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diff --git a/old/55060-0.txt b/old/55060-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index be8776c..0000000 --- a/old/55060-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9055 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. V, March 1885, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Chautauquan, Vol. V, March 1885 - -Author: The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -Editor: Theodore L. Flood - -Release Date: July 6, 2017 [EBook #55060] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. V, MARCH 1885 *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. - ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._ - - VOL. V. MARCH, 1885. NO. 6. - -Officers of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - -_President_, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. _Chancellor_, J. H. Vincent, -D.D., New Haven, Conn. _Counselors_, The Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D., -the Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C. -Wilkinson, D.D.; Edward Everett Hale. _Office Secretary_, Miss Kate -F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. _General Secretary_, Albert M. Martin, -Pittsburgh, Pa. - - - -Contents - -Transcriber’s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was created -for the HTML version to aid the reader. - - - REQUIRED READING FOR MARCH. - Temperance Teachings of Science; or, The Poison Problem - Chapter VI.—Subjective Remedies 311 - Sunday Readings - [_March 1_] 314 - [_March 8_] 315 - [_March 15_] 315 - [_March 22_] 315 - [_March 29_] 316 - Studies in Kitchen Science and Art - VI. Cabbages, Turnips, Carrots, Beets and Onions 316 - The Circle of the Sciences 320 - Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics - Fire—Physical Properties 323 - The Mohammedan University of Cairo 327 - As Seeing the Invisible 329 - National Aid to Education 329 - A Trip to the Land of Dreams 333 - The Homelike House - Chapter III.—The Dining Room 335 - Mexico 338 - Two Seas 339 - New Orleans World’s Exposition 340 - Geography of the Heavens for March 342 - How to Win 343 - Notes on Popular English 345 - The Chautauqua School of Liberal Arts 348 - Outline of Required Readings, March, 1885 350 - Programs for Local Circle Work 350 - Local Circles 351 - The C. L. S. C. Classes 356 - Questions and Answers 357 - The Trustees Reorganize Chautauqua 358 - Editor’s Outlook 360 - Editor’s Note-Book 362 - C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for March 365 - Notes on Required Readings in “The Chautauquan” 367 - Talk About Books 369 - Paragraphs from New Books 370 - Special Notes 372 - - - - -REQUIRED READING FOR MARCH. - - - - -TEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE; - -OR, THE POISON PROBLEM. - -PART VI. - -BY FELIX L. OSWALD, M.D. - - -CHAPTER VI.—SUBJECTIVE REMEDIES. - -“Deeprooted evils can not be abolished by striking at the -branches.”—_Boerhave._[1] - -The history of the temperance movement has demonstrated the sad futility -of palliative remedies. We have seen that the malady of the poison vice -is not a self-limited, but a necessarily progressive evil. The half-way -measures of “restrictive” legislation have resulted only in furnishing -additional proof that prevention is better, because less impossible, than -control.[A] The regulation of the poison traffic, the redress of the -unavoidably resulting mischief, the cure and conversion of drunkards, in -order to be effectual, would impose intolerable and never ending burdens -on the resources even of the wealthiest communities, while the advocates -of prohibition would forestall the evils both of the remedy and the -disease. - -But we should not overlook the truth that, in our own country at least, -the poison plant of intemperance springs from a composite root. In -southern Spain, under the dominion of the Saracens,[2] the poison vice -was almost unknown during a series of centuries.[B] The moral code and -the religion of the inhabitants discountenanced intemperance. The virtue -of dietetic purity ranked with chastity and cleanliness. An abundance -of harmless amusements diverted from vicious pastimes. Under such -circumstances the absence of direct temptations constituted a sufficient -safeguard against the vice of the poison habit; but in a country like -ours the efficacy of prohibition depends on the following supplementary -remedies: - -1. INSTRUCTION.—In the struggle against the powers of darkness light -often proves a more effective weapon than might or right. Even the -limited light of human reason might help us to avoid mistakes that have -undoubtedly retarded the triumph of our cause. We must enlighten, as -well as admonish our children, if we would save them from the snares of -the tempter; among the victims of intemperance, even among those who can -speak from experience and can not deny that their poison has proved the -curse of their lives, only a small portion is at all able to comprehend -the necessary connection of cause and result. They ascribe their ruin to -the spite of fortune, to the machinations of an uncharitable world, to -abnormally untoward circumstances, rather than to the normal effects of -the insidious poison. Intoxication they admit to be an evil, but defend -the moderate use of a liquor as infallibly injurious in the smallest -as in the largest dose; they underrate the progressive tendency of -their vice and overrate their power of resistance; they cling to the -tradition that alcohol, discreetly enjoyed, may prove a blessing instead -of a curse. We must banish that fatal delusion. We must reveal the true -significance of the poison habit before we can hope to suppress it as -a life blighting vice. Our text-books should be found in every college -and every village school from Florida to Oregon. Every normal school -should graduate teachers of temperance. The law of the State of New York -providing for the introduction of primers on the effects of alcoholic -beverages was attacked by one of our leading scientific periodicals, -with more learning than insight, on the ground that the physiological -action of alcohol is as yet obscure even to our ablest pathologists, -and therefore not a fit subject for a common school text-book. The same -objection might be urged against every other branch of physiology and -the natural history of the organic creation. “Every vital process is a -miracle,” says Lorenz Oken,[3] “that is, in all essential respects an -unexplained phenomenon.” A last question will always remain unanswered -wherever the marvelous process of life is concerned, but our ignorance, -as well as our knowledge, of that phenomenon has its limits, and in -regard to the effects of alcoholic beverages it is precisely the most -knowable and most fully demonstrated part of the truth which it behooves -every child to know, but of which at present nine tenths of the adults, -even in the most civilized countries, remain as ignorant as the natives -of Kamtschatka who worship a divinity in the form of a poisonous -toadstool. A boy may be brought to comprehend the folly of gambling -even before he has mastered the abstruse methods of combination and -permutation employed in the calculus of probable loss and gain. We need -not study Bentham[4] to demonstrate that honesty is an essential basis -of commerce and social intercourse. By the standard of usefulness, too, -temperance primers might well take precedence of many other text-books. -Our school boys hear all sorts of things about the perils encountered by -the explorers of African deserts and Arctic seas, but next to nothing -about the pitfalls in their own path—no room for the discussion of -such subjects in a curriculum that devotes years to the study of dead -languages. Is the difference between the archaic and pliocene form of a -Greek verb so much more important than the difference between food and -poison? - -With such a text as the monster curse of intemperance and its impressive -practical lessons, a slight commentary would suffice to turn thousands of -young observers into zealous champions of our cause, just as in Germany a -few years of gymnastic training have turned nearly every young man into -an advocate of physical education. The work begun in the school room -should be continued on the lecture platform, but we should not dissemble -the truth that in a crowded hall ninety per cent. of the visitors have -generally come to hear an _orator_ rather than a teacher, and enjoy -an eloquence that stirs up their barrenest emotions as much as if it -had fertilized the soil of their intelligence, just as the unrepentant -gamesters of a Swiss watering place used to applaud the sensational -passages of a drama written expressly to set forth the evils of the -gambling hell. Enthusiasm and impressiveness are valuable qualifications -of a public speaker, but he should possess the talent of making those -agencies the vehicles of instruction. The great mediæval reformers, as -well as certain political agitators of a later age, owe their success to -their natural or acquired skill in the act of stirring their hearers into -an intellectual ferment that proved the leaven of a whole community—for -that skill is a talent that can be developed on a basis of pure common -sense and should be more assiduously cultivated for the purposes of our -reform. A modern philanthropist could hardly confer a greater benefit on -his fellow-citizens than by founding a professorship of temperance, or -endowing a college with the special condition of a proviso for a weekly -lecture on such topics as “The Stimulant Delusion,” “Alcoholism,” “The -History of the Temperance Movement.” - -Pamphlets, too, may subserve an important didactic purpose, and in the -methods of their distribution we might learn a useful lesson from our -adversaries, the manufacturers of alcoholic nostrums, who introduce -their advertisements into every household, by publishing them combined -with almanacs, comic illustrations, note-books, etc., _i. e._, not only -free, but winged with extra inducements to the recipient, and often by -the special subvention of druggists and village postmasters—till quack -annuals have almost superseded the old family calendars with their -miscellanies of pious adages and useful recipes. Could we not retrieve -the lost vantage ground by the publication of temperance year-books, -compiled by a committee of our best tract societies and distributed by -agents of the W. C. T. U.—with inspiring conviction to emulate the zeal -stimulated by a bribe of gratuitous brandy bottles? - -Popular books must above all be _interesting_, and with a large plurality -of readers that word is still a synonym of entertaining. A German -bookseller estimates that the romances of Louisa Mühlbach have done more -to familiarize her countrymen with the history of their fatherland than -all historical text books, annals and chronicles taken together, and we -should not despise the aid of the novelist, if he should possess the -gift of making fiction the hand-maid of truth, and the rarer talent of -awakening the reflections as well as the emotions of his readers, for all -such appeals should prepare the way for the products of the temperance -press proper, by which we should never cease to invoke the conscience and -the reason of our fellowmen. - -2. PROSCRIPTION.—That union is strength is a truth which asserts itself -even at the expense of public welfare, and in favor of those who combine -to thwart the purposes of the law or prevent the progress of needed -reforms. To the cabals of such adversaries, against whom the influence -of moral suasion would be powerless, we should oppose weapons that would -strike at the foundation of their strength, namely, the most effectual -means to diminish the number of their allies. Many of those who are -callous to the stings of conscience would hesitate to defy the stigma of -public opinion; others who are proof against all other arguments would -yield if we could make it their commercial interest to withdraw their aid -from the enemies of mankind. - -That the prescription of alcohol for remedial purposes will ultimately -be abandoned, like bleeding, blue-pill dosing and other medical -anachronisms, is as certain as that the Carpathian peasants will cease -to exorcise devils by burning cow dung, and we can somewhat promote the -advent of that time by patronizing reform physicians in preference to -“brandy-doctors,” as Benjamin Rush[5] used to call them, and by classing -alcoholic “bitters” with the prohibited beverages. It is mere mockery to -prohibit the sale of small beer and permit quacks to sell their brandy -as a “digestive tonic,” and obviate the inconveniences of the Sunday -law by consigning their liquor to a drug-store. Does the new name or -the admixture of a handful of herbs change the effects of the poison? -We might as well prohibit gambling and permit musical lottery drawings -under the name of sacred concerts. Till we can do better we should permit -druggists to sell alcoholic bitters only on the certified prescription -of a responsible physician, all such prescriptions to be duly registered -and periodically reported to the Temperance Commissioner of a Board of -Health. Nostrum-mongers[6] will probably continue to fleece the ignorant -to the end of time, but they must cease to decoy their victims by -pandering to the alcohol vice. - -3. HEALTHIER PASTIMES.—There is no doubt that a lack of better pastimes -often tends to promote intemperance. In thousands of our country towns, -equidistant from rural sports and the amusements of the metropolis -_ennui_ rather than ignorance[C] or natural depravity leads our young -men to the dram shop, and in recognizing that fact we should not delude -ourselves with the hope that reading-rooms alone could remedy the -evil.[D] The _craving after excitement_, in some form or other, is an -instinct of human nature which may be perverted, but can never be wholly -suppressed, and in view of the alternative we would find it cheaper—both -morally and materially—to gratify that craving in the comparatively -harmless way of the Languedoc[9] peasants (who devote the evening hours -to singing contests, trials of skill, round dances, etc.), or after -the still better plan of the ancient Greeks. Antiquity had its Olympic -Games, Nemean and Capitoline arenas, _circenses_, and local festivals. -The Middle Ages had their tournaments, May days, archery contests, church -festivals and guild feasts. The Latin nations still find leisure for -pastimes of that sort—though in modified, and not always improved, forms; -but in Great Britain, Canada and the United States, with their six times -twelve hours of monotonous factory work, and Sunday laws against all -kinds of recreations, the dreariness of existence has reached a degree -which for millions of workingmen has made oblivion a blest refuge, and -there is no doubt that many dram-drinkers use alcohol as an anodyne—the -most available palliative against the misery of life-weariness. We would -try in vain to convert such men by reproofs or ostracism. Before we can -persuade them to renounce their excursions to the land of delirium the -realities of life must be made less unendurable. They know the dangers -of intemperance, but consider it a lesser evil.[E] They know no other -remedy. Hence their bitter hatred of those who would deprive them of that -only solace. Shall we resign such madmen to their fate? I am afraid that -their type is represented by a larger class than current conceptions -might incline us to admit. Let those who would verify those conceptions -visit a popular beer garden—not as emissaries of our propaganda, but -as neutral observers. Let them use a suitable opportunity to turn the -current of conversation upon a test topic: “Personal Liberty,” “The -Sunday Question,” “Progress of the Prohibition Party.” Let the observer -retain his mask of neutrality, and ascertain the views—the private -views—of a few specimen topers. Do they deny the physiological tendencies -of their practice? The correlation of alcohol and crime? They avoid such -topics. No, nine out of ten will prefer an unanswerable or unanswered -argument; the iniquity of interfering with the amusements of the poor, -with the only available recreations of the less privileged classes. Take -that away and what can a man do who has no better pastimes, and can not -always stay at home? What shall he do with sixteen hours of leisure? - -The question then recurs: How shall we deal with such men? How reclaim -them sufficiently even for the nobler purposes of the present life, not -to speak of higher aims? How save them from the road that leads down to -death? A change of heart may now and then work wonders, even the wonder -of a permanent reform; but we have no right to rely on constant miracles, -and for thousands in sorest need of help there is only one practical -solution of the problem: Let us provide an opportunity of better -pastimes—_not as a concession to our enemies, but as the most effectual -method to counteract the attraction of their snares and deprive them of -the only plausible argument against the tendencies of our reform_. We -need not profane the Sabbath by bull-fights. We need not tempt the poor -to spend their wages on railway excursions or the gambling tables of a -popular summer resort. But we should recognize the necessity of giving -them once a week a chance for outdoor amusements, and unless we should -prefer the Swedish compromise plan of devoting the evening of the Sabbath -to earthly purposes, we should adopt the suggestion of the Chevalier -Bunsen,[10] and amend the eight hour law by a provision for a _free -Saturday afternoon_. Half a day a week, together with the evenings of the -long summer days, would suffice where the means of recreation are near at -hand. Even the smallest factory villages could afford a little pleasure -ground of their own, a public garden with a free gymnasium, a footrace -track, ball ground, a tennis-hall or nine-pin-alley, for the winter -season, a free bath, and a few zoölogical attractions. In larger towns -we might add free music, a restaurant managed on the plan of Susanna -Dodds, M.D.,[F] and perhaps a museum of miscellaneous curiosities. Such -pleasure resorts should be known as _Temperance Gardens_. They would -redeem as many drunkards as all our prisons and inebriate asylums taken -together; they would do more: they would _prevent_ drunkenness. And above -all, they would accustom the working classes to associate the name of -Temperance with the conceptions of liberality, manliness, cheerfulness, -and recreation, instead of—well, their present misconceptions. We might -arrange monthly excursions, and the happiest yearly festival would be a -Deliverance Feast; an anniversary of the day when the city or village -decided to free itself from the curse of the poison traffic. Like some -of the Turner halls[11] of the German gymnasts, temperance gardens could -be made more than self-supporting by charging a small admission fee to -the spectator-seats of the gymnasium, and selling special refreshments at -a moderate advance on the cost price. The surplus might be invested in -prizes to stimulate competition in such gymnastics as wrestling, running, -and hammer throwing (“putting the club,” as the Scotch highlanders call -it), with reserved days, or arenas, for juvenile competitors. In winter -we might vary the program by archery, singing contests, and trials of -skill in various domestic fashions, with an occasional “spelling bee”—at -least for those who could be trusted to consider it a pastime, rather -than a task, for the purpose of recreation should not be sacrificed even -to considerations of utility. In regard to athletics, that apprehension -would be superfluous; the enthusiasm of gymnastic emulation has exerted -its power at all times and among all nations, and needs but little -encouragement to revive in its old might. It would make the Temperance -Garden what the Village Green was to the archers of Old England, what -the palæstra was to the youth of ancient Greece. It would supersede -vicious pastimes; it would regenerate the manhood of the tempted classes, -and thus react on their personal and social habits; they would satisfy -their craving for excitement in the arena, they would learn to _prefer -mechanical to chemical stimulants_.[G] Physical and moral vigor would go -hand in hand. - -The union of temperance and athletic education has, indeed, been -the ideal of many social reformers, from Pythagoras to Jean Jacques -Rousseau,[12] and the secret of their failure was a mistake that has -defeated more than one philanthropic project. They failed to begin their -reform at the basis of the social structure. He who fears the hardships -of such a beginning lacks, after all, true faith in the destiny of his -mission. Perseverance and uncompromising loyalty to the tenets of our -covenant is to us a duty, as well as the best policy, for as a moral -offense treason itself would not be more unpardonable than doubt in the -ultimate triumph of a cause like ours. There is a secret which almost -seems to have been better known to the philosophers and patriots of -antiquity than to this unheroic age of our own, namely, that in the arena -of moral contests a clearly undeserved defeat is a step toward victory. -In that warfare the scales of fate are not biased by a preponderance of -gold or iron. Tyrants have reached the term of their power if they have -made deliverance more desirable than life; the persuasive power of Truth -is increased by oppression; and if the interests of a cause have become -an obvious obstacle in the road of progress and happiness the promoters -of that cause have to contend with a law that governs the tendencies of -the moral as well as the physical universe, and inexorably dooms the -unfit to perish.[H] The unmasked enemies of mankind have no chance to -prosper. - -And even where their disguises still avail them amidst the ignorance of -their victims we should remember the consolation of Jean Jacques Rousseau -in his address to the Polish patriots: “They have swallowed you, but you -can prevent them from assimilating you.” Our enemies may prevent the -recovery of their spoil; they may continue to devour the produce of our -fields and of our labor, but we do not propose to let them enjoy their -feast in peace; whatever their gastric capacity, it will be our own fault -if we do not cause them an indigestion that will diminish their appetite. -“All the vile elements of society are against us,” writes one of our -lecturers, “but I have no fear of the event if we do not cease to agitate -the subject,” and we would, indeed, not deserve success if we should -relax our efforts before we have secured the coöperation of every friend -of justice and true freedom. - -It is true, we invite our friends to a battle-field, but there are times -when war is safer than peace, and leads to the truer peace of conscience. -The highest development of _altruism_ inspires a devotion to the welfare -of mankind that rewards itself by a deliverance from the petty troubles -and vexations of daily life; nay, all personal sorrows may thus be sunk -out of sight, and those who seek release from grief for the inconstancy -of fate, for the frustration of a cherished project, for the loss of a -dear friend, may find a peace which fortune can neither give nor take -away by devoting themselves to a cause of enduring promise, to the -highest abiding interest of their fellowmen. At the dawn of history -that highest aim would have been: security against the inroads of -barbarism. In the night of the Middle Ages: salvation from the phantoms -of superstition. To-day it should be: deliverance from the curse of the -poison vice. - -That deliverance will more than compensate all sacrifices. Parties, like -individuals, are sometimes destined to conquer without a struggle; but -the day of triumph is brighter if the powers of darkness have been forced -to yield step for step, and we need not regret our labors, our troubles, -nor even the disappointment of some minor hopes, for in spite of the long -night we have not lost our way, and the waning of the stars often heralds -the morning. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[A] “All past legislation has proved ineffectual to restrain the habit -of excess. Acts of Parliament intended to lessen, have notoriously -augmented the evil, and we must seek a remedy in some new direction, if -we are not prepared to abandon the contest or contentedly to watch with -folded arms the gradual deterioration of the people. Restriction in the -forms which it has hitherto assumed, of shorter hours, more stringent -regulation of licensed houses and magisterial control of licenses, -has been a conspicuous failure. For a short time after the passing of -Lord Aberdare’s act, hopes were entertained of great results from the -provisions for early closing, and many chief constables testified to the -improved order of the streets under their charge; but it soon appeared -that the limitation, while it lessened the labor of the police and -advanced their duties an hour or so in the night, was not sufficient to -reduce materially the quantity of liquor consumed, or the consequent -amount of drunkenness.”—_Fortnightly Review._ - -[B] “The western Saracens abstained not only from wine, but from all -fermented and distilled drinks whatsoever, were as innocent of coffee as -of tea and tobacco, knew opium only as a soporific medicine, and were -inclined to abstemiousness in the use of animal food. Yet six millions -of these truest sons of temperance held their own for seven centuries -against great odds of heavy-armed Giaours, excelled all christendom -in astronomy, medicine, agriculture, chemistry and linguistics, as -well as in the abstract sciences, and could boast of a whole galaxy of -philosophers and inspired poets.”—_International Review_, December, 1880. - -[C] “Education is the cure of ignorance,” says Judge Pitman, “but -ignorance is not the cause of intemperance. Men who drink generally -know better than others that the practice is foolish and hurtful.” -“It is not the most earnest and intelligent workers in the sphere of -public education that make their overestimate of it as a specific for -intemperance. While they are fully sensible of that measure of indirect -aid which intellectual culture brings to all moral reforms, they feel how -weak is this agency alone to measure its strength against the powerful -appetite for drink.” - -[D] “In a primitive state of society field sports afford abundant -pastimes, our wealthy burghers find indoor amusements, and scholars -have ideal hunting grounds of their own; but the large class of our -fellow-citizens, to whom reading is a task rather than a pleasure, -are reduced to the hard choice between their _circenses_[7] and their -_panes_[8]. Even the slaves of ancient Rome had their saturnalia, when -their masters indulged them in the enjoyment of their accumulated -arrears of happiness; but our laborers toil like machines, whose best -recreation is a temporary respite from work. Human hearts, however, will -not renounce their birthright to happiness; and if joy has departed this -life they pursue its shadow in the land of dreams, and try to spice the -dry bread of daily drudgery with the sweets of delirium.”—_International -Review_, December, 1880. - -[E] “But beside their excitative influence, strong stimulants induce a -lethargic reaction; and it is for the sake of this after effect that many -unfortunates resort to intoxication. They drink in order to get drunk; -they are not tempted by the poison-fiend in the guise of a good, familiar -spirit, but deliberately invoke the enemy which steals away their -brains.”—_International Review_, December, 1880. - -[F] Author of “Health in the Household.” - -[G] “I can not help thinking that most of our fashionable diseases might -be cured _mechanically instead of chemically_, by climbing a bitter-wood -tree, or chopping it down, if you like, rather than swallowing a -decoction of its disgusting leaves.”—_Boerhave._ - -[H] “The ultimate issue of the struggle is certain. If any one doubts -the general preponderance of good over evil in human nature, he has only -to study the history of moral crusades. The enthusiastic energy and -self-devotion with which a great moral cause inspires its soldiers always -have prevailed, and always will prevail, over any amount of self-interest -or material power arrayed on the other side.”—_Goldwin Smith._[13] - - - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -SELECTED BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - -[_March 1._] - -Repose now in thy glory, noble founder. Thy work is finished; thy -divinity is established. Fear no more to see the edifice of thy labors -fall by any fault. Henceforth beyond the reach of frailty, thou shalt -witness from the heights of divine peace, the infinite results of thy -acts. At the price of a few hours of suffering, which did not even reach -thy grand soul, thou hast bought the most complete immortality. Banner of -our contests, thou shalt be the standard about which the hottest battle -will be given. A thousand times more alive, a thousand times more beloved -since thy death than during thy passage here below, thou shalt become the -corner-stone of humanity so entirely, that to tear thy name from this -world would be to rend it to its foundations. Between thee and God there -will no longer be any distinction. Complete conqueror of death, take -possession of thy kingdom, whither shall follow thee, by the royal road -which thou hast traced, ages of worshipers. - - * * * * * - -The essential work of Jesus was the creation around him of a circle of -disciples in whom he inspired a boundless attachment, and in whose breast -he implanted the germ of his doctrine. To have made himself beloved “so -much that after his death they did not cease to love him,” this was the -crowning work of Jesus, and that which most impressed his contemporaries. -His doctrine was so little dogmatical that he never thought of writing it -or having it written. A man became his disciple, not by believing this or -that, but by following him and loving him. A few sentences treasured up -in the memory, and above all, his moral type, and the impression which -he had produced, were all that remained of him. Jesus is not a founder -of dogmas, a maker of symbols; he is the world’s initiator into a new -spirit.… To adhere to Jesus in view of the kingdom of God, was what it -was originally to be a Christian. - -Thus we comprehend how, by an exceptional destiny, pure Christianity -still presents itself, at the end of eighteen centuries, with the -character of a universal and eternal religion. It is because in fact the -religion of Jesus is in some respects the final religion. The fruit of -a perfectly spontaneous movement of souls, free at its birth from every -dogmatic constraint, having struggled three hundred years for liberty -of conscience, Christianity, in spite of the fall which followed, still -gathers the fruits of this surpassing origin. To renew itself it has only -to turn to the Gospel. The kingdom of God, as we conceive it, is widely -different from the supernatural apparition which the first Christians -expected to see burst forth from the clouds. But the sentiment which -Jesus introduced into the world is really ours. His perfect idealism is -the highest rule of unworldly and virtuous life. He has created that -heaven of free souls, in which is found what we ask in vain on earth, -the perfect nobility of the children of God, absolute purity, total -abstraction from the contamination of this world, that freedom, in short, -which material society shuts out as an impossibility, and which finds -all its amplitude only in the domain of thought. The great master of -those who take refuge in this ideal kingdom of God is Jesus still. He -first proclaimed the kingliness of the spirit; he first said, at least -by his acts, “My kingdom is not of this world.” The foundation of the -true religion is indeed his work. After him there is nothing more but to -develop and fructify. - -“Christianity” has thus become almost synonymous with “religion.” All -that may be done outside of this great and good Christian tradition will -be sterile. Jesus founded religion on humanity, as Socrates founded -philosophy, as Aristotle founded science. There had been philosophy -before Socrates and science before Aristotle. Since Socrates and -Aristotle, philosophy and science have made immense progress; but all has -been built upon the foundation which they laid. And so, before Jesus, -religious thought had passed through many revolutions; since Jesus it -has made great conquests; nevertheless it has not departed, it will not -depart from the essential condition which Jesus created; he has fixed for -eternity the idea of pure worship. The religion of Jesus, in this sense, -is not limited. The church has had its epochs and its phases; it has shut -itself up in symbols which have had or will have their day; Jesus founded -the absolute religion, excluding nothing, determining nothing, save its -essence.… - -Whatever may be the transformations of dogma, Jesus will remain in -religion the creator of its pure sentiment; the Sermon on the Mount will -never be surpassed. No resolution will lead us not to join in religion -the grand intellectual and moral line at the head of which beams the name -of Jesus.—_Renan._[1] - - -[_March 8._] - -Were you ever made to see and admire the all sufficiency of Christ’s -righteousness, and excited by the spirit of God to hunger and thirst -after it? Could you ever say, my soul is athirst for Christ, yea, even -for the righteousness of Christ? Oh, when shall I come to appear before -the presence of my God in the righteousness of Christ; oh, nothing but -Christ! nothing but Christ! Give me Christ, O God, and I am satisfied! -My soul shall praise thee forever. Was this, I say, ever the language of -your hearts? And after these inward conflicts, were you ever enabled to -reach out the arm of faith and embrace the blessed Jesus in your souls, -so that you could say, _My beloved is mine, and I am his?_ If so, fear -not, whoever you are—hail, all hail, you happy souls! The Lord, the Lord -Christ, the everlasting God is your righteousness. Christ has justified -you, who is he that condemneth you? Christ has died for you, nay, rather -is risen again, and ever liveth to make intercession for you. Being now -justified by his grace, you have peace with God, and shall ere long be -with Jesus in glory, reaping everlasting and unspeakable redemption -both in body and soul. For there is no condemnation to those that are -really in Christ Jesus. Whether Paul or Apollos or life or death, all is -yours if you are Christ’s, for Christ is God’s! … Oh think of the love -of Christ in dying for you! If the Lord be your righteousness, let the -righteousness of your Lord be ever in your mouth.… Think of the greatness -of the gift, as well as of the giver! Show to all the world in whom -you have believed! Let all by your fruits know that the Lord is your -righteousness, and that you are waiting for your Lord from heaven! Oh, -study to be holy, even as he who has called you, and washed you in his -own blood, is holy! Let not the righteousness of the Lord be evil spoken -of through you. Let not Jesus be wounded in the house of his friends; but -grow in grace and in the knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ -day by day. Oh, think of his dying love! Let that love constrain you to -obedience! Having much forgiven, love much.—_Whitefield._[2] - - -[_March 15._] - -But in proportion to the exaltation of the soul, and also in proportion -to its purity and spirituality—the very opposite extreme or condition; -in proportion to the impressibleness and moral sensibility of a man’s -spiritual nature, he has direct communion with God, as friend with -friend, face to face. “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see -God.” There are thousands of instances—they occur in every church where -there are eminent Christians—of men and women who come to such a state -of spiritual purity and spiritual openness that they talk with God as -friend with friend. There is the direct operation of the Spirit of God -upon their soul. Not that they less than any others are blessed by the -spirit that applies the Word; not that they less than any others are -subject to the indirect operations of nature and society; but there is, -over and above these, also, for those that are able to take it, this -direct inspiration of God’s soul. Whether it be by thought, I know not; -or whether it be by moral feeling, I know not. “The wind bloweth where it -listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it -cometh and whither it goeth; so is every one that is born of the spirit.” -I do not know the mode of divine agency; but of the fact that the human -soul in its higher spiritual relations is open; that there is nothing -between it and God, as it were; that it palpitates, as it were, under the -conscious presence of God, and is lifted up to a faith and a truth that -are not possible to it in its lower realms—of that fact I have no more -doubt than I have of my own existence. - -There is such a thing yet as walking with God; there is such a thing yet -as being under direct divine inspiration. I do not think there is such -a thing yet as _authoritative_ inspiration. Apostles are over and gone. -Prophets have had their day. It is _individual_ inspiration that exists -now. It is authoritative only for the soul to which it comes, not lifting -that soul up into authority, and enabling it to say “Thus saith the Lord” -to any other soul. But I believe that still the divine Spirit works upon -the individual heart, and teaches that individual heart as a father -teaches a child. - -Blessed are they that need no argument; and blessed are they whose -memories take them back to the glowing hours of experience, in which they -have seen the transfigured Christ; in which to them the heavens have been -opened; in which to them the angels of God not only have descended upon -the ladder, but have brought the divine and sacred presence with them. -Many a couch of poverty has been more gorgeous than a prince’s couch; -many a hut and hovel has been scarcely less resplendent to the eye of -angels than the very battlements of heaven. Many that the world has not -known; who had no tongue to speak, and no hand to execute, but only a -heart to love and to trust—many such ones have had the very firmament of -God lifted above them, all radiant. There is this truth in the Spirit -of God that works in the hearts of men directly, and in overpowering -measure. Blessed be God, it is a living truth; and there are witnesses of -it yet.—_Beecher._ - - -[_March 22._] - -Jesus Christ, in his dying discourse with his eleven disciples, in the -14th, 15th, and 16th chapters of John (which was, as it were, Christ’s -last will and testament to his disciples, and to his whole church), often -declares his special and everlasting love to them, in the plainest and -most positive terms, and promises them a future participation with him -in his glory in the most absolute manner, and tells them, at the same -time, that he does so to the end that their joy may be full. John xv:2: -“These things have I spoken unto you that my joy might remain in you, and -that your joy might be full.” See also, at the conclusion of the whole -discourse, chapter xvi:33: “These things have I spoken unto you, that in -me ye might have peace. In the world ye shall have tribulation; but be of -good cheer; I have overcome the world.” Christ was not afraid of speaking -too plainly and positively to them; he did not desire to hold them in the -least suspense. And he concluded that last discourse of his with a prayer -in their presence, wherein he speaks positively to his Father of those -eleven disciples, as having all of them savingly known him, and believed -in him, and received and kept his word; and that they were not of the -world; and that for their sakes he sanctified himself; and that his will -was that they should be with him in his glory; and tells his Father that -he spake these things in his prayer, to the end that his joy might be -fulfilled in them: verse 13. By these things it is evident that it is -agreeable to Christ’s designs, and the contrived ordering and disposition -Christ makes of things in his church, that there should be sufficient and -abundant provision made, that his saints might have full assurance of -their future glory. - -The apostle Paul, through all his epistles, speaks in an assured strain; -ever speaking positively of his special relation to Christ, his Lord, and -Master, and Redeemer; and his interest in, and expectation of, the future -reward. It would be useless to take notice of all places that might be -enumerated. I shall mention but three or four. Gal., ii:20: “Christ -liveth in me; and the life which I now live in the flesh, I live by the -faith of the Son of God, who loved me, and gave himself for me.” Phil., -i:21: “For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain.” II. Tim., i:12: -“I know whom I have believed, and I am persuaded that he is able to keep -that which I have committed unto him against that day.” II. Tim., iv:7,8: -“I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the -faith. Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which -the Lord, the righteous judge, will give me at that day.” … It further -appears that assurance is not only attainable in some very extraordinary -cases, but that all Christians are directed to use all diligence to -make their calling and election sure; and are told how they may do it. -II. Peter, i:5-8. And it is spoken of as a thing very unbecoming of -Christians, and an argument of something very blamable in them, not to -know whether Christ be in them or no. II. Cor., xiii:5: “Know ye not your -own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you except ye be reprobates?” -And it is implied that it is an argument of a very blamable negligence -in Christians, if they practice Christianity after such a manner as to -remain uncertain of the rewards, in I. Cor., ix:26: “I therefore so -run, not as uncertainly.” And to add no more, it is manifest that for -Christians to know their interests in the saving benefits of Christianity -is a thing ordinarily attainable, because the apostles tell us by what -means Christians (and not only apostles and martyrs) were wont to know -this. I. Cor., ii:12: “Now we have received, not the spirit of the world, -but the Spirit which is of God, that we might know the things which are -fully given to us of God.” And I. John, ii:3: “And hereby do we _know_ -that we know him if we keep his commandments.” And verse 5: “Hereby -_know_ we that we are in him.” Chapter iii:14: “We _know_ that we have -passed from death unto life.” … Verse 19: “Hereby we _know_ that we are -of the truth, and shall assure our hearts before him.” Verse 24: “Hereby -we _know_ that he abideth in us, by the spirit which he hath given us.” -So chapter iv:13, and chapter v:29, and verse 19.—_President Edwards._[3] - - -[_March 29._] - -Who has an understanding so exalted, so richly gifted, as to be able -to say what love is! Should I say it is a dew, I merely describe -its refreshing power. Should I say it is a star, I but describe its -loveliness. Should I say it is a storm, I but describe the impossibility -of restraining it. Should I say it is a ray of the sun, then I but -describe its hidden source. Should I say it is produced in the utmost -depths of the soul, when the breath of heaven unites with the heart’s -blood of the new man, that it is the breath of the soul, still I should -not have represented it, for I should but have said what it is in itself, -not what it is to others. Should I say it is the light of the sun, that -gives life and color to all creatures, still I should not have truly set -it forth, for I should but have said what it is for others, not what it -is in itself. Should I say it is a ray of the seven colors in a pure drop -of water, still I should not have described it, for it is not so much a -form as an odor, and a savor, in the depths of the human heart. Who has -such a lofty understanding, such deep thoughts, as to be able to say what -love truly is! The Scripture says—it is a flame of the Lord.[I] Yes it -is a flame, steady, bright, and pure; a flame which lights up and warms, -and shines through the heart into which it has entered, and then falls -on other hearts, and the more light and warmth it gives to others, the -brighter and stronger it burns in our breast. - -But love, says the apostle, is greater than faith and hope, for beyond -that limit where faith and hope depart, love still remains.… For as the -door in this poor temporal life was but a little gate that did not always -stand open, but was often shut by a strong gust of wind; in eternity the -poor little gate will become a mighty portal, whose doors stand open -night and day, which no storm-wind will ever close, through which the -soul will freely pass into the heart of God and all his creatures. O, -since in this life love has made us so rich, though but a little brook, -which, when the sun shone fiercely, was almost dried up, how rich will -it not make us when the little brook has become the stream, yea, the -ocean, when it flows forth from the heart of God, in full spring-tide, -and sin no more builds a barrier in the heart of the creature, and there -will be a free and sacred giving and receiving between heaven and earth, -and among all that is in heaven and upon earth! O, who has so exalted an -understanding that he can truly say what love is!—_Tholuck._[4] - - -FOOTNOTES - -[I] Canticles, viii:6, German version. - - - - -STUDIES IN KITCHEN SCIENCE AND ART. - -VI. CABBAGES, TURNIPS, CARROTS, BEETS, AND ONIONS. - -BY BYRON D. HALSTED, SC. D. - - -THE CABBAGE is a native of Europe, and grows wild along the sea coasts -of England. The wild plant lives for two years, has fleshy leaves, and -is so different from the cabbages of the garden as not to be recognized -as their parent. Under cultivation this one species of plant (_Brassica -oleracea_[1]) has produced the Savoy, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, -borecole,[2] etc. A more wonderful plant and a more useful one is seldom -found in the whole range of the vegetable kingdom. The Romans did much -to extend the culture of the cabbage. In Scotland it was not generally -known until the time of Cromwell. Much improvement has been made in -American sorts of cabbages within the past fifty years. In the wild state -the cabbage has a hard, woody stalk, but the fine specimens in market -have only a small stem, bearing a large, compact head, of closely folded -leaves. - -The first essential in the successful growing of cabbage is the -right kind of soil. It should be a sandy loam, with a gravelly, and -not a clayey subsoil. Soil that is naturally wet must be thoroughly -underdrained before being devoted to cabbage growing. The importance -of an abundance of well rotted manure can not be too fully impressed -upon the mind of any person contemplating the production of excellent -cabbages. Much that may be here said concerning the preparation of -the soil for growing cabbages applies with equal force to the other -vegetables treated in this article. Earliness is one of the leading -points to be gained in raising most garden crops. It is the man with the -first load of cabbages that gets the best price in the market. There is a -great deal of stress to be placed upon the proper selection of seed, but -seed is not all. The young plants of the earliest sorts must be fed, and -they require this food at an early stage in their growth, when chemical -changes are only slowly going on in the soil. In other words, early crops -need a far larger amount of manure for their satisfactory growth than -crops started in midsummer, when the soil is rapidly yielding up its food -elements. Early crops need to grow in cool spring weather, and therefore -should be abundantly supplied with food in an available form. Mr. Gregory -says in his excellent pamphlet on “How to Grow Cabbages,” “If the farmer -desires to make the utmost use of his manure for that season, it will be -best to put most of it into the hill, particularly if his supply runs -rather short; but if he desires to leave his land in good condition for -next year’s crop, he had better use part of it broadcast. My own practice -is to use all my rich compost broadcast, and depend on guano, phosphates, -or hen manure in the hill.” This view of heavy manuring is confirmed -by Mr. Henderson, in his “Farm and Garden Topics,” when he says: “For -the early cabbage crop it should always be spread on broadcast, and in -quantity not less than one hundred cart loads or seventy-five tons to the -acre.… After plowing in the manure, and before the ground is harrowed, -our best growers in the vicinity of New York sow from four to five -hundred pounds of guano, or bone dust, and then harrow it deeply in.” -The best sorts of cabbages for the early crop are: The Jersey Wakefield, -which has a head of medium size, close, and of a deep green color; -Early York, smaller, but quite early; Early Winningstadt, later, but an -excellent sort. Among the best late kinds may be named: Large Flat Dutch, -American Drumhead, Drumhead Savoy, and the Red Dutch. The last mentioned -is largely used in pickling. - -The young plants are obtained from seeds in various ways, determined by -the numbers desired. When large quantities are needed for the early crop, -the seed is sown in a hot-bed or green-house, about February 1st, for the -latitude of New York City, and transplanted into other heated beds near -March 1st. In this way fine plants may be obtained by the first of April. -Many of the large cabbage growers prepare the soil, mark it in rows, and -drop the seed in the hills where the plants are to grow. In this way -much labor is saved, and there is the advantage of having several plants -in each hill, to guard against losses from cut-worms. Cabbages quickly -respond to good culture, and repay in large measure for every stirring of -the soil, either with the hoe or the horse cultivator. - -The most troublesome insect enemy is probably the Cabbage-worm, which -in some localities has destroyed the whole crop. The mature insect -deposits its eggs upon the under side of the cabbage leaves. These eggs -soon hatch, and the green caterpillars begin their destructive work. No -poisonous substances can be applied without endangering the lives of -those who may afterward eat the cabbage. Hot water (160 degrees) has -proved effective in killing the worms, while not doing injury to the -plants. Flea-beetles have done some damage, as also the Cabbage-bug. -After the crop is grown the cabbages may be kept by burying them in -trenches, heads down. Three facts need to be kept in mind: Repeated -freezing and thawing cause rot; excessive moisture also induces decay; -and a dry air withers the head and destroys the flavor. About a foot of -earth is usually a sufficient covering. - -Cabbage in the many forms it is presented upon the table is a most -wholesome and agreeable article of food. The farmer’s garden is not -complete without a full crop of cabbages. Any heads that are not needed -for the family table can be fed with profit to the farm live stock. -Poultry in particular, need some green food daily through the winter -season, and a cabbage now and then satisfies this natural craving. - -TURNIPS.—The garden turnips belong to the same genus (_Brassica_) with -the cabbages, and are therefore closely related to them. The turnip is -supposed to be a native of England and other parts of Europe. It is not -known when this plant was first introduced into cultivation, and its wild -state is unknown. At the present time it forms one of the prominent crops -in all countries adapted to its growth. - -The remarks made under the subject of cabbages concerning the free use -of manure need not be repeated here. Turnips grow freely upon a rich and -mellow soil, kept clean of all weeds. They do not require as fertile a -soil as cabbages, and when the earth is very rich, there is sometimes -an excessive growth of tops, without a corresponding development of the -roots. It is not necessary to say that cabbages are grown for their many -thick leaves, while turnips are raised for their roots. Plants as a whole -have many places for the storing up of nourishment. Sometimes it is in -the stems, as in the potato; in other cases the leaves or roots serve as -a store-house of accumulated substance. The plant makes these deposits, -to be drawn upon at some future time, either for further growth of the -same plant or for the early development of another. The root crops, for -example, are naturally plants of two year’s duration. The first season -is spent in gathering and storing up substance in a large root. During -the following year the starch, sugar, oil, etc., is withdrawn and used in -the production of a flower-stalk, upon which the crop of seeds is finally -borne, and after this the plant dies. - -Turnips are mainly grown as a second crop, following early potatoes, etc. -The soil should be made fine and rich before the seed is sown. Rutabagas -may be sown from the 15th of June until the 15th of July. Yellow Stone, -Aberdeen, White Cowhorn and Strap-leaved Red-top are sown in the order -named, and from July 15th to the 1st or 10th of September. The seed is -sown in drills, wide enough apart to admit of horse cultivation. The -thinning of the plants in the row is of great importance. This work is -best done with a hoe, the workman chopping out the turnips and leaving -the plants about four to six inches apart in the row. In garden culture -the rows need not be so far apart. It is very essential to keep the weeds -down and the soil frequently stirred. The harvesting is simple. When -growth is completed the roots are pulled, then the tops cut off and the -turnips placed in root cellars or pits. - -Turnips have an important place in a carefully planned system of farming. -The root crop is a means of securing a large amount of most wholesome -food for live stock, and at the same time it cleans the soil from weeds -and prepares it for the growth of succeeding crops. - -The leading insect enemy of young turnip plants is the Turnip-fly. If the -seedlings can be protected until they get a good start in life there is -no further trouble. Equal parts of wood ashes and land plaster scattered -over the young turnip leaves is a good remedy. Air-slaked lime is also -employed in the same manner. - -THE CARROT.—The wild carrot, _Daucus Carota_,[3] is a native of Europe -and has become naturalized in this country to such an extent as to be -ranked among the worst of weeds. The cultivated carrot was introduced -into England by the Dutch, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (last half -of the sixteenth century), and has since been much improved and quite -generally grown. In its native or wild state the root is small, woody, -and of very little value as an article of food. All of our so-called -“root plants” in the wild state store up only sufficient food in the -root to meet the wants of the plant the coming season. This tendency -to accumulate has been developed under cultivation, and an excess is -stored up, which is appropriated by man. The plant has enjoyed more -favorable conditions for growth and been relieved in great part of the -struggle for existence that is constantly going on among wild plants. All -cultivated plants are living unnatural lives, being favored in various -ways, and when they are left to shift for themselves either die or drift -back, generation after generation, to the old original form from which -the ancestors were forced to depart. No plant is a better illustration -of this fact than the carrot. If left for only a few years, the fleshy -rooted plants of the garden degenerate into the coarse, woody-rooted -weeds of the pasture or hedge-row. We can not pass this point without -endeavoring to enforce the importance of keeping up all the most -favorable conditions of growth for garden vegetables, and carefully -selecting seed of plants that show the least tendency to degenerate. - -The plot for growing carrots should be nearly level, otherwise heavy -rains may wash the seeds and young plants out of place. The soil should -be deep, rich and mellow. Carrots are no exception to the rule that root -crops flourish under high culture. When the barnyard fails to supply -sufficient manure, it is well to use guano, superphosphates, and other -quick acting fertilizers. If the soil is heavy, it is best to sow the -seed in ridges made by a plow, thus enabling a horse-weeder to pass -between the rows and not injure the young plants coming through the -surface. Use seed not over one year old, and it is well to sow some -radish seed with it, to come up first and show the rows, thus aiding in -the early cultivation of the soil. It is of the greatest importance to -keep the weeds down until the carrots get a good start. About six weeks -after sowing, that is, the middle of July, thin the plants, leaving them -four or five inches apart in the row. The carrots are dug and stored -like most root crops. If grown in large quantities, most of the labor -of getting the roots out of the soil is performed by horses. Carrots -keep well in long piles, six feet wide at the bottom, and of any length. -Ventilating holes need to be left at frequent intervals along the ridge -of the covered heap. There are several varieties of carrots, some of -them being earlier than others, while the size and general shape varies -greatly. The Long Orange, Short Horn, Early Horn and White Belgian are -among the leading sorts. Market gardeners are now favoring the shorter -sorts, the endeavor being to get them turnip-shaped, and thus save much -labor in digging the roots. - -BEETS.—The species _Beta vulgaris_,[4] the parent of our common beets, -is a native of Egypt, and grows wild along the Mediterranean Sea at the -present day. The name is from the Celtic word _Bett_, meaning _red_, the -prevailing color of most beets. This garden vegetable has been generally -grown for six hundred years, and during that time has undergone many -important changes. Long ago the beet arrived at a state of perfection -beyond which it is not easy to pass. The Mangold-Wurzel[5] and Sugar -Beets are derived from another species. These are grown very extensively -in Europe and are worthy of far more attention by American farmers. The -Swiss Chard is another species of the genus _Beta_, largely grown in some -countries for the leaves, which only are used. They are stripped off and -used like spinach. The soil best adapted to the growing of beets is a -rich, sandy loam, rather light than otherwise. It should be thoroughly -pulverized by deep plowing, harrowing, etc., until a fine, mellow bed is -prepared for the seeds. The seeds are sown in rows, and the soil should -be pressed firmly upon them. For early beets the sowing may be done so -soon as the ground can be worked. The late sorts may be sown in July. As -soon as the plants are above ground a push-hoe should be passed close -to the rows. A few days later the beets need to be thinned to five or -six inches in the row. The removed plants make excellent greens. The -remaining work until harvest time is keeping the soil free from weeds -and loose by frequent hoeing. The rake is better than the hoe, if it is -used frequently and no weeds get large. Beets should be harvested before -frosts injure them. Handle carefully and store in a place where the -temperature is uniformly a few degrees above freezing. - -The Egyptian is among the best early sorts; it has a dark blood color, -and much resembles a flat turnip in shape. The Long, Smooth, Blood Beet -is considered as ranking first for general family and market uses. - -The Mangold-Wurzels are coarse beets of large size, grown as a field crop -for live stock. The White Sugar is a Mangold, free from much of the red -coloring matter of the red sorts. These larger varieties of beets are -very extensively grown in Europe for the manufacture of sugar, and it -would add to our agricultural wealth if they were more frequently a part -of a well planned system of rotation of crops in America. It may not pay -for us to make beet sugar, but the use of the roots as a wholesome winter -food for stock is profitable. - -ONIONS.