Mendicant,” the story of the wanderings -of Ulysses. “Lacæna,” the Lacedæmonian woman, referring to Helen. -“Illii-persis,” treats of the plundering of Troy after the capture, and -“Apoplus,” of the sailing away of the ships. “Sinon.” After the wooden -horse was finished, Sinon mutilated his body and allowed himself to be -captured by the Trojans. He told them that he had been maltreated by his -countrymen, and that if they (the Trojans) would drag the horse into the -city they would conquer the Greeks. After the Trojans had followed his -advice he let the Greeks out of the horse. “Troades,” the Trojans. - -P. 134.—“Trilogy.” A set of three dramas. Each one is in itself complete, -but the three are related, one event following or growing out of another, -as in Shakspere’s Henry VI. - -P. 137.—“New made kings.” This allusion will be explained by reading the -story of Cronos and Zeus on page 77 of THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November. - -P. 144.—“Sweet Muse-Mother.” See page 73 of “Brief History of Greece.” - -P. 145.—“Mantic.” Prophetic; derived from the Greek word for prophetic. - -P. 152.—“Protagonist.” One who fills the leading part in a drama, and -hence in any enterprise. - -P. 153.—“Ettrick Shepherd.” A name given to the Scottish poet, James -Hogg. His home was in the Ettrick forest, and when a boy he had been -a shepherd. The reference here is to the articles he contributed to -the series of papers which appeared in _Blackwood_ between 1822 and -1835, called Noctes Ambrosianæ, and which were principally written by -Christopher North. - -P. 154.—“Sophocles.” In connection with the chapter on Sophocles the -following readings may be used: “Classical Writers,” an essay on his -life and writings by Campbell; Talfourd’s “History of Greek Literature,” -chapter on “The Tragic Poets of Greece;” Symond’s “Studies of the -Greek Poets;” _Baptist Quarterly_, Jan. 1877; Mahaffy’s “History of -Classical Greek Literature;” Mure’s “Critical History of the Language and -Literature of Ancient Greece;” an account of the performance of “Ædipus -Tyrannus,” at Harvard in May, 1881, will be found in _The Century_, -November, 1881; _Harvard Register_, April, 1881; Boston _Sunday Herald_, -March 27, 1881; New York _Evening Post_, April 22, 1881. - -P. 173.—“Abæan.” From Abæa, a town of Phocis, where stood a very ancient -temple and oracle of Apollo. - - -CHEMISTRY. - -P. 13.—The abbreviations used in the atomic symbols are taken from the -Latin or Greek names, and when these differ from the English there seems -to be no correspondence between the name of the element and its atomic -symbol; as _Au_ for gold. - -Hydrogen is the lightest form of matter known, and the weight of its atom -is taken as the unit of the system of weights. In the table the numbers -in the column of atomic weights give the weight of one atom of each -substance as compared with one atom of hydrogen. For instance, an atom of -aluminum is twenty-seven times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen. - -A-luˈmi-num; Brōˈmĭne; Caesium (kēˈsi-um); Cerium (seˈri-um); Chlorine -(klōˈrĭne); Chrōˈmi-um; Di-dynˈi-um; Erˈbi-um; Fluˈor-ĭne; Gălˈlĭ-um; -Hyˈdro-gen; Glu-cinum (glu-sīˈnum); I-ridˈĭ-um; Iˈo-dĭne; Lanˈtha-num; -Lithˈĭ-um; Manganese (mangˈa-nezeˌ); Mŏl-yb-dēˈnum; Nī-oˈbi-um; -Nīˈtrō-gen; Osˈmi-um; Pal-lāˈdĭ-um; Phosˈphŏ-rus; Platˈĭ-num, or -Pla-tīˈnum; Po-tasˈsĭ-um; Rhōˈdĭ-um; Ru-bidˈi-um; Ru-thēˈnĭ-um; -Scanˈdĭ-um; Se-lēˈnĭ-um; Strontium (stronˈshĭ-um); Tanˈta-lum; -Tel-luˈri-um; Thalˈli-um; Thoˈri-um; Tī-taˈni-um; Tungˈsten; U-rāˈni-um; -Va-nāˈdi-um; Yt-terˈbi-um; Zir-cōˈni-um. - -P. 19.—“Guyten de Morveau,” gwēˈton dĕh morˈvō. (1737-1816.) A French -chemist. He suggested a new nomenclature which was adopted by Lavoisier, -and wrote a “Dictionary of Chemistry.” - -P. 33.—The symbols are to be read by calling the letters and the small -numbers one after the other, in the order in which they occur. If a -compound contains an element which requires two letters to express it, -the latter one, always a small letter, as on page 35, AgNO₃, it is to -be read in the same way, with a shorter pause between the A and g than -between the other letters, as A-g—N—O-₃. Ag and O₃ might be compared to -words of two syllables. The number always belongs to the letter which it -follows. - -P. 60. “Sir Humphrey Davy.” See C. L. S. C. Notes, page 59 of vol. v of -THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -“Biot,” Jean Baptiste (bēˈōˌ). (1774-1862.) A French savant. His fame -rests upon his mathematical, physical, and astronomical writings. Biot’s -description of Cavendish, translated from the French: “The richest of all -learned men, and probably, also, the most learned of all rich men.” - -P. 63.—“La Trappe.” A Benedictine convent in France, famous for the -austerity of its monks, founded in the twelfth century. - -“Van Helmont.” (1577-1644.) A Flemish physician, chemist, and -philosopher. He attempted a reform in medicine, but his system was -so mingled with mysticism that it is not of much practical value. He -succeeded, however, in introducing much exactness into science. - - - - -NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.” - - -HOW ENGLISH DIFFERS FROM OTHER LANGUAGES. - -1. Perhaps this absurdity, and the complications it involves, may be -better illustrated by the following few lines from one of DeBertrand’s -novels. (They might be found in a dozen others.) - -“Madame,” dit il, “il y a là une [feminine] personne qui demand M. le -Baron.” - -“Quelle [feminine] est cette [feminine] personne?” - -“C’est un [masculine] monsieur,” etc.[I] - -Thus, it will be seen, both feminine and masculine articles must be used -to designate the same object; and a person must be spoken of as feminine, -although the person is a man; the reason being that _personne_, the -_word_, is feminine.—_Richard Grant White._ - -[I] “Madame,” said he, “there is a person without who asks for -the Baron.” - -“Who is this person?” - -“It is a gentleman,” etc. - -2. For contrary to apparently reasonable assumption, the history of -language shows that minute and highly wrought grammatical forms are the -signs, or at least the accompaniments, not of advanced civilization -and high culture, but of a rude and savage condition of society. The -further we penetrate the obscure of antiquity, the more grammar we find. -The oldest language known to us, the Sanskrit, is the most complex and -elaborate in its grammar; the youngest, English, is, to all intents and -purposes, grammarless; and Sanskrit grammar is at least four thousand -years old. My readers will now see why it was that I said the minute -forms and complicated grammatical relations of the Greek language are -not the signs of a high development of language, but were relics of -barbarism.—_Richard Grant White._ - -3. “Galore,” gā-loreˈ. Plenty, abundance. - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -1. “Fuller,” Thomas. (1608-1661.) An English author and divine. “The -style of all his writings is extremely quaint and idiomatic, in -short, simple sentences, and singularly free from the pedantry of his -times.”—_American Cyclopædia._ - -2. “Robert Hall.” (1764-1831.) An English writer and preacher of the -Baptist church. When he was eleven years of age his teacher said that he -could not keep up with the boy. No man in modern times ranked higher as -an orator. - -3. “Goulburn.” (1818-⸺.) An English clergyman. He was in 1859 head -master of the Rugby School, in 1866 was made Dean of Norwich. He was a -voluminous and popular writer. - -4. “Bascom,” Richard H. (1796-1850.) An American clergyman, bishop of the -Methodist Episcopal Church, South. His works comprise sermons, addresses -and lectures. - - -CHEMISTRY. - -1. Transcriber’s Note: This note was omitted in the original. Wikipedia -has to say: “In general in ancient Greece, each state, city or village -possessed its own central hearth and sacred fire, representing the unity -and vitality of the community. The fire was kept alight continuously, -tended by the king or members of his family. The building in which this -fire was kept was the Prytaneum, and the chieftain (the king or prytanis) -probably made it his residence.” - -2. “Lavoisier,” läˈvwäˈze-āˌ. See Appleton’s “Chemistry,” pages 19, 21 -and 118. He was condemned to death by a revolutionary tribunal at Paris -on a frivolous charge brought against him as one of the farmers of the -taxes during the Reign of Terror. - -3. “Phlogiston,” flo-jisˈton. Stahl supposed it to be pure fire, fixed -in combustible bodies in order to distinguish it from fire in a state of -liberty. - -4. “Magnesium.” A shining, almost silver-white metal. When heated it may -be rolled out into very thin, long strips resembling ribbons, which will -burn with an intense light. In burning it produces magnesium oxide or -magnesia, which falls as a fine white powder. - -5. “Dr. Priestly.” See “Chemistry,” page 118. (1733-1804.) An eminent -English divine and philosopher. His partiality to the French Revolution -excited the English against him, and in one of the riots