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diff --git a/old/55061-0.txt b/old/55061-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b13bc7a..0000000 --- a/old/55061-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8821 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. V, April 1885, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Chautauquan, Vol. V, April 1885 - -Author: The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -Editor: Theodore L. Flood - -Release Date: July 6, 2017 [EBook #55061] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. V, APRIL 1885 *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. - ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._ - - VOL. V. APRIL, 1885. No. 7. - - Officers of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - -_President_, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. _Chancellor_, J. H. Vincent, -D.D., New Haven, Conn. _Counselors_, The Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; -the Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C. -Wilkinson, D.D.; Edward Everett Hale. _Office Secretary_, Miss Kate -F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. _General Secretary_, Albert M. Martin, -Pittsburgh, Pa. - - - - -Contents - -Transcriber’s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was created -for the HTML version to aid the reader. - - REQUIRED READING FOR APRIL. - Aristotle 373 - Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics - Chemistry of Earth 375 - The Circle of the Sciences 378 - Sunday Readings - [_April 5._] 382 - [_April 12._] 383 - [_April 19._] 384 - [_April 26._] 385 - Easy Lessons in Animal Biology - Chapter I. 385 - Jerry McAuley and His Work 390 - Ein Feste Burg Ist Unser Gott. Translation of Luther’s Famous Hymn. 392 - The Weather Bureau 393 - How to Win - Chapter II. 396 - Fortress, Palace and Prison 397 - Geography of the Heavens for April 400 - England and Islam 402 - The Art of Fish Culture - Part I. 404 - The Life of George Eliot 407 - Arbor Day 409 - How to Work Alone 411 - Outline of Required Readings for April 413 - Programs for Local Circle Work 413 - Local Circles 413 - The C. L. S. C. Classes 419 - Questions and Answers 420 - Editor’s Outlook 423 - Editor’s Note-Book 425 - C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for April 427 - Notes on Required Readings in “The Chautauquan” 429 - Paragraphs from New Books 431 - Talk About Books 432 - The Chautauqua University: What Are Its Claims? 433 - Special Notes 434 - - - - -REQUIRED READING FOR APRIL. - - - - -ARISTOTLE. - -BY WILLIAM C. WILKINSON. - - - [The “College Greek Course in English” did not, for a reason - alluded to in the following paper, include Aristotle among the - authors represented. The readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN will be glad - to get some acquaintance with so great an ancient name through - this supplementary chapter from Prof. Wilkinson’s pen.] - -Philosopher, though he by eminence is ranked, Aristotle was, too, -something of an encyclopedist. He traversed almost the whole circle of -the sciences, as that circle existed for the ancient world. But he was -not simply first a learner, and then a teacher, of what others had found -out before him. He was also an explorer and discoverer. Inventor also he -was, if between discovery and invention we are to make a difference. He -was a great methodizer and systematizer of knowledge. He bore to Plato -the personal relation of pupil. - -The history of Aristotle’s intellectual influence is remarkable. That -influence has suffered several phases of wax and wane, several alternate -occultations and renewals of brightness. During a certain period of time, -covering several hundred years, he was, perhaps beyond the fortune of -any other man that ever lived, the lord of human thought. We mean the -time of the schoolmen[1] so called. From near the close of the thirteenth -century, until the era of the Reformation, Aristotle reigned supreme in -the schools of Christian theology, which is the same thing as to say that -he was acknowledged universal monarch of the European mind. The business -of the schoolmen may be said to have been to state the dogmas of the -church in the forms of the Aristotelian logic, and then to reconcile -those dogmas so stated, with the teachings of the Aristotelian philosophy. - -Curiously enough, the introduction of Aristotle to the doctors of the -church was through the Mohammedan Arabs. These men had, during a term -of centuries, been the continuers of the intellectual life of the race. -While through the long night of those ages of darkness the Christian -mind slept, the Arabian mind, waking, gave itself largely to the study -of Aristotle. The Greek philosopher was posthumously naturalized a -barbarian; for Aristotle’s writings were now translated from their -original tongue into Arabic. In this Arabic version, the celebrated -Ibn Roshd (chiefly famous under his latinized name A-verˈroës) knew -Aristotle and commented on him. The Arabic commentaries of Averroes were -translated into Latin, and the thought of Aristotle thus became once -more accessible to European students. Averroes (A. D. 1149-1198) himself -was of the Moors of Spain. - -For centuries previous to the time when the son and successor of good -Haroun al Raschid,[2] known at least by name to the readers and lovers of -Tennyson, collected at Bagdad all the scattered volumes of Greek letters -that his agents could find in Armenia, Syria and Egypt—for centuries, -we say, previous to this, Aristotle suffered an almost complete arrest -and suspension of intellectual influence. That man would have been a -bold prophet who should then have predicted what a resurrection to power -awaited the slumbering philosopher. - -Still earlier, however, than this, that is, during the interval between -the third Christian century and the sixth, Aristotle enjoyed a great -vogue. He was studied and commented on as if all human wisdom was -summed up in him. The spirit of independent and original philosophy had -perished, and whatever philosophic aptitude survived was well content to -exhaust itself in expounding Aristotle. Aristotle’s works became a kind -of common Bible to the universal mind of the Roman empire. This was the -period of the Greek scholiasts, so-called—in more ordinary language, -commentators. - -Taking the reverse or regressive direction of history, we have thus run -back to a point of time some six or seven centuries subsequent to the -personal life and activity of Aristotle. During the latter half of these -centuries, Aristotle’s fame was gradually growing, from total obscurity -to its great culmination in splendor under the scholiasts. - -Before that growth began, the productions of Aristotle had experienced -a fortune that is one of the romances of literary history. The great -pupil of Plato had himself no great pupil to continue after his death the -illustrious succession of Grecian philosophy. His writings, unduplicated -manuscripts they seem to have been, fell into the hands of a disciple, -who, dying, bequeathed them to a disciple of his own, residing in the -Troad. To the Troad accordingly they went. Here, with a view to save them -from the grasp of a ruthless royal collector of valuable parchments, -the family having these works in possession hid them in an underground -vault, in which they lay moldering and forgotten one hundred and fifty -years! It was thus in all nearly two hundred years that Aristotle’s -thoughts were lost to the world. When at last it was deemed safe, the -precious documents were brought out and sold to a rich and cultivated -Athenian. This gentleman, let us name him for honor, it was A-pelˈli-con, -had unawares purchased his prize for a rapacious Roman collector. Sylla -seized it, on his capture of Athens, and sent it to Rome. At Rome it -had the good fortune to be appreciated. One An-dro-niˈcus edited the -collection, and gave to the world that, probably, which is now the -accepted text of Aristotle. - -But, romantic as has been the succession of vicissitudes befalling his -productions and his fame, Aristotle is, in his extant writings, anything -but a romantic author. A less adorned, a less succulent style, than the -style in which the Stagirite (he was of Stagˈi-rus, in Macedonia) wrote, -it would be difficult to find. Still it is a style invested at least with -the charm of evident severe intentness, in the writer, on his chosen aim. -Cicero, it is true, speaks of Aristotle’s style in language of praise -that would well befit a characterization of Plato. But Cicero must have -had in view works of the philosopher other than those which we possess, -works written perhaps in the author’s more florid youth. With this -conjecture agrees the fact that a list of Aristotle’s works, made by the -authorities of the renowned Alexandrian library, contains numerous titles -not appearing in the writings that remain to us attributed to Aristotle. - -Aristotle was not, as Plato was, properly a man of letters. Or, if he did -bear this character, the evidence of it has perished. What we possess -of his intellectual productions exhibits the author in the perfectly -dry and colorless light of a man of science. Even in those treatises -of his in which he comes nearest to the confines of pure and proper -literature, his interest is rather scientific than literary. He discusses -in two separate books the art of rhetoric and the art of poetry; but he -conducts his discussion without enthusiasm, without imagination, in the -severely strict spirit of the analyst and philosopher. The text of the -two treatises now referred to survives in a state of great imperfection. -Indeed, the same is the case generally with Aristotle’s works. Critics -have even surmised that, in some instances, notes of lectures, taken -by pupils while the master according to his wont was walking about -and extemporizing discourse, have done duty in place of authentic -autograph originals supplied by the hand of Aristotle himself. The title -“Peripatetic” (walk-about), given to the Aristotelian philosophy, was -suggested by the great teacher’s habit, thus alluded to, of doing his -work as teacher under the stimulus of exercise on his feet in the open -air. - -The non-literary character of Aristotle’s works has to a great extent -excluded him from the course of Greek reading adopted by colleges—this, -and moreover the fact that he occupies a position at the extreme hither -limit, if not quite outside the extreme limit, of the Greek classic age. -Still he is now and then read in college; and at any rate he is too -redoubtable a name among those names which in their motions were - - “Full-welling fountain-heads of change,” - -not to be an interesting object of knowledge to the readers of THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. - -The productions of Aristotle are numerous. The Alexandrian bibliography -of him gives one hundred and forty-six titles of his works. Of the books -thus catalogued not a vestige remains, except in an occasional quotation -from them at the hands of some other ancient writer. The works commonly -printed as Aristotle’s form an entirely different list. We give a few -of the leading titles or subjects: “Organon,” a collective name for -various writings that made up a system of logic; “Rhetoric,” “Po-etˈics” -(art of poetry), “Ethics,” “Politics,” “Natural Philosophy,” “Biology,” -“Metaphysics.” [This last word, which has acquired in modern use a -very distinct meaning of its own, was originally a mere meaningless -designation of certain investigations or discussions entered into -by Aristotle _after_ his physical researches. The preposition _meta_ -(after), and _physica_ (physics), give the etymology of the term.] The -comprehensive or, as we before said, encyclopædic range of Aristotle’s -intellectual activity will to the observant reader be sufficiently -indicated by this list of titles. - -For his work in natural history, Aristotle was powerfully supported by -one of the most resplendent military geniuses that the world has ever -seen, Alexander the Great. To this prince and warrior, when he was a lad, -the philosopher had discharged the office of private teacher. It would -appear that either Aristotle was courtier enough, or young Alexander was -man enough, to make this relation a pleasant one to the boy. For, in -later years, the conqueror of the world presented to his former teacher a -round million of dollars to make himself comfortable withal. But who can -tell which it was, gratitude for benefit received, or remorse for trouble -occasioned, that prompted the _ex post facto_[3] royal munificence? -Perhaps it was both—a tardy gratitude quickened by a generous remorse. - -The chief glory of Aristotle is to have at once invented and finished the -science of logic. For this is an achievement which may justly be credited -to the philosopher of Stagirus. It would generally be conceded that, -since Aristotle’s day, little or nothing substantial has been added to -the results of his labor in the field of pure logic. The name Orˈga-non -(instrument) is not Aristotle’s word, but that of some ancient editor -of his works. It is a noteworthy name, as having dictated to Bacon the -title to his epoch-making work, the _Novum Organum_ (the new method or -instrument). - -It would not be easy to give an exhaustive account of Aristotle’s -productions, and make the account attractive reading. We shall not -undertake so impracticable a task. Let our readers accept our word for it -that Aristotle, though a justly renowned name in the history of thought, -is not fitted to be a popular author. - -From his “History of Animals” we present a specimen extract that will -perhaps with some readers go far toward confuting what we just now said. -There are, we confess, some things in this treatise that read almost -as if they might belong to that truly fascinating book, “Goldsmith’s -Animated Nature:” - - “The cuckoo is said by some persons to be a changed hawk, because - the hawk which it resembles disappears when the cuckoo comes, and - indeed very few hawks of any sort can be seen during the period - in which the cuckoo is singing, except for a few days. The cuckoo - is seen for a short time in the summer, and disappears in winter. - But the hawk has crooked talons, which the cuckoo has not, nor - does it resemble the hawk in the form of its head, but in both - these respects is more like the pigeon than the hawk, which it - resembles in nothing but its color; the markings, however, upon - the hawk are like lines, while the cuckoo is spotted. - - “Its size and manner of flight is like that of the smallest kind - of hawk, which generally disappears during the season in which - the cuckoo is seen. But they have both been seen at the same - time, and the cuckoo was being devoured by the hawk, though this - is never done by birds of the same kind. They say that no one has - ever seen the young of the cuckoo. It does, however, lay eggs, - but it makes no nest, but sometimes it lays its eggs in the nests - of small birds, and devours their eggs, especially in the nests - of the pigeon (when it has eaten their eggs). Sometimes it lays - two, but usually only one egg; it lays also in the nest of the - hypolais,[4] which hatches and brings it up. At this season it is - particularly fat and sweet-fleshed; the flesh also of young hawks - is very sweet and fat. There is also a kind of them which builds - a nest in precipitous cliffs.” - -This morsel, our readers must consider, is not a very characteristic -specimen of the feast that, take all his works together, Aristotle -spreads for his students. But it is as toothsome as any we could offer. -If it makes our readers wish for more, that is as friendly a feeling as -we could possibly hope to inspire in them toward Aristotle. We shall now -let them, in that mood, bid the great philosopher farewell. - - - - -HOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. - -BY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D.D. - -Director of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science. - - -CHEMISTRY OF EARTH. - -John B. Gough declares that a few kind words spoken to him, in a crisis -of his life, saved him from ruin. He afterward carefully educated the -orphan daughters of the gentleman who uttered those words. - -“Why,” you say, “it was a little thing.” “Yes, _little_ for him, but a -big thing for me.” - -[Illustration: CRYSTALS OF ALUM.] - -The importance of _many_ things depends upon the point of observation. -To a hypothetical astronomer on a distant star, this world would be -too minute for observation. In that shining pathway of the heavens, -called the “milky way,” there have been discovered eighteen millions of -stars, each hundreds of times larger than our earth; yet _our_ atom in -immensity is, just now, of marvelous interest to us. Indeed, it must be -of interest to the highest intelligences, for such are the harmonies of -God’s universe that the minutest planet is in many of its forces and laws -representative of the whole. So that our world is, in a sense, both a -microcosm and a cosmo. - -Let us briefly consider some characteristics of the earth, from the -standpoint of the chemist. - -All substances have been divided into two great classes, the inorganic -and organic. The latter contains two subdivisions—the vegetable and -animal world. Nature thus comprises three great sub-kingdoms, the -mineral, vegetable and animal. - -A mineral is an inorganic body (that is, one in which no parts are formed -for special purposes), possessed of a definite chemical composition, and -usually of a regular geometric form. It may seem at first glance that -the last part of this definition is not correct, but there is reason to -believe that all mineral substances may, under favorable circumstances, -assume crystalline forms. Water and air are minerals. Other liquids and -gases are included in the term, but as we have had already something -to say of these latter substances, we shall, for the purposes of this -article, use the word earth in the popular sense; namely, inorganic -matter, which at ordinary temperature is solid. All materials are -classified into - - -ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS. - -By an element is meant a substance which has never been resolved into -parts, and conversely, one that can not be produced by the union of two -or more substances. There is some difference of opinion as to their -number. It is usually given as sixty-four. There are a great many -compounds. Nature seems to delight in surprising us by the simplicity of -the means employed in producing marvelous results. As the mind of Milton -combined the twenty-six letters of our alphabet to form “Paradise Lost,” -so the Infinite arranged and re-arranged the elements to form the sublime -poem of creation. Fifty-one of the elements are metals, and thirteen -metalloids; gold is a familiar example of the former, and sulphur of the -latter. A few, like hydrogen and oxygen, are gases; two are liquids; -quicksilver and bromine: the greater number exist as solids. But few -of them are found native, _i. e._, chemically uncombined with other -substances. In the fierce heat of former ages they were mixed as in a -mighty crucible, and few escaped the power of affinities thus engendered. -Gold and copper are sometimes found pure, but even they, more frequently -than otherwise, exist fused with other substances. - -Compounds are of three classes—acids, bases and salts. Sand is a specimen -of the first, lime of the second, and clay of the third. _Fixedness_ is a -characteristic of mineral compounds, yet they are by no means incapable -of change; certain influences come in to promote it, of which the -following are the most important—heat, solution, friction and percussion. - -Two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, may remain side by side for years -uncombined, but a single spark will cause them to rush together with -terrific energy. - -If the contents of the blue and white papers in a Seidlitz powder are -mixed, no chemical action follows, but if dissolved separately in -glasses of water, and then poured together, a violent effervescence -takes place. If a small amount of potassium chlorate and a _little_ -piece of sulphur be put together in a mortar, and then pressed by the -pestle, sharp detonations follow. Dynamite, which is nitro-glycerine -mixed with infusorial earth, sugar or sawdust, is quite harmless when -free from acid, unless struck. The above instances illustrate the various -influences that stimulate chemical combination. Almost all the crust -of the earth is formed of three substances—quartz, lime, and alumina. -Wherever we stand on the round globe, it is safe to say that one or all -of these are beneath our feet. - - -QUARTZ. - -[Illustration: QUARTZ CRYSTALS.] - -This mineral comprises about one half the earth’s crust. Its symbol -is SiO₂, being a compound of silicon and oxygen, in the proportions -indicated. It is very hard, easily scratching glass, of which it forms -an important constituent, is acted upon by only one acid—hydrofluoric; -this attacks it eagerly, as may be shown by the following interesting -experiment: Take a little lead saucer, or in the absence of this, spread -lead foil carefully over the inside of an ordinary saucer, and in this -place some powdered fluor spar. This mineral is quite abundant in nature, -and is always to be obtained, in the form of a powder, from dealers in -chemicals. Have a pane of glass covered by a thin film of wax. Now trace -upon this surface with a sharp point, anything you may desire, verse -or picture. Pour into the saucer containing the fluor spar, sufficient -sulphuric acid to make a paste. Place over this the plate of glass, with -the waxed side down, and let it remain for twenty-four hours. Remove the -wax by heating, and on the glass you will find a perfect etching, the HF -having removed the silica. - -The same effect may be produced in a few moments by applying to the -bottom of the saucer a moderate heat. Care should be taken not to inhale -the fumes, as they are highly corrosive. - -Quartz can be melted at a high temperature, and may be dissolved in -certain hot solutions. It is still a question in dispute, whether the -numerous quartz veins found in rocks were introduced there in melted -form or in solution. Probably, sometimes in one state and sometimes in -the other. Any visitor to a glass manufactory can see how easily glass -in a melted state is manipulated; and travelers often bring from the -geysers[1] fine specimens of silica called geyserite, derived from the -material held in solution in the hot water, and deposited on the edge of -the “basin.” - -[Illustration: SIDE AND TOP VIEW OF THE REGENT OR PITT DIAMOND (REDUCED -IN SIZE)—CUT IN THE FORM OF THE “BRILLIANT.”] - -Quartz may be classified under two varieties—the common and the rare. -Sand, pebbles, many conglomerates, all sandstone rocks come under the -former head. The old red sandstone described by Hugh Miller,[2] in which -fossil fish are so abundant, and the new red sandstone of the Connecticut -valley, famous for its bird or reptile tracks, brought to light through -the labors of Dr. Hitchcock,[3] were formed of sand cemented together -under pressure by the peroxide of iron. There are many beautiful -varieties of the rarer forms of quartz. Not a few of these were known -to the ancients, as may be seen by reading the twenty-first chapter of -Revelations, where a number are mentioned in the description of the -heavenly city. “The wall of it was of jasper, and the foundations of -the wall of the city were garnished with all manner of precious stones. -The first foundation was jasper; the second, sapphire; the third, a -chalcedony; the fourth, an emerald; the fifth, a sardonyx; the sixth, -sardius; the seventh, chrysolite; the eighth, beryl; the ninth, a topaz; -the tenth, a chrysoprasus; the eleventh, a jacinth; the twelfth, an -amethyst.” - -All of these excepting the sapphire, which is crystallized alumina, are -either pure or mixed varieties of quartz, colored with some metallic -oxide. One of the most beautiful forms of these precious stones is -the agate, especially that kind called the onyx, which consists of a -succession of opaque and transparent layers. When carved into gems, this -is called the cameo. A wonderful carved cameo was in the Tiffany exhibit -at the Centennial Exposition, valued at four thousand dollars. The -several layers were so cut as to represent a man looking through the bars -of his prison. - - -LIME. - -Another very plentiful substance in the earth is lime. It is chiefly -found in the form of three salts, the carbonate, sulphate and phosphate -(CaCO₃) (CaSO₄) (Ca₃(PO₄)₂), respectively. The first is familiarly known -as limestone. When crystallized, it appears as marble. The shades of -marble are due to the tinting of metallic oxides, and sometimes to the -presence of fossils. The most beautiful marble is obtained from Carrara, -Italy, which has long been famous for furnishing the material used for -statues. It is pure white. Pure black marble is found in some ancient -Roman sculptures. Sienna marble is yellow. Italy furnishes one kind -that is red. Verd-antique is a mixture of green serpentine and white -limestone, while our beautiful Tennessee marble, used so profusely in the -new Capitol at Washington, is a blended red and white. - -Common limestone is almost entirely the product of minute animals[4] -which lived in early geologic times. Ages before the Romans drove piles -into the Thames, or the first hut was erected on the banks of the Seine, -these little creatures laid the foundations which underlie London and -Paris. They built the rocky barriers which gave to England the name -Albion, derived from the white cliffs along her shore. It is a suggestive -crumb of comfort for little folk, that the great tasks in the building of -our earth have been performed by the smallest creatures. - -The wide distribution of limestone is shown from the fact that it is -found to be an ingredient in almost all waters. It is readily dissolved, -as is seen in the numerous caves which are found in limestone regions. - -When limestone is heated, the carbonic anhydride[5] is expelled, leaving -quicklime. All are familiar with the manifold uses of this material. -United with sand, it forms a silicate of lime, called mortar, which -becomes harder with age. In the old stone mill[6] at Newport, R. I., -which is of unknown antiquity, the mortar in some places actually -protrudes beyond the stones, showing it to be more durable than the rock -itself. The catacombs of Rome were excavated in a very soft kind of -limestone, called calcareous tufa. - -Sulphate of lime, also known as gypsum and plaster of Paris, is widely -distributed. One beautiful variety is called satin spar, and another -alabaster. - -Great quantities of sulphate of lime are quarried for use in the arts and -for agricultural purposes. Dr. Franklin was one of the first to discover -its value in connection with crops, and is said to have sown it with -grain on a side hill, so that when the wheat sprang up, observers were -surprised to see written in gigantic green letters, “Effects of Gypsum!” -I suspect he got the hint from Dr. Beattie, who sowed seeds so that their -flowers formed the name of his son, to prove to the boy the existence of -a God, from evidences of design in nature. - - -ALUMINA—Al₂O₃. - -This material is found both alone and in combination with silica. It -forms an important ingredient in alum. Crystallized, it furnishes some -of our most rare and beautiful gems, the color of which depends upon the -metal combined with them. - -The ruby is red, the emerald green, the topaz yellow, the sapphire blue. - -Slate rocks consist largely of this material, and clay is a compound -of alumina with siliceous anhydride. Among the first earthy substances -utilized by man was clay. We find remains of pottery even as far back -as the stone age[7]. The ingenuity of man seems to have been displayed -constantly and successfully in the ceramic[8] art, the art of making -pottery. Note the accounts given by Prescott, in his “Conquest of Peru -and Mexico,” and the Cesnola collection of Cypriote remains[9] exhibited -in the Metropolitan Museum in New York City. - -History is repeating itself by renewing the ancient enthusiasm for -decoration of china and earthen ware. Bricks made from clay are found to -rival granite in durability, and surpass it in resistance to heat, as was -proven in the great fires of Boston and Chicago. It will be observed from -the symbol of alumina that it is largely composed of the metal aluminum. -If this could be readily liberated from the oxygen with which it is -combined, the world would be immensely enriched. - -Every clay bank or clayey soil contains it in great quantities. Next -to oxygen and silicon, it is the most abundant element in the earth. -Note its valuable properties. It is but two and one-half times heavier -than water, as bright and non-oxidizable as silver, malleable, ductile, -tenacious, and can be welded and cast. Who will lay the world under -obligation by doing with alumina what has been done with iron ores, -cheaply liberate the oxygen? - -[Illustration: TESTING FOR IRON WITH A BORAX BEAD.—THE COMPOUNDS OF IRON -WITH BORAX GIVE A BOTTLE GREEN COLOR.] - -In this brief enumeration of earth materials, we have intentionally -omitted the forms of carbon. They constitute no insignificant portion -of the earth’s crust, but belong to the class of organic substances. We -introduce, however, an illustration showing one of the shapes in which -is cut the diamond—that most costly of all forms of matter,—crystallized -carbon. - - -THE COMMON METALS. - -First in importance is iron. The fact already mentioned that its oxide is -the most common coloring matter in the mineral world will also indicate -its wide dissemination. - -Trap rock, gneiss, even granite, sands, clays and other rocks all borrow -tints from this source. Iron is never found native except in meteors. -It exists most abundantly in the form of three ores, the composition of -which is as follows: - -Black or magnetic oxide (Fe₃O₄), red oxide (Fe₂O₃), hydrated sesquioxide -(Fe₂O₃3H₂O). From all of these the oxygen is removed in a blast furnace, -by the use of some form of carbon. As thus prepared, it is called -cast-iron. Two other varieties are employed in the arts, wrought iron and -steel. The last differs from the first in having less carbon, and from -the second in having more. The general properties of this material are -too well known to require description here. A single property of this -substance alone has marvelously affected the commerce of the world; that -is, the power first discovered in magnetic iron ore, of attracting iron, -and pointing northward. The first compass, it is said, consisted of a -piece of this metal placed on a cork floating on water. - -Copper seems to have been one of the few metals known to barbarous -peoples. It is found pure, and in combination. Specimens obtained from -the Lake Superior region, in mines worked by the mound builders,[10] have -led some to believe that they possessed the art of hardening copper. -Malachite is a carbonate of copper, of a beautiful mottled green color, -and is made into elegant ornaments. Some magnificent specimens were in -the Russian exhibit at the Philadelphia Exposition. It is found in great -perfection in the Ural mountains. - -Tin is obtained from its binoxide (SnO₂). It was known to the ancients. -Some historians claim that the Phœnicians procured it long before the -time of Christ, from the mines of Cornwall, England. Until recently -our country has seemed to be destitute of this valuable metal. Reports -now indicate that Dakota is destined to supply this deficiency. It is -a handsome metal, but little affected by oxygen, and capable of being -rolled into thin sheets. - -Zinc is found in two different ores: red oxide (ZnO) and zinc blende -(ZnS), from which it can be separated by smelting, in much the same -manner as we obtain iron. - -Lead constitutes the fifth of the common metals which are preëminently -useful. It is found in the sulphide of lead (PbS), the sulphide being -expelled by roasting the ore. It forms numerous compounds, some of which -are of great value. For example, lead carbonate (PbCO₃), the white lead -which furnishes the most valuable ingredient of all paints. - - -NOBLE METALS. - -These are so called because they retain their brilliancy and are not -easily affected by other substances. Three of them are specially -important: gold, silver and platinum. Gold is mentioned in the second -chapter of Genesis: “and the gold of that land is good.” Although -constituting an inconsiderable part of the earth, it is much more widely -distributed than many suppose, but often exists in such small quantities -that its production is not profitable. - -Australia and California are the gold lands. It is found principally in -three situations: in sands which have been washed from the mountains, -in little pockets in the rocks, and in veins of quartz. From the first -it is separated by simply washing away the lighter materials, from the -last situation it is procured by quarrying the rock, crushing it with -stamping machines, then washing with water to remove the pulverized -quartz, and gathering up the powdered gold with quicksilver. The mercury -is removed by vaporizing. Gold is nineteen times heavier than water, -extremely ductile, and the most malleable of all substances. Silver is -abundant in the mountains of the west. It is usually found in the form -of black sulphide (Ag₂S) or horn-silver (AgCl). When unpolished it is -perfectly white, and is called dead or frosted silver. All are familiar -with the properties of this attractive metal. Just now its producers in -Colorado seem to fear its displacement from its important position in the -coinage of the country. In nitrate of silver (AgNO₃) we have a material -that perpetuates the faces of our friends, many a goodly landscape, and -marvelous picture. - -[Illustration: MAGNET GATHERING IRON FILINGS.—A MAGNET WILL ALSO ATTRACT -NICKEL FILINGS.] - -Platinum stands at the extreme limit of the elementary world in point of -weight, being twenty-one and fifty-three hundredths times heavier than -water. Russia has almost a monopoly of the production of this metal. It -is about the value of gold, and to the chemist is of immense importance, -on account of its high point of fusibility, which is over 4,000°. It is -so ductile that it can be drawn out into wire so fine as to be invisible -to the naked eye. This microscopic wire is used for centering the field -of view in the finest telescopes. - - -EARTH’S CRUST AND CENTER. - -Our earth is called “terra firma;” it is regarded as the very embodiment -of stability, but every waving outline, every hill and mountain peak, -not less than the rumbling of the earthquake, and the bursting forth of -volcanic fires, indicate that it has been, and may again be, the scene -of mighty disturbances. Indeed, upon reflection, one wonders that we can -live on it at all. The temperature of the earth increases one degree for -every fifty feet as we approach the center. At this rate, at the depth -of fifty miles the heat would be sufficient, according to Humboldt,[11] -to melt the hardest rocks. Fifty miles is one one-hundred and sixtieth -of the earth’s diameter. It thus appears that if we should have a globe -three feet in diameter full of molten liquid, surrounded by a covering -of infusible material _one eighth of an inch_ in thickness, that film of -solid matter would represent the earth’s crust. Think of it! - -[Illustration: A “LEAD TREE.” - -_Ex._—Place in a glass a dilute solution of acetate of lead; suspend in -it a strip of zinc. Some of the lead will be precipitated in crystals -upon the zinc. This is caused by the zinc taking a portion of the acetic -acid, and thus forming a new compound called zinc acetate, thereby -liberating some of the lead.] - -Besides, that awful, fiery sea within is subject to tides, currents and -convulsions that constantly threaten to disrupt and destroy this crust. -It is supposed that masses of water percolate through cracks and fissures -until they reach the internal fires and are suddenly converted into -steam at an enormously high temperature, which gives it such tremendous -expansive force as to shake the globe itself. This action, combined -with the violent explosion of gases, creates the sublime and dreadful -phenomena of - - -EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES. - -The destruction of Lisbon and many other cities is matter of history. But -last year a charming city in the Mediterranean was destroyed in a few -seconds, and the stricken inhabitants of Spain are still trembling with -horror at the recent shocks that have desolated their fair country. - -Man looks in vain elsewhere for such exhibitions of the power of chemical -forces as are here displayed. - -Lord Lytton[12] gives a most impressive description of an eruption of -Mount Vesuvius, in “The Last Days of Pompeii:” - -“In proportion as the blackness gathered, did the lightnings around -Vesuvius increase in their vivid and scorching glare. Nor was their -horrible beauty confined to the usual hues of fire; no rainbow ever -rivaled their varying and prodigal dyes. Now brightly blue as the most -azure depth of a southern sky, now of a livid and snake-like green, -darting restlessly to and fro as the folds of an enormous serpent; now of -a lurid and intolerable crimson, gushing forth through the columns of -smoke, far and wide, and lighting up the whole city from arch to arch; -then suddenly dying into sickly paleness, like the ghosts of their own -life! - -“In the pauses of the showers you heard the rumblings of the earth -beneath, and the groaning waves of the tortured sea; or, lower still, and -audible but to the watch of intensest fear, the grinding, hissing murmur -of the escaping gases through the chasms of the distant mountain. - -“Sometimes the cloud seemed to break from its solid mass, and, by the -lightning to assume quaint and vast mimicries of human or of monster -shapes, striding across the gloom, hurtling one upon the other, and -vanishing swiftly into the turbulent abyss of shade; so that, to the eyes -and fancies of the affrighted wanderers, the unsubstantial vapors were as -the bodily forms of gigantic foes—the agents of terror and death.” - -[Illustration: TESTING FOR GOLD WITH PURPLE OF CASSIUS. - -_Ex._—When gold is placed in a solution of Stannon’s chloride and ferric -chloride, a precipitate called Purple Cassius appears. Sometimes the -color varies to brown or blue.] - -It is claimed that there are about three hundred extinct volcanoes, -and many facts indicate that the convulsions in the earth’s crust are -much less frequent than formerly, yet one can easily conceive of its -destruction by internal forces, when, as the poet has said, - - “The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces, - The solemn temples, _the great globe itself_, - Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, - And like the baseless fabric of a vision, - Leave not a wreck behind.” - -Revelation clearly announces the destruction of the earth: “In the which -the heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall -melt with fervent heat; the earth also and the works that are therein -shall be burned up.” - - - - -THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES. - - -MENTAL SCIENCE - -Is the mind’s knowledge of itself, of its faculties, and states. -_Psychology_ is now generally accepted as the most appropriate term to -indicate that knowledge, and the studies that lead to its attainment. The -_psyche_, as used by those ignorant of man’s higher nature, means the -vital principle supposed to animate all living bodies, whether of men or -the lower animals. It is, with them, the same as _life_, and is regarded -as a result of the organizations they see, and not their cause. Others -more consistently hold that, even in the lowest sense, vital forces -precede, secure, and determine the organisms they animate; and that in -the case of man there is a