—The onion (_Allium cepa_[6]) has been cultivated from early -times, and its native country is unknown. As it is mentioned in sacred -writings it is supposed that its home is in the far East. Onions thrive -best on old ground, especially if it is a light, sandy loam. The onion -field should be nearly level, clear of weeds, and liberally supplied with -the best well-rotted manure; guano and superphosphates are excellent for -onions. Deep plowing is not necessary. The amount of seed to be used -depends upon the kind of onions desired. If they are to be pulled for -early market, more seed is required than when they are to attain their -full growth. - -There are many varieties of onions grown from seeds. The Yellow Danvers, -White Portugal and Weathersfield Red are well known sorts, representing -the three prevailing colors. Onions are largely grown from sets, that is, -bulbs that have ripened while quite small, and when set out grow and form -large onions. The small size and early maturity are due to sowing the -seed thick. From thirty to forty seeds are sown to each inch of the row. -The sets are mature when the leaves begin to wither, and are then removed -and dried. In planting the sets they are placed in rows about four inches -apart. - -The “Potato Onion” or “English Multiplier” is propagated by offsets. An -onion of this class, if planted in the spring, will produce a cluster -of small ones around it. These small onions will grow into large ones -the next season. There are several sorts of onions that bear clusters -of small bulbs upon the tops of the flower stalks, in place of seed -pods. The “Tree,” “Top,” and “Egyptian” onions are of this class. These -bulblets, when planted, produce large bulbs, and these latter, when set -out the following season, throw up stalks bearing bulblets. - -Onions are ready for harvesting as soon as the leaves droop and become -dry. The bulbs should be well cured and placed in a dry, cool, storage -room. The crop is sometimes badly injured by smut, especially when onions -have been grown upon the same soil for many years. The onion maggot -causes some destruction. Guano and unleached ashes, when scattered over -the bed, have both proved of value. - -The above is only a brief consideration of five of the leading garden -vegetables. The first four, namely: Cabbages, turnips, carrots and -beets, are to a great extent farm crops, well suited for live stock. The -composition of these is as follows: - - DRY MATTER. ALBUMINOIDS. FAT. STARCH, SUGAR, ETC. ASH. - Cabbage 14.3 2.5 0.7 7.1 1.6 - Turnips 8.5 1.0 0.15 5.8 0.8 - Carrots 14.1 1.3 0.25 9.6 1.0 - Beets 18.5 1.0 0.1 9.1 0.8 - -The turnips contain the least dry substance, and the cabbages are far the -richest in albuminoids. The carrot leads in starch, sugar, etc., followed -closely by the beets. There is very little poetry in any of the five -vegetables here briefly described, though they may enter into the daily -food of those who think of lofty things and write in the most elegant -style. They are the humble, unobtrusive toilers in the gardens of the -world. - - -THE PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES. - -There are two laws underlying the preparation of all vegetables for the -table; the first is, cook until tender; the second is, do not cook until -mushy and the juice extracted. By overlooking the first you are left -with a rank, tough, indigestible dish; by overlooking the second with -one watery, and—worst of all culinary adjectives—juiceless. A time-table -regulating the exact number of minutes which each vegetable shall be -cooked can not be perfectly exact. Not rules, but judgment must decide -the limit of time. However a table of approximations may be of service to -amateur cooks whose experience has not yet taught them that essential of -successful cookery. - -CABBAGE.—When young, requires an hour; winter cabbage, double that time. - -TURNIPS.—When young, three quarters of an hour; winter turnips, two hours. - -CARROTS.—When young, three quarters of an hour; winter carrots, two hours. - -BEETS.—When young, three quarters of an hour; winter beets, four hours. - -ONIONS.—When young, one hour; winter onions, two hours. - -The temperature at which vegetables should be cooked is a point -of great importance. A little reflection should easily settle the -question, however. When young vegetables are tender, the juices are -easily withdrawn, continued stewing or soaking extracts all the flavor -and strength; when old they become tough, and only long stewing will -make them tender and bring out the juices. By putting young vegetables -into cold water we extract the juice before they begin to cook, and by -the time they become tender they are tasteless; but by putting winter -vegetables into cold water they are gradually softened, and by the time -they are cooked tender the juice is fully developed; hence the reason for -the rule which cooks have formulated: Put all young, green vegetables -into salted boiling water; all dried and winter vegetables into cold -water. - -Add to your regard for these first principles a nice skill in draining -all the water from your cabbage, turnips, carrots, beets and onions, and -that most delicate of all cookery arts—the art of seasoning—and you can -not fail of toothsome entrées[1] and salads. - -_Cabbage Salad or Slaw._—Remove from a firm, fresh cabbage the outer -leaves and slice fine. The simplest dressing is of sugar, salt and -vinegar. Mayonnaise[2] dressing may be prepared by taking the beaten -yolks of six eggs and into them beating, drop by drop, two tablespoonfuls -of salad oil; now alternate with every few drops of two tablespoonfuls -of salad oil, small quantities of vinegar until two tablespoonfuls of -vinegar have been used. Beat into this mixture, which should be very -smooth, one saltspoonful of salt and half as much cayenne pepper, set in -a cold place until wanted. A cooked mayonnaise dressing is made by adding -to each tablespoonful of boiling vinegar, the beaten yolk of an egg, and -cooking until stiff. Remove the mixture and stir in an ounce of butter. -When cool, season it with salt, pepper and mustard; then add sweet cream -until it is of the desired consistency. - -_Hot Slaw_ is prepared by stewing chopped cabbage until tender, and then -adding a dressing of vinegar, butter, salt and pepper. - -_Pickled Cabbage._—Chop, not too fine, a fresh cabbage, and season it -with white mustard seed, salt and pepper. Now pack this firmly into a -jar and add cold vinegar. Cloves should be sprinkled over the top to -prevent mould. Or, pack a layer of chopped cabbage alternately with a -layer of chopped onions, and having salted, allow it to stand for about -twenty-four hours. A dressing of one pint of vinegar, one cup of sugar, -and one teaspoonful each of ground mustard, black pepper, cinnamon, -turmeric, mace, allspice, and celery seed is made for each head of -cabbage and half dozen of onions, by scalding the vinegar and adding -sugar and spices. Into this dressing pour the cabbage and onions. Allow -them to simmer for half an hour, then put into jars. - -_Boiled Cabbage._—Quarter a cabbage from which the outer leaves have been -removed, and which has been examined carefully for insects and slugs. -Boil until tender. Drain well, being careful to press out the water. -Boiled cabbage may be chopped, and a tablespoonful of butter, pepper and -salt stirred in, or it may be served with white sauce or drawn butter. -White sauce is made by cooking together one ounce of flour and two ounces -of butter, and, after adding a pint of milk allowing the mixture to -simmer slowly. Season with salt and pepper. Drawn butter differs from -white sauce only in having water or broth in place of the milk. Cabbage -may be boiled in water taken from the pot in which corned beef or pork is -being cooked. This seasons it nicely. - -_Stewed Cabbage._—Chop cabbage fine and stew until tender. When “done” -add sweet milk sufficient for a dressing and allow it to cook for ten -minutes. Season with salt and pepper. Marion Harland gives this recipe -for a stewed “stuffed cabbage:” “Choose for this purpose a large, firm -cabbage. When perfectly cold bind a broad tape about it, or a strip of -muslin, that it may not fall apart when the stalk is taken out. Remove -this with a thin, sharp knife, leaving a hole about as deep as your -middle finger. Without widening the mouth of the aperture excavate the -center. Chop the bits you have taken out very small; mix with some cold -boiled pork or ham, or cooked sausage-meat, a very little onion, pepper, -salt, a pinch of thyme, and some bread crumbs. Fill the cavity with this, -bind a wide strip of muslin over the hole in the top, and lay the cabbage -in a large sauce-pan with a pint of ‘hot liquor’ from boiled beef or ham. -Stew gently until very tender. Take out the cabbage, unbind carefully, -and lay in a dish. Keep hot while you add to the gravy, when you have -strained it, pepper, a piece of butter rolled in flour, and two or three -tablespoonfuls of rich milk or cream. Boil up and pour over the cabbage.” - -_Baked Cabbage._—The cold boiled cabbage left over from dinner is very -nice baked. Chop it fine and add a dressing made of beaten eggs and milk -and seasoned with salt and pepper. Put it into a buttered baking dish, -and having strewn the top with bread crumbs or rolled crackers, bake it -brown. - -_Fried Cabbage._—Another excellent dish to be prepared from cold boiled -cabbage is fried cabbage. Chop the cabbage fine and stir in a little -melted butter, two beaten eggs, a little cream, pepper and salt, and cook -until slightly brown. - -_Boiled Turnips._—Boil until tender and drain dry. After mashing them -smooth, being careful to rub away all hard lumps, stir in a tablespoonful -of butter and season with salt and pepper. If it is preferred to cut them -in slices, they are nice served with white sauce or drawn butter as a -dressing. A little vinegar added to the dressing is by many considered -an improvement. Young turnips are nice served whole with either of these -sauces. - -_Stewed Turnips._—An excellent way of warming over boiled turnips is to -add sufficient milk to them to stew thoroughly, and then to season with -pepper and salt. - -_Baked Turnips._—Cold boiled or sliced turnips may be “done over” by -putting them into a baking-pan, covering with bread crumbs, moistening -with milk, and then baking in the oven. Freshly boiled turnips, sliced -thin, may be cooked in the same way. - -_Boiled Carrots._—If carrots are small and young they may be boiled -whole, but if they are large they should be split into two or three -pieces; when cooked they may be served with butter, salt and pepper, or -with white sauce, like sliced boiled turnips. - -_Mashed Carrots._—Boiled carrots are very nice mashed with a large -spoonful of butter, a little cream, and seasoning of pepper and salt -worked into them. Serve as you would mashed potatoes. - -_Fried Carrots._—Cold boiled carrots, or those which have been parboiled, -may be sliced and fried brown in butter. They must be seasoned, of -course, with pepper and salt. - -_Stewed Carrots._—Parboil carrots for three quarters of an hour. Put them -into a stew-pan and pour on them a teacupful of broth with seasoning of -pepper, salt and butter, and stew until they are tender. A little cream -and a lump of butter may be added and the whole allowed to boil up. - -_Boiled Beets._—In preparing beets for the kettle they should be washed, -but not cut. When done, rub off the skin and slice. Butter, pepper and -salt should be added for seasoning. If you like a dressing of vinegar -put a tablespoonful of butter into half a cup of vinegar, add pepper and -salt, and boil before turning upon the beets. - -_Baked Beets._—Slice your beets and place in a baking pan with butter, -pepper and salt. Allow about twenty minutes longer for baking than -boiling. This method preserves much of the juice of the vegetable which -is lost in boiling. - -_Stewed Beets._—Parboil your beets until nearly done, rub off the skin -and slice. Into your stew-pan pour enough milk to cover the beets, add a -little butter, salt and pepper, and simmer slowly until they are done. - -_Boiled Onions._—Onions may be laid in cold water half an hour before -cooking. Boil them in two waters until tender. When cooked, drain -carefully and serve with butter, salt and pepper. Boiled onions are nice -with a dressing of drawn butter. - -_Baked Onions._—Choose large onions for baking, and after peeling boil -for an hour. Drain them thoroughly and about each wrap a piece of -buttered tissue paper, bake them until they are quite tender, then remove -the paper and brown in the oven, basting with butter. Serve them with -drawn butter. - -_Stewed Onions._—Onions which have been parboiled may be stewed in milk -sufficient to cover. When done, a dressing of hot cream and butter, -seasoned with salt and pepper, may be poured over them; or they may be -chopped fine, and the cream, butter and seasonings be stirred in. - -_Fried Onions._—Slice into small strips and fry in butter, taking care to -brown them evenly. Season with salt and pepper. Onions sliced thin and -fried in hot fat are called _Saratoga onions_. - - - - -THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES. - - -PHYSICS. - -In the science of material things, mechanics takes account of forces -that act on masses from without; physics, of those that act from within, -or which, in some way, modify the condition of the bodies themselves. -Both branches were, till recently, included in the vaguely comprehensive -term “Natural Philosophy,” and the partial separation observed in modern -treatises and text-books gives a little more distinctness to the facts -presented. Under the former the earth is contemplated as a planet, -obedient to the universal law of gravitation, and moving regularly in -its orbit. The mechanism of the system is complete; the measure and -adjustment of all the parts perfect. - - -GEOLOGY, - -As a physical science, considers the earth apart from the solar system -with which it is connected, and takes account of its materials and -structure, and the forces that unite them. Its position in the group is -about midway between mechanics and chemistry, being closely allied to -other natural sciences, while its phenomena are occasionally varied by -both mechanical and chemical agents. - - -PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOLOGY - -Treats of the earth’s exterior physical features; of its form—an oblate -spheroid—of its surface, oceans, continents, seas, lakes and rivers, -hills, mountains, valleys and plains; of soils made from previously -existing organic or inorganic substances, the detritus of rocks -containing various minerals and small particles of decomposed vegetable -matter. The materials of this outer covering of the earth are from many -different sources, and variously constituted. From the finest grains of -sand, clay, and loam, to pebbles, boulders, and fragments of enormous -dimensions, they are mingled apparently without any fixed order or -proportions; sometimes but slightly covering the solid rock, at others -piling it up in ridges and hills of considerable height. In this surface -formation are included ancient sea-beaches, lake and river terraces, -deltas, deposits of sand and clay, with vast beds of marls, peat and -calcareous tufa,[1] all the progressive accumulations since the present -order of things began. In some of these deposits, more recent than the -Drift[2] period, fossils are abundant and very full of interest. In New -Zealand the bones of a bird[3] were found which exceed in bulk those of -the largest horse, and are now in the museum of the College of Surgeons, -London. The bird when alive was eleven or twelve feet high. - -Less than a century ago what might have been a fossil elephant was found -imbedded in ice on the coast of Siberia, and in such a perfect state of -preservation that the people fed their dogs on its flesh. The animal was -well covered with hair, and adapted to a cool climate, a representative -of an extinct race. How it was imbedded, or how long it had been -preserved in that condition, no one knows. - -In Great Britain are found fossils of the rhinoceros and hippopotamus, -of elephants, tigers, hyenas and giant elks, all of which are extinct -species. The United States is especially prolific in the remains of huge -mammals. The mastodon and megatherium were doubtless indigenous to this -country. The latter had a thigh bone three times as large as the largest -elephant, and the cavity through which it passed, indicates a spinal cord -an inch in diameter. These largest skeletons were found in Georgia and -South Carolina. Those of the mastodon are numerous, and found in many -different places. Physiographic geology is a study intensely interesting, -and of great practical importance, as it bears directly on many of the -industries of life; but this general notice is sufficient. - - -LITHOGRAPHIC GEOLOGY. - -The ultimate particles of material bodies, of which we know but little, -exert such force or influence on each other as to decide the character of -the mass; even if the atoms are identically the same in substance they -may come together in a way to secure different results. The bulk of the -solid part of the earth is rock, but all rock is not the same. We find -several species of granite, of limestone, and sandstone, a long list. But -the whole may be divided into two classes, stratified and unstratified. -Whatever the two classes seem to have in common, they are not of the same -origin. The first occur in layers or strata, others are crystalline and -massive. The loose materials, such as sand, clay and gravel, that have -accumulated at the bottom of the pond or lake, are found arranged in beds -or parallel layers. The streams carry the materials from the highlands, -and they are at length deposited in the basin, and when hardened become -stratified rocks. As this process is still going on, and recently -formed strata are found approaching the consistency of stone, it is but -reasonable to conclude that all rocks of this class, being formed in like -manner under the water, are of aqueous origin. They are further classed -according to certain peculiarities, either of material or formation. - -_Gneiss_, abundant in all parts of New England, is a kind of stratified -granite, of about the same materials, but splits readily into slabs that -are used both for building purposes and flagging stones. - -_Mica slate_ resembles gneiss, has the same minerals, but more mica, and -is of a more slaty structure, and the glistening particles of mica abound -in it. - -There are several other kinds of slate, named from the minerals that -predominate in them, or the purposes for which they are mostly used. -Roofing slate of excellent quality is extensively quarried in Maine, -Vermont and Massachusetts. - -_Quartz_ rock consists mainly of quartz, but often has more or less mica. -_Sandstone_ is of kindred formation, the principal part of which is -quartz, reduced to sand, and the grains more or less firmly united. In -both the colors are various. - -_Conglomerate_ consists of water-worn pebbles of various kinds and sizes -cemented together, and sometimes making a strong, compact rock. - -_The limestone formations_ are extensive in nearly all countries. In -their structure some are very compact and break with a smooth surface. -Those capable of a fine polish are called marble, the more common uses -of which are well known. The purest crystalline limestone is used in -sculpture; the best quality being obtained from Carrara, Italy, and that -called Parian from the island Paros. - -_Chalk_, a useful formation, is a carbonate of lime. In some caves the -dropping of calcareous water forms stalactites, which hang from the -roof like immense icicles, and are often extended till they meet the -accumulations below, called stalagmites, and form beautiful columns. Of -the more than seven hundred crystals from this source alone, and of the -many other varieties of minerals having much in common, and yet enough -that is peculiar to distinguish them, no mention can be made. A careful -reader and close observer will gather from familiar objects a fund of -information of great value. - -The parallel strata mentioned are not always horizontal, but sometimes -nearly, if not quite perpendicular. Occasionally a ledge broken quite -through separates, and the rock on one side of the fissure is either -elevated or depressed, making what is called a fault. - -The fissures crossing a bed of rock are often filled with a mineral -entirely different from the rock itself. In some cases where the vein is -small the foreign substance may have come in from above or laterally, -deposited from water as in the case of stalactites. The larger fissures -were evidently filled with the melted material thrust up from beneath. - -The unstratified rocks are in masses, without fossils of animals or -plants, and of igneous origin. Some of this class were probably formed -later, and by the melting of secondary rocks, but most of them by the -gradual cooling of the central mass containing the melted minerals -embodied in them. - - -DYNAMIC GEOLOGY - -Treats of the forces that move things on or beneath the earth’s surface. -The Drift shows not a little confusion. Things are evidently in an -abnormal condition, and strangely mixed. Some of the disturbing causes -are obvious. Currents of the atmosphere and ocean have done much, but are -not sufficient to account for all the phenomena. Boulders brought from -ledges north of the great western lakes, are found scattered over all the -western states, some much battered on the passage, others bearing only -marks of long exposure to the elements. Deep furrows have been plowed -in the rocks and hill tops over which they passed, at an elevation of -thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Currents of water could -never have lifted such huge masses from the lower to higher levels, or -transported them any such distances. Icebergs or glaciers have evidently -moved over the whole Drift region with fragments of rocks and pebbles -frozen into their lower surface, that, like huge rasps, both cut away and -polished the hardest rocks, at the same time bearing forward the boulders -and whatever else chanced to be held in their cold embrace. There are -other footprints of many and very great changes that have been wrought. -Though many persons have erroneous impressions of the inequalities on the -earth’s surface, the height of the loftiest mountains being but little -when compared with the earth’s diameter, yet there is evidence that the -normal condition has not been preserved. Large districts have, even -within the historic period, been lifted far above their former level, -and others sunk as much below. New islands have appeared in the midst -of the sea, while others have sunk out of sight. Multitudes now live on -what was once the bed of the sea, “in which were things innumerable, -great and small beasts;” and ships sail over territory once covered with -the habitations of living men. Rocks of immense thickness have been -broken and the parts lifted into a vertical position, and many such great -changes have taken place. What wrought them? It is safe to say that -at least two forces have been operating, the one more gradual than the -other. The cooling of the internal mass must cause contraction, which, in -a globe of such dimensions, would be sufficient to break the strongest -rocks constituting its shell. This force, when properly directed, might -lift the rocks, and even throw them back on other strata of more recent -formation. Then the expansive force of the gases within, when raised to -their highest tension, is enough to cause earthquakes, and pour through -the partially opened craters, or where the barriers are made less secure, -floods of lava that are in time changed into rocks of that peculiar -class. The vent will be found where the crust above the struggling giant -is weakest, whether that be on the mountain top where the rocks had been -shoved up into a vertical position, or at the bottom of the sea. - -The dynamics of geology suggest problems of no ordinary interest, but our -narrow limits forbid even a statement of them. - - -MINERALOGY - -Is that branch of geology that treats of mineral substances, and teaches -how to distinguish and classify them according to their properties. This -is a wide field for investigation, and so fruitful that the temptation to -linger in it is strong. Mining and work with the products of the mines -engage the industry of so many that it would be especially pleasant to -study with them a subject of such general interest. We relinquish that -privilege, in order to state two or three things that seem thoroughly -established by what is found written in the book of nature, and are in -perfect accord with God’s later scriptures, the Bible, when rightly -interpreted. - -1. The first fact is the great age of the earth. Processes are plainly -indicated that must have required not only thousands, but millions of -years for our planet, before man, made in the image of God, entered -it as the theater of his responsible activities. The facts of the -carboniferous[4] period alone discredit, and utterly overthrow the theory -which limits the days of creation to six of twenty-four hours each. The -Bible gives the order of the successive creations, but does not fix the -age of the things created. The word translated day often means an _age_ -or an indefinite number of years, as is seen by referring to the places -where it is found. Give it this well established meaning in the first -chapter of Genesis, and all is plain. There was time for millions of -races of inferior creatures to live and die before the divine plans and -works were consummated, and the earth became a suitable abode for the -human race. - -2. The second great fact is that all things were made on a plan, and in -some connection. There are no isolated objects or superfluous parts in -the physical world. The number may be countless, and the forms given them -reveal an endless variety, but each has its connections, and all the -parts are necessary to a perfect whole. - -3. Another lesson is learned from the mute witnesses, which is that, -while a long succession of races of animals, for which the earth, -in its different stages of progress was a fit abode, existed, each -higher in rank than its predecessor, the several races had distinctive -characteristics, as the _radiates_, _mollusks_, _articulates_, and -_vertebrates_. A lower species, when its purpose is served, becomes -extinct, and is succeeded by a higher. - - -CHEMISTRY, - -By analyzing compound and compounding simple substances, discovers their -elementary properties, the forces that are resident in matter, and the -laws that govern them. It demonstrates by experiments the affinity of -ultimate particles, and of gases of unlike kinds for each other, an -affinity which produces homogeneous compounds, often very unlike the -elements that unite in forming them. The chemist has much to do with -physical objects, but in handling them his appropriate business is to -consider the changes produced by chemical attraction in all bodies, -whether solid, liquid, or gaseous. - - -GEOGRAPHY - -Is an ancient science, suitable for schools of all grades, and not for -primary and intermediate departments alone. The child can treasure many -of the facts that, if held in the memory, will be of use to him as he -advances in years and knowledge, but his geography will benefit him -little unless it is studied when his faculties are more mature. One who -despises this study as beneath him, knows nothing yet of the important -science as he ought. - - -PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY - -Has many things in common with both astronomy and geology, as it -discusses the physical condition of the earth and its relations as a -member of the solar system; describes its great natural divisions of -land and water; and takes account of dynamic forces, such as aerial and -oceanic currents, that are constantly causing important changes. The -whole exterior structure of the earth, the phenomena of rain and dew, -fog, frost, and snow, are geographical questions, to be discussed with -special reference to the general laws or principles involved. It shows -unity in the midst of diversity, and constancy of phenomena in the midst -of apparent changes. - - -MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY - -Treats of the form and size of the earth, of the construction of globes -to represent it; determines the latitude and longitude of places on its -surface, and all geographical problems pertaining to numbers, distances, -and magnitudes. - - -POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY - -Describes, in a general way, the countries and nations of men as they -are politically divided, defines their boundaries, and to some extent -characterizes their social and civil institutions. A great advance has -been made in this branch during the present century. People respecting -whom little was known, have come into the family of nations. The maps -have been changed, and generally in a way that indicates the rapid -progress of civilization. Asia has been so thoroughly explored that our -general knowledge of the country may be regarded as nearly complete. No -great _terra incognita_ remains in that quarter, though fuller and more -precise knowledge respecting the people in some parts is yet much to be -desired. The interior of Africa is still but partially known, though the -work of discovery has been pushed forward with considerable enterprise, -and a host of explorers have struggled to penetrate the mystery that -enveloped, for ages, that great division of the globe. The Upper Nile -country has been explored far beyond the region assigned on the maps to -the “Mountains of the Moon,” and all know the intense anxiety that is -to-day felt for the safety of General Gordon and his little garrison, -still shut up in Khartoum. - -The study of geography, rightly pursued, is remunerative, full of -inspiration, and as intensely interesting as any in the whole circle of -physical sciences. - - -BIOLOGY - -Is scientific discourse about life and vital forces. We give it a high -position in the circle, since vitality is superior to either chemical -or mechanical laws, suspending or modifying them for the production of -organized structures of plants and animals. Even _vegetable biology_ -confronts us with that mystery of mysteries, life, which is quite -inexplicable. We can only say it is a peculiar, indefinable something, -necessary to the existence of such organisms, and without which they soon -sink in ruinous decay. - -The living germ is the determining power that shapes the organic body, -and every germ will have its own body. Under no possible culture can the -acorn develop into an animal. It will produce an oak, a tree of its own -species, and nothing else can grow from it. So also of the animal germ. -The form or kind is as determinate while the embryo is yet in the egg, as -it will ever be. The life once begun in everything that lives and grows, -there is a power that takes hold of the elements nature has in store for -it, and, by a most wonderful transformation, works them up into its own -body; and this power of assimilation must forever distinguish it from all -lifeless inorganic matter. - -The mystery deepens when we notice that living things exist in -generations. The plant has seed in itself for the production of another -plant. It has life in itself, and power to vitalize its successors. The -products of the field and the forest grow and mature, then wither and -decay; but they have successors of the same kind. - -So human beings exist in successive generations. One generation passeth -away, and another cometh, and so the race lives on. While alike in their -power of assimilation and reproduction, there is a wide difference -between the vegetable and the animal. They have not the same organs, -and do not subsist on the same food. The plant is constantly consuming -carbonic acid, and giving out oxygen, while animals consume the oxygen, -and restore to the atmosphere carbonic acid. The difference of their -physical structure, and their different relations to inorganic matter, -suggest a wide difference in the “bios” or life, that animates them. -Just what that difference is, no one can tell. It is a question for -which science furnishes no answer. In his physical organization man -differs but little from the lower animals. In this he is brother to the -beasts that perish, having the same nature, needs, and liabilities. If -he is “fearfully and wonderfully made,” so are they; in agility and -strength many of them far surpass him. His peculiarities of form and -structure do not secure, and, it may be safely said, were not intended -to secure physical superiority, but rather to fit the organization -for the indwelling of the rational soul, that is his distinguishing -characteristic. - - -PHYSICAL ASTRONOMY - -Has been made the subject of much diligent research and study. Some facts -respecting the physical elements and structure of the sun and planets -have been ascertained with reasonable certainty, but much is still in -doubt. Assuming that the essential properties of matter are the same -everywhere, we may tell with assurance of what the sun and stars are -made, provided all solar and stellar phenomena are explained by physical -laws that are understood, and in operation around us. This has been done -in part, but not so as to harmonize the views of all astronomers. Since -the use of the spectroscope[5] results have been more satisfactory, and -on some questions of much interest, conjecture and theory have given -place to certainty. By the decomposition of sunbeams or pencils of solar -light, the refracted rays show the presence of several distinct chemical -elements. Finding by a qualitative analysis that there is iron, copper, -zinc, nickel, sodium, and other terrestrial substances in the solar and -stellar spectra, we know that they enter into the composition of those -celestial bodies. But in what proportions or combinations they exist is -not known. - - -METEOROLOGY AND AEROLITES. - -Who has not seen a shooting star? For a moment the bright objects dart -through greater or less spaces in the heavens, and then disappear. Those -of inferior size give but little light, and are seldom seen unless -the eye is, at the time, directed toward the space they traverse. -Occasionally one flames out with such brilliancy as to light up, for a -moment, the whole heavens. These are called meteors—a name quite proper -for both classes, and only the very ignorant suppose any of them to be -real stars. They come singly, two or three in an hour, or in showers, -such as were witnessed in 1833. When of such size that they strike the -earth before being consumed by their intense heat, they are aerolites, -or meteoric stones. Great masses of these are found in different places, -and show such a peculiar combination of their chemical elements as to -distinguish them from all other stones; and mineralogists generally -conclude they were not formed on the earth. Whence they come is not -certainly known. That they were formed by an aggregation of their -materials in our atmosphere seems incredible. Nor were they thrown off -by some great convulsion, from the moon, with force sufficient to carry -them beyond the attraction of that body. Perhaps most astronomers now -believe, on what they think sufficient evidence, that the celestial -spaces are occupied by innumerable small bodies moving round the sun, -of whose nature and orbits nothing is certainly known. The earth, -it is supposed, while making its annual circuit, must be constantly -encountering them, and, as in passing rapidly through the upper region -of the atmosphere they take fire and burn, the shooting star or meteor -is simply the light of that flame. The mechanical production of heat, -now well understood, shows why they burn. The rapid motion of the earth, -especially if it be duplicated by that of the minute body striking -through its atmosphere, would generate heat sufficient to quite consume -the meteoroids; so that generally their solid substance is dissipated -before they reach the ground. Sometimes the heated aerolite explodes when -in such proximity to the earth that the fragments fall before they are -consumed. - - -THE AURORA. - -That most interesting atmospheric phenomena, the Aurora Borealis, though -so familiar, has never been fully explained. It is rarely seen in -equatorial latitudes, but increases in frequency and brightness as we go -north, even to the arctic circle. - -In this latitude all observers may at times notice two distinct forms of -the aurora. The one, as we often see it, has a cloud-like appearance, -with a soft radiance permeating it, and seems a vast, irregular patch -of mellow light, ever changing, and at times showing a slightly reddish -or purple tinge. It is more frequently seen near the northern horizon, -having the form of a beautiful arch, the ends of the segment apparently -resting on the horizon, and the middle, or crown, a few degrees above -it. The other takes the form of streamers, reaching far up toward the -zenith. Gently curved, like the celestial sphere on which they are -projected, they are not stationary, but almost constantly in motion, -but soon resuming their former position, spreading themselves out like -immense flags, with their numerous silken folds, ever dancing, quivering, -undulating, as if stirred by some gentle breeze, though all else seems in -calm repose. To say that the phenomena are electrical, would, probably, -not be the whole truth, though evidence is not wanting that the aurora -is in some way connected with the electricity and magnetism of the -earth and its atmosphere. Practical telegraphists testify that during a -brilliant display of “northern lights” such strong, irregular currents of -electricity pass along the wires that it is difficult to send a dispatch; -at other times the currents are so strong that they can communicate -without the battery. - -There is, perhaps, about as much against the theory of a purely -electrical origin, as in its favor, and, on the whole, we conclude -that the Aurora Borealis is one of the things respecting which modern -observations have suggested more difficulties than modern science is yet -able to explain. - - - - -HOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. - -BY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D. D. - -Director of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science. - - -FIRE.—PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. - -Clearness, accuracy, and brevity are the essentials of good definition. -That it is no easy task to combine these, every teacher realizes. - -Perhaps it is near the truth to say that fire is that operation in -nature which at the same time evolves heat and light. The _operation_ -is, at the present time, supposed to be a certain vibration of ethereal -or more solid substances. All matter is in motion. Whence this motion -was first derived no philosopher can tell, unless he goes back to that -primal source of both matter and motion, which in the beginning created -the heavens and the earth, and said, “Let there be light, and there was -light.” - -Prof. James Dwight Dana[1] declares that the first act of creative power -must have been heralded throughout the universe by a flash of light. Thus -the geologist unites with the scriptural narrator, in the statement that -light and heat belonged to the first day of creation, although scoffers -for a long time ridiculed the idea that light could exist without the sun. - -All space is supposed to be filled with a substance called ether, and -that it permeates even solid material. When, for any reason, the natural -motion of the molecules of matter is much increased, these molecules -have the power of imparting their vibration to the ether in contact with -them, and that in turn may produce vibrations in other substances, and if -these vibrations come in contact with the nerves of touch, there follows -the sensation of warmth or heat. If the vibrations of the ether are -still more rapid, when they fall upon the retina, we have the sensation -of sight, and we call the agent light. Heat and light, then, are the -same. In one instance the vibration is capable of affecting one set of -nerves, and in the other, two sets of nerves. The heat-vibration can be -discovered by the sense of touch alone, but the light-vibration may be -detected both by the eye and the touch. - -This variation in sensations, when produced by the same cause, may be -illustrated as follows: Apply some salt to the tongue, and place some -also in a wound, the two sensations are entirely unlike. Again, the -vibrations of a body may be so slow that we can discover them by touch, -as showing resistance, or so rapid that they are reported to the ear -as a shrill sound, or they may be increased so intensely as to evolve -heat, and if still more increased in rapidity, affect the eye as light. -The spectrum affords us still another illustration of this truth. Pass -through a prism a single ray of light, lo, it appears on the screen in -all the colors of the rainbow. Nor is this all; _between_ the bright -colors, and _beyond_ the violet and the red are invisible lines, and the -various parts of the spectrum, although all are produced by the one ray, -are capable of creating quite different results. If one should place -a delicate thermopile below the red color, it at once reports heat, -although the eye sees nothing there. The beautiful colors of the spectrum -flash their light into the eye, raise the temperature of the thermometer -and affect chemical transformations, while, still more wonderful, the -dark lines above the violet, though unseen and not indicated by the -thermopile, act upon the sensitized plate of the photographer with -decided chemical force. Thus changes in vibrations as to rapidity, length -and direction make changes in the resulting sensations. - -Light-waves are always heat-waves, and heat-waves may, by increasing the -rapidity of the vibrations, become light-waves. It will be observed that -three of our senses are close akin. Hearing, feeling (as regards warmth) -and seeing are all produced by vibrations. It is quite in accord with the -doctrine of modern science to believe that the morning stars did “sing -together,” for light is essentially rhythmic, and to senses adapted to -the perception of their harmonies, the sunbeams would make music. The -various colors of the spectrum differ solely in the wave-lengths of their -vibrations. The red corresponds to low pitch in music and the violet to -high pitch. As the vibrations of air striking upon the ear increase in -rapidity, the sound rises in the scale. There is this difference between -the ear and the eye—the former, if trained, can detect all the tones in a -chord of music, while the latter, however cultivated, can not discern the -varied colors blended in white light. - -There must be sixteen vibrations in a second to produce a continuous -sound. When these vibrations reach thirty-eight thousand in a second they -become inaudible. - -Eisenlohr[2] informs us that the red color in the spectrum has four -hundred and fifty-eight trillion vibrations in a second, and extreme -violet seven hundred and twenty-seven trillions. The former yields 37,640 -waves in an inch, and the latter 59,750 waves in the same space. Now -mark another beautiful analogy between sound and sight. In looking at -the spectrum we can not discern the light or heat below the red color, -because the waves are so slow. Ascending the gamut of color, the rapidity -of the vibrations increases, until just _beyond_ the violet it becomes so -great that the eye can detect no color. - -[Illustration: MECHANICAL ENERGY TRANSFORMED INTO ELECTRICITY. - -_Ex._—The boy on the insulated stool is repeatedly struck with some furry -substance, like a tiger skin. He becomes highly electrical and capable of -emitting sparks.] - -The same fact is discovered in the world of sound—beginning with -vibrations which are too slow to be heard at all, we ascend the scale -eleven octaves, when the vibrations become so rapid as to be inaudible. -Complete darkness may be caused by either too slow or too rapid -vibrations of light and heat, and utter silence by the same conditions in -the sound waves. - - -SOURCES OF LIGHT AND HEAT. - -These are five in number: The sun and stars, chemical action, percussion, -friction and electricity. Stars are suns, but at a vast distance from our -earth, the nearest being twenty trillions of miles away. To other systems -they doubtless perform the offices of suns. Being so remote, however, -although of myriad number, their influence upon our earth is hardly -appreciable, and will not, therefore, be here considered. - -[Illustration: GEISSLER’S TUBES.[3] - -_Ex._—This tube is filled with rarefied gases. Platinum wires convey the -electric current through the tube, revealing curious striated sections of -brilliant light, varying in shape and color, with the variety of gas and -the degree of rarefaction.] - -Our sun is an immense reservoir of energy. It is difficult to conceive -its size. It would require twelve hundred thousand of our globes to -equal it in volume. More than one hundred such worlds as ours might be -strung upon the line forming its diameter. The sun has been for ages -throwing off its vibrations of heat and light. Thousands of years before -fires were kindled on hearthstones this form of energy, according to -the modern doctrine of the correlation of forces, was locked up in the -tropical vegetation of the coal periods, and in the great deposits of -coal preserved for future use. The same anticipatory benevolence which -projects on its journey the friendly ray of the north star, forty-three -years before the mariner’s eye can see it, provided fuel for man -thousands of years before it was needed. - -This energy of the sunbeam reappears in the summer warmth of our -dwellings in winter, in the expansion of steam, in the blow of the trip -hammer, and throbs even in the pulsations of the human heart. - -The cells of all plants need the force of the sun’s rays to separate the -carbon from the oxygen contained in the carbonic di-oxide absorbed by -the rootlets and stomata of the leaves. Thus the great luminary builds -the forests and clothes the earth with verdure. “All flesh is grass,” -and therefore to the forces of the sun’s vibrations we must trace not a -little of animal growth and strength. The sun gives out more heat than it -would if six tons of coal were burnt on every square yard of its surface -every hour. Sir John Herschel[4] declares that its light is equal to that -of one hundred and forty-six calcium lights, each one formed of a ball -of lime equal to the sun in bulk; yet even a small calcium light is so -dazzling that the eye can not look steadily at it. - -The careless expression sometimes heard when the moon shines brightly, -“It is as light as day,” is a striking hyperbole, for it would require -eight hundred full moons to equal the brightness of daylight. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC MOTION CONVERTED INTO SPARKS. - -_Ex._—A file is made part of the circuit, and as the wire conducting the -electricity is rubbed along the file, the circuit is alternately formed -and broken, and sparks follow each breaking of the circuit.] - -Of all forms of paganism, that of the Fire Worshipers[5] seems least -unreasonable, for the sun is even now, to us, the best symbol of -beneficence and unfailing energy. After thousands of years it shows -no diminution of power, and although the imagination can conceive the -possibility of its destruction, the most accurate scientific observations -have not discovered the slightest indications of its lessening influence. -“His going forth is from the end of the heaven, and his circuit unto the -ends of it; there is nothing hid from the heat thereof.” - - -CHEMICAL ACTION. - -In a preceding article the chemistry of fire has been considered at -some length. It only remains to mention briefly a few of the physical -phenomena attending it. When elements unite by the force of affinity, -it is supposed that their atoms rush together, and that their motion is -converted into heat. - -In the case of the galvanic battery the impetuous movement of the atoms -toward the poles becomes electricity. We have constantly recurring -instances in nature of that great truth that energy, though constantly -disappearing is never lost, but reappears under new manifestations and a -new name. It may for a time remain dormant, and anon become perceptible, -as in the case of latent heat. For example, in mixing five pounds of -water at a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit, and five pounds of ice, seven -hundred and fifteen units of heat disappear in melting the ice, and the -aggregate temperature of the mass is proportionally lower than that of -the substances united. But upon their returning to their former state, -this latent heat reappears as sensible heat. - -In chemical action producing fire, the uniting materials are usually -converted, first, into a gaseous form, but there are some exceptions. -The most interesting is the following: When a few flakes of iodine are -placed upon a fragment of phosphorus, the atoms of the two elements -rush together with great energy, producing spontaneous combustion, and -liberating sufficient heat to burn the superfluous iodine, with the -evolution of beautiful violet fumes. - -The mechanical action in flame is full of interest. Its brightness always -seems to depend upon the incandescence of solid particles. This can -easily be seen in an ordinary lamp. A piece of cold porcelain inserted in -a flame will cool the incandescent carbon, and it will be deposited as -soot. - -The Bunsen[6] burner clearly proves that the brilliancy of our lights -depends upon the incandescence of the carbon. This is a contrivance for -passing jets of air through a flame, so that the intimate mixing of the -oxygen of the air with the carbon will cause the immediate combustion -of the latter. This results in converting it instantly to invisible gas -(CO₂) before incandescence, and consequently the Bunsen flame, while it -is intensely hot, emits but a feeble light. - -Any _physical_ change that facilitates the movement of atoms seems to -increase the intensity of chemical action. - -[Illustration: SHOWING THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC LIGHT FROM CARBON -POINTS. - -_Ex._—The rods are first placed near together, then as the circuit is -formed they are drawn apart, and the electric light is formed between -them.] - -An instructive experiment illustrating the characteristics of different -kinds of flame may be performed as follows: Place near each other a small -alcohol lamp and a piece of paraffine candle; when lighted observe the -two flames. The three cones in each can be easily discerned, the _candle_ -burns with a much brighter light, showing it to be richer in incandescent -carbon. Insert in each flame a piece of fine wire or narrow strip of -glass, either of these will be much more quickly heated by the alcohol -lamp, because its flame is richer in hydrogen. If a glass jar which is -cold be placed over each, a film of vapor (H₂O) will gather on that -covering the alcohol lamp with greater rapidity than on the other. If the -jars remain over the flames until they are extinguished by the lack of -oxygen, more carbonic anhydride (CO₂) will be formed from the combustion -of the alcohol. - - -PERCUSSION. - -When a blow is arrested by an object, the _motion_ is converted into -heat. The ancient flint-lock gun and the percussion-cap fire-arm both -illustrate this fact. In the former, the descending flint struck out the -spark, and in the latter the cap is exploded by the arrested hammer. -The stroke of a cannon ball is attended with a flash. If the world were -suddenly stopped in its course, heat enough would be generated to set -it on fire. Nitro-glycerine and dynamite are exploded by percussion. -Familiar illustrations of this scientific truth meet us in everyday life. -It has even passed into a proverb with a moral application, that “hard -cracks make the sparks fly.” A novel effect of percussion may have been -noticed when a fall upon the ice has resulted in a mechanical disturbance -of the optic nerve which revealed whole constellations of stars never yet -catalogued. - - -FRICTION. - -It is a spirited sight to watch the operation of sharpening tools upon a -grindstone or emery wheel run by steam. Showers of sparks are produced by -the friction. We often observe the same phenomenon when the brakes are -applied to rapidly revolving car wheels. Rails are heated by the friction -of the passing train. You may have had the misfortune, while riding, to -have one of your carriage wheels become set, caused by the box of the -hub, and the axle becoming so heated by friction as to “unite” their -surfaces. All machinery requires constant watching and lubrication to -prevent undue friction and serious wearing. - -Mills have not unfrequently been set on fire by rapidly revolving belts -coming in contact with the woodwork. When the whale, frantic with the -pain of the harpoon, darts away with lightning speed, the sailors are -compelled to dash water over the spinning wheel on which the rope is -wound. - -In all these instances motion is transformed into heat. - - -ELECTRICITY. - -Galvanic, frictional, magnetic, thermal and animal electricity are all -capable of producing heat. The first also produces an intensely brilliant -light. We have long been acquainted with the “Voltaic arc”[7] of the -galvanic battery, but less familiar are the magnificent manifestations -of frictional electricity. Dynamo-electric machines are of comparatively -recent construction, and their object is to convert mechanical energy -into that of electric currents, and vice versa. - -A striking application of galvanic electricity is frequently seen in -the discharge of gunpowder and other explosives, by making the electric -current pass through a small platinum wire which is in close contact with -them. - -Electric energy is propagated in waves, and this wire, being so small, is -incapable of transmitting them all at once, so they beat upon it until -their repeated blows cause it to become red hot, and the material in -contact is thus ignited. - -Perhaps the grandest illustration of this action was seen in blowing up -the rocks of Hell Gate[8] in the East River, and thus opening a safe -passage for the commerce of the world. The tiny finger of a little child, -the daughter of the engineer, at a given signal, pressed the key that -closed the circuit, and, like Æolus,[9] when he struck the rock, set free -the mighty elements of destruction. - -This same principle, viz.: that resisted motion becomes heat and light, -is seen in both the Brush and the Edison electric lights. In the former, -electric currents pass along wires to carbon points, shaped like a -crayon, and covered by a film of copper, and separated by a distance -of about one half inch. The air between is a non-conductor, and here -the flame is formed. In the Edison light, however, the two conducting -wires enter a glass globe, from which the air is excluded. Here they are -connected with a spiral wire about as large as a knitting needle, and -three-quarters of an inch in length. When the electricity is turned on, -this spiral glows with an intensely brilliant white light. - -[Illustration: SOLIDS DIFFER AS TO CONDUCTING POWER. - -_Ex._—If we hold a pipe stem or rod of glass in one hand and a copper -wire in the other, and apply the ends of these to a flame, the wire will -convey the sensation much more quickly to the hand than the other. This -shows that solids differ as to conducting power.] - -A marvelous illustration of the relation between electric and sound -vibrations is found in the telephone and microphone. The former is -becoming a household necessity; the latter, though not so well known, is -not less wonderful. It brings to our ear the tick of a watch miles away, -and through it the walking of a fly sounds like the tramp of a horse. - - -DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT. - -Heat is distributed by radiation, conduction, and convection. By the -first we mean that heated bodies have the power of projecting from -themselves, by means of the ether, their own vibrations. Thus the sun is -constantly distributing its light and heat in all directions. Conduction -takes place where the molecules of a substance nearest a fire first -become heated and then impart their motion to the remainder of the mass, -somewhat as in a row of suspended ivory balls, the first of which, when -struck, transmits its motion from ball to ball, the last one flying off. - -Convection takes place in liquids and gases. Here the particles in -contact with the heated body becoming lighter by expansion, rise, and are -followed by others, thus forming a current. - -[Illustration: WATER A POOR CONDUCTOR. - -_Ex._—Fill a tube nearly full of water, applying a flame to the upper -part of the tube. The water at this point will readily boil, while that -in the lower part of the tube remains cool, showing that water is a poor -conductor, and that liquids must be heated by convection.] - -The process of warming a room illustrates the three methods of heat -distribution. The heat passes through the stove by conduction, away from -it by radiation, and to the remote parts of the room by convection. - - -EFFECTS OF HEAT. - -They are four in number. Rise of temperature, expansion, liquefaction, -evaporation. The first indication of the presence of heat is discovered -by an elevation in temperature. Though man is not a reliable thermometer, -he would be able, ordinarily, even if blind, to chronicle the progress -of the sun, from horizon to horizon, by the increasing and decreasing -warmth. The little thermometer placed beneath the tongue of the invalid -gives reliable report of the combustion going on within his system. We -see a thousand illustrations of the expansive effects of heat, many of -which are familiar to all. The exceptions are more interesting than the -rule, and less known, the ordinary rule being that heat expands and cold -(absence of heat) contracts. Water _contracts_ by cold until it reaches -the temperature of 39°, and then _expands_ with great violence until -congelation is completed, at 32°. A British officer in Quebec filled a -twelve inch shell with water, and closed the fuse hole with a wooden plug -securely driven in with a mallet. Upon being exposed to intense cold the -plug was projected a distance of several hundred feet, and a long tongue -of ice was found protruding from the opening. - -It is supposed that sufficient heat would convert all solids first into -liquids, and then into gases. In the process of distillation, if we wish -to retain its products, we combine both heating and cooling. - -The knowledge of the melting and vaporizing point of substances is of -immense value. We are enabled thus to drive off and secure the various -ingredients entering into many complex substances. A notable instance -is seen in the means used to secure the rich and varied products of -petroleum. - - -THERMOMETERS. - -These are not the only measurers of heat. We have the pyrometers, used -for ascertaining the temperature of extremely hot bodies, and the -thermo-electric pile, an apparatus which constitutes the most delicate -test for heat which has been devised. It will detect heat in the body of -a fly walking near it. - -[Illustration: SHOWING DISTILLATION. - -_Ex._—Place a small amount of water, colored with ink, in a flask, and -apply heat. The water will be vaporized, and in passing through the -tube, which is surrounded by another tube containing cold water, it is -condensed as a colorless liquid.] - -Thermometers are of three kinds, as to the materials used. They are air, -alcohol, and mercurial. In each case the contraction and expansion of -these respective substances are made to register variations of heat and -cold. They are of three kinds, as to their system of grading—Réaumur’s, -the Centigrade, and Fahrenheit’s. The first two make zero the freezing -point; the last makes 32°. The boiling point of Réaumur’s is 80°, the -Centigrade 100°, and Fahrenheit’s 212°. Once more changing the basis of -classification, we find thermometers divided into three classes, with -reference to the purposes they serve. The ordinary thermometer records -the degree of heat or cold at the moment of observation. The differential -thermometers can be made of two ordinary thermometers, by wrapping a -piece of cloth around the bulb of one; these would show at any given -moment whether it was growing warmer or colder. If it is growing warm, -the column of mercury in the thermometer with the covered bulb will -stand lower than the other, as the cloth prevents the heat reaching the -quicksilver as readily as in the other. If it is higher than in the -other, the weather is growing colder, as the cover prevents the heat from -going off as rapidly as from the other. The third class, the registering -thermometer, is so called because it marks the extremes of temperature. -Without going into detail, it is perhaps sufficient to say that a minute -bar of steel is placed on top of the column of mercury, and remains at -any point to which it is pushed, thus recording the greatest degree of -heat during any given interval of time. Somewhat similar in arrangement -is the alcohol thermometer, marking the greatest degree of cold. It will, -of course, be understood that almost all apparatus is greatly varied to -serve special purposes. The limits of our article will preclude further -discussion of fire in relation to light, although the subject of both -physical and physiological topics is full of fascination and value. - -_End of Required Reading for March._ - -The most important question for the good student and reader is not, -amidst this multitude of books which no man can number, how much he shall -read. The really important questions are, first, what is the quality of -what he does read; and, second, what is his manner of reading it. There -is an analogy which is more than accidental between physical and mental -assimilation and digestion; and, homely as the illustration may seem, -it is the most forcible I can use. Let two sit down to a table spread -with food; one possessed of a healthy appetite, and knowing something -of the nutritious qualities of the various dishes before him; the other -cursed with a pampered and capricious appetite, and knowing nothing -of the results of chemical and physiological investigation. One shall -make a better meal, and go away stronger and better fed, on a dish of -oatmeal, than the other on a dinner that has half emptied his pockets. -Shall we study physiological chemistry and know all about what is food -for the body, and neglect mental chemistry, and be utterly careless as -to what nutriment is contained in the food we give our minds? Who can -over-estimate the value of good books, those ships of thought, as Bacon -so finely calls them, voyaging through the sea of time, and carrying -their precious freight so safely!