his home, -library and manuscripts were destroyed by the fire kindled by an angry -mob. His later home was in Northumberland, Pa. He wrote between seventy -and eighty volumes on history, literature, theology and science. - -6. In a few volcanic districts steam escapes from the earth, which -contains small quantities of boric acid. These vapors are condensed into -water, which is again evaporated and the acid crystallized out. When this -acid is mixed with alcohol and the solution set on fire it burns with a -green flame. See “Chemistry,” page 157. - -7. “Corpuscles of the blood.” Minute particles, both red and white, -existing in the blood, which can be seen under a microscope. In the human -species the red corpuscles are thick and circular. They are so small that -Young says it would take 255,000 of them to cover a surface of a square -inch. They are elastic and pliant, so that they can pass through blood -vessels having a smaller diameter than themselves. The white corpuscles -are more globular than the red, and contain more fat, and have the power -of changing their form. These spontaneous changes have been thought by -some scientists a proof that they are microscopic animals. But this is -scarcely a sufficient reason for admitting that they are animalculæ, as -the muscles of a body, when separated from it, often manifest apparently -spontaneous movements. - -8. Phosphoric acid is always produced by burning phosphorus in air -or oxygen. The experiment may be performed as follows, but before -undertaking it see page 167 of the “Chemistry,” and note with how much -care it must be handled: Place a fragment of carefully dried phosphorus -in a small cup on a stand in the middle of a large plate, ignite it by -a hot wire, and place over it a bell-glass. White fumes will fill the -glass and aggregate into small particles, which will fall to the plate, -presenting the appearance of a miniature snow storm. - -9. Barium is a yellow, lustrous, malleable metal. It is used in -fireworks, for the green color it gives off in burning. - -10. “Bayberries.” The plant, called also wax myrtle, is a low, crooked -shrub found throughout the United States, especially near the sea coast. -It grows to a height of from three to eight feet. The naked flowers -appear in April and May, in clusters, of which from four to nine ripen -into dry berries. Plantations of them have long been cultivated in -Europe, and they have been raised in Algeria. For many years they have -been an article of commerce. A bushel of the berries will yield from four -to five pounds of wax. - -11. “Strontium.” It takes its name from Strontian, in Scotland, where it -was first observed as a carbonate. It is a pale yellow metal, harder than -lead. If strontium carbonate be dissolved in nitric acid and mixed with -combustible substances it will burn with a beautiful carmine red flame, -and for this purpose is much used in fireworks. - -12. “Sodium.” See “Chemistry,” page 67. It is a lustrous, silver-white, -soft metal. When thrown upon water, if it be prevented from moving, or -if the water be warm, it ignites, burning with its characteristic yellow -flame. - -13. Extinguishing flame by carbon di-oxide. See “Chemistry,” page 218. - -14. “Lignite.” Also called brown coal. It is the most imperfectly -mineralized form of coal. In some instances plants are so little changed -that they can easily be classified by the structure of the leaves and the -fruit. The fiber has become so impregnated with bitumen that it burns -with its peculiar flame and smoke. The jet so much used in jewelry is -a black variety of lignite, very compact in texture, and taking a high -polish. - -15. “Kohinoor,” kohˌ-i-noorˈ (mountain of light). This famous stone -is now in possession of Queen Victoria. It was obtained before the -Christian era in one of the mines of Golconda, and passed to successive -sovereigns of India until it was borne away by a Persian conqueror in the -early part of the eighteenth century. In 1813 it was bought back by the -ruler of Punjaub. When Punjaub was annexed to the East India Company’s -territory it was surrendered to the Queen of England. It is said to have -weighed about 900 carats originally, but by cutting to have been reduced -to a weight of nearly 279 carats. By recutting it was again reduced so -as to weigh 186 carats, and at this time was shown (1851) at the Great -Exhibition. Since that time it has been again recut, for the third time, -and now weighs 123 carats, and is estimated at $600,000. For the other -“Paragons” see “Chemistry,” page 204. It is questioned whether the -“Grand Mogul” is a pure diamond. The largest undoubted diamond is the -“Orloff,” in the scepter of the Emperor of Russia. It weighs 194¾ carats. -The “Regent” or “Pitt” is thought to be the purest and most perfect -brilliant in Europe. It weighs now 136¾ carats, but its original weight -was 410 carats, and the fragments split off when it was cut were valued -at some thousand pounds. It was placed in the hilt of the sword of state -by Napoleon I. The “Grand Duke” belongs to the Emperor of Austria, and -weighs 134 carats. The “Star of the South,” found in Brazil, weighs 124 -carats. The “Sancy” weighs only 53½ carats. It belongs to the Emperor of -Russia. - -16. “Golconda.” An ancient city and fortress of India, once the -metropolis of the kingdom of Golconda. It is renowned for its diamonds, -which are, in truth, only cut there. - -17. “The Dark Continent.” Africa, so called because so little has been -known of it through all history; but through the zeal and enterprise of -modern explorers we are led to hope that “the day is not far distant when -the secret places of this land of mystery will be penetrated by the light -of science and civilization.” - - -TEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE. - -1. “Malice prepense.” Malice aforethought, deliberately and previously -planned. - -2. “Professor Newman.” See C. L. S. C. Notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -November 1884, page 115. - -3. “Cardinal Manning.” (1808-⸺.) An English Roman Catholic cardinal, -the author of several works. He is the son of the late William Manning, -member of Parliament, and governor of the Bank of England. He was -educated at Oxford, as a member of the Church of England. In 1857 he -joined the Catholics, and was ordained priest. In 1865 he was nominated -by the pope Archbishop of Westminster, and in 1875 he was made cardinal, -an office next in rank to that of pope. He is one of the most prominent -men in London, and the leading representative of the Roman Catholic -Church in England. - -4. “Thugs.” A set of robbers and assassins who lived in India, and -worshiped the goddess Kali. They roamed over the country in bands, and -put to death by strangulation any traveler whom they met. The British -government has exterminated them. - -5. “Leibnitz.” See notes on the “Art of Speech” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -November, 1884. - -6. “Lord Palmerston.” (1784-1865.) A British statesman. He succeeded Lord -Aberdeen as prime minister in 1855, and retired in 1858, on account of -the defeat of a bill introduced with reference to the attempted murder of -Napoleon III. by Orsini. In 1859 he was again made premier and held the -post until his death. - -7. “Loch Fyne.” An inlet of the sea on the western coast of Scotland, -running into Argyle for about forty miles, with an average width of five -miles. The town of Inverary stands near its head. - -8. “Homberg.” A town in Prussia, noted for the gambling which was -extensively carried on there formerly, but which was suppressed by the -Prussian government in 1870. - -“Baden,” or “Baden-Baden.” A German watering place situated on the Oos, -at the foot of the Black Forest. It was formerly celebrated for the -gaming tables found in the _Conversationshaus_, which was the principal -resort for visitors. The licenses for gambling expired in 1872, and -have not since been renewed. Those who have read “Daniel Deronda” will -remember that it was at Baden that Deronda first saw Gwendolen Harleth, -when she was engaged in gambling. The description of the persons gathered -round the long tables is very interesting and vivid, and gives a good -insight into fashionable life at Baden in those days. - -9. “Lord Brougham.” (1779-1868.) Lord Chancellor of England. He took -a strong stand on the side of the suppression of the slave trade, and -favored Roman Catholic emancipation, and labored earnestly in the cause -of popular education. As an orator he was second only to Canning. - - -KITCHEN SCIENCE AND ART. - -1. “Alkaloid.” The name given to those extracts of vegetables which will -unite with acids to form salts. - -2. “Caffeine,” caf-fēˈine. The alkaloid of coffee; the same extract of -tea is called théine. It is present in coffee to the extent of one per -cent.; in tea from two to six per cent. It can be extracted by using -acetate of lead. It has a bitter taste, and acts powerfully upon the -system when taken in doses of from two to ten grains, causing palpitation -of the heart, confusion