nobler endowment, a superadded, distinct, -self-conscious, personal intelligence. “There is a spirit in man, and the -inspiration of the Almighty giveth him understanding.” This _psyche_, or -living soul, is a distinct, spiritual existence, however closely, for a -time, allied with matter, and acting through bodily organs. It is capable -of a separate existence, and while in the body, presents for our study -phenomena peculiarly its own. Intellectual processes may be more subtle, -and their analysis more difficult, than that of things external, because -in the attempt the mind is, at once, subject and object, the observer and -the observed. And, moreover, when greatly excited, it does not submit to -immediate and direct investigation, as the effort at once arrests the -excited feeling, and lowers the temperature, so that the state can be -analyzed only as it is remembered. But, difficult of attainment as it is, -the science that discusses the mind, proposing to show all that is known -or may be learned respecting it, certainly challenges the interested -attention of all who desire to know themselves. Whatever may be thought -of the substance, or immediate origin of the active, thinking soul, -consciousness affirms its presence, and its power to know and feel. When -in a calm, thoughtful state, the phenomena are as real and as manifest -as anything in physics or material things that are open to scientific -investigation. By thorough introspection, the inquirer finds _himself_ -an invisible person, quite distinct from what is merely corporeal in -his belongings, and of which he at once says: It is I; a person or -being that he not only distinguishes from all others, but also from his -own mental acts and states that are not himself. It needs no argument -to prove that the physical frame, made of such material substances as -gases, salts, earths, and metals, the particles of which are constantly -changing, is not the man. It is not in the highest, truest sense, the -body. Every particle of that frame may pass away while the body still -remains. The real body is that which retains its organic sameness, amidst -the incessant change of its materials. It is not the aggregation of gross -substances, visible and tangible, but rather their connection and the -life that unites them, that constitute a human body. We need not hesitate -to say this life is the gift of God to man, made in his own image, and -in his purpose an endowment far higher than mere animal life. When it is -withdrawn, the organic structure built up as its earthly habitation is a -ruin, and its material elements are scattered, the dust returning to dust -again. Others may inquire for the “origin of souls,” asking questions -over which many have wearied themselves in vain, we here only confess our -faith that the sovereign Lord, “God of the spirits of all flesh,” has the -relation of Fatherhood to his human children. - -A perfect mental science would require first, the normal action of -the intellectual faculties to give phenomena, and then the accurate -observation, and orderly arrangement of the phenomena given. To have a -starting place there must be the feeling that we are, and can distinguish -between ourselves and the mental acts of which we are capable. This -consciousness is the root of all our soul science, and without it there -could be no fruitful study of the human intellect. It is more than mere -feeling, as it implies that activity of mind by which a man distinguishes -between his body and soul, the senses and their possessor. It is the -self-conscious act of knowing what is within; and when the phenomena -or state is presented, the knowledge is intuitive or immediate. No -reasoning, or other mental process, is required. The soul confronts -itself and its acts face to face, and knows them as they are. The -endowment is natural and universal. Though a child at first may show no -sign of the possession, it has the capacity, and if normally developed, -soon claims the right to be itself and not another. Like other human -powers, this also is capable of culture, and may be raised to a state -of higher activity and clearer discernment. This improved reflective -consciousness brings to view the more occult phenomena within, comparing -and classifying things, that it may have a clearer, more discriminating -knowledge of the facts considered. - -Interrogating this witness, each finds in himself a power to think and -reason. That is, an _intellectual faculty_, by the exercise of which -there is intelligence, _memory_ to retain or recall things once known, -and _imagination_, that creates and represents things that are not, as -though they were. These are distinct, though inseparable, faculties or -powers. _Thinking_ is necessary to exact or well defined knowledge, and -until our ready impressions and conceptions are penetrated with thought, -and we discern their nature, grounds, and connections, we have no -science. Information may be received, facts committed to the memory, but -if the treasures are jumbled together, and little thought given to either -their analysis or orderly arrangement, they can be of but little value to -their possessor. In its perceptions and sensations the mind is actively -receptive; and by thought this normal activity is intensified. One who -desires a correct knowledge of his own mind must connect his conceptions -and impressions in some orderly manner, and think much. If there is an -aversion to this, or hindrances arise from the almost incessant demands -of business or society, and a tendency to mental dissipation is noticed, -we may antidote the evil by mostly avoiding the popular light literature, -and choosing, as the companions of our few leisure hours, standard works, -in which are treasured the best thoughts of the world’s great thinkers. -The intelligent study of the outer world, of nature, having the divine -impress on every feature, will also do much to cure the weakness that -many are ready to confess, to themselves at least. Nature does not -think—has not reason, as man has, but the phenomena presented are full of -reasons, the embodiments of God’s thoughts, that are above ours, high as -the heavens are above the earth. - -The _will_ is the controlling motive power, and decides the question of -character. A voluntary agent is responsible for his acts. Where there is -conscious freedom, not only to _act_ as he wills, but to _will_ obedience -to the dictates of conscience, character is possible. The freedom spoken -of, and without which there can be no obligation or responsibility, is, -of course, _human_ freedom. The will power is man’s, not that of the -brute. The rational, voluntary agent, having conscience, moral ideas, -sensibilities, and emotions, is, under law, blame- or praiseworthy, and -personally responsible for what he is and does. His involuntary acts, if -such are committed, are without moral character. There are some things -that are not objects of his choice. When different ways of living are -presented, he can freely choose which shall be his. But it is not given -him to choose whether he himself shall have a moral character. That is -inevitable; and his only option in the matter is as to whether it shall -be good or bad. - - -LOGIC. - -When the mind is employed in discriminating, arranging, judging, and -reasoning, these several acts are all of a class, and are called rational -or logical processes. Their importance can hardly be overestimated, as -thus the reasoner gets assured possession of judgments or beliefs that -are more or less general, and derives from them those that are particular -and applicable in any exigency; or by the inductive method, from the -particular facts within his knowledge, arrives at general propositions, -and securely rests in them as true. In many, perhaps in most cases, -both processes, the deductive and inductive, are used or implied. We -understand phenomena or effects by their causes, and infer causes from -their effects, explain the present by what has been, and anticipate the -future by interpreting the past. We reason from what is seen to the -unseen, from the facts of nature to nature’s laws. - -Systems of logic, if judiciously arranged, are of much value, and should -be studied as guides and helps in our efforts to know the certainty -of things. Method in reasoning is of much importance. But while -comparatively few understand the rules, or adopt the exact technical -terms used by scientific logicians, others, using methods and terms of -their own, think vigorously, and reason well. The powers employed by -the most thoroughly trained scholar and by the unlettered man may be -equal, nor are their methods half so different as some suppose. Though -the latter forms no expanded syllogisms,[1] says nothing of “subject,” -“predicate,” or “copula,” he as really has his premises, reasons from -what he knows, and in many cases reaches his conclusions with about the -same feeling of certainty. The knowledge he gains does not differ from -that of those who are guided in their reasonings by the best rules that -observation and experience suggest. Some of those, who in this matter of -logic are a law unto themselves, not only reason well, but often very -rapidly. Judgment is given so speedily on the presentation of the case -that it seems intuitive. There is but a step from the premises of an -argument, securely laid in what is conceded in the statement, or what -they already know, to the conclusion that is legitimate, and they take it -at once. Now, if this is true, and common sense reasonings often seem so -easy, while those conducted by men of much science are often difficult -and tedious, it may be asked what advantage, then, is there in the -logic of the schools? A sufficient answer is found in the fact that the -thoroughly trained logician can solve problems the other never attempts. -In his processes the properties and relations observed are less obvious -or more complicated than anything presented to the other. To apprehend -them clearly, closer attention must be given than most men, without -such training, ever give or can give. And then, the conclusions of the -ready, rapid, though untrained, reasoner who investigates only common -subjects, are really less reliable, because more likely to be founded -on too superficial observations. The man of more science, and yet slower -progress, is expected to handle the more difficult problems, and subject -all their elements to a sharper scrutiny. - - -LANGUAGE - -Is intimately connected with thought, not only as its expression, but -as an auxiliary. Thoughts always become clearer and more firmly fixed -in the mind by being expressed. Though words are not thoughts, and, -carelessly uttered, may be quite meaningless, thoughts not only seek -to embody, or clothe themselves in language, but our best thinking is -done in the use of words, uttered or unexpressed. Though there may be no -sound for the ear nor symbol for the eye, the word inly spoken serves -to fix the otherwise transient thought so that it can be afterward -recalled, and perhaps uttered, to stimulate the thinking of others. Hence -the importance of the study of language, of words and their syntax, -as employed to express mental processes. Grammar is important as an -intellectual science. - - -ÆSTHETICS. - -The science of the beautiful is an important and delightful branch of -study; the knowledge gained being mostly through immediate perceptions -and sensible impressions. Beauty, wherever discovered, appeals to the -sensibilities, and raises pleasant emotions. As a means of culture it -elevates and refines. Communings with nature in her lovelier moods -subdue asperities, and inspire gentle, kindly dispositions, while -the beautiful creations of architecture, statuary, and painting, of -poetry and music, fill the souls of discerning, susceptible persons -with indescribable pleasure. But though such emotions are frequently -excited, and seem familiar, they are of all our mental phenomena least -understood, and most difficult to analyze. Some of our most common -experiences are, on examination, found the most inexplicable. All, in a -general way, know that beauty of form, proportion and color, wherever -seen, excites pleasurable emotions. But our knowledge of sensations -and emotions is generally, though direct and immediate, imperfect, and -can become thorough only when the first impression is retained, and -the higher faculties employed in studying its character and its cause. -Dr. Porter’s[2] chapters on “Sense Perceptions” are, on the whole, -satisfactory, and will help advance this branch of knowledge toward the -dignity of a science. They give an analysis of beauty in objects that -address the senses, and also of the emotions it awakens. Thoughtful -students confess their need of more help. The science has its charms, -but is still in its adolescence. Some things elementary are yet wanting, -or known only by the names given them. Men talk of the “line of beauty” -in architecture and sculpture, but do not yet know just what it is, or -by what peculiarities it works on the sympathies of the beholder. We -feel the exquisite pleasure but do not know just wherein the charms -of the music that most delights us, consist, nor how it awakens the -feeling it does. We can not tell just what it is in the poem we admire -that gives its rhythm, figures of speech and imagery such enchanting -power. The literature on the subject is extensive. We have, as all who -read Ruskin’s[3] works know, a rich treasure of astute observations, -with keen, incisive criticisms, but yet no thorough analysis of all the -materials necessary to complete the science of Æsthetics. - - -MORAL SCIENCE, OR ETHICS. - -The science of duty, often called _moral_ as relating to customs or -habits of thought and action, discusses human obligations, or inquires -what responsible voluntary agents ought to do, and why. Man has a moral -nature; is so constituted, and placed in such relations that he feels -certain things to be right for him, and others wrong; he says: I ought -to do this, and that I ought not. These words, or their equivalents, -expressive of obligation, can be traced in all languages of which we -have any knowledge, and they voice the common sentiment of the race. -Men differ widely in their intelligence, and consequently in their -ability to discriminate with respect to acts or states that are purely -intellectual. Their metaphysics may be cloudy and confused, so that their -judgments on such matters will have neither agreement nor authority. But -the moral sense discovers moral qualities more clearly. Its decisions are -prompt, and their authority is acknowledged. Speculative questions on -the subject are not all answered with the same agreement. If it is asked -_why_ a thing is right, different persons may answer differently. One -says because it is useful; another because it is commanded by a higher -authority; and another because it accords with the fitness of things. -These are questions for the intellect and not for the moral sense. Its -province is simply to decide whether the act or state is right or not, -and there it stops. Whether the basis of the rectitude approved is in -some quality of the act itself, in an antecedent, or a consequent, may -be properly asked, and reasons assigned for the answers given. But such -questions are speculative, and the answers do not have, even when the -best are given, the force of a moral conviction. In saying a thing is -right because it is right, we affirm our conviction of the fact, but -tacitly confess we may not know all the reasons why. How the fact is -known is sufficiently explained by a reference to consciousness. We -are so constituted that when moral qualities, in ourselves or others, -are fairly presented and understood, there arise feelings of approval -or condemnation, corresponding to that which excites them. Of such -convictions and emotions we are at once conscious, and can have no more -certain knowledge of anything than of what is thus felt. Connecting them -with their exciting cause, it, too, is known, not by any outward or -sense perception, yet not less certainly by an inward moral sense, whose -decisions are promptly given, and with authority. There are frequent -occasions for men to distinguish between what is right and what is -merely lawful. A villain, destitute of moral rectitude, who for his own -pleasure, or gain, robs society of its brightest jewels, spreading ruin -and desolation through the community, may violate no statute, and escape -legal condemnation; but, though having no fear of the law or of the -courts, he is not less certainly a guilty man. - -Conscience, as a faculty of the soul, differs but little from -consciousness. Both words are from the same root, and neither, in its -primary, etymological meaning, implies anything as to moral character. -Consciousness is self-knowledge, the mind’s recognition of its own state -as it is; and that a man has a conscience, or capacity for passing moral -judgment on himself, is a condition that makes character of any kind -possible. Each word, however, has now an additional meaning, sanctioned -by general usage. The former generally implies emotions of approval or -disapproval, and the latter that there is in the mind a standard of -action, and a clear discrimination between right and wrong, with an -immediate feeling of responsibility, or obligatory emotions. - -Though thus richly endowed with intellect, sensibilities, and will, by -nature capable of the highest mental activities, the structure of the -soul would be strangely incomplete if the religious element were wanting. -But it is not wanting. Man is a religious animal, and ever prone to -worship. He has capacities that are not filled, longings unsatisfied, -and must go out of himself for help and rest. Of all the sciences that -concern him most, no other is half so important as the science of God, an -infinite, all-wise, ever-present, personal God; our Creator, Redeemer, -Benefactor. This science is transcendent, and confirmed by indubitable -evidence. It satisfies and saves. “This is eternal life, to know the only -true God, and Jesus Christ, whom he hath sent.” - - -SOCIAL SCIENCE - -Investigates, in an orderly, scientific manner, the principles of -association, and whatever relates to the interests and improvement of -men in communities. It has its basis in psychology, as that science of -the soul reveals most clearly the elements of a _social_ nature. By -instinctive longings for sympathy and fellowship, men are drawn together, -and readily consent to the restraints of society, whose earlier tacit -agreements and maxims are at length formulated into rules and laws for -their better government. - -Civil governments, incomplete at first, and encountering many hindrances, -often progress but slowly, and sometimes even recede from vantage -ground that has been gained. Some known in history have made but little -advancement during the nineteenth century, and still fail to adjust their -political machinery to the wants and demands of the people. They will -hardly survive much longer without some promise of better progress in -the future. All really good governments are not equally good, and that -is regarded best which secures the greatest liberty to the individual -citizen, consistent with the rights of others and the public security. -That end, when honestly proposed, may be, to some extent, secured under -very different charters or constitutions, and very much depends on the -wisdom of the administration. When the governing power is in the hands -of one man, and he irresponsible for his manner of exercising it, it -is called an _autocracy_, or _despotism_. When vested in one person, -whose executive functions are exercised by ministers responsible to a -legislative assembly or parliament, it is a _constitutional monarchy_. -If the nobility, or a few principal men govern by a right, in some way -claimed, and conceded to them, it is an _oligarchy_, or an _aristocracy_. -If the power is in the hands of the people themselves, or their immediate -representatives, as in the United States, it is a _democracy_, or -_republic_. - -Social science embraces a wide range of subjects of more than ordinary -importance. It discusses both principles and facts, the principles that -underlie all social institutions, and the practical, economic regulations -that are wisely adopted in well ordered, prosperous communities. If -the institutions are established, its province is to examine theories, -collect, arrange, and generalize facts, that may have some bearing on -any proposed corrective and reformatory measures. It scrutinizes public -crimes, penal codes, judicial decisions, and prison discipline, with -whatever else pertains to social life. It shows the relation of men to -men, of the ruler to the governed, of the employer to his employes, -of the rich to the poor, the fortunate to the unfortunate, and by its -expositions instructs men how to act in their various relations. If the -science were much better understood, the dangerous classes would be less -dangerous; and the troublesome problems of pauperism, the liquor traffic, -Mormonism, and the social evil, would be less appalling to average -legislators and judges. - -The experience of ages shows that the ameliorating, helpful agencies -and influences that lift communities up to higher levels, often operate -silently as the leaven, till the whole lump is leavened. In many tribes -the advance from savagery and the usurpation by irresponsible leaders, -of absolute power toward complete civil liberty and personal rights, -has been slow. The change has come by means almost imperceptible, or by -struggles that seemed at the time fruitless. The improved condition of -society does not bring entire security, or freedom from assault. The -yoke once taken from the neck, and the heavy burdens from the shoulders, -new ideas of property, justice, and personal rights are developed. The -spirit of enterprise is awakened, because each finds himself in the -position of affluence and influence, to which his talents, industry -and self-denial entitle him. Men become competitors, and inequalities -of condition are inevitable. Incompetence, idleness, and extravagance -bring want and misery. Wealth and poverty exist side by side, the rich -growing richer, and the poor poorer. Class distinctions become odious. -Capital and labor, that should be allies, are often in conflict, to the -great injury of both. There may be occasion for complaint against those -“who oppress the hireling in his wages,” and “grind the faces of the -poor.” But many are envious without cause, and suffer only the penalty -of their idleness and extravagance, become enemies of the community, and -are deaf to remonstrance if they see, or think they see, any way of -relieving themselves at the expense of those who have acted more wisely, -and possess large estates. Here come in the functions of government, -that is of society, with its better notions of right and justice, and -power to enforce them. True “social science,” founded on the experience -of ages, recognizes the necessity of government, the obligations of the -citizen, and the right of all to the property they have lawfully and -honestly acquired. It demonstrates that real progress is in the way -of a safe conservatism, while it admits the possibility of change and -improvement, fully justifying the work of the reformer where reformation -is needed. If existing institutions are inadequate because of some -radical defect, have outlasted their usefulness, or become oppressive, -revolution may be demanded. But any government, though unjust and -despotic, is better than anarchy, and should be repudiated only when it -is, under all the circumstances, possible to establish a better. When -legitimate authority is resisted in the spirit of lawlessness or efforts -at revolution prompted by an evil ambition, the actors are guilty. -There have been many attempts, mostly abortive, to solve the problem -of government, and reconstruct the social fabric. Some of them by good -men, whose schemes were simply theoretical and impractical; others by -malcontents and destructionists who mistake license for liberty. Plato, -a man of probity and justice, but lacking the wisdom of the statesman, -prepared a constitution for a model republic, which had too many defects -for adoption; a republic with advantages for a select class, but slavery -for the masses doomed to manual labor, which was made despicable. More -wrote his “Utopia,”[4] regarded by some as a kind of program for a -needed social reform. It had little influence with his countrymen, most -of whom ranked it with works of the imagination, where it belonged, -whether so intended or not. Campanella,[5] a radical communist of Stilo, -in Calabria, wrote his Utopia, called “The City of the Sun,” a sensual -paradise, in which there was to be a community of goods and of wives. -For more than a century socialistic and communistic publications were -numerous; many of them denouncing property as a sin, and advocating -the greatest license in the intercourse of the sexes. Rousseau, in his -discourse on the “Origin and Grounds of Inequality Amongst Men,” speaks -with approval of “a state of nature,” something like that among our -American Indians before they had any knowledge of civilization. He seems -to have supposed there was no inequality, no vice, no misery, among -untutored savages, and advised those who could, to return to a state of -nature. - -The skeptical Owen,[6] and the philosophical Fourier,[7] more practical -than others, attempted to establish communities as models or examples of -what could be accomplished on their theory, but failure attended their -enterprises, or the communities were saved from utter disintegration by -the tacit admission of principles that were once disavowed. - -Modern socialism, akin to communism, and in all its tendencies subversive -of good government, declaims over the poverty and misery of the unhappy -masses, laments their insufficient shelter, food, and clothing, is -sentimental on the subject of labor and wages, and seeks to rouse the -abject sufferers to a sense of their sad condition. Its pictures of -suffering are in many cases not overdrawn, and the greatest efforts can -hardly exaggerate the facts. But socialism is not “social science.” -It is utterly and perversely unscientific; it discusses effects, -carefully leaving causes out of view; and would reform communities by -corrupting and debasing individuals. With a vague notion that every man -has a natural right to whatever he needs, it allows that the problem -of equalization may be solved by violence, and thus all brought to a -common level. The crimes against society, which have lately appalled us, -are doubtless the result of the pernicious principles and teaching of -“socialistic reformers.” But a reaction is sure to come, and the better -instincts of the race will yet destroy the corrupt tree whose fruit is -evil. - - - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -SELECTED BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - -[_April 5._] - - Ecclesiastics 7:29: “Lo, this only have I found, that God hath - made man upright; but they have sought out many inventions.” - -If we should stand amid the uncovered treasures which mark the site of -ancient Nineveh or Babylon we would doubtless find in the objects, as -they are this moment, very much to engage our most interested attention. -We would regard with wonder and pleasure the specimens of beautiful -architecture, the evidences of human skill and industry which modern -exploration has disclosed to view. And yet, full of interest as such an -occupation would be, we could not prevent our minds from engaging in -another. Without any conscious exercise of will, our thought would revert -to the day when these fallen structures stood in all their magnificence; -when these halls, now filled with the sand of the desert, echoed to the -strains of music and to the voices of the noblest and greatest of the -land; when through these arches, now crumbling, armies marched gaily to -battle, or returned in triumph, bearing the spoils of conquest. We would -not be insensible to the value of the columns and capitals, the statuary -and tablets before our eyes, and yet the very grandeur of these ruins -would evoke the genius who would lead our thought by an irresistible -constraint to look upon the prior vision of those cities in the day of -their pristine perfection. - -My friends, we do stand amid ruins. We walk day after day amid shattered -greatness, in comparison with which the prized relics of Nineveh and -Babylon, of Thebes, and Luxor,[1] and Troy, sink into insignificance. -Far be it from me to underestimate the work of man, as we see him and -know him to-day, or as we read of him in the records of the past. I am -aware of what he is, and of what he has done. I am not insensible to his -work, and yet I declare that man, great as he is—and he is great—is in -certain respects not as great as he was. I mean that he is not what the -progenitor of the race was. And viewed in comparison with that primitive -condition—that condition at creation—man to-day, considered physically, -intellectually, morally and spiritually, is a conspicuous instance of -fallen grandeur—not worthless and valueless—far from that; but his -perfection has departed; he is vastly inferior to what his great original -was. Realizing this, we can not fail to revert in thought to that early -day, and seek to see what the greatness was from which we have fallen. - -Before, however, we attempt to look upon that picture, it will be -necessary to establish and defend the theory of man’s condition and -history upon this earth, with which it is inseparably connected. - -A view of human history, which has been strongly advocated of late, -is that our race began physically, intellectually, and morally at the -lowest possible point. Some even maintain that the first men and women -were but the latest and highest developments of certain species of -brutes. But whether this phase of the theory of evolution be included -in it or not, the essential idea of the view to which we refer is that -the progenitors of our race were the lowest kind of savages, in their -powers and capacities, their tastes and pursuits scarcely distinguishable -from the brutes around them, and that from this low beginning men have -gradually come to the height of attainment and improvement which they -occupy to-day. If this theory be true, the statement which we have made, -and which we proposed to consider, is false. If such were the origin -of our race, if the first men and women were in all the parts of their -nature but a shade removed above the brutes of the forest and the field, -of course we of to-day are in no respect their inferiors—of course ours -is not, as has been declared, a fallen race. We maintain, however, that -the theory which makes our race begin in a condition of barbarism and -imbecility is untrue. I know that it is supported by eminent names; I -know, too, that it has been pressed upon public attention with much noisy -and confident assertion; I know all this, and yet I declare that the -theory is unproven; more, I declare that it is untrue. - -Let us look at a few considerations which may shed the light of truth -upon this matter of the primitive condition of mankind, and by this I -mean the condition of those who succeeded Adam himself on the stage of -the world’s history: - -1. We all know how long, in families which have lost position or power, -the memory of former greatness is cherished. You will find in your -charitable institutions, in the depths of poverty, and, perhaps, of -wickedness, those who will tell you by the hour of the fortunes of -their house in remote days, of the distinction which some ancestor, far -removed, conferred upon the name. Such memories are preserved with care, -and transmitted from generation to generation, and they become more and -more precious as the descendants themselves have less and less honor of -their own. The same principle operates with nations and with the great -tribes of men, particularly when they have themselves sunk so low that -they are conscious of no ground of glorying in themselves. Now it is an -instructive fact that the traditions of all nations have more or less -reference to a golden age, from which men have fallen. This is true in -India, in China, in Egypt, among our own Indians, among the inhabitants -of Central and South America—wherever traditional knowledge is preserved. -It is a vague memory—nevertheless a memory cherished by the race, handed -down through the ages, not of an era when humanized monkeys rejoiced -in their promotion, but of a golden age, when men as gods dwelt upon -the earth. The only explanation of such a wide-spread tradition is that -there must have been a fact corresponding to it; there must have been a -substance to cast this shadow over so many generations. Those who hold -that mankind began at the lowest point, can not satisfactorily account -for this tradition of the race. - -2. Not only tradition, but history sustains our position. If the true -explanation of man’s condition to-day, in the civilized countries, is -that he has gradually raised himself from a state of absolute barbarism, -we certainly ought to have in the records of authentic history the -account of at least one nation, which, as matter of fact, before the eyes -of the world, has done the same thing. But no such instance can be found, -not one of a people, entirely barbarous, lifting themselves unaided, -to the higher plane of even a comparative civilization. Archbishop -Whately[2] says: “We have no reason to believe that any community ever -did or ever can, emerge, unassisted by external helps, from a state of -barbarism unto anything that can be called civilization.” And we may -follow the course of civilization from our own land back to western -Europe, from western Europe to Italy, from Italy to Greece, from Greece -to Egypt and the farther East, and still, as far as history takes us we -see the barren portions of the earth continuing to be barren—continuing -to bear only the wild fruits of barbarism, until the stream of knowledge, -and culture, and civilization, is led to it from some other place. -And that stream may be followed all the way back to the beginning of -authentic secular history, and in no one instance does the dry ground -yield fruit and flower of itself. We maintain that the vivifying stream -began to flow because there was in the beginning, in the East, a fountain -filled by God himself. Or, leaving the language of allegory, we assert -that if our race was utterly barbarous at the beginning, it never would -have risen from its barbarism, and authentic history can not adduce a -single instance of a nation rising unaided from barbarism to overthrow -this position. Mankind, therefore, did not begin at the lowest point, or, -judged by all the analogy of history, it would be there still. - -3. Again, the records, outside of the Bible, which have come down to us -from early times, are few and imperfect, but the oldest of those which do -remain indicate the existence of nations in a high state of civilization -in the earliest periods of human history. In Egypt, China, Chaldea, these -earliest records, whether monumental or written, bear evidence, not of -universal barbarism in the previous ages, but of powerful and enlightened -nationalities. Such a state of things is inconsistent with the theory -which makes the history of our race a gradual development from a brutal -and degraded beginning. - -4. Still further, the science of paleontology comes forward to prove -the same thing. There have been found in Belgium and in France, some -human skulls and skeletons, unquestionably of very great antiquity. -Concerning them one of the most competent of human judges, Principal -Dawson, of McGill University, Canada, says: “These skulls are probably -the oldest known in the world.” But what sort of men do they indicate -as living at that remote day? “They all represent,” he says, “a race of -grand, physical development, and of cranial capacity equal to that of the -average modern European.” Further he says: “They indicate also that man’s -earlier state was the best, that he had been a high and noble creature -before he became a savage. It is not conceivable that their great -development of brain and mind could have spontaneously engrafted itself -on a mere brutal and savage life. These gifts must be remnants of a noble -organization, degraded by moral evil. They thus justify the tradition of -a golden and Edenic age, and mutely protest against the philosophy of -progressive development, as applied to man.” Again, he concludes from a -careful study of these remains: “The condition, habits and structure of -Palæocosmic[3] men correspond with the idea that they may be rude and -barbarous offshoots of more cultivated tribes, and therefore realize, as -much as such remains can, the Bible history of the fall and dispersion -of antediluvian men. We need not suppose that Adam of the Bible was -precisely like the old man of Cromagnon.[4] Rather may this man represent -that fallen yet magnificent race which filled the antediluvian earth with -violence, and probably the more scattered and wandering tribes of that -race, rather than its greater and more cultivated nations.”