—_Prof. W. P. Atkinson._ - - - - -THE MOHAMMEDAN UNIVERSITY OF CAIRO. - -BY BISHOP JOHN F. HURST, D. D., LL.D. - - -Years ago I had taken pains to gain all accessible information concerning -the most celebrated, and certainly also the largest, university in the -entire Mohammedan world. In 1871 when in Cairo a number of days, through -lack of a proper guide and full knowledge of this important institution, -I left the city without seeing it. I was determined this time, therefore, -to make sure of a visit to it, and to see carefully, with my own -eyes, this marvel of the Mohammedan faith. The University is located -in a mosque, and is, in fact, the one chief business of the mosque -itself. Religion—such as it is—is the fundamental feature of all Moslem -education. Not a science is taught in any school of Mohammedanism which -does not begin with the Koran, and again come back to it. Whether law -or medicine or geometry—in fact, whatever is communicated to the young, -the first and ever predominant lesson imparted with it and through it -is, that the Koran is the fountain of all science. Very naturally, then, -the school is a part of the service of the mosque. This idea is not new. -It is an oriental habit. We find proofs even in the Scriptures that the -church was God’s first school. In ancient Egypt the temple, the palace, -and the school were the perfected trinity in every city, and often the -temple and the school were so closely enclosed that no careful observer -could tell where one began and the other ended. The same idea re-appears -in the arrangements which Charlemagne made for the higher education of -the Frankish empire. The school was often located under the palace and in -close connection with the chapel roof, and was called _scholia palatina_, -or the school of the palace. At first the object seems to have been that -the emperor’s children and other children of the court might have the -best opportunity for learning; but very soon the limits became broader, -and all who wanted to learn could have every advantage, within close -distance of both church and palace. - -The approach to the University of Cairo is a narrow street, with -open booths on either side, where the artisans ply their crafts in -full view of every passer-by. Three industries take the lead of all -others—book-selling, book-binding, and hair-shaving. The nearest street -to the University bears the name of the Street of the B, and such it -may well be called. The Mohammedan has always a shaven head. He wears a -great turban, of white or some other color. Green is the most infrequent -shade, for that indicates that the wearer is a descendant of the prophet -Mohammed. Not one hair is allowed under that turban. When it gets a -little long the barber must shave the pate as clean as an ostrich egg. -All along a part of the street leading to the University the barbers sit -on the floors their shops, and shave the heads of their customers. The -one to be shaved does not sit in a chair, but simply stretches out full -length on the floor and puts his head in the lap of the barber, who also -sits on the floor, with his feet doubled up under him. Then begins the -process of shaving. It is a most lowly operation. No paper is used during -the process, the barber getting rid of the shaved hair and soap by wiping -the razor on his customer’s face until the entire tonsorial feat is -finished and an ablution of cranium and face is in order. In addition to -the barber shops there are probably not less than twenty-five book shops, -as many binderies, and a good number of stationery stalls. These are all -of modest dimensions, but are well stocked with everything that a student -needs that is to say, a student of the Mohammedan order. - -Between the point where the street ends and the University enclosure -proper, there is a large fore-court. Here one sees such a medley of all -forms of life and strange habits, in connection with study, that he can -never forget it. It is the place where no serious study goes on, but -where the news is discussed and conversation enjoyed. Even the barbers -have spilled over into this court, for I saw a number of them busily -shaving the heads of outstretched students. One of them, seeing a Frank -scanning his work, stopped a moment, and holding up his razor from the -pate which he had nearly made bald again, asked me if I did not want -to be shaved too. I thanked him—but had not time. Imagine a half-dozen -students lying about in Mead Hall, in Drew Seminary, near the doors of -Drs. Butts, or Strong, or Miley, or Crooks, or Upham, and having their -heads shaved by busy barbers, who sit flat on the marble floor and -relieve the crania of their theological patrons of their last capillary -endowment! Then think of students munching at a crust of dark bread or a -pomegranate, or some edible, good or poor, according to his resources. -Some students have families, and here the children come and play about -them, at times when their fathers are not busy with their books. So far -as I could see, there was no formal studying in this great fore-court. -Perhaps there were a hundred persons in it, lying, sitting, walking. -Some alone with their meditations, others entertaining a group of eager -listeners, and gesticulating with oriental realism. Only one class had -the appearance of any work, a group of boys. One of the number displeased -his teacher, whereupon the latter beat him smartly with his fist until -the little fellow’s eyes swam in tears; my blood fairly boiled at the -teacher’s cruelty. I thought I was already in the University proper, but -this was a serious error. The institution was yet to come; I was only -approaching the great establishment. - -I had no sooner touched the threshold of the great central hall than -a man met me, and, with a most polite salaam, informed me that I must -now put on slippers. He was a magnificent specimen of a well developed -Egyptian—tall, muscular, grave, yet pleasant, and only answering such -questions as were put to him. Unlike the European guides in blue and -brass, those of Africa have no stereotype speeches which they hurl -at you, as they have done at the thousands before you. In a moment -four pairs of soft slippers, of yellow sheepskin, were brought to my -companions and myself, and the wary hands which brought them slipped -them on over our boots and tied them on with red strings. We were now to -enter upon the holy stone floor of the great hall of Mohammedan learning, -and only holy dust must fall upon that tessellated floor, and then only -with softest touch. Here was a scene which baffles all description. The -hall was about two hundred and fifty feet long and two hundred wide. -All the classes were reciting, engaged in work, or listening to the -professor. Every one who recited did it loudly. I stood beside one of -the theological professors and watched his method. His class numbered -forty students, whose various physiognomies showed that they had come -from every part of the broad Mohammedan world. The professor sat squat -on the floor, with his bare feet doubled up about him. There is no craze -as yet among Mohammedans for only young teachers. This man, like many -others, had long since passed beyond middle life. His heavy gray beard -and very dark face were lighted up by as keen a pair of black eyes as -ever became diamonds, when they saw in his young days the prophet’s torch -in Mecca, or in vision beheld the curtain drawn aside which hides the -Moslem paradise from human sight. The forty students sat about him in a -circle, yet in such way that all were before him at once. He was one of -the circle, in fact, and as he taught he swayed to and fro, and looked -off into the distance as if in reverie, and then again at his class, and, -with an intensity that only an Arab possesses, he burned his ideas into -the very brain of the students. He sat at the foot of a stone pillar, and -leaned against it at intervals, when his weary form needed a little rest. - -This theological professor had the method of all. He held a thin book in -his hand which seemed to be his own brief, and, after reading snatches -from it, he gave a comment or explanation of it, and then had one student -and then another repeat what he had said. Our American infant class -method of teaching verses, and having them committed to memory while the -class are together, and then repeating them, so that the teacher can -see that the work is well and surely done, is precisely the method of -both elementary and advanced education in this greatest university of -the Mohammedan world. The brief of this theological professor was merely -his collection of definitions, and these were committed to memory on the -spot. Some of the students had sheets of tin, something smaller than the -sheets of roofing tin with which we are familiar in the United States. On -these they wrote in ink, with reed styles, and with such dexterity that a -whole page was filled in a very short time. What was written on these tin -slates was taken away, and designed to be committed to memory, when that -process was not finished during the session of the class. - -Now the entire floor of this immense hall was covered with classes -at work. No teacher or student sat in a chair. There was not even a -footstool in the entire University. The professors and students formed -little or large groups all over the immense space, no class interfering -with another, and each going on with its work as if alone, and yet not a -partition or a curtain dividing the groups at study. I saw only a little -eating here, an occasional student slily making a lunch of new dates, the -fruit with “gold dust” on it, now just in from the country. - -I could not help noticing the various ages of the students. Some were -really very advanced in years. They were waked up very late in life. -Something had broken loose under their twenty-five yards of cotton cloth -which they call a turban, and they had come down the Nile with the rise, -or had been wafted from the Darfur sands, and were going to study. They -could do more, and be more, when they went back again. Here, too, was -the old-time idea. The notion that a university is a thing for the young -alone is a modern affair. The old conception was, it was everybody’s -place—the _universum_ of men as well as studies. In Mohammedanism, as in -Christianity, when once the passion for learning strikes one, the years -count nothing. The person in the fifties or even in sixties is just as -apt to be overwhelmed, swept on, by the learning frenzy as though he were -only eighteen and smitten by other inspirations. - -The entire number in attendance at this greatest University of the -Mohammedans is about thirteen thousand. Some calculations place it at -fifteen thousand. They come from every part of the world where the -cimetar of Mohammed and his successors has drawn blood, and where the -crescent now floats. Each part of the large hall has its nation, where -the students are grouped territorially. Here, in one place, are the -Benguelese, from southwestern Africa; in another place are the Algerines, -from the sound of the Mediterranean surf. Yonder are only Thracians, from -south of the Balkans. This group, as black as your hat, consists entirely -of Nubians. Another is made up solely of natives of Zanzibar. These -divisions reach into nearly all the Asiatic and African lands. There are -Afghanistaneze and others from still farther east, from the very heart of -India, and even from the far Pacific islands. One has only to see these -collections of students, massed around a teacher of their own language -and nationality, to become convinced of the broad field of Mohammedanism -and the mightiness of the effort needful to uproot it. - -Poverty! That is no name for the condition of the students. They come to -Cairo from the far-off regions, impelled by some passion bordering on -that for learning, living on a little crust and fruit, having no sleeping -place at night save the space of the sacred mosque which serves as a -university, never paying a piastre for all the instruction of years, and -looking forward with earnest longing to the time when they can leave -again and impart to their native villages, or the very desert wastes, the -wisdom which they have gained in the shades of the great hall of learning -in the Cairo of the caliphs. There is a dash of self-seeking in their -coming hither. When the tocsin of war is sounded, there is no exemption -from conscription save learning. He who has once entered the doorway is -safe from the conscription list. Were an attack made on the very citadel -where Mohammed Ali put to death every plotting Mameluke—except one, who -leaped upon his faithful Arab steed and plunged safely into the depths -below—nothing could touch him. He has come to the fountain of knowledge, -and Mars has no claim upon him. At the present time the number of -students is not so large as usual, for there is no fear of a war, except -such as the English are fighting and holding themselves responsible for. -I looked carefully at the kind of food which these students ate, and in -all cases it was of the simplest quality. Some were taking their solid -dinner, and it was nothing more than a rude bowl of lentil soup or a flat -cake of pounded grain. The clothing in most cases betokened the same -poverty. The slippers were of rude construction, such as fifteen cents -would buy, and even these are to be worn at the general prayer, which -begins the day for all the students, only to be laid aside during the -later hours. The habit is a loose black, or other colored robe, which -has become threadbare by long usage. I am sure I saw many students, and -professors as well, whose entire dress could not have cost five francs -apiece. This dress they have on, moreover, is the whole scope of their -wardrobe. When they get another suit it will probably be when they reach -home again, and enter upon their calling for life. - -The professors get no salary. They have passed through various stages -of learning, and when once they have committed every word of the Koran, -and perhaps some of the more noted commentaries on it to memory, and -have given other proofs of aptness at teaching, they are declared able -to instruct. But they get no pay for teaching. Neither the University -treasury pays them, nor does the student do it. Their instruction is -positively gratuitous. Now, if by copying the Koran or other book, or -by private teaching in families, or by doing some outside manual work, -they can be supported, well and good. But for sitting squat on the sacred -marble floor and teaching students the holy laws, and all the holy -sciences that come from them, there must be no itching palm. This is the -one place, and only one, so far as I can recall, where I have been where -there has been no call for backsheesh. - -How, then, is this immense establishment supported? I answer, that many -students are sustained, and so permitted to remain at the University, -by the funds of the institution. The treasury, instead of taking care -of the professor, goes rather to keeping the student from starvation. -There are many endowments which have fallen into the hands of the state -which constitute a large part of this treasury. Education has always been -an attractive investment, and many Mohammedans have left sums of money -for this purpose, and so the University of Cairo owes a good part of -its wealth to this source. Again, when funds fall from certain causes, -into the treasury of the state—perhaps property for which there are no -heirs—it is devoted to this purpose. The building and all its belongings, -and all really needy students are thus provided for. Out of the three -hundred professors and other teachers, only one is paid a salary. He -is the general director, or rector, and his salary amounts to 10,000 -piastres, or about five hundred dollars of our money. - -Of one thing I was very careful to make inquiry. I mean as to the bearing -of this institution on the propagation of Mohammedan ideas. In all -descriptions I had become familiar with concerning the great purpose -of the students, the thought was made predominant that the students -went away with a missionary zeal, and became intense propagators of -the faith throughout their lives. The Rev. Mr. Harvey, of that noble -cause and magnificent institution for Egypt, the United Presbyterian -Mission, from the United States, was a very kind escort during my visit. -He has been many years a resident of Cairo, and is very familiar with -every form of Mohammedan life, and he informs me that this zeal for the -Moslem faith does not exist, that the students do not go away with it, -and never exhibit it, except in rare cases, in later life. Their stay -in the University may be long. They may be three or four or five years, -and if no way to work opens they may spend most of their life there, -but whenever they do leave, sooner or later, they go off not simply as -teachers of theology, but as jurists, mathematicians, or professional -men of other callings, and religion is less in mind than secular work. -Even when they go out as imams, or priests, that profession carries -with it certain functions which belong both to the town clerk or the -district judge, and hence the priesthood is absorbed in certain legal and -administrative functions which eclipse the sacred office altogether. As -to a burning zeal to disseminate Mohammedanism, it does not exist. It has -no unquenchable love for itself, and is only continuing its own means of -propagation because of something better. That something better is at its -doors, and is beginning to thread the labyrinths of the Dark Continent. -In due time Christianity will do for Africa what it has done for Europe, -and is this day doing for the half of Asia. - -The darkest feature of my visit to the University was the absence of -women. Alas! you never see the Mohammedan woman in these oriental -lands, save with veiled face and hesitant step. Only yesterday I saw -a handsome carriage being driven along one of the principal Cairene -streets, preceded by a gaily dressed herald, who cried, “Make way, make -way,” as is the fashion here still. The silken curtains were drawn, -but the occupants were two ladies. They must live in the dark. In the -mosque they must sit in the lofty spaces, far back behind the wooden -screen work, and even then be veiled. The very small girls, who trip -about with little rattling and tinkling bells around their ankles, are -hardly old enough to learn the way to the next street before the veil is -drawn over their face, and only their little eyes are permitted to look -out. In the multitudes which I saw at the University, both as students -and teachers, there was but one woman. She was probably the wife of a -professor, and had come merely to bring the learned man his dinner, and -then slip back again to the dark rear room of the house misnamed a home, -and await his coming, and be the menial still to prepare his evening -meal. Mohammedanism has no place for woman in its educational system. Its -best interpretation of her office is that she is simply man’s slave. But -the better day is coming, and may it soon be here, when the right of all -women, in all these oriental countries, to the highest and the largest -knowledge, shall be recognized as equal to that of any men beneath the -shining sun. - - - - -AS SEEING THE INVISIBLE. - -BY MRS. EMILY J. BUGBEE. - - - To stand at the post of duty - Whether we rise or fall, - If this be a place of beauty, - Or the homeliest lot of all. - - To walk with a soul undaunted - In the God appointed way, - Whether with praise enchanted, - Or in shadow land it lay. - - The good of the world’s bestowing - Is vanishing as the air, - And its loftiest honors throwing - A burden of ceaseless care. - - But to live as always seeing - The invisible source of things - Is the blessedest state of being, - In the quietude it brings. - - For in all of the strife and clamor, - And the evil that is done, - We know that the Lord will finish - The good that he hath begun. - - And we need not grope in blindness - Because of the dreadful days, - But sure of the Infinite kindness - May stand in the certain ways. - - Oh! for a strong uplifting - And a courage that will stand - While the Judge of the earth is sifting - The peoples of every land. - - Oh! Earth so full of the glory - Reflected from above, - We wait for your finished story, - In the faith of a deathless love. - - - - -NATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION. - -PART II. - -BY GENERAL JOHN A. LOGAN, - -U. S. Senator from Illinois. - - -Having ascertained the extraordinary fact, from a close analysis of -tabulations of authoritative statistics furnished by the Census and -Education Bureaus, that, assuming the cost of educating a child in -Mississippi, Tennessee, and West Virginia to be equal to such cost in the -New England states, every one hundred adults in the former pay more to -educate the children in those states than is paid by the same number of -adults in any one of the latter, let us explore a little further for the -reasons underlying that fact. - -It might naturally be asked: How can these calculations be correct, when, -for example, we learn from the report of the Commissioner of Education -that Massachusetts pays annually for each child enrolled in her schools -$15.44, while Mississippi pays but $3.38? - -There are several factors which aid in bringing about this result. -Some of these can be exactly ascertained; others of them, for want of -statistics, can not. - -In the first place, the $15.44 per scholar which Massachusetts pays -amounts to but $4.98 per capita of her adult population, while the $3.38 -per scholar that Mississippi pays amounts to $2.12 per capita of her -adult population. Hence the real difference, so far as the payers of the -cost are concerned, is only $2.86 per capita. - -Another cause of this difference or inequality is the fact that -Massachusetts pays her teachers, on an average, about $49.06 per month, -while Mississippi pays hers only $30.07. While this doubtless affects -the efficiency and equality of the education, it does not necessarily -indicate a less number of pupils. - -Still another cause lies in the fact that while the length of the -school year is in Massachusetts one hundred and seventy-seven days, in -Mississippi it is but seventy-seven days. - -And still another may grow out of the larger proportion of teachers -employed in Massachusetts than in Mississippi, for we find that while in -the former, one teacher is employed for every 35.7 enrolled scholars, in -the latter, one is employed for every 42.5. - -These items enable us to understand why there are differences between the -amounts paid in the two states, and what those differences are that exist -under the present order of things. - -We perceive, therefore, that while a strict scrutiny may bring to -light the facts that the education in the one state or section is more -efficient, the terms of school attendance longer, and the amount paid for -school purposes more liberal than in the other, yet this in no wise tends -to invalidate the statistics heretofore presented, nor to affect the -argument based thereon. Although it may be true that Massachusetts spends -more than $15.00 per scholar while Mississippi spends less than $3.50, it -is also true that the latter has forty-eight pupils enrolled in school -to every one hundred adults, while the Bay State has but thirty-three; -and that while it costs the adults of the Northern state but $4.98 each -to pay this $15.44, a similar service, similarly compensated, for its -enrolled scholars would cost the adults of the Southern one $9.70 each. - -The fact, then, that this remarkable inequality in the cost of educating -the children of the different localities in the Union does exist, can not -be successfully controverted; and that there is no method of equalizing -the burden save by government aid can not be truthfully denied. - -The time has gone by when it could be said that Mr. A., who is poor in -this world’s goods, but surrounded by a full household of ruddy youths, -must provide for their education from his own depleted pocket, just -as Mr. B., who is rich, and has but a single child, provides for its -instruction out of his plethoric pocket. - -The principle is now fully acknowledged that it is the duty of the state -or government—of the people, as a body-politic—to bear this burden, and -thus to equalize it. This is the principle upon which our common school -system is founded, which, notwithstanding the tax it imposes, is even -now looked upon by the people as one of our most important institutions, -second only to the republican basis on which our government is founded. - -To bring this vital institution as near to perfection as is possible, -to distribute its benefits as equally as possible, to render the tax as -light as is consistent with efficiency, and to bring the burden to bear -as equally as is practicable on all sections and localities, should be -one great aim of our Federal legislation. - -All the great nations of Europe are beginning to throb with the divine -impulse which is first seen in the great, questioning eyes of the -speechless babe. Some of them have lain for long centuries encrusted -in the densest ignorance, and awake but sluggishly to a realization of -the tremendous national power, which others have long since discovered, -embedded in the education of the masses. Thus Russia, with her -population of 78,500,000, although almost exhausting herself with -wars for territorial aggrandizement, has awakened to the necessity of -granting to her schools $9,000,000 annually—a mere pittance for such -a nation, yet containing the germ of higher promise. So also Austria, -with her population of 22,144,244, is slowly stirring. Education there -is now made obligatory, and in 1881 she supplemented prior national aid -to it by a grant of $6,500,000. Italy, in 1882, with a population of -28,000,000, gave like aid to the extent of $6,200,000, beside providing -school buildings and other necessary desiderata—previous aid having -borne good fruit in a marked decrease of illiteracy. Prussia, with a -population of 27,251,067, is fortunate in the possession of endowed -schools with regular incomes. Yet she gave national aid to education -to the extent of $10,000,000 in 1881, and $11,458,856 in 1882. France, -with a population of some 37,000,000—independent of the millions of -dollars expended for a like purpose annually by her departments and -communes—gave in 1881-2 to the extent of $22,717,880 for the education -of her masses. Little Belgium, with a population of but 5,403,006—about -one twelfth of ours—in 1882 gave national aid to education to the extent -of about $4,000,000; for she perceives, as a direct consequence of -periodical aid of this character, that Belgian illiteracy is surely and -rapidly decreasing, while in like ratio her prosperity is increasing. -Great Britain is similarly alive to the necessity for government aid to -elementary schools. Such aid was given by her in 1882 to those in England -and Wales, whose united population is 25,968,286—less than half the -number we boast—to the extent of £2,749,863, or—roughly calculating at -five dollars to the pound—nearly $14,000,000. This, too, in a land that -is also rich in well endowed universities, colleges, grammar schools, -and other institutions of learning. Such aid was also given in 1882-3 -to elementary schools in Scotland, whose population is but 3,734,370, -to the extent of £468,512, or, say $2,342,560; and to Ireland, with a -population of 5,159,839, to the extent of £729,868, or, say $3,648,340. -Thus, in addition to the great educational advantages arising from -the numerous well founded and amply endowed educational institutions -for the various grades and classes of the British people that have -long existed in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, we find the -government of the United Kingdom aiding elementary instruction to the -extent of about $20,000,000 in one year—the combined population being -but 34,862,495 souls; the United States, with a larger population, is -without the advantages either of such national aid or such endowed -schools as those countries possess. Even the colonies of Great Britain -are equally impressed with the importance and essential necessity of -general public education. Taking as an example that one of her colonies -with which our relations are most intimate—the province of Ontario. Its -population comprises but 1,913,460 souls, yet the amount expended there -upon education in 1880 reached $3,414,267. A similar ratio of expenditure -to the total population—counting the latter at 55,000,000—would call for -nearly $100,000,000 in the United States. - -But while it may be of interest to note what other peoples and other -governments are doing toward the advancement of general education within -their borders, and while the contrast with that which is done, or fails -to be done, in the same direction in the United States, furnishes food -for instruction and ultimate benefit, yet it by no means follows that -this nation, destined, as every one of its citizens proudly believes, -to march in the van of the world’s civilization, is to limit its aims, -its labors, its appropriations in the furtherance of education—the -prime factor in all civilization—by the standards of other nations. The -rather should the comparison, while it may for the moment bring to our -cheeks the blush of shame, act as a stimulus to higher effort and larger -expenditure, if necessary on our part to reach that preëminent position -of prosperity, power, and enlightenment, of which the intellectual -alertness of our people and the genius of our institutions give abundant -promise. - -In considering this subject we must not fail to remember that among the -nations of the world ours stands alone in this: that here the sovereignty -is in the people. An ignorant sovereignty is a tyrannical sovereignty, -whether held by the many or the few. Its capabilities for good can -alone be drawn out by education. That Liberty sits enthroned in this -land is due solely to education and that proper spirit of freedom and -independence in thought and action which is begotten of education. As has -been well said by another: “We have gained all that we possess by reason -of the education of the individual, and we hold it upon the same tenure. -What we hold for ourselves we hold for mankind, and we hold it for both -upon the same condition by which it was gained, and that is the continued -and universal education and development of the people.” - -Every child born in this great republic is born with the inherent right -to be educated. He is born heir to that popular sovereignty which, upon -coming of age, he is entitled to exercise. The coming responsibilities -rest upon him from his very cradle up. He has an absolute right to such -an education as will enable him to properly meet them. His parents who -brought him into the world weighted with such responsibility, did it -with the implied obligation on their part to give him that education -without which his birth would be either a mockery or a crime. As with the -parents, so with the state-local, and so with the state-national. If the -parents fail in meeting this obligation it becomes a binding obligation -upon the state-local, and if the state-local fails the obligation -devolves upon the nation. - -Again, the obligation of every parent in this republic to educate his -children so as to enable them in due time to intelligently and wisely -exercise the great power of the franchise, implies the obligation on his -part to give them, up to that point, _equal_ educational advantages. -By a parity of reasoning it logically follows that in case of failure -by parent or state-local—whether from inability or other cause—the -obligation to secure to all children within its domain not only -facilities, but equal facilities, for the attainment of a sufficient -education to enable them to cast an intelligent ballot, rests upon the -nation. Nor does this obligation cease when such equal facilities are -provided. It goes further. It extends, if necessary, to the compulsion -of those children to avail themselves of the facilities which the nation -provides for their education. - -That it is the right, then, of every American child to have a rudimentary -education, and that it should be equal to that of every other American -child, seems clear; and that where, through any cause, that child fails -to get such education, it is the duty of the national government to -enable him to gain it, seems equally manifest. - -To what extent, and from what resources, the nation should grant this -educational aid to its children, and through what channels and upon what -basis the distribution of that aid should be made, are subjects that will -now command our attention. - -The burden of educating the children of the nation is a heavy one—a fact -perhaps not as fully realized by our rulers and legislators as it ought -to be. From the report of the Commissioner of Education, 1882-3, it -appears that the estimated real value of sites, buildings, and all other -school property in all the states and territories, is $216,562,197. That -of course is the existing “school plant” as it may be termed; but to get -such a “school plant”—utterly insufficient as it may be—has been more -or less burdensome. From the same authority it appears that the amount -imposed and expended for common school purposes, in all the states and -territories for 1880, was $91,158,039; a large sum, yet after all but -little more than half the amount absolutely needed in order to provide -adequate school facilities for all entitled thereto. - -A careful and conservative estimate founded upon all attainable data -will show that not less than $160,000,000 annually must be provided to -secure the education of all the children of our country of lawful age. Of -this amount, provision, as we have seen, is already made in the various -states and territories to the extent of over $90,000,000 annually. Of the -various measures relating to the subject of national aid to education -that have been urged upon the attention of Congress, none has ventured to -appropriate a larger annual sum[J] than $50,000,000. Should Congress at -any time make an appropriation of that amount, there would still be an -annual deficiency of some $20,000,000. - -It is not at all certain that our national legislators have considered -the magnitude of the subject with which they are to deal, nor that they -have all investigated it with that degree of care and seriousness which -it plainly deserves and even demands at their hands. - -Every one, without controversy, admits the importance of educating -our children; and without doubt, every one of our legislators has not -only a warm and friendly feeling for this work, but also a willingness -to do something to afford it national aid. But with how many of them -is this a willingness without a formed and definite purpose? It were -almost better that the importance of such education should be a disputed -point—that a storm of controversy should arise and shake them in its -throes, forcing them to lay hold of the very horns of the sacred altar -of education—rather than that the dead, arid level of inert concession -should bring forth nothing save a deceptive mirage. It is time to wake up -to the fact that government aid in the line of education means nothing -unless it be in the form of an annual appropriation of sufficient amount -to produce tangible results. - -Do our legislators appreciate the significant fact that of the -$91,158,039 expended on the public schools in the thirty-eight states -and nine territories and the District of Columbia during 1882, more than -one quarter of that entire expense was borne by the three states of -Illinois, Ohio, and Iowa? That nearly one third of that great expense was -borne by and expended in the four states of New York, Ohio, Illinois and -Pennsylvania? That more than one half of it was borne by and expended -in the six states of New York, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Iowa and -California? That nearly two thirds of it all was borne by and expended in -the nine states of California, Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, -Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio and New York? - -Of what practical avail, then, is the bill[K] which passed the United -States Senate on the 7th of April last, so far, at least, as the amount -to be appropriated is concerned? It proposes to appropriate a total -amount of $77,000,000. That amount certainly sounds well and looks -generous at first sight. But how is it appropriated? Let us see. - -This $77,000,000 that looks so large and adequate, is to be scattered -over the whole country, and over a period of eight years, thus: - -The first year, $7,000,000—which is much less than Illinois alone gives -in one year for her own children; the second year, $10,000,000—which -is much less than Massachusetts and Iowa together give in one year for -their own children; the third year, $15,000,000—which is much less than -Ohio and Pennsylvania together give for one year’s schooling of their -own children; the fourth year, $13,000,000—or about what Massachusetts, -Indiana, and Wisconsin together give a year for such purposes; the -fifth year, $11,000,000—or less than New York alone gives in one year; -the sixth year, $9,000,000—very little more than Ohio alone gives; -the seventh year, $7,000,000—or only a trifle more than Missouri and -California together give in a year; and the eighth year, $5,000,000—or a -trifle over what Indiana gives, and less than Iowa gives, in one year! - -Now, if such appropriations as these are not absurdly inadequate, what -are they? - -They are limited to eight years, and during those eight years the mean -average annual appropriation is less than $10,000,000. Think of it for -a moment. An amount ($9,625,000) appropriated by Congress to cure the -illiteracy of the whole nation—only $1,057,325 more than Illinois now -spends in a year for educational purposes; only $1,361,755 more than -Pennsylvania spends, and only $804,086 more than is spent by Ohio; while -it is $1,797,593 less than the state of New York expends in a single year -within her borders for like purposes! - -Take the exact figures of the census returns, and the amount actually -needed is easily ascertained for that year—though it must be remarked -that the amount needed is not remaining the same, nor diminishing, but -increasing every succeeding year. The school population in 1880 was -16,243,822. To educate that population required an assumed average -annual expenditure of not less than $10 each, or $162,438,220. The real -expenditure was but $91,158,039. Hence there was in that year a necessity -for an expenditure of at least $72,085,783 more than was actually -expended. - -But let us examine the statistical facts a little more closely. It is -true that the school population then was 16,243,822, but it is also -true that of that number only 10,013,826 were enrolled in the public -schools, and of these again only 6,118,331 took advantage of their -opportunities for instruction by daily attendance at those schools. -Here, then, we find that the $91,158,039 was expended in educating the -6,118,331 children who daily attended school, and that the actual average -cost per scholar, therefore, was $14.90, and not $10. We discover also, -that while 6,118,331 children were in daily attendance at the public -schools, 3,895,495 children on the rolls of such schools were not in -daily attendance, and that 6,229,996 other children of school age had -not even the opportunity or facilities for any such education! It is -plain, therefore, that had the 10,125,491 children of school age in the -two latter classes—those who failed to take advantage of the school -opportunities offered them, and those who had no such opportunities -at all—been compelled, as they should be (except in case of sickness -or other very sufficient cause), to daily attend public schools, then -instead of the $91,158,039 actually expended in such schools that year, -there should have been expended $242,027,855 that year, in order to give -all children of school age an equal educational chance. In other words, -the expenditure, as compared with the necessities of the case, left a -deficit for that one year of $150,869,816. - -Now it is to make up for the deficiencies in the school facilities -already provided in the states and territories, that Congressional -legislation and national aid is proposed. But it would puzzle the -combined mathematicians of all countries and ages to demonstrate that -an annual deficiency of $150,000,000, or more, can be made up by an -expenditure of $77,000,000, dribbled out in annual sums varying from -$5,000,000 to $15,000,000, during eight successive years. - -While, however, to meet the necessities of the case fully and absolutely -would call for enormous annual appropriations, yet as the utmost -conservatism and moderation should govern all experimental legislation -involving large appropriations, so in legislating upon this subject -it were safer to adopt the basis and estimate of least requirement -heretofore given, and adopt $50,000,000 as the amount that should be -annually appropriated for this important purpose. - -It is to be kept in mind, also, that an annual appropriation to this -extent need not add one dollar to the burden of taxation now borne by the -people. - -In this connection it is not necessary to discuss any of the questions -relating to the methods of raising our national revenue. Whatever -differences of opinion there may be touching those methods or means, -it must be conceded that our nation, under the present system and -laws, holds a high and even commanding position among the civilized -governments of the world, and that our people are enjoying more than -an average degree of prosperity. It is our duty to use every effort to -advance to still higher prosperity. In the meantime, however, any bill -appropriating national aid to education should be based upon our present -condition. Our revenue now exceeds our expenditures per annum by fully -the amount ($50,000,000) sought to be appropriated by the bill referred -to. Hence its enactment would not add one dollar to the taxes already -imposed. It follows, then, that should Congress be asked to support a -measure making annual appropriation of $50,000,000, derived from the -internal revenue taxes and the sale of public lands, for school purposes, -opposition to such a measure on the pretext that it would impose -additional burdens upon the people would be flimsy and without force, -and only transparently veil an opposition to increased facilities for -educating our children. - -If our children are to be provided with adequate facilities for proper -and necessary instruction, the burden must be imposed in some form; and -none can be devised that will bear more equally upon all, and be felt as -little as this. - -It is an old truism that “every rose hath its thorn.” The advance of -civilization and knowledge has its drawbacks as well as its advantages. -This is manifested very distinctly in one direction in our own country. -The rapid invention and introduction of labor-saving machinery has had -a very marked tendency to draw the laboring population from the rural -districts, and congregate it at the manufacturing centers. This, although -it may be attended with many important advantages, has some very serious -disadvantages, and is, perhaps, in part the cause of the serious contests -we have seen of late years between capital and labor. It increases the -population of the cities, and proportionately decreases that of the rural -districts, and, as a consequence, increases the cost of living, as it -advances the price of property in the cities. It also tends very largely -to increase the power and influence of corporations, monopolies, and -other associations of this kind. The single item of transportation is -vastly enlarged by this fact, and thus is increased the necessity for, -and the power of, the railroads of our country. The effect of bringing -together at these manufacturing centers large bodies of employés is, that -for self-protection, combinations of labor, as against the encroachments -of capital, are formed. Irritation and contests follow. - -It is from these facts that we are confronted with one of the most -difficult problems forced upon any nation for solution—a problem which -thus far seems to be beyond the reach of legislation. - -To check the advance of scientific and inventive genius, or to stop the -progress of knowledge, is neither desirable, practicable, nor possible. - -The only possible solution of this perplexing problem would seem to -lie in the education of the masses, and thus elevating the laboring -population as nearly as may be to the educational level of the -capitalists—the rural districts to the educational level of the cities. -By adequate national and state legislation, very marked and important -progress in this respect may be secured. Should the government adopt -the policy of adequate national aid to education, its distribution -according to the number of persons under twenty-one years of age would -perhaps be the best basis for such distribution at the start, but future -experience and more exact knowledge would, no doubt, enable the remedy -to be applied, in due time, more exactly to our needs. At present the -statistics of illiteracy are not sufficiently definite and thorough -to take them as a reliable guide in determining the basis for the -distribution of so large an amount of funds. - -One means, however, of meeting the difficulty named—one possible step -toward the solution of this puzzling problem—is certainly within our -reach. Educate the masses, elevate the laboring and producing population, -and bring them up as nearly as possible to the educational plane already -reached by those who hold and wield the moneyed power. - -Education increases our wants and demands; increase in demand brings -increase in supply; and this of necessity increases the demand for labor. - -Economy on the part of the nation as well as the individual is a correct -principle, and holds good in all states and conditions of life, but we -must not forget that it is a relative term. For the individual who can -neither read nor write to expend money for books and writing materials -is a useless expenditure; but would you count that an extravagance on -the part of him who can do both, so long as he keeps within his wants -and means? What constitutes the difference in the application of the -principle to the two cases? _Education._ - -The pioneer farmer may have spent a life of patient toil on his farm, -satisfied to live in his log cabin, with possibly a single room, a -puncheon floor, and a clapboard door, unable to read or write—an -upright, honest man, and probably as nearly contented as it falls to the -lot of mortals to be. But mark the change! His sons and daughters are -growing up toward manhood and womanhood; the free school has invaded -his neighborhood; and they attend it. How soon it affects the household -arrangements, manners, dress, and everything about the family! What -has wrought the change? Education. Their wants, and what are now their -necessities, are greatly increased. What follows? The desire to meet and -supply these wants brings increased effort and industry for the purpose. -And every family thus advanced in its views of what is necessary to -comfort and happiness increases to the same extent the demand upon the -producer and manufacturer, and thus widens the field of labor. Hence the -solution of this great and knotty problem is to be reached chiefly by the -education of the masses—by raising them toward educational equality with -the wealthy. - -There are many who delight in picturing the days of primitive simplicity, -when wants were few and easily supplied; but is there one of these -moralizers who would willingly go back to them? “Strict economy as -gauged by our means” is a correct maxim everywhere and at all times. -But civilization and enlightenment are progressive, and no laws save -such as would trample under foot the inalienable rights of the people to -“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” can check that progress. -We must therefore either foster the comparatively few more fortunate -and energetic of our people, or we must endeavor by appropriate and -legitimate and adequate legislation to link together and advance -the entire mass. The noblest work of man is the elevation of his -fellowman, and the grandest work in which a government can engage is the -enlightenment of its people. But these can alone be accomplished by the -aid of the great lever: Education. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[J] And that bill was introduced by myself. - -[K] S. 398, 1st Session XLVIIIth Congress. - - - - -A TRIP TO THE LAND OF DREAMS. - -BY ROBERT R. DOHERTY. - - -It is strange how soon we all turn into redoubtable adventurers, after -the “soft dews of kindly sleep” have fallen. Not Marco Polo, fresh from -the glories of the Cathayan court; nor Orellana, with his glittering -lies about Dorado; nor Hans Pfaali, big-mouthed with the wonders of his -voyage to the moon; not even Baron Munchausen himself, could tell more -astonishing tales, than can the prosiest among us on his return from -Dreamland. - -Dreams were believed by the ancients to be vehicles of supernatural -communication with mortals. Homer says that they come from Jove; Mohammed -tells us that Allah sends them; and according to Job, “God speaketh in -dreams.” Milton, on the other hand, pictures Satan, “squat like a toad -close at the ear of Eve,” assaying by his devilish art to reach the -organs of her fancy, and with them to forge phantoms and dreams. So -deep-seated was the belief in the supernatural origin of night visions, -that the law of ancient Rome required those who dreamed of public affairs -to report to the augurs, so that an authoritative interpretation might be -promptly given to the rulers. There was hardly a governor or general of -antiquity, but had a number of professional augurs in his retinue; and -the course of events was often modified by the meanings they attached to -their patrons’ dreams. Professor Creasy has written a unique volume on -the “Fifteen Decisive Battles of History,” and has suggested another, on -the dozen or more “Decisive Love Affairs.” As many fateful dreams could -easily be selected, around which, as on a pivot, the destiny of the -world has seemed to turn. The most ludicrous, and in many cases wicked -interpretations were given to dreams; and Cato—himself an augur—said it -was strange how two augurs could meet without laughing in each other’s -face. - -Even at the present day belief in the prophetic character of dreams is -widely prevalent, and many lists of “interpretations” are in circulation -among the credulous. When Rory O’More assured us that dreams go by -contraries, he followed current superstition. Tears are supposed -to indicate joy, and laughter, woe. Dream of the dead, and you may -expect tidings of the living; dream of the living, and unlooked for -danger—perhaps death—is imminent. Many of the interpretations printed in -the “guide books” are, however, exceedingly natural, as, for instance, -that visions of gold foretoken wealth, and orange blossoms, marriage. - -Let us place in contrast with such fanciful absurdities a tabulation -of some of the veritable indications of dreams, as made by a modern -scientist. Lively dreams, according to Dr. Winslow, are a sign of the -excitement of nervous action; soft dreams, of slight irritation of the -brain, often in nervous fever announcing the approach of a favorable -crisis; frightful dreams, of determination of blood to the head; dreams -of blood and red objects, of inflammatory conditions. Visions of rain and -water are often signs of diseased mucous membranes and dropsy; distorted -forms frequently point to disorder of the liver. Dreams in which the -patient sees any part especially suffering indicate diseases of that -part. Dreams about death often precede apoplexy, which is so connected -with determination of blood to the head. The nightmare, with great -sensitiveness, is an indication of determination of blood to the chest. - -To adequately define dreaming must ever be a difficult, if not an -impossible task. Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh, has graphically outlined -peculiarities which distinguish dreams from the imaginings of wakeful -hours and from the hallucinations of madness. The current of thought -that rushes through the sleeper’s mind is quite free from the control of -his will. Dr. Rush has called a dream a transient paroxysm of delirium, -and delirium a permanent dream; but the dreamer’s intellect is withdrawn -from almost all relation to external objects; while the lunatic holds -communication by all his senses with the world about him. But while -sleep has thus closed “the five gateways of knowledge” to the dreamer, -he still hears and sees and feels and smells and tastes. An imaginative -person, on visiting Niagara Falls, can afterward reproduce it graphically -in memory; but his most vivid mental picture seems pale and hopelessly -inaccurate when the scene is revisited. The visions of our sleep, on the -contrary, are among the most vivid of our life, and where the objects -have been seen before, the most accurate. “The main difference,” says Dr. -Smith, “between our sleeping and waking thoughts appears to lie in this, -that in the former case the perceptive faculties of the mind are active, -while the reflective powers are generally asleep. Thus it is that the -impressions of dreams are in themselves vivid, natural, and picturesque, -occasionally gifted with an intuition beyond our ordinary powers, but -strangely incongruous and often grotesque; the emotion of surprise or -incredulity, or of unlikeness to the ordinary course of events, being in -dreams a thing unknown.” - -Of the vividness of impressions made in dreams, illustrations are -plentiful. Dr. Abercrombie first told the often quoted story of the -English army officer whose susceptibility was so remarkable that “his -friends could produce any kind of dream they pleased by softly whispering -in his ear.” On one occasion they led him, in this way, through a long -quarrel, which threatened to end in bloodshed. Just as the dreamer was to -meet his enemy a pistol was handed to him; he fired it off in his sleep, -was awakened by the report, and repeated to his laughing friends the -fancies they had whispered to him a moment before. A well authenticated -case is on record of a young Englishman who, at the age of twenty-eight, -through disease, lost the power of speech for four years. He dreamed -that he fell into a cauldron of boiling beer, and in his agony and -fright shrieked for help. Of course, he at once awoke, and from that -moment the use of his tongue was fully recovered. A bottle filled with -warm water, which touched the feet of Dr. James Gregory after he had -fallen asleep, produced an awful vision of a bare-footed tramp over the -hot crater of Mount Ætna, through clouds of sulphurous vapors, and amid -spurtings of scalding lava. Because of a blister on the head of Dr. Reid, -he “positively endured all the physical torture of being scalped, while -dreaming that he had fallen into the hands of a party of red Indians.” A -lady dreamed that a man entered her chamber, and tightly clasped her left -hand in his without offering her further violence or uttering a word of -explanation. She remonstrated with him in vain; she shrieked for help, -but could not make herself heard; then began a desperate struggle with -the imaginary stranger, which culminated in awaking the sleeper—but not -in releasing her hand, which, to her great alarm, was still held as in a -vise. Summoning all her will-power, she rose from her couch and crossed -the room, and it was only when she attempted to light a lamp that she -discovered that she was holding her own hand with the other, which had -become numb by the tightness of the grasp. - -Indefinite expansion of time—or, rather, a total ignoring of the -limitations of time—is another peculiarity in dreaming. It has been -demonstrated that a man can dream in detail the events of years, and -consume in the act of dreaming only a small fraction of one minute. -“I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred years in -one night,” says De Quincy, the prince of dreamers: “nay, I sometimes -had feelings representative of a millennium passed in that time.” Dr. -Macnish, from whose delightful essays several of these illustrations have -been taken, within an hour dreamed that he made a voyage, remained some -days in Calcutta, returned home, then took ship for Egypt, visited the -cataracts of the Nile, Cairo, and the Pyramids; “and, to crown the whole, -had the honor of an interview with Mehemet Ali, Cleopatra, and Alexander -the Great!” A gentleman dreamed that he had enlisted as a soldier, -performed many military duties, deserted, been apprehended, carried back, -tried, condemned to be shot, and at last led out for execution. His eyes -were blindfolded; after an interval of awful agony he heard the rattle -of the fatal musketry, and awoke—to find that “a noise in the adjoining -room had at the same moment produced the dream and awakened him.” We -have, perhaps, all, though in less degree, had similar experience of the -rapidity of thought in dreaming. - -There is hardly any limitation to the fancy of the dreamer; he may even -lose his identity, and for the nonce personate Cæsar, or Cromwell, or -the King of the Cannibal Islands. It is said, however, that no man or -woman ever dreamed that he or she belonged to the other sex; although -the strange notion that the dreamer is a fish, or beast, or bird, is not -infrequent. Usually, however, “we are somewhat more than ourselves in our -dreams.” The tired school girl cries herself to sleep over some difficult -arithmetical task, dreams, perhaps, that her teacher assists her, and -wakens with the correct “answer” in her mind. So Condorcet successfully -pursued his most intricate calculations in his dreams; and Benjamin -Franklin has acknowledged his indebtedness to his midnight visions for -the solution of many grave political problems which had hopelessly -taxed his reason during his waking hours. An austere philosopher, who -ordinarily seemed to be destitute of risibility, tells us that in one -dream he could compose a whole comedy, witness its performance, relish -its jests, and laugh himself awake. - -But to the marvels of Dreamland there is no end. “Strange it is,” says -the poetical essayist, “when regal Mab rides forth, drawn by a team of -little atomies across men’s noses as they lie asleep, galloping through -lovers’ brains, and over courtiers’ knees, and lawyers’ fingers, and -soldiers’ necks, and ladies’ lips!” Strange, indeed, and blessed as -strange. Let us thank God for our dreams. They are the great levelers of -life. The cruel distinctions of wealth and blood are forgotten, and our -personal disadvantages are set aside. The bashful stutterer talks with -the grace and fire of Demosthenes, and the wasted invalid regains his -pristine vigor. In dreams - - “The child has found its mother, - And the mother finds her child, - And dear families are gathered, - That were scattered o’er the wild.” - -The poor drudge who toils wearily through twelve long hours for the mere -necessities of life, can at night sit on a golden throne and dispense -royal favors. The ambitious soldier can fight bloodless contests, and win -empires, without staining his soul with the crimes of a Napoleon. - -And if the dreams of the mass of mankind be so full of wonders, what must -be those of the giants of intellect and passion? What exquisite sensuous -delight must have thrilled the poet Coleridge during his vision of Xanadu -of Kubla Khan, when the mere fragmentary strains that he then heard sung -are so beautiful! How wild and spectral, how awfully magnificent, were -the dreams of Albrecht Dürer, judged by the allegorical pictures in which -he has attempted to reproduce them! If to read of the visions of a Bunyan -or a De Quincy thrills us, what must it have been to experience them—to -have floundered with Pliable in the Slough of Despond, and stood with -Christian on the Delectable Mountains—to have been “grinned at, stared -at, chattered at,” by thousands of alligators such as the “Opium-eater” -describes, or to have with him “sunk fathoms deep in Nilotic mud.” - -Physiologists have made many curious and valuable observations bearing on -our subject. They have found that when a sleeper dreams, the brain swells -greatly, and becomes red in color, while the brain of the dreamless -sleeper is “pale, shrunken, and bloodless;” they have shown that, from -physical causes, he that sleeps on his left side will have visions of -fantastic incongruities, while the dreams of the slumberer who reclines -on his right side will at least be logical and self-consistent; they -have divided “the exciting causes of dream-images into peripheral and -central stimulations”—that is, into those caused by muscular movements -or positions, and by the hygienic condition of the various organs of -the body, and those which originate somewhat mysteriously, in the -nerve-centers. - -After all, however, very little is known of the true philosophy of -dreaming; and perhaps the quaint fancy of Sir Thomas Browne may not be as -utterly absurd as at first it seems—that this life is but a dream, and -that death will be an agreeable awaking to our real life, whose past is -now forgotten only because we are now asleep. - - - - -THE HOMELIKE HOUSE. - -BY SUSAN HAYES WARD. - - -CHAPTER III.—THE DINING ROOM. - - Iss was gar ist, - Trink’ was klar ist, - Sprich was wahr ist. - - —_German Dining Room Motto._ - -The central work-room of the house is the kitchen. There labor is -continuous. There three times a day, year in and year out, the meals -must be cooked, and the pots and pans washed. Slovenly work there tells -all over the house. An ill-regulated kitchen involves poor cookery and -waste, and cheapens the most artistically arranged dining room. But the -importance of good, careful and intelligent cookery hardly comes within -the limits of this article. - -It behooves us, however, to insist upon it that the room where so much -of the necessary work of home is carried on, should be airy, sunny, -cheerful, well stocked with the implements essential to the lightening of -kitchen labor, and adapted in every way to the comfort of its occupants. - -A good farmer supplies himself with tools and machines for his farm work; -but his wife often toils with cracked stove, green wood, and a scant -supply of kettles and pans, when only a slight outlay would save her many -weary steps and much worry of mind. - -The kitchen should have painted walls that can be readily washed. Indeed, -every surface in the room should be washable. There should be plenty -of closet room, a large sink, a large work-table, comfortable chairs, -at least one easy chair, a shelf for books, and room in the window for -a few plants if desired. A picture or two would not be out of place if -protected by glass, nor an occasional motto—like the charge to the German -cook: - - “Köchin, denk’ an deine Pflicht, - Vergiss du heut’ das Salz ja nicht.” - -Or the admirable rules for home living which Dr. Watts wrote for children: - - “I’ll not willingly offend - Nor be easily offended; - What is ill I’ll strive to mend, - And endure what can’t be mended.” - -There are many small houses where either kitchen or sitting-room has to -serve also as dining room. Any sensible woman can make shift to get along -comfortably in this way and eat her bread and honey with the queen in the -kitchen when necessity compels, so long as she has neatness and despatch -for hand-maidens. One large, light room is often far better than two -small dark ones; but where a room does double duty there can hardly be -unity in the arrangement and furnishing. - -To my question, “What is of most importance in the dining room?” a -man made answer, “the kitchen,” and a woman, “the outlook.” No doubt -the provision of wholesome and abundant food for her family is the -housewife’s first duty, but while fully endorsing the masculine paradox, -we must not ignore the woman’s plea for a cheerful outlook. - -If possible, the dining room should have as good a view as the house -affords. Let it look out on the orchard, the sea shore, or the distant -hills, rather than the stable or the clothes line. The view of a -terraced, box-bordered garden, of a tulip bed and apple blooms, as seen -from an old-fashioned country house dining room is one of the sweet -memories which childhood has stored up for the enrichment of my coming -years. Three times a day the household gathers here to take the goods -the gods provide them, and then, if ever, they should enjoy a little -leisure, and be in the mood to appreciate the best of the out-of-door -world that surrounds them. A good view is better than pictures or -stained glass for a dining room; but when a good view is out of reach -and an unsightly one is unavoidable, then stained glass comes to our -aid. If that darkens the room too much, ground or cathedral glass panes -can transmit the light, surrounded by a border of color. That would be -over-leaping the obstacle; but it can be quietly set aside by means -of a pretty sash or half-sash curtain of Madras muslin or any pretty, -thin, colored curtain material. A curtain is a simpler, franker, -and consequently better solution of this difficulty than any of the -pasted-on, semi-translucent, paper cheats that simulate stained glass - - “In faint disguises that could ne’er disguise.” - -Let honest poverty hold up his head and hang up a width or two of ten -penny Turkey-red calico by the aid of button rings and a brass wire, -so that it can be drawn across the lower sash, and if the color be in -keeping with the room, it will look better than anything more pretentious -and less true. Good stained glass, such as Mr. Tiffany or Mr. La Farge -devise, is very beautiful, but like Adolphus’s tea-pot, it has to be -lived up to throughout the room, and so is more expensive than in its -first cost. The fine view, however, involves no extra outlay, and beside -adding good cheer to that which the housewife spreads upon her board, it -is no inconsiderable factor in the table-talk of the year, helping not a -little in the entertainment of guests. - -The dining room should also be conveniently near the kitchen, either in -point of fact, or made practically near in the case of a basement kitchen -by a “lift” or dumb waiter. The kitchen should not open directly into the -room, or all the kitchen odors will abide there. An intermediate pantry -or entry way shuts off many of the smells of cooking, and a small slide -through which dishes can be passed serves to the same end, as it obviates -the necessity of keeping the door ajar while food is carried back and -forth. - -How to light the dining room is a question of some importance. There -should be light enough to show the table to advantage, but it should be -possible to darken the room with shutters or blinds in the inevitable -summer warfare with flies. A room looks better, artistically, where the -light enters from but one side. Cross lights are the artist’s abhorrence. - -In city houses a conservatory built out on one side gives a pleasant -suggestion of the woods and out-of-doors, and at the same time gives -the right effect of light and shade to the room. Kerosene lamps are not -ornaments to the dining or tea table. They are cumbersome, malodorous, -and their room is better than their company. A chandelier over the table, -burning gas or holding lamps, is the easiest and cheapest arrangement, -but not the most picturesque. The prettiest light of all, and probably -the most expensive, as the prettiest things are apt to be, is given by -wax candles from tall candlesticks. Four of these judiciously arranged on -the table will give an abundance of light for those seated about it, if -additional light be provided for the rest of the room by a lamp on the -sideboard or in side sconces. - -A dining room should not be too warm. It is an old boarding house trick -to so heat the dining room as to take away all appetite for food. The -room should, in fact, be kept a little cooler than the rest of the -house, partly because the lower temperature provokes appetite, and in -part because on leaving the table it is natural to feel a sensation of -chilliness, the blood of the body being called aside to the business of -digestion, so that it is comfortable after eating to step into a room a -few degrees warmer than that in which one has been seated. - -The color of the dining room depends upon its size, exposure, and upon -whether it must do double duty as sitting room, or library. Dark, rich -furniture and wall-hangings have been the rule for dining rooms for -many a year. The larger the room, the more elaborate, rich and dark can -be the furnishing, but a dark room that hardly gets a glimpse of sun -throughout the year must be made sunny by plenty of yellow in woodwork, -or walls; bright, sunny pictures with gilt frames; and by the glitter of -brass or of the pretty, yellow English ware with which the china shops -are aglow this year. For rich wall effects Japanese or leather paper is -good, Lincrusta better, the latter being a comparatively new material, -in substance something like linoleum, washable and very durable (so the -manufacturers assert), having figures raised upon it, and coming in good -designs and colors. With elaborately decorated walls, plain curtains -are called for. Where the walls are to be furnished freely with oil -paintings, let the pictures supply the decoration, and let the walls be -as unobtrusive as possible—only ensuring that they are of a good back -ground color; sage, olive-green, olive-brown, or dull red, in paint or -paper. - -Family portraits, if good, are not out of place in the dining room; -but poor, old photographs in bungling, black walnut frames should be -preserved in the private apartments of those who value them. They are -never decorative; nor are pictures popularly known as dining room -pictures much more pleasing. The effigy of a silver salver of leaden hue -loaded with fruits of all climes, with a decanter of wine and a half -empty glass, of fishes hanging by their gills, or dead ducks, each from -one web-footed leg, is not nearly so attractive as a good portrait, -landscape, _genre_ picture or flower painting, however good practice the -manufacture of such studies may be in the art schools. I know a dining -room where, outrivaling some amateurish fruit painting, an engraving -after Rosa Bonheur of a shepherdess with her sheep has been a daily -delight for years, and another where the only picture space in the room, -that directly over the mantel shelf (the walls being darkly paneled), is -filled with a water color copy of Sir Joshua’s “Angel Choir” that seems -fairly to light and hallow the air around it, like the glories round the -heads of saints. - -An over-mantel is appropriate in the dining room if anywhere, as it -affords shelf room for choice china or glass that ought to be seen. A -little ingenuity can go a great way in dressing up a commonplace shelf -so that it shall have dignity and importance. I have known one to have -a very aristocratic air which was only an adaptation of part of a -four-post bedstead, graceful, slender posts standing on either side of -the fireplace, built up with shelves of varying width and length. - -If books in every room are a prime necessity, as our model home-maker -assures us, then there should be at least one book-shelf in each room. - -“Pray what is that book-shelf for?” asks the visitor while seated at the -dinner table in “The Poet’s House,” which Mr. Scudder has described for -us. “Books of reference,” said Stillwell, promptly. “It’s extraordinary -how many little questions come up for discussion at the table, questions -of dates, of names, of quotations. So I keep a dictionary, a book -of dates, a brief biographical dictionary, a dictionary of poetical -quotations, and one or two other such books at hand. It is the sideboard -to our mental feast. We don’t keep everything we possibly need on the -table itself.” And others beside poets would find such a shelf of great -convenience. - -There should be at least a square of carpet in the dining room under the -table, not only for warmth and the look of comfort, but to prevent the -noise of chairs scraping over the bare floor. In other rooms small rugs -scattered here and there may suffice, though one large rug is always more -restful to the eye, but a table around which a family gathers, either in -dining or sitting room should for these obvious reasons always stand -upon carpet. Where the floor is carpeted throughout and a crumb-cloth or -drugget used, pains should be taken in the selection of the latter to get -the colors in harmony with those of the carpet. Cheap druggets as a rule -are so glaring and crude in color that any carpet that respects itself -loses tone at once, and appears thoroughly commonplace when forced into -association with the blowzy things. The patient seeker, however, may be -rewarded in his search by finding a “Bocking” or drugget that shall be -as thoroughly becoming to his carpet as is the tidy morning apron to -the neat-handed Phyllis who wears it. Since the days of King Arthur the -round table has been held the most delightful for social and hospitable -purposes. With a small family there is a cosiness about a round table -that is very charming, but when one is forced to enlarge the circle a -small, round table can not be expanded to the required circumference. A -solid table seven feet long and four feet wide will seat six comfortably, -and eight without crowding, and is of delightful dimensions to sit about -of an evening, when work or study is toward. If such a table be used (an -Eastlake table, our furniture dealers would call it, since Mr. Eastlake -inveighed so severely against what he styled the “telescope” table) there -should be two side tables made four feet long which could be of service -in the room, standing against the wall, but on occasion could be used to -enlarge the dining table. H. J. Cooper, an authority on house-furnishing, -after speaking of Mr. Eastlake’s objections and suggestions, says: - -“We do not find, however, any great revolution in the matter of expanding -dining tables, and are inclined to think their great convenience will -prove a barrier to any wide-spread reform.” - -A good table should be polished, not varnished, and protected when not in -use by a substantial cover. - -Side tables are serviceable when one’s space or purse will not allow of -a sideboard, but sideboards are useful articles of furniture, and look -better when made of the same wood as table and chairs. They should be -simple of construction, with straight rather than curved lines, smooth -surfaces, and with drawers easily get-at-able and lightly pull-out-able. - -The sideboard should hold the table linen for daily use, the daily silver -and cutlery, teacups and saucers. If, in addition, it can find room for a -convenient box of biscuits, pot of ginger, or any simple refreshment for -the late worker who likes a bite before going to bed, so much the better -will it serve its purpose as a sideboard. Our grandmothers kept here -decanters and wine glasses, but in these days of the W. C. T. U. wine is -seldom found standing out boldly in sight in the dining room. In addition -to the sideboard a small table or a butler’s tray should be ready to hand -to hold dishes or food that must be used in the table service. - -Cabinets for the display of china, closets let into the chimney for the -safe keeping of nice glass, should feel themselves at home here, while -plaques and old china plates seem to belong of right to the dining room, -and can be arranged over doors by means of a tiny balustrade, or on the -frieze, or as over-mantel decorations, while choice cups and saucers can -fill the cabinet spaces. In the breakfast room, where I am now writing -(not my own), I have just counted fifty-nine pieces of glass or pottery -which hang on the wall or stand exposed on sideboard, mantel or shelves, -besides the tiles of the fireplace, two small cabinets, each holding -a half dozen rare and precious Japanese cups and saucers protected by -glass, and two large cabinets filled to overflowing with specimen china, -and yet the room does not seem at all overstocked with ceramic treasures. - -Growing plants are charming dining room ornaments, but will only thrive -where a minimum of gas and furnace heat and a maximum of sunshine and -fresh air is supplied, with regular attention as to water and shower -baths. They are sure, however, to reward painstaking care. - -Decorative china and plants, however, are luxuries, though less or more -within the reach of all. A screen, though usually looked upon as a -luxury, is in the dining room almost a necessity, and it can be bought or -manufactured at home for a nominal sum. Many a guest has been well nigh -martyred at table with a fire in the rear and sunlight to the fore, whose -meals might have been made a delight by a careful adjustment of shades -and blinds and the judicious intervention of a screen between chair and -grate. Doors must needs be left open as servants pass back and forth, and -a screen between the mistress’s chair and the door may save her from many -an annoying influenza. - -A thick, white cloth of felt or Canton flannel should be spread over the -table before it is “set.” This not only protects the polish of the table -top, but makes the linen cloth lie much better, and appear to the best -advantage. - -Table linen should, so far as possible, be spotless. Fine damask is -costly, but a clean, coarse cloth looks better than a fine one soiled and -tumbled. It is true that table linen is worn more by washing than by use. -Still it must be washed—at least that is the American theory. I have sat -at a table in Saxony where the table linen bore the date of more than -a century before, but there the wash was perhaps a semi-annual affair, -and a breakfast cloth was made to serve from Easter till July, breakfast -being only a simple meal of a roll and a cup of coffee. - -We can lay down no further rule for the changing of table linen. It is -perhaps better to keep breakfast and dinner cloths separate, the finer -for dinner, that being the more formal meal; tea and luncheon can be -served, if one wishes, without table cloth. If care be taken to lay a -carving cloth or napkin under the meat platter, or a tea cloth where tea -or coffee are to be poured, breakfast and dinner cloths can be kept fresh -longer. - -Some writers more nice than wise sneer at napkin rings, implying that -no table linen should be used more than once without washing. But there -are few families of any size that can afford such lavish laundry work. -A family of six would require twenty-one dozen napkins in constant use, -if given out fresh each meal. When the same napkin must serve for more -than one meal, a napkin ring is the simplest and surest way of securing -each person his own. Of course rings are only for family use, not for the -transient guest, and they would be out of place at a dinner party. - -Table cloths should be done up with a suspicion of starch, not enough to -stiffen them, but with only so much as will make them iron well. Heavy -linen looks and wears better than light. Large napkins are for dinner -use. Delicate doilies of fine drawn linen work or silk embroidery are -laid under finger bowls to protect the choice china plates on which the -bowls rest. This doily should be laid to one side with the bowl, it -should not be used as a fruit doily. I have seen an absent minded man -roll up in a crumpled heap one of these delicate lace affairs costing -five dollars, perhaps, and then carelessly wipe hands and moustache with -it, while the mistress of the house looked on with an assumed placidity -which spoke volumes for her powers of self-control. - -The finger bowl is not an elegant affectation, but is a genuine comfort -where fruit or sweets are served. Fruit napkins should be used to save -large damask ones from stains. - -If the first requirement for a well ordered table is cleanliness in -damask and dishes, the second is tidiness and regularity of arrangement. -If mats are placed under hot dishes let them lie on the square, and let -the plates be put on at regular intervals, and in a straight line. A -hotel waiter who flings plates and plated ware at the table by a dextrous -twirl of the wrist is no model for the home table setter. Spoons for soup -and dessert should lie to the right of the plate, knives above, forks -to the left; this is the time honored usage, and it makes the labor of -serving dessert easier if all knives, spoons and forks to be used during -the meal are laid at the first by each plate. Tumblers stand to the right -a little above the plate, butter-plates in a corresponding position to -the left. Avoid the use of what are popularly known as “individual” -dishes upon the table, such as butter plates, salt cellars, sauce plates, -and so forth. This is another hotel fashion that should not find its way -into the home. It is better to use a larger plate and take a greater -variety of food upon it. The little butter dishes are really needed -only with warmed plates; and beans, peas, corn, and other vegetables in -separate dishes, about a dining plate, make a table look very untidy, -and make extra and unnecessary work for the dishwasher. An English lady -who visited me a year ago took home to London with her as an American -curiosity a set of butter plates which, so she writes, she has not yet -found opportunity to use, not having had any American visitors. - -Steel knives are better, and where meats are to be served are more -desirable in every way than plated ones, the latter being a device to -save the labor of “scouring” with Bristol brick. - -Flowers or fruit are never out of place upon the dining room table; a -showy _épergne_ is not necessary, for a pretty growing plant always makes -a good center piece, and a single rose in a slender glass adds flavor to -the best cooked meal. My grandmother of blessed memory used to say that -the simpler the meal the more pains should be taken to serve it daintily. -Broiled salt pork and baked potatoes, according to her theory, could be -so bravely set out upon the table as to make a meal fit for gods and men. -A parsley bed is of special service in decking out a simple dinner, and -celery tops are not to be despised. - -The heads of the household should face each other from the ends and -not the sides of the table, if the meals are served English fashion, -vegetables and meat being placed upon the table. No table can be set -with any air of elegance when the meat platter or the tea equipage stand -in the middle of one side. It makes comparatively little difference, -however, when meals are served _à la Russe_, that is with meats and -vegetables placed at side tables and passed by servants, while only -fruit, bon-bons and ornamental dishes appear upon the board. The latter -fashion seems to be obtaining in America, and an intelligent diner-out -remarked in my hearing the other day, that fifty years hence no meats at -all would be carved at table. This Russian fashion is pretty and wholly -luxurious, as it removes all possible demands for service or helpfulness -from those seated at table, and devolves it all upon servants. The -fashion requires more and better trained servants than most of us have at -command. - -The bane of modern entertainments is the enormous number of courses -that style makes essential. Women with but one or two servants at the -most feel called upon to give luncheon or dinner parties, and course -follows course, many of them sent away scarce tasted, and the home -silver and china not sufficing for the occasion, must be eked out by -borrowing or by expeditious washings between the courses. The giving of -such entertainments by persons of moderate means exhausts nerves as well -as purse. Let us wisely give up aping rich people’s ways, and aim for -simplicity in our table service. - -Colored table ware is cheerier upon the table than white. Very pretty -English or American sets can be obtained at low prices. The Canton china -(willow pattern) comes in good shapes, is of good color and standard -design, and single pieces can always be bought to replace what has been -broken, but - - “Porcelain by being pure is apt to break,” - -Or at least to chip at the edges, and for every-day use pretty crockery -is good enough unless a painstaking and cautious hand wields the -dish-mop. The more covered with decoration (design and color being good) -the prettier will be the effect of the ware when in use. - -It is not at all necessary to have all the dishes upon the table of the -same style and pattern. Harlequin sets can often be brought together -so as to combine harmoniously, and pretty single pieces can be bought -marvelously cheap. Amateur painted china is generally too costly for -daily use, and when good should be treated with respect. - -Plain silver is on the whole better for plain livers than that which is -more elaborately ornamented, and absolutely plain solid silver forks -and spoons can never be out of taste, and can easily be kept tidy with -whiting. Electro-silicon and patent cleaners of that ilk injure silver -and are ruinous to plated ware. - -The beauty of silver and pottery depends first upon their form and -adaptation to use; secondly, upon their decoration. Delicate chasings -and thin _repoussé_ work are naturally as appropriate to silver as good -shapes and _flat_ decoration are to earthen ware. - -As to glass, there is a crystal craze at present, and “hob-nail” glass -glitters on all tables. Miss Lucy Crane, in her lecture on “Form,” says -(and I quote freely because her words are timely): - -“As the beauty of glass consists in its transparency and lightness, and -its capability of being twisted or blown or moulded into a multitude of -delicate forms, it early occurred to the manufacturing mind that if made -thick and solid, and cut into facets it would resemble crystal; and thus -it has come to be a fixed idea that hard glitter is its most valuable -quality, so it is made inches thick, and pounds heavy, to enhance its -brilliancy; and being one of the most fragile of substances, it must -be engraved with people’s crests and monograms as if it were intended -to carry down the name of the family for generations to come! Being of -its nature transparent, it must be rendered opaque of set intention by -coloring matter, and then painted and gilded! Since at its strongest -glass can never be anything but fragile, at least let it keep the beauty -belonging to fragility; since it is naturally transparent, let the light -be seen streaming through it, sometimes delicately tinted, sometimes -iridescent, and, instead of being cut, let it be blown and twisted into -the thousand delicate shapes to which it easily lends itself, and of -which in the Venetian glass of a bygone day, and in its present revival, -there are such delightful examples.” - -I saw last evening a handful of flasks on their way to the laboratory, -whose soap bubble effects were far more beautiful than all the cold -glitter of all the “hob-nail” ware that Sandwich has ever produced. - -In a boarding house it may economize labor to set the table over night, -but it is pleasanter and more homelike to have it set fresh and clean -with the morning light; beside, to have the dining table clear of an -evening is often a great family convenience. - -The dining room affords grand opportunity for the domestic artist. The -bread board, bread and carving knife handles, salad fork and spoon, -all offer employment to the carver’s tool, to say nothing of cabinet, -sideboard and over-mantel. Tiles for tea pot rests and all sorts of -china call for the decorator’s skillful brush, while tea cloths and -coseys, doilies, mats, centerpieces and carving cloths all await the -embroiderer’s needle. - -Arise, my young readers, and take your tools in hand, for home work is -the fairest adorning of the homelike house. - - - - -MEXICO. - - -Mexico is a country reaching from the Gulf on its eastern coast to the -Pacific Ocean, almost 2,000 miles, with a breadth varying from 140 to -750 miles. The whole territory of Montezuma, at the time of the Spanish -conquest, was not less than 1,600,000 square miles, more than one half -of which has been obtained by the United States by purchase, enforced -treaties, or otherwise. The plains on the coast are low, marshy, and in -the summer and autumn malarial diseases are very prevalent. Strangers -can visit the place with safety only about four months in the year, when -severe northern gales cool the heated atmosphere and dissipate the seeds -of disease. - -There are 6,000 miles of coast line, but, considering its extent, it does -not furnish many good harbors. - -The main body of the land is an elevated plateau, traversed by chains -of mountains, some of which are of extraordinary height. The eastern -Cordillera, or chain, that runs nearly north from the initial point has -an elevation of 6,000 feet, the western nearly 10,000. Traversing the -longitudinal range, there are several cross ranges containing some of -the highest volcanoes on the continent. They are all quiescent now, and -none of them have been active during the present century. There are not -many lakes, and none that are very large. The basins of some, though of -sufficient extent, are so arid, and evaporation is carried on so rapidly -that the water in them has, at times, quite disappeared. Neither are the -rivers of much importance as thoroughfares. The Rio Grande, forming the -boundary between Mexico and Texas, is the longest (1,500 miles), but -navigable only for a short distance. Those in the mountain region are -impetuous torrents, larger near their source than afterward, as they lose -more by absorption, in passing through arid portions of the table-lands, -than they gain by drainage, except in the rainy season. After plowing -deep furrows, and cutting out immense ravines among the foot hills of the -mountains, some are partly exhausted, drawn into reservoirs and canals -constructed for purposes of irrigation, and spread out into sluggish -bayous, of no great depth, before they reach the sea. The lack of -navigable streams has been seriously felt. - -Climate, other things being equal, decides the flora of a country, and in -this respect Mexico has many advantages. Were the country level from the -Gulf to the ocean, it would have mostly a tropical climate, and produce -only the vegetation of the tropics. But, rising in successive stages to -a height of 19,720 feet, the temperature changes with the elevation, -and a large portion enjoys the climate of the temperate zones. The -low lying region near the coast, called the “hot country,” has a rich -soil, a humid atmosphere, and abundant rains, that perpetually nourish -a rank tropical vegetation. At an elevation of 3,000 feet we reach a -delightful zone where the extremes of heat and cold are unknown, the -temperature ranging from fifty to eighty-six degrees. Here the forms -of vegetable life, mingling those of the lower and upper regions, have -a charming variety. Crossing this wide belt, with its luxuriance in -things of surpassing beauty and usefulness, and advancing gradually -till the mountains begin to show their rugged forms, at an elevation of -8,000 feet a colder climate is reached, with a corresponding change in -the vegetation that now ranges from the corn, barley, and other useful -cereals and hardier fruits to the cryptogamia of the mountain top. Take -it all through, from coast to mountain, it is quite safe to say Mexico -has a flora not excelled by any other country of the same dimensions. And -it has increased with the advance of civilization. Many plants, flowering -shrubs, and fruit-bearing trees that were not indigenous, but successive -contributions from the Old World, have a vigorous growth, and produce -abundantly. Apples, pears, peaches, cherries, oranges and grapes, with a -variety of choice East India fruits, are widely distributed through the -country. In the coast region, and to an elevation of about 1,500 feet, -they have cotton, cocoanuts, cocoa, cloves, vanilla, nutmegs, peppers, -and other spices of commerce, beside the fruits of nearly all tropical -countries of the east and west. Higher up they have sugar, coffee, -indigo, rice, tea, bananas, and an abundant supply of edible roots, such -as yam, arrow-root, sweet potato, and all the fruits of America, Central -Asia, and Barbary. - -From a partial catalogue of the productions of the country there is -evidence that its agricultural possibilities are very great. Nearly -all fruits and grain, indeed, nearly all plants that grow, are either -indigenous to the country or may find a congenial home within its limits. -Some parts of the upland require irrigation to make them productive, -and, if the dry season is prolonged, water must be stored in basins for -the use of stock. The neglect of this, especially where the land has -been long cleared, causes barrenness, and gives the country a desolate -appearance. - -The agriculture of the country has never been of a high order, though the -Aztecs, at the time of the Spanish invasion, were an agricultural people, -and about as well acquainted with the arts and processes of husbandry -as most nations of the East were at that day. Having incorporated in -their communities the shattered remains of the old Tolteck tribes they -had acquired considerable civilization, and were not, as the invaders -supposed, rude nomads, or even herdsmen, but cultivators of the soil, -and fixed in the possession of their estates. Theirs was not a skillful -husbandry, since necessity, mother of inventions, had not greatly -improved either their methods or their instruments. They had no plows, -harrows, or cultivators, but used hoes, knives, and sickles made of -copper. In planting, the earth was loosened with a hoe or stick, and the -seed, when dropped, covered with the foot. - -The present state of agriculture, though much improved, is still very -inferior, and the production, reported in the last census, $177,451,985, -might, from the same areas, be greatly increased. Before the recent -advent of railroads those far in the interior had no adequate means for -exporting the excess of their products, and little inducement to raise -more than they needed to consume. - -Mexican forests furnish in abundance nearly, if not all, the useful -timber trees of the north, and those valuable woods that grow only in the -tropics. Some sixty varieties used for timber are mentioned, and twenty -suitable for the finest style of interior finishing and furnishing. - -The mines of Mexico have long been famous, and are not surpassed in -richness by those of any other country in the world. Early in the -fifteenth century the inhabitants had accumulated wealth from that -source, and the glitter of their gold led the avaricious Spaniards to -undertake the conquest of the country. Just how long the mines had been -worked before the invaders came is not known. After a change of owners, -and the improved methods they adopted, the product was greatly increased, -and ever since, though subject to many interruptions on account of -political disturbances, it has been larger than in any other country -except the United States. The Spanish settlers at once engaged in working -the mines of Tasco, Pachuca, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. Cortes selected -for himself and worked the gold mines of Techuantepec, and the silver -mines of Zacatecas, that were found productive. The mine at Real del -Monte, near the city of Mexico, has yielded largely, and enriched several -successive owners. And the principal vein at Guanajuato, noted for its -richness, is described as ten yards wide, and has been worked a distance -of more than eight miles. In the early part of this century the annual -product of these mines exceeded twenty-five million dollars, and they -seem inexhaustible. The whole of the gold and silver taken from the mines -of Mexico up to 1870 was estimated at $4,200,000,000. The seven principal -mines of San Luis Potosi are said to be very productive, and the whole -of Sinaloa abounds in silver mines. In Sonora there are one hundred and -forty-four operated, chiefly producing gold, and a much larger number in -which, though productive, work is suspended. Many large mining districts -are simply located, and their development delayed, awaiting more ready -means of access to them. That country alone, probably, could furnish -the world a full supply of the precious metals for centuries, or until -they become as plenty and cheap as they were in Jerusalem in the time -of Solomon’s reign. Mexico has not only mines of gold and silver, but -the country abounds in other minerals of no less importance. Iron, tin, -copper, lead, mercury, cinnabar, and nearly all the known metals are more -or less abundant. Coal is found in three or four districts, but to what -extent, or of what quality we are not informed. The products of the coal -fields, and their rich quarries, and of the oil belts, can be but little -known till their facilities for transportation are improved. - -The roads constructed as thoroughfares of travel and commerce will modify -the industries of the country through which they pass. Mining and stock -raising, already extensive, will be increased. Farming and farms, such -as we have in the States, will be common, and, as the resources of the -country become better known, many enterprising men will be attracted to -the Mexican plateaux; society will improve, the reign of superstition -will cease, and a free government for an intelligent Christian people, -though for a time struggling against chronic tendencies to revolution, -will become established, and strong as it is liberal. - -Mexico encourages immigration, but, naturally enough, prefers those -of the Latin race, as more like the native population. Still, having -friendly relations with the United States, and greatly improved -opportunities for intercourse, prejudices will be overcome, barriers that -have hindered immigration taken down, and perfect liberty of conscience -proclaimed through all the land, to all the inhabitants thereof. - - - - -TWO SEAS. - -BY ADA IDDINGS GALE. - - - Are not those wild steeds champing on the beach, - Rearing and splashing on the lonesome shore, - The main land seeking frantic’ly to reach, - Their white manes gleaming like the frost wreaths hoar? - - Steeds of the sea are they that tireless ever - Beat with their sounding hoofs the hard sea sand, - Lashed onward by the blast, with fierce endeavor - They vainly seek the quiet of the land. - - Type of that wild unrest that fills the soul: - The waves of longing, mad desire, and strife, - Whose undertone of sorrowfullest dole - Is the sad voicing of the sea called Life. - - A type and yet unlike—there is a shore - Where the wild sea forgets the tempest’s breath, - And rests in lullful silence evermore - Upon the wide, white, shining strand of death. - - O perfect peace! O blessed mystery! - Where waves of longing cease their gainless quest, - And on the still sands of eternity - Do melt away in an eternal rest. - - - - -NEW ORLEANS WORLD’S EXPOSITION. - -BY BISHOP W. F. MALLALIEU, D.D. - - -London and Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and New Orleans share the honor of -having been selected as sites for the grandest displays of which modern -civilization is capable. This far-away city of the Southeast was selected -in view of the fact that it is the great metropolis of a vast and rapidly -developing portion of the Union, and to emphasize the fact that the time -has come when the past, with its mistakes and antagonisms should be left -behind, and also to encourage the rising industries of the entire South. -The general government did well when it extended most generous financial -aid to the enterprise. And should further need of such assistance be -developed, it is to be hoped that enough will be supplied to make the -Exposition a complete success. - -The formal opening took place on December 16, 1884, by the President of -the United States. True, he was not present, and yet the touch of his -fingers set in motion the engine that drives a thousand whirling gears -and pulleys. Fifty years ago it would have taken President Jackson a -month to travel from Washington to New Orleans, but now, quicker than -the revolving planet turns upon its axis, the President, standing in his -office in Washington, executes his will in a city a thousand miles away. -This world used to be twenty-four thousand miles in circumference, and it -took six months to make a voyage around it. Now it has become so small -there are no distant lands; we are all neighbors, and crowded at that, -and thought, which is a part of man and the best part, travels round the -world in the twinkling of an eye. It is a great thing to live on so small -a world in such an age as this. Nowhere do such thoughts more forcibly -impress themselves upon the observer than in a World’s Exposition, for -here, side by side in friendly rivalry, are the people and productions -of almost all the nations of the earth. The Chinaman is here with his -hideous gods and all sorts of queer things, from ivory chopsticks to the -most elaborate porcelains. The men of Japan are found wherever there is -an honest dollar to be made. They bring things to show and to sell. With -their thin lips and sharp pointed noses, and keen, bright eyes, they -remind one of the shrewdest types of Yankee peddlers. Nobody expects to -get the better of one of these Yankees from the land of the rising sun. -Their ingenuity is surprising, and their powers of imitation are nearly -equal to those of the Chinese. With the inspiration which comes with -Christianity, it is safe to predict that a future of great promise is -the portion of this nation. The ubiquitous Turk is here with the same -articles, or their duplicates, that he has had in every exposition, and -which he is gradually introducing into state fairs. These institutions -of the present age must greatly stimulate the small industries of the -Turkish Empire, though some people have thought the Turks at Philadelphia -were, for the most part, born in Ireland, and these of New Orleans are -supposed to be native Creoles, but still they sell olive wood paper -weights, paper cutters, work boxes and trinkets of various sorts, said -olive wood having the reputation of coming from Jerusalem, and, to -support the reputation, being inscribed with divers Hebrew letters which -the sellers are unable to decipher. Of course the European nations are -represented, but not to so great an extent as at Philadelphia, and not -so fully as will be the case a month later. The foreign countries best -represented are our next door neighbors. Here is Jamaica, true to its -past and present, with an exhibition of all sorts of rum, from thirty -years old and less, in bottles and barrels of all shapes. It is put -up with a nicety and even elegance which would be worthy of something -better. Then she sends sugar and molasses, dye woods, coffee, cocoa, -and skins dressed and undressed, with samples of varied workmanship -in several departments. Mexico sends the military band of the Eighth -Regiment of cavalry, more than fifty pieces, and it does credit to that -Republic. There is an air of Spain about all the productions of Mexico, -whether it be the crude ore from her mines of gold and silver, or the -richly caparisoned saddles, which in beauty and comfort are unsurpassed. -Honduras, both Spanish and British, Guatemala, and Central America, add -largely to the extent and attractiveness of the display. No one can -carefully study the exhibits of these four last named countries without -being profoundly impressed with the idea that they must possess a wealth -of undeveloped resources which will, in the near future, attract the -attention of the civilized world. It is manifest that they have a soil of -exuberant fertility, and a climate that is free from the cold rigors of -the north and even from all dangers of frost, and that all circumstances -offer the promise of the maximum of results for the minimum of toil and -capital. It seems as if a good many of the physical conditions of the -Garden of Eden were still retained by these favored countries. - -Nearly, if not quite all the states of our Union are represented, though -it is to be regretted that some of them, especially Massachusetts and -Pennsylvania, are deserving of severe criticism for the very meager -displays which they offer. The people of Massachusetts will have -more cause for shame than pride when they visit the spot where their -activities and achievements should be fairly and fully set forth. There -is no excuse for such a failure. Even little Rhode Island does better -than her proud neighbor. It is a Rhode Island Harris-Corliss engine -that drives the machinery, and the same State sends one of the grandest -locomotives that ever ran on rails. Connecticut, the land of notions and -wooden nutmegs, makes a fine show of her thread manufactures. The whole -process, from preparing the raw cotton to selling the thread in spools, -is displayed before the eyes of the admiring spectators. Not a few of the -Southern people are led to ask, as they see the thread making and, close -beside it, the weaving of cotton cloth, why should we send the cotton -we raise to the North, especially to the most distant eastern corner of -the North, and after the people there have made it into thread and cloth -bring the same cotton back again? Why pay them for transporting it both -ways and also for manufacturing it? It is well for them that they are -asking such questions. When people begin to inquire it is a sure sign -that they are getting ready to act. Soon we may expect to find them -making their own cloth and thread where the cotton is grown. - -The great West is here in full force, the states west of the Mississippi -being especially prominent. It is not long since Kansas and Nebraska were -both included within the limits of “The Great American Desert,” on whose -sandy soil it was said not even grass could grow. But now from those same -arid plains come the best of corn and wheat, and all the other cereals, -with fruits and vegetables that are truly surprising. Such potatoes as -Oregon and Colorado send need at least such hills as those in which -eastern farmers raise similar crops. Think of potatoes ten inches long, -six inches wide, and four thick. But time and space would alike fail to -specify the abundance and variety of the horticultural and pomological -products of the West, this including all west of the Alleghenies, and -especially west of the Father of Waters. - -One of the most important sources of national prosperity, growth, and -riches is to be found in our mineral deposits. Here we see rich specimens -of almost every known mineral, and all found within our own borders. -Within the list are tin, zinc, copper, silver, gold, iron and coal, with -unnumbered others; but these mentioned are the principal, and these are -the factors which enter largely into all problems of modern progress -and civilization; they add to the riches, if not the wealth of any -people; and wisely used, they will add to the wealth as well as riches. -The central and eastern portions of the Union abound in coal and iron; -these give strength and stability to the enterprise and industry of a -people. The Rocky Mountain range, in all its length, from its outlying -spur reaching through Alaska to Behrings Strait on the north, to the -Mexican border on the south, is full of gold and silver. These deposits -excite the ambition and stimulate the energies of the people; and it is -sure that the fact just stated will help the American people to find a -solution to the disgusting problem presented by Mormons. The heart of the -Rocky Mountains will not always be dominated by the most virulent enemies -of all that is truly American and Christian. The forests, with the -endless variety of woods they produce, never made a better showing than -at this Exposition. From Maine to California, and from Florida to Dakota, -various woods gathered from the plains, the mountains and the swamps show -the abundant supply with which the country is provided. The specimens are -prepared so that the trunk of the tree, with the bark covering it, the -wood showing the grain polished, and varnished and unvarnished, can all -be seen at a glance. - -To most people of middle age or beyond, the collection of machinery is -peculiarly interesting. Young people have no personal knowledge of the -extraordinary progress of invention within the last twenty-five or thirty -years. Thirty years ago and men and women were reaping the ripened grain -just as the Greeks and Romans did 700 B. C., and just as the servants of -Boaz did on the plains of Bethlehem 1100 B. C., and, in fact, just as -Noah and his family did when they raised the first crop after they left -the ark. But there has been a revolution in the implements of husbandry. -A crooked stick is no longer used as a plow, but in the place of the -stick are plows of all shapes and sizes, gold mounted and nickel plated, -as ornamental as a parlor piano. The rude hoe is superseded by all -sorts of cultivators. Planting is done by machinery, elaborate, exact, -scientific and elegant. The great Daniel Webster when asked as to the -best way to hang a scythe replied the best way he had ever found (and -he was brought up on a farm) was to hang it over the limb of a tree. If -he could see these mowers and the many other machines to make hay, he -would conclude that he had reached the millennium as far as hay making -is concerned. So, too, the sickle has given way to the machinery drawn -by a span of horses, that can almost do the work required on a trot. -The machine reaps, gathers up and binds the bundles. Not long ago all -threshing was done by tying two straight sticks together with a string, -the best string was an eelskin dried and tanned, and then the farmer, in -dust and solitude, would pound away at the straw laid out upon the barn -floor; but here is a machine that will thresh and winnow wheat as fast -as six men can toss in the bundles to the man who feeds, and it will -take as many more to remove and stack the straw. And so it is with the -whole business of farming. What is true of the processes is equally true -of almost every other manual industry. It is a revelation of wonders to -walk about amid these exhibits of machinery, and remember that to all -intents and purposes the results we behold are the achievements of the -last fifty, and in most cases of the last thirty years. And it is equally -remarkable that most of these inventions are the offspring of American -thought. - -It is most natural for every thoughtful person to ask, how is this and -why? The ready and superficial answer is that “Necessity is the mother -of invention,” and that the American people, by the conditions of life -surrounding them, have been compelled to invent. But surely such an -answer can not be considered satisfactory. There are two events in modern -times that no philosopher, physicist, ethnologist or theologian has up to -this time fully measured, and much less has been able to estimate their -relation to the future of humanity. The first of these events is the vast -migration of the peoples of the Old World to the New, by which, within -the last sixty years 12,000,000 of human beings, most of them young men -and women, have left Europe to make their homes in the United States. -God only knows the importance and significance of this movement. The -second marvelous event of these days in which we live is the sweep and -triumph of invention. It is worth considering that the steam power of the -United States represents more than the entire muscular force of all the -able-bodied men in the world. And the improvements in machinery represent -immeasurable conquests of mind in the realm of matter. It does not take -omniscience to apprehend, to some extent, the fact that these things must -affect the destiny of the whole family of mankind. With such thoughts as -these in mind one walks amid these minute or ponderous contrivances for -the application of power, with something of the reverence and wonder felt -by Moses when he stood in the presence of the bush that burned but was -not consumed. It is evident that God, the Eternal Ruler of all things, is -in the midst of these “flying wheels.” - -One of the most interesting exhibits is that made of the live stock. The -spirited, clean-limbed trotting stock of Kentucky is here. The little -Shetland ponies are side by side with the vast Normans. Some of the full -grown ponies are so small that a strong man could easily toss one of them -to his shoulders, but a Norman that weighs more than 2,000 pounds is -altogether a different creature. The Clydesdales may be good for draft -horses, but their enormous fetlocks so disfigure their feet and legs as -to make them appear homely and uncouth. The Normans and Percherons do -not have this disfigurement. They are magnificent in size, some of them -black and glossy as anthracite coal, others are deep bay, almost a rich -mahogany color, others are dapple gray, from very dark to very light, and -two of them are as white as milk. To any one who loves horses this show -is worth the travel of a thousand miles. It would make the heart of Rosa -Bonheur glad to walk through the stables; and if the finest of the horses -could be grouped together under her artistic eye she would have all she -could wish for one of her famous pictures. These, or such as these, Job -had in mind when he wrote: “Thou hast given the horse strength, thou hast -clothed his neck with thunder. He mocketh at fear and is not affrighted, -he rejoiceth in his strength.” - -Nothing less, in every praiseworthy point, is the exhibit of horned -cattle. Short Horns, Herefords, Devons, Jerseys, Holsteins, Galloways, -vie with each other in size and beauty. One ox weighs 2,990 pounds, and -many of them exceed 2,000 pounds. They are thoroughbreds, or carefully -crossed, and it is doubtful if finer specimens could be obtained, even -in the original habitats of the respective breeds. But I need not write -of jacks and jennies, of mules, and sheep, and hogs, they are all here, -after their kind, and worthy of admiration for the perfection they -display as the result of painstaking skill. - -The educational interests are variously represented, and many of the -cities and educational societies, and even private or denominational -schools find space to show the methods and results of each. The -Freedman’s Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church makes a -creditable display. The same is true of the American Missionary Society, -and of several Roman Catholic institutions. The facts, however, seem to -show that comparatively little progress has been made in the science -of education in the last twenty years. Whether we have reached the -ultimatum, so far as methods are concerned, is the question. The child -is yet to be born who knows his letters without being taught them. -The capital of each, at start, is nothing, and only one thing can be -learned at a time, and the human brain is only capable of a certain -amount of work. These are some of the limitations a good many educators -are inclined to overlook, and yet they will continue to confront all -practical people as long as the world stands. Would it not be well, at -about this time, for visionary people, with all sorts of educational -vagaries, to halt for a little while and inquire if a thorough, plain, -fundamental education is not the desideratum for the great majority of -the youth of every land. A good part of modern education partakes of -the frivolous character of the times. Substantial, honest, common-sense -education is vastly better than the illusions and flippancies of -sentimental theorists. - -Speaking of the Freedman’s Aid Society as above, reminds one that the -colored people are admitted to participate in the Exposition. Well, the -world moves. We are not where we were twenty-five years ago. We are -coming up out of the wilderness. Shall we come “full as the moon, clear -as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners?” Yes, if we come in -God’s order. No, if we do not. It always pays to do right. It never -pays to do wrong. No curse ever comes causeless. It is sometimes worth -remembering that the 7,000,000 colored people in the United States own -on an average