of the senses, and sleeplessness. - -3. “Theo-bromine.” The alkaloid of chocolate, extracted in the same -manner as from tea or coffee. - -4. “Thea viridis,” theˈa virˈĭ-dis. (Green tea.) The name given to that -species of tea plant formerly supposed to yield green tea. - -5. “Camilliaceæ,” cam-milˌli-āˈce-e. An order of plants comprising -trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, feather-veined leaves, and -regular flowers. - -6. “Loblolly bay.” A tree found in the Southern States, growing to the -height of from thirty to eighty feet, having long, narrow leaves, and -large, white flowers, about two inches across, and resembling the single -camellia. - -7. “Stuartia.” Catesby. A shrub having deciduous leaves, and large, -fragrant, white flowers. - -8. “Tannin.” The astringent principle contained in a great variety of -plants, which renders them capable of combining with skins of animals to -form leather. - -9. “Turmeric,” turˌmeˈric. A name given to the tuber-like root of -a plant found in Asia. As prepared for commerce the roots are of the -size of the little finger, and two or three inches long, of a yellowish -color. They have an odor like ginger, and an aromatic taste. They form an -orange-yellow powder, which is used in dyeing. Prussian blue is prepared -from prussic acid, potassium, and a solution of sulphate of iron. Gypsum -is a native sulphate of lime, that, when calcined, forms plaster of Paris. - -10. “Caper.” The caper bush is a native of the south of Europe; it is -a climbing shrub which flowers all summer. The buds are gathered every -morning, and preserved in vinegar and salt. They have an agreeable -pungency of taste. “Pekoe.” The young leaf buds of a kind of tea known as -the pekoe, which is the choicest of black teas, are gathered as early as -April, and sometimes mixed with other teas, to flavor them. - -11. “Caseine,” cāˈse-ine. An organic compound allied to albumen, found in -milk. It may be coagulated and separated from the milk by the application -of rennet. - -12. “Cibber,” sibˈber. (1671-1757.) An English poet, appointed to be poet -laureate in 1730. He figures in the “Dunciad.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN, vol. -v, page 213. - -13. “Waller.” (1605-1687.) An English poet. - -14. “Coffea Arabica,” cof-feˈa A-raˈbi-ca. - -15. “Rubiaceæ,” ru-bi-aˈse-ē. An order of herbaceous plants of which -there are three or four hundred species; abounding chiefly in the -northern hemisphere and upon the mountains in the tropics. - -16. “Bouvardias.” A class of autumn and winter blooming house plants in -the northern climates. Leaves regular; flowers appear in clusters, and -are something like the honeysuckle in form. They vary in color from a -pure white to a deep scarlet. - -17. “Koran.” The sacred book of the Mohammedans, and their chief -authority, also, in political, military, and ethical matters. - -18. “Caffeone.” A fragrant, volatile oil contained in coffee. - -19. “Sterculiaceæ,” sterˌcu-li-aˈse-ē. Large trees or shrubs, with -simple or compound leaves, and flowers like those of the mallow, except -that the anthers turn outward. - -20. “Mahernia,” usually called _Mahernia odorata_, is an exotic flowering -shrub cultivated in conservatories, mostly for its rich fragrance. - - -HOUSEHOLD BEVERAGES. - -1. “Made-over tea.” In Chinese tea houses, large jars are kept, into -which the dregs of all the tea that has been used are thrown. These -exhausted leaves are dried, carefully rolled again, and thrown upon -the market for a second sale. It is said this tea is easily detected -if coloring matter has been used, but when re-rolled without, only a -chemical analysis can disclose the fraud. - -2. “Reliable.” Much fault has been found by critics with this word. It -is claimed that it has no right to a place in our language. _Able_ or -_ible_ is a suffix which, added to the stem of a transitive verb, gives -an adjective which may be defined by placing the word _able_ before the -passive infinitive of the verb whose stem has been used; for example: -tolerable, able to be tolerated; admissable, able to be admitted; -deniable, able to be denied, etc. But reliable means able to be relied -_upon_. The preposition has to be supplied. The proper form of the -adjective would be the awkward word, “relionable,” or “reliuponable.” The -word is favored in the dictionaries, but trustworthy is preferable. - -3. “Cosey.” A wadded cap made to fit the tea-pot closely, and thus hold -in the aroma and the heat. - -4. “Café au lait,” cä-fā ō lā. - - -HUXLEY ON SCIENCE. - -1. “Aliases.” The plural of alias (āˈle-as). Meaning another name, an -assumed name. - - -THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES. - -1. “Napier,” naˈpe-er, John. (1550-1617.) An English mathematician. -“Logarithms” are numbers so related to natural numbers that the -multiplication and division of the latter may be performed by addition -and subtraction, and the raising to powers and the extraction of roots -by the multiplication and division of the former. They are arranged in -tables which can be readily understood and used, and they save enormous -calculations and labor. - -2. “Kepler,” Johann. A German astronomer. - -3. “Mercator’s Chart.” In all the charts in use before Mercator’s, curved -lines were drawn representing the meridians and parallels. A vessel which -followed these lines always receded too far from the equator, and, if -land did not intervene, would describe a spiral course and finally reach -the pole. Mercator constructed a map as follows: A line, AB, was drawn -representing the equator, and was divided into 36, 24 or 18 equal parts -for meridians at 10°, 15°, or 20° apart, and the meridians were then -drawn through them perpendicular to AB. The distance of the parallels and -the tropics, and the arctic circles were marked from the equator on the -sides, and these points joined by straight lines. The map does not give a -natural representation, as the polar regions are immensely exaggerated. -The distortions in the form of the countries and the relative distances -of places are rectified by making the degrees of latitude increase -proportionably to those of longitude. - -4. “Quadrant.” Quadrants were used for surveying, making astronomical -observations, and, in navigation, for determining the meridian altitude -of the sun, and from that the latitude of the observer. They were made of -a great variety of form and size to suit their several uses. The interest -attaching to them at the present time is chiefly historical, as they have -been superseded by the sextant and the full circle. - -“Davis.” An eminent English navigator of the latter part of the sixteenth -century. - -“Hadley,” John. An English mathematician of the early part of the -eighteenth century. An intimate friend of Newton. - - - - -TALK ABOUT BOOKS. - - -That most remarkable poem of the Orient, the “Rubáiyát”[J] of Omar -Khayyám, has recently had the rare fortune of receiving from translator, -artist and publisher an almost perfect treatment. Its translation places -it among English classic poems, its illustration and make-up among -American classic art books. This poem, very imperfectly known among us, -is the work of a Persian astronomer and poet, Omar Khayyám, or Omar the -Tent-Maker, a native of Naishapúr, in Khorassan. He was born in the -latter half of the eleventh century, and became a favorite of the rulers -of the realm. His life was, so goes the chronicle, “busied in winning -knowledge of every kind, and especially in astronomy, wherein he attained -to a very high preēminence. Under the Sultanate of Malik Shah, he came to -Merv and obtained great praise for his proficiency in science, and the -Sultan showered favors upon him.” Omar was an honest thinker; he refused -the hollow mysticism of the times, and framed a system which approaches -Epicureanism. His views of life, his fruitless search for Providence, his -sad conclusion, - - “I came like water, and like wind I go,” - -together with his final refuge in the wine cup, with the command - - “Drink, for you know not whence you came nor why, - Drink, for you know not why you go, nor where,” - -are the subjects of his “Rubáiyát,” or quatrains. In the original these -verses have no connection. The translator, Mr. Edward Fitzgerald, -selected those which seemed to him most suitable, and arranged them -into a sort of eclogue. This translation met with a hearty reception. -Mr. Fitzgerald had been fortunate enough to make Omar Khayyám much more -lucid and entertaining than Omar had made himself. An interpretation -of the poem was undertaken in May 1883, by Elihu Vedder. The interest -in the elegant volume just issued by Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., -centers, of course, about these illustrations. There is not a line of -the poem but what takes a new and powerful meaning under his treatment. -Indeed, it seems as if in many cases the verses were but a key-note, the -drawing the completed strain. The artist seems to have been inspired -by the same sense of mystery, sadness, and final devotion