—_Nature and -the Bible, pp. 174-179._ - -5. In addition to these arguments from tradition and history, and -monumental and written records, and an actual study of human remains, -which experts pronounce to be older, probably, than the flood, we have -evidence within ourselves. We are not unfamiliar with stories of children -of noble, perhaps of royal, descent, who have been abducted and brought -up among people of low tastes and habits. But ever and anon, in gesture -or inclination or bent of life, the blood shows itself, and to an -attentive eye tells of the gentler and loftier sphere from which it came. -So with us. Our consciousness reveals within us remnants of a former -greatness; aspirations which this world has never taught us, longings for -peace and purity which we feel we ought to have, but which we know this -world never imparts. These things are the impress of the joys of that -golden age which all these centuries have been powerless to erase from -the souls of Adam’s sons. Morally, we know we are not what we ought to -be; we are conscious of our degradation. As regards intellect, we retain -powers which have, indeed, accomplished marvelous results; and yet, let -some abnormal stimulus affect the brain—whether it be that produced by -sudden excitement or passion, or that caused by powerful artificial -agencies, and we see flashes of power yet in reserve which intimate what -this wondrous human mind may once have been. And physically, our frail -bodies, quickly tired and quickly crumbling to dust, tell us daily that -here, at least, the theory of development from imperfection to perfection -has signally failed. - - -[_April 12._] - -From these considerations we deem it evident that the theory of man’s -development from a primitive condition of barbarism is untrue. The -various glimpses which we have been able to obtain of the early ages -reveal man as in an advanced condition. To all this the representations -of the Bible correspond. It is not the design of the inspired volume to -give a minute description of the customs, habits, knowledge, employments -of the nations of the world. All that it says upon these subjects is -incidental, yet no one in reading its accounts of those early times, and -of the people then living, could possibly imagine that the men and women -of whom it speaks were such as the rude Hottentot or the savage Caffre of -to-day. The picture of man in the primitive times drawn from the Bible, -is the same as that which is drawn from all these other sources; a being -of physical and intellectual power; not a savage, not a barbarian, but an -enlightened, capable, efficient man. How much he knew, how much he could -accomplish, what acquaintance he had with the forces of nature, which -we are now beginning to understand, must be matters of conjecture. Sin -had commenced its blighting work, but we must remember that man in those -early days had inherited from the first man splendid powers, and probably -varied and extensive knowledge. His physical strength and his length of -days were still great, and doubtless in all respects, save morally and -spiritually, he was even yet a magnificent creature, and a power upon the -earth. - -Still, this was not the point which, in this discussion, we wished -to reach. All this was the greatness of man after he had begun to -deteriorate, after the poison of sin had begun to do its certain -and terrible work. This vision of primitive man in his physical and -intellectual strength is the splendor which abides a little while in -the sky after the sun has set. Nevertheless, the sun had set, and there -is a world-wide difference between this picture and that unto which -we would lead you—the picture of that sun in its glory—the picture of -unfallen man—the first man—the perfect man. Now let us look upon it. -The long ages of preparation have rolled away and the earth is a garden -of loveliness. Upon the splendors of its landscapes, the beauty of its -lakes, the grandeur of its mountains and oceans, the sun looked down from -his pavilion in the sky by day, and the moon and the stars by night. The -magnificent domain waited in harmony and beauty for its inhabitants, “And -God said, let us make man in our image, after our likeness.” “So God -created man in his own image: in the image of God created he him.” “And -God saw everything that he had made, and behold it was very good.” - -In the place of honor and dominion in that waiting world of beauty, -enthrone a being who shall be the counterpart of those words of -infallible description—a _man_, made in the image of God, and receiving -the unqualified commendation of his divine Creator. We may, without -danger of mistake, consider him to have been physically a being of -magnificent stature, and of matchless perfection of feature and form, -with a body ignorant of weakness or disease, free from the seeds of -sickness and of death. That a change would afterward have been necessary -to fit his body of flesh and blood for its immortality is possible, but -such change would not have been what we understand by death. Age would -not have brought infirmity to him. Nature would have had no debt to pay -to the grave. - -Enshrined in this perfect body as in a glorious temple was a mind -corresponding, doubtless, in excellence to its habitation and to the -terms which describe its creation. Intellectually as well as morally, -he was created in the image of God. He was possessed of reason and of -actual knowledge. When the various classes of animals were passed in -review before him, he had such an apprehension of their distinctive -characteristics as to be able to give to them all appropriate names. And -as he knew thus much of nature, how shall we limit his familiarity with -her mysteries? And what shall we say of the powers of discernment, of -intuition, of memory, of judgment, of the facility in working, of the -unwearied and the unending delights and achievements of a mind made in -the image of God, and not yet marred or weakened by sin! - -But the crowning glory of that first man, that which marks his distance -from us more than any physical or intellectual superiority, is that in -his moral and spiritual nature he bore a likeness to his divine Creator. -This being, whose body knew no imperfection, whose mind was rich in its -possessions, and mighty in its power to acquire and enjoy every kind -of truth, was holy. No thought arose in that heart which could not be -published in heaven—none which could mantle his cheek with the blush of -shame, or cause his manly eye to drop in consciousness of wrong, or make -a ripple of disquiet in the sea of perfect peace which filled his soul. -His thoughts were God’s thoughts. His loves, his wishes, his purposes, -in harmony with God’s, ascended and descended like the angels Jacob saw, -in perfect and blessed communion between heaven and earth, and earth -was heaven begun. Of this world, with its abounding life, he was the -acknowledged king. Within him was the consciousness of peace, and joy, -and immortality. All about him was beauty, and amid the glories of his -Eden home, God himself condescended to walk with him and be his friend. - -Such is a faint outline of the picture on which I would have you look—the -picture of man as he was in the beginning. Does not the sight justify the -assertion that we are a fallen race? Does it not confirm the teaching of -our text, that “God hath made man upright, but they have sought out many -inventions?” - -I need not delay to prove that this picture is not a representation of -our present condition. Think of these frail physical existences, begun -with a cry, continued in pain and weakness, and extended with difficulty -to their three score years and ten. Think of the ages through which the -intellect of the most favored portion of the world has been struggling to -its present attainments. Think particularly of the moral and spiritual -condition of the race, in comparison with that heavenly vision of -Godlikeness which stands at the beginning of our history. I need not -delay then to prove that mankind has fallen. I will, however, ask you to -remember when you reflect upon the sad disorders of the present state, -upon the sorrows and weaknesses and wickednesses of men to-day, that God -did not thus create the progenitors of the race. If we see ruins about -us and within us, let us remember that the temple as it was fashioned by -the supreme architect was perfect. Let us remember also the real and only -cause of this terrible catastrophe. It was sin—sin that always has ruined -and always will destroy the beautiful, the pure, the true. Men did indeed -go from that height of exaltation into the depths of barbarism; it is -true enough that the pages of remote history show us men living in caves, -and almost reduced to the level of the brutes—and sin led them there! -Men did lose the moral beauty of our first parent; they did lose much of -the intellectual and physical strength which lingered for a season in -his immediate descendants—and sin was the despoiler that remorselessly -stripped from them those glorious robes! You and I might have been as -Adam—ignorant of sorrow and of suffering, and the world still an Eden -about us, but sin has cast us down. - -But let us remember also, with infinite gratitude and hope, as we look -upon that picture of primeval perfection which we have sought to restore, -that that condition may be regained. The crumbled arches, the fallen -walls, the shattered foundations of Nineveh’s or Babylon’s palaces -can never by any human skill be made to reproduce the glory that has -departed, and yet the temple of man’s Eden estate, though cast down with -a more fearful destruction, can be restored! Yea, made more glorious -than it was before, and established upon a foundation, so that through -the eternal ages it can never again be moved! Thanks be unto God, this -is possible to us. Jesus Christ has come from heaven and has undertaken -the accomplishment of the stupendous task. Jesus Christ has promised to -effect it for every one who will yield to his influences. And he can do -it, for he is the Savior, he is the Redeemer, the buyer-back of that -which was lost, and of nations and of regions as well as of individual -souls. … His spirit is the inspiration of the life which here is lived. -That is enough to lift up any place or any people. And just as certainly -will it lift up any human soul. Just as certainly will it redeem it from -the consequences of the race’s fall. Not in this life, indeed, may we -expect to have again the perfection of power and the freedom from sorrow -which our first parent had; but the work of bringing men back to all the -blessedness which Adam enjoyed, with new elements of blessing added, will -be done—yea, it is even now going on, through the power of an indwelling -Christ in souls that are here to-day. Let us all take the loving and -mighty hand which is extended for our uplifting; let us seek our -birthright, and though, through the first Adam our Paradise was lost, let -us yield ourselves to the second Adam, by whom a better Paradise shall be -regained.—_The Rev. Dr. E. D. Ledyard._ - - -[_April 19._] - -Monarchs reign, but their dominion is merely external. They do not and -can not enter into the realm of the soul; but “there is another king, -one Jesus,” whose right it is to sit enthroned in every heart, to direct -every conscience, and to have dominion over every thought and action. -Have you given him the sovereignty of yourself? - -Sin reigns, and that king, alas! holds sway in many—I ought to say in -the vast majority of human souls. But he is an usurper; for “there is -another king, one Jesus,” who is the rightful lord of the heart. Under -which king are you? He who repudiates the royalty of Jesus over him is -guilty of treason against the majesty of heaven, and is but courting his -destruction. - -Death reigns, and day by day he is sweeping in new multitudes into his -silent realm. The mightiest and the meanest alike must yield to him -who is the terror of kings, no less than he is the king of terrors. -At one time he rides on the hurricane, and dashes the laboring vessel -and the freighted souls within her on the roaring reef; at another he -drives through the city streets riding on his pestilential car, and -spreads desolation round him. Now he careers upon the boiling flood, and -sweeps whole villages before him into swift destruction; and again he -leaps in the lightning-flash upon some devoted building, and kindles a -conflagration that burns many in its flames. He laughs at men’s efforts -to elude his grasp; and as we look upon the settled countenance of the -loved one whom we are preparing to lay in the grave, we are almost -compelled to own him conqueror. But no! “there is another king, one -Jesus,” who is “the Resurrection and the Life,” and “who hath abolished -death and brought life and immortality to light by the Gospel.” Let us, -then, be undismayed by this last enemy. He is a vanquished foe. Our Lord -Jesus has gone into his domain, and having conquered him there, has -brought him back with him to his palace, to be there the page who opens -the door for his friends into the chamber of his presence. Yes! as we -stand by the remains of our Christian dead, and under the influence of -sight are moved to speak of Death as king, we recall in another sense -than they were meant, but in a sense which faith recognizes as true, the -words “There is another king, one Jesus.” - -Paradoxical as it may seem, these two things always go together. Where -Christ is owned as the sole sovereign, there his service is perfect -freedom; but where his supremacy is either ignored or given to another, -there comes the slavery of superstition, or the tyranny of priestcraft, -or the cold domination of philosophy, and it is hard to say which of -these is the most degrading.—_W. M. Taylor._ - - -[_April 26._] - -He who would preach the Gospel with power must be himself a believer in -the Lord. The secret of true, heart-stirring eloquence in the pulpit is, -next after the power of the Holy Ghost, that which the French Abbé has -very happily called “the accent of conviction” in the speaker. Behind -every appeal that Paul made to sinners, there was the memory of that -wonderful experience through which he passed on the way to Damascus; -and therefore we are not surprised that he _so_ preached as either to -secure men’s faith or to rouse their antagonism. But his conversion -alone, without his Arabian revelations, would not have made him the -apostle he became. In the desert he met his Lord, and received from him -many important spiritual communications. There, too, he meditated on the -truths revealed to him, and poured out his heart in prayer for a thorough -understanding of their meaning and a full realization of their power. -Thus he came back to Damascus, if not with a face glowing like that of -Moses when he descended from Sinai, at least with a heart filled and -fired with love to Him who had there unfolded to him the mysteries of the -Gospel. Now, what Paul thus received from the Lord has been given to us -by evangelists and apostles in the New Testament Scriptures. Our Arabia, -therefore, will be the study and the closet in which we pore over these -precious pages, and seek to comprehend their many sided significance, as -well as to imbibe the spirit by which they are pervaded. He who would -preach to others must be much alone with his Bible and his Lord; else -when he appears before his people, he will send them to sleep with his -pointless platitudes, or starve them with his empty conceits. Get you -to Arabia, then, ye who would become the instructors of your fellowmen! -Get you to the closet and the study! Give your days and nights to the -investigation of this book; and let everything you produce from it be -made to glow with white heat in the forge of your own heart, and be -hammered on the anvil of your own experience!—_W. M. Taylor._ - - - - -EASY LESSONS IN ANIMAL BIOLOGY. - - -CHAPTER I. - -Biology is the science of life, the true doctrine concerning all living -things. Animal biology is that branch of the science which relates to -animals, as distinguished from plants. It tells of these animals what -we know about them, where and how they live, what food they eat, how it -is received, and how they grow and multiply. Of all the sciences, this -seems most extensive, having for its field a world of numberless forms, -alike in that they all live, and have some characteristics in common, -yet showing great diversity in their structure, appearance, and mode of -life. In this summary of facts we shall simply classify, or methodically -arrange in groups, according to their distinguishing peculiarities, the -members of this vast family. - -The animal kingdom is divided into the following sub-kingdoms, each -of which is subdivided into classes. The following table shows these -divisions in their proper order, beginning with the lowest: - - - SUB-KINGDOM I—_Protozoa_. { Class I—Monera. - { Class II—Gregarinida. - { Class III—Rhizopoda. - { Class IV—Infusoria. - - SUB-KINGDOM II—_Spongida_. - - SUB-KINGDOM III—_Cœlenterata_. { Class I—Hydrozoa. - { Class II—Anthozoa. - { Class III—Ctenophora. - - SUB-KINGDOM IV—_Echinodermata_. { Class I—Crinoidea. - { Class II—Asteroidea. - { Class III—Echinoidea. - { Class IV—Holothuroidea. - - SUB-KINGDOM V—_Vermes_. { Class I—Flat Worms. - { Class II—Round or Thread Worms. - { Class III—Rotifera. - { Class IV—Polyzoa. - { Class V—Brachiopoda. - { Class VI—Annelidæ. - - SUB-KINGDOM VI—_Mollusca_. { Class I—Lamellibranchiata. - { Class II—Gasteropoda. - { Class III—Cephalopoda. - - SUB-KINGDOM VII—_Articulata_. { Class I—Crustacea. - { Class II—Arachnida. - { Class III—Myriapoda. - { Class IV—Insecta. - - SUB-KINGDOM VIII—_Tunicata_. - - SUB-KINGDOM IX—_Vertebrata_. { Class I—Pisces. - { Class II—Reptilia. - { Class III—Aves. - { Class IV—Mammalia. - - -SUB-KINGDOM I. - -_Protozoa_ (first animals). These earliest formed animals are -distinguished for the simplicity of their structure. In some cases their -animal nature was long ago in doubt, and they were, for a time, put down -as probably belonging to the vegetable kingdom. The border line between -the two has never been very definitely located. Biologists may fail to -tell just what special quality distinguishes the minute animal from the -microscopic plant. This is not wonderful, when it is remembered that -myriads of animals, known to be such, are so small that it requires a -lens of strong magnifying power to discover them. Three thousand of them, -placed side by side, would make a line but little over an inch long. - -CLASS I.—_Monera_ (single). These are the simplest forms of microscopic -aquatic animals. They are entirely homogeneous, and without any -developed organs; mere particles, of a jelly-like, but living, or -life-supporting substance, called protoplasm, or more properly, bioplasm. -This, all admit, is the physical basis of life, and the medium of its -manifestation, just as the conductor is a medium of manifestation -of electricity. But is it not a stupid blunder to confound the mere -medium of its manifestation with the life itself? In neither case is -the recognized physical basis of the manifestation necessary to the -existence of that manifested by its means. Electricity exists without the -conductor, and life may exist without the bioplasm. - -CLASS II.—_Gregarinida_ (living in herds). Minute animals which are found -in the intestines of the lobster, clam, and cockroach. They are worm-like -in form, and of a very simple, cell-like structure, the only organ being -a nucleus. - -CLASS III.—_Rhizopoda_ (root footed). The representative forms of this -class are the _Amœba_[1] and _Foraminifera_. The amœba is an indefinite -little bit of bioplasm, as structureless as the monera, only that it -is made up of two layers of the substance, has an apparent nucleus, -and a contractile cavity within. These first animals vindicate their -right to be recognized as such, by moving, receiving food, growing, and -reproducing their kind. They move by a contractile force, throwing out -at will processes of their soft bodies, to serve them as feet and arms. -True, these are blunt, and without digits, but they answer the purpose. -They eat either by simple absorption, or by wrapping their soft bodies -around the food, and holding it in the extemporized stomach till it is, -in some way, assimilated. - -The work of reproduction is carried on principally by self-division, and -budding. The animal rends itself into two or more parts, each having all -the elements of the whole, or it throws out buds that mature and drop -from the parent mass, having the vital element, and a portion of the -bioplasm, or medium necessary to its development. - -[Illustration: FORAMINIFERA, SHOWING ROOT-LIKE FEET.] - -The _Foraminifera_ (perforated animals), of this class, have several -peculiarities. The body is even more simple, being apparently without -layers or cavity. The processes thrown out as arms and legs are not -blunt or massive, but long and slender. And, moreover, small as it is, -it has the wonderful property of secreting about itself an envelope, -whose thin walls are built of the carbonate of lime. The delicate little -structures are often singularly beautiful. Some are monads, having but a -single shell; others, by a process of budding add new cells or chambers, -often in a spiral coil. These are marine shells, and their numbers in -many parts of the ocean are astounding. The bottom of the sea, for many -degrees on both sides of the equator, wherever examined by dredging, is -found covered with them, either still in their organic state, or ground -by attrition to a fine lime dust. It is estimated that a single pound of -the sea bottom in some localities contains millions of them, and they are -the principal material of the chalk hills. - -CLASS IV.—_Infusoria._ This class includes _Vorticella_ (wheel animals), -_Flagellata_ (whip-shaped animals), _Tentaculata_ (having tentacles), -and others. Their general characteristics do not differ widely from -those already mentioned. As the name imports, they are mostly found -in vegetable infusions that have been exposed for some time, and are -directly the product of invisible cells or animal germs that were -floating in the atmosphere till a lodgment was found favorable to their -development. Those called _Vorticella_, to the eye seem simply mould on -the plant to which they are attached, but under the glass their animal -qualities appear; and they multiply with amazing rapidity. Every drop -of water from a stagnant pool is full of these animalculæ, of various -shapes and dimensions, some of them constantly in motion, propelled -by numerous cilia, or slender, hair-like appendages that fringe the -circumference, and are used as oars. Their whole organism, though -delicate, and having a thin membranous covering, is imperfect. There are -two contractile openings, with a slight depression at the mouth, leading -to a funnel-shaped throat, into which the nutritive substances descend. - - -SUB-KINGDOM II. - -_Spongida_, or sponges, are especially worthy of mention. When much -less was known of their nature and habits, they were classed with -vegetables, but since their mode of reproduction has been discovered, -they are known to be animals. The sponge is formed of an aggregation of -ciliated cells, built together on a skeleton or framework of calcareous -or silicious substance, that extends by slow external secretions as the -animal body grows. There is a central cavity toward which there are -numerous channels, from openings on the surface, through which water -is continually received, and one through which it is discharged. The -animal part is a sensitive, gelatinous film, extending through the -growing mass, and spreads out over the surface. It is perforated, in -places, and adapts itself to all the sinuosities and intersections of -the canals that run in every direction. The little animals are provided -with exceedingly fine cilia that they keep in almost constant motion; no -one knows how, or for what, but it is supposed they thus sweep in the -water that circulates through all the channels and chambers formed for -it. After death, the soft matter, like all animal tissues, decays, or is -dried up; and by beating and washing, it and any calcareous substances -are removed. The horny, elastic fibers are found so exquisitely connected -about the internal canals and cavities that water is freely admitted, -or by pressure expelled. Sponges are found in every latitude, but are -more numerous and grow larger in warm climates. Those in our markets are -mostly from the Bahamas and the islands of the Mediterranean. They are -obtained by diving, often to great depths. - - -SUB-KINGDOM III. - -_Cœlenterata_ (hollow intestines). These are radiate animals, have a -distinct digestive cavity, and always two layers of tissue in their -walls. They have minute sacs containing a fluid, and barbed filaments -capable of being thrown out as stings. The classes of the Cœlenterata -are the _Hydrozoa_, _Anthozoa_, and _Ctenophora_. The best known -representative of the former is the fresh water _hydra_ (water animal). -It gives but slight evidence of a nervous system, has no stomach, or -digestive sac, but is a simple tube into which the mouth opens. The -sensitive little body is in color and texture, to the casual observer -more like a plant than an animal. It is attached at one end to a -submerged aquatic plant, while the mouth at the free end is provided with -tentacles,[2] by which it feeds and moves. It buds, and also produces -eggs. The young hydra, when hatched or thrown off, attaches itself to -plants, as did its parents. Some hydroids attach themselves to shells, -and are supported by horny, branching skeletons, specimens of which are -numerous, and may be seen in almost any museum. - -[Illustration: HYDRA, SHOWING BUDS.] - -A second representative of this class is the jelly fish. It has a soft, -gelatinous, circular body, that floats or swims on the surface in calm -weather, with the mouth downward. Tubes radiate from the center to -the circumference that is fringed all around with pendant tentacles, -sometimes of great length and of considerable contractile power. They -are of various sizes, some quite small, others as much as eight feet in -diameter. They move about by flapping their sides, after the manner of -opening and shutting an umbrella. When dried, the thin, filmy covering -is very light. One variety, called _Lucernaria_, is found attached to -grasses along the Atlantic shore. But the ordinary jelly fish is free, -and borne on the surface of the sea. - -The _Anthozoa_ (flower animals) are small, but not microscopic animals, -having a double cavity, the inner of which is the digestive sac. The -best known of the class is the _Actinia_ (rayed), or sea anemone, so -called from its resemblance to a plant or flower of that name. The body -is somewhat like a flower in shape. The disc has a central orifice, very -contractile, and surrounded with tubular tentacles of various forms, -which it elongates, contracts, and moves in different directions. They -are so many arms by which the animal seizes its prey, and when expanded -for the purpose, being tinted with brilliant colors, present an elegant -appearance, and make vast fields of the ocean look like beautiful flower -gardens. They feed voraciously on little crabs and mollusks, that -often seem superior to themselves in strength and bulk, but they have -power in their little tentacles to seize and hold their prey, and when -they engulf large bodies the stomach is distended to receive them; and -their digestion is good. The purple sea anemone is very common on the -southern shores of England, and one species, found on the shores of the -Mediterranean, is said to be esteemed a great delicacy by the Italians. -At night, or when alarmed, the animal draws in its arms, shuts the door, -and seems but a rounded lump of flesh, a huge oyster without a shell. The -coral polyps (many footed), belonging to this class, are little folk, -but of importance from their well-earned reputation as reef builders. -They are very diminutive creatures, mere drops of animal jelly, often not -larger than the head of a pin, but their works show unmistakable evidence -of life, and an organic structure. They live in communities, closely -united, but each, having a distinct individuality, by the sure process -of secreting a portion of the calcareous matter within reach, prepares -for himself a house, as all his ancestors have done, and his neighbors -are now doing. They build together, their foundations having strong -connections, and thoroughly cemented. There in his own little palace the -polyp lives, his food being brought to his lips; and, having sent out a -numerous progeny to do likewise for themselves, there he dies. Life and -death, as in all mundane communities, being in close proximity, the old -dying, a new generation builds houses over their sepulchres. - -[Illustration: SEA ANEMONE.] - -The great variety of corals seen in any extensive collection, some very -beautiful, others rough and unsightly, are from different branches of a -very extensive family. _Astrea_ (star shaped), from the Fiji islands, is -a kind of coral hemisphere, covered with large and beautiful cells. - -_Mushroom coral_ is disc shaped, not fixed or attached, and is the -secretion, not of many, but of a single huge polyp. - -_Brain coral_ is globular, and the surface irregularly furrowed or -corrugated. - -_Madrepora_ (spotted pores) _coral_ is neatly branched, the branches -having pointed extremities ending in single minute cells. - -_Porites_, or sponge coral, is also branched, but the branches are not -pointed, and the surface smoother. - -_Tubipora_, or organ pipe coral, shows some very striking peculiarities. -A section of the vast structures built by them resembles a collection -of regular, smooth, red colored pipes, firmly bound together by cross -sections. - -Coral rocks are of slow formation, but have attained prodigious -dimensions; whole islands are of coral origin, and in some seas the -concealed rocks make navigation dangerous. The reefs are often 2,000 feet -thick, though it is estimated that not more than five feet are added in a -thousand years. The little architects were at work early. - -_Corallium rubrum_, or red coral, much sought after and precious, is -shrub-like, of fine texture, and a beautiful crimson color. In a living -state its branches are said to be covered over with bright polyps, and -the skeleton receives a very fine polish. It is used for ornaments. -Professor Dana says: “Some species grow in large leaves rolled round each -other, like an open cabbage, and another foliated kind consists of leaves -more crisped, and of more delicate structure. ‘Lettuce coral’ would be a -significant name; each leaf has its surface covered with polyp flowers. -The clustered leaves of acanthus and oak are at once called to mind by -this species.” - -[Illustration: CORAL ISLAND.] - -_The Ctenophora_ (comb-bearing) are considered the highest of the -Cœlenterata, having a more complex digestive apparatus, and better -developed nervous system. Their long tentacles, and comb-like cilia are -used for swimming. - - -SUB-KINGDOM IV. - -_Echinodermata_ (spiny skinned) have all their parts symmetrically -arranged about a central axis, a contractile heart, good digestive -organs, and a peculiar system of radiating canals extending through the -organism. They are a numerous family of exclusively marine animals, and -their characteristics furnish an interesting study. Most naturalists -mention four classes. - -CLASS I.—_Crinoidea_, or sea lilies, now nearly extinct, are fixed to -rocks, or the sea bottom, by what seems simply a stem, but is the body -of the animal. At the top is the mouth, resembling an expanding bud -or flower that opens upward, surrounded by long tentacles, or arms, -not unlike the sea anemone. It is supported by a calcareous skeleton -consisting of many members, stiff-jointed, crossing and interlacing with -one another. When living, the gelatinous animal partly envelops this -framework. - -CLASS II.—_Asteroidea_, or star fish, have a flat disc, five or more -radiating arms extending some distance from the body at the center, and -containing a part of the viscera. The mouth is where the arms meet, and -opens downward. The upper surface is studded over with rough knobs, -between which are the openings of many little tubes, for the passage -of water into and out of the body. The round mouth is very dilatable, -enabling it to receive large and solid objects for its food, which -there is no attempt to masticate. After the digestive organ is somehow -wrapped around the shell fish on which it feeds, it is held in its firm -embrace till the nutritive portion is disposed of, and then thrown out. -They are voracious eaters, devouring all kinds of garbage that would -otherwise accumulate along the shores, valuable as sea scavengers, though -destructive of living crustaceans and shell fish. - -CLASS III.—_Echinoidea_ (hedgehog-like) are covered with spines which -they move either by the enveloping membrane or by small muscles properly -situated for the purpose. The thin, horny, and, when dry, very light -skin is peculiar, in that it is composed of regularly shaped, pentagonal -plates, arranged in radiating zones, every alternate plate perforated -with small holes; and among the spines, but capable of extending beyond -them, are little arms, provided at the end with forceps, probably for -seizing their prey, or for ridding themselves of troublesome parasites. -These are also used for locomotion. They are less active than some others -of the family, live near the shore among rocks, or under the seaweed, -feed on crabs, and are oviparous.[3] - -CLASS IV.—_Holothuroidea_ (whole mouthed). They are elongated, like -a cucumber, and the head end terminates abruptly, the mouth being a -circular opening surrounded with feathery tentacles. They have remarkable -muscular power, by which they can disgorge the contents of the stomach, -throw off their tentacles, and even eject most of their internal -organs, and survive the loss, afterward producing others, perhaps more -satisfactory or in a healthier condition. In tropical climates, they have -been likened to the sea urchin, without a shell, but are proportionally -longer, and their axis horizontal. - - -SUB-KINGDOM V. - -_Vermes_ (worms). Animals having head and tail composed of segments. The -digestive organ is tubular, and the nervous system a double chain of -ganglia[4] on the ventral[5] surface. There are six classes of vermes. -The animals differ greatly in appearance. - -CLASS I.—_Flat worms_ are best known as the parasites that infest -animals, such as the liver fluke of the sheep, and the tapeworm. The flat -worms pass through a very peculiar metamorphosis, some varieties taking -as many as seven different forms. - -CLASS II.—_Round or Thread Worms_ are represented by the pin worm and -_Trichina_. The latter is the dangerous worm which finds its way into the -human system from pork flesh, in which it is imbedded. - -CLASS III.—_Wheel Animalculæ_, or _Rotifera_. A most interesting -microscopic worm, abounding in fresh water and in the ocean. They will -remain dried up for years, and then recover life. Their shapes are very -peculiar. - -CLASS IV.—_Moss Animals_, or _Polyzoa_, are the animals which form a -coral-like shell. They are abundant on the seashore, and are called sea -mosses. - -CLASS V.—_Lamp Shells_ (_Brachiopoda_). These worms are marine, and form -a bivalve shell, the valves being on either side of the body. The body -has long arms on one side of the mouth, which bear fringes; the motion of -the fringes draws food into the mouth. They are also used in respiration. -But few species of the Brachiopods are now living, though they were once -very plenty. - -CLASS VI.—_Annelidæ._ This last class includes the leeches, a flat worm, -whose body is divided into segments; the earth or angleworm, a familiar -worm of many segments, and the marine worms. Each segment of the latter -bears clusters of bristles, used in swimming. - - -SUB-KINGDOM VI. - -_Mollusca_ (soft). General characteristics—Mollusks, a numerous branch -of the animal kingdom, are so called from the softness of their bodies, -which usually have no internal skeleton or framework to support them. -They are covered with a tough, muscular skin, and generally protected -by a shell. They have a gangliated nervous system, in some cases well -developed, the medullary[6] mass not enclosed in a cranium or spinal -column—of which they are mostly destitute—but distributed more or -less irregularly through the body. They have hearts, and an imperfect -circulative system, the blood being pale or blueish. Some breathe in air, -some in fresh, more in sea water. Some—both of those on land and those in -water—are naked, others have a calcareous covering or shell. The larger -marine mollusks are often guarded by very strong, heavy shells. Some are -viviparous, others oviparous, and multiply rapidly. - -[Illustration: SNAIL.] - -Three general, and many subdivisions are recognized. The total number of -living species is said to exceed twenty thousand, of which only a few can -be mentioned. The classes under this division are _Lamellibranchiata_, -_Gasteropoda_, and _Cephalopoda_. The chief representatives of the first -class are all ordinary bivalves. - -_Ostrea_ (oysters) are well known bivalve mollusks. The shells are so -irregular in surface and shape that it would be impossible, as it is -unnecessary, to describe them. The animal itself is very simple in -structure, proverbially stupid, low in the scale of animal life, but -highly esteemed as a delicious article of food. They are found in almost -all seas, and in water of from two to six fathoms, but never very far -from some shore. They multiply so rapidly that, though the consumption -increases with the increase of population and the facilities for -distributing them, the supply is equal to the demand. Boston is mostly -supplied from artificial beds, and the flats or shallow bays in the -vicinity of our maritime cities abound in such “plants.” Baltimore and -New York have each an immense local trade, and the oysters exported from -the Chesapeake Bay fisheries amount to about $25,000,000 annually. - -CLASS II.—_Gasteropoda_ (stomach-footed). This class, including the great -snail family, is a very large division of terrestrial, air-breathing -mollusks. Their light shells vary much in form; when spiral and fully -developed they have as many as five or six whorls, symmetrically -arranged. The shell can contain the whole body, but the animal often -partially crawls out and carries the shell on its back. The locomotion is -slow and accomplished by the contractile muscle of the ventral foot. - -CLASS III.