property to the amount of $14, and it is not long since -they started with nothing. They will send some missionaries to Africa, -but most of them will live and die with us, and where we are buried there -will they be buried. It is time we recognized the fact that our God is -their God. Let us all rejoice that they have a place in the World’s -Exposition in New Orleans. We need them, they need us. Why not recognize -our brotherhood with them, and then together consecrate ourselves to the -glorious task of making this land the first and foremost of all the world -in the possession and exemplification of all Christian, and manly, and -patriotic graces? And why not join all forces, North, South, East and -West in one sublime and divinely led effort to carry the untold blessings -of education, morality, freedom, and Christianity to all peoples who -still sit amid the shadows of tyranny, superstition, poverty and -ignorance? This World’s Exposition will reach its highest and grandest -legitimate possibilities just in proportion as it shall help forward -these desires of all good men and these plans and purposes of the World’s -Redeemer. - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR MARCH. - -BY PROF. M. B. GOFF, - -Western University of Pennsylvania. - - -ECLIPSES. - -In the early ages of the world eclipses were regarded as alarming -deviations from the established laws of nature, presaging great -calamities, as famines, pestilences and earthquakes; and among heathen -and superstitious peoples, as evidence of the displeasure of the Deity, -or deities. Herodotus tells of an eclipse of the sun occurring in 585 B. -C., which put an end to a battle between the Medes and Lydians, who were -so terrified by the day turning suddenly into night, that the contending -armies ceased fighting and concluded a peace which was cemented by a -twofold marriage. Another total eclipse of the sun occurred on March 1, -557 B. C., which so terrified the defenders of the Median city Larissa, -that they withdrew from its walls, thus permitting it to fall into the -hands of its besiegers, the Persians. - -Among the Hindoos, it is imagined that the moon, as it covers from sight -the face of the sun, is a huge dragon which devours our luminary, and can -only be compelled to disgorge and then driven away “by the beating of -gongs and rending the air with discordant screams of terror and shouts of -vengeance.” - -An eclipse of the moon, March 1, 1504, was employed by Columbus to obtain -provisions for himself and his starving companions. Having been wrecked -on the coast of Jamaica, the natives refused him supplies. Knowing that -an eclipse of the moon was about to take place, he informed them that the -Great Spirit was displeased with them on account of their ill-treatment -of the Spaniards, and would manifest his displeasure by shutting out the -light of the moon. When the eclipse occurred, the Indians, terrified by -the sight, hastened to him with abundant supplies, beseeching him to -intercede with the Great Spirit in their behalf. - -At the present day we look upon these wonderful events as the results of -natural causes, whose operations have long since been explained. We have -learned that an eclipse of the sun is merely the moon coming between the -earth and the sun, thus shutting off from the former all or a portion -of the light of the latter; that this event may occur as often as five -times, and never less than twice in one year; that it can only occur at -time of new moon; that it occurs only in limited portions of the earth -at any one time, and hence, that although happening so often, for any -given place it is a comparatively rare event—especially the last two of -the three kinds, _partial_, _annular_, and _total_; and that the portion -of the earth affected by a total eclipse does not exceed 170 miles in -diameter; or, in other words, the width of the moon’s shadow, when it -falls perpendicularly on the earth’s surface, is not more than 170 miles. -We have learned, also, that an eclipse of the moon is occasioned by the -earth coming between the moon and the sun; that this event can not occur -more than twice in any one year, and may not occur even once; that it -happens always at full moon; that it can be seen in all parts of the -earth where the moon is above the horizon at the time of the occurrence; -and for this reason, although it only happens in the ratio of 29 to 41 as -compared with eclipses of the sun, yet there are more lunar than solar -eclipses visible in any given place. - -During the present month we shall have two eclipses, one of the sun and -one of the moon. - - -THE SUN - -Will be eclipsed on the 16th, first contact taking place in longitude -136° 49.3´ west and latitude 13° 25.3´ north, at 8:26 p. m., Washington -mean time; and the last contact in longitude 32° 58.3´ west and latitude -49° 0.8´ north, at 1:22 a. m. on the 17th. The central eclipse will -begin in longitude 156° 39.5´ west and latitude 35° 54.5´ north at 9:48 -p. m., and end in longitude 15° 4.6´ west, latitude 71° 24.1´ north, at -12:00, midnight. The path of the central eclipse in North America will -be about 35 miles wide, and will take a northeasterly course from a -point near Cape Mendocino on the western coast of California, and will -embrace Weaverville, Cal., Idaho and Boise cities in Idaho; Bannock City -and Gallatin, Montana; cross the boundary line between the United States -and the British Possessions in longitude about 105° west; pass through -the central part of Hudson’s Bay; cross Hudson Strait, Davis’s Strait, -and Greenland, ending as above in longitude 15° 4.6´ west, latitude -71° 24.1´ north. As this is an annular eclipse, the shadow of the moon -being too short to reach the earth, parties located in the path named -will see the edge of the sun like a bright ring around the dark shadow -of the moon. Persons outside of this path will see the sun more or less -eclipsed, dependent on their position. The beginning and end of the -eclipse at a number of places in the United States is given below, in -the local time of the cities mentioned: Bangor, Me., begins at 12:48 p. -m., ends at 3:23 p. m.; Concord, N. H., begins at 12:32 and ends at 3:07 -p. m.; at Montpelier, Vt., lasts from 12:26 to 3:03 p. m.; Boston, Mass., -from 12:36 to 3:09 p. m.; Providence, R. I., from 12:33 to 3:05 p. m.; -Hartford, Conn., from 12:25 to 2:58 p. m.; New York, 12:17 to 2:50 p. -m.; Trenton, N. J., 12:13 to 2:45; Pittsburgh, Pa., 11:38 a. m. to 2:18 -p. m.; Wilmington, Del., from 12:07 to 2:40 p. m.; Charleston, S. C., -from 11:37 a. m. to 2:04 p. m.; Columbus, Ohio, 11:20 a. m. to 2:01 p. -m.; Detroit, Mich., 11:21 a. m. to 2:04 p. m.; Indianapolis, Ind., 11:02 -a. m. to 1:45 p. m.; Chicago, Ill., 10:55 a. m. to 1:40 p. m.; Jefferson -City, Mo., 10:24 a. m. to 1:09 p. m.; Lawrence, Kan., 10:07 a. m. to -12:52 p. m.; Omaha, Neb., 10:04 a. m. to 12:51 p. m.; St. Paul, Minn., -10:26 a. m. to 1:13 p. m.; Des Moines, Ia., 10:18 a. m. to 1:04 p. m.; -Janesville, Wis., 10:47 a. m. to 1:33 p. m.; Santa Fé, New Mex., 8:59 to -11:49 a. m.; Wheeling, W. Va., 11:32 a. m. to 2:13 p. m.; Washington, D. -C., 11:58 a. m. to 2:31 p. m.; Louisville, Ky., 11:03 a. m. to 1:44 p. -m.; Denver, Col., 9:10 a. m. to 12:01 p. m.; Bismarck, Dakota, 9:44 a. -m. to 12:33 p. m.; New Orleans, La., 10:28 a. m. to 1:08 p. m. Our usual -notes for the sun are as follows: Rises on the 1st at 6:33; on the 16th, -at 6:09; and on the 30th, at 5:45 a. m.; and sets on the corresponding -days at 5:51, 6:10 and 6:22 p. m. respectively. Spring begins on the 20th -at 5:21 a. m.; northward movement, 12° 6´. - - -THE MOON - -Will be partially eclipsed on the 30th, entering the earth’s shadow at -9:50 a. m. and leaving it at 1:02 p. m. Magnitude of the eclipse, .886. -As the moon does not rise with us on this date till between 6:00 and 7:00 -p. m. it is evident that the eclipse will not be visible in the United -States. It will be visible, however, in the western Pacific Ocean, Asia, -and the eastern portions of Europe and Africa. On the 1st, moon rises at -6:42 p. m.; on the 15th, at 5:29 a. m.; and on the 31st, at 7:39 p. m. It -presents the following phases: Last quarter, 8th, 1:46 p. m.; new moon, -16th, 12:28 p. m.; first quarter, 23d, 12:15 p. m.; full moon, 30th, -11:32 a. m. Farthest from earth, 9th, 3:12 p. m.; nearest earth, 23d, -3:54 p. m.; least elevation, 9th, 30° 17´ 23´´; greatest elevation, 23d, -66° 41´ 16´´ (in latitude 41° 30´ north). - - -MERCURY - -Has a direct motion of 52° 59´ 4´´; increase in diameter, one second; on -7th, at 9:00 a. m., 1° 3´ south of Mars; 13th, at 1:00 p. m., in superior -conjunction with the sun; 16th, at 8:02 p. m., 1° 37´ south of the moon; -28th, at 4:00 a. m., nearest the sun. On the 1st, 16th and 30th, rises at -6:23, 6:26 and 6:22 a. m. respectively; and sets on same days at 4:51, -6:16 and 7:42 p. m. Can be seen with naked eye on the last few evenings -of the month. - - -VENUS - -Continues as morning star throughout the month, but makes little display, -both on account of her distance from us and her proximity to the sun. Her -diameter diminishes from 10.6´´ to 10´´, and her time of rising is as -follows: On the 1st, 6:02 a. m.; on the 16th, 5:51 a. m.; on the 30th, -5:36 a. m.; on the 6th, at 6:00 a. m., she is farthest from the sun; on -15th, at 1:42 p. m., 3° 32´ south of moon; 27th, at 10:00 p. m., 36´ -south of Mars. Her motion is direct and equals 37° 23´ 30´´. - - -MARS - -Rises on the 1st at 6:32 a. m. and sets at 5:24 p. m.; on the 16th, rises -at 6:00 a. m. and sets at 5:28 p. m.; on the 30th, rises at 5:33 a. m., -sets at 5:25 p. m. Motion direct and amounts to 22° 25´ 38´´; diameter, -4.2´´; on 7th, at 9:00 a. m., 1° 3´ north of Mercury; 16th, at 12:50 a. -m., 2° 34´ south of moon; 27th, at 10:00 p. m., 36´ north of Venus. - - -JUPITER - -Lessens his diameter two seconds, and makes a retrograde motion of 2° -56´. On 27th, at 9:57 a. m., is 4° 40´ north of the moon. He rises on the -1st at 4:42 p. m. and sets on the 2d at 6:07 a. m.; rises on the 16th at -3:35 p. m. and sets on the 17th at 5:09 a. m.; rises on the 30th at 2:34 -p. m. and sets on the 31st at 4:10 a. m. - - -SATURN, - -As a telescopic object, is still improving, and his time of setting -permits him to be viewed with less than usual inconvenience. On the 2d he -sets at 1:44 a. m.; on the 17th at 12:49 a. m.; and on the 30th at 11:55 -p. m., affording thus all the evening for observations. On the 7th, at -3:00 p. m., he is “in quartile,” or 90° east of the sun; on 22d, at 10:28 -a. m., 3° 56´ north of the moon. - - -URANUS - -Retrogrades 1° 12´ 23´´; his diameter remains at 3.8´´; on 2d, at 11:59 -a. m., he is 1° 6´ north of moon; 21st, at 3:00 a. m., in opposition to -the sun (on the other side of the sun from the earth); 29th, at 7:05 p. -m., 1° 13´ north of moon; sets on the 1st at 7:31 a. m.; on the 16th, at -6:30 a. m.; on the 31st, at 5:30 a. m. Morning star till the 21st; after -that evening star. - - -NEPTUNE, - -With his diameter of 2.6´´ moves some 44´ 46´´ of arc in his orbit, -which is not so slow after all when we consider that his average -absolute motion is 3.36 miles per second, and that his aggregate for -the 31 days of this month is a little less than nine million miles. His -right ascension on the 1st is 3 hours, 15 minutes, 18 seconds, and his -declination 16° 17´ 57´´ north. He sets on the 1st at 11:33 p. m.; on the -16th at 10:29 p. m.; and on the 30th at 9:43 p. m.—an evening star. - - - - -HOW TO WIN. - -BY FRANCES E. WILLARD, - -President National W. C. T. U. - - -CHAPTER I. - -Long ago, and long ago it was, in the days when I used proudly to write -“School Teacher” after my name, I bought a certain book for the express -purpose of reading it to “the girls I’ve left behind me.” The book is one -beloved by train boys, of which they and other venders have sold so many -that the latest “dodgers” read, “Twentieth thousand now in press.” It is -sensible in matter, attractive in style, and goes by the enticing name of -“Getting on in the World.” Naturally enough it was written in Chicago, -and like most “Garden City” notions, is “a success.” But the trouble -with this volume was that it didn’t fill the bill. I wanted to read it -to “my girls,” to stir up their pure minds by way of remembrance that -“life is real, life is earnest,” and the rest of it. But as I scanned -its bright and pleasant pages I found out—what do you think I found? Why, -that with the light of a new dispensation blazing in upon him, and the -soprano voices of several million “superfluous women,” crying, “Have you -no _work_ for me to do?” this honored author had written never a word -about creation’s gentler half! His book contained 365 pages, but if you -had read a page each day, all the year round, you wouldn’t have found out -at last that such a being as a woman was trying to “get on” in this or -any other world. Not a bread-winning weapon had he put into the hand of -the neediest among us, nor had he, even in a stray chapter or “appendix,” -taken us off by ourselves and drawn us a diagram of “our sphere.” - -I was so pained by this that I wrote Prof. Matthews (the gifted author, -and my personal friend), asking him why he had thus counted out the women -folks in his book upon success in life. I even ventured to hypothecate -his reason, saying to him: - - “DEAR SIR:—I do not think you did this with malice aforethought, - or from lack of interest in our fate, but simply and only - because, like so many of our excellent brethren, you ‘done forgot - all about us,’ as _Topsey_ would say.” - -Whereupon came a prompt and gracious reply, with the frank and manly -admission: - - “You guessed aright. I simply forgot to speak of women.” - -Now, you perceive, it set me thinking—this obliquity of mental vision, -which had led a writer so talented and wise to squint thus at the -human race, seeing but half of it. I recalled the fact that, into most -families, are born girls as well as boys; nay, as many an over-burdened -_pater familias_ can testify, they come not unfrequently in largely -superior, if not exclusive numbers. Having, also, at a remote period of -my history, belonged to the same helpless fraternity, I was haunted by -the wish that I might write a sequel to the Professor’s excellent book, -talking therein to girls and women about success in life. Perhaps my -time has come; perhaps, in the generous pages of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, whose -editor is so tolerant of the “strong minded” sisterhood, I have the -largest audience that has yet consented to listen to my “views.” Anyhow, -I mean, in these newly acquired pages to talk to girls of “How to Win” in -something besides the sense treated of in books of etiquette and fashion -magazines, or systematically taught in dancing schools. - -And now, my dears, if you are patient and my small assistant keeps me in -lead pencils, I shall try to show that if every young woman held in her -firm little hand her own best gift, duly cultivated and made effective, -society would not explode, the moon would not be darkened, the sun -would still shed light. Somehow, dear girls, when I see an audience of -young men, they remind me of a platoon of soldiers, marching with fixed -bayonet, to the capture of their destiny. An assembly of young women, -on the other hand, recalls a flock of lambs upon a pleasant hillside. -They frisk about and nibble at the herbage and lie down in the sun, -while above them soars the devouring eagle of their destiny, sweeping -in concentric rings through the blue air, and ready to pounce down upon -them, while the meek little innocents turn their white faces upward and -mildly wonder “what that graceful creature is up yonder?” They remind me, -too, of the reply given by a bright young friend of mine to the solemn -exhortation that she should “make the most of life.” - -“Humph!” she exclaimed with a rueful grimace, “I have no chance, for life -is busy making the most of me!” - -The trouble is, we women have all along been set down on the world’s -program for a part so different from the one we really play upon its -stage. For instance, the program reads: “Woman will take the part of -Queen in the Drama of Society,” but often times, before the curtain -falls, the stage reveals her as a dressmaker, a school teacher, perchance -that most abused of mortals, a reformer! The program reads: “This august -actress will be escorted to the stage by Man, her loyal and devoted -subject, to whom has been assigned the part of shielding her from the -glare of the footlights, and shooting anybody in the audience who dares -to hiss.” But, alas! ofttimes the stage reveals her coming in alone, -dragging her own sewing machine, while her humble and devoted subject, -with tailor’s goose in one hand and scissors in the other, indicates by -energetic pantomime his fixed intention to drive her speedily behind -the scenes. The program, my beloved innocents, attires you all in -purple and fine linen and bids you fare sumptuously every day, but not -infrequently the stage reveals you attired in calico gowns, and munching -your hard-earned crackers and cheese. The world’s theory furnishes -every young lady that draws breath, with a lover, loyal and true, but -the world’s practice shoots him on the battlefield, or poisons him with -alcohol and nicotine until he can only “rattle around” through life in -the place God meant him to fill within home’s sacred sanctuary. It is -just this discrepancy that I complain of, and the generous age we live -in is complaining of it with a thousand tongues, so that “the logic of -events” that happen, instead of events that ought to happen, is impelling -toward nobler fortunes that phenomenal creature whom a French author has -called “the poor woman of the nineteenth century.” - -Naturally enough, in thinking over the “case,” I contrast your aims in -life with what were once my aims, your outlook upon life with mine. The -other day—a rainy one, you may be sure—I brought from the vasty deep of -the family garret some of my girlish journals, which I was curious to -compare with the diary of a friend and former pupil at Evanston. Let me -give you a few parallel passages because of the lesson they teach. My -pupil (aged sixteen) writes thus: - - “Was registered this day a member of the Freshman class in the - Northwestern University. The president advises me to take the - classical course, and I’ve made up my mind to try it.” - -From mine at fifteen years I read: - - “Caught a blue jay in my trap out in the hazel thicket. I knew he - wasn’t “game” and let him go. The school house in our district is - finished at last. A graduate of Yale College, and former tutor at - Oberlin, is to be our teacher. I shall attend regularly, visiting - my traps on the way.” - -Later: - - “Sister and I got up long before light to prepare for the first - day at school. We put all our books in mother’s satchel; had a - nice tin pail full of dinner. I study arithmetic, geography, - grammar, reading and spelling, which takes up every minute of my - time. Stood next to Pat O’Donahue in spelling, and Pat stood at - the head.” - -From my pupil’s diary, a few months later, take this extract: - - “I am thinking seriously about my future. Perhaps this is - premature, for I am only in my freshman year, but I have just - about decided that I’ll study medicine.” - -From mine, at a similar age (you see precocity was not among my failings): - - “Sister was sick, and I brought out all my little bottles of - sugar, salt and flour. Besides these medicines, I dosed her with - pimentoes and poulticed her with cabbage leaves, but she grew no - better, quite fast, so mother called another doctor. Dear me, if - I were my brother, instead of being only a girl, we’d soon see - whether I’ve a talent for medicine or not.” - -From my young friend I quote again: - - “I am greatly interested in the question for debate in our - literary society this week, especially as I am chief disputant on - the affirmative. It reads as follows: _Resolved_, That the votes - of women are needed to help put down the liquor traffic.” - -From mine: - - “It is election day and my brother is twenty-one years old. How - proud he seemed as he dressed up in his best clothes and drove - off with father to vote for John C. Fremont, like the sensible - ‘Free Soiler’ that he is! My sister and I stood at the front - window and looked out after them. Somehow I felt a lump in my - throat, and then I couldn’t see their wagon any more, things - looked so blurred. I turned to Mary, and she, dear little - innocent, seemed wonderfully sober, too. I said: ‘Wouldn’t you - like to vote as well as Oliver? Don’t you and I love the country - just as well as he, and doesn’t the country need our ballots?’ - Whereupon she looked scared, but answered, ‘Of course we do, - but don’t you go ahead and say so, for then we should be called - strong minded.’” - -From my pupil at seventeen I quote once more: - - “The recent articles by members of the ‘Women’s Congress,’ some - people would call radical, but they express precisely my opinions - on the dress question. It is time for me to assume the garb of a - young lady, but upon two things I am determined: First, I will - never trail my garments on a filthy pavement while I live. If I - am the only young lady in this university, who, when she walks, - wears walking costume, I will still be true to my individual - sense of cleanliness and taste. I will also carry the jewel of an - _unpunctured ear_ through life, though, by so doing, I oblige Mr. - Darwin to confess ‘a missing link’ between me and my evolutionary - ancestors.” - -Finally, from mine: - - “This is my seventeenth birthday, and the date of my martyrdom. - Mother insists that at last I _must_ have my hair ‘done up woman - fashion.’ She says she can hardly forgive herself for letting me - ‘run wild’ so long. We had a great time over it all, and here I - sit, like another Samson, ‘shorn of my strength.’ That figure - won’t do, though, for the greatest trouble with me is that I - never shall be shorn again! My ‘back hair’ is twisted up like a - corkscrew; I carry eighteen hair-pins; my head aches, my feet - are entangled in the skirt of my new gown. I can never jump over - a fence again so long as I live. As for chasing the sheep down - in the shady pasture, it’s out of the question, and to climb to - my ‘Eagle’s Nest’ seat in the big burr oak would ruin this new - frock beyond repair. Altogether, I recognize the fact that ‘my - occupation’s gone.’” - -My readers smile at this, but they may be assured there are such blots -upon the page where it was written, as briny drops alone can make. - -You see, dear friends, from this contrast I have drawn, showing a glimpse -of past and future in two eager, young lives, how fast this world is -getting on. What is the difference in the outlook of your life that -is, and mine that used to be? Let us consider: I was a daring sort of -girl; you are the sort of girls who dare. I had aspiration; you have -opportunity. I breathed an atmosphere laden with old time conservatisms, -from which my glorious mother’s liberality of soul was my one safety -valve of deliverance. But you are exhilarated by the vital air of a new -liberty. “The world is all before you, where to choose.” If I required -but little of myself, it was because the world required so little of -me. No college of first rank in east or west—save noble old Oberlin and -generous Antioch—could have been coaxed to count me in when she made up -her jewels. Briefly, public opinion proposes to give you a chance. It -proposed to let me shirk for myself. It means to put a shield in your -left hand and a sword in your right. It let me go forth, as best I could, -to beat the air with unarmed hands, or to sharpen my weapons on the field -and in plain sight of the enemy. - -Society set before me very few incentives, and commended to me only the -passive virtues. Indeed, she never really bestirred herself on my behalf -at all, save that she ceased not in story and poem, by sermon and song -by precept and example, and (most cogently of all) by setting no other -hope before me to ground me, so far as she was able, in the philosophy -that sustained the illustrious _Micawber_. “Now my daughter,” thus -was she wont to speak, “do you but be docile and obedient, as a young -woman should, and something, something very particular indeed will most -assuredly turn up.” - -But I learned early to distrust a Mentor who took so little cognizance -of the imperious ardor of my youth; who was so stupidly oblivious of the -varied possibilities in brain and hand and heart, and so I began early -to follow out my own devices as to a plan of character and work. Would -that the generous impulse of your enthusiasm, guided by your broader -opportunity, might - - “Give me back the wild pulsation - That I felt before the strife, - When I heard my days before me, - And the tumult of my life.” - -More anon. - -EVANSTON, January 31, 1885. - - - - -NOTES ON POPULAR ENGLISH. - -BY ISAAC TODHUNTER. - - -I have from time to time recorded such examples of language as struck -me for inaccuracy or any other peculiarity; but lately the pressure of -other engagements has prevented me from continuing my collection, and -has compelled me to renounce the design once entertained of using them -for the foundation of a systematic essay. The present article contains a -small selection from my store, and may be of interest to all who value -accuracy and clearness. It is only necessary to say that the examples are -not fabricated; all are taken from writers of good repute, and notes of -the original places have been preserved, though it has not been thought -necessary to encumber these pages with references. The italics have been -supplied in those cases where they are used. - -One of the most obvious peculiarities at present to be noticed is -the use of the word _if_ when there is nothing really conditional in -the sentence. Thus we read: “If the Prussian plan of operations was -faulty, the movements of the crown prince’s army were in a high degree -excellent.” The writer does not really mean what his words seem to imply, -that the excellence was contingent on the fault; he simply means to make -two independent statements. As another example we have: “Yet he never -founded a family; if his two daughters carried his name and blood into -the families of the _Herreras_ and the Zuñigos, his two sons died before -him.” Here again the two events which are connected by the conditional -_if_ are really quite independent. Other examples follow: “If it be true -that Paris is an American’s paradise, symptoms are not wanting that there -are Parisians who cast a longing look toward the institutions of the -United States.” - -Other examples, differing in some respects from those already given, -concur in exhibiting a strange use of the word _if_. Thus we read: “If a -big book is a big evil, the ‘Bijou Gazetteer of the World’ ought to stand -at the summit of excellence. It is the tiniest geographical directory we -have ever seen.” This is quite illogical; if a big book is a big evil, -it does not follow that a little book is a great good. “If in the main I -have adhered to the English version, it has been from the conviction that -our translators were in the right.” It is rather difficult to see what -is the precise opinion here expressed as to our translators; whether an -absolute or contingent approval is intended. For the last example we take -this: “… but if it does not retard his return to office it can hardly -accelerate it.” The meaning is, “This speech can not accelerate and may -retard Mr. Disraeli’s return to office.” The triple occurrence of _it_ is -very awkward. - -An error not uncommon in the present day is the blending of two different -constructions in one sentence. The grammars of our childhood used to -condemn such a sentence as this: “He was more beloved but not so much -admired as Cynthio.” The former part of the sentence requires to be -followed by _than_, and not by _as_. The following are recent examples: -“The little farmer (in France) has no greater enjoyments, if so many, as -the English laborer.” “I find public school boys generally more fluent, -and as superficial as boys educated elsewhere.” “Mallet, for instance, -records his delight and wonder at the Alps and the descent into Italy -in terms quite as warm, if much less profuse, as those of the most -impressible modern tourist.” An awkward construction, almost as bad as -a fault, is seen in the following sentence: “Messrs ⸺ having secured the -coöperation of some of the most eminent professors of, and writers on, -the various branches of science.…” - -A very favorite practice is that of changing a word where there is no -corresponding change of meaning. Take the following example from a -voluminous historian: “Huge pinnacles of bare rock shoot up into the -azure firmament, and forests overspread their sides, in which the scarlet -rhododendrons sixty feet in _height_ are surmounted by trees two hundred -feet in _elevation_.” In a passage of this kind it may be of little -consequence whether a word is retained or changed; but for any purpose -where precision is valuable it is nearly as bad to use two words in one -sense as one word in two senses. Let us take some other examples. We -read in the usual channels of information that “Mr. Gladstone has issued -invitations for a full-dress Parliamentary _dinner_, and Lord Granville -has issued invitations for a full-dress Parliamentary _banquet_.” Again -we read: “The government proposes to divide the occupiers of land into -four categories;” and almost immediately after we have “the second -class comprehends…”: so that we see the grand word _category_ merely -stands for _class_. A writer recently in a sketch of travels spoke of a -“Turkish gentleman with his _innumerable_ wives,” and soon after said -that she “never saw him address any of his _multifarious_ wives.” One -of the illustrated periodicals gave a picture of an event in recent -French history, entitled “The National Guards Firing on the People.” Here -the change from _national_ to _people_ slightly conceals the strange -contradiction of guardians firing on those whom they ought to guard. - -Let us now take one example in which a word is repeated, but in a rather -different sense: “The grand duke of Baden sat _next_ to the emperor -William, the imperial crown prince of Germany sitting _next_ to the grand -duke. _Next_ came the other princely personages.” The word _next_ is used -in the last instance in not quite the same sense as in the former two -instances; for all the princely personages could not sit in contact with -the crown prince. - -A class of examples may be found in which there is an obvious incongruity -between two of the words which occur. Thus, “We are more than doubtful;” -that is, we are _more than full_ of doubts: this is obviously impossible. -Then we read of “a man of more than doubtful sanity.” Again we read of -“a more than questionable statement;” this is I suppose a very harsh -elliptical construction for such a sentence as “a statement to which -we might apply an epithet more condemnatory than _questionable_.” So -also we read “a more unobjectionable character.” Again: “Let the Second -Chamber be composed of elected members, and their utility will be _more -than halved_.” To take the _half_ of anything is to perform a definite -operation, which is not susceptible of more or less. Again: “The -singular and almost excessive impartiality and power of appreciation.” -It is impossible to conceive of _excessive impartiality_. Other recent -examples of these impossible combinations are, “more faultless,” “less -indisputable.” “The high antiquity of the narrative can not reasonably -be doubted, and almost as little its _ultimate_ Apostolic _origin_.” -The ultimate origin, that is the _last beginning_, of anything seems -a contradiction. The common phrase _bad health_ seems of the same -character; it is almost equivalent to _unsound soundness_ or to -_unprosperous prosperity_. In a passage already quoted, we read that the -czar “gave _audience_ to numerous _visitors_,” and in a similar manner a -very distinguished lecturer speaks of making experiments “_visible_ to a -large _audience_.” It would seem from the last instance that our language -wants a word to denote a mass of people collected not so much to hear -an address as to see what are called experiments. Perhaps if our savage -forefathers had enjoyed the advantages of courses of scientific lectures, -the vocabulary would be supplied with the missing word. - -_Talented_ is a vile barbarism which Coleridge indignantly denounced; -there is no verb _to talent_ from which such a participle could be -deduced. Perhaps this imaginary word is not common at the present; -though I am sorry to see from my notes that it still finds favor with -classical scholars. [Webster says: “This word—which is said to be of -American origin—has been strongly objected to by Coleridge and some other -critics, but as it would seem, upon not very good grounds, as the use of -_talent_ or _talents_ to signify mental ability, although at first merely -metaphorical, is now fully established, and _talented_, as a formative, -is just as analogical and legitimate, as _gifted_, _bigoted_, _turreted_, -_targeted_, and numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but -derived directly from nouns, and not from verbs.”—ED. THE CHAUTAUQUAN.] - -_Ignore_ is a very popular and a very bad word. As there is no good -authority for it, the meaning is naturally uncertain. It seems to -fluctuate between _wilfully concealing_ something and _unintentionally -omitting_ something, and this vagueness renders it a convenient tool for -an unscrupulous orator or writer. - -The word _lengthened_ is often used instead of _long_. Thus we read that -such and such an orator made a _lengthened_ speech, when the intended -meaning is that he made a _long_ speech. The word _lengthened_ has its -appropriate meaning. Thus, after a ship has been built by the Admiralty, -it is sometimes cut into two and a piece inserted; this operation, very -reprehensible doubtless on financial grounds, is correctly described -as _lengthening_ the ship. It will be obvious on consideration that -_lengthened_ is not synonymous with _long_. _Protracted_ and _prolonged_ -are also often used instead of _long_; though perhaps with less decided -impropriety than _lengthened_. - -A very common phrase with controversial writers is, “we _shrewdly_ -suspect.” This is equivalent to, “we _acutely_ suspect.” The cleverness -of the suspicion should, however, be attributed to the writers by other -people, and not by themselves. - -The simple word _but_ is often used when it is difficult to see any shade -of opposition or contrast such as we naturally expect. Thus we read: -“There were several candidates, _but_ the choice fell upon ⸺ of Trinity -College.” Another account of the same transaction was expressed thus: “It -was understood that there were several candidates; the election fell, -_however_, upon ⸺ of Trinity College.” - -The word _mistaken_ is curious as being constantly used in a sense -directly contrary to that which, according to its formation, it ought to -have. Thus: “He is often mistaken, but never trivial and insipid.” “He -is often mistaken” ought to mean that other people often mistake him; -just as “he is often misunderstood” means that people often misunderstand -him. But the writer of the above sentence intends to say that “He often -makes mistakes.” It would be well if we could get rid of this anomalous -use of the word _mistaken_. I suppose that _wrong_ or _erroneous_ would -always suffice. But I must admit that good writers do employ _mistaken_ -in the sense which seems contrary to analogy; for example, Dugald Stewart -does so, and also a distinguished leading philosopher whose style shows -decided traces of Dugald Stewart’s influence. - -I should like to ask why a first charge is called a _primary_ charge, for -it does not appear that this mode of expression is continued. We have, I -think, second, third, and so on, instead of _secondary_, _tertiary_, and -so on, to distinguish the subsequent charges. - -Cobbett justly blamed the practice of putting “&c.” to save the trouble -of completing a sentence properly. In mathematical writings this symbol -may be tolerated because it generally involves no ambiguity, but is -used merely as an abbreviation, the meaning of which is obvious from -the context. But in other works there is frequently no clue to guide -us in affixing a meaning to the symbol, and we can only interpret its -presence as a sign that something has been omitted. The following is an -example: “It describes a portion of Hellenic philosophy; it dwells upon -eminent individuals, inquiring, theorizing, reasoning, confuting, &c., -as contrasted with those collective political and social manifestations -which form the matter of history.…” - -A recent cabinet minister described the error of an Indian official in -these words: “He remained too long under the influence of the views which -he had imbibed from the board.” To imbibe a view seems strange, but to -imbibe anything from a board must be very difficult. I may observe that -the phrase of Castlereagh’s which is now best known, seems to suffer from -misquotation; we usually have “an ignorant impatience of taxation;” but -the original form appears to have been, “an ignorant impatience of the -relaxation of taxation.” - -The following sentence is from a voluminous historian: “The _decline_ -of the material comforts of the working classes, from the effects of -the Revolution, had been incessant, and had now reached an alarming -_height_.” It is possible to ascend to an alarming height, but it is -surely difficult to decline to an alarming height. - -“Nothing could be more one-sided than the point of view adopted by the -speakers.” It is very strange to speak of a point as having a side; -and then how can _one-sided_ admit of comparison? A thing either has -one side or it has not; there can not be degrees in one-sidedness. -However, even mathematicians do not always manage the word _point_ -correctly. In a modern valuable work we read of “a more extended point -of view,” though we know that a point does not admit of extension. I -suppose that what is meant is, a point which commands a more extended -view. “Froschammer wishes to approach the subject from a philosophical -standpoint.” It is impossible to _stand_ and yet to _approach_. Either he -should _survey_ the subject from a _stand_-point, or _approach_ it from a -_starting_-point. - -A large school had lately fallen into difficulties owing to internal -dissensions; in the report of a council on the subject it was stated that -measures had been taken to _introduce more harmony and good feeling_. The -word _introduce_ suggests the idea that harmony and good feeling could be -laid on like water or gas by proper mechanical adjustment, or could be -supplied like first-class furniture by a London upholsterer. - -A passage has been quoted with approbation by more than one critic from -the late Professor Conington’s translation of Horace, in which the -following line occurs:— - - After life’s endless babble they sleep well. - -Now the word _endless_ here is extremely awkward; for if the babble never -ends, how can anything come after it? - -To digress for a moment, I may observe that this line gives a good -illustration of the process by which what is called Latin verse is often -constructed. Every person sees that the line is formed out of Shakspere’s -“After life’s fitful fever he sleeps well.” The ingenuity of the -transference may be admired, but it seems to me that it is easy to give -more than a due amount of admiration; and, as the instance shows, the -adaptation may issue in something bordering on the absurd. - -The language of the shop and the market must not be expected to be very -exact: we may be content to be amused by some of its peculiarities. I can -not say that I have seen the statement which is said to have appeared in -the following form: “Dead pigs are looking up.” We find very frequently -advertised, “_Digestive_ biscuits”—perhaps _digestible_ biscuits are -meant. In a catalogue of books an “Encyclopædia of Mental Science” is -advertised; and after the names of the authors we read, “invaluable, -5_s._ 6_d._;” this is a curious explanation of _invaluable_. - -The title of a book recently advertised is, “Thoughts for those who are -Thoughtful.” It might seem superfluous, not to say impossible, to supply -thoughts to those who are already full of thought. - -The word _limited_ is at present very popular in the domain of commerce. -Thus we read, “Although the space given to us was limited.” This we can -readily suppose; for in a finite building there can not be unlimited -space. Booksellers can perhaps say, without impropriety, that a “limited -number will be printed,” as this may only imply that the type will be -broken up; but they sometimes tell us that “a limited number _was_ -printed,” and this is an obvious truism. - -Some pills used to be advertised for the use of the “possessor of pains -in the back,” the advertisement being accompanied with a large picture -representing the unhappy capitalist tormented by his property. - -Pronouns, which are troublesome to all writers of English, are especially -embarrassing to the authors of prospectuses and advertisements. A wine -company return thanks to their friends, “and, at the same time, _they_ -would assure _them_ that it is _their_ constant study not only to -find improvements for _their_ convenience.…” Observe how the pronouns -oscillate in their application between the company and their friends. - -In selecting titles of books there is room for improvement. Thus, a -_Quarterly Journal_ is not uncommon; the words strictly are suggestive of -a _Quarterly Daily_ publication. I remember, some years since, observing -a notice that a certain obscure society proposed to celebrate its -_triennial anniversary_. - -A few words may be given to some popular misquotations. - -“He that runs may read” is often supposed to be a quotation from the -Bible; the words really are, “He may run that readeth,” and it is not -certain that the sense conveyed by the popular misquotation is correct. - -A proverb which correctly runs thus: “The road to hell is paved with good -intentions,” is often quoted in the far less expressive form, “Hell is -paved with good intentions.” - -“Knowledge is power” is frequently attributed to Bacon, in spite of Lord -Lytton’s challenge that the words can not be found in Bacon’s writings. - -It seems impossible to prevent writers from using _cui bono?_ in the -unclassical sense. The correct meaning is known to be of this nature: -suppose that a crime has been committed; then inquire who has gained -by the crime—_cui bono?_ for obviously there is a probability that -the person benefited was the criminal. The usual sense implied by the -quotation is this: What is the good? the question being applied to -whatever is for the moment the object of depreciation. Those who use the -words incorrectly may, however, shelter themselves under the great name -of Leibnitz, for he takes them in the popular sense; see his works, vol. -v., p. 206. - -The _Times_, commenting on the slovenly composition of the queen’s -speeches to Parliament, proposed the cause of the fact as a fit subject -for the investigation of our _professional thinkers_. The phrase suggests -a delicate reproof to those who assume for themselves the title of -_thinker_, implying that any person may engage in this occupation just as -he might, if he pleased, become a dentist, or a stockbroker, or a civil -engineer. The word _thinker_ is very common as a name of respect in the -works of a modern distinguished philosopher. I am afraid, however, that -it is employed by him principally as synonymous with a _Comtist_. - -The _Times_, in advocating the claims of a literary man for a pension, -said, “He has _constructed_ several useful schoolbooks.” The word -_construct_ suggests with great neatness the nature of the process by -which schoolbooks are sometimes evolved, implying the presence of the -bricklayer and mason rather than of the architect. - -[Dr. Todhunter might have added _feature_ to the list of words abusively -used by newspaper writers. In one number of a magazine two examples -occur: “A _feature_ which had been well _taken up_ by local and other -manufacturers was the exhibition of honey in various applied forms.” “A -new _feature_ in the social arrangements of the Central Radical Club -_took place_ the other evening.”]—_Macmillan’s Magazine._ - - - - -THE CHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS. - -BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - -Beyond the “Inner Circle,” which leads to the “Upper Chautauqua,” we come -to the Uppermost Chautauqua—the University proper, with its “School of -Liberal Arts,” and its “School of Theology.” Here we find provision made -for college training of a thorough sort. Students all over the world -may turn their homes into dormitories, refectories, and study rooms, in -connection with the great University which has its local habitation at -Chautauqua. Thus “hearers” and “recipients” in the Assembly, “readers” in -the C. L. S. C., “student readers” in the “inner circle”—the “League of -the Round-Table,” may go beyond, even to the School of Liberal Arts, the -_bona fide_ College of Chautauqua. - -Chautauqua exalts the college. She believes that the benefits of a -college training are manifold. - -1. The action by which a youth becomes a college student—the simple going -forth—leaving one set of circumstances and voluntarily entering another, -with a specific purpose—is an action which has educating influence in -it. It is a distinct recognition of an object and a deliberate effort -to secure it. The judgment is convinced, the will makes a decision, -and corresponding action follows. We have the thought, the aim, the -standards, the resolve, the surrender, and the embodiment of all in an -actual physical movement. There must follow these activities a reflex -influence on the youth himself. It becomes a “new birth” in his life. -He has gone to another plane. His everyday conduct is modified by it. -He looks up and on. According to the standard he has set, the idea he -entertains of education, and the motives which impel him will be the -subjective effects of his action—the real power of his new life. - -2. There is educating power in the complete plan of study provided in -the college curriculum, covering as it does the wide world of thought, -distributed over the years, with subdivisions into terms, with specific -assignments of subjects, with a beginning and an ending of each division, -and many beginnings and endings, with promotions according to merit, and -final reviews, recognitions, and honors. There is great value in the -enforced system of the college. It tends to sustain and confirm new life, -begun when the student made his first movement toward an institution. - -3. The association of students in college life is another educating -factor. Mind meets mind in a fellowship of aim, purpose, and experience. -They have left the same world; they now together enter another world. -They look up to the heights and to the shining of crowns which await the -gifted and faithful. They are brothers now—one “alma mater” to nourish -them. They sing their songs—songs which, although without much sense, -have power to awake and foster sympathy. Even a man of sense loves to -listen to them. He laughs at the folly, and, though himself a sage, -wishes he were one of the company of singers. The laws of affinity work -out. Soul inspires soul. Memories grow apace. Attachments that endure, -adventures seasoned with fun or touched with sadness, absurdities, -failures, heroisms, triumphs, are crowded into the four years, and like -fruitage of bloom and fragrance from a conservatory may go forth to -bless many an hour of wandering, of sorrow, of reunion, of remembrance, -in the later years. There was something pathetic in the return of the -famous Yale College class of 1853 to their alma mater two summers ago. -As they wandered about the scenes of their youth, under the old elms, -through recitation rooms and chapel, singing the old songs, reviving -the old friendships, recalling faces to be seen no more, no wonder that -tears fell down furrowed cheeks from eyes unused to weep. Is there any -stronger or sweeter friendship than that born under the ivied towers and -spreading elms of college hall and campus? - -In college mind meets mind in the severe competition of recitation and -annual examination. The bright boy—one of a small class at home, who -had it all his own way there—now finds a score or more of leaders whose -unvoiced challenge he is compelled to accept, and how he does knit -his brow, close his eyes, summon his strength, school his will, force -his flagging energies, and grapple problems that he may hold his own, -outstrip his rivals, and win prize and place for the sake of his family’s -fame and for his personal satisfaction! - -There is nothing that so discovers to a youth the weak points of his -character as the association of college life. There are no wasted -courtesies among students. Folly is soon detected, and by blunt speech, -bold caricature, and merciless satire exposed. Sensitiveness is cured -by ridicule, cowardice never condoned, and meanness branded beyond the -possibility of concealment or pardon. College associations stimulate the -best elements in a man, expose weak and wicked ones, and tend to the -pruning and strengthening of character. - -4. Then there is in college life association with professors and tutors, -and this is, I confess, sometimes of little value, as when teachers are -mere machines, but in it, at its best, are distinguishing benefits. -When teachers are full men, apt men, and enthusiastic men—as college -professors, and for that matter all teachers ought to be—the place of -recitation soon becomes a center of power. Tact tests attainment, exposes -ignorance, foils deceit, develops strength, indicates lines of discovery, -and inspires courage. A living teacher supplies at once model and motive. -He has gone on among the labyrinths, and up the steeps of knowledge; -has tried and toiled and triumphed. He sought and he _is_. And now by -wise questioning, by judicious revelation, by skillful concealment, by -ingenious supposition, by generous raillery, by banter, by jest, by -argument and by magnetic energies, the teacher stirs the student into -supreme conditions of receptivity and activity. Such teachers make the -college. As President Garfield said: “Give me an old school house, and -a log for a bench. Put Mark Hopkins on one end, and let me, as student, -sit on the other, and I have all the college I need.” When an institution -is able to employ men of superior knowledge, power, and tact, students -must be trained, and all their after lives affected by the influence. -For memory magnifies the worth of a true teacher, and the hero of the -college quadrennium becomes a demigod through the post-graduate years. A -dozen men of this mold, if once they could be gotten together, would make -a college the like of which has not yet been seen on the planet. Shall -Chautauqua one of these days find them? - -5. The college life promotes mental discipline. It drills, and drills, -and draws out. It compels effort, and effort strengthens. It provides a -system of mental gymnastics. What was difficult at first, soon becomes -easy, until severer tests are sought from the very delight the student -finds in concentration and persistency. Thus development takes place in -the varied faculties of the soul. The student acquires power to observe -with scientific exactness, to generalize wisely from accumulated data, -to project hypotheses, to watch psychical processes, to reason with -accuracy, to distinguish between the false and the true, both in the -inner and the outer world; to grasp protracted and complicated processes -of mathematical thought; to trace linguistic evolutions—remembering, -analyzing, philosophizing; to study the students of the ages, and the -products of their genius in art, poetry, jurisprudence, and discovery, -in the facts of history and the great principles of sociology. All the -powers employed in this manifold work during the college term are trained -and thus prepared for work after the college term is ended. It is not so -much the amount of knowledge acquired during the four years, as it is the -power at will ever after to acquire knowledge, that marks the benefits of -the college course. - -6. With discipline comes the comprehensive survey of the universe. The -college outlook takes the student backward along the line of historical -development. It shows him the heights and the depths, the manifold -varieties and inter-relations of knowledge. It gives him tools and the -training to use them, and a glance at the material on which he is to use -them. The student through college is a traveler, sometimes examining in -detail, sometimes superficially. He gives a glance and remembers; he -takes notes and thinks closely. He sees the all-surrounding regions of -knowledge, and although he may make but slight researches in particular -lines, he knows where to return in the after years for deeper research -and ampler knowledge. - -7. College life leads to self-discovery. It tests a man’s powers, and -reveals to him his weakness. It shows him what he is best fitted to do, -and the showing may not be in harmony either with his ambitions or his -preconceived notions. A boy born for mercantile pursuits, who comes out -of college a lawyer or preacher, proves that the college failed to do its -legitimate and most important work for him. Professors who merely glorify -intellectual attainment, and who neglect to show students their true -place in the world, are little better than cranks or hobbyists. College -life is the whole of life packed into a brief period, with the elements -that make life magnified and intensified, so that tests of character may -easily be made. It is a laboratory of experiment, where natural laws and -conditions are pressed into rapid though normal operation, and processes -otherwise extending over long periods of time are crowded to speedy -consummation. Twenty years of ordinary life, so far as they constitute -a testing period of character are, by college life, crowded into four -years. A boy who is a failure then, would, for the same reasons, be a -failure through the longer probation, unless the early discovery of -peculiar weakness may be a protection against the perils which this -weakness involves. Therefore it is a good thing for a youth to subject -himself thus early to a testing, for from it may come self-discovery, -when latent powers may be developed, and impending evils avoided. - -Of other advantages of educational institutions I shall not now speak. -They are manifold. Our youth of both sexes, whatever their callings in -life, would do well to seek these advantages. Therefore parents, primary -teachers, and older persons who influence youth, should constantly place -before them the benefits of college education, and inspire them to reach -after and attain it. Arguments should be used, appeals made, assistance -proffered, that a larger percentage of American youth may aspire after -college privileges, or at least remain for a longer term in the best -schools of a higher grade. Haste to be rich, restiveness under restraint -during the age of unwisdom, inability to regulate by authority at home -the eager and ambitious life of our youth, together with false, mercenary -notions of parents, who “can not afford to have so much time spent by -the young folks in studying, because they must be doing something for -themselves”—these are some of the causes of the depreciation and neglect -of the American college—a neglect lamentable enough, and fraught with -harm to the nation. - -Chautauqua lifts up her voice in favor of liberal education for a larger -number of people. She would pack existing institutions until wings must -be added to old buildings, and new buildings be put up to accommodate -young men and maidens who are determined to be educated. - -Chautauqua would exalt the profession of the teacher until the highest -genius, the richest scholarship, and the broadest manhood and womanhood -of the nation would be consecrated to this service. - -Chautauqua would give munificent salaries and put a premium on merit, -sense, tact, and culture in the teacher’s office. She would turn the -eyes of all the people—poor and rich, mechanics and men of other, if -not higher degree, toward the high school and the college, urging house -builders, house owners, house keepers, farmers, blacksmiths, bankers, -millionaires, to prepare themselves by a true culture, whatever niche -they fill in life, to be men and women, citizens, parents, members of -society, members of the church, candidates for immortal progress. - -To promote these ends the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle was -organized. By its courses of popular reading it gives a college outlook -to the uncultivated, and exalts the higher learning. It is, as I have -elsewhere said, a John the Baptist preparing the way for seminary and -university. - -The managers of the Chautauqua movement, however, recognize the fact -that there are thousands of full-grown men and women who are at their -best intellectually, and who, with some leisure and much longing, -believe they could do more than read. They want to study; to study in -downright earnest; to develop mental power; to cultivate taste; to -increase knowledge, to make use of it by tongue and pen and life. There -are tens of thousands of young people out of school by necessities -commercial and filial, who are awakened to the power within and the -possibilities beyond. They believe they could learn a language, and -enjoy the literature of it. They believe they could think and grow, -speak and write. They are willing, and eager to try. Out of minutes they -could construct college terms. They have will enough, heart enough, -brain enough to begin, to go on, to go through, and all this, while -the everyday life continues with its duty for this hour and for that. -They believe that into the closely woven texture of everyday, home and -business life, there may be drawn threads of scarlet, crimson, blue and -gold, until their homespun walls become radiant with form and color -worthy to decorate the royal chamber—the chamber of their king, God the -Father of earnest souls. - -Chautauqua denounces the talk of certain rich men about the “poor -having their place,” and that it would be “better for working people to -confine themselves to work, or at best to understand subjects bearing -entirely on their everyday duties in field or shop, and let science and -literature alone.” Chautauqua would make working men cultivated, and give -them recreation from manual toil in realms of wonder, taste, science, -literature and art. Chautauqua would spread out over the lot of the -toiler a dome, vast, radiant, rich and inspiring. - -Therefore the Chautauqua School of Liberal Arts has been organized, -and chartered with full university powers, for non-resident pupils, -who, by correspondence with competent instructors, may study what they -please, when they please, and as they please, eliciting suggestion, and -giving answer and thesis, taking all the time they need, passing final -examination in writing in the presence of witnesses, and having their -examination papers subjected to the scrutiny of competent and impartial -critics. When, after the required standard in the several departments -which constitute the college course has been attained, whether in four, -or ten, or fourteen years, the successful candidate shall have his -diploma and his degree; and through this window he has constructed out -of all these fragments of time—fragments picked up from dusty floor and -pavement, from mine, and field, and shop—through this window the light -shall shine in its beauty, and people shall see what genius, industry and -persistent will can do with the cast away fragments of spare moments and -random opportunities. - -I have thus described the “Upper Chautauqua.” By reason of the action -of the Board of Managers, elsewhere reported, the plan of gradation is -slightly changed from that laid down in the previous article on the -“Upper Chautauqua,” and the following successive steps are found in the -scheme of the Chautauqua University: - -1. The ASSEMBLY, including the summer meetings, the “Platform,” “the -American Church Sunday-school Normal Course,” the “School of Languages,” -and the “Teachers’ Retreat.” - -2. The CIRCLE, embracing the “C. L. S. C.” - -3. The “INNER CIRCLE,” to which they belong who, having seven seals on -their diploma, are members of the “League of the Round-Table.” - -4. The “UNIVERSITY CIRCLE,” with its “School of Liberal Arts,” and the -“School of Theology.” - -NEW HAVEN, CONN., February 6, 1885. - - - - -OUTLINE OF REQUIRED READINGS. - - -MARCH, 1885. - -_First Week_ (ending March 8).