to pleasure -which influenced the author. His idea of Omar’s philosophy is most -beautifully represented in the picture called “Omar’s Emblem.” In it life -is represented by a whirling stream, upon which the mortal, under the -form of a rose, has floated in. Along the stream the leaves are scattered -here and there, while crushed and half petalless the rose floats into -oblivion. This whirl of life surrounds what we may suppose to be the -emblem which incessantly confronted Omar’s mind—a human skull; upon this -is perched a singing nightingale—a sign of the music which in spite of -the mockery of existence the poet always heard, and in which he found -the sole relief for living. The pictures include a wealth of suggestion -which only diligent and sympathetic study discloses. They show surprising -fancy and versatility, while at the same time the finish of each is most -perfect. - -Among the handsome books of the year must be classed Cassell’s new -edition of “Atala,”[K] Chauteaubriand’s charming romance of Indian life -and love. Though the story is far from filling our modern ideas of a -novel, it is one of those rare, pure love tales which never loses its -hold upon us. It will always keep its place with “Undine” and “Paul and -Virginia.” The present edition contains illustrations by Gustave Doré, -which, though inferior in some respects to later works by him, are still -very beautiful pictures. Only a few of the illustrations of the “Atala” -show that weird power and strong imagination for which Doré is so famous, -but what we miss there is quite made up by the interest we feel in his -conceptions of American scenery, of which he knew nothing except from -description. These conceptions, if sometimes very incorrect, are still -full of exuberant fancy. The binding and letter-press of the volume are -superior, making a most charming gift book. - -The “Prose Writings of William Cullen Bryant,”[L] edited by Parke Godwin -will meet with a cordial welcome from all readers of good literature. -They appear in two volumes, and properly belong to a set called “The -Life and Works of William Cullen Bryant,” forming the fifth and sixth -volumes of the set. It was the thought of the editor at first to publish -entire the orations, addresses, and various letters of Mr. Bryant, -but careful consideration led him to think that this would extend the -work beyond desirable limits; so it was confined to a few selections -from the various departments in which the author displayed his power. -Volume V of the set, or I of the “Prose Writings,” contains several -“Literary Essays,” “Narratives,” and “Commemorative Discourses” on -Cooper, Irving, Halleck, and Verplanck. Volume II contains “Sketches of -Travel,” “Occasional Addresses,” comprising those on Shakspere, Scott, -Burns, Goethe, Schiller, and many others; and “Editorial Comments and -Criticisms.” The selections are all timely and well adapted to catch the -reader’s fancy and interest. There can scarcely fail to come to one, -however, who is the possessor of these books, a feeling of regret that -the editor did not follow his original intention and give more of the -writings of the author. The wish to have at hand the complete works of -the great American, and to have them in as attractive a form as that in -which Mr. Godwin has arranged them is strong enough to far outweigh his -unjustifiable fear of making too voluminous a collection. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[J] Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, the Astronomer-Poet of Persia. -Rendered into English verse by Edward Fitzgerald, with an accompaniment -of drawings by Elihu Vedder. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1884. Price, -$25. - -[K] Atala. By Chauteaubriand. Translated by James Spence Harry. -Illustrated by Gustave Doré. Introduction by Edward J. Harding. Extra -cloth, full gilt, $5.00: full Morocco, extra, $10. New York: Cassell & -Co. 1884. - -[L] Prose Writings of William Cullen Bryant. Edited by Parke -Godwin. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1884. - - -BOOKS RECEIVED. - -Euphrasia and Alberta. Poetic Romances. By John Ap Thomas Jones. -Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1884. - -French Conversation. By J. D. Gaillard. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1885. - -Journal of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, held -in Philadelphia, May, 1884. Edited by the Rev. David S. Monroe, D.D. New -York: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. - -The Life of John Howard Payne. Author of Home, Sweet Home. With -illustrations. By Gabriel Harrison. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. -1885. - -Elements of Geometry. By Eli T. Tappan, LL.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co. -1885. - -Elements of English Speech. By Isaac Bassett Choate. New York: D. -Appleton & Co. 1884. - -The Life of the Rev. Philip William Otterbein. By the Rev. A. W. Dewey, -A. M. With an introduction by Bishop J. Weaver, D.D. Dayton, Ohio: United -Brethren Publishing House. 1884. - -The Children of the Bible. By Fannie L. Armstrong. With an introduction -by Frances E. Willard. New York: Fowler & Wells Co., Publishers. Price, -$1. - -Outlines of Metaphysics. By Herman Lotze. Translated and edited by George -T. Ladd. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1884. - -Appleton’s Chart Primer. By Rebecca D. Rickoff. New York: D. Appleton & -Co. 1885. - -The A B C Reader. By Sarah F. Buckalew and Margaret W. Wells. New York: -A. Lovell & Co. - -The Philosophy of Ralph Cudworth. By Charles E. Lowry, A. M. New York: -Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. 1884. - -Elements of Calculus. By James M. Taylor. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1884. - -Notes on Ingersoll. By the Rev. L. A. Lambert. Buffalo, N. Y.: Buffalo -Catholic Publication Company. 1884. - -The Methodist Year Book for 1885. Edited by W. H. De Puy, D.D., LL. D. -New York: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. - -One Little Rebel. By Julia B. Smith. New York: Phillips & Hunt. -Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. 1884 - -The Story of the Resurrection. By William H. Furness, D.D. Philadelphia: -J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1885. - -Square and Compass. By Oliver Optic. With illustrations. Boston: Lee and -Shepard. New York: Charles T. Dillingham. 1885. - -Friends in Feathers and Fur. For Young Folks. By James Johannot. New -York: D. Appleton & Co. 1885. - - - - -SPECIAL NOTES. - - -Among the many beautiful things which art and taste and money combined -to furnish for the holidays nothing surpassed the Christmas cards of L. -Prang & Co. In design, coloring and finish it is difficult to see how -they could be improved. It will interest those of our readers who expect -to visit the New Orleans Exposition to know that all Messrs. Prang & -Co.’s former prize cards and the frames, with consecutive proofs of a -reproduction, have been sent to the Massachusetts department at New -Orleans by special invitation of the State Commission. The collection of -prize designs recently exhibited in New York and Boston by Mr. L. Prang -is now, by special invitation, shown in the Art Institute in Chicago, -and, in response to a similar request made by the managers of the Museum -of Fine Arts at St. Louis, this collection of paintings will be sent to -that city later on. - - * * * * * - -The banquet of the C. L. S. C. Alumni, which was to have been in Boston -in February, will be held at Lake View, Wednesday, July 22. The committee -decided upon this change when it was found that Chancellor Vincent, -Professors Hurlbut and Holmes, also Prof. Sherwin, could not be present -in February. - - * * * * * - -Important to members of the Class of 1888. The first article on “How to -make Home Beautiful,” which was published in _Alma Mater_ No. 2 last -year, will be mailed to all members of the class of 1888, during the -present year, 1884-5. We were unable to have this article reprinted in -time to accompany _Alma Mater_ No. 3, which was sent last month to all -members of the C. L. S. C. - - J. H. VINCENT. - - * * * * * - -The last copy of _The Outlook_ published by the class of 1884 appeared in -December. It contains much news of interest to the class, the class list -of graduates as made up to November 1st, including 1,387 names, and the -editor’s farewell. _The Outlook_ has been a faithful and zealous advocate -of the interests of the “Irrepressibles.” - - * * * * * - -People of all denominations loved and honored Bishops Simpson and Asbury -of the M. E. Church. At the recent centennial celebration of that church -a fitting souvenir to these two noble men was displayed in the form of -medallions, on which were embossed the heads of the two bishops. These -medallions were mounted in a leather case lined with satin. It forms a -beautiful object for any one’s collection of souvenirs. - - * * * * * - -’82 CLASS MOTTO.