—_The Cephalopoda_ (head-footed) have distinctly formed heads, -large, staring eyes, mouths surrounded with tentacles or feelers, -symmetrically formed bodies wrapped in a muscular covering; they have all -the five senses, and are carnivorous. This class is entirely marine, and -breathes through gills on the side of the body. The naked _Cephalopoda_ -are numerous, and furnish food for many other animals. Those living -in chambered shells, once numerous, are now known principally by -their fossils, the pearly _Nautilus_ (sailor) being their only living -representative. This has a smooth, pearly shell, and is much prized as -an ornament. It is a native of the Indian Ocean, dwelling in the deep -places of the sea, and at the bottom. The shell is too well known to -need description, and but few specimens of the living animal have been -obtained. - -[Illustration: NAUTILUS.] - -The following facts as to the physical organization and habits of -this interesting species of univalves are gleaned from the American -Cyclopædia, and given for those who have not access to any extensive work -on the subject; they were mostly copied for the Cyclopædia from Professor -Owen’s celebrated memoir, and the “Proceedings of the Linnæan Society of -London:” - -The posterior portion of the body containing the viscera is soft, smooth -and adapted to the anterior chamber of the shell; the anterior portion is -muscular, including the organs of sense and locomotion, and can be drawn -within the shell. The mantle is very thin behind, and prolonged through -the calcareous tube of the occupied chamber as a membranous siphon, -and through all the divisions of the shell to the central nucleus; -on the upper part of the head is a broad, triangular, muscular hood, -protecting the head when retracted and used as a foot for creeping at the -bottom of the sea, with the shell uppermost. … The mouth has two horny -mandibles, like the beak of a parrot reversed, the lower overlapping -the upper, moving vertically, and implanted in thick, muscular walls. -… There are ninety tentacles about the labial processes and head. The -internal cartilaginous skeleton is confined to the lower surface of -the head, a part of the cephalic nervous system being protected in a -groove on its upper surface, and the two great muscles which fasten the -body to the shell are attached to it. The funnel is very muscular and -is the principal organ of free locomotion, the animal being propelled -backward by the reaction of the ejected respiratory current against the -water before it. … The nautilus, though the lowest of the Cephalopods, -offers a nearer approach to the vertebrate animals than does any -other invertebrate, in the perfect symmetry of the organs, the larger -proportion of muscle, the increased bulk and concentration of the nervous -centers in and near the head, and in the cartilaginous cephalic skeleton. -The mature nautilus occupies but a small part of the shell, the parts -progressively vacated during its growth are one after another partitioned -off by their smooth plates into air tight chambers, the plates growing -from the circumference toward the center, and pierced by the membranous -siphon. The young animal before the formation of these chambers can not -rise from the bottom of the sea, but the older ones come to the surface -by the expansion and protrusion of their bodies producing a slight vacuum -in the posterior part of the chamber unoccupied, and, some say, by the -exhalation of some light gas into the other deserted chambers. They -rise in the water as a balloon does in the air, because lighter than -the element surrounding them. They float on the surface with the shell -upward, and sink quickly by reversing it. By a nice adjustment, in the -completed structure, between the air chambers and the dwelling chamber, -the house and its inhabitant are nearly of the same specific gravity as -water. … In parts of the Southern Pacific, at certain seasons of the -year, fleets of these little ships are carried by the winds and currents -to the island shores, where they are captured and used for food. - -[Illustration: ARGONAUT.] - -_The Paper Nautilus_, or argonaut, secretes a thin, unchambered shell in -which its eggs are carried; has tentacles or arms with which it crawls -on the bottom, and swims backward, usually with the back down, squirting -water through its breathing funnel. The argonaut differs from the true -nautilus in having larger arms of more complicated structure, with sucker -discs, and partially connected by a membrane at the base. It has an ink -gland and sac, for its secretion. It has a great number of little cells, -containing pigment matter of different colors, whose contractions and -expansions give it a remarkable power of rapidly changing its tints. -There is no internal shell, and it is ascertained that the external shell -is peculiar to the female, and is only an incubating and protective nest -for the eggs. The eggs are attached to the involuted spire of the shell, -behind and beneath the body of the female. From the fact that the animal -has no muscular or other attachment to its shell, and has been known, -after quitting it, to survive sometime without attempting to return, the -argonaut has been supposed to be a parasitic occupant of the cast off -shell of another, but is now pretty clearly proved to be the architect -of its own shell, which it also repairs when broken by the agency of -its palmated arms. It is said the argonaut rises to the surface, with -the shell upward, turning it downward when it floats on the water; by -drawing the six arms within the shell and placing the palmated ones on -the outside, it can quickly sink. This explains why the animal is so -seldom taken with the shell. The shell is flexible when in water, but -very fragile when dry. The largest known specimen is in the collection of -the Boston Society of Natural History; it is 10 by 6½ inches. For a full -account of this animal see “Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural -History,” vol. v, pp. 369-381. - - _End of Required Reading for April._ - - - - -JERRY McAULEY AND HIS WORK. - -BY COLEMAN E. BISHOP. - - -Extremes of life meet in a great city. “Man, the pendulum betwixt a -smile and tear,” here swings between the utmost extremes of squalor and -splendor, misery and enjoyment, sin and virtue. That conflict between -good and evil—old as the human soul, its arena—is waged nowhere as -fiercely as here, where life is intense and assailable souls are legion. -You have to go but a little below the surface of city life to find a -worse than Dante’s “Inferno;” and if that were the whole story, if there -were no compensating charities, one would feel it a mercy to call down on -the city the desolation, and the peace of Sodom. - -But, thank God! there _are_ those redeeming, reforming influences to give -one new hope for civilization, new faith in humanity, or new faith in -divine grace. Its missions and charities are the sunny side of New York. -There are over one hundred and thirty established missions in the city, -with a million and a half of dollars permanently invested, beside the -other millions required to support them; and the eleemosynary and relief -institutions of New York outshine the charities of all other cities, -proportioned to numbers. Some liberal, devout souls seem to be looking -after every conceivable phase of suffering and sin, and if the devil -seems generally to be getting the advantage, let us believe that it is -because his antagonists are not more numerous, rather than because he is -any smarter or attends more strictly to business. Indeed, the ingenuity -of some of the foes of sin, might put to confusion the proverbial -originality of the great adversary. Of these exceptional efforts, perhaps -there is none more unique than the work of the late Jerry McAuley, nor -one that has wrought so great results with so little human aid; nor one -to which the Christian believer can point as a testimony of divine agency -with greater confidence. - -Yet, a thoughtful study of the man and his work will reveal the rationale -of it, and help us to understand why it took hold of a certain class -in the way it did; that is, why he proved so exact a means to that -exact end. The characteristics and training that made Jerry McAuley -a successful criminal made him, when his nature and purpose had been -transformed, a successful missionary. The son of a counterfeiter, he was -educated in the worst streets and dens, graduated a tippler and petty -thief in his boyhood, and took his degrees of gambler, drunkard, burglar -and wharf rat; and at the age of nineteen was convicted and sentenced -to fifteen years’ imprisonment. Short and inglorious career of sin! To -be followed by a long and glorious one of righteousness, and crowned at -last with a triumphant death in faith! Here for seven years he hardened -under perfunctory gospel ministrations and prison discipline, until at -the right time Orville Gardner, known as “Awful Gardner, the Reformed -Prize-fighter,” found Jerry and led him to that change which he always -called his “transformation.” He was pardoned out, only to meet the -killing, chilling reception that society gives to one who has passed the -bars. Now followed seven years of struggles for an honest life. Only his -soul and its Maker know what these were. At one time he relapsed into -his old ways, but he was sought and reclaimed by agents of the Howard -(“Five Points”) Mission. Strange, is it not, that good people are so much -more alert to recall the fallen than to aid the struggling and keep the -rescued secure? Why is it that interest in the unfortunate is deferred -till interest seems useless? - -Jerry now conceived the plan of a mission to people of his own old -life, men and women tempted in all points like unto himself. He applied -for advice and help to one or two clergymen and some wealthy church -members, only to meet with mortifying coldness or refusal. We can -readily understand this caution, considering McAuley’s antecedents and -qualifications. He could hardly read and write his own name. Churches are -so fiercely criticised that they have to be very chary about espousing -unpromising enterprises. It was a _natural_ caution if not a _Christian_ -charity; worldly if not spiritual wisdom. Besides, are there not still -things that He hides from the wise and prudent, and reveals unto babes? -At length, McAuley found men able and willing to help, and with their aid -he opened his Water Street Mission, in 1872. This situation is one of the -worst in the lower part of the city, in the “Bloody Eighth Ward,” the -haunt of river thieves, sailors and abandoned women of the lowest degree. -It was a “rum start,” indeed, to the denizens of Water Street when one of -their leaders was graduated from prison to prayer meeting; and by scores -they “came to scoff, and remained to pray.” This mission was a success -from the start, and to-day remains in full tide of beneficent operation. - -Two years ago Jerry was able to carry out his long-entertained desire to -“do something for up-town sinners” by the establishment of the “Cremorne -Mission.” It was a more daring undertaking because it had to do with more -respectable sinners. He said it was a mistake to speak of those in the -gutter as “hard cases;” their pride and reliance are gone, and they are -not likely to be affronted or resistant when told they need a Savior; the -prosperous and successful are the hard hearted; as you ascend the scale -in means, intelligence and pretension, the harder the sinner becomes. - -On West Thirty-Second Street, just off Third Avenue, was the infamous -Cremorne Gardens, one of the most dangerous because _not_ one of the -lowest resorts of abandoned men and women. In this vicinity are many -houses of ill repute of the higher rank; gamblers and sporting men have -their “runways” in that part of the city. Jerry “carried the war into -Africa” by leasing a building next the “Cremorne Garden,” so that in all -respects the sad satire of DeFoe was and is reversed, - - “Wherever God erects a house of prayer - The Devil always builds a chapel there; - And ’twill be found upon examination - The latter has the larger congregation.” - -The passenger by the elevated railroad, or one of the several street car -lines that converge at the intersection of Sixth Avenue and Broadway, -may see any evening a brilliant prismatic sign of “Cremorne Garden,” and -seemingly just above it this more brilliant legend: - - JERRY MCAULEY’S CREMORNE MISSION. - -He will reach the Mission first, as he approaches this strange -conjunction of stars; Jerry said he wanted the Lord to have the first -chance at a sinner when he could. - -The doors are open night and day, and some one is always there to welcome -the visitor. A “protracted meeting” is held here all the year, and all -the years, around. Going in, you stand in a long, narrow hall, with high -ceilings modestly decorated; an aisle down the middle flanked by rows of -oaken settees terminates at a low platform on which are chairs, a cheap -desk, and a grand piano. The place seats five or six hundred. The hall -is brilliant with electric lights, and the walls are illustrious with -such Scripture quotations as, in the words of one of the converts, have -been found most apt to “fetch ’em”—_i. e._, sinners. By the platform are -conspicuous notices that speeches are limited to one minute each, a rule -that is easily enforced in the case of the converts, because they have -only facts to tell, and do not seem to be in love with that sweetest -music on earth, the sound of their own voices. “One minute each,” Jerry -would say: “Don’t be too long; cut off both ends and give us the middle; -you need not get mad, as some people have done, if I ring this bell.” -“All right,” replied one easy speaker; “If I get long-winded pull me down -by my coat tails;” whereat all laughed heartily, as they frequently do. - -Jerry McAuley’s method, first and last, was unique, but simple and very -effective. Testimonies are the great reliance. They teach salvation by -object lessons, prove the truth of conversion by concrete examples. -There is no argument, no exhortation, no didactics, no theological -disquisition. What need of these in the presence of these living -examples? A man stands up and says: “For twenty years I was a common -drunkard and thief. Five years ago I found Christ here. I have not -touched a drop nor stolen a thing since.” McAuley was won by _proof_. He -said: “It was a testimony that brought me. I was ‘sent up’ for fifteen -years and six months; I listened to preaching there for over seven years, -but I was still unmoved. Then a man came along who gave his experience. -He had been a wicked man. That man told just my history; but he was -saved, and since there was hope for a desperate man like him, I knew -there was hope for me. And there was! Now you have heard the biggest -debtor to grace that is in the room, let the next heaviest debtor follow -me.” Others were won by the undeniable transformation of Jerry. These -things were irresistible. Men describe the effect on themselves of these -living witnesses: - - “The Bible reading and the prayer did not have any effect upon - me, but the testimonies of some who had been, as I could not help - admitting to myself, just as I then was, did affect me. I felt - that I was in the same boat as they had been in. The conviction - of my state forced itself upon me, whether I wanted to think of - it or not.” - - “I came to this meeting three weeks ago. I was drunk when I came - in here, but drunk as I was, those testimonies, such as you - have heard to-night, reached me, and I went forward to those - chairs. There I gave my heart to Christ after serving the devil - forty-seven years.” - - “When I first heard the testimonies here I thought those who - spoke had great impudence to tell all about their past lives, but - by and by I felt that they were describing my case. Then, as they - told how Jesus saved them, I felt I needed to be saved.” - - “As testimony after testimony was given I would say to myself: - that’s me, that’s me.” - - Another said that the prayer and Bible reading did not affect - him, but the testimonies were “like shot after shot fired at him.” - -These effects are driven home and clinched by direct personal efforts -with penitents, by attentions that follow them to their homes or shops, -or into evil haunts, by relief and creature comforts—in a word, by an -interest vigilant, ceaseless, and tender as divine love, because inspired -by it. - -As the method is peculiar, the atmosphere of the meeting is. One familiar -with ordinary devotional meetings, and, more, with revival efforts, -can not fail to notice here the contrast. Speaking is uniformly in an -ordinary tone, and in a conversational, matter-of-fact manner—an effect -that is heightened by the use of phrases common in the resorts where some -of the converts learned their vernacular. And prayer is specially subdued -and low toned—the more impressive and reverential on account of it. - -Then, one feels the momentum of the exercises and the tone of -cheerfulness and joy that prevail. There is none of that exhortation -to “improve the precious time;” none of that dismal bewailing of -spiritual barrenness and besetting doubts, fears and temptations, which -sometimes make devotional exercises mechanical and dreary, and furnish -stumbling-blocks to young believers. These converts do not dwell much on -their _enjoyment_ of religion; albeit, they do one and all give thanks -without ceasing for their deliverance. One notes, too, the absence of -cant, of quotations and set phrases; everything is original. There -is little exhortation of others. In short, like Bartimeas, they know -“Whereas I _was_ blind, _now_ I see;” and unlike the blind man, they -know who worked the miracle. - -It was the founder and leader of the two missions who gave all this -tone to their services. He was of a medium height and slender, with a -heavy, wiry moustache, keen eyes, a nervous temperament, energetic, -quick-witted, sympathetic; one readily caught good feeling and -confraternity from his presence. He would flash out at a hymn, a text, or -a testimony, with a bit of experience. Before two sentences had passed -his lips he probably would leap down from his place on the platform, -saying, humorously: “I can’t talk up on that stage,” and go down the -aisle as if to hold pleasant converse with his audience. It was a strange -_melange_ of earnestness, experience, humility and wit, with not the -least attempt at eloquence, and apparently no study of effects. He -describes one case of conversion: - - “This man had come into the meeting with his head about twice the - usual size, and his eyes as red as a red-hot poker. You could - have squeezed the rum out of him. He asked me to pray with him, - but I hadn’t much faith in the man, but that’s just where God - disappointed me. I was deceived. The man meant business.” - -The missions are supported entirely by voluntary contributions left in -the boxes by the door. Sometimes these run low. One night Jerry asked -all who were glad to be there to hold up their hands. All hands up. -“Now,” said he, “when you take your hands down put them way down—down -into your pockets, and fetch something out to put in the boxes by the -door.” He said, that to run a mission successfully required “grace, grit -and greenbacks.” I fancy considerable of his influence was due to his -knowledge of the secret hearts, the personal experiences of his auditors; -he was like a priest at confessional, when out of meeting. There are no -_verbatim_ reports of his talks extant, and if there were they would give -the reader no proper idea of the man, because the grotesqueness of his -language would probably be the most striking feature of them. He must -have been heard to be understood, and even then I think he could not have -been understood save by those whose experience and modes of life gave -them the touchstone. - -Sister Maggie is a typical convert. At one of the Cremorne missions a -Sunday-school worker from the East Side told of his class of fifteen -street boys and girls. “I asked them,” he said, “how many of them drank -beer, and all promptly put up their hands. I asked how many thought it a -bad practice, and only four or five responded. I then told them of the -evils that drink led to, and cited them numerous examples within their -knowledge, and finally asked how many of them would resolve never to -drink any more beer. About half of them kept their hands down, and in a -way that showed they meant business.” - -This discouraging incident brought to her feet, on the platform, a tall, -thick-set, strong-featured woman. She spoke with a strident, energetic -voice, a Bowery accent, and a manner to which all thought of shrinking or -embarrassment was a stranger. It was Sister Maggie. She said, as nearly -as I recall the words: “This teaching children beer-drinking is the -beginning of all the deviltry. I was passing a dive yesterday and I saw a -little kid come out with a pail of beer that she had been sent for, and -no sooner was she outside the door than the pail went to her head. That’s -the way I used to do, and learned to drink and steal at the same time. -But God can help us to reclaim even beings so badly educated. He helped -me, and there can’t be a worse case on the East Side. There is not a dive -over there that I haven’t been drunk in. Brother S. knows how often I -have drank with him at old C.’s dead-house (rum-shop). Sixteen years ago -I was a leper, a confirmed sot. If you had seen me you would not have -believed that I could have been saved. Christians said I was too far -gone; they said there was not enough woman left in me to be saved. I had -had the jim-jams twicet. [Laughter.] The first time I had ’em I thought -my back hair was full of mice—oh, that was awful! [More laughter.] I was -just getting over the tremens when I first come in here. I was a walking -rag-shop, and if you’d a seen me you’d give me plenty of room on the -walk. I staggered in and sat down on the very backest seat. Now they let -me sit up here on the platform. What d’ye think of that? God helped me, -and he has helped me now for sixteen years, and I am going through. I am -happy. I have friends and good clothes, and more than all, I have _a good -home_, and that is what I never knew before.” - -At the mention of the word “home,” all the woman’s instinct asserted -itself, and for the first time her voice softened, and her manner melted; -she sobbed, and sat down. - -I can give no complete idea of the effect of this, because the reader -can know nothing of the surroundings, the antecedents of the speaker and -of many of her listeners, and the keen rapport that ties them together. -These worshipers are a class and an organization by themselves; they have -no church affiliations, and their worship is _sui generis_; many of them -were outcasts of society in former years, they stand alone since their -reformation, and they are drawn close together in their isolation. True, -there are many among them who were always respectable members of society; -many who since their conversion here have joined churches; there are -richly dressed and cultured-looking people scattered in these audiences; -but the fact remains that the genius and distinctive _personnel_ of the -meetings are of the order of which Jerry McAuley and “Sister Maggie” and -their ministrations are representatives. - -I know of no religious exercises better calculated to inspire the -true religious feelings of faith, charity, humility, gratitude, and -rejoicing—the distinguishing marks of the original Christian following. -But they differ from the noisy demonstrations which sometimes are -taken for “primitive Christianity,” as they do from the cold and -conventional worship which advertises itself in brownstone structures and -double-barred mahogany pews. If one wants to get a breath of vigorous -faith and wholesome humility, he should attend the Sunday evening -services at one of the McAuley Missions. - -Jerry McAuley died suddenly, but not unexpectedly, last September. His -funeral, held at the great Broadway Tabernacle, was one of the largest -ever seen in this city, and was attended by hundreds of abandoned -characters who had been reclaimed through his instrumentality, and who -were probably never inside of a church before, and may never be again. -Women with painted faces, but with tears in their eyes and bits of crape -fastened at their throats or arms, stood with downcast heads beside other -women who, under other circumstances, would have shunned them. Thus -did all classes testify to the power of simple faith and devotion in a -poor, uncultured outcast. Over the platform in his chapels are his last, -characteristic words: - - “IT’S ALL RIGHT.” - -“The workman dies, but the work goes on.” There is no calculating the -power and extent of the influences this humble worker has set in motion. -Beside the hundreds of living examples of his labor here, the seed has -scattered to the four winds of heaven, and sprung up in various forms to -bless the world—in other cities and other lands. The Missions publish -_Jerry McAuley’s Newspaper_, which, extensively circulated, especially -in prisons and “the slums” of cities, carries the glad tidings of the -testimonies to do a silent and unknown work. An affecting feature of the -private work of these converts is their efforts to hunt out and reclaim -missing boys and girls. Letters are received from agonized parents, from -distant points as well as the city, imploring the help of missionaries to -find these estrays; and their efforts are often successful. - -I close with one example of this radiating, ramifying influence: Michael -Dunn was an English thief by inheritance, for his parents were thieves, -and as he expresses it, “he had thieving on the brain.” He had spent the -greater part of thirty-five years in different prisons, and continued -the same life after coming to this country. One evening an unconverted -man sent him into the McAuley Mission as a joke, but it proved to Dunn a -blessing, for he found a Savior, and the desire for stealing was all cast -out. He was moved to undertake that most important work, the provision -of a home for refuge and work for his brother ex-convicts. After many -trials and difficulties he finally established the Home of Industry, No. -40 Houston Street, New York, where many lost men who were a terror to -society, have been made honest Christian citizens, and are working to -save others. Nor did the work stop here. In the autumn of 1883, Dunn was -called to San Francisco, California, to open a similar Home in that city, -where his labors are as successful as they were in New York. - - - - -EIN FESTE BURG IST UNSER GOTT. - -TRANSLATION OF LUTHER’S FAMOUS HYMN. - - Our God’s a fastness sure indeed, - A trusty shield and weapon; - He helps us free in every need - That unto us may happen. - The old wicked foe - Now in earnest doth go, - Deep wiles and great might - In his fell store unite,— - The earth holds not his fellow. - - By strength of ours is nothing done, - Full soon are we dejected! - But on our side’s a champion - By God himself elected. - And who may that be? - Christ Jesus is he, - The Lord God of Hosts! - All gods else are vain boasts, - Our camp is in his keeping. - - Though demons rage both far and near - And gape our souls to swallow; - Not all too great shall be our fear; - Success our steps shall follow. - The prince of this world, - Though threats he hath hurled, - To us can do nought, - For if to judgment brought - One word declares his sentence. - - To let the word stand they are fain, - And small thereby their merit; - He dwells among us on the plain - With gifts and with his spirit. - What though they take life, - Goods, name, child, and wife, - We need not rebel— - No profit those to hell, - While ours must be the kingdom. - - - - -THE WEATHER BUREAU. - -BY OLIVER W. LONGAN, - -Of the War Department. - - -In an article on the “War Department” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December, -mention was made of the weather observations by the Signal Corps of -the army. This novel service—novel both in its character and in its -assignment to a military department—was commenced in 1870, under a -resolution of Congress, approved February 9th of that year, which -required the Secretary of War “To provide for taking meteorological -observations at the military stations in the interior of the continent, -and at other points in the states and territories of the United States, -and for giving notice on the northern lakes and on the sea coast, by -magnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the approach and force of -storms;” and in June, 1872, the provisions of the service were extended -to include “the agricultural and commercial interests” of the country. -The plan of organization and the superintendence of the service were -imposed upon the chief signal officer of the army, then General Albert J. -Myer,[A] to whose memory the signal and the weather services are living -monuments. - -If failures are of value in guiding succeeding attempts in the same -line, General Myer had the advantage of a number, both in this country -and Europe, but attributing those failures to a want of proper agents -rather than to mistakes of method, and being thoroughly imbued with the -idea that efficient service from a body of men employed in the same -enterprise can be obtained only by enrolling them under the oath of -enlistment as subjects of military discipline, he could adopt all the -methods of operation which had already been tried by others, and, uniting -with them his own, could undertake the work with a confidence in men as -much as in measures, and make sure progress over the same road that had -been too difficult for others to travel. The signal service, which had -been organized by him as a special and distinct department of the army, -was well prepared to operate the most important agent in the work, the -magnetic telegraph, and it has constructed its lines over a great extent -of country not yet reached by civilization, connecting frontier military -posts with each other and with the lines owned and operated by private -companies. - -The office division first established under the law of Congress, which -has been mentioned, was called by the appropriate but too extensive name -of “Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce,” -but great works which have been proved and not found wanting may, like -great men, afford to adopt simpler titles without loss of favor, or if -they will not do so voluntarily, such titles will be fashioned for them -and fastened to them by the people, who have not time to regard the -official proprieties that would hold them off at a respectful distance -by an appearance of gravity of demeanor or by an impressive name, so the -office has come to be familiarly known as the “Weather Bureau,” and the -officials in charge have accepted the designation without objection. It -detracts nothing from the appreciation of the work they accomplish in -giving information—premonitory—of wind and rain, heat and cold, frost and -snow, river flood and ocean tide, and much more of interest and value -day by day—yes, and night by night as well—for the inhabitants of this -continent, and in adding to the knowledge of meteorology which is eagerly -sought by the scientists of the world. - -The service contemplated by Congress was at first intended—if we may -judge by the language of the law—only to benefit persons interested in -the commerce upon the great lakes and the ocean. Then the agriculturists -were permitted to take share in the advantage afforded by a prevision -of the weather. But we are all too greatly interested personally in the -kind of weather expected to-morrow or the next day not to seek to profit -by the work done for those engaged in special business when there may -be great gain for us as individuals without robbery of their peculiar -rights. Our interest moves us to speech almost unconsciously, as we meet -our friends by the way and tell them, what they already know as well as -we, about the kind of weather then prevailing, or express our hopes or -fears for what soon will be. Work and play are sources of profit and -pleasure, according to the influences of the weather, and the signs of -olden time are numberless, to which we give our confidence, whether they -come from the beasts of the field, or the fowls of the air, or the fishes -of the sea, or are indications based upon a correct philosophy, well -known but not well understood. The masses of the people will not give up -their attachment to these signs, nor for the old-fashioned almanac which -their fathers consulted for their weather predictions, but now that they -have the aid of a great government institution conducted by men who study -the weather as a science, and who have patiently held out to them the -benefit of their investigations until the good natured skepticism and the -raillery of the multitude who dubbed the genius of the weather service -“Old Probabilities,” has all been banished and has given place to full -faith and credit, they ought to acknowledge, and no doubt do, that their -personal wants in this respect have been recognized, and they will take -interest in the methods by which they are met and satisfied. - -Every feature of the signal service has been brought into requisition -and use for the work of weather observations and storm warnings, and -the original bureau seems to have been so wholly absorbed in the new -one that the corps will be known, except perhaps in official circles, -only by its operations in this special field, until war shall call for -the more frequent use of the flags and rockets and lights, by the aid -of which a great part of the rapid communication pertaining to the -business of warfare is carried on. The _personnel_ of the corps comprises -a chief signal officer (brigadier-general), twelve second lieutenants, -one hundred and fifty sergeants, thirty corporals, and three hundred -and twenty privates. Prior to 1878 there were no signal officers in the -regular establishment except the chief, but in that year authority was -given to appoint two second lieutenants annually from the sergeants, and -the selection for these appointments is made by competitive examination. -Officers are assigned to duty with the corps by detail from the regiments -of the army, and after a course of instruction return to their proper -stations, and are succeeded by others. A few civilians are employed in -the office in Washington city, in various capacities, including that of -professional scientist and instructor, but the great work of observation -is done by the army force, so called because every member of it is -ready at any moment to lay aside his special duties and take up arms -for any emergency. The pay of the officers is that of their grade in -the army: $5,500 per annum for a brigadier-general; $1,400 for a second -lieutenant, with an increase of ten per centum after each five years -of service, until the increase reaches forty per centum (after twenty -years’ service), when no more is added. (This increase, called longevity -pay, is not given to any officer above the rank of colonel.) As the -government is supposed to furnish a habitation of a certain number of -rooms for each commissioned officer, there is quite an augmentation -of the pay when the duty requires a station where there are no public -quarters, as is the case in most of the service for the weather bureau, -and commutation is paid. The pay of the enlisted men varies according to -their rank and station of duty, but is based upon the army pay table. The -pay of a sergeant, including all allowances, averages monthly within a -few cents of the following amounts: At a military post where quarters and -rations are provided in kind, $40; at an observing station, $80; at the -office in Washington city, $100; that of a corporal $25, $65, and $85; -that of a first class private $22, $62 and $82, and a decrease of four -dollars for a second class private, the respective stations being those -mentioned for the sergeant. The great difference in the pay of the same -man at different places is made by the “extra duty pay,” and commutation -of allowances (rations, quarters, fuel and clothing) when they can not -be furnished in kind. The entrance into the service is by an enlistment -of five years. Every man must pass a rigid examination into his physical -and educational qualifications. The service presents advantages not -found in any other branch of the army. The inducements attract a well -educated class of men, many of them graduates of colleges, who find in -the scientific part of the work at least, a congenial pursuit. - -The school of instruction is at Fort Myer (formerly Fort Whipple), a -military station in Virginia, on the bank of the Potomac river, nearly -opposite Washington city. The course embraces the drill and discipline -of the soldier, the code of signals, the construction and operation of -telegraph lines, the use of meteorological instruments, and the method -of taking observations. The central office in Washington occupies an -ordinary looking brick building of uncertain age, half a square west of -the War Department building. It was originally two two-story dwelling -houses, but has received an additional story and “Mansard” roof, and has -been fitted for its present use. The plain and dingy exterior escapes -critical notice by the display of the mysterious looking machinery -and fixtures upon the roof. An immense arrow (anemoscope), with broad -feather-tip end, turns its point ever “in the wind’s eye,” and is -imitated by two smaller ones at a lower elevation. Several sets of -spinning instruments of various sizes stand in different places. These -are the anemometers for measuring the velocity of the wind. The part of -each visible from the ground is simply a vertical rod with four branches -on the top, each branch having a hemispherical shaped cup upon its outer -end, so placed as to catch the wind in its convex side. The force of the -wind gives the cups a rotary motion in a horizontal plane, which causes -the vertical rod to revolve and record by connecting mechanism and dials -the velocity of the wind in miles per hour. Near the center of the roof -may be seen a vessel with a funnel shaped top into which the rain falls -and is measured to ascertain the depth in inches, of which accurate -record is kept. Close by is a framework supporting a small cage-like -structure with lattice sides and tight roof, within which are hung the -thermometers, barometers, and other instruments consulted regularly at -intervals, to ascertain the temperature, pressure, and humidity of the -atmosphere. These fixtures and instruments are used for the purpose -of obtaining indications of the weather, and for the instruction of -“Observers,” and serve as well for standards by which instruments to -be sent to other places may be tested. Only a portion, however, of the -business of the office is done in the building mentioned, a number of -others in the vicinity being occupied for the several departments of the -work. - -The central office is connected by telegraph with stations in the -principal cities of the country, at the sea and lake ports, and at points -along the Atlantic and gulf coasts, uniting with stations of the United -States Life Saving Service, for it is there that the work of greatest -value, the saving of human life, is done. The number of stations is -limited only by the amount of money provided by Congress for their -maintenance. The top of Pike’s Peak and the summit of Mount Washington -both contribute their share of upper air phenomena, and the lowest -valleys in the interior give up their secrets of the atmosphere at its -greatest depth. What an ocean it is, with its surface which we are told -is a certain number of miles above us, and its bottom, which we know is -under our feet, its shoreless currents, some as gentle as the breath of -an infant, others more fierce and swift than the whirlpool rapids of -Niagara. To learn of these currents their force and direction, whence -they come and whither they go, the laws to which they are subject, has -been the fascinating study of amateur meteorologists and the pursuit of -men of professional attainments in science for many years. But their -discoveries were of little practical value before Professor Morse, on a -May day forty years ago, sent over a telegraph wire between Washington -and Baltimore, his first message in the form of a question which since -has been answered in wonders by the same agent then employed, and the -same now used to send warning of the coming storm, whose swift wings have -no other rival. - -The weather stations are distinguished under a classification made by a -special service performed at each, and are known as telegraph, printing, -display, special river, cotton region, and sunset stations. A number of -them may have all the special features indicated by the different names, -while others may have but the one feature which gives it its place in the -class. The last mentioned are so called, not, as the name may possibly -suggest, because they are located away off toward sundown, but because of -the special observation taken at the time of sunset which affords so good -an indication of the probable weather for to-morrow. It recalls the fact -that the Jews were reminded more than eighteen hundred years ago of their -habit of observation in this particular, which was a rebuke for their -failure to read “the signs of the times.” A great number of reports are -received at the Weather Bureau weekly and monthly, by mail from volunteer -observers, from medical officers at military posts, from agricultural and -scientific societies, and at regular times from meteorological societies -in the old world, but as none but the telegraphic reports have more than -a relative connection with the work of weather indications for which we -are looking day after day, it is sufficient for the purposes of this -article to simply mention the fact that there are several hundred of -these mail reports from which record of permanent and daily increasing -value is made for study and information of the climate in various -sections of the country. - -The station service necessarily commenced under the disadvantage of -having no observers of experience, but there was only one way to get -them, and the beginning of the work was the commencement of the education -of the men who were to perform it. At this time there is not only the -course of instruction at Fort Myer, but men as assistants at stations -are perfecting themselves to occupy the places of those who have become -masters in the profession, or to take charge of new places. The telegraph -stations number about one hundred and fifty, and at each one is an -“Observer Sergeant,” with one or more assistants. Their equipment in -instruments is similar to that which has been mentioned in connection -with the central office, viz.: For ascertaining the temperature of the -air; the weight or pressure and relative humidity of the atmosphere; -the direction, force, and velocity of the wind; and the depth of the -rainfall; also at river stations for taking the temperature of the water, -and for measuring its rise or fall; and at display stations signal -flags and lanterns are included. The observers take the record from -their instruments at regular intervals every day and night, Sundays and -holidays included. There are three of these observations—taken at 7:00 -a. m., 3:00 p. m., and 11:00 p. m., Washington time—telegraphed to the -central office. Those taken at other hours are not telegraphed unless -called for, but are recorded and enter into the weekly and monthly mail -reports. The dispatch is in cipher, which permits the sending of a long -message in from five to twelve words, giving pressure, temperature, -direction, and velocity of wind, depth of rain or snow fall, appearance -and movement of clouds and any special meteorological phenomena present, -and adding from river and coast stations the stage of water in the -rivers and the ocean swell. By preconcerted arrangements with telegraph -companies, the reports pass over the wires without delay or