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page 187 -to 216. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters IX and X. - -3. “The Circle of the Sciences,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for March 1 and 8, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Second Week_ (ending March 16).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page 216 -to 239. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters XI, XII and XIII. - -3. “Temperance Teachings of Science,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for March 15, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Third Week_ (ending March 24).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page 239 -to 260. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters XIV and XV. - -3. “Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for March 22, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Fourth Week_ (ending March 31).—1. “College Greek Course,” from page 260 -to 284. - -2. “Chemistry,” chapters XVI and XVII. - -3. “Studies in Kitchen Science and Art,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for March 29, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - - - -PROGRAMS FOR LOCAL CIRCLE WORK. - - -FIRST WEEK IN MARCH. - -1. Blackboard illustration and full explanation of the Greek theater, -special attention being given to the arrangement of the stage. If -preferred, charts or pictures can be substituted for the blackboard. As -aids to this work Donaldson’s “Greek Theater,” containing charts and -illustrations, and Mahaffy’s “Classical Greek Literature” will be found -very helpful. - -2. Essay—George W. Cable and his Works. - -Music. - -3. Selection—“The Gorgon’s Head,” found in Hawthorne’s “Wonder Book.” -This story can be read “turn about” by the members. Reference is made to -the headless Gorgon, on page 210 of “College Greek Course.” - -4. Essay—Shrove Tuesday, or Mardi Gras, as observed in New Orleans. - -5. A Paper on Great Salt Mines and Springs. - -6. Critic’s Report. - - -SECOND WEEK IN MARCH. - -1. Essay—Sir Humphrey Davy. - -2. Selection—“An Account of Sappho.” By Addison. - -3. A Paper on Canadian Winter Sports. - -Music. - -4. A Half-hour’s Quiz on the Readings of the Month. - -5. Essay—The Life of Euripides. - -6. Question Box. - - -THIRD WEEK IN MARCH. - -1. Fifteen Minutes’ Talk on Balloons and their Uses. - -2. Selection—“On Great Natural Geniuses.” By Addison. - -3. Character Sketch—Ignatius Loyola. - -4. A Paper on the Athenian Orators. - -Music. - -5. General Conversation on the News of the Day. - -6. The Questions and Answers for the Month in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - -MONTHLY PARLOR MEETING. - -Music. - -1. Roll call—Quotations from Greek Authors. - -2. A Map Exercise. Trace Philip’s conquering march, as indicated by -Demosthenes in his third Olynthiac oration. - -3. Essay—Demosthenes. - -Music. - -4. An Analysis of Tennyson’s “Princess.” - -5. A Paper on the Famous Women of Greece. - -Music. - -6. Debate—Resolved, that the effects of the modern theater compare -unfavorably with those of the ancient. - -Music. - - * * * * * - -It may not be amiss to follow our programs—which are intended to be -merely suggestive—with a very short exposition of our program-philosophy. -It is not a heavy philosophy; indeed, it is so simple that we half -suspect we may be laughed at for calling it a philosophy at all, but -its principles, we believe, are true and useful; as such we offer -them. According to our ideas there are four subjects which should be -represented on each C. L. S. C. program; first in the list and in -importance is the week’s or month’s reading, its prominent features, its -suggestions, its facts, its practical lessons; second, the world’s work -of to-day, not merely its events of public interest, its schemes and -disasters, but its science, invention, art, literature, morals, social -life, civilization, its men and its manners; to follow both exercises and -clinch what has been suggested, “good talk” ought to be an invariable -part of each evening’s work. Take care that talk, free, genial, -interested talk, follows every performance, or every program, and be sure -that always - - “Music dwells - Lingering and wandering on as loth to die.” - -These are the four elements necessary to a good program. As to how they -shall be treated we have also a theory. Its first principle is let -everything be well done; while thorough, do not go astray in dates and -statistics, but go to the point which you desire to make. Then be bright -and interesting, the third essential in each performance. Withal, suit -your theme and your treatment of it to your audience. Let the subject be -of common interest, the matter neither so commonplace as to seem puerile -nor so technical as to be “over the heads” of your auditors. Such is our -program-philosophy. A better you will undoubtedly formulate by practicing -this. - - - - -LOCAL CIRCLES. - - -C. L. S. C. MOTTOES. - -“_We Study the Word and the Works of God._”—“_Let us keep our Heavenly -Father in the Midst._”—“_Never be Discouraged._” - - -C. L. S. C. MEMORIAL DAYS. - - 1. OPENING DAY—October 1. - - 2. BRYANT DAY—November 3. - - 3. SPECIAL SUNDAY—November, second Sunday. - - 4. MILTON DAY—December 9. - - 5. COLLEGE DAY—January, last Thursday. - - 6. SPECIAL SUNDAY—February, second Sunday. - - 7. FOUNDER’S DAY—February 23. - - 8. LONGFELLOW DAY—February 27. - - 9. SHAKSPERE DAY—April 23. - - 10. ADDISON DAY—May 1. - - 11. SPECIAL SUNDAY—May, second Sunday. - - 12. SPECIAL SUNDAY—July, second Sunday. - - 13. INAUGURATION DAY—August, first Saturday after first Tuesday; - anniversary of C. L. S. C. at Chautauqua. - - 14. ST. PAUL’S DAY—August, second Saturday after first Tuesday; - anniversary of the dedication of St. Paul’s Grove at Chautauqua. - - 15. COMMENCEMENT DAY—August, third Tuesday. - - 16. GARFIELD DAY—September 19. - -Regularity is necessary to permanency. Whatever undertaking we desire -to make a permanent success, we must make regular; whatever we wish -to do successfully, we must do regularly. A tiresome, prosaic quality -we are apt to consider it, and one which restricts our freedom. The -regular return of small duties often makes them annoying, yet in large -affairs regularity adds dignity and strength. It is essential for the -establishment of any institution. A trite truth this may be, but trite -truths are not always applied, and it is for the application of this -homily to local circles that we sue. - -It is most desirable that your local circle should become durable. -Not a club, to which you can run in as you have leisure, or which can -be adjourned for other engagements; which shall run this winter, and -“perhaps,” “if nothing happens,” go on next winter. Not at all. There -is a higher idea embodied in the plan. The true ambition of each member -of a circle should be to make it _the_ literary association of the -community, the leader in practical ideas, clear thinking, intelligent -talk and refined manners; but to reach this goal the circle meeting must -be considered too valuable to be omitted for any occasion whatever. Its -object is equal to that of any institution in the town. If you wish to -develop this idea, to establish your circle, to secure for it recognition -as a well founded organization, regularity in meeting and attendance -must be secured. It is true that a social or religious event sometimes -happens for which courtesy seems to demand an adjournment. In such a -case it is quite possible to select another night. The one idea upon -which we would insist is that the circle be considered and conducted -as a permanent institution, that it be made the intellectual center of -your life. How wonderful an impetus to thought and culture is such an -organization, only those who lack its influence can tell. Some of the -earnest letters which come to us from time to time give a suggestion of -what a circle might be to lone readers. Is there not, indeed, in this -delightful letter from BULGARIA, a hint of the real value of a circle, -a value which we so often fail to appreciate? It comes from an old -Chautauqua friend—Miss Lenna A. Schenck, now a missionary at LOFTCHA, -BULGARIA: “How gladly would we report to you from this out-of-the-way -corner of the earth the organization of a flourishing local circle. But, -alas! alas! we can not boast of even a triangle or a straight line, only -a point, a mere dot, but a thoroughly loyal one, keenly enjoying the good -things of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, that most welcome and highly prized of all the -white-winged friends that come to us by mail. Though so few in number, we -keep the vesper hours and the memorial days, and begin each day happily -by devoting the time from six to seven in the morning to Chautauqua -reading, and so we are inspired by glimpses of charming circles away in -the homeland, and by memories of delightful summers with our blessed -alma mater, Chautauqua herself. Before another year rolls round, we -hope to have at least a local triangle here at Loftcha, and perhaps a -Bulgarian translation of some of Chautauqua’s best ‘ideas.’ Many things -might be said of our new home and new work, but we remember the delicate -suggestion given in the November ‘Local Circle,’ that ‘no one could stay -very long,’ so with heartful greetings to the class of ’83 and to all -good Chautauquans the world over, we bid you adieu.” - -Are not such friends of Chautauqua the prophecy of a time when the -work shall encircle the earth? Each month brings signs of its growth. -Particularly do we notice this month the spread of the work in CANADA. -The press is particularly friendly to the movement in the Provinces; -for example, the _Educational Weekly_, of TORONTO, quotes the _Globe_ -of that city as saying: “The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle -is now pretty well known. It has been in operation since 1878, and -has done a great deal of good. The yearly reunions at Chautauqua have -come to be very pleasant and very profitable. We understand that a -similar summer resort is to be instituted in Canada, in connection with -the reading circles already established in the Dominion. We wish the -enterprise all success.” Much of the interest in Toronto is undoubtedly -due to the hearty work of Mr. E. Gurney, and Mr. Lewis Peake, president -and secretary of the “Central” circle. This circle has recently had the -pleasure of hearing a lecture on “Athenian Literature” from Professor -Hutton, of the University College. LONDON has also a very flourishing -circle, dating from the fall of 1883, when it was organized with a -membership of about forty. It is a most healthy sign of growth, when -reorganization finds a circle larger than when it disbanded. The -“Central” circle had this fortune. They began the present year with a -membership of forty eight. Their plans have been most happy; the vesper -services in the Chautauqua song books are used at every meeting, and -quotations as responses to roll call; chemical experiments are performed -for them by a professor of practical chemistry, who is a member of the -circle, and their programs are full of variety. So important to them -is their circle that they made Christmas the occasion of a special -meeting, at which they used the Christmas vesper and praise service -which appeared in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December. The service was followed -by an address and several entertaining exercises. This is exactly the -work which enhances the value of the circle, both for the members and -for the community. It raises a circle to the point where it becomes the -medium through which all extra social occasions may be observed. It makes -it not only a reading club, but a factor in the social, religious and -intellectual life of a community. - -At DARTMOUTH, NOVA SCOTIA, we learn from a local paper, there is also -an energetic circle. They have done good work in introducing the C. L. -S. C. to the public, securing a notice of a public vesper service, an -explanation of the work they are doing, mention of the circles in the -vicinity, and following their information by announcing their next -meeting with a cordial invitation to the public to be present. - -In November last two new circles were formed in MAINE. A “Pine Tree” -circle, of twenty-seven members, coming from DOVER and FOXCROFT. -These beautiful villages are closely connected by covered bridges—the -Piscataquis river flowing between, though it is a hard matter for a -stranger to see where one begins or the other ends, so much like one -village are they. A friendly way to live, is it not? These classmates -have evidently learned what Thackeray found out in London long ago—that -“A man ought to like his neighbors, to be popular with his neighbors. It -is a friendly heart that has plenty of friends.” But we all learn that in -the C. L. S. C. The second is the “Simpson” circle at AUBURN, where the -Rev. G. D. Lindsay is president. Sixteen enthusiasts make up the circle -which, so far, finds the work suggested in THE CHAUTAUQUAN sufficient for -its needs. - -One of the most interesting and prosperous, though not largest of -Chautauqua circles, is the “Baketel” circle, at GREENLAND, N. H. It -is named in honor of its founder and leader, Rev. O. S. Baketel, an -old Chautauquan of the class of ’82. The organization is very simple. -The leader prepares the program for each evening, and the members come -promptly. No inflexible rule is adhered to, but as much variety given -as possible. That the plan is most successful we know from a recent -letter from a friend, in which he says of the work: “Our members vary in -age from eighteen years to fifty-three, and none are more enthusiastic -than the oldest ones. It makes one of the most interesting gatherings -ever brought together in the community, and is furnishing help to some -whose advantages in early life were very limited. Every member feels -like exclaiming ‘All hail C. L. S. C.’”——The “Webster” C. L. S. C., -of FRANKLIN, N. H., is enjoying its second year of existence. A good -interest was maintained throughout last year, and they began this year’s -work promptly in October, with twenty-two active members. To them -the dining room table has revealed its wonderful power to stimulate -sociability and “good talk.” They have discovered its genial ways, how -it will always stretch to make room for more and still more, and how it -seems to be always saying: “Stretch out your arms; don’t mind just how -you sit. I shield your position, I am here to help you all, to bring you -close together, to hold your books, to forbid your parting, to compel you -to be a circle.” Indeed, we are glad the “Webster” circle has learned the -virtues of a dining room for study and for friendliness. Maybe if they -but analyzed their devotion to their circle that stout, wooden friend -would deserve not a little of the honor, and perhaps, too, it has helped -not a little in bringing in the children, which, they write, are crowding -into the Chautauqua work until the circle boasts even grandchildren. - -The “Clio” club of twenty members at NEWPORT, VT., kindly remembers THE -CHAUTAUQUAN with one of the programs used at a recent public meeting. -The dainty, tasseled souvenir they send us bears a list of exercises of -unusual richness and variety. - -MASSACHUSETTS is getting her circles into the press. Scarcely a paper -from within her borders comes to our sanctum which does not contain -at least one item of Chautauqua import. The _Melrose Journal_ of -MELROSE reports the organization of a circle of fifteen members in that -city.——The _Woburn Journal_ notices the work of the circle there in a -very appreciative notice: “The fortnightly meetings of the First Woburn -Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle are being well attended and -the exercises are very profitable intellectually and the students are -doing good work. Two weeks ago the Rev. Charles Anderson gave a very -interesting talk on Prof. Schliemann’s recent explorations in Mycenæ, -and Hissarlik, the supposed site of ancient Troy. At some meeting in -the near future the Rev. A. E. Winship, a true Chautauquan, connected -with the ‘New West Education Commission,’ a thorough scholar and a -very interesting speaker, will lecture on ‘Literary Clubs’ before -the members of the circle.”——The _Saturday Union_, of LYNN, speaks of -the thorough work their circle is doing in chemistry.——The _Ipswich -Chronicle_ highly commends the Milton memorial held by the “Masconomo” -circle of that city. By the way, the name of this circle brings back -an interesting bit of early Massachusetts history. It was the Indian -Masconomo, or Masconnomet—from whom the circle is named—who, in 1638, -“sold his fee in the soil of Ipswich” for £20, to John Winthrop, Jr. And -here was established the town which the Indians called Agawan (“fishing -station”), and to which the white men gave the name of Ipswich.——The -_Salem Gazette_, too, gives notices of two branches of the C. L. S. C. in -that city. About forty members are in each of these societies.——Several -new circles we have the pleasure of adding to our visiting book. At -MERRIMAC a circle of seventeen members has been formed, with the happy -title of the “Hale” circle. The first circle, so far as we know, which -has honored itself by assuming the name of our esteemed counselor. They -should be glad they waited; so good a name does honor to anybody, and -ought to be an omen of future prosperity.——The “Eaton” circle, named in -honor of the Rev. G. F. Eaton, begins life with seventy members. Its home -is WALTHAM—city of watches. If the spirit of the town is to be the spirit -of the circle, wonderful results will certainly be forthcoming.——Last -October a few of the many students in the C. L. S. C. in WORCESTER -organized a local circle. By the perseverance of these few, others -have been persuaded to take the course, until the circle numbers about -sixteen. They have taken the name of the “Warren” local circle, in honor -of Bishop Warren.——At PROVINCETOWN a company of ten, five ladies and -five gentlemen, met on the evening of the sixteenth of December last, -to form a local circle. The meetings have occurred every week since; -the circle has adopted the name of “Mayflower.” The meetings are full -of interest, and the members are busy trying to make up the reading of -the past months. All are members of the class of ’88 except one, who -belongs to the class of ’85.——SOUTH GARDEN reports a circle organized a -year ago, but which has never been noticed in THE CHAUTAUQUAN before. -It is a “Pansy” class—all the fifteen members belonging to the class -of ’87.——“Not Chautauquans for four years only, but Chautauquans for -life,” the friends at HOLBROOK subscribe themselves. Their motto grew -out of the ardor of a lady member of the circle who, when at a recent -meeting something was said about a four years’ course, said: “I shall -not consider that I have finished the course at the end of four years. I -for one am going to be a Chautauquan as long as I live.” A right royal -motto, is it not?——The WAKEFIELD circle sends a program of a meeting in -which we are glad to notice that present affairs go side by side with -discussions of Grecian history and art and literature. The subjects for -essays include a “Review of Current Affairs in Massachusetts,” “The -Pension Problem,” etc. The history that is making certainly deserves our -attention, as well as the history of the past.——NORTH CAMBRIDGE also -sends the program which they prepared for the January meetings of the -“Longfellow” circle. In addition to their regular work, they added the -novel feature of a talk on newspaper work, from a practical newspaper -man.——The last of this month’s Massachusetts reports contains a most -capital hint. AUBURNDALE is the home of a flourishing circle, which -among its other good features has a constitution. One of the articles of -this constitution is the suggestion which it will please us to have you -all ponder. It reads: “A short report of the condition of our society -shall be forwarded twice a year to THE CHAUTAUQUAN.” Do you all take -the hint? Perhaps one secret of this energetic article is the nearness -of Auburndale to Framingham—so near is it that all the members of the -circle went to the Assembly last year. To Massachusetts, too, belongs the -honor of the following merry Chautauqua feast, of which a friend from -Providence, R. I., has written us: “Spending a few days in ROCKLAND, -MASS., I was invited to visit the ‘Sherwin’ Chautauqua Circle, and being -a true-blue member of the ‘Clio’ C. L. S. C. of Providence, I was joyful -in accepting. The exercises were of a most novel and interesting kind, -and unusually pleasing to me, as I was an old acquaintance of Prof. -Sherwin. Since this society was instituted, some two years ago, but one -representative of the posterity of the circle has been born, and the -members of this enterprising circle showed their appreciation of Prof. -Sherwin’s noble work in the good cause by naming this gift after him. -An elegant gold lace pin had been made to order, with the initials C. -L. S. C. neatly engraved upon it, and that evening the presentation was -made. After Chautauqua greetings had been exchanged, the baby Sherwin -was called for, and made his appearance, riding on his mother’s arm, as -wise and dignified in behavior as a youthful Solon. One of the frolicsome -Chautauqua dames then read the following formal rhyme: - - “‘There were some fair dames of Chautauqua, - Their possessions were lovely to see, - Between you and me; - They had jewels of gold, - Of value untold, - These elegant dames of Chautauqua; - But children were few, - You scarce find one or two - In the homes of these dames of Chautauqua. - And sad were the dames of Chautauqua - When they read of the Gracchus, - Of Cupid and Bacchus, - The lesson seemed filled up with mocking. - They longed for a son, - So the gods sent them one, - Full of frolic and fun, - Sent a son to these dames of Chautauqua. - Then what joy in the circle Chautauqua! - What pæans were sung, - And Chautauqua bells rung, - To welcome the lad of Chautauqua! - Straight they gave him a name, - Sherwin Burrill the same— - These frolicsome dames of Chautauqua! - Now, they badge him with gold, - So that when he is old, - They can still claim their son of Chautauqua.’” - -At SOUTH MANCHESTER, CONN., a most encouraging increase of members -has taken place. Last year the circle numbered twenty, this year -forty-eight. Such growth is full of promise for the future, and yet it -is the inevitable result of enthusiastic members and carefully prepared -programs.——The new circle at MANSFIELD CENTER, CONN., numbers ten -members. They are expecting a lecture on chemistry soon, from Prof. -Washburn, of the North Mansfield Agricultural College.——The “Newfield” C. -L. S. C. of WEST STRATFORD, CONN., has recently received the following -pleasant letter from “Pansy:” - - CARBONDALE, PA., January 6, 1885. - - _Dear Friends of ’87_: - - My word of greeting to you must commence with an apology. The - letter from your secretary found me immersed in work. The holiday - season brings upon me a heavy pressure of care, in addition to - the usual routine. From the almost hopeless mass of unanswered - letters which I have just overturned on my study table, that of - your secretary emerges, so I seize it and make a beginning. What - shall I say? I might congratulate you on being members of that - great literary circle, which verily seems destined to reach out - its long arms and encircle the world—but to what purpose would - this be? - - You already know by experience all, and more than I could tell - you of its advantages, and its far reaching influences. - - What then, shall I, in this moment of time, say to you who are - classmates of mine? Shall I hope that you may be able to pass - the Golden Gate and join in the class song of the ’87s, and - receive your diploma from the hands of the Chautauqua chief, - and enjoy all the delights of Commencement day? That indeed I - heartily wish. I hope to be there and to clasp hands with you, - and give and receive greeting. - - But I am conscious while I write, of a higher, stronger, holier - hope than that, even that every member of your circle and of all - the great Chautauqua Circle may finally pass the Golden Gate - that leads to the palace of the King, and receive from him the - greeting “well done, good and faithful servants,” and receive - from his hands the crowns laid up for those who are “called, and - chosen, and faithful.” - - Oh, to be sure of passing safely through the ordeal of - examination by the Judge! - - When I think of the immense enthusiasm of the C. L. S. C., I - am glad. I believe in enthusiasm. I believe in the Chautauqua - Literary and Scientific Circle. Yet I wonder, often, whether we, - as Christians, can not learn something from the eagerness of many - scholars who are not of the royal family, and yet are eager to - learn all they can, about our Father’s handiwork in earth and air - and sky. - - I am writing longer than I meant. I only wanted to say this: Let - us make sure of clasping hands at last in our Father’s house. - - Yours in His name, - - MRS. G. R. ALDEN.—“PANSY.” - -Desiring to promote the interests of the C. L. S. C., the Chautauqua -circles of Rhode Island, numbering about twenty-five, have united and -formed the “Rhode Island Chautauqua Union,” with the following officers: -President, Prof. John H. Appleton, A.M., of Brown University; first vice -president, the Rev. J. Hall McIlvaine, pastor of the Union Congregational -Church; second vice president, Hon. Thos. B. Stockwell, A.M., Rhode -Island State Commissioner of Public Schools; third vice president, Levi -W. Russell, A.M., Principal of Bridgham School; secretary and treasurer, -Wm. D. Porter, D.D.S., all of Providence. There have been three new -circles formed this year in PROVIDENCE, R. I., one of them bearing the -popular name of “Vincent.” “Hope” circle, formed in 1882, is still -in a flourishing condition. They were favored last month with a very -interesting and instructive address by Prof. Appleton, on “The Value of -the Study of the Natural Sciences.” The executive committee arrange the -order of exercises and find the monthly programs in THE CHAUTAUQUAN of -great benefit. The circle has now about seventy members, and most of them -belong to the C. L. S. C.——Another newly organized circle of Providence -is the “Esmeralda Bachelor” circle. It numbers twenty members, all -gentlemen, and they give as the only excuse which it seems to us could -be at all valid for forming a circle of bachelors, that they can get -more young men into their club by restricting its membership. “Whittier” -circle, of the same city, has been reorganized, and a most pleasant item -comes to us from them. On the birthday of the beloved poet, the circle -sent to him as a souvenir a paper weight of serpentine, from a quarry in -Newburg, Mass. It had been cut into a design of oak leaves and acorns. -Their remembrance brought back a kindly response from Whittier.——A newly -organized circle also exists at RIVER POINT, R. I. It was formed in -October last, and numbers thirty-five. Their plan is that laid out in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. - -The NEW YORK circles are doing wonderfully energetic work. At JORDAN -there is a new and growing organization of twenty-four members.——At -MEDINA, one of thirteen, which has already begun to scatter seed, -some of it so far away as the Pacific coast, where our Medina members -believe they will soon have an offshoot.——The “Wolcott” C. L. S. C. has -been organized at WOLCOTT, with over thirty members, who write most -enthusiastic words of the benefits they have already received.——At -BROCTON the veteran circle, composed of members of the S. H. G. and C. -L. S. C., held a delightful Milton memorial.——At ROCHESTER, the circle -which is connected with the Academy of Science in that city, wins this -appreciative notice from a local paper: “Public sentiment in favor -of the Chautauqua movement is spreading with marvelous rapidity. Such -certainly is the fact in regard to the circle in this city. There are -now upward of forty members enrolled, and beside these a large number -of persons attend the semi-monthly meetings who have not yet identified -themselves with the regular work. The practical benefit derived from -this course of home study becomes more apparent as it is investigated, -constantly confirming the wisdom of its founders in setting in motion a -plan for the intellectual and moral elevation and culture of thousands -who have only spare minutes for such an object.”——At GLENS FALLS, not -long ago, Chancellor Vincent greeted his C. L. S. C. pupils, delivering -his lecture on “That Boy and His Friends,” before them, and meeting -them afterward at a reception.——At OCEAN GROVE, the circle under Dr. -Stokes’s genial management is doing admirable work. A delightful social -was recently held by the circle at the Sheldon House.——The MARION circle -has reorganized this year, strong and hopeful as ever. Says a member: -“The ‘Inner Chautauqua’ is taking a deeper hold upon us year by year, -and we propose that our connection with the C. L. S. C. shall continue -indefinitely. We are trying to extend the knowledge of it by distributing -the ‘Popular Educational Circular,’ by inserting an occasional item in -our village paper relating to the doings of our circle, as well as by -personal conversation with our friends and acquaintances.”——The circle at -CARMEL has also been reorganized, with seventeen members. Their programs -show excellent work.——At SANDY HILL, during the holidays, a special -meeting commemorated the season. Among the exercises was a poem on “The -Triumph of our Language,” which deserves special mention.——The BROOKLYN -circle, of Hansom Place M. E. Church, has increased its membership to -over one hundred. It owes to the Rev. George E. Reed, its president, -the large increase. Having outgrown the capacities of private parlors, -they have met lately in those of the church, where, while losing some -of its more social elements, there is a far better opportunity for map -display and the general working of the monthly class. Following out the -assignment of an instruction committee, they find no lack of willing -participants. One of the most popular exercises is the five minutes’ -essay on some person or incident connected with the current reading. -In good hands, the information condensed is of the most direct kind, -and at its conclusion an opportunity is given the class to ask any -questions relevant to the topic. All this is clear knowledge, and has -proven one of the most agreeable of their methods.——At FORT PLAIN, the -circle carried out on Bryant day a highly enjoyable program. That this -circle is enthusiastic, the fact that some of its members come from four -miles away, is a proof.——A second New York circle which has enjoyed a -visit from Chancellor Vincent, and had the pleasure of tendering him -a reception, is that at CHATHAM. Several new members have joined the -circle there, the result of the inspiring talk which the Chancellor gave -them.——The “Ionian” circle of BURLINGTON, N. Y., is winning friendly -attention from the local press, its meetings being noticed, and its -exercises commended.——The “Vincent” circle, of TROY, invariably sends out -to its members, on its announcements of monthly meetings, some bit of -inspiring thought. On the January program we find this sentence, useful, -we suspect, for other than Troy readers: “Remember this: In proportion as -you put thought and work into these monthly meetings, in that proportion, -with high interest, will you draw out in enjoyment and profit.” - -The local circle of BRIDGEVILLE, PA., was organized November, 1881, with -a membership of thirteen. During the intervening three years there have -been many changes, but the good work has been steadily going forward. -The circle reorganized October, 1884, with eight members, and has taken -up the work of the year with increased vigor, the meetings being well -attended and very interesting. The monthly meetings are held in the -village church, though none of the members live in the village, some -having to travel the distance of two miles to attend the meetings.——At -READING, the “Cleaver” circle has been reorganized, with double its old -membership. Their program they make very interesting, by introducing -variety into the exercises.——Nine ladies and gentlemen formed last fall -the “Castelian” circle, in PHILADELPHIA. Happy are they to have a large -map of Greece. What a treasure it is to a circle these days! - -The “Meridian” circle, of WASHINGTON, D. C., has been having a feast of -good things. How can it help it? It lives in Washington, and Washington -offers peculiar advantages to literary and scientific clubs, not only -on account of its immense professional library and large scientific -collections in the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum, but -also through the _personnel_ of these institutions and of the many -other scientific bureaus of the government, who, making literature or -science their daily vocation, afford a large field from which to draw -essayists and experimentalists of a high order. “Meridian” circle has -been fortunate in availing itself of these advantages. Last year, during -the course in vegetable biology, they had an evening’s instruction in -the microscopic examination of bioplasm, by Dr. D. S. Lamb, the eminent -anatomist of the United States Medical Museum, who had charge of the -autopsy of President Garfield. This year, at their last meeting in -November, they had an essay from Mr. Lee Shidy, of the United States -Coast Survey, on “The Tides,” a most interesting subject, and most -interestingly and ably illustrated and explained. - -A seven-years-old circle certainly deserves a warm corner by THE -CHAUTAUQUAN’S fireside. Most cordially do we grant it, for we mistrust -that a circle so experienced will be unusually good company, and will -be able, too, to give us some suggestions of value. It is the “Trojan,” -of TROY, OHIO, which claims this rare distinction, and we believe we -are not wrong in saying that their history will be of great interest -to all. The ‘Trojan’ circle was organized with a large membership in -1878. Eight members graduated in 1882, five of them being at Chautauqua -that season. In the fall of that year the circle increased greatly, -and has been growing in interest ever since. Now it numbers thirty-two -members. Their plan of work is as follows: They open with singing, and -responsive reading from ‘Chautauqua Songs.’ At roll call each member is -expected to respond with a Bible verse. The questions in THE CHAUTAUQUAN -on the week’s lesson are asked, and also original test questions from -some or all of the members, on the readings. Sometimes the circle reads -alternately from one of the text-books, or from THE CHAUTAUQUAN. They -always have a critic, and a committee of two that gives a digest of the -topics of the times, often in the form of questions, which thus makes -a pleasant _conversazione_. Memorial days are faithfully remembered -and made interesting and attractive by essays, readings, recitations, -and music.——At PERRYSBURG, OHIO, ten persons are in the circle, which -has been in existence for about four years. One entertaining feature -is novel. Occasionally a paper of interesting general news is added to -the program. The question box, too, is made a feature of each evening, -a practice which is always worth all the work it takes. Memorial days -find pleasant observance, the Milton memorial being celebrated with -peculiarly pleasing exercises. The circle is rejoicing in their readings, -considering them of great benefit. - -MICHIGAN advances with a goodly list of new circles this month. At -PETOSKEY there are fourteen members formed into a circle. These friends -have the invigorating influence of the Bay View summer Assembly to help -their work.——At HUDSON, a delightful company of thirty-five has formed -the “Carleton” circle, the name being given, of course, in honor of the -popular poet, Will M. Carleton, whose birthplace and early home were in -Hudson. Round-Tables with genuine “at home” feeling, recitations, select -readings, question box, queries, criticisms and quotations make the -meetings full of life and variety. The program for an evening is always -published in the local papers at least two weeks beforehand, and a report -of each meeting is slipped in after each session, so that the people -can not forget the existence of the C. L. S. C. At an early meeting -our friends are going to take a trip to Naples and return.——Strong -organizations have been formed at both KALAMAZOO and SAUGATUCK. At the -former place the “Burr Oak” circle has twenty members, and at the latter, -a lovely town about two miles up the Kalamazoo River, the circle, though -small, is growing. The use which they make of our columns seems to us -very good. “THE CHAUTAUQUAN is our ‘guide and counselor,’ and though we -do not follow closely its outline for local circles, yet we never prepare -a program without its aid.”——In the land of the arbutus, at TRAVERSE -CITY, the “Arbutus” circle, of twenty members, has been organized. A -pretty monogram has been designed for them, and it is to be printed -upon the sermon paper which the members use for essays and reviews. -These contributions are then to be bound in paper covers and filed. An -interesting collection it will certainly make. The growth of our language -has been furnishing this circle with some interesting topics. - -The “Vincent” local circle of LAFAYETTE, IND., has entered upon its -fourth year, with forty members, three of whom are C. L. S. C. graduates, -but remain active in the work. The president, Prof. Craig, and vice -president, Prof. Thompson, both of Purdue University, are thoroughly -interested in the work. The program is prepared a month in advance. They -are following the suggestions in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, largely. The success of -their lecture course last winter left the society with funds sufficient -to rent a room, centrally located, for the regular meetings. The vice -president, a Professor of Art, recently presented the circle with a terra -cotta medallion of Dr. Vincent, his own work. It has been handsomely -framed and hung in their room. - -From SHELDON, ILL., a friend writes: “We have a local circle of about -twenty-five members and great interest is taken in the exercises. We -usually follow your program. Not having started until after October 1st, -and having been delayed in obtaining our books, has thrown us behind -some, still we are making up lost ground better than expected.”——At CRETE -a circle has started off with twenty-six members—many of them young -people, to whom the course has been just what they needed.——ABINGDON also -has a society of twenty-three members. Several readers have been there -in past years, but not until now has there been a circle. The chemistry -readings are furnishing an excellent opportunity for experiments, and the -Abingdon circle are fortunate in having a college laboratory to resort to -for experiments. - -The circle of the Franklin Avenue M. E. Church, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA, -has been formed two years and has not reported until now to THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. They have an interesting class of nineteen members, who are -all very zealous in the work. The circle meets every Monday evening to -review the week’s work, which they are studying after the plan laid out -in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -The circles of MINNESOTA, and, indeed, of the entire north-west, are -requested to send a note to Mr. E. P. Penniman, ST. PAUL, MINN., stating -whether they will coöperate in a plan for securing a C. L. S. C. day -at either the Red Rock camp ground, Lake Minnetonka, or at White Bear -Lake. The six circles of St. Paul, those of Minneapolis, Hudson, and -Stillwater, have signified their willingness to help carry out this -excellent idea. Such a day would be an event of greatest interest -and value to the circles in that locality; it would arouse flagging -enthusiasm, would give every one present a fund of new ideas, and would -spread the plan of home reading in many homes where it is unknown. - -We are very much pleased to hear from BLOOMFIELD, IOWA, of a circle, -organized in 1882, but which has not before been introduced to our -circles. Since its organization its membership has increased from six -to fifteen members. The memorial days are observed and much social life -enjoyed by the circle which promises that at no late day there will be -more than one organization of the C. L. S. C. in their city. - -A late number of _The Daily Register_, of MOBILE, ALABAMA, contains an -essay on “The Character of Milton,” which was read before one of the -circles of that city at a recent meeting. Had we space we should gladly -reprint this excellent paper. Mobile has two societies reading the -Chautauqua course, and we hope that we shall soon receive full reports -from them. - -A great deal of energy is displayed by the DESOTA, MISSOURI, circle. -Few issues of the _Jefferson Watchman_ come out without a notice of its -meetings. A late number says: “The members of the C. L. S. C. are again -busily engaged in their work after their holiday vacation. Two meetings -have already been held in the new term, both of which were enjoyable and -instructive, and the reading of ’85 is well under way. The number of -members is about the same as last term, as none after becoming interested -in the work seem to have the least inclination to drop out of the circle, -but on the contrary become more and more interested and enthusiastic. The -program for the next meeting will be found in another part of this paper.” - -KANSAS quite equals Missouri, however, in its enterprising readers. A -letter from a reader at WAKARUSA remarks of their circle: “We number but -eight members, and are so scattered that our circuit embraces several -miles, but having adopted the name ‘Olympian,’ we hope in time to carry -off a double prize, one for intellectual attainments, the other for -physical prowess exhibited in combat with Kansas mud. Though we have -difficulties and discouragements even in our own little circle, we -are yet resolute and enthusiastic. At present the Round-Table is the -principal feature of our meetings.”——Quite as interesting is a live -report from WYANDOTTE: “Although we have not been reported for nearly -a year, our circle is not dead, but the interest is increasing, and we -are doing better work than ever. Our membership numbers twenty-five, -with twenty subscribers to THE CHAUTAUQUAN. In 1884 we held forty-seven -meetings, and had an average attendance of twelve. With us, as with -nearly all other circles, the great difficulty is to keep from having too -much of a sameness in our programs. Thus far we have had good success by -giving a committee charge of the literary work, which reports performers -and programs a week in advance for regular meetings and three weeks for -memorial meetings. We sometimes vary the exercises by devoting an entire -evening to one subject. We endeavor to have all roll calls answered with -quotations, and stimulate inquiry by having a question box, the contents -of which are discussed at each meeting. We observe all memorial days, -and they are a never failing source of interest. On Milton memorial -the biography of Milton was given by the circle, each member taking up -the history where the former one stopped. Each member read a favorite -selection from the author, and the variety of selections indicated a -variety of taste. We make good use of the Chautauqua songs, and find that -the singing of them renders a meeting so much the more interesting, and -there is, too, a bond of union in a stirring song. Our members have taken -the liberty of naming this circle the ‘Pansy’ circle, as nearly all of us -are members of the ‘Pansy’ class.” - -We are sorry to “skip” the wide space between Kansas and California, and -gladly stop at NORDHOFF, CAL., where we find the “Ojai” circle, which -was organized last October. Although they are only seven, they are all -in earnest and full of the Chautauqua spirit. They meet once each month, -at the homes of the members. They are all busy people, but are glad to -_make_ time for the C. L. S. C. reading, which they find adds a charm to -busy lives. They hope to be able to persuade many of their friends to -join them. - - - - -THE C. L. S. C. CLASSES. - - -CLASS OF 1885.—“THE INVINCIBLES.” - -“_Press on, reaching after those things which are before._” - -OFFICERS. - - _President_—J. B. Underwood, Meriden, Conn. - - _Vice President_—C. M. Nichols, Springfield, Ohio. - - _Treasurer_—Miss Carrie Hart, Aurora, Ind. - - _Secretary_—Miss M. M. Canfield, Washington, D. C. - - _Executive Committee_—Officers of the class. - - Class badges may be procured of either President or Treasurer. - - * * * * * - -A very pretty program comes to us from a loyal “Invincible” of Toledo, -Ohio, the Rev. H. M. Bacon, the president of the “Bryant” circle of that -city. The program contains a six months’ outline of work. It bears the -mottoes, the dates of regular meetings, and the memorial days. A kind of -C. L. S. C. calendar which we imagine any once having had would find it -hard to do without. - - * * * * * - -Miss Kimball writes our secretary, Miss Canfield, of Washington, that the -Invincibles—true to their name—are making a splendid record, and that -the class standing is excellent. She says: “I think the Invincibles may -well be proud of their record. The prospect is that the class will stand -fully as high, in proportion to its size, as any of the other classes. -Of course we can not expect the actual number of graduates to reach that -of other classes, as the whole recorded membership is much smaller.” Let -this encouraging news help us to “press on,” and, classmates, see to it -that all members of your local circles, who rightfully belong with the -’85s, have their memoranda completed and sent in by the first of July. - - * * * * * - -Of those who expect to receive diplomas at Chautauqua, forty-one, -representing fifteen states, Canada and the District of Columbia, have -responded to the request to send their names to the secretary. Let us -hear from you all, that the list for “roll call” may be complete. - - * * * * * - -One ’85, who writes he lives alone with his brother “away out in the -backwoods of California,” regrets he can not be present at Chautauqua, -but hopes to receive his diploma at Monterey. From the Atlantic to the -Pacific the pulse of the C. L. S. C. is beating strong and steady. - - -CLASS OF 1886.—“THE PROGRESSIVES.” - -“_We study for light, to bless with light._” - -CLASS ORGANIZATION. - - _President_—The Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Maine. - - _Vice Presidents_—The Rev. J. C. Whitley, Salisbury, Maryland; - Mr. L. F. Houghton, Peoria, Illinois; Mr. Walter Y. Morgan, - Cleveland, Ohio; Mrs. Delia Browne, Louisville, Kentucky; Miss - Florence Finch, Palestine, Texas. - - _Secretary_—The Rev. W. L. Austin, New Albany, Ind. - - * * * * * - - “For light!” and “with light!” as the words we repeat, - Yet fuller and deeper the message they bring; - Still through every volume each line that we meet - In undertone earnest our motto shall ring. - - “For light” do we ponder the history vast - Which spreads through the ages its sunshine and shade, - “With light” for the present, we come from the past, - With lessons whose impress we can not evade. - - “For light” must we study the many-hued lines - Which Greece with her delicate pencil has traced; - While Rome with her pride and her grandeur combines - To deepen the picture no time can efface. - - “For light” at the portals of Nature we wait— - Descend to her rocks and mount up to her stars— - Her atoms diffuse and her gases collate, - Yet learn, as her secrets she slowly unbars, - - How, filling, pervading, encompassing all, - Still law—mighty law—through all systems doth reign; - The world and the atom respond to its call, - The dewdrop and ocean are bound by its chain. - - “For light,” above all, when our vesper has chimed, - We bathe in the beams of an unsetting Sun; - When thus up the ladder of prayer we have climbed, - “With light” shall be blessed many thousands through one. - - “For light!” and “with light!” ’tis for this we would live, - O fling our glad banner abroad to the sky! - Truths won for ourselves unto others we give, - Till light never-clouded shall greet us on high. - - ALICE C. JENNINGS, Class of ’86. - - -CLASS OF 1888.—“THE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.” - -“_Let us be seen by our deeds._” - -CLASS ORGANIZATION. - - _President_—The Rev. A. E. Dunning, D.D., Boston, Mass. - - _Vice Presidents_—Prof. W. N. Ellis, 108 Gates Avenue, Brooklyn, - N. Y.; the Rev. Wm. G. Roberts, Bellevue, Ohio. - - _Secretary_—Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio. - - _Treasurer_—Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio. - - All items for this column should be sent, in condensed form, to - the Rev. C. C. McLean, St. Augustine, Florida. - - * * * * * - -Badges for the Class of ’88 sold only by Mrs. Rosie M. Baketel, -Greenland, N. H. Price, 15 cents each. - - * * * * * - -All members who have interesting items of class news should send them -promptly to the Rev. C. C. McLean. - - * * * * * - -The following circles of the Class of ’88 have been formed, viz.: -“Janes,” Brooklyn, N. Y., sixty-two members; “Vincent,” Wyoming, Iowa, -over twenty members; “Washington Avenue,” Milwaukee, Wis., fourteen -members. In Collamer, Ohio, there was organized a circle four years -ago. It has enjoyed active vitality ever since, and is now doing most -efficient work in astronomy. Aroused by the last Chautauqua Assembly, -nearly thirty organized a new circle. All are of the Class of ’88, except -one of ’82, one of ’83, and five of ’86. The latter includes an old lady -in her 81st year, who is not only beautiful in character, but, seemingly, -as bright in intellect as in the meridian of life. This circle favors a -change in motto; one suggests “Perfect in principle, in practice pure.” - - * * * * * - -The Florida Chautauqua is now in session at Lake de Funiak, and closes -March 9th. The program is varied and interesting. We hope to report a -good increase in the Class of ’88 at the close of the Assembly. - - * * * * * - -IOWA.—I am enrolled in the C. L. S. C. army, “Class of ’88.” Not until -the middle of this month (December) was I able to commence my reading. -The prescribed course I think grand, and I can but feel grateful for a -plan so far reaching, and so full and beneficial in its results. Our -class motto is excellent. I am a busy farmer, but I shall make known the -advantages of the “Chautauqua University.” - - - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -BY A. M. MARTIN, - -General Secretary C. L. S. C. - - -I.—QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “COLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH”—FROM PAGE -187 TO END OF THE BOOK. - - -1. Q. Who was the third member of the great tragical triumvirate of -Greece, Æschylus and Sophocles being the other two? A. Euripides. - -2. Q. When was Euripides born, and what noted battle took place the year -of his birth? A. 480 B. C., in the year of the battle of Salamis. - -3. Q. Where were the closing days of Euripides spent? A. At the court of -the king of Macedonia. - -4. Q. Who are two of the translators of Euripides? A. R. Potter, who -has made a metrical translation, and T. A. Buckley, who has produced a -version in prose. - -5. Q. From what play of Euripides are the most of the extracts presented -by our author taken? A. From the “Alcestis.” - -6. Q. Under what title has Robert Browning rendered a version of -“Alcestis?” A. “Balaustion’s Adventure.” - -7. Q. Who was Alcestis? A. The wife and queen to Admetus, king of Pheræ, -in Thessaly. - -8. Q. By grace from Apollo, on what condition was Admetus granted the -privilege of not dying? A. On condition of his being able to find some -one who would agree to die in his stead when his turn should come. - -9. Q. Who became the required substitute? A. Alcestis, the wife of -Admetus. - -10. Q. After her death by whom was she brought back to life and restored -to her husband? A. By Heracles. - -11. Q. From what drama of Euripides does our author take a celebrated -chorus, in part eulogistic of Athens? A. The “Medea.” - -12. Q. Who stands alone as representative to us of Greek comedy? A. -Aristophanes. - -13. Q. What two comedies of Aristophanes retain for us more interest than -perhaps any other of his works? A. “The Frogs” and “The Clouds.” - -14. Q. Who were the especial targets of these two comedies respectively? -A. Euripides of the “Frogs” and Socrates of the “Clouds.” - -15. Q. Who is first in fame among ancient lyric poets? A. Pindar. - -16. Q. What does Sappho remain to this day in general estimation among -those entitled to adjudge her just rank, from the various trustworthy -indications that survive? A. The foremost woman of genius in the world. - -17. Q. What is the only complete poem that has come down to us from -Sappho? A. The “Hymn to Aphrodite.” - -18. Q. On what does the fame of Simonides chiefly rest? A. On his -epigrams. - -19. Q. What is the most celebrated, perhaps, of all the epigrams of -Simonides? A. That on the Spartan Three Hundred who fell at Thermopylæ. - -20. Q. What is the great name in Greek idyllic poetry? A. Theocritus. - -21. Q. What two other pastoral poets are associated with Theocritus, in a -kind of parasitic renown? A. Bion and Moschus. - -22. Q. From what two idyls of Theocritus does our author give -presentations? A. The “Death of Daphnis,” and the “Festival of Adonis.” - -23. Q. Who is first among the masters of eloquence? A. Demosthenes. - -24. Q. The name of what other orator is associated with that of -Demosthenes? A. Æschines. - -25. Q. What are the most celebrated of Demosthenes’s public orations? A. -The “Olynthiacs,” the “Philippics,” and the oration on the “Crown.” - - -II.—QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “CHEMISTRY,” FROM PAGE 85 TO PAGE 156, -INCLUSIVE. - -26. Q. Why is chlorine a substance of very great commercial importance? -A. On account of its extensive use as a bleaching agent. - -27. Q. Of what common article is chlorine an important constituent? A. -Salt. - -28. Q. What are the three most striking properties of chlorine? A. Its -noticeable weight—greater than that of the air—its greenish color, and -its exceedingly irritating odor. - -29. Q. In connection with what two principal properties does chlorine, as -a chemical agent, manifest its activities? A. Its affinity for hydrogen -and its affinity for the metals. - -30. Q. Of what may the substance known as bleaching-powder be spoken in a -general way as consisting? A. Of lime saturated with chlorine. - -31. Q. When was bromine first recognized as an elementary substance, and -by whom discovered? A. In the year 1826, by Balard, a French chemist. - -32. Q. Where does the substance bromine occur? A. In the brine of the -ocean, and in the water of mineral springs, united with certain metals in -the form of bromides. - -33. Q. To what does bromine show very decided resemblances, in its -chemical relations? A. To chlorine, having affinities for the same -substances, only less in intensity. - -34. Q. In what processes is bromine an important substance? A. In the -processes of photography. - -35. Q. In what form has bromine had a very wide and beneficent use, as a -remedial agent? A. In the form of potassic bromide. - -36. Q. What is the other member of the chemical family to which it may be -said chlorine and bromine belong? A. Iodine. - -37. Q. Where are all these three elements found? A. In sea water. - -38. Q. From what source is iodine obtained? A. From sea weeds. - -39. Q. To what are the chemical characteristics of iodine throughout -closely allied? A. To those of chlorine and of bromine, only in general, -iodine may be said to have weaker chemical affinities than either of the -other two. - -40. Q. What are two of the principal uses of iodine? A. In photographic -processes, and as a remedial agent. - -41. Q. What remarkable statement is made of fluorine? A. That is has -never been known to be produced isolated, that is, in a separate or -uncombined form. - -42. Q. What property above all others is characteristic of fluorine? A. -Its striking affinity for silicon. - -43. Q. With what substance is fluorine never known to form any compound? -A. With oxygen, which can be said of no other element. - -44. Q. What are three considerations upon which the importance of oxygen -depends? A. The surpassing abundance of the substance itself, the -great number of compounds into which it enters, and the activity of its -chemical powers. - -45. Q. To whom is the first discovery of oxygen usually attributed? A. -Dr. Joseph Priestly, an English clergyman and student of natural science. - -46. Q. What is the most prominent compound of oxygen? A. Water. - -47. Q. What are some of the remarkable properties of sulphur? A. The ease -with which it melts; the readiness with which it takes fire and burns in -the air; the striking blue flame produced when it burns; the choking and -disagreeable odor attendant upon its combustion; and its burning when in -the pure form without leaving any ashes. - -48. Q. From what localities is the principal supply of sulphur for -commerce obtained? A. From the volcanic districts of the island of Sicily. - -49. Q. What is said as to the number of elements with which sulphur -combines? A. It combines in simple form of union with a majority of the -elements known. - -50. Q. What are three important compounds of sulphur? A. Sulphuretted -hydrogen, sulphur di-oxide, and sulphur tri-oxide. - - - - -THE TRUSTEES REORGANIZE CHAUTAUQUA. - - -On the thirteenth of January the Chautauqua Board of Trustees held -its annual meeting in the elegant rooms of the Young Men’s Christian -Association of the city of Pittsburgh, to prepare the way for the next -great Assembly. Mr. Lewis Miller, Dr. J. H. Vincent, Messrs. F. H. Root, -Jacob Miller, E. A. Skinner, W. A. Duncan, Dr. J. T. Edwards, Rev. J. -Lester, Rev. H. H. Moore, and most of the trustees were present, but as -usual, of the twenty-four members, letters of apology were received from -a few who were detained at home by sickness or urgent business matters. -Those present, however, were fully prepared to go forward and meet the -responsibilities of the hour. Dr. T. L. Flood, editor of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, -and Judge Holt, attorney for the corporation, were present to look after -their respective departments. - -As they came together for deliberation the trustees felt the inspiration -of a history of grand successes, of a present satisfactory, and of a -future full of hope. Hence the boldness of their plans, and the energy -with which they were carried into effect. Chautauqua has a constituency -which is of inestimable value, in the prayers and sympathies of many -thousands of people who have never seen those beautiful grounds. - -Wherever the Board of Trustees hold their annual meetings a lively -interest is created, especially among press reporters and in the C. -L. S. C. part of the community. In this respect Pittsburgh surpassed -any other place ever visited, Jamestown and Cleveland not excepted. On -reaching the city it was found that a reception had been arranged by the -alumni and members of the Chautauqua Circle, to be held in Christ Church -on the evening of the 13th, and that an elaborate program of exercises -had been provided. The Rev. Mr. Williams, of the Pittsburgh _Christian -Advocate_, occupied the chair. Music was furnished by Hamilton’s Junior -Orchestra. Dr. Hirst, pastor of Christ Church, delivered, in chaste and -eloquent language, an address of welcome. Prof. Holmes, Registrar of -the Chautauqua University, in reply, spoke at length, explaining its -aims and method of operation. President Miller followed in his happiest -vein, and made clear the point that the educational scheme of the Circle -was well suited to meet the constant and progressive changes ever going -forward in society. On being introduced, Dr. Vincent was received by the -great audience with a storm of applause. In his own usual taking way he -unfolded the principles embraced in the Chautauqua Idea. We deal mostly, -he said, with the mature mind that is athirst for knowledge. We make use -of practical methods to supply the great want of the day, which is a -rational society. - -Dr. Flood, editor of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, was presented and spoke for a few -moments. The music was fine, the speaking the happiest, and after the -formal exercises had closed a season of free social intercourse followed. -The power Chautauqua had exerted upon the city of Pittsburgh appeared -in the great number present, who rose to their feet as witnesses; and -most of the cities of the nation could produce like evidence of its -popularity and influence. - -The lavish expenditures of money which have been made upon buildings -at Chautauqua in the past have created such facilities for work of all -kinds that at present nothing further is required in that direction. -This was a satisfaction not only to those who have heroically carried -heavy financial burdens, but to those who have regretted that they were -able to give only their sympathies to the cause. The brief address made -by President Miller to the Board of Trustees consisted of a brief and -cheery review of the past and a hopeful glance into the future. There is, -he said, much yet to be done, sacrifices to be made, for Chautauqua is -yet in its infancy, and its enlarged work from year to year will demand -increased attention. Secretary Duncan in his annual report informed -the trustees that during the past year his receipts had exceeded his -expenditures by nearly ten thousand dollars, and that this sum had been -used as far as it would go to liquidate the floating debt. - -The following written report was presented by Chancellor Vincent: - -“For the first time in the history of the Chautauqua Assembly I present -to the Board a formal report. This has hitherto seemed to me unnecessary, -and you have generously accepted a verbal statement in lieu of a full, -official communication. I no longer thus tax your generosity, but under -a keen conviction that an important crisis has arrived in our history, I -beg leave to lay before you the following statements and suggestions: - -“The Chautauqua movement is a marvel even to its projectors. However -all-embracing may have been the original conception of our noble -president, Mr. Miller, when he proposed a summer gathering in the grove -at Chautauqua, the gradually unfolding scheme has been a source of -surprise and delight to the world of curious and interested observers. - -“Chautauqua in its various departments is a unit. However diverse the -outward forms, the name which marks them all proves them one. The -‘Chautauqua Assembly,’ the ‘Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle,’ -the ‘Chautauqua School of Languages,’ the ‘Chautauqua Teachers’ Retreat,’ -the ‘Chautauqua Young Folks’ Reading Union,’ the ‘Chautauqua School of -Theology,’ the ‘Chautauqua University’—all are but developments of the -radical idea of Chautauqua, which is popular and symmetrical education; -education for all people; education in all lines, according to varied -tastes, needs and opportunities. - -“Our constituency is as broad as are the aims of the institution: -Sunday-school and other Christian workers, day school teachers, students -of language, ministers of the gospel, citizens who mold the nation, -mothers who mold citizens by making homes—these all, and all beside -who seek knowledge, character and usefulness, are the people for whom -Chautauqua was organized. - -“With this wide reach of purpose it was necessary that Chautauqua should -project the lines of its intention in plans and departments, that the -world might see its magnitude, and that the full territory it proposes -to occupy might be preëmpted. Until this projection was made, the -Chautauqua Idea was irrepressible. And now Chautauqua with its variety -of departments is not like a mere pile of buildings, with additions, -lean-tos, unrelated edifices, and other after-thoughts, the results of -unmanageable ingenuity. It is a growth and development, a provision -according to the highest law, to meet the necessities which called it -into existence. - -“In this growth of twelve years there have been no unnecessary additions. -To have omitted any of them would have made Chautauqua less than it -is; and to have made Chautauqua less than it is would have been a -mistake—almost a disaster. Because of the broad and varied provisions now -included in the Chautauqua movement, it will be greater and stronger for -all time to come. - -“It would not have been easy to organize these departments at first under -a single charter. The separate schemes under separate constitutions came -into being. Each is stronger to-day because of the relative independence -of its origin. The time may have come, I think the time has come, for an -external union of departments which have all along been practically one. -No antagonism between them has ever seemed to me possible, but there is a -way of preventing even the seeming or fear of such antagonism. - -“At the first meeting of the Board of Trustees of Chautauqua University, -I proposed the appointment of a committee whose business it should be to -bring into complete external unity all departments of Chautauqua. This -committee has never acted. I now renew the proposal, with some practical -hints looking toward this result.” - -Dr. Vincent then presented several suggestions designed to harmonize the -various Chautauqua interests. - -The report continues: - -“The financial condition of Chautauqua is a subject to which I have -heretofore given little attention. I trusted implicitly to the wisdom of -the Board, whose large ideas of the Chautauqua work, whose enthusiasm in -it, and whose generous courtesy toward me, have caused them to give me -the largest liberty, and to treat with great gentleness what they have -sometimes felt to be excessive expenditure. - -“My dreams and aspirations concerning the development of Chautauqua -have led me to plan largely, and to spend liberally, that the attention -of great-hearted men might be attracted to our work, the sympathy of -progressive educators secured, and the great centers of influence -in pulpits, colleges and newspapers be commanded in the interest of -Chautauqua. A careful analysis of these expenditures will show that there -has been no extravagance, although a greater economy might have been -exercised.” - -The report of Dr. Vincent closed with the following words: - -“Trusting that you will see your way clear to coöperate in the plans -proposed, and commending our great institution to him who is the ‘Master -of Assemblies,’ this report is respectfully submitted.” - -The report of Dr. Vincent was submitted to a special committee, which -presented the following report, which was adopted as below: - -The special committee to which was referred the report of the -Superintendent of Instruction, begs leave respectfully to report: - -1. That we recommend to the Board to reorganize the union of the several -associations, schools, and departments of the Chautauqua Assembly, -the Chautauqua School of Theology, the Chautauqua University, and the -Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, under a single organization to -be known as THE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY. - -2. (This article calls for necessary legislative action.) - -3. The work of the new organization shall be carried on under the -following departments: - - I.—THE CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY, embracing: - - _a._ The Summer meetings at Chautauqua; - _b._ The Sunday-School Normal Department; - _c._ The School of Languages; - _d._ The Chautauqua Teachers’ Retreat; - - II.—THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE; - - III.—THE CHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS, now known as “The - Chautauqua University,” and with powers as provided in its - charter; - - IV.—THE CHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY, with purposes and powers - as in its charter; - - V.—THE CHAUTAUQUA PRESS. - -4. There shall be three committees, of three persons each, appointed -by the Board, to coöperate with the Chancellor in the management of -the above departments. Persons may be eligible to appointment on these -committees who are not members of the Board. - -These committees shall be: - - _a._ A Committee on Assembly; - _b._ A Committee on C. L. S. C., the C. S. L. A., and C. S. T.; - _c._ A Committee on the Chautauqua Press. - -5. We approve of the recommendation of the Superintendent of Instruction, -of the establishment of the “Chautauqua Press,” as a part of the -“Chautauqua University.” - -6. The income from the general membership fees in the Chautauqua Literary -and Scientific Circle, in the Chautauqua School of Liberal Arts, and in -the Chautauqua School of Theology, with such annual appropriations as -may be made by the Board to these departments, shall constitute their -fund respectively, out of which all expenses of each of these departments -shall be paid annually; the surplus in the department treasury of the C. -L. S. C., of the C. S. L. A., and of the C. S. T., from year to year, -shall be paid to the treasurer of the Assembly Board. There shall be two -assistant treasurers, one to have charge of the funds of the C. L. S. C., -and the other of the funds of the C. S. L. A. and of the C. S. T., both -of whom shall make an annual report to the Board. - -7. We recommend that the Superintendent of Instruction in the Assembly -Board shall hereafter be known as “The Chancellor of the University.” - -8. It shall be the duty of the Chancellor of the University to arrange -and conduct the program of the Chautauqua Assembly; to engage speakers, -teachers, leaders of music, and such other assistants as the program may -require; to conduct the affairs of the C. L. S. C., the C. S. L. A., and -the C. S. T.; he shall submit a report to the meeting of the Board in -January of each year, which shall contain a statement of his expenditures -in the several departments during the preceding year, and an estimate of -the probable expenses for the year ensuing. - -9. The duties of the other officers shall be those specified in the -by-laws as already adopted by the Assembly, the Chautauqua School of -Theology, and the University, or as may be hereafter adopted. - - * * * * * - -As it has been abundantly demonstrated that this section of the lake is -rich in natural gas, it may be expected that as the season opens the -work of development will commence. Chautauqua has also an inexhaustible -mineral fountain, which many have found not only a pleasant beverage, but -rich in health-giving qualities. - -Appearances indicate that the next Assembly will be of the first -importance. Many will probably meet J. B. Gough—the hero of a thousand -platforms—for the last time. Dr. Deems is to come among us once more, and -the original Fisk Jubilee Singers will be there, and they have no equals -in reproducing the fast vanishing songs of the plantation. - - - - -EDITOR’S OUTLOOK. - - -THE GREAT GREEK DRAMATISTS. - -The Greek drama, which is now before our C. L. S. C. students in its -English rendering, presents many interesting aspects to the modern mind. -We are well aware that this statement will surprise some readers; but -let them consider a few facts. Is it not a remarkable thing that the -Greek drama, which the world will not suffer to be forgotten, was all -produced in the space of about half a century? And compare the fact with -our own history, noting that English drama of the imperishable type -is all gathered into a single brilliant period, of which Shakspere is -the central light in dramatic poetry. Æschylus was born in 525 B. C., -Sophocles in 495, and Euripides in 480. The three are nearly on a level -in merit, Æschylus having the more force, and his compeers in dramatic -fame more of the refinements of art. They are not three Shaksperes in -one constellation, but three orbs whose combined light is less than that -of our English poet. No one has satisfactorily explained why the tragic -drama should so isolate itself in the centuries of a people; but it may -be said to be a rule that if a people produce a great drama at all, this -choice fruit will appear only in a single period. But since Greece and -England are the only nations having a great tragic stage—for we do not -reckon the French drama as in the first rank—the rule has no well-defined -value. It is remarkable, too, that the great epic poets are more numerous -than the great masters of tragedy. Greece, indeed, is known to us for -one epic and three tragic poets; but every great people before ours has -had a respectable epic poem, whereas in most nations tragic poetry is -rare or inferior. The great tragedies are so few that one may easily know -them and prize them. No other form of literature presents us with so few -masterpieces. - -Another good aspect of the drama in Greece is that it came in the period -of the full-flowering of Greek egotism, or if the phrase is happier, -of Greek patriotism. Here, too, we may find an analogy in the England -of Shakspere. The age of Elizabeth is easily fixed upon as that of -self-satisfied British patriotism. It is also true that alike in the -Athens of the dramatists and the London of Shakspere there was the stir -and bustle and heroic energy of national life. It is not to be overlooked -that the dramatists of Greece, like the literary statesmen of England -were in public life. They sought and held office; and, indeed, they, like -Socrates, were soldiers besides. Æschylus fought at Marathon, Salamis, -and Platæa, the three great battles of his country. Shakspere did not do -his work on the Avon, but in the din of London, and many a thing which -surprises us in his plays may be explained by the close and uninterrupted -contact of the dramatist with the active men of his time. He learned, for -example, all his law phrases in convivial association with lawyers, much -as he learned scripture by hearing the prayer-book read in the churches. -(He always quotes the prayer-book, never the Bible.) So in Athens, our -statesmen-dramatists lived in the full press of life, and their drama -reflects the opinions and proverbs of their day. Men of the lamp could -not have caught the spirit and attitude of the Athenian mind toward the -problems of life which underlie the Greek plays. The just-enough and not -too much or too little of philosophy—the mean between dogmatic theology -and crude irreligion—the man of the world, and he alone, can hit. We may -safely reason that while many forms of literature can be best wrought by -men out of the world, some forms seem to require their producers to be -in the world and of the world; and among these, the drama is especially -reserved to men who combine practical experience with erudition, and also -possess the indescribable mystery of genius. The student will be well -repaid for his pains who struggles to understand the spirit—a strange -one to us—which is peculiar to the Greek drama, the singular aspects -and functions of religion, and the mode in which it is apparently held -fast by the tragic poet, who is also a man of the world. There are also -profitable studies to be made of those glimpses of unchanging human -nature which the tragedies afford us. One theory is that we study old -classics in order to know an older and extinct type of mankind: a truer -view is that the virtues and vices of the elder man are simple and -undisguised by social varnish. In any case, the student who understands, -for example, the woman Medea, has a useful lesson in “the proper study of -mankind.” - - -CHAUTAUQUA AT NEW ORLEANS. - -Almost every interest of the country is represented at New Orleans this -winter. Every prominent manufactory, all leading trades, the great -branches of commerce, and particularly educational institutions have -exhibits of more or less importance. The eye of the country is turned -southward. Whatever is worthy our civilization has been collected there -for study. In educational matters many departments have been given -position, that they may be studied by the eager learner; for people are -eager to know the world’s work. You see it in their keen observation of -the displays made throughout the long galleries, and their quick notice -of the comparative merits of the exhibits. To them the work from the -Indian schools, from the colored people, from the far away territories, -and from foreign lands are studies in comparative civilization. Every -sign of advancement is quickly seized upon; and in no department is more -eagerness to know manifested by visitors than in the “Chautauqua Alcove.” - -Chautauqua and the C. L. S. C. have a very good representation in the -south gallery of the government building, under the general supervision -of Prof. E. A. Spring, a member of the faculty at Chautauqua. This -exhibit is attracting a great deal of attention. All members and friends -of the C. L. S. C. who may visit the Exposition are earnestly and -cordially invited to visit the Chautauqua exhibit. An idea of Prof. -Spring’s work may be obtained from a few extracts from a letter received -from him in the holidays: - - CHAUTAUQUA ALCOVE, NEW ORLEANS, LA., Dec. 26, ’84. - - There is a large placard up in this exhibit, as follows: - - U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION. - - CHAUTAUQUA ALCOVE. - - _Any one of the sixty thousand of the members of the C. L. S. C. - who may be here is requested to register._ - - I give everybody one of a little handful of Spare Minute Course - circulars that I brought with me. I have given out about a - hundred—and had conversations, some of them with evident - conviction—in German, French, English, and the language of signs. - By help of my Italian, I have tried to talk to some of the many - Mexicans here, but did not get deep enough to broach the C. L. S. - C. - - I had yesterday and to-day considerable talk with the intelligent - gentlemen representing the French Republic school system—M. - Buisson and his assistant. General Eaton says that the brother - of this Mons. Buisson is the genius of education in France. They - expressed themselves as much interested in the scope of the noble - Chautauqua plans. - - The principal and seven lady teachers from Normal, Ill., just - left me. They will come again, to learn more of Chautauqua. Some - Texas gentlemen, one of whom, Prof. Hogg, I have long known as a - fellow member of the National Educational Association, have been - here again to-day, to say that they would be here to see me with - about two hundred teachers from Texas at noon to-morrow. - - Dr. Mitchell was here this afternoon. - - On Saturday, the 27th, I was all ready for the two hundred - teachers, who advanced in a body with a banner, and I gave them a - regular lecture on Chautauqua and its out-reachings. - - Then I said my friend, Prof. Hogg, had seen me model in - Philadelphia, in 1879, at convention of the National Educational - Association, where he read a paper on “The Education of the - Hand, the Head, and the Heart,” and he had asked me to show this - company of teachers some clay modeling, so I would occupy a few - minutes in that, as it was one of the methods in the Chautauqua - plan to train the hand by clay, and through that educate the - head; and if the hand and the head were truly educated, as they - ought to be, the heart should be developed too. So, laying out - a colossal head in relief, I made a few remarks as to the value - of a little easy practice of clay modeling in schools; and then, - turning to the board with clay on it, I worked eighteen minutes, - and made a head of “an American Teacher.” - - General Eaton came to me after their vote of thanks, and as soon - as they had gone—in the most congratulatory frame. “Chautauqua - could afford to pay you two months’ work for that!” he said, - shaking me by the hand. Two of the class of ’86 C. L. S. C., from - Lockport, Dr. Mitchell, Mons. Buisson and a few others expressed - themselves as much interested. - - I was glad to find I had so many “Spare-minute” circulars—and - I must have given out seventy-five or one hundred yesterday, - beside one hundred to the Texans, generally accompanied with a - conversation of more or less length. - - All this in the midst of busy work and good progress in the - mechanical embellishment of our alcove. It will be very - attractive when completed, and I have so planned that I can work - at it all along, adding new features from day to day. - - It is very interesting, how near to people’s hearts and inner - lives I sometimes get in these little talks. It is a plan that - touches the aspirations and longings of many a true soul. I wish - sometimes that words could be instantaneously photographed. It is - impossible for me to write as fully as I should like. - - Our only CHAUTAUQUAN (November) with one copy of the C. L. S. C. - circular, with its cut of the Hall, has done good service. - - I very much hoped that Dr. Vincent could manage to come here. - Many people have asked, the first thing, if Dr. Vincent is to - be here. Every state should have a Chautauqua headquarters—this - alcove will get them all ready for it. - - _Monday morning._—Damp, muddy, discouraging to many people. The - car drivers have struck and the hour’s ride, long and tiresome at - best, is now cut off. Hundreds of teachers who have been pouring - into New Orleans these last days of their holiday, are prevented - from seeing and learning by this four or five miles of mud before - they reach the Exposition. There have been great hindrances all - along to the completion of the Exposition, and many grumblers. - But I have never been discouraged! Everything from the first - start has been delightful. When the roof leaked, I moved some - things away, told the roofer, and it was at once mended. When it - came on a hard storm night before last, I laid down on the floor, - rolled in my Kansas blanket, and liked it so well that I shall - camp out here in the Chautauqua precincts; at any rate, till - there is some comfortable conveyance away. - - More anon. - - Ever yours faithfully, - - EDWARD A. SPRING. - - -WINTER SPORTS IN CANADA. - -Winter undoubtedly has its hygienic value; and a part of this value -we get without effort. It is not only a comfort to be freed from the -annoyances of insect life, but it is also a gain for health that many -of the atmospheric impurities are removed by frost. But to get the -largest value from winter as a frost cure, we need to avail ourselves -of the system of healthful and invigorating amusements which prevail in -Canada, and have made that country famous. That portion of our population -which is employed out-doors in winter is, _pro tanto_, undoubtedly the -most healthy. For the rest of us the only possible equivalent is winter -sports. It is unfortunately true that the variable character of our -weather precludes us from exact imitation; but our inventive genius ought -to be equal to the task of bridging over the soft places in our winters. -In Canada, the long and comparatively equable winter makes it a simple -thing to provide healthy and innocent amusements which may be enjoyed -as regularly as any business is carried on. It is not to be forgotten, -however, that the Canadians are the only people in the world who know -how to keep warm out-doors as well as in-doors. They have learned to -perfection this art, for lack of which our out-door employments are -more or less dangerous. Our laborer does not keep warm in winter, and -his “colds” become consumption. In Canada, young girls accomplish in -this respect what stout men fail to do among us; they keep warm whether -they are flying in sleighs or on toboggans. These forms of enjoyment -are well organized; there are toboggan clubs, and “society” means some -form of winter sport. The miserable imitation called “roller-skating,” -which is alarming thoughtful people in many of our villages, is only a -craze, a temporary insanity; the winter sports of Canada are a national -institution. The physical and moral wholesomeness of the roller-skating -rink is more than doubtful. The moral and physical healthfulness of -the sports by which Canadians make winter a season of joy, can not be -questioned. - -On the average, our winter in the United States is not a healthful -and invigorating season to us. We lose the greater values and expose -ourselves to special dangers. We live in-doors, with a temperature ten -degrees too high. We shut in with us invisible plagues which breed -diphtheria and other diseases. We are enfeebled by refraining from -exercise and breathing unwholesome air in our houses. We come to the -spring weaker than we were when winter began. We have moped by hot fires -and breathed vitiated air, when we ought to have been out in the winter -blast, using our muscles and filling our lungs with the clean winds. Two -or three conditions seem wanting for a reform of these habits. One is the -art of keeping warm in the cold air; another is a keener sense of the -value of winter exercise, and a third is some devices by which the “soft -spells” of weather shall not arrest our sports nearly every week. - - -THE RELATIVE PRONOUN “THAT.” - -This word is a demonstrative pronoun and a conjunction; and in some -idiomatic phrases it is also a relative pronoun. By idiomatic phrases, -we mean that use has constructed certain forms of expression which -are wholes, though consisting of several words. _All that we know_ is -an idiomatic phrase; use and habit have welded the words together. In -the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, there grew a habit of using -_that_ very freely as a relative pronoun. The Bible of 1611 is full of -illustrations of this habit. During the present century this use of -_that_ has been by the best writers gradually restricted, and at present -the rule for _that_ as a relative pronoun, probably, is about as stated -above—the word is used, as a relative, only in idiomatic expressions. -The history of this word would make a very interesting chapter. We have -in the foregoing statement merely suggested one line of change in its -use, and we call attention to this change for a particular reason. Among -the excellent books published by Appleton & Co. is a reprint Cobbett’s -English Grammar, and in this reprint Mr. Ayres, the editor of it for -this republication, lays down in his introduction, and illustrates by -significant bracketing in Cobbett’s text, a new rule for the use of the -relative _that_. This new rule is, in substance, that the restrictive -relative is _that_—_who_ and _which_ being coördinating relatives. This -proposed reform is unfortunately timed. By a progress in use which has -been unobtrusive, and unaided by dogmatism, the number of _thats_ on a -printed page has been reduced to tolerable proportion. If we accept the -new rule we shall not only go back to excessive use of _that_, but we -may even increase the evil of too much _thating_. The word fills two -important functions in present good use; to add the office of expressing -all the restrictive uses of the relative pronouns, would probably -increase _thating_ so as to render an English page unsightly. Take a -sentence: “He said that that man that that boy said that he saw was not -that man that that boy thought that he saw.” Mr. Ayres tries to show -that certain sentences which contain _who_ and _which_ as relatives are -ambiguous in meaning, and that the substitution of _that_ would make -the meaning clear. As to such sentences, we may say that if they are -really ambiguous in sense, the remedy is to reconstruct them. It is -not necessary to use _that_ to pull them out of their obscurity. It is -easy, however, to show that a detached sentence might mean something -which it does not mean. The meaning of a text is helped out by the -context. Aphorisms usually have not context auxiliaries, and usually are -ambiguous; but the ordinary use of language is to express our meaning by -paragraphs rather than by single sentences. Every ellipsis furnishes an -opening for the entrance of small criticism; and ellipsis is one of the -large facts of English writing. - -In short, the critic of ambiguous sentences will have abundant employment -on the best writers, if he is allowed to break off any sentence from its -yoke-fellows in the paragraph. We advise our readers not to make haste -to adopt the rule of Mr. Ayres. The important question is: How do good -writers employ the word _that_ in their books? The answer is that good -English writers employ the word as a conjunction and as a demonstrative; -and as a relative only when phrase idiom compels such use. In this -country, the practice is to use _that_ a good deal as a relative; but -there has been a great decline in this use of it, especially during -the last thirty years. At the present time our best writers seem to be -following the English practice. We hope that Mr. Ayres will not succeed -in turning reform backward. With _who_ and _which_ to employ as relative -pronouns—and occasional help from _that_, _what_, and _as_, in idioms—the -English language is not poor. We need not recall the restrictive _that_ -from its honorable retirement. - - -EDMUND ABOUT. - -The death of this versatile French writer removes from modern literature -another of the few French literary men who are known all over the -world. About was born in 1828, and has enjoyed a cosmopolitan fame -since 1860. His literary work had the charm of contemporary interest, -and at the same time the merit of philosophical breadth and insight. -He gained fame at home in a way our men of letters would not travel, -by writing a Dictionary of Railroads. He was equally interesting and -instructive whether he wrote a novel or a political pamphlet; for in -both, Edmund About’s personality was in the foreground. He was not an -egotist, however, in his books, but his _I_ was a modest one which rather -relieved others of responsibility for his opinions, than obtrusively -forced the author upon our admiration. He had a keen zest for current -thought and fact; and, though our sensationalist newspaper men would not -fellowship him, he was one of the best editors of his age. He was always -an editor—even when he wrote the railroad dictionary—and his political -pamphlets are among the best presentations of questions and situations. -He saw the heart of a current issue, and with easy grace and perfect -poise he described it from the point of view of a modern cosmopolitan -gentleman. His “Roman Question” was, in its day, equally intelligible, -interesting, amusing and illuminating in Paris, London, Vienna or New -York. He described the situation under the Pope as King of Rome, setting -out in full relief those peculiarities of the Roman situation which were -picturesquely illogical for all men of the world. He had a marvelous -power of suggestion. The first sentence of the “Roman Question” is like -this—we do not attempt to recall the exact words or figures: “There are -in the States of the Church 1,366,328 souls, _not counting the little -Mortara boy_.” The last clause referred to a charge that priests at Rome -had stolen a Jewish boy and were making a good Catholic of him against -the will of his family. The incident made a great uproar at the time, and -About recalled to the mind of the reader the whole story, and, without -expressing an opinion, attracted the sympathy of his Protestant readers -by the mere allusion. Probably his books contain more examples of strong, -suggestive allusions to recent or contemporary events, than those of any -other writer; and it was always his special art to allude _only_, leaving -his reader to his own opinion. The delicacy of his touch and the fine -flavor of his criticism were remarkable, even in this age of keen and -witty French writers. He became editor of the _XIX. Siecle_ (century), -after the war with Germany; but he had always been a journalist in some -form, and more than one paper had its editions suppressed by Napoleon -III. because they contained the fine but biting satire of About. Some -years ago (in 1870, we believe) he was blackballed in the French Academy, -but he was recently elected to that august body. He died before he was -installed in his academic chair. - - - - -EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. - - -We regret exceedingly that a serious illness makes it impossible for -Mr. Richard Grant White to furnish his usual paper to the present issue -of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Another month Mr. White will probably be able to -continue his articles. - - * * * * * - -The glimpse we are getting, even at this early day, of the Chautauqua -program for 1885, is very inviting. The regular School of Science will be -under the charge of Prof. Edwards, president of Chamberlain Institute, -Randolph, N. Y., and that of Pedagogy, under Dr. Dickinson, secretary -of the board of education, Boston. Such people will be present as John -B. Gough, Dr. Deems, Miss Willard, Mrs. Livermore, Bishop Foster, Dr. -Boardman, of Philadelphia; Dr. G. P. Hays, of Denver, who will organize -a school of Christian work; the Schubert Quartette, of Chicago; the -original Fisk Jubilee Singers, for two weeks, and Miss Henninges, the -noted singer of Cleveland, O. A very superior organist, Prof. Isaac V. -Flagler, has been engaged for the entire Chautauqua season. - - * * * * * - -The alarm which the recent terrible earthquake in Spain has caused has -led to the compilation of some interesting figures relative to the number -of shocks which have occurred in late years. Between 1872 and 1883 no -less than 364 earthquakes are recorded as occurring in Canada and the -United States, not including Alaska. Of these the Pacific slope had 151, -the Atlantic coast 147, and the Mississippi valley 66. Thus it appears -that an earthquake occurs about once in every twelve days somewhere in -the United States and Canada, and about once a month on the Atlantic -coast. These are exclusive of the lighter tremors which do not make -an impression on observers, but which would be recorded by a properly -constructed seismometer, an instrument designed to detect the slighter -shocks. - -“Just about twenty years ago,” writes Dr. Felix Oswald in a recent -letter to THE CHAUTAUQUAN, “when I was stationed at Sidi Belbez, in -western Algiers, I had a conversation with a half-civilized Sheik, who -had visited our camp and seemed to take a good deal of interest in the -portrait of a _mitrailleuse_ (”Gatling gun“) that had been photographed -together with a group of Zouave artillerists. After scrutinizing the -picture and comparing it with the original, he clutched his head, as if -stunned by his emotions. ‘Where do they teach such things?’ he inquired, -and then suddenly burst out: ‘What a pity that education and Gatling guns -can not be had at home!’ For North America, at least, THE CHAUTAUQUAN -seems to have solved one of those problems.” - - * * * * * - -In a yellowish, time-worn volume bearing the title, _The Allegheny -Magazine, or Repository of Useful Knowledge_, issued in Meadville, Pa., -on July 4, 1816, we find in a paper on Chautauqua the following: “The -tradition among the Seneca Indians is, that when their ancestors first -came to the margin of this [Chautauqua] lake and had reclined their weary -limbs for the night, they were roused by a tremendous wind which suddenly -and unexpectedly brought the waves upon the shore to the jeopardy of -their lives. The aboriginal history as handed down from father to son -further represents that in the confusion of the scene a child was swept -away by the surge beyond the possibility of recovery. Hence the name of -the lake _Chaud-dauk-wa_; the radix from which this is formed signifying -_a child, or something respecting a child_. The word is usually spelled -_Chautauqua_; but, according to the pronunciation of the venerable -Cornplanter, whose example is the best authority, it should be written -_Chaud-dauk-wa_, the two first syllables of which are long, and the -consonant at the end of each is to be distinctly sounded.” - - * * * * * - -Mr. Francis Murphy, the apostle of temperance, who, by the way, is -engaged to speak at Chautauqua next season, is a very useful and popular -man in Pittsburgh, Pa. Mr. Murphy has recently been invited to become the -pastor of a People’s Church which leading citizens of Pittsburgh propose -to establish. He is a powerful man with the masses, and his method of -“Gospel-Temperance” is a wise one. By his efforts tens of thousands of -drinkers, drunkards and saloon keepers have been led to become better -men. We shall watch the new departure in Pittsburgh with a great deal of -interest. - - * * * * * - -Bishop Hurst has discovered in Cairo, Egypt, the next largest university -to Chautauqua in the world. His rich article on the “Mohammedan -University,” in this impression, fixes the number of students in -attendance at about 15,000. The C. L. S. C. numbers more than 60,000, and -the class of 1888, organized this school year, will reach nearly, if not -quite, 20,000 members. - - * * * * * - -The recent terrible explosions in London have set us to counting up the -similar outrages which have been perpetrated of late in England. In 1881, -attempts were made to blow up the armory at Salford, the Mansion House, -London, the Lord Mayor’s private apartment, the barracks at Chester, the -Central Police Station at Liverpool, and the Town Hall at Liverpool. -The activity of the dynamiteurs was checked about this time by the -vigilance of the police, and nothing further was done until March 15, -1883, when the Local Government Board offices in Westminster, near the -House of Parliament, were nearly destroyed by an explosion of dynamite. -In 1884, attempts were made to shatter three railway stations in London, -explosions occurred in Scotland Yard and at St. James Square and under -London Bridge. Already, in 1885, there have been an explosion on a London -underground railway, and the outrages in Westminster Palace and the Tower. - - * * * * * - -What shall we do? How shall we treat these outrages? We can do nothing. -To be sure it is a shameful list of cowardly, ineffectual deeds. Yet -they deserve more pity than rage. It is a sad thought, that in rich, -cultured, high-bred old England, there can exist a class so weak, cruel, -and miserable that it tries to right its wrongs by methods more horrible -than those of war. - - * * * * * - -A very suggestive scene took place recently in the Arkansas Assembly. -Engrossing and enrolling clerks were to be elected. The members brought -up the names of several ladies, discussing their ability, beauty, and -claims to recognition, in most eloquent terms. After a long and amusing -discussion, both positions were filled by ladies. This move gives to -the self-supporting women of Arkansas a new outlook. The possibility of -securing such positions will incite hundreds of women to prepare for -clerkships, which if not found in the legislature will surely be found -elsewhere, as the peculiar ability of women for such work is recognized. - - * * * * * - -The legislature of Georgia, at its past session provided a similar -opportunity for the women within its borders. Eight to ten clerks have -been regularly employed each session to assist the clerk of the lower -house of the legislature. Of its own accord the House directed that -women be hereafter employed to fill these positions. This was done, and -the bills engrossed by them are said to have been remarkably neat and -accurate. This ready sympathy for the women who must earn their bread, -and manly effort to make places for them, is very characteristic of the -generous southern heart. - - * * * * * - -The Assembly at Lake de Funiak, Florida, will be in session when this -number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN is on its way to our subscribers. The opening -takes place on February 18. It is the first attempt at planting the -Chautauqua Idea so far south, but after its fashion it is sure to take -root. The preparations made by Mr. Gillet and his associates give promise -of a good program. We expect an account of the meeting for the April -number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -Two big schemes to attract patronage have of late come before the -country. At the time the New Orleans Exposition seemed to stagger under -its load of expense, and money was absolutely necessary, the Louisiana -Lottery tried to get control of the Exposition. General Grant’s -embarrassment was seized upon by the incorrigible Barnum, who proposed -buying the invaluable curiosities and relics of the General, to display -in his summer pilgrimages through the country. It makes a person of -taste blush to think of this impudence, to remember that there is a very -large class of people who are willing to drag into advertising the most -dignified and sacred institutions in the country. - - * * * * * - -The commercial side of Chautauqua Lake does not often reveal itself in -the educational work which finds its center there. The beautiful country -which forms the setting for the fair lake has, however, more than one -most interesting industry. Just now ice cutting is at its height. There -is a transit company which packs dressed meats, eggs, butter, and other -perishable articles, at Chicago. When these refrigerator cars start from -that city, ice is placed in the cars, which is expected and found to keep -the stores in fresh condition, as far as Salamanca; here the cars must -be replenished, and it is to these storehouses that the ice which is now -being cut from the lake is sent. The company employs men and teams near -the lake to cut the ice, and the process is a very interesting one. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Edmund Yates, the editor of the London _World_, has been committed -to prison for four months for allowing in his columns a bit of gossip -connecting in an injurious statement the name of a young woman with -that of a young nobleman. It is a refreshing sign of the times. Popular -sentiment has tolerated an immense amount of personality, of curiosity, -and of absolute impudence in the social columns of newspapers. Mr. -Yates’s punishment will emphasize the fact that the public is not so -depraved as editors often consider it. By the way, how like is this -affair to that earlier one of Mr. Yates’s, when he was turned out of the -Garrick Club for publishing a disrespectful paragraph about Thackeray, a -fellow-member. It is to be hoped that Mr. Yates will soon learn that it -is a mean thing to make one’s bread by selling a friend’s peculiarities -or a neighbor’s mistakes and sins. - - * * * * * - -The Christian revolt of the Jews of Bessarabia, and the establishment -of the “National Jewish Society of the New Testament,” was discussed by -Bishop Hurst in the January issue of this magazine. The founder of this -new sect, Rabinowitz, has been since found dead at his home in Kishenev. -It is believed that he was murdered. The Christian authorities believe -that it is the work of the orthodox Hebrews, and it is not improbable -that such is the case. Apostasy in religion very rarely receives from -men Gamaliel’s advised treatment, and unless the law can secure safety -for these reformers, there is but little chance that they will escape -the fate which all the history of the past teaches us that religious -fanaticism believes to be the just and only treatment. - - * * * * * - -It is gratifying to know that in all probability the $250,000 required -for the pedestal of the Bartholdi statue will soon be in the hands -of the committee. The difficulty in raising the money has revealed a -new side of American generosity. The financial agent of the pedestal -committee probably explained it, when he said recently: “The American -people are peculiar about these matters. You touch their sympathies -and sensibilities, and money flows like water. For flood or fire -sufferers you can raise a million dollars in forty-eight hours and have -a million more advanced for emergencies by bankers who know that it -will be promptly replaced by willing givers. But we haven’t got along -to the appreciation of art—of great masterpieces like the Bartholdi -statue—and so it was hard to raise money for it. In France, under similar -conditions, the fund would have been raised in a week.” - - * * * * * - -Apropos of the above a step that is being taken in many cities and towns -of late, will undoubtedly do much to cultivate among us the lamented lack -of “appreciation of art.” It is the establishment of city and village -art museums. Worcester, Mass., has had $25,000 left to her, recently, to -invest in an art museum. Smaller sums have been raised in several other -towns. A good opportunity to study art thoroughly may be secured to any -village by a donation of $1,000. Casts, photographs, engravings, and a -few standard works are sufficient to cultivate correct ideas, and lay -the foundation of knowledge. It is the only way in which to raise the -standard of taste in the villages remote from the few cities of America -which boast art museums. - - * * * * * - -The question of the date of the birth of Elizabeth Barrett Browning -interested the readers of the C. L. S. C. some time ago. The year alone -was ascertained. If any one was troubled that we were unable to answer -the query exactly, the answer of Mr. Robert Browning to a lady asking for -the date of Mrs. Browning’s birth may be of some consolation: “I know -neither the day, month, nor year of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s birth. -It is a subject upon which I have never had the slightest curiosity.” - - * * * * * - -One of the most active public men of the last generation has been -Schuyler Colfax. He has been prominent, both as a political leader and -as a public speaker. Mr. Colfax’s life of a little more than sixty years -was immensely busy. He made his career, beginning as errand boy and -clerk in his grandfather’s store. After he was eighteen years of age -he took up the study of law, then launching out as a journalist, and -finally, at twenty-five, entering the world of politics as secretary of -the Whig National Convention, to which he had been sent as a delegate. -When the new Republican party was started, Mr. Colfax was sent as a -representative to Congress, and from that time he was closely identified -with his party, serving particularly as Speaker and Vice President. -He was of that large class of industrious, quick witted men who make -themselves indispensable in whatever relations they are placed. - - * * * * * - -The “Imperial Dictionary” promises to be the rival of all the old -standard dictionaries among scholarly people. Its form is four good -sized volumes, which signifies that the English language grows and -grows, and that words need fuller explanation. Mr. Gilder, editor of -_The Century_, explained to us, when on a recent pleasant visit to the -_Century_ offices, that the “Imperial Dictionary” was built on “Webster’s -Dictionary” in England, and that scholarly men had devoted ten years to -the task. Now the Century Company have more than two hundred scholars -engaged in making improvements on the English edition. It will be seven -years before the new American edition will be ready for the market. - - * * * * * - -A timely and practical department of the Chautauqua University is the -School of Journalism. This school is under the able direction of H. W. -Mabie, one of the editors of the _Christian Union_. The demand for such -schools is great, and the fact that all the work between teacher and -pupil in this new undertaking will be conducted by correspondence, is an -additional argument in its favor. The plan is briefly this: Three courses -of study, with supplementary readings for those who have time for them, -have been prepared; theses are expected on subjects assigned, and these -will be criticised with special reference to vigorous style; constant -correspondence will furnish needed help and hints. The plan is a wise -one, its director is able, and there is no doubt but there are numerous -young men and women to whom it will open the long desired way out of the -woods. - - * * * * * - -One of the most romantic spots of American history is that of the Florida -Chautauqua. Ponce de Leon’s famous quest for the Fountain of Youth lay -through this region, and Lake de Funiak itself is fabled to be one of the -springs by which the old knight encamped. Perhaps here he plunged into -the clear waters and vainly waited to see himself changed to vigorous -youth again. However that may be, the road he laid out is a thoroughfare -for Florida travelers to-day, and about the clear lake still hangs the -tradition that it is the fabled Fountain of Youth. Ten miles from Lake de -Funiak is a second spring which still bears the gallant Spaniard’s name. -It will be a rare opportunity for dreaming over those early adventures -that visitors to Lake de Funiak will have. - - * * * * * - -The proposed new word, “Thon,” which was suggested in the program in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN for January as a suitable subject for an essay, seems to have -caused our readers some trouble. A word of explanation may help them. We -have no pronoun of the singular number and common gender in English. The -absence of such a word leads to many awkward circumlocutions. To obviate -this trouble Mr. C. C. Converse, a lawyer, has compounded the word -_thon_, from _that_ and _one_—declined: nominative _thon_, possessive -_thons_, objective _thon_. Its use is evident. In this sentence is an -example: If George or Anna will meet me I will go with _thon_. The word -has been much discussed and much amusement is caused by using it—a -practice which, however, demonstrates the need we have for such a word. -Prof. March, of Lafayette College, writes: “I do not know that any other -vocable would have so good a chance for this vacancy.” Prof. Norton, of -Harvard, says: “Such a pronoun would undoubtedly be a convenience, did it -exist. The difficulty lies in it being _yours_. All forms of speech have -grown, and I do not recall an instance of the use by a civilized race of -any word, not a noun or a verb, deliberately invented by a philologer, -however ingenious.” - - - - -C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR MARCH. - - -COLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH. - -Articles on Euripides may be found in the following works: Mahaffy’s -“Classical Greek Literature;” Blackwell’s “Introduction to the Classics;” -“Studies of the Greek Poets,” by J. A. Symonds; Encyclopædia Britannica; -“Phœton,” _Fraser’s Magazine_, vol. xlv, p. 488; “Sea Studies” (J. -A. Froude), _Fraser’s Magazine_, vol. xci, p. 541; “Vindication of -Euripides,” _National Quarterly_, vol. xix, p. 1. - -P. 188.—“The Raging Hercules.” One of the most precious remains of -Euripides, full of tragic pathos. While Hercules is absent from home, -Lycos, tyrant of Thebes, persecutes his father, wife and children. As -they are about to be put to death, Hercules returns and a scene of -vengeance follows, and Lycos is the one to suffer death. - -“Balaustion,” ba-lausˈti-on. - -“Sicilian Expedition.” See “Brief History of Greece,” page 31. - -P. 191.—“Mistress.” Artemis. - -P. 192.—“I-olˈcos.” An ancient town in Thessaly, the place from which the -Argonauts set sail. - -“Stygian barge.” The Greek’s view of the world entered immediately after -death is given in the following quotation from Seemann’s “Classical -Mythology:” “It was supposed to be a region in the center of the earth, -with several passages to and from the upper world. Through it flowed -several rivers—Co-cyˈtus, Pyˌri-phlegˈe-thon, Achˈe-ron and Styx. The -last of these encompassed the lower world several times, and could only -be crossed by the aid of Charon, the ferryman, who was depicted as a -sullen old man with a bristling beard. The Greeks, therefore, used to -place an obolus (small copper coin) in the mouths of their dead, in order -that the soul might not be turned back by Charon for lack of money. On -the farther side of the river the portals were watched by the dreadful -hell-hound Cerberus, a three-headed monster, who refused no one entrance, -but allowed none to leave the house of Pluto. All souls on reaching the -lower world had to appear before the tribunal of Minos, Rhadamanthus, and -Æacus. Those whose lives had been upright were then permitted to enter -Elysium, where they led a life of uninterrupted bliss; while those who on -earth had been criminal and wicked were consigned to Tartarus, where they -were tormented by the Furies and other evil spirits. Those whose lives -had not been distinctly good or bad remained in the Asphodel Meadow, -where, as dim shadows, they passed a dull, joyless existence.” - -P. 194.—“Koré,” kōˈrā. Persephone or Proserpine, the wife of Pluto. - -P. 195.—“Moirai,” moyˈrī. - -P. 197.—“Strophe.” In Greek tragedy, in its highest development, there -was a group of persons, composed of both sexes, who constituted the -chorus. When the actors paused the chorus sung or spoke, accompanied by -solemn music, moving from one side of the stage to the other. The time -of this movement was adapted to the stanzas, so that one, called the -strophe, was given as they passed in one direction, and the next, the -antistrophe, as they passed back. - -“Daughter of Pelias.” Alcestis. - -“Seven-chorded shell.” Tradition tells that the first lyre was made by -Mercury, out of the shell of a tortoise, which he caught a few hours -after his birth. Lyres were employed in recitations of epic poetry, and -consisted of a tortoise shell sounding bottom, from which arose two -horns, joined near the top by a transverse piece of wood, to which the -upper ends of the strings, usually seven in number, which were stretched -perpendicularly from the bottom, were fastened. - -“Carnean feast.” One of the great national festivals of Sparta, held in -honor of Apollo, who had for a surname Carneus, which was derived by some -from Carnus, a son of Jupiter and Latona, and by others from Carnus, a -soothsayer. - -P. 199.—“Lustral bath.” In their early history the only rite of -purification observed by the Greeks was that of ablution in water, but -afterward sacrifices and other ceremonies were added. These were used to -purify individuals, armies and states, and to secure the blessing of -the gods. The word lustral is derived from the Latin verb _lustro_ and -signifies to purify by means of propitiatory offerings. - -P. 200.—“Othrys.” A range of mountains in Thessaly. - -“Pythian’s sake.” Apollo’s sake. - -P. 205.—The lines at the top of the page, spoken by Hercules, contain -the same sentiment that runs all through “Rubáiyát,” the poem written -by Omar Khayyám. Compare the extracts from this book given in the “Talk -About Books,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for February, 1885, with these stanzas. -To further show the similarity in thought, we select one stanza from the -poem: - - “Waste not your hour, nor in the vain pursuit - Of this and that, endeavor and dispute; - Better be jocund with the fruitful grape - Than sadden after none, or bitter fruit.” - -P. 206.—“Asclepian train,” as-cleˈpi-an. Train of physicians, who are -often called the descendants of Æsculapius, the god of the medical art. - -P. 210.—“Gorgon.” A terrible winged woman, who dwelt with her two sisters -on the borders of Oceanus, the river that flowed around the ancient -world. She was beheaded by Perseus, who accomplished the perilous task by -the help of Hermes and Athena. - -P. 211.—“Son of Sthenelus,” sthenˈe-lus. Euristheus, who assigned to -Hercules his twelve labors. - -P. 212.—“Electra.” Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. On the return -of Agamemnon from the Trojan war, Clytemnestra and her paramour murdered -him. When her young brother, Orestes, had grown to manhood, Electra -excited him to avenge the death of Agamemnon, and assisted him in slaying -their mother. - -P. 213.—“Medea.” The wife of Jason, the Argonautic hero. - -“Pieria,” pi-eˈri-a. A narrow strip of country along the southeastern -coast of Macedonia. - -“Harmonia.” Daughter of Mars and Venus, and wife of Cadmus. - -P. 216.—In connection with the chapter on Ar-is-tophˈan-es, the following -works may be read: Mahaffy’s “Classical Greek Literature” (readings -will be found in this book on all the characters mentioned in “College -Greek Course”), “Aristophanes,” _National Quarterly_, vol. iii, p. 70: -_Fraser’s Magazine_, vol. xii, p. 222. - -P. 219.—“Creon.” Cleon is meant, the “leather-seller” who for six years -was the most influential man in Athens. He took command of the forces at -Sphac-teˈri-a, during the Peloponnesian war, and fulfilled the promise -he had boastingly made, that he would capture the Spartans within twenty -days if the Athenians would send him against them. - -P. 220.—“Tableaux vivants,” tä-blō vē-väⁿᵍ. Living representations, in -which persons are grouped as in pictures. We frequently use only the -first of these French words. - -“Sophˈist.” The Sophists were the leading public teachers in Greece -during the fifth and fourth centuries B. C. In its original sense, the -word meant a wise man, and as such could properly be applied to Socrates. -But in his day, as a class, they were “ostentatious imposters, flattering -and duping the rich for the sake of personal gain.” - -P. 225.—“Rhea.” The wife of Saturn, and the great goddess of the world. - -“Hebrus.” The principal river in Thrace. - -P. 226.—Readings on Pindar will be found in Talfourd’s “History of Greek -Literature,” _National Quarterly_, vol. xxxii, p. 203; _London Magazine_, -vol. ii, p. 60. - -Readings on Sappho, _The Atlantic_ (T. W. Higginson), vol. xxviii, p. 83; -_Harper’s Magazine_, vol. lvi, p. 177; _Appleton’s Magazine_, vol. vi, p. -158. - -Readings on Simonides, _Westminster Review_, vol. xxxii, p. 99; _Fraser’s -Magazine_, vol. ii, p. 52. - -P. 228.—“Dithyrambics,” dith-y-ramˈbics. Originally songs in honor of -Bacchus; later, any poems written in a wild and enthusiastic manner. - -“The Ivy-clad Boy.” Bacchus. - -“Bromius.” One of the surnames of Bacchus, signifying the shouter. - -“Eriboas.” See index of “College Greek Course.” - -P. 229.—“Prophet of Nemea’s strand.” Jupiter. - -“Orchomenus,” or-komˈe-nus. An ancient and powerful city of Bœotia. - -“Minˈyans.” An ancient Greek race, said to have migrated from Thessaly. -Their ancestral hero, Minyas, is said to have been a son of Neptune. - -P. 230.—“A-glaiˈa,” “Eu-phrosˈy-ne,” “Tha-liˈa.” The names of the Graces. - -“A-soˈpi-chus.” See index to “College Greek Course.” - -“Cle-o-dāˈmus.” Usually written Cleodæus. A descendant of Hercules, who -made an unsuccessful attempt to lead the Heraclidæ back into their own -land, the Peloponnesus. Temenus, his grandson, succeeded in the attempt. - -“Bellerophon.” A Corinthian, who obtained possession of the winged horse, -Pegasus, who rose with him into the air, whence by means of arrows he -killed the Chimæra, a fire-breathing monster which had three heads, one -that of a lion, one of a dragon, and one of a goat. It had made great -havoc in Lycia and the surrounding countries. Afterward he conquered -the Solymi, a warlike race inhabiting the mountains of Lycia, and the -Amazons, a mythical, warlike race of females. - -P. 232.