—Members of the Pioneer class are reminded that the -selection of a motto was remitted to a committee. Any member prepared to -make a suggestion in the matter is invited to send it to Lewis C. Peake, -Drawer 2,559, Toronto, Canada. The general feeling of the class was that -the motto should be in English. - - * * * * * - -THE CHAUTAUQUA MUSICAL READING CLUB is a new department of Chautauqua -work. The course has been thoughtfully arranged in consultation with many -among the most cultured musicians in the land, and is of such recognized -merit that, with the hearty approval of the faculty, it has been adopted -in the New England Conservatory of Music at Boston. Information may be -obtained concerning the C. M. R. C. by addressing W. F. Sherwin, Director -C. M. R. C., Boston, Mass. - - -C. L. S. C. GRADUATES. - -The following list of graduates of the Class of 1884 appears according to -states. It has been prepared with care by the office secretary, Miss Kate -F. Kimball. - -Persons whose names are marked * have died since graduation. - - -_Maine._ - - Allen, Mrs. Almira L. - Beale, Miss Annie C. - Beck, the Rev. Charles A. - Bruce, Mrs. Eveleen - Buck, Mrs. F. R. - Estes, Miss Eva M. - Fletcher, Mrs. Sarah F. - French, Mrs. Emma M. - Grant, Mrs. Nellie - Hobart, Mrs. Augusta A. - Longfellow, Miss Mary O. - Lunt, Miss Mary K. - Page, Mrs. Geo. N. - Palmer, Mrs. Maria B. - Reynolds, Mrs. Mary J. - Robinson, Mrs. Frances H. B. - Sanborn, Miss Gulielma P. - Skinner, Miss Sarah E. - Varney, Miss Clara B. - Woodbury, Mrs. Mae B. - - -_New Hampshire._ - - Avaun, the Rev. J. M. - Baker, Miss Nellie M. - Beckwith, the Rev. Geo. A. - Cleworth, Mrs. Cleora B. - Emerson, Miss Hattie E. - Farwell, Mrs. Marion L. - James, Mrs. Lizzie B. - Lane, John G. - Lewis, Mrs. Hannah E. - Moore, George W. - Pettengill, Miss Selina D. - Russell, Mrs. Helen I. - Senter, Miss Nella M. - Shepherd, Miss Betsey B. - Stiles, Miss Nellie - Worthley. Mrs. Emma L. - - -_Vermont._ - - Clark, Mrs. Mary W. - Clark, Miss Susan E. - Farnham, Mrs. Roswell - Farr, Miss Hattie J. - Howell, Mrs. Elsie S. - Lovejoy, Miss Martha H. - Merrill, the Rev. Charles H. - Merrill, Mrs. Laura B. - Read, Miss Keziah H. - Sheldon, Mrs. Charles F. - Stedman, Miss Clara M. - Streeter, Miss Emilie E. - Thomas, Mrs. H., Jr. - Wires, Mrs. Eveline W. - - -_Massachusetts._ - - Alexander, Miss Harriet I. - Allis, Miss Mary L. - Alvord, the Rev. Augustus - Anderson, William E. - Baber, Miss Eliza M. - Baber, Miss Fannie - Bacon, Mrs. Leora A. - Baker, Samuel E. - Ball, Miss Nettie - Ball, Miss Minnie L. - Ball, Miss Carrie E. - Batchelder, Miss Harriette S. - Blackmer, Miss Nellie E. - Blackmer, Miss Mary L. - Blake, Miss Evelyn A. - Blanchard, Frederic W. - Blanchard, Miss Isabel I. - Blanchard, Walter A. - Blodgett, Miss Maria L. C. - Borden, Miss Helen M. - Borden, Mrs. Harriet A. - Bosworth, Miss Mary E. - Bowers, George N. - Boyd, Miss Margaret W. - Bradford, Mrs. Helen M. - Bradford, Lemuel B. - Bridges, Mrs. Jennie L. C. - Brigham, Miss Mary M. - Brigham, Miss Helen F. - Brooman, Mrs. L. G. - Brown, Miss Nellie M. - Brown, Miss Lottie E. - Burgess, Miss Lucy A. - Burnett, Mrs. Hattie C. - Burns, Miss Mirriam A. - Buswell, Mrs. Clara L. - Caffin, Miss Mabel B. - Candlin, the Rev. Joseph - Candlin, Mrs. Ruth E. - Chapman, Mrs. Lizzie C. - Chapman, Miss Eva - Chase, Charlie S. - Chauncey, Mrs. Mary C. - Cheever, Miss Lizzie H. - Chenery, Miss Hattie M. - Cheney, Miss A. Oreanna - Clutia, Mrs. S. P. - Coburn, Mrs. S. A. - Cochran, Miss Emma A. - Cogswell, Miss Kate A. - Colesworthy, William G. - Coombs, Miss J. Fannie - Cowan, Mrs. P. D. - Crane, Miss Mary L. - Crosby, Miss Sarah J. - Cummings, Miss Mary E. - Cummings, Mrs. Ada A. - Cushing, Mrs. Mary H. - Cushing, the Rev. John R. - Davis, Miss Emma A. - Davis, Mrs. Mial - Delano, Mrs. Emma L. - Delva, Mrs. K. Augusta - Dennis, Miss Georgette E. - Dimick, Mrs. Lizzie G. - Doane, Mrs. Clara J. - Doty, Mrs. Julia C. - Douglass, Miss Mary - Drew, Miss Fidelia - Eastland, Miss Georgiana - Eaton, Mrs. Belle M. - Eaton, Mrs. Daniel W. - Eldridge, Mrs. Vesta K. F. - Ely, George W. - Ely, Miss Josephine L. - Emerson, Miss Mary J. - Fairbanks, Mrs. Lydia L. - Fairchild, Mrs. Maria H. - Fay, Mrs. Abby B. - Fay, Miss Anna B. - Fay, George E. - Fay, Miss Anna C. - Fisher, Mrs. Angie B. - Fiske, Miss Ella A. - Flanders, Mrs. Elvira W. C. - Floyd, 2d, David - Fraser, Mrs. Daniel F. - Freeman, Miss Emma F. - Freeman, Miss Annie E. - French, George B. - Frye, Charles H. - Fullarton, Mrs. Mary A. - Gardner, Mrs. Sarah A. - Gill, Mrs. M. F. - Goodwin, Miss Annie A. - Goodwin, Miss Lucy B. - Grant, Miss Mary - Grant, Miss Martha - Greenwood, Miss Nellie - Grout, Mrs. Ellen L. - Gustin, Mrs. Ellen G. - Hadley, Miss Amanda M. - Hall, the Rev. A. J. - Hammond, Miss Jennie S. - Hancock, Mrs. Warren - Harrington, Francis M. - Harrington, Miss Ada L. - Harrington, Mrs. Mary L. - Harris, Miss Sarah G. - Hawley, Miss Emily E. - Hayward, Miss Nellie A. - Hayward, Mrs. Susan C. - Hersey, Miss Lizzie M. - Hersey, Miss Ellen M. - Hewins, Miss Emeline - Higgins, Miss Sarah B. - Hildreth, Mrs. Kate B. - Hitchcock, Mrs. Nellie E. - Hodges, Mary A. - Holway, Mrs. Susan B. - Holway, Miss Sadie O. - Houghton, Miss Mary J. W. - Howard, Henry F. - Howard, Mrs. Mary C. - Howard, Mrs. Louisa B. - Hull, Miss Abby F. - Hutchinson, Miss Cora F. - Inman, Mrs. Edna M. - Irving, Charles H. - Irving, Mrs. Sarah M. - Johnson, the Rev. Charles T. - Jones, Addison W. - Jones, Mrs. Sophronia B. - Jones, Miss Eva G. - Keene, Mrs. Fannie S. - Kendall, Miss Amanda M. - Kimball, Edward A. - Kimball, Mrs. Elsie E. - King, Mrs. Laura C. - Kinsman, Miss Mary L. - Kneil, Miss Emily G. - Knight, Joseph K. - Ladd, Mrs. Rebecca E. - Lawrence, Miss Mary M. - Lee, Mrs. Elizabeth R. - Leonard, Mrs. Kate H. - Leonard, Miss M. Fanny - Leonard, Miss Anna R. - Lewis, Miss Lizzie M. - Light, Charles F. - Light, James B. - Light, Mrs. Ellen E. - Lindsay, Miss Florence - Litchfield, Mrs. Isabelle W. - Little, Mrs. William C. - Lloyd, Miss Mary A. - Manning, John M. - Manning, Mrs. J. M. - Merriam, Miss Susan M.* - Marsh, the Rev. Francis J. - Marston, Mrs. Carrie M. - Marston, Luther M. - Matthews, the Rev. Henry - McClure, Miss Louisa - McGeoch, W. Stanley - McKeil, Miss Jessie - Meriam, Miss Effie J. - Mills, Mrs. Jeannette R. - Mitchell, Miss Elizabeth L. - Moore, Miss Ella F. - Moreland, Miss Mary L. - Morse, Miss Nannie M. - Morse, Miss Mary E. - Murdock, Mrs. Lucretia Y. - Norris, Mrs. Chas. S. - Ordway, Miss Myra A. - Owen, George A. - Packard, Miss Helen M. - Parker, Mrs. Anna E. - Partridge, Miss Deborah A. - Patterson, Miss Etta M. - Peabody, Daniel D. - Pease, Miss Alice N. - Peppeard, Miss Augusta - Phelps, Miss Emily E. - Pike, Arthur G. - Pike, Miss Emily C. - Pike, Miss Sarah A. - Pike, Mrs. Azelia M. - Platts, Mrs. Annie M. - Plummer, Mrs. Amanda H. - Prescott, Miss Emma L. - Price, Miss Lotta A. - Purington, Miss M. Emma - Pynchon, Mrs. Charlotte E. - Radford, Mrs. Anna M. - Randall, Mrs. Lucy A. - Ranger, Mrs. Mary A. - Ray, Miss Hattie C. - Richardson, the Rev. Wellen N. - Richardson, Mrs. Helen L. - Richardson, Mrs. Mary A. - Richardson, the Rev. W. G. - Ring, Miss Martha D. - Robinson, Mrs. J. G. - Rockwood, Miss Susie A. - Rodliff, Miss Anna I. - Rolfe, Mrs. Helen M. - Rooke, Mrs Emma E. - Ross, William E. - Ross, Miss Helen V. - Ruggles, Miss Olive - Ryan, Miss Mary E. - Safford, Mrs. Henry G. - Safford, Miss Eliza - Sargent, Mrs. Hannah E. - Scales, Miss Sarah E. - Severance, Miss Millie I. - Shattuck, Miss Clara L. - Sherman, Mrs. Clara A. - Sill, Miss Frances A. - Skene, the Rev. George - Skinner, Miss Mary S. - Skinner, Miss Maria S. - Skinner, Miss Abbie A. - Smith, Miss Effie - Spalding, Mrs. Edward L. - Sprague, Miss Flora H. - Stafford, Mrs. B. F. - Stanley, Mrs. Susan C. - Stevens, Ira W. - Stone, Henry R. - Stone, Mrs. H. H. P. - Stone, Miss Ellen K. - Struthers, Miss Mary S. - Sykes, Miss Jennie E. - Taylor, Mrs. Marie E. - Taylor, Miss Nellie M. - Thayer, Mrs. Mary E. - Thing, Miss Addie L. - Thompson, Mrs. Helen A. B. - Thompson, Mrs. Lydia M. E. - Thompson, Mrs. Mary C. - Thurber, Mrs. Lizzie M. - Trask, Robert D. - Trask, Mrs. Achsa E. - Traversee, Mrs. Marietta - Traversee, Miss Mary E. - Trow, Miss Lizzie F. - Varnum, Miss Hannah - Wadsworth, Miss Jennie E. - Walker, Jefferson C. - Warren, Mrs. M. W. - Watson, Mrs. Thomas A. - Wentworth, Mrs. A. L. - Wheeler, Miss Lizzie J. - White, Mrs. Emma C. - White, Miss Ellen M. - Whitney, Mrs. Ella M. - Whitney, Mrs. F. W. - Whitney, Miss Nellie S. - Willey, Miss Nellie M. - Williams, Charles W. - Williams, Albert P. - Wilson, Miss Emily J. - Wood, Miss Alice A. - Woodbury, the Rev. Webster - Woodbury, Mrs. Webster - Woodward, Miss Clara O. - - -_Rhode Island._ - - Aldrich, Mrs. Marcia A. - Aldrich, Mrs. David L. - Armington, Miss Harriet A. - Barber, Miss Arabel E. - Barney, Mrs. Sarah F. - Brownell, Miss Ella W. - Dexter, Mrs. W. W. - Fiske, Dr. Elmer S. - Fitz, William E. - Goodier, the Rev. Erastus W. - Goodier, Mrs. Lizzie M. - Kendall, Miss Emma F. - Kendrick, Mrs. Phebe E. - Kendrick, John E. - Langworthy, Miss Hattie G. - Leavitt, Mrs Abbie