interruption, -and all reach the central office within about forty minutes after the -observations are taken. They are at once translated and entered upon -graphic charts—outline maps of the United States—on which each station is -marked by its geographical location. By the use of symbols and figures -all the meteorological conditions of each locality are exhibited, and -so perfect is the system of arrangement for reporting and drafting -that in less than two hours from the time the record was taken by the -“Observers,” the officer who is to make the weather predictions has all -the reports before him in the central office. - -The ever-changing conditions of weather are in a manner photographed, -and serve as guides for the work which immediately follows the making -up of the charts. First the “synopsis” of conditions is made up, then -the predictions or “indications” of the kind of weather expected, and -the places where storm warnings are to be shown are determined, and -in the form of a bulletin they are telegraphed to all parts of the -country as the “Press Report,” to observing stations to be reproduced -and furnished to local papers, posted in public offices and mailed to -postmasters for exhibition in their offices, several hundred postoffices -in some instances being supplied from one station. They are also placed -in railroad stations and distributed from trains at points along their -lines. Thus the people are advised of the kind of weather prevailing over -the district of country in which they live, and informed of the changes -that may be expected within twenty-four or forty-eight hours. - -“Observers” at their several stations publish in connection with the -“indications” telegraphed from the central office, the conditions -prevailing in their own localities, and in large cities where weather -maps are hung in the rooms of boards of trade, merchants’ exchange, -or other important offices, they place or change the symbols used to -indicate the conditions at all the stations, as they receive them from -reports passing them to the central office or repeated from the latter. - -The development and progress of all storms are as clearly delineated upon -the charts prepared in the central office as it is possible for sensitive -instruments to reveal them, and special attention is given to indications -of high winds approaching the coasts. Orders are sent by telegraph to -the maritime stations within a region likely to be visited by dangerous -winds, and a “cautionary signal”—a square white flag with a square red -center by day, or a red-center light by night—is displayed, remains out -until notice is received from the central office that the danger has -passed. This signal is used as the storm approaches. As the general -direction of storms upon the Atlantic coast, or approaching it, is -easterly or northeasterly, and the direction of the wind is circular and -opposite to the motion of the hands upon a watch, with an inward tendency -toward the “storm center,” as the storm departs from a station the wind -will probably blow from the north or west, and a “cautionary off-shore -signal,” a square white flag with square black center above the red -flag, by day, or a white light above the red by night, may be ordered. -Special record of the velocity of the wind is made at the stations when -storm signals are ordered, and if it reaches twenty-five miles an hour -the display of the signal is regarded as “justified.” These signals have -become a necessity, and the occasions are exceedingly rare in which a -vessel will leave port with one in sight until the captain or master has -first made inquiry at the station for “particulars.” Coasting vessels are -dependent in a great measure upon them; if they pass a station with the -storm-signal displayed, they frequently escape encountering destructive -gales by putting into the nearest port until the danger has passed. - -The coast telegraph lines connecting the signal and the life saving -stations have been constructed by the government, and are operated by the -signal corps. The weather stations are equipped for making connections -with the main line at any point, and many instances may be found recorded -in the official reports, of shipwrecks on the coast to which relief has -been brought in a very few hours by the prompt action of “Observers” -opening telegraphic communication from a point abreast the wreck, direct -to the central office in Washington, and sending information to be -repeated, with the weight of official authority, to the nearest port from -which steamers could be sent to the rescue. A vessel in distress, or in -need of any information, if in possession of the international code of -marine signals—a number of nations have adopted the American code—may -communicate with the shore stations. By this code a number of small flags -of various shapes and colors, used singly or together, answer to certain -words and sentences, and these being translated into other languages, -convey from the American or Englishman to the Frenchman, German, or -Spaniard the question or answer desired, as plainly as an affirmative nod -of the head from one to the other would mean yes. - -The river reports are an important feature of the service. The -temperature of the waters, surface and deep, taken regularly, makes -a record for the benefit of those engaged in the propagation of food -fishes, which is becoming an important government work. The stage of -water taken in connection with the reports of rainfall and temperature of -the atmosphere in their influence upon deep beds of snow and ice-locked -streams affords ground for warnings, when needed, to persons engaged in -any river traffic, or exposed to floods upon the banks. - -The “waves” of temperature have become as real to us as those upon -the ocean, and the prosecution of very many kinds of business, or the -transportation of perishable produce is guided by the reports of the -Weather Bureau, as it foretells the coming of heat or cold. The interior -of the country will no doubt soon have the benefit of signals, as well -as “bulletins.” A large, white flag, with a square black center, is now -displayed at stations in advance of an expected “cold wave,” and before -a great while we may expect the “limited express” upon the different -railroads will be made the bearer of signals to forewarn the inhabitants -of the country through which it passes of the change of weather rapidly -following its track. The possibilities of the service seem to be -unlimited, but the most careful watchfulness of the “Observers,” and -the keen vigilance of the officers who direct them have not yet brought -the elements to reveal all their movements. Sometimes, as a wary foe, -a storm will steal in between the sentinels, or descend from the upper -air, and gathering all its strength into one narrow channel, will drive -destruction through town and country, and leave behind it evidences of -power which we can hardly credit, except by sight. - -One of the many specimens exhibited in the National Museum at Washington -is a section of a young oak tree four inches in diameter, with a pine -board, one inch thick, four inches wide at one end, and twelve inches -wide at the other, which has been driven through the tree more than -half its length (eight feet, the label states), and is now held as in a -vise, the tree above and below the board being unbroken. This has been -deposited in the Museum as an evidence of the force of the wind in a -tornado that visited the vicinity of Wesson, Mississippi, April 22, 1883. - -The progress of work in the Weather Bureau has been first toward -encompassing great interests in the fields indicated by law, then to -take up the smaller needs pertaining to individual benefit and pleasure, -and as time passes and the service widens there will be personal contact -that will give an intimate knowledge and impression of its value which -narrative can not. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[A] Died at Buffalo, New York, August 24, 1880. - - - - -HOW TO WIN. - -BY FRANCES E. WILLARD, - -President National W. C. T. U. - - -CHAPTER II. - -Last month, taking the Past for a background, I tried to picture the -opportunity which the Present holds up before the daughters of America. -Let me now, for a brief space, coming freshly from the field of active -service, where banners wave and squadrons wheel, try to talk about the -conditions of success, in this wonderful battle of life. First, then, -I would give this not at all startling bit of advice: _Keep to your -specialty_; to the doing of the thing that you accomplish with most of -satisfaction to yourself, and most of benefit to those about you. Keep -to this, whether it is raising turnips or tunes; painting screens or -battle pieces; studying political economy or domestic receipts; for, as -we read in a great author who has a genius for common sense: “There is -not one thing that men ought to do, there is not one thing that ought -to be done, which a woman ought not to be encouraged to do, if she has -the capacity for doing it. For wherever there is a gift, there is a -prophecy pointing to its use, and a silent command of God to use it.” -Such utterances as these are assertions of the “natural and inalienable -rights” of the individual as such. They are deductions of the Christian -philosophy which regards you and me, first and chiefly, as human beings, -and makes the greatest possible account of personal identity. In all ages -there have been minds that saw this truth. The intellects which towered -like Alpine peaks above the mass of men, were the first to reflect its -blessed light. Two thousand years ago, Juvenal made the heroine of a -famous “Satire” say to the hero: “I like our Latin word for _man_, which -equally includes your sex and mine. For you should not forget that, in -all things highest, best, and most enduring in our natures, I am as much -a man as you are.” The sun of truth looms high above the far horizon in -our day, and even the plains of human thought and purpose are glowing -with the light of this new inspiration. “Personal value,” “personal -development,” these will be the noontide watchwords, “when the race out -of childhood has grown.” Only yesterday I heard a fashionable butterfly, -in the surroundings of a luxurious home, saying with sudden enthusiasm: -“Of one thing I am sure; every woman that lives is bound to find out what -is the very best thing she can do with her powers, and then she’s bound -to do it.” In creating each of us with some peculiar talent, God has -given us each “a call” to some peculiar work. Indeed, the time is almost -here when the only call that will be recognized as valid, in any field, -must involve in him who thinks he hears it, both adaptation and success. -Each one of us is a marvelous bundle of aptitudes and of capacities. But, -just as I prefer the active to the passive voice, I prefer to put the -aptitudes first in my present inventory. Besides, the world has harangued -us women on our capacities, from the beginning, and it is really -refreshing to take the dilemma of our destiny by the other horn, at last! -Civilization (by which I mean Christianity’s effect on the brains and -hands of humanity), wonderfully develops and differentiates our powers. - -Among the Modocs there are but four specialties—assigned with remarkable -fairness, in the proportion of two for the squaws and two for the braves. -The last hunt and fight; the first do the drudgery and bring up the -pappooses. Among the Parisians, on the contrary, the division of labor is -almost infinite, so that the hand perfectly skilled in the most minute -industry (as, for instance, in moulding the shoestrings of a porcelain -statuette), needs no other resource to gain a comfortable livelihood. -Among the Modocs, skins are about the only article of commerce. Among -the Parisians, evolution has gone so far in the direction of separating -employments formerly blended, that you can not buy cream and milk in the -same shop. - -By some unaccountable perversion of good sense, the specialties of -human beings who are women, have been strangely circumscribed. But they -were _there_, all the same, and now, under the genial sun of a more -enlightened era, they are coming airily forth, like singing birds after -a thunder storm. And wonderfully do they help some of us to solve the -toughest of all problems: _What is life for?_ - -Let us see. Lift the cover of your sewing basket; there are thimble, -scissors, spools of thread, and all the neat outfit needful to a -seamstress, but minus the needle they have no explanation and no -efficiency. Unlock your writing desk: what are paper, ink, and -sealing-wax, without the pen? They are nothing but waste material and -toys. So it is with you and me. We have no explanation that is adequate; -we have no place in the work-box and portfolio of to-day; no place in the -great humming hive of the land we live in, save as some predominating -aptitude in each of us explains why we are here, and in what way we are -to swell the inspiring song of voluntary toil and beneficent success. -Suppose that here, and now, you proceed to take an “inventory of stock,” -if you have not been thoughtful enough to do that already. Made up as -you are, what is your _forte_, your “specialty,” your “best hold,” as -men phrase it? Be sure of one thing, at the outset: The great Artificer, -in putting together your individual nature, did not forget this crowning -gift, any more than he forgets to add its own peculiar fragrance to the -arbutus, or its own song to the lark. It may not lie upon the surface, -this choicest of your treasures; diamonds seldom do. Miners lift a -great deal of mere dust, before the sparkling jewel they are seeking -gladdens the eye. Genius has been often and variously defined. I would -call it _an intuition_ of one’s own best gift. Rosa Bonheur knew hers; -Charlotte Cushman recognized hers; George Eliot was not greatly at a loss -concerning hers. As for us, of less emphatic individuality, sometimes we -wait until a friend’s hand leads us up before the mirror of our potential -self; sometimes we see it reflected in another’s success (as the eaglet, -among the flock of geese, first learned that he could fly, when he -recognized a mate in the heaven-soaring eagle, whose shadow frightened -all the geese away); sometimes we come upon our heritage unwittingly, as -Diana found Endymion, but always it is there, be sure of that, and “let -no man take thy crown.” As iron filings fall into line around a magnet, -so make your opportunities cluster close about your magic gift. In a land -so generous as ours, this can be done, by every woman who reads these -lines. A sharpened perception of their own possibilities is far more -needed by “our girls” than better means for education. But how was it in -the past? If there is one thought which, for humanity’s sake, grieves -me as no other can, it is this thought of God’s endowment bestowed upon -us each, so that we might in some especial manner gladden and bless the -world, by bestowing upon it our best; the thought of his patience all -through the years, as he has gone on hewing out the myriad souls of a -wayward race, that they might be lively stones in the temple of use and -of achievement, and side by side with this, the thought of our individual -blindness, our failure to discern the riches of brain, heart and hand, -with which we were endowed. But most of all, I think about the gentle -women who have lived, and died, and made no sign of their best gifts, -but whose achievements of voice and pen, of brush and chisel, of noble -statesmanship and great-hearted philanthropy, might have blessed and -soothed our race through these six thousand years. - -There is a stern old gentleman of my acquaintance, who, if he had heard -what I have felt called upon to say, would have entered his demurrer, -in this fashion: “That’s all fol-de-rol, my friend; a mere rhetorical -flourish. If women could have done all this, why didn’t they, pray -tell? If it’s in it’s in, and will come out, but what’s wanting can’t -be numbered. You can’t pull the wool over my eyes with your vague -generalities. I went to the Centennial; I saw Machinery Hall, and what’s -more for my argument (and less for yours), I saw the ‘Woman’s Pavilion,’ -too.” - -He would then proceed to ask me, with some asperity, if I thought that -any of my “gentle myriads” could have invented a steam engine? Whereupon -I would say to him, what I now say to you, “most assuredly I think so; -why not?” And I would ask, in turn, if my old friend had studied history -with reference to the principle that, as a rule, human beings do not rise -above the standard implied in society’s general estimate of the class -to which they belong. Take the nations of Eastern Europe and Western -Asia; “civilized” nations, too, be it remembered; study the mechanic -of Jerusalem, the merchant of Damascus and Ispahan; in what particular -are the tools of the one or the facilities of commerce familiar to the -others, superior to those of a thousand years ago? Surely, so far as -oriental inventions are concerned, they have changed as little as the -methods of the bee or the wing-stroke of the swallow. We hear no more of -man’s inventiveness in those countries than of woman’s. Why should we, -indeed, when we remember that both are alike untaught in the arts and -sciences which form the basis of mechanical invention? They are inspired -by no intellectual movement; no demand; no “modern spirit.” It is not -“in the air” that _men_ shall be fertile of brain and skilled of hand as -inventors there, any more than it is here that women shall be, and where -both knowledge and incentive are not present, achievement is evermore a -minus quantity. None but a heaven-sent genius, stimulated by a love of -science, prepared by special education and inspired by the _prestige_ of -belonging to the dominant sex, ever yet carved types, tamed lightning -or imprisoned steam. Besides, in ages past, if some brave soul, man or -woman, conscious of splendid powers, strove to bless the world by their -free exercise, what dangers were involved! Was it Joan of Arc? the fagot -soon became her portion; or Galileo? on came the rack; or Christopher -Columbus? the long disdain of courtiers and jealousy of ambitious -coadjutors followed him; or Stephenson? his fetter was the menace of -the law; or Robert Fulton? he faced the sarcasm of the learned and the -merriment of boors. Even for the most adventurous inventors of to-day -(as the aeronaut experimenters), what have we but bad puns and insipid -conundrums, until he wins, and then ready caps tossed high in air and -fame’s loud trumpet at his ear—when death’s cold finger has closed it up -forever. - -Times are changing, though. The world grows slowly better and more -brotherly. The day is near when women will lack no high incentive to -the best results in every branch of intellectual endeavor and skilled -workmanship. Not a week passes but from the Patent Office comes some -favorable verdict as to woman’s inventive power. Wisdom’s goddess deems -herself no longer compromised because places are assigned us in her -banquet hall. “The world is all before us where to choose,” and I, for -one, appeal from the “Woman’s Pavilion” of the first, to that which shall -illustrate the second hundred years of this republic. - - - - -FORTRESS, PALACE AND PRISON. - -BY EDITH SESSIONS TUPPER. - - -It is believed by many that the Tower of London is, as its name would -seem to indicate, but a single lofty pile, while in reality it is a vast -collection of grim towers and frowning bastions; a great walled town in -the heart of busy London. - -The Tower, or the White Tower, built in the time of the Conqueror, is -surrounded by twelve smaller towers—Bloody, Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, -Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broadarrow, Salt and Record. In -turn, these are environed by the ballium walls and bastions, and the moat -guarded by Middle, Byward, St. Thomas, Cradle, Well and Devlin towers. - -As one descends Tower Hill, the eye takes in the whole immense and -hoary mass, fit emblem of the stormy and tempestuous times in which -each separate tower arose. Like black shadows of the past casting their -gloom over the present, rise the lofty turrets above the roofs of modern -buildings. Sternly they look down upon throbbing London, each with its -own history, each with its own awful secrets locked in its stony breast. - -Amid the terrific conflict of the days when the Norman was trampling the -Saxon under foot, the Tower, the Great Tower, or the White Tower, as it -was variously called, arose. - -William the Conqueror caused it to be built as a fortress for himself -in case his Saxon subjects might rebel against his hard and iron rule. -Among the ecclesiastics who possessed the richest sees of those days was -Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, who was also a fine military architect. -To him the Conqueror gave the commission to build his New Fortress in -1079-80. Gundulph selected the site just without the city then, and to -the east, on the northern side of the Thames. The tower is quadrangular -in shape, one hundred and sixteen feet from north to south, ninety-six -from east to west, ninety-two feet in height, and its external walls -are fifteen feet in thickness—an imposing and superb specimen of Norman -architecture. It is three stories high, not counting the vaults. There -are some slight traces remaining of the grand entrance on the north side, -but visitors enter by modern doors on both the north and south sides. - -In the northeast corner of the White Tower is a massive staircase, -connecting the three stories. The column around which the stairs wind is -a remarkable and well preserved specimen of ancient masonry. A wall seven -feet in thickness runs north and south, which divides the tower from base -to summit. Another wall extending east and west subdivides the southern -portion into unequal parts, forming in each story one large and two -small rooms. The smallest division on the ground floor is called Queen -Elizabeth’s Armory, being filled with armor and trappings of her day. On -the north side of this room, one is shown a cell formed in the thickness -of the wall, ten feet long and eight wide, receiving no light save from -the entrance. In this dark and dismal room was imprisoned for twelve long -years the gay and brilliant courtier, Sir Walter Raleigh, on suspicion -merely of being implicated in a plot to place the Lady Arabella Stuart, -the niece of the unfortunate Queen of Scots, on the throne of England. -This ill-fated lady also perished in the tower, her reason having been -dethroned by her long and cruel captivity. In the year she died, Sir -Walter was released and sent to South America to search for gold mines; -returning unsuccessful he was remanded to the Tower, and beheaded in -1618 to please the Spaniards. James First wished to gain their favor, -as his son Prince Charles was to be married to the Infanta. Raleigh’s -bravery and valor had been too often directed against the Spaniards for -them not to exult over his cruel fate. In this wretched and gloomy cell, -it is said, he wrote his “History of the World.” In the center of this -armory are various instruments of torture; about the room are stands of -weapons, halberds, battle axes, maces and bills, and military instruments -for cutting the bridles of horses; at the end of the room is a figure on -horseback, representing Queen Bess. Her dress is copied from an ancient -portrait, and she is attended by officers and pages. Just back of these -figures hangs a very old picture of St. Paul’s cathedral. But the most -terribly fascinating objects in this room are the block, the headsman’s -hideous, grinning mask and the original axe. With horror the visitor -looks upon the block, dented here and there where the executioner’s -nervous blows struck wide of the mark, and upon the ponderous axe, whose -blade has cleft the necks of so many royal and noble victims. - -One is glad to leave this chamber of horrors and go above into St. -John’s Chapel, which is considered one of the finest specimens of Norman -architecture left in the kingdom. It terminates in a semi-circle, and -the twelve enormous pillars are arranged in similar fashion. These -pillars are united by arches which admit the light into the nave from -the windows. In the reign of Henry III. three immense windows of stained -glass were added to the chapel. It is not known at what time or from what -cause it ceased to be used for religious purposes. A large room directly -above, on the third floor, was used as a council chamber by the kings, -when they held their court in the Tower. It was in this room that the -infamous Richard, Duke of Gloucester, ordered Lord Hastings to instant -execution in front of St. Peter’s Chapel. - -This room is now used as a depository for small arms, and the arrangement -of weapons in the form of various flowers is wonderful and artistic, the -entire ceiling being covered by curious and intricate combinations of -these arms. - -Encircling the great White Tower, as has been said, is a row of twelve -smaller towers. Perhaps the one first in interest is that directly -opposite the Traitor’s Gate, and rightly named, known as the Bloody -Tower. It is rectangular in form, being the only one of that shape in the -inner ward. It closely joins Record or Wakefield Tower on the west. Its -grand gateway was built in the reign of Edward III., and is the entrance -proper to the inner ward. The massive portcullis gives signs of immense -age. It was in this tower in 1483, that the most infamous order of the -hateful Gloucester, the murder of the innocent princes, the children of -Edward IV., was consummated. - - “The tyrannous and bloody act is done— - The most arch deed of piteous massacre - That ever yet this land was guilty of.” - -The little victims are supposed to have been buried at the foot of the -staircase in the White Tower, but a strange mystery surrounds their fate. - -Joining Bloody Tower is the tower next in size to the Great or White -Tower, known as the Record Tower, from its having been for many centuries -the depository for the records of the nation, and Wakefield Tower, from -the imprisonment there of the Yorkists, after the victory of Margaret of -Anjou, the Amazonian queen of the good but weak Henry VI., at Wakefield, -in 1460. This victory gave the House of Lancaster the ascendency for -a short time. The next year the Yorkists were successful, Henry was -remanded to the tower, and was soon after found dead, murdered by -Gloucester’s command, it is supposed. - - “Within the hollow crown - That rounds the mortal temples of a king - Keeps death his court; and there the antic sits, - Scoffing his state and grinning at his pomp; - Allowing him a breath, a little scene, - To monarchise, be fear’d and kill with looks; - Infusing him with self and vain conceit, - As if this flesh which walls about our life - Were brass impregnable; and humor’d thus, - Comes at the last, and with a little pin - Bores through his castle wall—and farewell, king!” - -Wakefield Tower is very ancient, having been built in the time of William -Rufus, in 1087. - -On the opposite side of the inner ward looms up the gloomy and famous -Bowyer Tower, so named from its having been the residence of the Master -Provider of the King’s Bows. In a dungeon-like room of this tower, -“false, fleeting, perjured Clarence,” younger brother of Edward IV., was -drowned in a butt of Malmsey. Together with the detestable Gloucester, -he stabbed the young son of Henry VI. in the field at Tewkesbury, but -retribution was swift. He soon incurred the displeasure and jealousy of -his royal brother, and perished in this wretched manner. - - “O Brackenbury, I have done these things - That now give evidence against my soul— - For Edward’s sake, and see, how he requites me.” - -But a short distance from the Bowyer is the Brick Tower, which acquires -a mournful interest from the fact that tradition has assigned this as -the prison of the martyr of ambition, the lovely Lady Jane Grey. Fuller -says of her that at eighteen she possessed the innocence of childhood, -the sedateness of age, the learning of a clerk, and the life of a saint. -Gentle, modest and retiring, fond of her studies and books, little -dreamed she of her short-lived honor and cruel fate. Forced upon the -throne by the insatiable ambition of Northumberland, she ruled for ten -days. It is asserted that Mary wished to spare her cousin’s life, but -that Wyatt’s rebellion so alarmed her that she determined to make an -example of Lady Jane and her boy husband, Guildford Dudley. - -Not only her piety, grace and beauty excite our admiration, but also her -sublime heroism, which caused her to refuse to bid her young lover and -husband farewell, lest the parting should unman him. Dudley was executed -on Tower Hill, and the same day the lofty spirit of his wife joined his. - - “Now boast thee, death; in thy possession lies - A lass, unparallel’d.” - -Next to the Brick is the Jewel or Martin Tower, where the crown jewels -were formerly kept. They are now preserved in the Record Tower. On the -wall of the Martin Tower we saw inscribed the name of Anne Boleyn. It is -said that one of the unfortunate gentlemen who lost their heads on her -account traced it there. Diagonally across the inner ward rises the Bell -Tower, thus named from the alarm bell which crowned it. This was the -prison of Princess Elizabeth during her enforced stay in the tower. Some -little children used to bring her flowers here, until it came to the ears -of Mary, who forbade this innocent service. - -Only a short walk from Bell loom up the frowning walls of Beauchamp -Tower, than which there is no more interesting place in the entire -enclosure. Its architecture is of the reign of John and Henry III. Its -name is derived from Thomas De Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, imprisoned -here during the reign of Richard II. This tower is in the center of the -western side of the inner ward, and in a half circle projects from the -strong ballium walls, and is two stories in height. Its walls are covered -with inscriptions made by different prisoners; some indicative of their -mental agony during their captivity; many, indeed the most, expressing -Christian fortitude and pious resignation to their hard lot. - -The first name noticed is that of Marmaduke Neville, near the entrance. -He was one of the Nevilles, Earls of Westmoreland, and was implicated in -a plot to place Mary Stuart upon the throne during Elizabeth’s reign. In -the southern recess is shown an inscription in old Italian: “Dispoi che -voie la fortuna che la mea speranza va al vento pianger, hovolio el tempo -per dudo; e semper stel me tristo, e disconteto. Wilim: Tyrrel, 1541.” -The mournful burden of which comes like a sigh of despair from out the -past, “Since fortune hath chosen that my hope should go to the wind to -complain, I wish the time were destroyed; my planet being ever sad and -unfavorable.” Alas, unhappy one! Your words no doubt were but the echo of -many sad hearts that found the times were indeed out of joint. - -Over the fireplace is a beautiful and touching inscription: “Quanto plus -afflictionis pro Christo in hoc sæculo, tanto plus gloriæ cum Christo in -futuro. Arundell, June 22, 1587,” which being interpreted is, “The more -affliction for Christ in this world, the more glory with Christ in the -next.” - -This was written by Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel, whose devotion to -the Romish church during Elizabeth’s reign, brought so much odium upon -him, and made for him so many enemies that he at last resolved to leave -his country, friends, and his wife, to whom he was devotedly attached, -and go into voluntary exile for his better safety. He informed the Queen -in a most pathetic letter of his intention, designing she should not -receive it until he was well out of way, but by some freak of fortune, -the letter fell into the hands of his foes, and he was seized as he was -setting sail from the coast of Sussex. He was sent to the Tower and kept -a close prisoner for forty years, when worn out with his long and cruel -confinement and sorrow he died, realizing at the end, we hope, the truth -of the touching words he traced upon his prison walls. - -There are several interesting inscriptions made by Arthur and Edmund -Poole, great-grandsons of the Duke of Clarence. These young gentlemen -were also accused for conspiring for Mary Stuart, adjudged traitors, and -pined away their lives in hopeless captivity. Well might the White Rose -of Scotland have said with Helen of Troy: - - “Many drew swords and died; where’er I came, - I brought calamity.” - -One inscription reads: - - “IHS. A passage perillus maketh a port pleasant. Ao. 1568. Arthur - Poole, Æ sue 37, A. P.” - -A passage perilous indeed, hadst thou, poor soul; God grant thou madst a -fair haven at last. - -Another contains these words: - - “IHS. Dio semine in lachrimis in exultatione meter. Æ. 21, E. - Poole, 1562.” “That which is sown by God in tears is reaped in - joy.” - -In all the inscriptions left by these ill-starred gentlemen, there -breathes the same spirit of noble and pious submission. - -The greatest interest clusters about one little word, supposed to have -been traced by the hand of one to whom that name was sacred. Directly -under one of the Poole autographs is the word “IANE,” supposed to have -been the royal title of Lady Jane Grey, written there by her husband, -Lord Dudley, who was confined in this tower. Scarcely can the eyes be -restrained at this touching reminder of the fate of those two unhappy -children, the victims of circumstance and greedy ambition. - -In the corner next the Beauchamp is the Devereux Tower, named from the -brilliant Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, the chivalric soldier and -courtier, first a petted favorite, then a victim of Queen Elizabeth. -His story is one of thrilling and fascinating interest. Meteor-like he -flashed through his court and army life, and after gaining the zenith of -his power, sank as suddenly as he had risen. It is said that he was one -of the many with whom the royal and fickle spinster coquetted, and that -he really touched her haughty heart. The government of Ireland was in his -hands, but enemies at court plotted his overthrow. He in turn plotted -against these foes and rashly attempted to cause their removal. He was -arrested and arraigned in Westminster Hall for high treason, pronounced -guilty, and doomed to the block. - -Elizabeth had a terrific struggle between revenge and affection, but the -baser passion got the victory, and the accomplished general, statesman, -and courtier trod the same hard road to death that so many knew full well. - - “I have reached the highest point of all my greatness! - And from that full meridian of my glory, - I haste now to my setting: I shall fall - Like a bright exhalation in the evening, - And no man see me more.” - -The towers of the outer ward are comparatively of but little interest, -with the exception of St. Thomas’s Tower or the Traitor’s Gate. This is -a large, square building over the moat, the outside of which is guarded -by two circular towers, which exhibit specimens of the architecture of -the time of Henry III. The gate through which state prisoners entered the -Tower is underneath this building. - -The rain was falling drearily on the day we visited the Tower. Somber -and heavy skies looked sullenly down on the gloomy scene. Thoughts as -somber and heavy weighed down our minds as we stood before the Traitor’s -Gate; thoughts of countless numbers that had gone in at that gate never -to come forth again. In the clang of those iron portals behind them they -heard their death knell. The royal, the noble, the illustrious, the -pious passed under these frowning battlements, leaving behind grandeur, -brilliancy of courts, dreams of glory, home, friends, all that makes life -sweet, to receive in exchange, the dungeon, the scaffold, the block, the -axe. - -They who entered there left hope indeed behind. - -Through this gate went Elizabeth, expecting naught but death; dreaming -little of the hour when all England should lie within the hollow of her -white hand. Under these portals three short years after she issued from -the Tower in all the full flush of her pride and triumph, received by -lords and dukes, amid the blare of trumpets, and peal of bells and roar -of guns. Elizabeth’s hapless mother, Anne Boleyn, returned to the Tower. -No nobles in her train now; no burst of music; no chime of bells nor roar -of artillery; alone, save with her jailers; her fair fame blackened; her -triumphs, glories—all shrunk to this little measure. The husband she had -stolen from another, in turn lured from her, wearied of her, longing to -be rid of her, hurrying her to her fearful doom with brutal haste. - - “A dream of what thou wast; a garish flag, - To be the aim of ever dangerous shot; - A sign of dignity, a breath, a bubble; - A queen in jest only to fill the scene. - … - Where is thy husband now? - … - Who sues and kneels and says God save the queen? - Where be thy bending peers that flattered thee? - Where be the thronging troops that followed thee? - … - For one being sued to, one that humbly sues; - For queen, a very caitiff crowned with care; - Thus hath the course of justice wheeled about - And left thee but a very prey to time; - Having no more but thought of what thou wert, - To torture thee the more, being what thou art.” - -What thoughts must have chased each other in lightning rapidity through -the mind of beautiful, brilliant, witty Anne Boleyn, during those -short seventeen days she passed in the Tower before she was led out to -execution. What experience of life had she not compressed into those -three little years of usurpation, during which she spurned “heads like -foot balls,” laughed, danced, and jested away her poor, butterfly life? -What remorse must have been hers when the sad, pale face of Katharine -arose before her! What unspeakable anguish when the coquettish features -of Jane Seymour swam before her weeping eyes! - -On the 19th of May, 1536, when hedge and field were bursting into bloom, -when birds sang and soft breezes played, when all nature must have -breathed of beauty, hope and life—Anne Boleyn went forth the second time -from the Tower to receive her crown; not this time an earthly diadem, -glittering with jewels, but the thorny crown of martyrdom. Not in cloth -of gold and blazing with gems, but in sable robes went she to this -coronation, and her only salute was the dull boom of the cannon which -announced to the royal ruffian waiting at Richmond that he was free. - -The Tower of London has been used not alone for a fortress and prison, -but also for a palace. All of the kings from William to Charles II. held -occasional court in the Tower. A palace occupied a space in the inner -ward, between the southwest corner of the White Tower and the Record, -Salt and Broadarrow Towers. The queens had a suite extending from the -Lanthorn to the southeast of the White Tower. And near the Record Tower -was a great hall which demanded forty fir trees to repair it at the time -of the marriage festivities of Henry III. and Eleanore of Provence. - -When Edward the Black Prince took prisoner King John of France, he lodged -his royal captive in this palace, and King John gave an entertainment for -his captor in this great hall. The beautiful Elizabeth of York, daughter -of Edward IV., and queen of Henry VII., resided for a time in this -palace, and passed from thence to her coronation. Sixteen years later -she lay in state twelve days in the royal chapel in the White Tower, -where her knights and ladies kept solemn vigil beside her bier. What an -impressive scene it must have been! The windows all ablaze with lights, -and an illuminated hearse holding the royal dead. - -Queen Mary held court in the Tower directly after she had defeated -Northumberland and the Dudleys. The ancient custom of a state procession -from the Tower to Westminster was observed for