—“Typhon.” A monster who wished to acquire the sovereignty of gods -and men, but who was subdued, after a fearful struggle, by Jupiter, and -confined in a Cicilian cave. He begot the winds. - -P. 233.—“Phalˈa-ris,” B. C. 570. A cruel and inhuman tyrant of -Agrigentum, who was put to death in a sudden outbreak of popular fury. -He is said to have burned alive the victims of his cruelty, in a large -brazen bull. - -P. 240.—“A-donˈis.” A beautiful youth beloved by Venus. He died from a -wound which he received from a wild boar. The grief of the goddess was -so great that the gods of the lower world allowed Adonis to return to -the earth for six months every year. In this myth the death of the youth -every year probably represents winter, and his return, summer. - -“Cypris” and “Cyth-e-reˈa.” Venus. - -P. 241.—“Arethusa.” The nymph of the famous fountain of Arethusa, on the -island of Ortygia. - -P. 242.—“Meles.” A small stream in Ionia, on the bank of which Homer is -said to have been born. - -“Pegassean fountain.” The inspiring well of the muses on Mt. Helicon, -said to have been formed from a kick given by Pegasus. It is sometimes -called the Hippocrene. - -“Daughter of Tyndarus.” Helen of Troy. - -“Son of Thetis.” Achilles. - -“Eros.” Cupid. - -“Al-ciˈdes.” Hercules. - -“Orpheus.” See C. L. S. C. Notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November, 1884. -Eurydice is the wife of Orpheus, instead of Proserpine, as there stated. - -P. 244.—“Daphnis.” A Sicilian hero, son of Mercury, and a nymph. A Naiad -fell in love with him and made him swear he would never love another. But -he met and loved a princess, and the Naiad smote him with blindness. He -besought his father for help, and the latter removed him to the abode of -the gods, and caused a fountain to gush forth on the spot whence he was -taken up. - -“Thirsis.” A herdsman who laments the death of Daphnis. - -“Priapus.” Son of Bacchus. One of the divinities presiding over -agricultural pursuits. - -P. 245.—“Gălˈin-gale.” A rush-like, or grass-like plant, often called -sedge. - -“Ly-caˈon’s son.” Pandarus. One of the commanders in the Trojan war. - -P. 246.—“Cicala,” si-cāˈlä. Usually written cicada. The locust. - -P. 247.—“Dilettanteism,” dil-et-tanˈte-ism. Admiration of the fine arts. - -P. 251.—“Golˈgi.” A Sicyonian colony, inhabiting a town of the same name -in Cypris. - -“Idalium.” A town of Cypris. - -P. 253.—For supplementary reading on Demosthenes see Talfourd’s “History -of Greek Literature;” The _North American Review_, vol. xxii, p. 34; _New -York Review_, vol. ix, p. 1; _National Review_, vol. xii, p. 99. - -P. 255.—“Ignatius Loyola,” ig-naˈsheus loi-oˈla. (1491-1556.) A Spaniard; -the founder of the Society of Jesus. He served as page in the court of -Ferdinand and Isabella, and later engaged in the wars against the French -and the Moors. He was severely wounded in battle, and was made lame. -His thoughts were then turned toward a religious life. Long fasts and -scourgings often brought him near to death. He attended the University -of Paris, where he took the master’s degree at the age of forty-three. -Afterward he gathered a few followers about him as the nucleus for his -society, which in a short time became so famous. - -P. 270.—“Margites.” A poem ascribed to Homer, which holds up to ridicule -a man who pretended to know many things, and knew nothing well. - -P. 275.—“Milo.” A Roman of daring and unscrupulous character. He was -impeached for bribery and for interfering with the freedom of elections, -and Cicero undertook his defense. - -P. 278.—“Cyrcilus.” The stoning of this man and his family occurred when -the Athenians, under Themistocles, retreated from their city to Salamis, -after learning that Thermopylæ was in the possession of the Persians. - -P. 281.—“Laocoön.” While the Trojans were debating whether they should -receive the wooden horse into the city, Laocoön, a priest, rushed forward -and warned them not to do it, and struck his spear into its side. As a -punishment, Minerva sent two monstrous serpents, which crushed him and -his two sons to death. - -P. 282.—“Bema.” A raised place, from which an orator addressed public -assemblies. - - -CHEMISTRY. - -P. 77.—“Champs de Mars,” Shäⁿᵍ duh Mars. Field of Mars. The name given -to the place devoted to military exercises in France. It is an extensive -parade ground, about 3,000 feet long and 1,500 feet wide, lying on the -left bank of the Seine. There are four rows of trees on each side, and it -is entered by five gates. It was finished in 1790, and in their eagerness -to have it ready for the first great feast of the French Revolution, on -July 14th, of that year, 60,000 volunteers, men and women, worked night -and day for two weeks, and completed it in time. At this feast the king -swore allegiance to the constitution. The Champs de Mars has been the -scene of many great historic events. The World’s Fair of 1867 was held -there. - -P. 78.—“Academy of Science.” This was organized in France in 1666. In -1795 it, with four other academies, viz.: the French Academy, Academy -of Painting and Sculpture, Academy of Belles Lettres, and the Academy -of Moral and Political Science, was revived in a new form, under the -name of the _Institut National_. This institution is the most important -of its kind in the world. These academies now have the same relation -to the _Institut_ that colleges bear to a university. In the Academy -of Science at present there are sixty-three members and one hundred -corresponding members. It bestows an annual prize of about $2,000, for -the most important astronomical observation, a prize of nearly $600 -for productions on natural science, and other rewards for inventions, -discoveries, and improvements. Its sessions are all held in public, and -are much frequented. - -P. 80.—A free translation of the note at the bottom of the page: Having -attained an altitude of 22,960 feet, he still wished to go higher, and -so disburdened himself of all the objects which he could in any way do -without. Among these objects was a chair of white wood, which chanced to -light in a thicket, very near a young girl who was tending some sheep. -Great, indeed, was the astonishment of the shepherdess! The sky was -clear, the balloon invisible. What else could she think of the chair than -that it had come from Paradise? The only objection that could be raised -against the conjecture was the rudeness of its construction. The workmen -in the higher world, said the incredulous, could not be so unskillful. -The discussion was still going on, when the papers, in publishing all -the particulars of the aerial voyage of Gay Lussac, announced, among the -natural results of the ascent, this which up to this time had seemed a -miracle. - -P. 85.—“Scheele,” shāˈleh. - -P. 91.—“Litmus paper.” Paper that has been prepared for use as a test -for acids and alkalies. Litmus is a blue coloring matter, extracted from -lichens which are found along the rocky coasts of the Mediterranean, and -other tropical lands. They are largely used for dyeing purposes, and when -prepared with potash or soda, they produce litmus. A strong infusion -of litmus is made with boiling water, and a little sulphuric acid is -added. Unsized paper is dipped into this infusion, which gives it a blue -color. The application of any acid will change the blue to red, and then -the blue color may be immediately restored by immersing the paper in an -alkali. So delicate a test is it, that the paper has to be preserved in -closely stoppered bottles, to prevent the access of acid fumes. - -P. 94.—“Berthollet,” ber-to-lā. - -P. 100.—“Balard,” bā-lār. - -P. 101.—“Liebig,” leeˈbig. - -P. 107.—“Varech,” vărˈek; “Barilla,” ba-rilˈla. - -P. 108.—“Courtois,” koor-twä. - -P. 114.—“Nicklès,” nē-klā. - -P. 115.—“Puy Maurin,” pwe-mō-raⁿᵍ; “Hauy,” ä-we. - - - - -NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.” - - -TEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE. - -1. “Boerhave,” bōrˈhäv, Hermann. (1668-1738.) A Dutch physician. He gave -much attention to the distinction between mind and matter, and condemned -the doctrines of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He published several works -on the study and practice of medicine, and held the chair of chemistry, -botany, and medicine in Leyden University. - -2. “Saracens.” The Mohammedan people who, coming from Mauritania, invaded -Europe in the early part of the eighth century. In Spain they took the -name of Moors. They applied to all unbelievers in Mohammedanism the name -Giaours (jour) as a term of reproach. - -3. “Lorenz Oken.” (1779-1851.) A German naturalist, and the author of -several works. He was professor of medical science for a time at Jena, -and editor of the celebrated periodical, _The Isis_, devoted to natural -science. At the time of his death, he held the position of professor of -natural science in Zurich, Switzerland. A statue has been erected to his -honor in Jena, Germany. - -4. “Bentham,” Jeremy. (1748-1832.) An English writer on politics and -jurisprudence. In opposition to Blackstone’s views, he wrote “Fragments -on Government.” His numerous literary works were more kindly received in -France than in England. One of his latest works was the “Art of Packing,” -that is, of arranging juries so as to obtain any verdict desired. He -wrote a book on the “Defense of Usury,” showing the impolicy of placing -restraints upon dealings in money. - -5. “Benjamin Rush.” (1745-1813.) A celebrated American physician, one -of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. During the ravages -of the yellow fever, in 1793, he distinguished himself by rendering -extraordinary services, and his history of that epidemic is a valuable -work. - -6. “Nostrum Mongers.” Sellers of quack medicines. - -7. “Circenses,” sir-senˈsēs. A Latin term, meaning race-courses. Here it -can be translated recreations. - -8. “Panes,” paˈnēs. Bread, means of subsistence. - -9. “Languedoc,” langˈgue-dock. A name applied during the middle ages to -a province in the south of France, which is now divided into several -departments, among which are Aude, Hérault, and Upper Garonne. - -10. “Bunsen,” Christian Karl, Baron von, generally known as Chevalier -Bunsen. (1791-1860.) One of the most distinguished statesmen and scholars -of Germany. Through the favor of Niebuhr, who was Prussian minister at -Rome, he was appointed secretary to the Prussian embassy at that court, -where he remained twenty years, and then succeeded Niebuhr as minister. -Later he was sent as Prussian embassador to England. He was highly -esteemed by Frederick William III. and Frederick William IV., both of -whom frequently took him into their counsel. He was one of the most -zealous workers in bringing about the union of the German states. His -widow has published the “Memoirs of Bunsen.” - -11. “Turnerhalls.” Gymnasia which were established throughout Germany -through the enterprise of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, in the latter part of -the eighteenth century, for the purpose of fitting young men to endure -the fatigues of war. - -12. “Jean Jacques Rousseau.” (1712-1778.) One of the most eloquent French -writers and singular characters of his age. He was denounced on account -of his subversive theories and the immoralities of his life. His erratic -social and political teachings are redeemed in part by the strong desire -he had to increase the happiness of the laboring classes. - -13. “Goldwin Smith.” (1823-⸺.) An English author, and a warm friend to -the federal government during the civil war. Coming to the United States -in 1868, he became professor of English history in Cornell University. - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -The selection given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN as a Sunday Reading for October 5, -1884, was from Gotthold’s “Emblems.” The note on Gotthold was crowded out -of the C. L. S. C. Notes. Many inquiries have been made concerning him; -for this reason we insert the following: - -“Christian Scriver, a Lutheran clergyman and writer of devotional works -in the seventeenth century, the contemporary and friend of Spener, -was born at Rendsburg, in Holstein, January 2, 1629. His childhood -was spent under the care of a widowed mother in the trying period of -the Thirty Years’ War; but a wealthy merchant—a brother of Scriver’s -grandmother—finally made provision for his needs. After suitable -preparatory studies, Scriver became a private tutor, and in 1647 entered -the University of Rostock. In 1653 he was archdeacon at Stendal, and in -1667 pastor at Magdeburg, with which position he combined other offices, -_e. g._, that of a scolarch, and finally of a senior in the government of -the church. He refused to leave Magdeburg in answer to repeated calls to -Halberstadt, to Berlin, and to the court of Stockholm, but in advanced -age was induced to accept the post of court preacher at Que Dinburg. In -1692 he suffered an apoplectic stroke, and on April 5, 1693, died. He had -been married four times, and had had fourteen children born to him, but -he outlived all his wives and children except one son and one daughter. - -“The name of Scriver has lived among the common people through the -publication of his ‘Seelenschatz’ (Magd. and Leipsic, 1737, Schaffhausen, -1738, sq., five parts in two vols., folio), a manual of devotion which -he dedicated to ‘the Triune God,’ and which deserves high commendation. -Another work deserving of mention is Gotthold’s ‘Zufällige Andachten’ -(first edition 1671, and often), a sort of Christian parables, 400 in -number, which are based on objects in nature and ordinary occurrences -in life. The ‘Siech. u. Siegesbette’ describes a sickness through -which he passed, and the aids and comforts derived from God’s goodness -in that time. Prittius has published a work of consolation entitled -‘Wittwentrost,’ from Scriver’s literary remains.” - -For Scriver’s life see Prittius’s preface to the “Seelenschatz;” -Christmann’s “Biographie” (Nuremburg, 1829): Hagenbach’s “Wesen u. Gesch. -d. Reformat.,” vol. iv; “Evanganlisch Protestanitismus,” vol. ii, 177 -sq.; Herzog’s “Real-Encyklop,” s. v. - - * * * * * - -1. “Renan,” rŭh-näⁿᵍ. (1823-⸺.) A French philosopher, who has published -several treatises on comparative philology, and translations of -scriptural books with critical introductions, and has written much for -periodicals. He was sent at the head of a scientific commission to -explore Tyre and Sidon, Lebanon and other localities, and made many -interesting discoveries. - -2. “Whitefield,” George. (1714-1770.) The founder of Calvinistic -Methodism. He set the example of preaching in the open air, and at -one time is said to have addressed 60,000 persons at Moorfields. He -quarreled with Wesley on the subject of predestination, but afterward was -reconciled to him, although he never agreed with him in doctrine. He made -several visits to the United States. - -3. “President Edwards,” Jonathan. (1745-1801.) Son of Jonathan Edwards, -the divine. He was president of Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. His -complete works were published in two volumes. - -4. “Tholuck,” tōˈlook. (1799-1877.) A German divine. In 1826 he was -called to the University of Halle, as professor of theology, where he -spent the remaining years of his life. - - -STUDIES IN KITCHEN SCIENCE. - -1. “Brassica oleraceæ,” brasˈsi-ca ō-ler-aˈse-ē. - -2. “Bore-cole.” A variety of cabbage, not having its leaves packed into a -firm head, but loose and curled. - -3. “Daucas carota,” dauˈcus ca-roˈta. - -4. “Beta vulgaris,” bēˈta vul-gāˈris. - -5. “Mangold-Wurzel.” Commonly written mangel wurzel. - -6. “Allium Cepa,” alˈli-um sēˈpa. - - -THE PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES. - -1. “Entreés,” oⁿᵍˈtrā. The first course of dishes served on the table. - -2. “Mayonnaise,” māˈyon-naise. - - -THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES. - -1. “Tufa.” A kind of volcanic sandstone, composed of pulverized volcanic -rocks. It is formed whenever a shower of rain accompanies the fall of -cinders, during the eruption of a volcano. - -2. “Drift period.” The name applied to the time in which that remarkable -bed of earth, gravel, and stones of all dimensions, was deposited. It has -puzzled all geologists to account for this formation, which is the lowest -of the three groups of the superficial covering of the earth, and no -completely satisfactory theory has yet been advanced. - -3. The large New Zealand bird described was called the moa. - -4. “Carboniferous period.” Coal age. By careful study it has been found -that in the progress of the earth’s development a number of great ages -have existed—each distinguished from the others by some marked change. -That of coal plants is placed by geologists as the fourth age, counting -upward from the lowest formation. It was remarkable for the alternate low -elevation of the land above the sea level, and its submergences; and also -for the luxuriant growth of vegetation, which, under the great pressure -and heat to which it was subjected while the surface was submerged, was -changed into coal. - -5. “Spectroscope.” The name given to the apparatus used for the study of -the spectrum. “When a ray of sunlight admitted through an aperture in a -dark room is concentrated upon a prism of rock salt”—or glass—“by means -of a lens of the same material, and then after emerging from the prism -is received on a screen, it will be found to present a band of colors, -in the following order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and -violet.”—_Ganot_. This band is called the spectrum. That there are other -but invisible lines than those mentioned in the spectrum, is proven by -the use of the thermopile, oftener called thermomultiplier, mentioned -in the article on “Home Studies in Chemistry.” This is a complicated -instrument used for detecting minute differences in the degrees of -heat; its description without an accompanying illustration would be -of no benefit to any one. So delicate is it that the heat of the hand -held at a distance of three feet is sufficient to deflect the needle. -The spectroscope is composed of three telescopes, mounted on a common -foot, whose axes converge toward a glass prism. One of the telescopes is -movable, and can be adjusted so as to give the observer the clearest view -of the spectrum. The ray of light is admitted through the telescope and -falls upon the prism, which decomposes it, and the spectrum is formed on -the opposite side of the prism. In the telescope which the observer uses -a powerful magnifying glass is placed. The third telescope is used for -measuring the relative distances between the lines. - - -HOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY. - -1. “James Dwight Dana.” (1813-⸺.) An American geologist and mineralogist; -the author of several works on these and other sciences. He went out as -mineralogist and geologist appointed by the United States Government with -the exploring expedition sent to the Southern and Pacific Oceans in 1838, -and returned in 1842. For the next fourteen years he was busily engaged -in preparing for publication the reports of this exploration. These were -published by the government and formed valuable records. For many years -he was one of the editors of the _American Journal of Science and Arts_. -He has been elected to membership in several learned European societies -and royal academies. - -2. “Eisenlohr,” iˈzen-lore. (1799-1872.) A German physicist. He was a -Heidelburg student, and in 1819 removed to Mannheim, where he became -a teacher of mathematical and physical science in the lyceum. He was -afterward a professor at Carlsruhe. A Manual of Physics is his chief work. - -3. “Geissler’s tubes,” ghīceˈler. The spectrum of any gas can be best -obtained by placing the gas in these tubes, and then passing the electric -current through. If the gas is hydrogen, the spectrum will consist of a -bright red, a green, and a blue line. Each gas casts its own spectrum. -In this way the spectroscope aids in the analysis of substances. The -different spectra formed reveal the elements. - -4. “Sir John Herschel.” (1792-1871.) An English astronomer. His -great enterprise was his expedition to the Cape of Good Hope to take -observations of the heavens in the southern hemisphere. He remained -there four years. His published results of his observations furnish one -of the most valuable works on astronomy. He did not confine his studies -to astronomy alone, but gave great attention to the subject of the -atmosphere. He held that from eighty to ninety miles above the earth a -perfect vacuum exists, and that three fourths of all the atmospheric -air lies within four miles from the earth’s surface. His studies in -meteorology were also very valuable, as well as his important discoveries -in photography. Among his published works are: “Essays, from the -_Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_, with Addresses and Other Pieces,” -“Physical Geography,” and “Familiar Letters on Scientific Subjects.” -Herschel held various positions of honor in his lifetime, being at one -time president of the Royal Astronomical Society, and afterward Master of -the Mint for five years. He was one of the eight foreign associates of -the French Academy of Sciences. - -5. “Fire Worshipers.” A Persian sect which worships fire as an emanation -of the divine being. “Fire worshipers” is the English name for the -Guēˈbers (also called Ghēˈber or Giaours—jours). They call themselves -_Beh Din_, “those of excellent belief.” The Arabs completed the conquest -of Persia in the seventh century, and the great mass of the nation -adopted the faith of the conquerors. Those who refused to do so were -subjected to persecution. Some of them took refuge in the wilderness -of Khorasan, and others in Kohistan. The latter in the ninth century -emigrated to India and settled in the neighborhood of Surat. Their -descendants still inhabit the same region, and are called Parsees. The -descendants of those who remained in Persia have gradually decreased in -numbers and sunk into ignorance and poverty, though still preserving a -reputation for honesty, chastity, industry, and obedience to law superior -to that of the other Persians. They are estimated to number about 7,000. - -6. “Bunsen Burner.” In this burner, at the lower end of the hollow stem -through which the gas passes, there is a lateral orifice which admits the -air necessary for combustion. This orifice can be made larger or smaller -by means of a diaphragm which is used as a regulator. If a moderate -amount of air enters, the gas burns with a luminous flame, but if a -strong and steady current is admitted, the carbon is rapidly oxidized, -the flame loses its brightness, and burns with a pale blue light, -scarcely perceptible, and with intense heat. - -7. “Voltaic Arc.” A most beautiful effect, obtained from the electric -light. At the terminals of a battery, pieces of charcoal are connected -and placed in contact until the current causes them to become -incandescent. Then they are separated about the tenth of an inch, and -it is found that a luminous, exceedingly brilliant arc connects the two -points. - -8. “Hell Gate.” The name of a narrow channel between Long Island and -Manhattan Island. Until recently the numerous reefs made it impassable -for large ships and dangerous for small ones. In 1851 the first efforts -were made to open the channel, by submarine blasting. In 1876, after -many vain attempts, the work was carried to a successful issue. The -total amount of money expended by Congress for this work since 1868 was -$1,940,000. - -9. “Æolus.” A descendant of the founder of the Æolian race. He became -the ruler of certain islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, which from him were -called the Æolian Islands. He is said to have taught his subjects to use -sails on their ships, and to have foretold the nature of the winds that -were to rise. Homer said of him that Jupiter had given him rule over the -winds. This led to his being regarded as the god of the winds, which he -was supposed to keep shut up in a mountain. - - - - -TALK ABOUT BOOKS. - - -It would be difficult for a biography of Sydney Smith, that man who -always took short views of life, hoped for the best, and put his -trust in God, to be other than interesting. Mr. Reid’s biography[L] -is so interesting that the reader quite forgets to criticise. It is a -many-sided sketch of the brave hearted dominie. It tells his history, to -be sure, but one gets a very good idea of many of his associates as well; -it tells his route through life, and as a happy idea adds descriptions -and illustrations of the various localities in which he lived, as they -are to-day. There is just enough quotation from the reverend Sydney -to give pith to the sober, clear narrative of the writer, and just -enough of the “Times” to keep one in sympathy with his age. Several -letters and essays never before printed appear in the volume. Mr. Reid, -we are pleased to see, presents the courage, the unfailing hope, and -the abundant common sense of his subject as characteristics of more -importance than his wit. - -It is moderate praise of the book[M] produced by Mrs. Mitchell to -say that all lovers of art and its history will find it a valuable -acquisition to their libraries. The author has chosen the historical -method of presenting her subject, and begins with Egyptian sculpture, -passes on to Chaldean, Assyrian, and Persian; then to that of Phœnicia, -Asia Minor, and Greece, and ends with works of the Italian masters. -Feeling that “description can not by any possibility supersede the sight -of the artistic creations,” she has freely illustrated the book with -accurate representations of many of the great masterpieces. There can -be no work better suited for the use of those who desire to acquire a -knowledge of this branch of art. - -M. Gaillard has added one more to the many books already issued for -the purpose of teaching “French Conversation.”[N] The system he has -adopted differs from all the others in this respect: questions alone are -given, to which the scholar is to frame his own answers. A clue to the -words needed in the replies, and to the construction of the sentences -and idioms will be found in the questions. Thus the memorizing of set -sentences which never will fit in anywhere save in the recitation room, -is avoided, and the pupil is obliged to think for himself instead of -merely observing how the words are used by others. Theoretically the plan -is a good one. As a text-book for common use in schools and elsewhere, we -doubt, somewhat, its feasibility. - -No tourist to the White Mountains can afford to do without Mr. Drake’s -book.[O] The last edition of it is prepared expressly for their use, and -contains in the form of an appendix a complete guide-book. One of the -covers is provided with a pocket, within which is placed a map of the -White Mountains, and one of Vermont and New Hampshire. This pocket will -also prove convenient for carrying memoranda. The book contains many -fine illustrations, is printed from large, clear type, and is handsomely -bound. And as one sees in word pictures the scenery of the mountains, and -is delighted with racy little incidents of travel, and with anecdote, or -is thrilled with some perilous adventure, he can not help saying that -author, artist, and publisher have all done their part toward making an -attractive book. - -It was a good idea to publish a dictionary of the “Women of the Day.”[P] -Miss Hays has undoubtedly put an immense amount of labor into the neat -little volume which she has just sent out to the world. However, the -publication has been too soon. More labor is needed to make the book as -useful as it ought to be. More than once her biographies of the best -known women are incorrect, as when she located Marion (which name, by -the way, she spelled Mari_a_n) Harland’s present home at Newark, N. J., -a place she left years ago. Again, in some of the sketches the work is -poorly arranged. Why should Miss Willard’s whereabouts in 1878 be tacked -on at the end of the article, after it had been brought up to 1882, -instead of being inserted in its proper order? For all that, it is a very -useful work. It will be of great help to the general reader interested in -eminent women. - -A valuable series of “Outlines” of the Philosophy of Hermann Lotze has -been undertaken by Prof. Ladd, of Yale College. A leading philosopher -of Germany, Lotze’s works have been sealed to all English readers, -save those who were able to overcome philosophical German. This series -will furnish an opportunity long desired by those interested in German -thought to make themselves familiar with Lotze’s ideas. “Outlines of -Metaphysics”[Q] is the first work issued. - -Mrs. Jackson’s “Ramona”[R] takes rank at once in the highest class of -fiction. The fascination in its pages holds one from beginning to end, -and he closes the book with much the same impression as if he had just -returned from a day’s exquisite enjoyment of wild and rugged mountain -scenery. The characters possess an individuality such as is found in -those drawn by Dickens, and the fine shaping of plot and incident recalls -George Eliot’s “Romola.” The story of “Ramona” has to do with Indian life -in Southern California and Mexico, and is of historical interest. As one -reads of the wrongs cruelly inflicted upon the noble _Alessandro_ and the -heroic Christian spirit with which he endured them all to the bitter end, -there comes a sense of shame that under American laws, base, unprincipled -men could commit such deeds of plunder and violence with impunity. The -character of _Ramona_ is unique. Her devoted love for _Alessandro_, the -gladness with which she accepted the life of deprivation and danger at -his side, and the development, through heavy sorrows, of her deep, true, -womanly nature, give the book a richness of color and a depth of pathos -seldom met. - -In “Dorcas,”[S] a story of anti-Christ, the lives and sufferings of -the early Christians in Rome are depicted. Dorcas and her friends -hid themselves away for many long months in the Catacombs, to escape -persecution. In two instances while there, the miracle of bringing the -dead back to life occurred, one of those restored being Marcellus, the -affianced husband of Dorcas, a young Roman nobleman who was put to death -for accepting the Christian religion. The accession of Constantine gave -them their freedom. The book affords a good study in the high style of -its diction and the purity of its language. It is valuable, too, for its -record of the customs of those days, and for its historical incidents. - -Students of English who enjoy theories about words and expressions will -find in “Elements of English Speech”[T] a full measure of them, most -ingeniously supported. The book is in no way suitable for readers who are -unacquainted with Latin, Greek, French, and German, but for those who -have dabbled a little in each it will furnish interesting reading, and -some ideas of real value. - -The house of D. Appleton & Co. is publishing some excellent text-books. -Among these is “Elements of Geometry,”[U] a work on plane and solid -geometry. The arrangement of the book, its admirable fitness to the needs -of the pupils just beginning the sciences, and its abundant exercises -make it a very satisfactory work for teachers.——In their series of -“Science Text-Books,” “Elements of Zoölogy,”[V] by C. F. & J. B. Holder, -is one of the most entertaining, practical, and, beside, thorough, -elementary works on animal biology we have ever seen. The illustrations -are excellent.——A capital “Second Reader” is “Friends in Feathers and -Fur, and Other Neighbors.”[W] We like the idea of giving the young folks -good, clear type.——But best of all is “Appleton’s Chart Primer,”[X] a -pretty little book with numbers of beautifully colored pictures for color -lessons, and a cover so brilliant that it will make it a pleasure for -little ones to learn their lessons. - -A new edition of “The Water Babies,”[Y] abridged by J. H. Stickney has -been issued. It is a delightful fairy story for land babies. Little Tom, -a poor chimney sweep who belonged to a very cruel master, went one day to -work in a grand house. Coming down the wrong chimney, he found himself -standing opposite a large mirror in a very beautiful room in which a -little, sick girl was lying. The sight of himself in the glass, black -and impish, and the screams of the little girl frightened him so that -he jumped from the window, caught the branches of a tree, slid to the -ground and ran for his life, pursued by different members of the family, -who supposed him to be a thief. They could not catch him, however, and -soon gave up the attempt. Two or three days after his body was found in -a stream of water, and all the people thought him dead. But they were -mistaken; that body was only the old covering of Tom; he had been changed -into a beautiful water baby, whose life in that fairy land is told in a -very fascinating manner, showing that there, also, little folks ought to -work for the good of others. - -The “Water Babies” is one of a series of “Classics for Children,” a -series arranged on the sensible idea that children can be taught to enjoy -good literature, as they are taught to read. Among the other works which -have appeared in this course are a “Primer and First Reader,”[Z] Scott’s -“Lady of the Lake,”[AA] and Kingsley’s “Greek Heroes.”[AB] Others are in -preparation. - -“Which: Right or Wrong?”[AC] is an interesting story centering about the -Framingham Assembly. It gives some bright pictures of life there, and -teaches some excellent lessons. - -“The Mentor”[AD] is a very neat little book written for the use of men -and boys who wish to appear to good advantage in cultivated society. It -treats of personal appearance, manners at the dinner table and in public, -conversation, odds and ends, calls and cards, and closes with a chapter -answering the question, “What is a Gentleman?” It contains a number of -quotations from eminent authors. - -A beautiful device is that of “The Guest Book,”[AE] in which the hostess -may record the coming and the going of her guests. It contains short, -beautifully illustrated selections concerning hospitality, from prominent -writers, with blank pages left between for autographs, incidents, and -sketches relating to pleasant calls and visits. In the hands of every -woman who loves to entertain her friends it will prove a treasure-house -of pleasant memories. - -Not often are our social foibles “taken off” more pointedly than in “The -Buntling Ball.”[AF] It is a really clever, and withal sprightly, satire -on some of the vulnerable points of New York society. _Mrs. Buntling_, -wife of a “potentate in pork,” returning from Europe, issues invitations -for a ball. She has obtained a list of “all the names considered of -decisive note,” and, regardless of the fact that she knows none of them -issues a general invitation. The fact that everybody comes is one of -the sharpest points in the play. Choruses are introduced in true Greek -drama style, and the “Knickerbocker young men,” “maneuvering mammas,” -“wall-flowers,” “gossips,” “Anglo-maniacs,” etc., carry on dialogues with -the principal characters, in which they give the whole philosophy of New -York society, in the frankest manner and in all sorts of happy, sprightly -verse. The mystery of its authorship has been turned to good account by -the publishers, who offer a prize of $1,000 to the successful guesser. - -Marion Harland, in writing “Eve’s Daughters,”[AG] has done a noble -work for women. The book must exert a good influence wherever it goes, -and do much toward breaking down the barrier of false modesty and -ignorance in regard to herself, that woman, too often, has taken pride in -rearing. It begins with the life of the baby girl and follows her as the -representative of her sex, through all the years down to old age. Strong, -plain, helpful things are said, and said only as a brave, womanly woman -can say them, in regard to the physical life of women. Every mother ought -to read the book, and read it with her daughters. - -“Memories of the Manse”[AH] is a quiet little picture of the life, home, -family, and parish of a Scotch minister who lived, a number of years -ago, in Glenarran. The rugged outlines of the stern character belonging -to that northern people are well drawn, and dashes of color, showing -the tender and loving side of human nature, appear here and there, -brightening up the scene. The experience of the eldest son, who was “a -clever lad, and had just returned after working his way through college, -wearing a wonderfully clerical dress and air, an eye-glass, and a highly -comfortable opinion of himself,” only to find that he was ridiculed -instead of admired by his former associates, and his honest surprise at -his unpopularity furnish a touch of humor to the whole work. - -The books which Samuel Smiles has put upon the market are eminently -valuable to boys and men who are in trades. He has done much to dignify -labor and to show how essential is brain and thrift and education to -manual labor. In his late volume, “Men of Invention and Industry,”[AI] -the material is particularly good. It is fresh, and the stories of -successful men give a grip to the book which is very effective. The lack -of literary finish of which some complain in Mr. Smiles’s work is but a -minor matter when we think of the serious purpose, the earnest desire to -show how handicrafts may be developed, and how great opportunities lie -in the way of mechanics to benefit society and to attain distinction. -Among his men of invention and industry are Phineas Pett, the English -ship builder; John Harrison, the inventor of the marine chronometer, and -Frederick Koenig, inventor of the steam printing machine. A digression -from the main object of the book is the chapter on “Industry in Ireland,” -but it is a pleasing digression. The abundant resources which Mr. Smiles -shows to exist in Ireland, will be surprising to many readers. Her -fisheries, her iron, coal and clay beds, her linen industries, and her -ship building are well described. The development of these resources he -justly concludes to be the solution of the “Irish trouble.” - -Mr. Harrison, in giving to the public the life and literary works[AJ] of -the author of “Home Sweet Home,” has met a want that many persons have -felt, to know something more of this author. No trouble has been spared -in gathering the data for the biography, and much valuable information -has been given to the world which, but for his efforts, might have been -lost. He has, however, entered so fully into details as frequently to -detract from the interest of the work. The circumstances under which -“Home Sweet Home” was written, are given. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[L] A Sketch of the Life and Times of the Rev. Sydney Smith. By Stuart J. -Reid. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1885. - -[M] A History of Ancient Sculpture. By Lucy Mitchell. New York: Dodd, -Mead & Company. Price, according to binding, $12.50, $18.00, or $25.00. - -[N] French Conversation. By J. D. Gaillard. New York: D. Appleton & Co. - -[O] The Heart of the White Mountains. By Samuel Adams Drake. Illustrated -by W. Hamilton Gibson. New York: Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square. - -[P] Women of the Day. A Biographical Dictionary of Notable -Contemporaries. By Frances Hays. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. -1885. - -[Q] Outlines of Metaphysics. Dictated Portions of the Lectures of Hermann -Lotze. Translated and edited by George T. Ladd. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. -1884. - -[R] Ramona. By Helen Jackson. (H. H.) Boston: Roberts Brothers. Price, -$1.50. - -[S] Dorcas, the Daughter of Faustina. By Nathan C. Kouns. Author of -“Arius the Libyan.” New York: Fords, Howard and Hurlbert. 1884. - -[T] Elements of English Speech. By Isaac Bassett Choate. New York: D. -Appleton & Co. 1884. - -[U] Elements of Geometry. By Eli T. Tappan, LL.D. New York: D. Appleton & -Co. 1885. - -[V] Elements of Zoölogy. By C. F. & J. B. Holder, M.D. New York: D. -Appleton & Co. 1884. - -[W] Friends in Feathers and Fur, and Other Neighbors. By James Johonnot. -New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1885. - -[X] Appleton’s Chart Primer: Exercises in Reading at Sight, and Language -and Color Lessons For Beginners. By Rebecca D. Rickoff. - -[Y] The Water Babies. By Charles Kingsley. Edited and abridged by J. -H. Stickney. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1884. Mailing price, 40 cents. -Introduction, 35 cents. - -[Z] Primer and First Reader. By E. A. Turner. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. -1885. - -[AA] The Lady of the Lake. By Sir Walter Scott. Edited by Edwin Ginn. -Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1885. - -[AB] The Heroes; or, Greek Fairy Tales for My Children. By Charles -Kingsley. Edited by John Tetlow. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1885. - -[AC] Which: Right or Wrong? By M. L. Moreland. Boston: Lee and Shepard, -Publishers. 1883. - -[AD] The Mentor. By Alfred Ayers. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 1884. - -[AE] The Guest Book. Designed and illustrated by Annie F. Cox. Boston: -Lee and Shepard. New York: C. S. Dillingham, 618 Broadway. 1885. - -[AF] The Buntling Ball. A Græco-American Play. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. -1884. - -[AG] Eve’s Daughters. By Marion Harland. New York: Charles Scribner’s -Sons. 1885. - -[AH] Memories of the Manse. By Anne Breadalbane. Troy, N.Y.: H. B. Nims & -Co. 1885. - -[AI] Men of Invention and Industry. By Samuel Smiles, LL.D. New York: -Harper & Brothers. 1885. - -[AJ] John Howard Payne. By Gabriel Harrison. Illustrated. Philadelphia: -J. B. Lippincott & Co. - - -BOOKS RECEIVED. - -Daddy Darwin’s Dovecote. A Country Tale. By Juliana Horatio Ewing. -Boston: Roberts Brothers. 1885. Price, 35 cents. - -Flatland. A Romance of Many Dimensions. By A Square. Boston: Roberts -Brothers. 1885. Price, 75 cents. - -Memoirs of the Rev. David Brainard. Based on the Life of Brainard -prepared by Jonathan Edwards, D.D. Edited by J. M. Sherwood. New York: -Funk and Wagnalls. 1885. - - - - -PARAGRAPHS FROM NEW BOOKS. - - -A FRAGMENT ON THE CULTIVATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE ANIMAL SPIRITS.—It -is surprising to see for what foolish causes men hang themselves. The -most silly repulse, the most trifling ruffle of temper, or derangement -of stomach, anything seems to justify an appeal to the razor or the -cord. I have a contempt for persons who destroy themselves. Live on, and -look evil in the face; walk up to it, and you will find it less than -you imagined, and often you will not find it at all; for it will recede -as you advance. Any fool may be a suicide. When you are in a melancholy -fit first suspect the body, appeal to rhubarb and calomel, and send for -the apothecary; a little bit of gristle sticking in the wrong place, an -untimely consumption of custard, excessive gooseberries, often cover the -mind with clouds and bring on the most distressing views of human life.… -The greatest happiness which can happen to any one is to cultivate a love -of reading. Study is often dull because it is improperly managed. I make -no apology for speaking of myself, for as I write anonymously, nobody -knows who I am, and if I did not, very few would be the wiser—but every -man speaks more firmly when he speaks from his own experience. I read -four books at a time; some classical book, perhaps, on Monday, Wednesday, -and Friday mornings. The “History of France,” we will say, on the -evenings of the same days. On Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, Mosheim -or Lardner, and on the evenings of those days, Reynolds’s Lectures or -Burns’s Travels. Then I have always a standard book of poetry, and -a novel to read when I am in the humor to read nothing else. Then I -translate some French into English one day and retranslate it the next; -so that I have seven or eight pursuits going on at the same time, and -this produces the cheerfulness of diversity, and avoids that gloom which -proceeds from hanging a long while over a single book. I do not recommend -this as a receipt for becoming a learned man, but for becoming a cheerful -one.—_From Reid’s “Life and Times of the Rev. Sydney Smith.”_ - - * * * * * - -SCENES ON A STAGE COACH.—The views of the mountains as the afternoon wore -away, grew more and more interesting. The ravines darkened, the summits -brightened. Cloud-shadows chased each other up and down the steeps, or, -flitting slowly across the valley, spread thick mantles of black that -seemed to deaden the sound of our wheels as we passed over them. On one -side all was light, on the other all gloom. But the landscape is not all -that may be seen to advantage from the top of a stage coach. - -From time to time, as something provoked an exclamation of surprise or -pleasure, certain of the inside occupants manifested open discontent. -They were losing something where they had expected to see everything. - -While the horses were being changed, one of the insiders, I need not say -it was a woman, thrust her head outside of the window, and addressed -the young person perched like a bird upon the highest seat. Her voice -was soft and persuasive. “Miss!” “Madam!” “I’m so afraid you find it -too cold up there. Sha’n’t I change places with you?” The little one -gave her voice a droll inflection as she briskly replied: “Oh, dear, -no, thank you; I’m very comfortable indeed.” “But,” urged the other, -“you don’t look strong; indeed, dear, you don’t. Aren’t you very, _very_ -tired, sitting so long without any support to your back?” “Thanks, no; my -spine is the strongest part of me.” “But,” still persisted the inside, -changing her voice to a loud whisper, “to be sitting alone with all those -men!” “They mind their business, and I mind mine,” said the little one -reddening; “besides,” she quickly added, “you proposed changing places, I -believe!” “Oh!” returned the other, with an accent impossible to convey -in words, “if you like it.” “I tell you what, ma’am,” snapped the one in -possession, “I’ve been all over Europe alone, and was never once insulted -except by persons of my own sex.”—_From Drake’s “Heart of the White -Mountains.”_ - - * * * * * - -EVERY MAN HAS HIS PRICE.—It is a curious trait in human nature, that -each individual places the highest value on himself; treats the world -as if it were only in existence on his account, looks upon himself as -if he were the central point round which all things turn—and that yet, -in spite of this universal self-appreciation, so many persons make -themselves the slaves of others, or of some insignificant desire of -their own. This contradiction in the human mind, this inordinate pride -of men in combination with ignorance of their own true value, this -insatiable self-seeking in connection with so contemptible a depreciation -of themselves, is so common that we are only astonished that thoughtful -persons, perceiving it in others, are not thereby led to discover it in -themselves.… Every man has a price at which he sells himself. What is -thy price? Hast thou ever weighed what thou art really worth? Go into -thy chamber and devote some moments of earnest thought to an examination -of thyself, and try to discover for what earthly good thou wouldst be -likely to give thyself away. Look no farther back than the last year; -pass in review thy secret thoughts and silent wishes even of the last -few weeks only! Ah! a short while will no doubt suffice to show thee thy -weak points, which, had they been assailed by any tempter, would soon -have revealed to thee at what price thou wouldst have sold thy goodness, -thy Christian principles, thy heaven on earth, thy eternal prospects. -Thou shudderest? Thou wouldst rather not look into thyself? But if thou -valuest thy goodness, thy Christian principles, thy heaven on earth, thy -eternal prospects, ah, shrink not from this self-investigation?—_From -Zschokke’s “Meditations on Life, Death, and Eternity.”_ - - * * * * * - -ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED TEACHER OF HISTORY.—But the method of -teaching history must be determined in the main by the object aimed at. -If the object is to deposit in the mind the greatest number possible -of historical facts, there is perhaps no better way than to confine -the instruction to drill upon the contents of a manual by question and -answer, with frequent examinations in writing. Such a method would -probably be effective in two ways; it would give learners positive -knowledge, or the semblance of it, and it would pretty certainly make -them hate history. I do not hesitate to say that the ultimate purpose of -school instruction should be to incite an interest in history, and to -create a love for historical reading. - -A word may be here most conveniently said on the subject of chronology. -A few dates should be well fixed in the memory; they should be -carefully selected by the teacher, and some explanation given of their -significance. But “a few,” you will say, is a little indefinite. Of -course, opinions will differ as to the number of indispensable dates in -any history, though there might be a general assent to the principle of -requiring the pupil to commit as few as possible. Of the two hundred and -fifty dates given in “Smith’s Smaller History of Greece,” I insist on -fifteen, and I think the number might be reduced to ten. But if learners -are properly taught, they will, of course, be able to determine a great -many dates approximately. - -Remembering that you must make history interesting, to that end use all -available means to produce vivid impressions. This is a trite remark, -but it will bear repeating. Casts, models, coins, photographs, relief -maps, may not be at your command, but maps of some sort you must have. -Historical instruction, without the constant accompaniment of geography, -has no solid foundation—“is all in the air.”—_From “Methods of Teaching -History.”_[AK] - - * * * * * - -THE COMING OF LUTHER.—The events of the sixteenth century have been too -often regarded as constituting a break in history. But to the eye of -thought reviewing the course of history, the continuity remains unbroken. -Luther was but the child of the ages preceding; the Protestant revolution -was the natural and orderly sequence of a long course of preparation. -It was indispensable indeed for a time that men should regard the -Reformation as breaking with the past, in order that they might estimate -more deeply the meaning of the truth which had been revealed to them, and -secure its firmer establishment. In the turmoil of an age of transition -it is not always given to the leaders to discern the route by which -they have been led. Luther entered upon the inheritance of Wycliffe -and of Huss, and still further was he indebted to the spirit of German -mysticism. But his greatness was also peculiarly his own. He was not so -much a theologian as a man who afforded in his own rich nature, unveiled -so completely before his age, the materials for theology. His life was -a type of humanity for his own and succeeding ages. He lived through -the religious experience of the Mediæval dispensation before he came -to his knowledge of a higher birthright. Viewed from the standpoint of -a formal theology, he is full of inconsistencies and contradictions, -and even dangerous errors. But regarded simply as a man, with his rich -endowment of human instincts and yearnings, to which he gave the freest, -most unguarded expression, he was in himself a revelation of the human -consciousness in its freshness and simplicity, with which a complete -theology must come to terms. It is because the explosive utterances -of his vigorous, tumultuous nature have been weighed as if they were -carefully formed, dogmatic statements, that Luther has been so often -misunderstood by Protestant as well as by Roman Catholic writers.—_From -Allen’s “Continuity of Christian Thought.”_[AL] - - * * * * * - -NATURAL RESOURCES OF IRELAND.—Ireland is a much richer country by -nature than is generally supposed. In fact, she has not yet been -properly explored. There is copper ore in Wicklow, Waterford, and Cork. -The Leitrim iron ores are famous for their riches; and there is good -ironstone in Kilkenny, as well as in Ulster. The Connaught ores are mixed -with coal beds. Kaolin, porcelain clay, and coarser clay abound; but it -is only at Belluk that it has been employed in the pottery manufacture. -But the sea about Ireland is still less explored than the land. All -around the Atlantic’s seaboard of the Irish coast are shoals of herring -and mackerel, which might be food for man, but at present are only -consumed by the multitudes of sea birds which follow them.—_From Smiles’s -“Men of Invention and Industry.”_ - - -FOOTNOTES - -[AK] The Pedagogical Library. Edited by G. Stanley Hall. Vol I. Methods -of Teaching History. Second Edition. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1885. - -[AL] The Continuity of Christian Thought. By Alexander V. G. Allen. -Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1884. Price $2.00. - - - - -SPECIAL NOTES. - - -We have been asked the meaning of the term the “geography of the -heavens.” Professor Hiram Matteson, in his excellent little treatise -entitled “The geography of the heavens,” makes in his preface the -following explanatory remarks: “I have endeavored to teach the geography -of the heavens in nearly the same manner as we teach the geography of -the earth. What that does in regard to the history, situation, extent, -population, and principal cities of the several kingdoms of the earth, -I have done in regard to the constellations; and I am persuaded that -a knowledge of the one may be as easily obtained as of the other. The -systems are similar. It is only necessary to change the terms in one -to render them applicable to the other. For this reason I have yielded -to the preference of the publisher in calling this work ‘Geography -of the Heavens,’ instead of _Uranography_, or some other name more -etymologically apposite.” - - * * * * * - -It will be noticed from Chancellor Vincent’s article on “The Chautauqua -School of Liberal Arts,” found in this impression of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, -that the Sunday-school Normal department of Chautauqua will hereafter be -known as “The American Church Sunday-school Normal Course.” - - * * * * * - -Messrs. L. Prang & Co. have begun to send out valentines of as much -beauty and artistic merit as their Christmas and Easter cards. Those of -the present season have been of rare beauty—the coloring of many of them -is exquisite. - - * * * * * - -The following, clipped from the text-book of the Chautauqua Musical -Reading Union noticed in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for February, will be of -interest to many of our music-loving readers: - -The aim is not so much to give technical instruction in the science, -as to invite the wider outlook which is so important in real musical -culture. No person receives any pecuniary benefit from this organization, -but the labor is freely given in the hope of benefiting others. The books -required will be furnished from the Boston office at a discount from the -retail prices, or they may be ordered through any local bookseller. Local -circles may be formed in cities, towns, or small villages, greatly to the -advantage of all who thus associate themselves. Scarcely anything can be -conceived that will yield more delightful entertainment, together with -improvement of mind and heart, than such a local circle as may be formed -in connection with the C. M. R. C. All who are really in earnest about -the improvement of the musical taste of the community in which they live, -should exert every effort to bring about such an organization. For plans -and information as to how these circles may be made successful, address -the director, who will gladly furnish suggestions, and will send list of -prices at which the required books will be furnished. _Please enclose -stamp for reply._ A fee of fifty cents will be required to defray the -expense of registration, correspondence, etc., which amount, with the -name and postoffice address _plainly written_ (including county and -state), should be forwarded at once, directed to W. F. Sherwin, Director -C. M. R. C., New England Conservatory, Boston, Mass. Certificates will -be given for each course, and a diploma upon the completion of the four. -A “round-table” will be held (_à la_ C. L. S. C.) each year during the -Chautauqua Assembly. For price list of books and any other information, -address as above. - - * * * * * - -The following special course in physiology is announced: - - Wonders of the Human Body. A. Le Pileur. $1.25. - Physiology for Practical Use. James Kinton. $2.15. - Mental Physiology. W. B. Carpenter. $3.00 - The Foundation of Death. Axel Gustafson. $2.00. - - -ERRATA - -In list of C. L. S. C. graduates which appeared in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -February: - - Pettit, Harriet L., California, instead of _Pennsylvania_. - Arann, the Rev. J. M., not _Araun_. - Hon, George V., not _How_. - Hoerner, George P., not _Hoemer_. - - -NAMES TO BE ADDED - -To the list of graduates in the class of 1884: - - Black, Jennie L. Pennsylvania. - Burgess, Miss Anna E. Ohio. - Carter, Anna B. California. - Carter, Emily B. California. - Chamberlin, Lydia L. Massachusetts. - Clark, Miss Annie Rhode Island. - Coleman, William H. Ohio. - Horsman, Mrs. George Wisconsin. - Holden, Mrs. Sarah K. Canada. - Jones, Mrs. E. J. Ohio. - Marsh, Miss Susanna Dakota. - Millar, Mrs. Lizzie L. S. Minnesota. - Safley, Agnes E. Minnesota. - Scott, Mrs. Lucie M. New York. - Walker, Ezra L. Ohio. - Weaver, the Rev. Wm. C. Pennsylvania. - - * * * * * - -The following persons passed a creditable examination in the Advanced -Normal Course of 1884 at Chautauqua: - - Miss Fannie L. Armstrong, Hempstead, Texas. - Mrs. A. W. Briggs, Elma, Erie Co., N. Y. - Mr. O. W. Bowers, McLallen’s Corners, Pa. - - * * * * * - -At Lakeside, Ohio, Assembly, the following passed an Advanced Normal -examination: - -Mrs. Abby A. Parish, Brooklyn Village, Ohio. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. - -Page 316, “made” changed to “make” (all diligence to make their calling) - -Page 316, “lotty” changed to “lofty” (such a lofty understanding) - -Page 317, repeated “der” removed (the under side of the cabbage leaves) - -Page 319, “entreés” changed to “entrées” (toothsome entrées) - -Page 331, repeated “mon” removed (for common school purposes) - -Page 341, “What is true of the processes of the is equally true of almost -every other manual industry” changed to “What is true of the processes is -equally true of almost every other manual industry”. The revised sentence -at least makes some sort of sense, but it’s possible that words are in -fact _missing_ from the original. - -Page 348, repeated “of” removed (Yale College class of 1853) - -Page 350, “invarible” changed to “invariable” (an invariable part of each -evening’s work) - -Page 367, “Calvanistic” changed to “Calvinistic” (The founder of -Calvinistic Methodism.) - -Page 368, “cuurse” changed to “course” (The first course of dishes) - -Page 368, “on” changed to “in” to match article title (Home Studies in -Chemistry) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. V, March 1885, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. V, MARCH 1885 *** - -***** This file should be named 55060-0.txt or 55060-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/0/6/55060/ - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. 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