G. - Leavitt, Miss Charlotte E. - Lee, Mrs. Nellie - Lewis, Miss Eugenia L. - Mason, Mrs. Ella K. - Nason, Mrs. Medora T. - Nye, John M. - Nye, William H. - Owen, Miss Hannah A. - Paine, Miss Lydia A. - Potter, Mrs. Sarah M. - Puffer, Mrs. Emma L. S. - Steere, Miss Rachel - Stevens, Miss Mary - Sullivan, James J. - Vars, John - White, Miss Ella E. - - -_Connecticut._ - - Baldwin, Miss Lotte A. - Beman, Miss Emma - Bidwell, Mrs. Emma W. B. - Bradley, Miss Sarah L. - Brewer, Miss Ellen M. - Bridge, the Rev. Wm. D. - Bridge, Mrs. Mary S. H. - Buffett, Miss Mary E. - Bushnell, Miss Sarah M. - Bushnell, Mrs. Margaret A. - Caulkins, Miss Abbie A. - Cowles, Miss Catherine M. - Cowles, Miss Elizabeth A. - Davies, John C. - Davies, Mrs. Lois F. - De Forest, Miss Emily M. - Fenn, Willis I. - Fowler, Miss Hattie E. - Gilbert, Miss Anna L. - Gillespy, Miss Estelle - Griswold, Miss Corinth - Harrison, Oscar G. - Hawley, Miss Mary F. - Huntington, Frederick L. - Hurd, Wilbur F. - Jones, Mrs. Andrew F. - Kirtland, Miss Grace E. - Lathrop, Mrs. R. S. - Loomis, Miss Jane E. - Lowry, Miss Minnie B. - Merriam, Mrs. Etta M. - Morton, Jas. H. - Porter, Miss Ida A. - Scranton, Miss Emma A. - Seward, Miss Hattie E. - Smith, Miss Lillian B. - Stanton, Miss Julia E. - Stone, Mrs. Sarah A. - Sturtevant, Mrs. Annie E. - Treat, Miss Susie C. - Treat, Miss Emily A. - Underwood, Miss Clara B. - Underwood, Mrs. Clara A. - Vaill, Miss Nellie E. - Warriner, Charles H. - Whitmore, Miss Clara L. - Witter, Miss Ruth - Wooster, Mrs. Kate A. - - -_New York._ - - Adams, Miss Valeria N. - Allen, Miss Susie - Allen, Miss Mary E. - Allen, the Rev. Walter O. - Andrews, Mrs. Annie M. - Anoski, Miss Rose L. - Atchinson, Miss Harriet L. - Babcock, Miss Mary F. - Bailey, Miss Carrie A. - Baker, Mrs. E. J. L. - Baldwin, Miss Frances A. - Baldwin, Clair H. - Barbour, Miss Mary E. - Barker, Miss S. Emma - Barnes, Miss Alice E. - Bartholomew, Mrs. Tillie C. - Baxter, Miss Helen A. - Benedict, Mrs. Calphurnia N. - Benjamin, Miss Nettie D. - Bennett, Edward N. - Bickley, Mrs. Lizzie H. - Biddle, the Rev. William T. - Billings, Mrs. Mary S. - Bliss, Miss Nettie G. - Bond, Miss Bessie - Bourne, Miss Elma A. - Brainard, Miss Emma C. - Briggs, Miss Carrie E. - Brown, Mrs. Esther E. C. - Brown, Miss Elizabeth - Brown, Miss Helen - Brown, Mrs. J. S. - Brown, Miss Teresa - Brown, Miss Alice J. - Brown, John S. - Brown, Mrs. Helen M. - Brown, Miss Edith M. - Brown, Mrs. C. K. - Buell, Miss Elizabeth C. - Camp, Miss Elizabeth B. - Carpenter, Miss Hannah M. - Carr, Miss M. Jennie - Carson, Mrs. Charles H. - Carter, Miss Maggie A. - Cash, Mrs. Adella - Caswell, Miss Hattie C. - Chapin, Miss Ida E. - Chappell, Mrs. Hattie F. - Clark, Charles E. - Clark, Miss Delia H. - Clark, Edwin J. - Clark, Lizzie - Clark, Miss Mary W. - Clinton, Miss E. Eloise - Coe, Miss Lottie A. - Colby, John E. - Colby, Mrs. Lucy J. - Cook, Mrs. Mary D. - Cowles, Miss Kittie M. - Coy, Mrs. W. Henry - Crane, Edward J. - Crannell, Miss Julia W. - Curtis, Mrs. Julia M. - Curtis, Miss Fanny - Dailey, Charles J. - Dearstyne, Miss E. Louise - Dempster, Mrs. Mary J. - Deverell, Miss Sarah A. - Dobbin, Miss Lizzie G. - Donaldson, Mrs. Mary F. - Douglass, Miss Martha B. - Driver, Mrs. Ida M. - Dunn, Miss Mary S. - Durfee, Miss Annie E. - Edge, Miss Elizabeth - Edmonds, Miss Lottie E. - Ellis, Miss Jennie L. - Farman, Miss Mattie E. - Fisher, Edward L. - Fisher, Miss F. Eugenie - Fletcher, Miss Minnie A. - Foote, Miss Ellen E. - Foote, Miss Frances A. - Fox, Miss Rosalie M. - Frost, Miss Libbie E. - Gail, Mrs. Henrietta S. - Gammans, Mrs. Etta B. - Gaston, Miss Mary C. - Gere, Justus T. - Gillespie, Miss Emily T. - Gillespy, Miss Edith - Graybiel, Miss Sara N. - Green, Mrs. Carrie A. - Greene, George E. - Greene, Miss Emma C. - Gregory, Miss Libbie - Griffin, Miss Olivia A. - Gunton, Mrs. Henrietta M. - Hahn, Miss Hattie E. - Hampton, Miss Jennie S. - Handshaw, James E. - Hannum, Mrs. Ida - Harrington, Miss Sarah D. - Harrington, Mrs. Adelaide L. - Harris, Miss Lucinda - Hartwell, Miss Mary H. - Hathorn, Ira B. - Haviland, Mrs. C. W. - Hawley, Miss Mary T. - Hearn, the Rev. George - Hendrickson, Mrs. Adeline - Highriter, Miss F. Maria - Hitchcock, Mrs. Mary E. - Holden, Alexander M. - How, George V. - Hope, Mrs. Mary B. - Hopkins, Miss Susie C. - Hopkins, Miss Annie W. - Hopkins, Miss Hattie E. - Houck, Miss Kate A. - Huff, Mrs. Anna E. - Hull, Miss Eliza J. - Hunsicker, Miss Ida M. - Ingraham, Miss S. E. - Ipsen, Miss Alicia L. - Jenks, Miss Mary E. - Johns, Miss Dora - Johnson, Mrs. S. Lizzie - Jones, Miss Cora M. - Judd, Mrs. Ellen M. - Kellogg, Miss Lottie R. - Kendall, Miss Clara E. - Kent, Miss Annabelle - Kibbey, Mrs. Louisa - Kibbey, Samuel - King, Mrs. Olie C. - King, Clarence - Kinsley, Fred. A. - Kinsman, Miss Jeannie E. - Kipp, Miss Alice R. - Knight, Miss Jane - Labagh, Miss Maria C. - Lamson, Miss Eva S. - Lapham, Mrs. Geo. P. - Lathrop, Miss Carrie - Lathrop, Miss Ella M. - Latimer, the Rev. E. Herman - Lent, William J. - Loveridge, Miss Grace C. - Luther, Stephen - Lyon, Miss Mary L. - Mackey, Miss Florence A. - Mallette, Miss Mary E. - Manrow, Milton - Marley, William J. - Mathews, Mrs. Candace P. - Matthews, Andrew J. - Melven, Emmett S. - Miller, Charles E. - Milliman, Robert L. - Milliman, Mrs. Susan F. - Miner, George G. - Mogg, Mrs. Jennie A. - Moore, Mrs. Philena B. - Morrison, Miss Mary L. - Morrison, Miss Emma F. - Martin, Wilbor A. - Newton, Miss Lura - Nichols, Miss Nancy M. - Noble, Miss Grace A. - Northup, Miss Ella A. - Ogden, Mrs. Florence W. - Olney, Miss Minnie M. - Parker, Mrs. Sabine E. - Parmelee, Miss Lizzie F. - Pease, Miss Ettie E. - Phyfe, Archibald B. - Pindar, Miss Rose E. - Pond, Miss Martha - Pratt, Miss Lettie C. - Rhoda, Mrs. Ella A. - Rice, Mrs. Maggie C. - Rice, Mrs. Clara E. - Rockwell, Mrs. Ada E. - Rockwell, the Rev. Lyman E. - Ross, Mrs. Mary E. K. - Rowel, Miss Eliza L. - Rowell, Miss Ida E. - Sammons, Charles - Sanford, Miss Frances E. - Seely, Mrs. Hannah - Schellinger, Miss M. Amelia - Sheldon, Miss Emma J. - Shumway, Mrs. A. Adda H. - Silliman, Miss Mary A. - Simmons, Mrs. Jennie E. - Slada, Miss Emma D. - Slada, Miss Mary M. - Slattery, John T. - Sleeper, Charles W. - Smallbone, Miss Emma J. - Smith, Mrs. Maria A. - Sotham, Miss Mary E. - Spooner, Marvin L. - Spooner, Mrs. Lina A. H. - Stanley, Miss Jennie B. - Stevens, Mrs. Jennie - Stilson, Miss Alice M. - Stone, Miss Nellie M. - Stone, Miss Addie H. - Stoutenburgh, Miss Mary E. - Tackitt, Miss Ellen - Thomas, Mrs. Maria L. - Terry, Mrs. Armenia M. - Terry, C. L. Emory - Tompkins, Mrs. Elizabeth S. - Torr, Miss Lizzie E. - Torry, Miss Grace - Trowbridge, Miss Helen R. - Trowbridge, Miss Augusta E. - Vail, Mrs. Horton - Vail, Horton - Van Cruyningham, Daniel - Van Cruyningham, Mrs. M. E. - Van Ness, Miss Lottie R. - Viele, Miss Ada L. - Wadsworth, Mrs. Carrie K. - Walley, William - Warner, Mrs. Jane R. - Weimert, Miss Kittie - White, Mrs. Harriet H. - Wight, Miss Martha A. - Williams, Mrs. Franc S. - William, Miss Emma J. - Williamson, Matthew D. - Willis, Mrs. C. C. - Willis, Charles C. - Winspear, Miss Clara J. - Wood, Mrs. James M. - Wood, Miss Lizzie - Wooden, Miss Emily S. - Wooden, Miss Loretta E. - Wooden, Miss Laura E. - Westcott, Mrs. Addie L. - - -_New Jersey._ - - Anderson, Miss Elizabeth - Baldwin, Miss Lizzie - Blanchet, Mrs. Mary C. - Brackin, Miss M. Fannie - Carty, Miss Kate - Davis, Miss Mary H. - Delano, Miss Laura C. - Dilts, Miss Ella V. - Dunn, Miss Clara I. - Ewing, Miss Olive M. - Fortner, Miss Sarah E. - Gokey, Miss Delia - Hall, Miss Helen F. - Hedden, Mrs. L. O. - Hoemer, George P. - Holbert, Mrs. Frances B.* - Huyler, Adam - McKay, Mrs. Mary H. - Mead, Miss Margaret H. - Morehouse, Miss Hattie A. - Norris, Miss Alice L. - Parker, Ellis - Peet, Dr. Gilead - Riker, Miss Grace H. - Rittenhouse, Miss Ada F. - Rogers, Miss Hannah D. - Smith, Miss Abbie T. - Spring, Edward A. - Stevenson, Miss Georgiana - Taylor, Mrs. Agnes C. - Thompson, Miss M. Reba - Weeks, Miss Mary F. - Wegmann, Miss Bertha B. - Woolston, Miss Ray B. - Woolston, Miss Beulah D. - - -_Pennsylvania._ - - Alcorn, Miss Lettie E. - Alcorn, Miss Alice M. - Allen, Elisha M. - Allison, Miss Louisa - Arnett, Miss Aroline - Baker, Miss Ida A. - Bar, Miss Irene - Beatty, Mrs. Agnes B. - Beatty, Mrs. Julia S. - Beers, Mrs. Celia H. - Bethune, John T. - Bolard, Mrs. Jennie E. - Bradley, Miss Mary S. - Braham, Miss Isabella H. - Brisbin, Miss Florence - Buchanan, Mrs. M. Josephine - Buehler, Mrs. Anna F. - Burrows, Mrs. Lizzie M. - Cernea, Miss Anna T. - Clark, Norman H. - Closson, James H. - Clark, Mrs. Harriet R. - Cooke, Mrs. Cordelia H. - Copeland, Miss Irene - Copeland, J. Renwick - Cox, Miss Ettie A. - Crosby, Miss Lizzie C. - Dale, Mrs. Elizabeth C. - Dampman, Miss Lizzie B. - Davidson, Miss Anna - Dewey, Mrs. Martha J. - Dickinson, Levi S. - Dickson, Miss Maggie A. - Dorand, Miss Emma A. - Du Bois, Mrs. Ella R. - Dunham, Mrs. Helen - Eaton, Mrs. S. J. M. - Ely, Miss Alice K. - English, Miss Ellen R. - Evans, Miss H. Louise - Farley, Mrs. H. N. - Fellows, Mrs. Sarah - Findlay, Peter - Finley, Miss May A. - Fishburn, Miss Lizzie E. - Fisher, Miss Mate E. - Frescoln, Oscar P. - Frew, William A. - Frysinger, Edward - Furst, Miss M. Katie - Gail, Miss Emma B. - Gardner, Lot - Gerould, Miss Flora E. - Gyger, Miss Hannah - Harris, Edward F. - Henry, Miss Elizabeth - Hill, Miss Zelia - Hill, Miss Ella - Hill, Miss Mattie J. - Horner, Miss Mary A. - Hostetter, Miss Venetta E. - Howe, Miss Cora - Hubbard, Miss Mary A. - Humphriss, Mrs. Mary I. - Hunter, Le Roy M. - Ingram, Miss Almeda R. - Jackson, Mrs. Amanda A. - Jones, Harry L. - Kelly, Miss M. Emma - Ladd, Miss Anna A. - Lawrence, James A. - Leavitt, Mrs. Walter - Little, Miss Ettie E. - Love, Miss Myrtle L. - Marsh, Mrs. G. D. - Marsh, George D. - Mason, Edwin T. - McElroy, Mrs. Jennie - McFarland, Mrs. Caroline - McIntire, Miss Annie M. - Miller, George W. - Miller, Miss Emily A. - Moford, Miss H. Mary - Morrow, Miss Mary B. - Myton, Thomas W. - Neal, Mrs. H. N. - Nevin, Miss Laura - Oglevee, the Rev. Jesse A. B. - Oudry, Miss Katie E. - Paxson, Miss Sallie B. - Pearson, Miss Hulda A. - Pettit, Miss Harriet L. - Purdy, Mary E. - Reineke, Miss Carrie W. - Reineke, Miss Minnie E. - Renn, Miss Jennie W. - Ross, Mrs. Mary M. F. - Rowland, Frank S. - Sabin, the Rev. Edward N. - Sammons, Miss Fannie B. - Sammons, Miss Martha L. - Sargent, Mrs. R. H. - Schooley, Miss Jennie C. - Scott, Miss Mary I. - Scott, Albert O. - Scott, Frank H. - Selkregg, Mrs. I. V. - Sheldon, Willard M. - Siegfried, Miss Stella - Smith, Miss Clara L. - Smith, Christopher W. - Smith, Miss Emma C. - Smith, Miss Kate F. - Smith, Mrs. Lou M. - Smith, Miss Ella M. - Smith, Mrs. Annie M. - Spaulding, F. W. - Starkweather, Miss Arvilla H. - Steele, Herbert - Stoever, Mrs. Laura M. - Stoever, Miss Sue E. - Stone, Mrs. C. E. - Straub, Miss Effie T. - Strong, Mrs. Mary A. - Strong, Henry A. - Tracy, Mrs. Edith E. P. - Tracy, Mrs. Malie - Tracy, Malie - Trosh, Nathaniel F. - True, Miss Mary E. - Tryon, Mrs. George W. - Tryon, Miss Arabella - Thomas, Miss Ada F. - Warner, Mrs. A. A. H. - Wilson, Mrs. Ida G. - Wood, Collin - - -_Delaware._ - - Cahall, Joseph L. - - -_Maryland._ - - Bayne, Lawrence P. - Markell, Miss Virginia H. - Parkhurst, Miss Alice S. - Rawlings, Joshua S. - Rodgers, Mrs. Amy C. - Sadtler, Miss M. Adelaide - Smyth, Miss Lizzie K. - - -_District of Columbia._ - - Blodgett, Carrie A. - Coakley, Miss Rosetta E. - Darby, Miss Susan C. - Dudley, Frederick E. - Hall, Mrs. Jennie B. - Johns, Miss Jessie C. - McKinney, Miss Mary E. - Meacham, Miss Annie M. - Nalle, Mary - Parke, Miss Caroline E. - Patterson, Miss Emma - Pumphrey, Miss Cora A. - - -_Virginia._ - - Alexander, Wellington G. - Hatcher, Mrs. Charles - - -_West Virginia._ - - Barnes, Mrs. Mary E. - Carter, Miss Sarah P. - Clohan, Miss Elizabeth - Forman, Israel - Fowler, Miss Emma A. - Glass, Miss Annie V. - Pierpoint, Miss A. Pierrie - Reppetto, Miss Mary D. - Riheldaffer, the Rev. Wm. G. - Turner, Miss Adela - - -_North Carolina._ - - Small, the Rev. J. B. - South Carolina. - Harris, Mrs. Kittie S. - - -_Kentucky._ - - Cox, Miss R. Aussie - Cragg, Mrs. Mattie - Gunn, Miss Frances A. - Heazlitt, Clarence W. - Ruttle, Miss Eliza J. - Winall, Miss Vina - Winall, Miss Belle - Winall, Miss Eva - Tennessee. - Allen, Mrs. Mattie E. - Bain, Daniel Hiram - Fleece, Mrs. Mary T. - Scott, F. N. - Shearer, J. L. - Tadlock, Mrs. Clara M. - Thomas, Miss Anna W. - Treadwell, Miss Annie D. - - -_Arkansas._ - - Allen, Everett F. - Colwell, Mrs. Emma R. - Lyon, Miss Hattie J. - Vaughan, Mrs. Myra - - -_Louisiana._ - - Armstrong, Miss Frances L. - - -_Georgia._ - - Brooks, Miss Addie M. - Steele, Miss Carrie J. - Thompson, Miss Mary H. - - -_Alabama._ - - Kennedy, Miss Annie - Leslie, Mrs. Sara McC. - Watkins, Mrs. Lizzie E. - - -_Mississippi._ - - Moore, Miss Cora L. - Parker, Mrs. Bettie - Row, Miss E. Evelyn - Steele, Dr. N. C. - Townes, Miss Julia G. - Winter, Miss Kate E. - - -_Ohio._ - - Aldcroft, Miss Ella - Alexander, Miss Cora E. - Allan, Miss Nellie - Alward, Miss Alice J. - Armstrong, Mrs. Mary H. - Armstrong, Mrs. Permelia B. - Austin, Miss Florence - Barnett, Miss M. Alma - Beiler, the Rev. Samuel L. - Beiler, Mrs. Anna F. - Bell, Mrs. Alice - Bell, J. W. - Beyerly, Mrs. Julia H. - Binkley, Miss Laura A. - Brown, Mrs. J. H. - Bunker, Miss Stella N. - Bunker, Miss Clara - Burge, Miss Zelma - Burner, G. Washington - Burt, Mrs. Nellie C. - Burt, Miss Harriet C. - Caldwell, Mrs. Sarah E. - Cameron, Miss M. Amelia - Chamberlain, Miss Fanny P. - Chamberlain, Charles W. - Chamberlain, Mrs. Charles W. - Chancellor, Mrs. Lida B. - Chandler, Miss Anna - Chidlaw, Miss Mary I. - Clemans, the Rev. Francis M. - Clemans, Mrs. Sarah I. - Colby, the Rev. Henry F. - Crossley, Mrs. Cecelia S. - Dayton, Mrs. James - Deming, Miss Sophronia O. - De Veny, Miss Belle M. - Dietz, Will. C. - Dimmick, Mrs. Hannah A. - Elcock, Miss Lucy A. - Facer, Miss Fannie R. - Faulkner, Mrs. Amelia H. - Ferriss, Frank E. - Freeman, Mrs. Mary E. - Fries, Miss Emmabel - Gee, Samuel A. - Giboney, Mrs. S. H. - Goodrich, the Rev. Ira B. - Goodrich, Mrs. Adaline C. - Gough, Mrs. Sadie H. - Grafing, John C. - Guthrie, Miss Sarah I. - Haight, Miss Louise J. - Hammond, Mrs. Mary W. - Hankins, Mrs. Mary J. - Hart, Miss Mary P. - Hayward, Miss Josephine A. - Hicks, Miss Bella C. - Highlands, John S. - Hinckley, Mrs. Augusta V. - Hine, Mrs. Mary A. - Humphrey, Dr. Elwin - Hussey, Elroy E. - Kattenhorn, Miss Mary - Kattenhorn, Miss Ella - Keagey, Miss Carrie L. - Kellogg, J. A. - Kelly, Mrs. Carrie M. - Kidder, Miss Mary I. - Lee, Mrs. Dr. E. B. - Loomis, Mrs. Letitia E. - Loomis, Elisha S. - Loudin, Mrs. Harriet C. - Mann, Miss M. Maud - Mansfield, Mrs. Howard - March, Miss Lizzie G. - McFarland, Mrs. Mary D. - McKitrick, Mrs. Addie A. - Minor, Mrs. J. A. - Moore, the Rev. John W. - Morse, Miss Belle G. - Morgan, Mrs. Mary D. - Morgan, Miss Lizzie - Munson, Miss Nellie - Murphy, Miss Marian A. - Nash, Miss Harriet A. - Parish, Miss Nettie A. - Park, Mrs. Maria B. - Park, Mrs. J. D. - Parmelee, Mrs. Anna J. - Parsons, Mrs. Lucinda M. - Parsons, Mrs. Josie L. - Patten, Charles E. - Pearce, Miss Selina P. - Pickett, Daniel D. - Powers, Miss Minnie - Randall, Mrs. Rebecca R. - Reed, Miss Myrta - Reed, Cornelius A. - Rice, Miss Frances M. - Richards, Miss Emily S. - Robison, Miss Kate R. - Ruckenbrod, Miss Maggie - Saumenig, Miss Emily B. - Schenck, Miss Claribel - Scott, Miss Katie - Scott, Miss Fannie - Sherrard, Walter P. - Shields, Miss Sarah E. - Sloane, Miss Jeannette M. - Smith, Miss Ione L. - Smith, Miss Mary I. - Snyder, Franklin E. - Spillard, Mrs. Willa H. - St. John, Mrs. M. P. - Taylor, Mrs. Annette H. - Taylor, Miss Ellen E. - Taylor, Royal - Thompson, Mrs. Ella P. - Thorne, Miss Lizzie B. - Trotter, Miss Sarah - Walker, Mrs. Mary P. S. - Walker, Miss M. Augusta - Webb, Mrs. Dora V. - Wheelock, Mrs. Estelle C. - White, Miss Jennie - White, the Rev. Levi - White, Miss Fannie E. - Whipple, Mrs. J. C. - Wilcox, Mrs. Hannah E. - Williams, Miss Etta C. - Willis, Miss Laura B. - Winter, Mrs. Laura C. - Winter, the Rev. William W. - Young, Miss Mary E. - Zartman, Miss Essie H. - Zuck, the Rev. William J. - Zuck, Mrs. Jessie M. - - -_Indiana._ - - Alcott, Mrs. Ellen P. - Baldwin, John J. - Barry, Mrs. Fannie W. - Berg, Mrs. Mattie V. - Bettis, Mrs. Mary P. - Boughman, Melancthon A. - Bowen, Miss Loretta V. - Busick, Mrs. Kate M. - Clark, Miss Florence - Crawford, Mrs. Jennie R. - Daggett, Miss Angelia - Denison, Mrs. Aurilla A. - Dunn, Temple H. - Ellis, Miss Grace - Fitch, Miss Ida A. - Fosdick, Miss Sophie H. - Fosdick, Benajah S. - Foster, Miss Madge - Francis, Mrs. May - Gooding, Mrs. Mary M. - Goodman, Miss Clara M. - Hackleman, Miss Indiana - Hagenbook, Allen M. - Hammond, Mrs. Angie L. - Harter, Miss Mary C. - Hascall, Miss Julia E. - Hedden, Miss Theodosia E. - Howard, Mrs. Cinderella J. - Hudson, Mrs. H. S. B. - Jackson, Miss Nellie M. - Jamieson, Mrs. Hattie H. - Jones, Miss S. Ella - Kauffman, Jacob S. - Lambert, Miss Lottie A. - Lambert, Miss Tillie - Lesley, Mrs. Edith - Matheny, Miss Eva - Matheny, Miss Mattie - Maxwell, the Rev. John A. - Maxwell, Mrs. Alice W. - McCauley, Miss Rose - Milburn, Miss Nellie F. - Mitchell, Miss Marcia - Moffit, Mrs. Rebecca A. - Morrill, Miss Annie - Morse, Mrs. Florence S. - Newhouse, Mrs. Mary R. - Ogg, Robert A. - Ogg, Mrs. Louise H. - Perkins, William H. - Pickett, Miss Ella M. - Power, Miss Ella - Powers, Mrs. R. B. - Ratliff, Dr. Barclay - Roberts, Mrs. Lizzie M. - Robertson, Miss Margaret - Robinson, Mrs. Elvira T. - Sabine, Miss Nettie W. - Semans, Mrs. Sarah W. - Sexton, Miss Ruby - Shane, Miss Lizzie - Smith, Miss Lilian G. - Smith, Miss Laura - St. John, Hermon F. - Stoy, Mrs. L. R. - Swope, Mrs. Mary E. - Taylor, Miss Emily - Towers, Mrs. Bel K. - Town, Mrs. Laura L. - Town, the Rev. Salem B. - Townsend, Mrs. Elizabeth B. - Vail, Mrs. Arvilla Z. - Wilkes, John H. - Wilmuth, Mrs. Lydia P. - Zent, Miss Ida M. - - -_Illinois._ - - Bartlett, Mrs. Helen A. - Black, Mrs. Addie L. - Blake, Miss Ellen M. - Blakeway, Miss Ada M. A. - Blakeway, Miss Ella R. M. - Brophy, Dennis