the last time at the -coronation of Charles II. - -Very near the Devereux Tower is a plain, unpretentious building—the -chapel of St. Peter Ad Vincula. It is small, having but one nave and one -side aisle, and is quite without ornamentation. But marvelous interest -invests it. Here Lady Jane was buried; here the body of poor Anne Boleyn -was thrust into an old chest and hastily interred in the vaults; here -lies the dust of Northumberland, Thomas Cromwell, Somerset, Surrey, and -Essex, teaching the terribly solemn lesson that ambition, talents, fame, -form no sure bulwark against death. - - “To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow - Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, - To the last syllable of recorded time; - And all our yesterdays have lighted fools - The way to dusky death. Out, out, brief candle.” - -Just in front of this chapel is the spot on which the scaffold was built; -the spot where the best blood of England flowed like water; the spot -which mars the escutcheon of the Tudors with an ineffaceable stain; the -spot where Englishmen first looked upon the spectacle of the blood of -their countrywoman flowing beneath the blows of a foreign headsman. Here -fell the heads of two of the wives of Henry VIII.; here the hapless Lady -Jane was despatched, and the gallant Essex met his death by orders of -Henry’s daughters, fit representatives of their father; here was enacted -that revolting scene, the butchery of the venerable mother of Cardinal -Pole, the Countess of Salisbury. She was sister of the Earl of Warwick, -and daughter of the murdered Clarence. Her only crime seems to have been -her royal blood. When brought out to execution, she refused to lay her -head on the block, saying haughtily, “So do traitors use to do, and I -am no traitor.” The sequel is almost too sickening to be rehearsed. The -executioner pursued his victim around the scaffold, striking at her with -his axe, and finally dragged her by her white hairs to the block. Thus -miserably perished the last of the Plantagenets. - -Heavier fell the rain and wilder blew the wind as we slowly took our -way toward the outer entrance to the Tower. In the patter of the rain -upon the stone flagging beneath us, we seemed to hear the footsteps of a -countless, headless throng; in the slow drip, drip of the raindrops from -the gloomy walls, the drip, drip of warm life blood trickling down and -ebbing away; borne on the wail of the wind there seemed to come sighs of -anguish, moaning voices long since silenced, voices from out a dreadful -past, voices that cried aloud for vengeance. And as the great gates of -the Tower clanged behind us, in a tremendous peal of thunder, there -seemed to come an answering voice from heaven, “Vengeance is mine, I will -repay.” - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR APRIL. - -BY PROF. M. B. GOFF, - -Western University of Pennsylvania. - - -THE SUN, - -With its immediate attendants, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, etc., has -been the “theme of our discourse” for the last eighteen months. Except -an occasional reference to one of the planets as being located near -some fixed star, or in some constellation, little has been said about -the 3,391 “fixed” stars, visible to the naked eye, many of which are -located on maps of the heavens, just as villages, cities, mountains, -rivers and plains are located on maps of the earth; nor of the somewhere -between 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 which are visible only through powerful -telescopes, and whose distances from the sun are so great as to make that -of Neptune appear like a little walk “across lots” to visit a neighbor. -Nor is it proposed now to enter upon such an extensive subject, except -so far as may be necessary to present a single thought. As we know, our -sun is a bright body, whose light and heat (so great is their power) we -can hardly estimate. Both these qualities render it visible to us and -make us realize its presence. The other bodies, as Mars, Jupiter and the -Moon are seen only by reflected light, and were they as distant as the -fixed stars, would not be at all visible. These 30,000,000 to 50,000,000 -stars must be suns. How many satellites has each? We do not know, for -they can not be seen. Suppose each had as many as our sun. Then instead -of 30,000,000 to 50,000,000 of heavenly bodies, we have within reach of -the telescope from 240,000,000 to 400,000,000. How many are outside of -these? No man can number them. We shall have to wait till our minds can -grasp the infinite. Are these millions of bodies standing still, or are -they in motion? Does our sun stand still and permit us to go around him -once every year, or is he, and are we along with him, making our way -through other vast multitudes and moving around some other central orb? -Observation proves that the sun is only a sergeant in a great army of -generals, and marches his squad in an appointed way to their assigned -duties. How do we know? The records of patient watchers for centuries -reveal the fact. “If we suppose the sun, attended by planets, to be -moving through space, we ought to be able to detect this motion by an -apparent motion of the stars in a contrary direction, as when an observer -moves through a forest of trees, his own motion imparts an apparent -motion to the trees in a contrary direction. All the stars would not -be equally affected by such a motion of the solar system. The nearest -stars would appear to have the greatest motion, but all the changes of -position would appear to take place in the same direction. The stars -would appear to recede from that point of the heavens _toward_ which -the sun is moving, while in the opposite quarter the stars would seem -to crowd more closely together.” Proceeding upon this principle, Sir -William Herschel was in 1783 enabled to announce that the observed proper -motion of a large portion of the stars could be accounted for on the -supposition that the sun was moving toward the constellation _Hercules_. -Later investigations not only established the fact that the sun moved, -but that it was moving nearly toward the star _Rho_, in _Hercules_, -and Struve estimated its motion at about five miles per second; though -Professor Airy places it at about twenty-seven miles per second. It is -also highly probable that its motion is not in a straight line, but in -obedience to the same laws that govern the motions of its own satellites, -it with other suns revolves about a center located nearly in the plane -of the Milky Way, and with an orbit so great “that ages may elapse -before it will be possible to detect any change in the direction of its -motion.” Meantime, finite beings are interested in knowing how its light -and heat affect their interests, and how these qualities may be made -most profitable to mankind. For ourselves, we must at present be content -to know that on the 1st our sun has reached a point 4° 48′ north of the -equator, and that by the 30th he will be 14° 58′ north, an increase in -northern declination of 10° 10′, and, as a consequence, our daylight will -be increased about one hour and thirteen minutes, and the time “from -early dawn to dewy” twilight will be seventeen hours and thirty-five -minutes. On the 1st sunrise occurs at 5:43 a. m., sunset, 6:24 p. m.; -on the 16th, sunrise, 5:19, sunset, 6:40; on the 30th, sunrise, 4:59, -sunset, 6:54. - - -THE MOON. - -The phases for the month are as follows: Last quarter, 7th, at 9:34 a. -m.; new moon, 15th, at 12:43 a. m.; first quarter, 21st, at 6:12 p. m.; -full moon, 29th, at 1:06 a. m. Rises on the 1st, at 8:38 p. m.; sets on -the 16th, at 8:28 p. m.; rises on the 30th, at 8:21 p. m. In latitude -41° 30′ north, least elevation on the 6th, and equals 30° 20′; greatest -elevation on the 19th, equals 66° 44′ 29″. - - -MERCURY - -Will be an evening star during the month; it will have a direct motion -of 12° 25′ 59″ up to the 17th, after which, to the end of the month, a -retrograde motion of 5° 22′ 11″. On the 8th, at 2:00 a. m., will be at -its greatest eastern elongation (19° 26′); on the 16th, at 11:55 a. m., -will be 6° 21′ south of the moon; on the 17th, at 5:00 a. m., will be -stationary; on 27th, at 10:00 p. m., will be in inferior conjunction with -the sun—that is, will be between the earth and sun; and next day, at 1:00 -p. m., will be 1° 42′ north of Venus. A few days before and after the 8th -may be seen as a pale, light star, near the western horizon. Its times of -rising and setting are as follows: On the 1st, rises at 6:21 a. m., sets -at 7:51 p. m.; on the 16th, rises at 5:50 a. m., sets at 8:00 p. m.; on -30th, rises at 4:53 a. m., sets at 6:29 p. m. Diameter increases from -6.4″ to 11.8″. - - -VENUS, - -Like Mercury, will be evening star throughout the month, and near the -28th the two will keep “close company,” but will so completely hide -themselves in the light of “Old Sol” as to be entirely indifferent to the -gaze of the “vulgar crowd.” On the 1st Venus rises at 5:34 a. m., and -sets at 5:34 p. m., being just twelve hours above the horizon; on the -16th, rises at 5:19 a. m., sets at 6:09 p. m.; on 30th, rises at 5:06 a. -m., sets at 6:42 p. m. Diameter diminishes during the month two tenths of -a second; motion, 34° 38′ 45″ eastwardly; on the 14th, at 3:00 p. m., six -minutes north of the moon. - -MARS - -Has a direct motion of 21° 13′ 16″, and his diameter increases two tenths -of one second. On the 14th, at 12:27 a. m., 12′ south of the moon. On the -1st, rises at 5:29 a. m., sets at 5:25 p. m.; on the 16th, rises at 4:56 -a. m., sets at 5:24 p. m.; on the 30th, rises at 4:27 a. m., sets at 5:23 -p. m.; on the 14th, at 12:27 a. m., twelve minutes south of moon. - - -JUPITER - -May well be called this month the “Ruler of the Night.” From twilight -till near the dawn his broad face looks condescendingly upon our little -world, and by his example cheerily bids us “pursue the even tenor of our -way.” Jupiter rises on the 1st at 2:26 p. m., sets next morning at 4:02 -a. m.; on the 16th, rises at 1:24 p. m., sets on 17th at 3:02 a. m.; -rises on 30th, at 12:29 p. m., and sets next morning at 2:07 a. m. Before -the 21st, retrograde motion amounts to 36′ 26″; after that date to end of -month, direct motion equals 8′ 42″; diameter diminishes three seconds, -from 40.4″ to 37.4″. On 21st, at 3:00 p. m., stationary; on 23d, at 2:05 -p. m., 4° 37′ north of the moon. It might be observed in passing that as -a mean result of five years’ observations at the Dearborn Observatory, -Chicago, the time of Jupiter’s rotation has been discovered to be greater -by three seconds than was supposed in 1879. - - -SATURN - -Sets at the following times: On the 1st, at 11:49 p. m.; on 16th, at -10:57 p. m.; on the 30th, at 10:09 p. m.; is, therefore, an evening star, -and will remain so till the 18th of June. On the 18th, at 8:20 p. m., -4° 1′ north of the moon. Diameter diminishes from 16.6″ to 16″. Makes -a forward (direct) motion of 3° 2′ 30″. For observation, this month is -preferable to May. Can be found a little northwest of _Zeta_, in the -constellation _Taurus_. - - -URANUS, - -Unlike Saturn, retrogrades nearly one degree of arc during the present -month, and shines from early eve to break of day, rising on the 1st at -5:18 p. m., and setting on the 2d at 5:22 a. m.; on the 16th, rising at -4:17 p. m., and setting next morning at 4:21; and on the 30th, rising at -3:19 p. m., and setting May 1st at 3:23 a. m., and can be seen all night -by those who know where to find him (a little southwest of _Eta_, in the -constellation _Virgo_). On 26th, at 12:16 a. m., 1° 17′ north of moon. - - -NEPTUNE, - -Not only the father of waters, but water himself, scarcely visible at -best, “hangs out” all day, rising soon after the sun, and setting as -follows: On the 1st, at 9:36 p. m.; on the 16th, at 8:40 p. m.; on the -30th, at 7:46 p. m. Has a retrograde motion of 58′ 16″; and on the 16th, -at 8:42 p. m., is 2° 13′ north of the moon. - - * * * * * - -We have now passed the boundary of the first century of our existence as -an independent nation. We are as a people engaged in a confused struggle -with the problem of our own national self-consciousness. We want to know -what is the spirit that is in us as a nation. We must know this in order -to be properly master of ourselves and of our destiny. We must know this -in order to know our place in universal history.—_George S. Morris._ - - - - -ENGLAND AND ISLAM. - -BY PRESIDENT D. H. WHEELER, D.D., LL.D. - - -Within two years there have been three prophets in Egypt. Arabi Pasha is -in exile; Chinese Gordon is dead; El Mahdi, the mysterious voice in the -Soudan wilderness, mutters his prayers in the mosque of Khartoum. England -bombarded Alexandria; Arab loss in dead perhaps 5,000. Then England -fought and conquered Arabi in the open field, captured him, and sent him -into exile; Arab loss in dead perhaps 7,000. Next there is trouble on the -Red Sea, and another English army killed perhaps 9,000 Arabs. And last -a battle or series of battles in the heart of the Soudan; Arab loss in -dead perhaps 12,000. Probably not less than 30,000 have been slaughtered -by Englishmen in less than two years. English loss, a few hundreds. The -butchers have been liberally rewarded; one soldier has become a “lord;” -promotions and extra pay and pensions have fallen in a silvery shower -on “our brave fellows” in Egypt. Only one Englishman got nothing. He -disappeared one day in the desert, and his dromedary was said to carry -the destiny of England; and perhaps it did. He was a soldier seeking -peace at the meeting place of the Niles. Chinese Gordon entered Khartoum -in triumph, and almost at once there rose a cry: “We must rescue Gordon.” -Then came the long delayed march of an army in search of the English -prophet at Khartoum; then the butcheries, called battles of Metemneh, and -what not. And then in the last days of January there was a slaughter, -not this time by Englishmen in person, and perhaps 5,000 more Moslems -perish by Moslem steel in the sack of Khartoum. Then a wail rises on -every breeze in Christendom; “_Alas! alas! Gordon is dead!_” The story of -his death is a parable: “Stabbed in the back while leaving his house.” -Make the “house” stand for England, and the knives that pierced him the -indecisions, tergiversations, and infidelities of an English ministry -with a great Christian statesman at its head. The world has supped full -of the horrors of that kind of Christian statesmanship. We have believed -in it; we have hoped that it meant something, even in those bloody -Egyptian campaigns. - -We are nearly at the end of our confidence. It is not merely the shade -of Disraeli which calls mockingly for explanations; the world that -believed in Gladstone when Disraeli was playing at fantastic military -statesmanship, wants to know why Christian statesmanship in Egypt has, in -a short time, spilt almost as much blood as was shed by one army in that -American conflict which Mr. Gladstone thought so cruel and so useless. -We can not even condone Mr. Gladstone’s offense against civilization -by saying that it has been a less bloody assault on humanitarian ideas -and plans than Disraeli’s was; for Gladstone has butchered twenty men -to Disraeli’s one. There has, in fact, been nothing so bloody in this -century—I mean no such large butchery by a small army. Ten years of such -statesmanship would fill the Nile valley with human bones. It is high -time to call for a full explanation. What does Mr. Gladstone mean? What -does he expect to accomplish? If he has intended something exalted and -noble, which we should wish to believe, it is time to say so with the -breadth of statement and accuracy of detail by which he obtained renown. -The personal question stands at the front, because England is governed by -one man. It is a happiness of Englishmen that they are able to know whom -to blame when things go wrong. Mr. Gladstone is the head of a government -for whose acts and failures to act he is perfectly responsible. What -England does in Egypt Gladstone does. It is the one governmental luxury -of the English people—they know exactly who governs them. Mr. Gladstone -has not been compelled to do this or that by parties or circumstances. If -he turns butcher in the Delta, on the Nile, or on the Red Sea, he alone -does it, and he does it because he chooses to do it. For, at any moment, -he can shift disagreeable duties to another; three lines in the form of -a resignation will relieve him of the burden of responsible government. -So long as he remains at the head of the English ministry he is the man -who shoots down Arabs by the thousand. In this country politicians have -divided, dispersed and destroyed responsibility to such an extent that -the people know not whom to blame for evil events. It is a devil’s art, -from whose manipulations England has by some special favor of heaven -escaped. There the ghosts of murdered men and things can “shake” their -“gory locks” at the Prime Minister; and he may not reply: - - “Thou canst not say I did it.” - -Many of us have expected Mr. Gladstone to retire when each of these -bloody episodes in Egypt has begun. His retention of power may be -explained as an old man’s insane appetite for office, or as the surrender -of a statesman to the logic of a situation. The first explanation we -respect Mr. Gladstone too much to accept; the second is embarrassed by -the absence of a clearly defined policy. We should understand Disraeli; -but he would help us to understand him by making distinct proclamation -of his purpose to govern and bless the Moslem world. He would have -butchered less, but he would have planted an imperial stake on every -battle-field. We should have known that he meant conquest and dominion. -There would have been no meaningless carnage. A humanitarian war is a -difficult conception; but it is not impossible to conceive of wars that -produce beneficent results. We could conceive of the subjugation of Islam -to British sway, and rejoice to see the Soudan like India, slowly but -surely rising into civilization under English rule. But an army thrusting -down no imperial stakes, going home after each slaughter to be paid, -promoted and fêted, is not doing work which opens any vistas of smiling -peace and advancing light. It is only a bloody carnival. No petty cabinet -differences, no outcry of public opinion, no Jingoism in the army or the -royal family, no temporary exigencies of party, no domestic dangers nor -foreign rivalries can explain and justify the responsible man’s conduct. -Mr. Gladstone’s garments are dripping with Moslem blood, and the world -can not find an explanation which explains. - -It seems to the spectators that England is doing the one thing she -should most carefully avoid doing. She is uniting Islam, and teaching -Islam how to make war. In each new campaign the Soudanese are better -armed, fight with better method, and kill more Englishmen. England is -training them into sturdy and disciplined soldiers. A Moslem victory -is proclaimed in every Arab tent, and in every Indian village. Such a -victory is not merely a victory for El Mahdi; it is a hope for the whole -Moslem world. Moslem defeats travel less swiftly, and mean only a delayed -victory. What fierce resolutions are begotten in Moslem bosoms by Mr. -Gladstone’s campaigns of butchery, we can easily imagine. Meanwhile, -Christendom can only say: “Premier of England, your garments are soaked -with blood; and, may God forgive you, the blood is not your own. We can -not understand you, but we are painfully certain that you are arousing -all Islam against us.” Meanwhile, the ancient spears are giving place -in the Prophet’s armies to repeating rifles, and Krupp guns may soon -guard every height along the Nile. Islam is strong in numbers. There -are 75,000,000 of Soudanese, with a very large proportion of men just -civilized enough to make terrible soldiers. It may happen some day that -a military leader will arise in the front of this vast army, and that -an effeminate Europe may find that its military science has gone over -to the Moslems. Probably no one man’s policy could effect its transfer -more rapidly than Mr. Gladstone’s. When that dark wave of the Moslem -millions is gathered into conquering masses by a capable leader, it -will have mighty winds of religious enthusiasm behind it, and plenty of -room before it. The southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean -would be swept clean of the petty European military establishments in a -month. Morocco, larger than France, holds at least half of the western -gate of the Mediterranean, while the Turk holds the eastern gate; and a -month’s campaign might convert that sea into a Moslem lake, and leave its -Italian, French, and Spanish and Greek shores to be ravaged again as in -the crusading centuries, by Moslem piracy and brigandage. The one thing -the Arab can learn thoroughly is the art of war. He was once great on -the sea. That man may exult too soon, who, remembering the leviathans of -the deep which destroyed Alexandria, trusts Europe’s safety to the great -navies of Europe. Islam has some great ships in the Bosphorus, and is -rapidly learning where the great ships grow. It is true that if splendid -leadership does not arise, Islam may continue to bleed and die in vain; -but wars produce great soldiers as regularly as oaks bear acorns. There -_is_ danger. Ten years of Gladstoneism in the Nile valley would make the -danger a terrible reality. Christendom should rise up and condemn the -bloody education which England is imparting to Islam. - -Meanwhile, Germans and Frenchmen are in the armies of the Prophet, -teaching the rude but vigorous men of the desert how to use arms of -precision with deadly effect. In the process of creating a terrible -peril for Europe, greed, personal ambition, and national jealousies are -contributing to perfect the lessons in modern warfare which England is -giving to Islam. No doubt it is true that a great man is needed to weld -together the forces of Islam. But why should no strong man be expected -to arise in a race so rich in warlike memories? When the Prophet is -once crowned with the diadem of military success, there is an army -of Mohammedans in India wearing the queen’s uniform, there are vast -resources at Constantinople ready to fall from the helpless hands of the -Sultan; there are millions of soldiers who require no pay, and have no -scruples about the rights of private property. If one gives rein to his -imagination, he is soon in a world of awful possibilities. There are -two hundred millions of Mohammedans waiting for a leader to restore the -glories of Islam. - -The relations of England to Islam are logically and historically -friendly. England has a Moslem army in India, and has long protected the -head of Islam at Constantinople, from the consequences of his vices, -extravagances and follies. The Indian mutiny had a religious source, but -this was denied, and the spring covered up so successfully that, until -Mr. Gladstone attacked Disraeli’s policy in the name of Christianity -(such as it is) in Bulgaria, England had successfully encountered the -difficulties of her position as a Christian power ruling directly and -indirectly half the Moslem world. - -Does Mr. Gladstone foresee an “irrepressible conflict” between England -and Islam? Is he instinctively bringing on a conflict which will be -the less perilous the sooner it comes? Will history add to his rare -good fortune by making him glorious as the beginner of a defense of -Christendom which he has never dreamed of organizing? Disraeli’s -conception followed logic and history. He made a Christian queen empress -of India, and he contemplated with composure a time when the descendant -of Victoria should be born in India, and be reared in the faith of -Mohammed, the center of the British empire having gone to its proper -place. Against such ideas Christian England revolted. Is Mr. Gladstone -reversing centuries of history and setting the Moslem and Christian -worlds by the ears again? If he is moving on that line, his armies should -conquer and hold Egypt and the Soudan, the Nile and the Red Sea, the -ancient Delta and its modern canal, with the grip England once laid on -North America. The audacity of the conquest would provoke diplomatic -criminations; but it were easier far to face them than to answer the hard -questions which are provoked by fruitless slaughter in Moslem lands. -England is only the heart of the British empire. A quiet and gentle -England is a possible dream; but the empire is war, conquest, dominion, -at the expense of weak peoples. The empire can not survive the definitive -abandonment of an imperial policy. The empire must dominate by force or -fall to pieces. - -It is not worth while to seek in the history of the Egyptian debt, and -the “grasping disposition of the English bondholders,” for the key of the -present situation. Those who make a religion, or at least a philanthropy, -of heaping abuse on bondholders anywhere and everywhere, are the least -reasonable of Christians. It is not a crime to deny ourselves, save -money and lend it to others. To refuse to pay debts freely contracted is -not the first of virtues or the best of policies. The bondholders are -commonly poor people who have saved a little by pinching themselves, -and have bought bonds for the holy purposes of family forethought. -Repudiated debts are baptised in the self-renouncing spirit which is at -the heart of our religion, and repudiators make war on the foundations of -character and society. In so far as England protects her money lenders, -she protects her noble middle class, whose honest thrift lies at the -foundation of her wealth. It is among the strangest perversions of -feeling that prodigals and prodigal governments should get the sympathy -of mankind. Let England foreclose her mortgage on Egypt, and the honest -world will thank her for abolishing one nest of spendthrifts. Much is -said of the miserable Egyptian peasants, from whom the taxes to pay -interest are wrung with every form of despotic oppression. Let us not be -deceived by such false-toned appeals for sympathy. The fellaheen of the -Nile are oppressed irrespective of the bondholders. Arabi or El Mahdi -would maintain the oppressive systems if they were in power. If there -were no bondholders, the backs of the miserable fellaheen would smart -under the lash of the oppressor. The despotism is Egyptian, not English. -English rule would gradually emancipate the oppressed classes. Nowhere, -not even in Ireland, has England conquered a people without improving -the condition of the poor. The interest on debts which she surrenders in -the valley of the Nile does not go to the relief of the peasants; it is -squandered in the harems of Cairo and Alexandria. The issue is strictly -between the splendid, many-concubined lords in Egypt and the honest and -self-denying people who have lent honest money on the faith of England. - -Which way, then, will events march? Toward a war between Islam and -Christendom, or back to the old imperial policy of England? It would -seem that the world’s hope lies in a restoration of the ancient policy -of the British empire. The events of 1885 in Moslem land will be full -of interest, perhaps pregnant with destiny. A larger English army, -perhaps 25,000 men, will soon be in Egypt. It will probably face a -better trained foe. There will be more English graves in Egypt. To -what end? The London _Times_ says: “Gordon must be avenged.” England -repeats the cry. But what end will the vengeance serve? And what if -Arabi Pasha and the Emirs killed in the late battles, and the 30,000 -to 40,000 Moslems slain, should be avenged? Soon or late—if she does -not attempt it too late—England must return to her historical policy -and stand among Christian powers the foremost ally of the sons of -Mohammed. It is the inexorable logic of her greatness. Let us shut -our eyes upon the horrible vision of the new crusades, as useless as -the old and far bloodier. Christendom can hope for no more fortunate -disposition of Mohammedanism than that it should be locked fast in the -iron arms of the British empire; and on the other hand the failure of -the British empire would involve the greatest possible disasters for -Christendom. Many foolish things have been promised in the name of -“manifest destiny.” Perhaps destiny is never so manifest that it may be -read off by uninspired prophecy; but there is no other Power which seems -fitted to play England’s imperial rôle; and it does not appear how the -progress and happiness of mankind can go forward without such an imperial -force as England has been for two centuries. While we deprecate the -effects of the Jingo spirit which Disraeli fostered, and repudiate the -indifference to the progress of Christianity which the Hebrew statesman -scarcely concealed, we can not look with complacency upon changes of -British policy which would disintegrate the empire. Let England’s -drum-beat go round the earth with the sun; for the sunrise of progress -and civilization will awaken wherever that martial music falls upon the -ear of mankind. - - - - -THE ART OF FISH CULTURE. - -BY PROF. G. BROWN GOODE. - - -PART I. - -When any portion of the earth is colonized by civilized man, an era -of change and readjustment at once begins. The untilled plain, the -primeval forest, the bridgeless river, the malaria-breathing swamp, and -the jungle—lurking place for beasts of prey—are all obstructions which -must be removed from the highway of social and industrial progress. -Until a new environment had been created, the colonists of Virginia -and New England were like helpless children, compared with the Indians -whom they had come to disinherit. The hills were soon cleared, and the -water-courses dried up, swamps were drained, and lakes were made in the -valleys, the plains were plowed and planted with exotic vegetation, and -great regions of land were entirely changed in character by irrigation -and the use of manure. The New World has in two centuries become in -very truth a new world, for its physical features have been entirely -reconstructed. The aboriginal man retreated before the advancing strides -of civilization, and has now been practically exterminated, at least east -of the Mississippi River. - -The manner in which the man of European descent has eliminated and -replaced the son of the soil is fairly typical of changes which have -occurred in the animal and vegetable life of the continent. Bear, -moose, caribou, deer, wolf, beaver, and all other large animals have -been entirely destroyed in many parts of the country, and the time is -not far remote when they will exist among us only in a state of partial -or entire domestication. The prairie chicken once reared its brood -in Massachusetts, but is now never seen east of the Alleghenies. The -alligator is fast being exterminated in Florida and Mississippi, and the -buffalo is now rarely to be seen except in captivity. The sea cow of the -north Pacific, the great auk of New England and Newfoundland stand with -the dodo, the moa, and the zebra in the list of animals which have become -extinct within the memory of man, and the list will continue to increase. -A similar story might be told for birds, reptiles, and plants. The -rattlesnake is retreating to the mountain tops, the turkey, the pigeon, -the woodpecker and hosts of others are disappearing, the medicinal plant -ginseng, once so important in the Alleghenies, is almost a rarity to -botanists. - -The aboriginal animals and plants go. They are replaced by others, -which in that struggle for existence which plays so important a part in -determining careers for plants and animals, have become particularly -well fitted to be man’s companions. The clover, the ox-eye daisy, the -buttercup, the thistle, the mullein, the dandelion, followed the European -to America, and with them the broad-leaved plantain, which, as every one -knows, the Indians called “the white man’s foot,” because it sprung up at -once in every meadow where the soles of his shoes had touched. With these -came the European mouse, the rat, the cat, the dog. The browsing herds of -deer and buffalo were replaced by oxen, horses and sheep, and the greedy, -quarrelsome, impertinent sparrow was permitted to drive out the native -birds which many of us would have been glad to keep as relics of the old -dispensation. - -Not less important in many regions have been the changes in the life in -the waters. In many of our streams and lakes the fish, formerly abundant, -have been entirely exterminated. Sometimes, perhaps we may charitably say -usually, this has been the result of ignorance, but often, I fear, it may -be ascribed to recklessness or cupidity. - -Fishes may be grouped, according to their habits, into two -classes—resident and migratory. Representatives of each of these classes -may be found both in fresh water and in the sea. Among resident fresh -water fishes may be mentioned the perch, the catfish, suckers and dace, -the pike and pickerel, the black bass. Resident sea fishes are typified -by the flounders, cod, sheepshead, blackfish and sea bass, which are -found near the shore in winter as well as summer. In cold climates, -resident fishes always retreat in winter into deeper water to avoid the -cold, and if they can not get beyond its reach they subside into a state -of torpidity or hibernation, in which all the vital functions are more or -less inert. The carp, and many other kinds of fish, at this time, burrow -into “kettles” or holes in the mud in the bottom of the pond, where they -remain for months. A hybernating fish may be frozen solid in the middle -of a cake of ice, and emerge when thawed out, unharmed. - -Migratory fishes, on the other hand, are those which wander extensively -from season to season. There are migrating fish in the sea, which, like -the mackerel, the bluefish, the menhaden and the porgy come near our -northern coasts only in the summer, and in winter retreat to regions -either in the south or far out at sea unknown; others, like the smelt and -the sea herring, which retreat northward in summer and only appear in -quantity on the Atlantic coast of the United States in the colder months -of the year. - -Then there are migratory fishes which live part of the year in the -rivers. Such are the shad and the river-herrings or alewives, which leave -the sea in the spring and ascend to the river heads to spawn, and the -salmon, which does likewise, to spawn in the brooklets in November and -December. Still more remarkable is the eel, which breeds in the sea, -where the male eels always remain, while the young females, when as large -as darning needles, ascend in the spring to inland lakes and streams, -there to remain, until, after three or four years, they are grown to -maturity, when they descend to salt water, to reproduce their kind and -die. - -There are also migratory fish in fresh water, like the white fish, the -salmon, trout, and the siscowet, which live in the abyssal depths of the -great lakes and swim up into the shallows and creeks in winter to spawn -their eggs, and the brook trout and dace, which for a similar purpose -ascend from the pools and quiet meadow stretches to the pebble-paved -ripplets near the spring sources of the brooks in which they live. - -Having, in a general way, classified fish according to their habits, we -are in a position to consider the manner in which man has succeeded in -exterminating them. As a general rule, fish deposit their eggs in shallow -water, and the time of egg-laying is very closely dependent upon the -temperature of the water. The eggs of a fish are, as every one knows, -enclosed in two sacs, or ovaries, which are situated close to the walls -of the abdominal cavity, and separated from the water by thin walls of -skin and flesh, rarely, even in the largest fish, more than a sixteenth -of an inch in thickness. Experiment has shown that the temperature of -the blood in the abdomen of a fish deviates very little from that of the -water in which it is floating. Experiment has also shown that as soon -as the water has reached a certain degree of warmth, variable with each -kind of fish, the eggs are sure to be laid within a very few hours. This -being the case, it usually happens that great schools of fish always -congregate together at one time upon the spawning grounds. Since the -spawning grounds of many kinds of fish are in shallow water, and the fish -are at that time most easily caught, it happens that many of the most -extensive fisheries are carried on in the spawning season. The delicious -little smelts which our neighbors in Maine and New Brunswick send us by -the hundred car-loads each winter, packed in little boxes of snow, are -always full of eggs—so are the lake white fish, when they are caught, and -the shad, and the Potomac herrings, and the cod, and the mullet, and the -herring, and in early spring the mackerel. - -Now consider how easy it is, taking these fish so much at a disadvantage, -to diminish their numbers, simply by catching them. The man who catches -a spawning cod destroys anywhere from 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 of eggs, a -spawning halibut at least 2,000,000, a shad from 50,000 to 2,000,000. Is -not the American breakfasting on broiled shad roe a modern representative -of him who killed the goose which laid the golden egg? When we consider -that the yearly catch of mother-fish along the New England coast does -not fall short of ten to fifteen millions of individuals, we may gain an -adequate idea of the destruction of fish life by the fisheries. - -Still it is not necessary to be alarmed at these figures. They are -presented simply in illustration of the immense possibilities of -destruction when the fisheries are carried on at the spawning season. As -a matter of fact, cod are just as abundant along our coasts as they ever -were, and it has not yet been demonstrated that any kind of sea fish has -ever been diminished in numbers by hook and line fishing or by netting -them at a distance from the shore. - -Some kinds of fishes, however, enter narrow bays and estuaries to spawn, -and if they are there recklessly destroyed, the local supply at least -may be permanently interfered with. This has apparently been the case -with certain species in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. For instance, -the scuppaug or porgy has been seriously diminished in numbers in -certain seasons, years ago; the supply will probably be replenished from -adjoining waters by the reparative tendencies of nature, if this indeed -has not already been done. So, too, the halibut has been exterminated -in Massachusetts, where it was once so abundant as to be regarded as a -nuisance by the fishermen. It is in the inland or freshwater fisheries, -however, that the work of extermination has been thorough, and here, from -the nature of the case, the work once accomplished, it is beyond the -power of nature to remedy the damage. If I could take the reader with -me next May to one of the many little streamlets of Cape Cod, flowing -southward into Nantucket Sound, I could show him a scene which he would -never forget. The little rill has been encased at bottom and sides with -planks, so that it flows for a mile or two, down to its junction with the -sea, in a straight trough not over fifteen inches wide, and a foot in -depth. At a convenient level place a shed has been built over the trough, -and in the floor is a kind of cistern, through which the waters of the -brook flow as it goes on its course. In the shed stand two men, each -with a great scoop of netting, with which they labor, dipping the fish -out of the cistern as they fill it, swimming up the trough from the sea. -Several barrels are taken out every day, and in some of these streams one -or two thousand barrels always reward a season’s work, the brook being -the property of the township, and the privilege of fishing being sold at -auction for the benefit of the public. Dip! dip! dip it is all day long, -and as the little alewives are tumbled into barrels and carts, the eye of -the practiced observer notes the plump sides and the