P. - Brown, Mrs. Mary L. S. - Burpee, Miss Minnie L. - Chamberlain, Miss Orra N. - Colby, Mrs. Mary A. - Conley, Mrs. V. C. M. - Day, Miss Clara C. - Douglass, Miss Alberta N. - Dubois, Mrs. Sarah T. - Dunn, Mrs. Frances L. - Earle, Clarence A. - Eastburn, Mrs. Dora M. - Enoch, Miss Emma A. - Fairbanks, John - Fairbanks, Mrs. Carrie H. - Gay, Miss Hannah P. - Gregory, Mrs. Sue F. - Gridley, Mrs. Annah B. - Gunn, Miss Jessie - Hanaford, Mrs. Melvina - Hart, Mrs. Ida B. - Hart, Samuel R. - Harvey, Mrs. Lucia M. - Hayes, Mrs. Dr. R. F. - Holmes, Mrs. Melanie G. - Kay, Mrs. Ella M. - Leal, Miss Sarah M. - Lobaugh, Mrs. Sarah C. - Mayo, Miss Carrie P. - McMurray, Miss Mary E. - McReynolds, Mrs. Abbie M. - McSween, Mrs. Helen - Mitchell, Walter - Moir, Mrs. Jessie G. - Moore, Mrs. Stata M. - Norris, Mrs. Nellie R. - Overman, Miss Myra - Palmer, Mrs. Mary E. - Pells, Miss Louise - Pickering, Mrs. Ida O. - Price, Miss Jennie - Rea, Mrs. Lucia G. - Read, Mrs. Frank - Rinaker, Mrs. Clarissa K. - Robinson, Miss Bessie M. - Rowland, Mrs. Hattie W. - Scott, Miss Kate M. - Scoggin, Miss Libbie - Spear, Mrs. Mary E. - Sprouse, Miss Jennie G. - Swanzey, Miss Clara J. - Tunnicliff, Mrs. Sarah A. - Turnbull, Mrs. Lizzie E. - Vining, Mrs. Letty W. - Walker, Mrs. D. T. - Wallace, Mrs. J. F. - Willey, Mrs. Agnes H. C. - - -_Michigan._ - - Alford, Miss Caroline P. - Barlow, Mrs. Hannah M. - Barrows, Mrs. Hattie A. - Barrows, Mrs. Agnes C. - Bedell, Mrs. Mary B. - Benjamin, Miss Lillian - Benjamin, Miss Anna - Benjamin, Mrs. M. - Borden, Miss Harriet E. - Brown, Miss Kate - Brown, Miss M. Viola - Chapman, Mrs. Olivia E. - Churchill, Miss Frances A. - Clark, Mrs. Ettie A. - Clay, Mrs. Hattie E. - Coe, Miss Lovisa M. - Cooley, Miss Mary L. - Cooley, Miss Lottie I. - Coville, Mrs. Mary E. H. - Field, Miss Dencie L. - Flewelling, Mrs. F. E. - Frost, Mrs. Nellie J. - Furman, Mrs. Libbie T. - Gannon, Joseph M. - Goodyear, Mrs. Emma J. - Hill, Frank J. - Hills, Mrs. Mary M. - Holmes, Mrs. E. F. - Hoover, Miss Cora J. - Hough, Mrs. Tena W. - House, Dr. Robert B. - Johnston, Miss Janet H. - Kent, Mrs. Clara E. - Lathrop, Mrs. Chas. A. - Lilley, Miss Mary A. - Lincoln, Charles A. - Lincoln, Mrs. M. J. - Love, Miss Sara - Lutze, Mrs. Mary M. - McCartney, Mrs. F. - McDonald, Miss Anna - McElwee, the Rev. Samuel J. - McElwee, Mrs. Anna B. - Mellen, Miss Ellen E. - Owen, Miss Lucy A. - Pack, Miss Josephine - Paton, Mrs. Sarah B. - Pearce, Miss Abbie - Peacock, Miss Frances E. - Perrin, Mrs. Henry W. - Pickell, Mrs. C. W. - Queal, Miss Helen - Ramsay, Mrs. W. W. - Roe, Miss Genevieve B. - Russell, Miss Nellie J. - Sinclair, Miss Jane S. - Smith, Miss Lora A. - Spangler, Mrs. W. P. - St. John, Mrs. Etta - Stocum, Mrs. C. W. - Switzer, Mrs. Anna M. L. - Van Fleet, Miss Mary E. - Van Slyke, Miss Julia - Wilcox, Mrs. Martha H. - Wilks, Mrs. Emily M. - Wolf, Miss Anna E. - Wilcox, Joshua L. - - -_Wisconsin._ - - Algard, Mrs. Phebe M. - Baker, Miss Eva J. - Bovee, Mrs. Victoria - Chase, Miss Hattie - Coleman, Mrs. Edwin - Dougherty, Miss Nettie M. - Gates, Miss Laura - Grannis, Mrs. E. H. - Holden, Mrs. Hattie L. - Hooley, Miss Emma E. - Kennedy, Miss Catherine - Kutchin, Mrs. Hattie S. - Lucas, Miss Stella - McLean, Mrs. M. F. K. - Oddy, Mrs. Lydia A. - Shepard, Mrs. Mary S. - Shumway, Mrs. Clara E. C. - Steele, the Rev. John - Wheeler, the Rev. Bert E. - Wick, Gustave - - -_Iowa._ - - Banta, Mrs. Lillie E. - Bell, the Rev. William E. - Benedict, Miss Ella G. - Bennett, Mrs. Lizzie - Brindell, Mrs. Anna R. - Brown, the Rev. Henry - Buckley, Miss Eunice L. - Clarke, Mrs. Kate F. - Cort, the Rev. William C. - Cutter, Miss Valona J. - Day, Mrs. Eliza C. - Gaylord, Mrs. Mary J. L. - Greene, Miss Hattie - Harvey, Miss Carrie L. - Hooley, Miss Annie J. - Hooley, Miss Mattie F. - Huston, Mrs. Mary S. - Hyde, Miss Maie E. - Jones, Mrs. R. D. - Keen, Mrs. Mary T. - Key, Mrs. Sarah - Kellum, Miss Alma J. - Louthan, Mrs. Florence A. - Lukens, Miss Lucie E. - Mack, Miss May - McCarn, Mrs. Carrie E. - McCartney, Mrs. Lura J. - McMeans, Miss Mattie - Melvill, Mrs. Martha E. - Millard, Miss Nellie P. - Nagel, Mrs. Sadie E. - Palmer, Miss Nirma E. - Pollock, Miss Annie L. - Ritchey, Mrs. Ella L. - Robinson, Mrs. Marianna W. - Robinson, Mrs. M. E. - Scales, Miss Lena F. - Snyder, Mrs. D. B. - Tallman, Mrs. Catharine M. - Wadsworth, Mrs. Mary B. - Wegener, Miss Alice - Wilcox, Miss Rhoda M. - - -_Missouri._ - - Albin, Miss Emma C. - Allen, Mrs. N. L. - Bennett, Alfred - Exly, the Rev. Frank - Miller, Charles W. - Parker, George A. - Russell, Miss Sarah F. - Watson, Miss Eva - Wayman, the Rev. John - Sabin, L. Willis. - - -_Minnesota._ - - Brannan, Mrs. Carrie M. - Cole, Miss Jennie - Jerman, Mrs. Sara M. - Mendenhall, Miss Minnie E. - Scofield, Miss Persis E. - Stone, Mrs. J. W. - Taylor, Mrs. C. W. - Terwilligar, the Rv. Michael D. - Terwilligar, Mrs. Hester A. - Viall, Mrs. Florence M. - - -_Dakota Territory._ - - Garner, Jacob A. - Hoffman, Miss Lizzie C. - Moyer, Mrs. S. J. - Moyer, Sanford J. - Potter, Mrs. V. A. - Smith, Miss Maria T. - Squier, Mrs. Cora M. - Yost, Mrs. Julie H. - - -_Nebraska._ - - Anderson, Mrs. Deborah L. - Dada, the Rev. William B. - Folden, the Rev. Andrew T. - Hamlin, Miss Lou E. - Howe, Miss Annette A. - Lemon, Mrs. Nora H. - Martin, Miss Nellie - Parrotte, Mrs. Mary E. - Perry, Miss Mary S. - Sargent, Mrs. Iola N. - Smith, Miss Lucy E. - Smith, the Rev. Charles L. - Warren, Miss Mary E. - Whitney, Miss Clara - - -_Nevada._ - - Leete, Benjamin F. - Simpson, Mrs. Elda A. - - -_Kansas._ - - Blythe, Mrs. Julia H. - Conklin, Isaac J. - Dudley, Mrs. Carrie A. - Elliott, Mrs. Mary E. - McFarland, Mrs. Tillie S. - Moll, Miss Eva M. - Moss, Mrs. Laura S. - Parker, Mrs. W. F. - Patrick, Miss Emma M. - Reed, Mrs. Emily G. - Smith, Fayette A. - Torrington, Mrs. Mary M. - Wallace, Miss Jennie - Weightman, Mrs. Annie M. - - -_Colorado._ - - Crawford, Hugh C. - Freeman, Mrs. Lillie S. - Layton, Mrs. Mary E. - Lovejoy, Miss Jennie G. - McGonigal, Mrs. E. Belle - Reaugh, Mrs. Lottie E. - - -_Idaho._ - - Yarington, Miss Stella - - -_Washington Territory._ - - Ames, Mrs. Jennie P. - Barrow, Mrs. M. R. - Horton, Dexter - Pratt, William G. - - -_Oregon._ - - Churchill, Frank H. - Grider, Mrs. Mary A. - Kern, Mrs. Sarah M. K. - - -_California._ - - Anderson, Dr. C. L. - Bailey, Mrs. C. P. - Barber, Mrs. Emma F. - Baright, Mrs. Frances E. - Blake, Miss Alice S. - Brothers, Miss Carrie R. - Calhoun, Miss Clementine H. - Call, Miss Mattie C. - Call, Miss Mary A. - Carter, Miss Lou A. - Dawson, Mrs. Eloise J. - Drum, Mrs. Mary L. - Dryden, Mrs. S. Helen - Eckley, Emma - Field, Mrs. Mary H. - Franklin, Mrs. Belle O. - Frazee, Miss H. M. - Haight, Mrs. Elvira E. - Hammond, Miss Hulda A. - Harrison, Miss Elbertina C. - Hathaway, Mrs. Alice V. - Hesser, Mrs. Mary E. - Mantz, Mrs. E. F. - McKelvy, the Rev. Charles - Mock, Miss Clara E. - Nusbaum, Mrs. Lucretia J. - Osgood, Miss Jennie - Phillips, Mrs. Hattie W. - Read, William E. - Rogers, William - Selby, Miss Mattie K. A. - Shafter, Mrs. Helen S. - Shattuck, Mrs. E. M. - Shuey, Mrs. Lillian H. - Shuey, M. M. - Thomas, Mrs. Flora M. - Thomasson, Mrs. Martha E. - Warring, Hattie B. - White, Miss Nellie F. - Whitney, Mrs. Julia A. - Wilcox, Miss Gussie M. - Wilson, Miss Mary E. - - -_Canada._ - - Beer, Mrs. Rachel M. L. - Beswick, Miss Emma - Coleman, Mrs. Caroline - Collins, John R. - Courtright, Mrs. Gertrude S. - Curry, Mrs. Catharine - Dudman, Miss Sarah A. - Dunspaugh, Mrs. Leonora C. - Farquhar, Miss Mary L. - Freeland, Mrs. Andrew - Griffith, Mrs. Lucinda P. - Gurney, Edward, Jr. - Gurney, Mrs. Mary F. - Henderson, Miss Frances M. - Henderson, the Rev. William - Henderson, Miss Jennie - Hooper, Mrs. H. T. - Horsey, Miss Maria - Horsey, Miss Heppie - Jackson, Miss Eliza J. - James, David - Kerr, Mrs. Jennie - Langlois, Miss Ida M. - Leake, Miss Annie - Lemon, Miss Emily J. - Longard, Charles H. - Lucas, Mrs. Hattie J. - McDonald, the Rev. C. D. - Millar, James E. - Murray, Mrs. Almey J. - Murray, Dr. Sydney S. - Orr, William H. - Platt, Mrs. Harriet L. - Scott, the Rev. Charles T. - Strickland, John R. - Thurlow, Mrs. Isaac E. - Watson, Miss Georgiana - Woodside, Mrs. Jane - - -_Hawaiian Islands._ - - Coleman, Mrs. Hattie A. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. - -Page 252, “probation” changed to “promotion” (that of dignity and -promotion) - -Page 273, “110.3” changed to “110.3 per cent.” (is equivalent to 110.3 -per cent. of) - -Page 292, “Durengo” changed to “Durango” (From Colorado—Durango—comes) - -Page 305, “Episopal” changed to “Episcopal” (the Methodist Episcopal -Church) - -Page 306, “Informa-” changed to “Information” (Information may be -obtained) - -Page 309, “Illtnois” changed to “Illinois” (section heading: Illinois.) - -Page 310, “Owen, Miss Lucy A.” moved to correct place in alphabetical -list: from between Peacock and Perrin, to between Mellen and Pack. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. V, February 1885, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. 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