brilliant iridescent -coloring of the silvery scales, which indicate that the fish are loaded -with a precious burden of eggs, to deposit which in the pond at the head -of the stream is the motive which leads them to press forward so blindly -into the trap men have set for them. - -In these enlightened days the town laws generally require that the brooks -shall be unobstructed for one or two days each week, and so a few fish -get by the barriers and are allowed to perpetuate their kind. In the -past, however, many excellent “herring brooks” have been completely -deprived of their fish. - -This illustrates how completely man has the destinies of river fish -under his control. Suppose that instead of a fish house with movable -barriers, an impassable dam had been built. Of course the fish would -have been locked out, and their kind exterminated in that immediate -region. This is precisely what has happened in almost every river and -stream on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Shad and salmon were -formerly abundant in every river of New England—and shad and alewives -in every considerable stream south to Florida. Now, they are excluded, -either entirely or in great part from the waters in which they once -swarmed in great schools. Take, for instance, the Connecticut River. In -colonial days, salmon were there in immense numbers. All summer long -they were swimming up from the sea to the headwaters of the river, to -Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont, where they deposited their -eggs in the cool, clear rapids of the main river and its tributaries. -They were so abundant that the shad fishermen used to require their -customers to take one salmon with every shad, and, as the hackneyed -old story goes, the apprentices were accustomed to stipulate in their -papers that they should not be required to eat salmon above three times -a week. In 1798 a dam was built across the river at Miller’s Falls. -Next year many salmon were seen at the base of the dam, the following -year a smaller number, and in less than ten years salmon had entirely -disappeared from the Connecticut. Not a salmon was seen in those waters -until seventy years later, when, in 1871, a single artificially bred fish -was caught at Saybrook. I could show you a map prepared by an associate -of mine, in which the present and former limits of the shad are shown, -and you would see how they once ranged clear up into the mountains, far -up the Susquehanna into New York State, up the Connecticut into New -Hampshire and Vermont, and how now, in many rivers, they are confined to -very restrictive stretches at the river mouths. - -The dams operate in still another way. We have considered hitherto only -their influence upon the sea fish which ascend the rivers to spawn. -Their effect upon the resident fish is quite as baneful. As the suckers, -and the bass, and the cat fish, and dace, and trout, grow large, they -naturally go down stream in search of deeper water and wider pools, where -they get more room and better food. If they luckily escape the baskets -and traps set for them in every dam, they never can get back. The streams -are gradually sifted out and left tenantless. - -Little need be said of the manner in which ponds are drained dry in -order to get all the fish in them, in which immense seines are hauled -in little lakes, clearing out everything, great and small, of the use -of explosives, lime, or _cocculus indicus_, in the work of wholesale -destruction. The fact stands undisputed and undisputable, that in many -parts of the United States the native fish are actually exterminated, and -the mud turtles, muskrats and fresh water clams left as sole occupants. -Even the harmonious bull-frog has been devoured by man, and only his -diminutive cousins, the cricket frogs and hylas left—the aquatic choir -can henceforth perform only soprano and contralto songs, unless the fish -culturist finds some way of bringing back the basso whose obligatos we -once admired. - -Oysters, scallops, and lobsters are going the same way. Although they -live in free waters, they are stationary in their habits, and wholesale -gathering will soon complete the work of extermination so recklessly -begun. The forthcoming census reports on the fisheries will show -conclusively the need of immediate protection. - -What is the remedy for these great evils? One hundred thousand men are -actively engaged in the fisheries of the United States, and at least -one fiftieth of the entire population of the country are, to a large -extent, dependent on the fishery industry. Fish is the poor man’s food, -for unlike any other food product it may be had for the taking. A fish -swimming in the water has cost no man labor. There floats four pounds of -savory shad, fifty pounds of nutritious sturgeon, a hundred barrels of -whale oil; there lies a bushel of oysters, or a barrel of sponges. They -are God’s gift, and man has only to gather them in, and possibly submit -them to a very simple process of preparation, to be the possessor of a -valuable piece of property. If the matter can be properly regulated, good -fish ought to be sold in every town and village for two thirds or half -the price of beef and pork. As it is, poor fish often cost more than beef -and pork, and in many localities good fish can not be had at any price. -It is a great problem in political economy, and one which we are, as yet, -far from thoroughly understanding. - -We are confronted with the question, What can be done to neutralize these -destructive tendencies? - -There are evidently three things to do. - -1. To preserve fish waters, especially those inland, as nearly as -possible in their normal condition. - -2. To prohibit wasteful or immoderate fishing. - -3. To employ the art of fish breeding. - - _a._ To aid in maintaining a natural supply; - - _b._ To repair the effects of past improvidence, and - - _c._ To increase the supply beyond its natural limits, rapidly - enough to meet the necessities of a constantly increasing - population. - -The preservation of normal conditions in inland waters is comparatively -simple. A reasonable system of forestry and water purification is -all that is required, and this is needed not only by the fish in the -streams, but by the people living on the banks. It has been shown -that a river which is too foul for fish to live in is not fit to flow -near the habitations of man. Obstructions, such as dams, may, in most -instances, be overcome by fish ladders. The salmon has profited much by -these devices in Europe, and the immense dams in American rivers will -doubtless be passable, even for shad and alewives, if the new system of -fish-way construction devised by Col. McDonald, and now being applied on -the Savannah, James, and Potomac, and other large rivers, fulfills its -present promises of success. - -Up to the present time, however, although much ingenuity and expense -have been lavished upon fish-ways by the various state fish commissions -of this country, there has been little practical outcome from their use. -Our dams are too high, and the shad and alewives, which we are especially -desirous to carry over these obstructions, do not seem to take kindly to -the narrow, tortuous defiles of the fish ladders. - -The protection of fish by law is what legislators have been trying to -effect for many centuries, and we are bound to admit that the success of -their efforts has been very slight indeed. Protective legislation rarely -succeeds. The statute books of each state are crowded with laws which no -one understands, least of all the men who made them, and which the state -governments are powerless to enforce. Every one remembers Whittier’s -grand old hero, Abraham Davenport, the Connecticut statesman, who, “on -a May day of that far old year 1780,” when the earth was shrouded in -darkness, and he and all his colleagues in the State Assembly felt that -the judgment day had come, stood up, “albeit with trembling hands and -shaking voice, and read an act to amend an act to regulate the shad and -alewife fisheries”—and then went on to rebuke those around for their -fearfulness and desire to leave the post of duty. Connecticut is as -much at a loss now as then to know how to regulate her shad and alewife -fisheries. Under a republican form of government, restrictive laws are -not popular, and money would never be voted to enforce such laws, which, -without an extensive police force, would be powerless. Some one has -sagely remarked that the salmon is an aristocratic fish, which can only -thrive under the shadow of a throne. Many states now have laws protecting -fresh water fish in the breeding season, and numerous game protective -associations are laboring with some success for their enforcement. Sales -of fish out of season are also successfully prevented in certain city -markets. - -The attempts to regulate the fisheries at the mouths of rivers, so that -spawning fish may be allowed free passage for a few hours, generally from -Saturday evening to Monday morning, are meeting with but little success. - -Maryland and Virginia attempt to some extent the protection of their -oyster beds, and the former state keeps up an expensive police -organization. The oyster law is founded in ignorance, however, and the -chief effort being to keep away fishermen from other states, for the -benefit of their own, there are small results except frequent quarrels -and occasional bloodshed. - -Connecticut is making the experiment of giving to individuals personal -title to submerged land, to be used in oyster culture, and this, -perhaps, is the wisest step taken. Oyster production must soon cease to -be a free grabbing enterprise, and be placed upon the same footing as -agriculture, or the United States will lose its beloved oyster crop, and -in this country, as in England, a fresh oyster will be worth as much as -a new-laid egg. Great Britain has, at present, two schools of fishery -economists, the one headed by Professor Huxley, opposed to legislation, -save for the preservation of fish in inland waters, the other, of which -Dr. Francis Day is the chief leader, advocating a most strenuous legal -regulation of the sea fisheries. Continental Europe is by tradition -and belief committed to the last named policy. In the United States, -on the contrary, public opinion is generally antagonistic to fishery -legislation, and our Commissioner of Fisheries, after carrying on for -fourteen years investigations upon this very question, has not yet -become satisfied that laws are necessary for the perpetuation of the -sea fisheries, nor has he ever recommended to Congress enactment of any -description. Just here we meet the test problem in fish culture. Many of -the most important commercial fisheries of the world, the cod fishery, -the herring fishery, the sardine fishery, the shad and alewife fishery, -the mullet fishery, the salmon fishery, the whitefish fishery, the smelt -fishery, and many others, owe their existence to the fact that once a -year these fishes gather together in closely swimming schools, to spawn -in shallow water, on shoals, or in estuaries and rivers. There is a large -school of _quasi_ economists, who clamor for the complete prohibition of -fishing during spawning time. This demand demonstrates their ignorance. -Deer, game birds, and other land animals may easily be protected in the -breeding season, so may trout and other fishes of strictly local habits. -Not so the anadromous and pelagic fishes. If they are not caught in the -spawning season, they can not be caught at all. I heard a prominent fish -culturist recently advocating before a committee of the United States -Senate, the view that shad should not be caught in the rivers, because -they came into the rivers to spawn. When asked what would become of our -immense shad fisheries if this were done, he said that doubtless some -ingenious person would invent a means of catching them at sea. - -The fallacy in the argument of these men lies in the supposition that -it is more destructive to the progeny of a given fish to kill it when -its eggs are nearly ripe, than to kill the same fish eight or ten months -earlier. - -We must not, however, ignore the counter argument. Such is the -mortality among fish that only an infinitesimal percentage attain to -maturity. Möbius has shown that for every grown oyster upon the beds of -Schleswig-Holstein, 1,045,000 have died. Only a very small percentage, -perhaps not greater than this, of the shad or the smelt ever come upon -the breeding grounds. Some consideration, then, ought to be shown to the -individuals which have escaped from their enemies and have come up to -deposit the precious burden of eggs. How much must they be protected? - -Here the fish culturist comes in with the proposition “_that it is -cheaper to make fish so plenty by artificial means that every fisherman -may take all he can catch, than to enforce a code of protective laws_.” - -The salmon rivers of the Pacific slope, and the shad rivers of the east, -and the whitefish fisheries of the lakes, are now so thoroughly under -control by the fish culturist, that it is doubtful if any one will -venture to contradict his assertion. The question now is, whether he can -extend his domain to other species. - -Legislation and fish-ways, then, are, as yet, of little practical -importance. Actually, they repeat the proverbial act of the clown who -locked the stable door after his horse had been stolen. No one makes laws -or builds fish-ways until he is of the decided opinion that the fish are -pretty nearly gone. - -Artificial fish culture seems to offer the only remedy for the evils -which have been described. - -[TO BE CONTINUED.] - - - - -THE LIFE OF GEORGE ELIOT. - - -There is now and then a biography so written that the reader is able to -become intimately acquainted with the subject, to feel after reading that -he has had a personal contact, and has formed a friendship which is warm -and living. Such “Lives” are rare. Most works of this kind are so biased -by the interpretations of the author, so full of facts and opinions that -the reader loses all feeling of companionship in reading; he closes the -book, knowing much about the subject, but rarely understanding him. A -book which presents a man or woman in that personal way which makes a -friendship through the medium of the book possible, confers a great gift -upon the reading public. - -The peculiar fitness of Mr. Cross’s “Life of George Eliot”[B] for giving -us a new friend, must be attributed to the really remarkable taste and -skill of his editing. The work bears the mark of a reverential hand. It -is an _In Memoriam_ whose only object has been to lay before the world a -memory too strong and precious to be kept secret. But no such a biography -could have been given the world had it not been for the peculiar nature -of George Eliot herself. The material for this “Life” grew out of two -strong elements in her character: the affectionate and persistent -friendship which led her to reveal herself so fully to those she loved -in her letters, and that constant introspection which made her journal -often a mirror of her inner life. These materials make up the book, which -is largely a study of her character, and, too, of her character as she -understood it. She has verily written her own life. The interpretation -remains for the readers. - -It would have been possible for Mr. Cross to have given much information -about her character which he has withheld, her opinions and much of her -conversation; but he has wisely given the world only what she herself -chose to reveal to her friends. - -The story begins early. The first revelations in character are the -strongest; the happiness and misery of the future life are revealed in -the childhood traits. The earliest revelations which we find in George -Eliot’s life are of affection and ambition; either, if strong enough to -become a passion, drives its possessor along a thorny path until it is -itself mastered, and where both exist in a nature, continual collision -must occur between them. Before each is satisfied there must be a life -struggle of the keenest sort. Such a struggle was presaged for Marian -Evans very early. She herself tells how, when she was but four years -of age, she played on the piano, of which she did not know a note, in -order to impress the servant with a proper notion of her acquirements -and generally distinguished position. As eager, too, she was for love as -for recognition. In her reminiscences of her early life most vividly -she portrays her earliest passion—one very common among affectionate -girls—her love for her brother. “She used always to be at his heels, -insisting on doing everything that he did.” When his first boyish -craze took possession of him in shape of a pony, and she found it was -separating them, she was nearly heart broken. Impressible, eager for work -and ambitious for knowledge, she began life under an emotional pressure, -which drove her into incessant distress lest those she loved should -fail her, and which brought her devotion to her loved ones in constant -collision with her ambition. At twenty-one, writing to a very intimate -friend, she said: “I do not mean to be so sinful as to say that I have -not friends most undeservedly kind and tender, and disposed to form a -far too favorable estimate of me, but I mean I have no one who enters -into my pleasures and griefs, no one with whom I can pour out my soul.” -Eight years after this, having lost her father, she went abroad for a -few months’ residence, and her letters home were full of eager longing -for their sympathy and restless fear lest they should forget her. No -change in her life diminished this feeling. She became an editor of the -_Westminster Review_, and while overwhelmed with manuscripts and proofs -she wrote: “You must know that I am not a little desponding now and then, -and think that old friends will die off, and I shall be left with no -power to make new ones again.” Undoubtedly this feeling tended to make -her morbid in her younger days, and consequently dwarf her power. It -is an important study of her life to trace the gradual melting of this -disposition, and the final growth into a healthy happiness. When quite -past the heyday of her life, she wrote a friend of her girlhood: “I am -one of those, perhaps, exceptional people whose early childish dreams -were much less happy than the outcome of life,” and again, but four years -before her death: “I have completely lost my _personal_ melancholy. I -often, of course, have melancholy thoughts about the destinies of my -fellow creatures, but I am never in the mood of sadness, which used to -be my frequent visitant, even in the midst of external happiness; and -this, notwithstanding a very vivid sense that life is declining, and -death close at hand.” This release from morbidness had two causes. She -had taught her strong, affectional nature to find satisfaction in that -commonplace, but little understood duty, loving her neighbors, and she -had learned to enjoy things on their own account. The first article in -this creed of happiness became George Eliot’s religion. She had abandoned -her belief in the Christian religion when twenty-one years of age. She -could not believe fully, and she was too independent and too reliant upon -her own mind to conform to a religion she did not believe. The steps she -took did not destroy the religious sense in her life. The earnestness -which led her to write at nineteen, “May the Lord give me such an insight -into what is truly good, that I may not rest contented with making -Christianity a mere addendum to my pursuits, or with tacking it as a -fringe to my garments;” which induced her to consider the novel and even -oratorio as dangerous to spiritual development still remained, though -without form. She was intensely in earnest, but it was many years before -her love for mankind became a religion to her. A less strong character -would have become flippant or scornful under this loss; hers only became -more serious. She seems never to have forgotten what she had abandoned. - -Though radically differing from most of her friends on religious -questions, she never was uncharitable. “Of all intolerance, the -intolerance calling itself philosophical is the most odious to me,” she -wrote, and she lived out this opinion, in no way allowing the widest -diversity to separate her from her friends. Her sympathy and charity -indeed seem to increase, even if the breach in their opinion widened. - -This habit of thought and feeling resulted in much personal moral -benefit. “My own experience and development deepen every day my -conviction that our moral progress may be measured by the degree in which -we sympathize with individual suffering and individual joy.” - -As she grew older, she comforted herself with the thought that “with that -renunciation of self which age inevitably brings we get more freedom -of soul to enter into the life of others.” She tried for “a religion -which must express less care for personal consolation and a more deeply -awing sense of responsibility to man, springing from sympathy with that -which of all things is most certainly known to us, the difficulty of the -human lot.” This was the great lesson in her growth toward happiness. A -secondary step was her appreciation of the value of things in themselves. -It is a serious obstacle to the happiness of women, that in the main they -care for exterior life only as it is of value in the personal life. A -book is dear because a friend has read or recommended it. This verse is -fine from association; this strain of music because they heard it in a -certain connection. Take the _personal_ out of Art and Nature, and too -often women care little for them. George Eliot learned to appreciate and -love things for their own value. Music, to which she was from childhood -deeply susceptible, she cultivated thoroughly, and no fine rendering of -_good_ music ever was missed by her. She took the true, high view of -life, which declares that from every good all possible enjoyment should -be gained. Art was very dear to her, and we find in these quotations -from her journal, notes on all the leading galleries of Europe, but in -the very midst of her art studies she drops this comment, after noting -a sight she had had of the snow covered Alps: “Sight more to me than -all the art in Munich, though I love the _art_ nevertheless. The great, -wide-stretching earth, and the all-embracing sky—the birthright of us -all—are what I care most to look at.” - -But it would have been impossible for even her deep love for mankind, -her fine enjoyment of the good and beautiful, to have completed her -life. These things satisfied her affections, but there was another -quality we have mentioned as prominent in her life: it was her ambition. -At twenty she wrote despondently: “I feel that my besetting sin is the -one of all others most destroying, as it is the faithful parent of them -all—ambition, a desire insatiable for the esteem of my fellow-creatures.” -Whatever she did, was done with all her might. Her mother died early, -and she became housekeeper. Her struggles with the knotty questions -of housewifery kept her in a constant worry, but she would do things -right—whether it be currant jelly or a German translation. The same -perfection marked her novels. Her progress was soon marked; it -recommended her to people of standing, and gradually she had a circle of -friends—people of strong minds and much culture—about her. Eager to do -something, a way opened to her in 1844, when she was twenty-five years -old. It was to translate into English a work of the German philosopher, -Strauss. She did it, and what was better, did it well. Five years later -she writes: “The only ardent hope I have for my future life is to have -given me some woman’s duty.” The ambition to excel is already bending -to the stronger emotion of affection. For a long time she worked, eager -and anxious, but nothing seemed to open. In 1851 she went to London as -assistant editor of _Westminster Review_, and here most satisfactory -opportunities for culture opened. She formed lasting friendships with -Herbert Spenser, Harriet Martineau, Florence Nightingale, and indeed with -all the people worth knowing, who filled London in the ’fifties. But her -editing left no opportunity to do that special work to which she was -looking, and which she did not understand. She wrote many reviews and -essays. This writing was a sort of safety valve for her intellect, but it -was not until September, 1856, that the new era began in her life. It was -when she began to write fiction. The popular idea of fiction as stories -which will do to kill time, but which for serious reading are quite -useless, was not the idea of George Eliot. A nature so intensely serious, -so anxious for noble work, could not content itself with trivial story -telling; she did not aim at that, but at studies of life. As she finely -writes to Mr. John Blackwood, who became her publisher: “My artistic bent -is directed not all to the presentation of irreproachable character, but -to the presentation of mixed human beings, in such a way as to call forth -tolerant judgment, pity, and sympathy. And I can not step aside from -what I _feel_ to be _true_ in character.” And again: “I should like to -touch every heart among my readers with nothing but loving humor, with -tenderness, with belief in goodness.” The story of her great success -is familiar—her books are well known. In rapid succession she sent out -“Scenes of Clerical Life,” “Adam Bede,” “The Mill on the Floss,” “Silas -Marner,” “Romola,” “Felix Holt,” “The Spanish Gypsy,” “Middlemarch,” -“Daniel Deronda,” and “Theophrastus Such.” Her convictions about how -she should work were intense. She wrote and _lived_ her story, and once -when urged to re-write a tale, replied that she could no more re-write -a book than she could live over a year in her own life. Her novels are -the embodiment of what she had felt, written that they might strengthen -others. The conscientiousness with which she labored made her work -sometimes most painful to her. Despondency lest she should fail, fear -lest she had misinterpreted a character, depression lest this chapter -should fall below a preceding in merit, tortured her in succession, but -she worked because she believed she had found her place, and to do her -best for mankind was her religion. The slow-growing nature struggling -with eager desire for human love, and with a mastering ambition, -not often reaches so ripe a stage as did hers. The rigid system of -self-culture which she pursued through her life was the outgrowth of her -ambition and of her intense interest in things, an interest which we have -noticed as being one of the leading elements in her happiness. Reading, -study, conversation, observation, writing, travel, were in turns employed -in her course of self-discipline. She read incessantly, and _thoroughly_. -Notice this list of books, the work of one month, and that when she was -nearly fifty years of age: First book of “Lucretius;” sixth book of -the “Iliad;” “Samson Agonistes;” Warton’s “History of English Poetry;” -“Grote,” second volume; “Marcus Aurelius;” “Vita Nuova,” vol. iv; chapter -one of the “Politique Positive;” Guest on “English Rhythms;” Maunce’s -“Lectures on Casuistry.” Few months fell below this in reading, and this, -too, while she was writing, seeing people, conversing, and suffering, for -she had the misfortune to know, as she says, that “one thing is needful: -a good digestion.” - -As a life of earnest purpose, of continued struggle for a high living, of -deepest desire to make the most of everything, and for everybody, there -is none more marked than that of George Eliot. Non-conformity to the -religion and the law in which we believe, must sadden her life for all, -but an honest student of her character must, after reading this “Life,” -accord to her what she herself never failed to give to the erring—charity. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[B] George Eliot’s Life, as related in her Letters and Journals. Arranged -and edited by her husband, J. W. Cross. In three volumes. New York: -Harper & Brothers. - - - - -ARBOR DAY. - -BY THE HON. B. G. NORTHROP, LL.D. - - -Recent spring floods and the diminished flow of rivers in summer have -called public attention to the cause and the remedy as never before. At -the opening of the last session of Congress, its attention was called -to the subject of Forestry, for the first time in any presidential -message. Bills for the protection and extension of forests are now -before Congress, and before many state legislatures. The last census -presents striking facts which prove this to be a question of both state -and national importance. The recent action of the national government -shows a new appreciation of forestry. The marvel now is, that the general -government did not earlier seek to protect its magnificent forests, once -the best and most extensive in the world. Their importance to the nation -was little understood. Even after a century of reckless waste, the United -States government still owns 85,000,000 acres of timber—a mere fraction -of what has been cut, or burned, without a thought of reproduction. -The Forestry Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, -though organized but six years ago, has already spread much valuable -information before the country by its reports and by those of its special -agents, commissioned to investigate the forests of the country and the -means of their protection and extension. Ex-Governor R. W. Furnas, of -Nebraska, for example, investigated the forests of California, Oregon, -Washington Territory, and the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. His -official reports on the stealing and reckless destruction of those timber -lands, and also in regard to the new and extensive timber growing on the -treeless plains of Nebraska, were of great public interest. The reports -of Dr. F. B. Hough of New York, and F. B. Baker, of Kansas—also agents of -the United States Forestry Division—have been extensively circulated and -still more widely summarized in the press. - -The National Forestry Congress is another index of the growth of popular -interest on this subject. A large volume of the proceedings of that -association at its meeting in Montreal was officially published by -the Dominion of Canada. The best papers given at its three subsequent -meetings have been published by the United States Department of -Agriculture. The subject has been ably discussed in State Agricultural -Reports, and many state and local associations have been formed to -further this interest. The passage of the Timber Culture Act has greatly -increased the area of planted woodland. - -But of all these agencies no one has awakened so general an interest in -agriculture as the appointment of Arbor Day, by governors of states, by -legislatures, and by state, county and town superintendents of schools. -The plan of Arbor Day is simple and inexpensive, and hence the more -readily adopted and widely effective. In some states the work has been -well done without any legislation. The best results, however, are secured -when an act is passed requesting the Governor, each spring, to recommend -the observance of Arbor Day, by a special message. The chief magistrate -of the state thus most effectually calls the attention of all the people -to its importance, and secures general and concerted action. _How_ -forests conserve the water supplies and lessen floods is aside from the -topic of this paper. While the fact of the increase of spring freshets -is everywhere admitted, and scientists agree as to the cause, the -popular disbelief of the true theory is the great hindrance to remedial -action. The bills for the protection of the Adirondack forests, in the -legislature of New York, in 1884, failed by reason of the opposition of -the lumbermen, and the common doubt and denial of the benefits of forests -in the conservation of the rainfall. I often met the same skepticism in -the Ohio valley, even among the sufferers from the flood disasters. They -were attributed to the extensive use of tile drains. But both in 1883 -and 1884, these floods occurred when the ground was frozen deep, and the -drains were therefore inoperative. - -That so simple a cause as forest denudation should produce such -disastrous results seems at first incredible. It is only when the vast -areas contributing to a single river are considered, that the proof of -the forest theory seems clear. Take the Ohio River, for illustration. The -area drained by it is 214,000 square miles, or twenty-two times as much -as that which in Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Connecticut -is drained by the Connecticut River; an area which includes portions of -New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, West Virginia, Virginia, -North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky. -The length of the Ohio is about 1,000 miles, and that of its ten leading -tributaries nearly 4,000, and that of the many minor affluents as much -more. The smallest influences working over such immense regions, and -ultimately combining in one stream, may enormously swell its volume. -As the destruction of forests has been going on for centuries, the -remedy must be the work of time, for it must include slow processes -and agencies, each _separately_ minute, which become important when -multiplied by myriads and extended over broad areas. Arbor Day has proved -such an agency. - -A brief history of Arbor Day will show its aims. The surprising results -already accomplished promise a still broader influence in the near -future. The plan originated with ex-Governor J. Sterling Morton, the -pioneer tree-planter of Nebraska. He secured the coöperation of the State -Board of Agriculture, some thirteen years ago, when the Governor was -induced to appoint the second Wednesday in April as a day to be devoted -to economic tree-planting. By pen and tongue, as editor and lecturer, -with arguments from theory and facts from his own practice, Mr. Morton -succeeded in awakening popular enthusiasm in this work, in which he was -ably seconded by Ex-Governor Furnas, of Nebraska, who has long served as -Forest Commissioner for the United States Department of Agriculture. - -In Nebraska a remarkable interest was awakened in the observance of -her first Arbor Day, and over 12,000,000 trees were planted on that -day. That enthusiasm was not a temporary effervescence. Each successive -Governor has annually appointed such a day by an official proclamation, -and the interest has been sustained and even increased from year to -year. The State Board of Agriculture annually awards liberal prizes to -encourage tree-planting. Hence Nebraska is the banner state of America -in this work, having, according to official reports, as I am informed -by ex-Governor Furnas, 244,353 acres of cultivated woodland, or more -than twice that of any other state. The originator of Arbor Day is now -recognized as a public benefactor, and hence, during the last campaign, -as a candidate for Governor, ran some three thousand ahead of his party -ticket. Though at first aiming at economic tree-planting, Nebraska now -observes Arbor Day in schools. The example of Nebraska was soon followed -by Kansas, which had over 120,000 acres of planted woodland. The Governor -of that state issues an annual proclamation for Arbor Day, and it is -observed by teachers and scholars and parents, in adorning both school -and home grounds. - -Four years ago the legislature of Michigan requested the Governor -to appoint an Arbor Day. Such an appointment has been repeated each -succeeding April. For the last three years a similar day has been -appointed by the Governor of Ohio. Many schools, especially those of -Cincinnati and Columbus, fitly kept the designated day. No man in this -country has had a better opportunity of observing the influence of Arbor -Day in schools than Superintendent Peaslee, who, after a trial of three -years, says: “The observance of Arbor Day is the most impressive means -of interesting the young in this subject. Should this celebration become -general, such a public sentiment would lead to the beautifying by trees -of every city, town, and village, as well as the public highways, church, -and school grounds, and the homes of the people. If but the youth of Ohio -could be led to plant their two trees each, how, by the children alone, -would the state be enriched and beautified within the next fifty years. -By our Arbor Day observance the importance of forestry was impressed -upon the minds of thousands of children who then learned to care for and -protect trees. Not one of those 20,000 children in Eden Park on Arbor Day -injured a single tree.” - -West Virginia furnishes another illustration of the influence of -observing Arbor Day in schools. In the face of many difficulties, State -School Superintendent Butcher appointed an Arbor Day in schools in April, -1883. Without waiting for any legislative or gubernatorial sanction, -solely on his own responsibility, he invited the school officers, -teachers, parents, and pupils on the designated day to plant trees on -the grounds of their schools and homes. He made the April number of -his _School Journal_ an “Arbor” number, and circulated it gratuitously -over the State. The results exceeded his expectations. It started good -influences on _minds_ as well as grounds. This great success prompted -a similar observance last April, for which greater preparations were -made, with still better results. When called to advocate this measure In -various parts of West Virginia last spring, I found the people and the -press most responsive in encouraging this practical movement. On the day -after the celebration, the papers of Wheeling, for example, commended -the work in such terms as the following: “Arbor Day was gloriously -celebrated yesterday, and was a splendid success. All—the oldest and the -youngest—evinced the liveliest interest. Arbor Day will be one of the -institutions of our schools.” - -At the annual meeting of the State Teachers’ Association of Indiana, -held in December, 1883, a kindred plan was recommended and unanimously -adopted, and an efficient committee appointed to carry it out. The State -Board of Horticulture heartily endorsed the measure. After a statement -of the plan, the State Board of Agriculture invited me to prepare a -resolution in its favor, which they promptly adopted. Governor Porter -received my suggestions with special interest, and said the measure -should have his cordial support. He soon after gave it his official -sanction, and issued a proclamation to the teachers and people of the -state, in which he predicted that the appointed day would be a memorable -one, and “the beginning of a movement for a much more extended system -of tree-culture, and the restoration of the varieties of trees, useful -and beautiful, which have been so recklessly sacrificed that nature -cries aloud for redress,” closing by calling on “the teachers to do all -in their power to make Arbor Day a day of the most ardent and inspiring -interest.” State School Superintendent Holcombe gave his personal and -official influence heartily to this work. The lectures given by his -invitation on this subject were fully reported by the press, for the -newspapers of Indiana cordially coöperated in this movement. These -combined influences secured the general observance of the appointed day, -and the results were most gratifying. Such combined agencies in nearly -every state of the Union would promise similar results. - -At the last annual Convention of the State Teachers’ Association of -Wisconsin, the presentation of Arbor Day in schools led to the adoption -of a resolution in favor of such an observance, and to the appointment -of an efficient committee to carry out the plan. At the National -Educational Association held in Madison, Wisconsin, with an attendance of -over five thousand, a resolution recommending the observance of Arbor Day -in schools in all our states was unanimously adopted. Such a day has been -observed with great interest in some of the provinces of Canada. - -The American Forestry Congress, which includes the leading arborists of -Canada and the United States, adopted, at my suggestion, the following -resolution: “In view of the wide-spread results of the observance of -Arbor Day in many states, this Congress recommends the appointment of -such a day in all our states and in the provinces of the dominion of -Canada,” and appointed a committee, consisting of the Chief of the -Forestry Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, the -State Superintendent of Schools of West Virginia, and myself to secure -the general adoption of this plan, and especially Arbor Day in schools. -As chairman of that committee, I have already presented this subject to -the Governors of many states, and the proposition has met a favorable -response. - -It may be objected to Arbor Day, or to any lessons on forestry in -schools, that the course of study is already overcrowded, and this fact -I admit. But the requisite talks on trees, their value and beauty, need -occupy but two or three hours. In some large cities there may be little -or no room for tree-planting, and no call for even a half-holiday for -this work, but even there such talks, or the memorizing of suitable -selections, on the designated day, would be impressive and useful. The -essential thing is to _start_ habits of observation and occupation with -trees, which will prompt pupils in their walks, or when at work, or at -play, to study them. The talks on this subject, which Superintendent -Peaslee says were the most interesting and profitable lessons the pupils -of Cincinnati ever had in a single day, occupied only the morning of -Arbor Day, the afternoon being given to the practical work. Such talks -will lead our youth to admire trees, and realize that they are the -grandest products of nature, and form the finest drapery that adorns this -earth in all lands. Thus taught, they will wish to plant and protect -trees, and find in their own happy experience that there is a peculiar -pleasure in their parentage, whether forest, fruit, or ornamental—a -pleasure which never cloys, but grows with their growth. Like grateful -children, trees bring rich filial returns, and compensate a thousand fold -for all the care they cost. This love of trees, early implanted in the -school, and fostered in the home, will make our youth practical arborists. - -They should learn that trees have been the admiration of the greatest -and best men of all ages. The ancients understood well the beauty as -well as the economic and hygienic value of trees. The Hebrew almost -venerated the palm. It was the chosen symbol of Judea on their coins, -and was graven on the doors of the Temple as the sacred sign of justice. -The Cedar of Lebanon was justly the pride of the Jews, and became to -them the emblem of strength and beauty. The Egyptians, Greeks, and -Romans were proficients in tree-planting. Hence Thebes, Memphis, Athens, -Carthage, Rome, Pompeii and Herculaneum, as their ruins still show, -had their shaded streets or parks. Two thousand years ago, the richest -Romans maintained a rural home, as does the wealthy Londoner, Viennese, -or Berliner to-day, and their ancient villas were lavishly adorned. The -Paradise of the Persians was filled with trees and roses. This taste for -beautiful gardens was transplanted from Persia to Greece, and the Greek -philosophers held their schools in beautiful gardens, or groves. The -devastations of parks, the destruction of shade trees, the neglect of -public streets and private grounds, the decay of rural tastes, and the -utter slight of home adornments, were clearer proofs of the great relapse -to barbarism than the vandalism which destroyed the proud monuments of -classic art and literature. - -Arbor Day has already initiated a movement of vast importance in eight -states. In tree-planting, the beginning only is difficult. The obstacles -are all met at the outset, because they are usually magnified by the -popular ignorance of this subject. It is the first step that costs—at -least, it costs effort to set this thing on foot, but that step once -taken, others are sure to follow. This very fact that the main tug is at -the start, on account of the inertia of ignorance and indifference, shows -that such start should be made easy, as is best done by an Arbor Day -proclamation of the Governor, which is sure to interest and enlist the -youth of an entire state in the good work. When the school children are -invited each to plant at least “two trees” on the home or school grounds, -the aggregate number planted will be more than twice that of the children -enlisted, for parents and the public will participate in the work. - -Tree-planting is fitted to give a needful lesson of forethought to -the juvenile mind. Living only in the present and for the present, -youth are apt to sow only where they can quickly reap. A meager crop -soon in hand, outweighs a golden harvest long in maturing. They should -learn to forecast the future as the condition of wisdom. Arboriculture -is a discipline in foresight—it is always planting for the future. -There is nothing more ennobling for youth, than the consciousness of -doing something for future generations, something which shall prove a -_growing_ benefaction in coming years. Tree-planting is an easy way of -perpetuating one’s memory long after he has passed away. The poorest can -in this way provide himself with a monument grander than the loftiest -shaft of chiseled stone which may suggest duty to the living, while it -commemorates the dead. Such associations grow in interest from year to -year and from generation to generation. By stimulating a general interest -in tree-planting among our youth, Arbor Day will yield a rich harvest -to future generations. George Peabody originated the motto, so happily -illustrated by his munificent gifts to promote education: “Education—the -debt of the present to future generations.” We owe it to our children -to leave our lands the better for our tillage and tree-planting, and -we wrong ourselves and them, if our fields are impoverished by our -improvidence. - -Arbor Day in school has led youth to adorn the surroundings of their -homes, as well as of the schools, and to extensive planting by the -wayside. How attractive our roads may become by long avenues of trees! -This is beautifully illustrated in many countries of Europe. In France, -for example, the government keeps a statistical record of the trees along -the roads. The total length of public roads in France is 18,750 miles, of -which 7,250 are bordered with trees, while 4,500 are now being, or are -soon to be, planted. Growing on lands otherwise running to waste, such -trees are grateful to the traveler, but doubly so to the planter. - -The influence of Arbor Day in schools in awakening a just appreciation -of trees, first among pupils and parents, and then the people at large, -is of vast importance in another respect. The frequency of forest fires -is the greatest hindrance to practical forestry. But let the _sentiment_ -of trees be duly cultivated, first among our youth, and then among the -people, and they will be regarded as our friends, as is the case in -Germany. The public need to learn that the interests of all classes are -concerned in the conservation of forests. Through the teaching of their -schools this result was long since accomplished in Germany, Switzerland, -Sweden, and other European countries. The people everywhere realize the -need of protecting trees. An enlightened public sentiment has proved -a better guardian of their forests than the national police. A person -wantonly setting fire to a forest would there be looked upon as an -outlaw, like the miscreant who should poison a public drinking fountain. - - - - -HOW TO WORK ALONE. - -BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - -Not all members of the “C. L. S. C.” can enjoy the benefits of a local -circle. Some live in the country, or in remote parts of the city. They -can not get out at night, through lack of company, or because the house, -the boys, or the baby must not be left alone; the local circle is not -under wise direction, and is unprofitable; or it may be that the only -accessible local circle is a close corporation, and is “inaccessible.” -Father or husband objects to the time wasted, or the long walk, or -something else. So the student is solitary. Whatever is done must be done -alone. - -This is not an unmixed evil, because it may develop power in the student, -or drive him or her to find associates at home, associates who are not -enrolled in Plainfield as “regulars,” and some of whom are quite too -young to be enrolled at all. No deprivation in this world that does not -make a place for some other unsought, unexpected blessing. - -I purpose to offer a few hints to these solitary readers, who may, I -trust, find much profit out of the restrictions of providence, and do -their work well even though it be done alone. On the blank pages of -your necessity you may make records of your own, worth more to you than -volumes of other people’s print. - -1. Although alone, remember that you are associated with a great Circle -numbering thousands and tens of thousands of members. You are not alone, -but one of many. This thought helps you. It sets currents of sympathy in -motion. It annihilates distance. It fills the very air about you with -companions with whom you are in sweet fellowship, although you have -never seen them. They are a great cloud of witnesses. They march under -the same banner; put their names on the same great record book in the -central office; read the same pages; sing the same songs; answer the same -questions; recite the same mottoes; observe the same memorial days; and -turn with tender hearts to the same heavens, under the mystic spell of -the vesper hour; experience the same longings after true culture, and -have hearts full of sympathy for their fellow-students everywhere. This -thought of oneness in work gives feelings of kinship and companionship. -The solitary student in the little room—kitchen, sitting room, library, -or bed chamber—is surrounded by thousands of fellow-students. They seem -to look over the page with you. They seem to whisper words of good will -and faith, and some of them, I assure you, are royal people. They would -give you such greeting, if they had opportunity, as would make you proud -and glad of your connection with the Circle. Indeed, solitariness is -impossible to the thoughtful member of the C. L. S. C. - -2. This sense of fellowship is increased, and a helpful stimulus given -to the solitary worker, by reflecting on the character of the great -fraternity of which you are a part. We now enroll more than seventy -thousand members. Perhaps twenty-five thousand have practically given -up the readings. Only fifty thousand remain with us. Many thousands -of readers are connected with local circles who have never joined as -“regulars” at the central office in Plainfield, N. J. There are thousands -who are reading a part of the course, but who neither belong to the local -nor general circle. I believe that these non-recorded and irregular -readers make up for the lapsed thousands, so that to-day we have nearly -or quite seventy thousand people doing all or a part of the required -reading. This, therefore, becomes a great institution. Its territorial -extent is as vast as its numerical strength. There are “C. L. S. C.s” -in all parts of the world. Our office records contain names from India, -China, Japan, the Sandwich Islands, and many other outlying regions, -while the list in Canada and on the Pacific coast runs up among the -thousands. In every state and territory members are to be found. - -And who are these with whom you, my solitary student, are associated? -They represent every calling in life, and almost every grade, social and -intellectual. Here are lawyers, judges, physicians, clergymen, doctors of -divinity, college graduates, literally by the thousand, who seek through -our course to review the studies of other and earlier years. Here are -seminary and high school graduates, and people old and young who dropped -out of the grammar school when they were too young to understand their -folly in doing so. Here are business men, mechanics and farmers who -have been prospered, and who covet now a measure of culture to fit them -for society, that their money may gain for them and their families more -than a mere social recognition. Here are mothers good and true, who do -not want to part hands with sons and daughters as they enter the higher -schools, but who propose by our course of reading to keep in the literary -and scientific world where their children are to be at home. Here are -people of “low degree,” who toil for bread, with lengthened hours of -service, that they may help those who are dependent upon them. They are -in shops and kitchens, and have souls that would put honor into palaces. -They want outlook as they go weighted down through busy and weary years. -They do not expect always to be slaves to society and circumstance. There -is blood-royal in every heart-beat, and power to hold princedoms in some -near future. So, despised of men who live, they hold converse through -books with gifted and kingly souls who, though dead, yet live, and who -work in other kingly souls. There are many of these disguised princes and -princesses in your Circle. - -Here too are sufferers in homes of bereavement and pain, where arms are -empty and hearts are full, where love calls but receives no answer, where -disease binds the body but leaves the mind free to grieve over its loss; -where lack of work gives place to temptation, and renders occupation of -some sort a moral and religious necessity; where worldliness, that makes -the soul barren, needs thoughtfulness to moisten, beautify and fructify -the life. - -In such great and gracious companionship you sit down for solitary study. -Dismiss the thought, therefore, that this is solitude. Reach out your -soul to greet the currents of invisible and loving influence that pour in -upon you from every quarter. - -3. Select and furnish your Chautauqua corner. Do not be too anxious -to have it harmonize with other corners of the room. Put shelves for -your books “required” and for “review.” On the lowest shelf pile THE -CHAUTAUQUANS. On the wall put up the motto cards, the list of memorial -days, the Chautauqua calendar, the photograph or engraving of the Hall -of Philosophy, and such other Chautauqua views as you approve. Put up -busts or engravings of the great leaders—Homer, Cicero, Dante, Milton, -Goethe. Somewhere place a picture of Bryant, the earliest distinguished -friend of the C. L. S. C. By gradual additions fill the Chautauqua corner -with pictures and bookshelves, busts and mottoes, all in the line of -your reading, until the other corners and the intervening walls shall be -filled with reminders of Chautauqua and the world of literature, science -and art it represents. And if somehow you can place on the wall that -matchless engraving representing the great Master with his two disciples -on the way to Emmaus, you will, in a sense, sanctify your room, and set -forth most effectively, the aim, scope and spirit of the great Chautauqua -movement. In such a room, or in such a corner, can students be solitary? - -4. You will greatly increase your power by systematic habits. One may -“read up” at any time, but the regular daily reading which renders -unnecessary what is called “reading up,” is much the better way. It -renders the work comparatively light; it makes the C. L. S. C. a help -to other less congenial work of the day into which it falls like a -refreshing shower. It forces life into a system which always expedites -and lightens labor. It schools the will. It brings lower duties into -proper subjection to the higher. It is every way better to do each day’s -work as each day comes. Thus working alone, but systematically, one keeps -the hand in and does not lose grasp, taste or delight. - -5. Though compelled to work alone, make casual contacts with others -afford opportunities for drawing them out, for finding out what they -know, or for corroborating your own views. Ask questions. Elicit -opinions. Start conversation. Try to tell what you know or think. Tell -your children. Tell your neighbors. As you interest them, you set them in -search of knowledge, which finding, they will later on report to you, and -you thus give them a start in lines of self-improvement. - -6. This setting others at work in quest of knowledge for you is a most -practicable way of getting knowledge and doing good to the finders -thereof. - -Write out ten different questions, and give one to each of ten young boys -and girls of a high school, for example. They will ransack libraries, -consult teachers, find out and report what you want to know, and be -immensely helped by the knowledge found and the service rendered. Though -alone, you need not work alone. - -7. Practice talking to yourself about the things you have read. Put facts -and dates into sentences. Now and then write out these sentences, or -speak them off. Recite a lesson to yourself every day. Make a speech with -yourself as audience. Put facts into recitative lullabies, by which you -sing baby to sleep. Don’t do too much of all this, lest it weary you, -but do a little of this sentence-framing and solitary speech-making, and -nursery-crooning every day. You will then have a local circle of you, -and yourself and your own soul. Now one’s self makes very good society -sometimes; there are so many powers and voices and thoughts and projects -in a single soul. - -8. Lift your soul up to its height, now and then, and breathe a thought -of the heart that may grow into a prayer as you recall the great Circle -of which you are a member. Think in silence of their multiplied and -varied circumstances, perils, temptations and necessities. Think of the -disheartened, the bereaved, the suffering, the doubting; those who have -great power, but do not know how to use it; those who are sick of sin and -worldliness, and do not know how to get into the path of holiness and -peace. Think of all these, and then pray. Let your heart swell toward God -in sympathy and longing. - -Thus will you find in your solitude the presence of the Spirit invisible -and eternal, whose name is love, and whose home is heaven, and whose -children are the lowly and meek and devout, who love souls—the world full -of souls—and who daily bear them in tender sympathy to the throne. - -They who do these things can not be alone. - - * * * * * - -If it were not for my love of beautiful nature and poetry, my heart would -have died within me long ago. I never felt before what immeasurable -benefactors these same poets are to their kind, and how large a measure, -both of actual happiness and prevention of misery they have imparted to -the race. I would willingly give up half my fortune, and some little of -the fragments of health and bodily enjoyment that remain to me, rather -than that Shakspere should not have lived before me.—_Lord Jeffrey (from -a letter to Lord Cockburn, 1833)._ - - - - -OUTLINE AND PROGRAMS. - - -OUTLINE OF REQUIRED READINGS FOR APRIL. - -_First Week_ (ending April 8).—1. “Chemistry,” chapters XVIII, XIX and XX. - -2. “History of the Reformation,” from page 1 to 27. - -3. “The Circle of the Sciences,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for April 5, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Second Week_ (ending April 15).—1. “Chemistry,” chapters XXI and XXII. - -2. “History of the Reformation,” from page 27 to 55. - -3. “Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for April 12, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Third Week_ (ending April 22).—1. “Chemistry,” chapter XXIII. - -2. “History of the Reformation,” from page 55 to 88. - -3. “Easy Lessons in Animal Biology,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Readings in _Our Alma Mater_. - -5. Sunday Readings for April 19, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -_Fourth Week_ (ending April 30).—1. “Chemistry,” chapters XXIV, XXV and -XXVI. - -2. “History of the Reformation,” from page 88 to 117. - -3. “Aristotle,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Readings in _Our Alma Mater_. - -5. Sunday Readings for April 26, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - - - -PROGRAMS FOR LOCAL CIRCLE WORK. - - -FIRST WEEK IN APRIL. - -1. Essay—Easter. - -2. Selection—“All Fool’s Day.” By Addison. - -3. A Paper on the Life of Martin Luther. - -Music. - -4. Fifteen Minutes’ Talk on the Cause of the Present Troubles in the -Soudan. - -5. Character Sketch—General Gordon. - -6. Debate—Resolved, that dynamite is more productive of evil than good. - - -SECOND WEEK IN APRIL. - -1. Selection—“Martin Luther.” From Robertson’s “History of Charles V.” -Found also in Chambers’s “Cyclopedia of English Literature.” - -2. A Paper on the Inquisition. - -3. Recitation—“The Prisoner of Chillon.”—By Byron. - -4. Character Sketch—John Knox. - -Music. - -5. Essay—The Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period. - -6. A General Talk on Socialism. - -7. Critic’s Report. - - -THIRD WEEK IN APRIL. - -1. Essay—The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. - -2. Recitation—“Robinson of Leydon.”—By O. W. Holmes. - -3. Character Sketch.—William of Orange. - -Music. - -4. A Paper on Mount Cenis. - -5. Selection—“The Chambered Nautilus.” By O. W. Holmes. - -6. Conversation on New Books. - -7. Questions and Answers for the month in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - -SHAKSPERE DAY. - -Music. - -1. Roll call—Quotations from Shakspere. - -2. A Paper on the Life and Times of Shakspere. - -Music. - -3. The Story of “The Tempest.” - -4. Recitation—“Perseverance.” Selected from “Troilus and Cressida,” Act -III., scene 3; beginning, “Time hath, my lord, a wallet,” etc.; ending, -“One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin.” - -5. Essay—Characteristics of Shakspere’s Women. - -Music. - -6. Analysis of “Winter’s Tale.” - -7. Court scene in “Merchant of Venice,” Act IV., scene 1; beginning, “Is -your name Shylock?” ending with the exit of Shylock. - -The plan followed by many Shakspere clubs would afford a fine -entertainment. They assign the characters in any one of the plays (that -of “Julius Cæsar” being exceptionally fitting for an evening of this -kind) to the different members of the circle, who read the parts assigned. - -To hold a Shakspere carnival would be a very interesting way in which to -commemorate the day. Let each one come dressed in costume to represent -any one of Shakspere’s characters and personate that character throughout -the evening. - - - - -LOCAL CIRCLES. - - -C. L. S. C. MOTTOES. - -“_We Study the Word and the Works of God._”—“_Let us keep our Heavenly -Father in the Midst._”—“_Never be Discouraged._” - - -C. L. S. C. MEMORIAL DAYS. - -1. OPENING DAY—October 1. - -2. BRYANT DAY—November 3. - -3. SPECIAL SUNDAY—November, second Sunday. - -4. MILTON DAY—December 9. - -5. COLLEGE DAY—January, last Thursday. - -6. SPECIAL SUNDAY—February, second Sunday. - -7. FOUNDER’S DAY—February 23. - -8. LONGFELLOW DAY—February 27. - -9. SHAKSPERE DAY—April 23. - -10. ADDISON DAY—May 1. - -11. SPECIAL SUNDAY—May, second Sunday. - -12. SPECIAL SUNDAY—July, second Sunday. - -13. INAUGURATION DAY—August, first Saturday after first Tuesday; -anniversary of C. L. S. C. at Chautauqua. - -14. ST. PAUL’S DAY—August, second Saturday after first Tuesday; -anniversary of the dedication of St. Paul’s Grove at Chautauqua. - -15. COMMENCEMENT DAY—August, third Tuesday. - -16. GARFIELD DAY—September 19. - - * * * * * - -The difficulty of holding a circle together is sometimes very great. Not -a little thorough study of the needs and natures of the members must tax -the leader who would hold a circle which has no interest in its work. -At RICHMOND, MAINE, our friends have experienced this difficulty. A -circle of fifteen was formed in January, 1884, but did not continue its -meetings. The lukewarmness of a few broke the interest of all; but ten -of the members did their reading apart. These ten took matters into their -own hands last fall, and now Richmond has a “Merry Meeting” circle, of -twenty-two members, interested and promising. - -NASHUA, NEW HAMPSHIRE, has a Chautauqua circle. It has been in existence -for two years past, with varying fortunes. Last fall, when reorganized -for the season, it consisted of ten ladies, but now numbers fourteen. -Though this number is less than one half that of the last year, the -interest and enthusiasm are much greater. The weekly meetings are -occasions of great interest and instruction. They follow, with frequent -modifications, the program arranged in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, making the roll -call and question box regular features. The only difficulty with which -they meet is that they are all so busy that they can scarcely prepare for -each program. They also derive much pleasure and profit in observing the -memorial days. The circle is called the “Raymond” circle, in honor of the -Rev. B. P. Raymond, president of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis., -founder of this branch. - -The “Athenian Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle” of WEST -ENOSBURGH, VT., has entered upon its first year in the Chautauqua -course. Although in its infancy, it shows a great deal of interest and -enthusiasm. The circle was organized September 29, 1884. The officers -are president, vice president and secretary. The circle began with eight -members and has increased to thirteen. One of the most interesting -exercises of this circle is the pronouncing match, each person being -allowed to try once; if he misses he sits down. The words for the next -match are the names of the sixty-six elements in chemistry. - -Our travels through MASSACHUSETTS this month furnish much interesting -circle news. The “Star” circle, in FOXBORO, reorganized in October -with twenty-eight members, which includes all the graduates with one -exception. They believe there in once a C. L. S. C. always a C. L. S. -C. The weekly meetings are reported in the local paper, and more are -inquiring about the work than in previous years. One reason may be -that they are but eighteen miles from the “Hall on the Hill,” which -is in process of erection in South Framingham.——The “Henry M. King” -circle, connected with the Dudley Street church, BOSTON, was organized -in November, and has twenty-five members. Of these the larger part are -gentlemen, not of leisure, but business men, who bring with them into the -bi-weekly meetings the same energy and perseverance that characterize a -successful business enterprise. These are certainly the ones who might -with a good show of reason say: “No time.” But on the contrary they -_have_ time, not only for the regular work, but for the preparation of -papers requiring much time and research.——At NORTH ATTLEBORO the new -“Bryant” circle is four months old, and numbers twenty-six members. They -open the meetings with reading Scripture lessons and singing Chautauqua -songs. Roll call is responded to by quotations from a standard author, -followed by essays, recitations, blackboard exercises, questions, -discussions, etc., as the committee of instruction has arranged. The -secretary writes: “If we are not great, our hopes are.”——“Profit as well -as enjoyment we are getting from our studies,” says a member of the -circle at NORTH WEYMOUTH. This organization is a circle of ’83, and has -had time to thoroughly test the course. They have had recently a pleasant -memorial service, and have been favored with chemical experiments -by a chemist.——Pleasant notes of the work at WEST MADFORD have been -sent us by the secretary: “Through the influence of one sturdy little -lady, six or eight people met together last October and talked up the -feasibility of the C. L. S. C. They elected a president and secretary, -drew up a few by-laws, and are now in good running order. They meet -once in two weeks. Their membership was limited to twenty, which was -quickly reached. The opinion of these members seems to be that this -circle is as good, if not better, than any reported in your magazine. -We all work with a will, cull the best from the programs given for the -local circles, and add original ideas. Each member, in the order of his -enrollment, makes out the program. This gives each one an opportunity -to do his share, as well as to add his own ideas. We think this feature -much superior to the general mode of allowing the ‘chair’ to prepare all -programs.”——AMESBURY has a circle of unusual strength. We have been so -fortunate as to receive a letter which gives an account of a delightful -entertainment held by them in December. Our friend says: “Thinking -perhaps you might like to hear from us once again, we are glad to write -you of our pleasant and prosperous winter of literary work, brought about -by the grand C. L. S. C. movement. Our meetings are held on the second -and fourth Tuesday of each month, the programs comprise essays, music, -readings and conversation, and are social and very delightful, showing -a marked improvement on our ‘feeble beginning’ a year ago. Two new -circles have been formed this winter, one, the ‘Delphic,’ having forty or -more members. On the 18th of December we held our first public meeting -in honor of ‘Our Poet’s’ (Mr. John G. Whittier) birthday, to which we -invited the ‘Delphic’ circle, also the ‘Thursday Evening Club,’ an older -literary society of Amesbury, and other friends, about three hundred in -all. Members from the three circles took part in the program, which had -been carefully prepared. We were greatly pleased to receive from Mr. W. -C. Wilkinson a paper entitled ‘Whittier at the Receipt of Customs,’ which -was read to us by his friend, the Rev. P. S. Evans, of Amesbury. As Mr. -Whittier, owing to a previous engagement, could not be present with us, -resolutions were drawn up and sent to him, as follows: - - “‘DEAR MR. WHITTIER;—The three literary circles, together with - a goodly company of the citizens of Amesbury as their invited - guests, are met to celebrate the return of your birthday. We - have talked together of all that you have done and suffered in - the cause of freedom and of truth. We have listened to many of - your words, rendered by living voices. We have looked at your - ‘counterfeit presentment’ as it has hung before us covered with - evergreen—our New England laurel. Because you were not with - us in person, to receive them, we desire to send you our most - hearty congratulations on the completion of your seventy-seventh - year. We rejoice that after your “Thirty Years’ War” you have - been spared to enjoy so many years of peace, and that in the - prolonged “Indian Summer,” the “Halcyon” days of your life, you - are receiving a well deserved tribute of reverence and affection. - We think ourselves happy to have known you, not merely as a poet, - but as a citizen, a neighbor, and a friend. - - “‘We feel we can not better voice our sentiments than by - retaliating upon you the words you once so fitly spoke of one who - has been a co-laborer with you in the cause of humanity—the mild - “Autocrat of the Breakfast Table.” - - “‘“The world may keep his honored name, - The wealth of all his varied powers; - A stronger claim has love than fame, - And he himself is only ours.”’ - - “‘In the name and by the request of three hundred citizens of - your own village.’ - -“To which Mr. Whittier responded with the following charming letter: - - “‘OAK KNOLL, DANVERS, 12 MO., 23, 1884. - - “‘MY DEAR FRIEND:—Thy kind letter in behalf of the literary - associations of Amesbury and Salisbury has just been received, - and I hasten to express my thanks for the generous appreciation - of my life work by “mine own people,” who know the man as well - as the writer. That I am neither a prophet myself, nor the son - of a prophet, may account perhaps for the rather remarkable fact - that I am not without honor in my own country. I scarcely need - say that among the many kind testimonials of regard which, on - the occasion of my birthday, have reached me from both sides of - the water, none have been more welcome than that conveyed in thy - letter. If the praise awarded me is vastly beyond my due, I am - none the less grateful for it. - - “‘I know too well my own deficiencies and limitations, but my - heart is warm with thankfulness to the Divine Providence which - so early led me to consecrate the ability given me to the cause - of heaven, freedom, and the welfare of my fellowmen. The measure - of literary reputation which has come to me is as far beyond my - expectation as my desert, and I am glad to share the benefit of - it with my home friends and neighbors. With thanks to thyself - personally, and to those whom thee represents, I am, very truly, - thy friend, - - “‘JOHN G. WHITTIER.’” - -The “Crescent” circle, of WAKEFIELD, grew out of a meeting held last -September, and addressed by Mr. Fairchild, of Malden, in the interest -of the Chautauqua movement. A circle was formed as a result of their -meeting. About twenty members are now recorded on the books, although -more than that proposed at first to join. The meetings are quite -interesting, the programs being varied.——The “Alpha,” of UXBRIDGE, is a -new name on the books. This cutting from a recent letter is suggestive -of their spirit: “We start with six members only, but all are _very_ -enthusiastic. We propose to do thorough work. Our object is improvement -and genuine culture. We shall use the best means to bring in others to -reap with us the golden harvest, and not be selfishly content with ‘our -set.’”——There are in FALL RIVER about sixty members of the C. L. S. C., -but the “Amity” circle is the first organization in the city. It at -present numbers only thirteen members. A larger number certainly ought -to be in the organization. The “Amity” will undoubtedly soon bring them -in.——From PITTSFIELD a friend writes: “I am happy to report to you a -constantly increasing interest in the C. L. S. C. work in Pittsfield. -Our circle reorganized in October for another year’s work. To the -leadership of our efficient president, the Rev. Geo. Skene, we owe our -present prosperity. We have now sixty-four members, twenty-three of -whom belong to Class ’88. We have one graduate, our president, who took -his diploma at Chautauqua last summer. We also have one member of Class -’85, making five classes represented in our circle. Our meetings are -full of interest, and the attendance is excellent, the smallest number -present at any meeting this year being twenty-five. Programs are arranged -by a board of seven managers, who serve for three months. Singing, -prayer, roll call, with responses by quotations and reading of minutes -of last meeting, always form the opening exercises. We have also used -the Chautauqua vesper service, and enjoyed it. Our pastor has had the -Sunday vesper service several times, and we have found it very enjoyable -in both church and circle. We have had, too, experiments in chemistry, -illustrating some of the articles on that subject in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. As -another specialty we have had ‘pronunciation of Greek names,’ conducted -as the old fashioned spelling matches. This proved highly entertaining, -as well as instructive. We have recently changed our name to ‘Bryant -Chautauqua Circle.’ We think it particularly appropriate, as Cummington, -the birthplace of Mr. Bryant, and where he spent much of his life, is -situated only twenty miles from this town. Another circle has been formed -here since November, taking as a president one of the members of our -circle. They have at present thirty members. On Monday evening, February -2d, Dr. Vincent gave a lecture, both circles attending, and after the -lecture a joint reception was given him. It is expected that arrangements -will soon be made for occasionally holding union meetings. Thus the C. -L. S. C. prospers in Pittsfield. We find that here, as elsewhere, the C. -L. S. C. is promoting the best interests of the people.”——For several -years the two or three members of the C. L. S. C. in MARSHFIELD have been -accustomed to meet weekly for reading, study and conversation, but they -never dignified the gathering by the name of a local circle. Within a -few months they have organized under the name of the “Webster” circle, -inasmuch as they are the nearest members of the C. L. S. C. to the home -and burial place of that great statesman. They meet once in three weeks, -and have a membership of eight or ten, including representatives of -nearly every class. - -The “Phelps” local circle, of NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, of the C. L. S. C., -started in November with five Chautauquans, and now numbers twenty-six, -with a number of others who are reading. So far they have kept very -closely to the Greek part of the course, and in the meetings have had a -number of map exercises, which they find very interesting.——WEST WINSTED, -of the same state, has a year-old circle, from which we have had our -first letter: “Our local circle numbers sixty, thirty of whom are regular -members of the central Circle. Nearly all of these members belong to the -‘Pansy’ class, and are loyal to it. We have never labored under great -difficulties, always having had good meetings. We have a most efficient -lady president, to whom, in a large degree, the success of our circle is -due. Early in the fall of 1883 a few enterprising men and women sent for -the books for the year and commenced reading, hardly daring to hope that -a circle would be formed. Our village is not lacking in literary circles, -having an almost countless number of different kinds, and for this very -reason it seemed that another one would not meet with success, but at the -first call nearly forty responded. We organized our circle that night and -continued the meetings during the year, taking up the work in essays, -questions and readings, and observing, as far as possible, the memorial -days, by appropriate exercises. This year we reorganized in October, and, -if possible, have had more interesting meetings than last year. Some of -our members who have a long distance to walk in order to attend have -proved themselves filled with the Chautauqua enthusiasm by their regular -attendance, whatever the condition of the weather. At our last meeting -we had chemistry for the topic, and devoted the evening to experiments, -having twenty or more, nearly all of which are given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. -We have had sometimes, in addition to the regular literary work of the -evening, a personation of some author given by a member, the remaining -members guessing the author personated. One feature of our program for -January 20th was a match, similar to an old-fashioned spelling match, -upon the questions on ‘Preparatory Greek Course’ in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -October and November. From the fact that new members join our ranks -at almost every meeting, we are encouraged in the feeling that though -popularity is not the winning feature, the good ‘Idea’ has taken deep -root.” - -A RHODE ISLAND friend writes from WARREN: “To the numerous reports from -local organizations, I am pleased to add a few lines from the ‘Delta’ -circle, organized last October, in this part of ‘Little Rhody.’ It -consists of nineteen ‘regular’ and four ‘local’ members, assembling on -the second and fourth Monday evenings of each month. Our president and -vice president are enthusiastic Chautauquans, respectively of the classes -of ’86 and ’87, the remainder belonging to the class of ’88. Our programs -are arranged by ‘the committee of instruction’ during the intermission, -and reported to the circle before its adjournment each evening. In the -arrangement of these great help is rendered by those published in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. Our memorial days have been pleasantly observed, and we -shall shortly have a Sunday evening vesper service. We also intend to -have a supper, the cooking of which is to be ‘_à la_ CHAUTAUQUAN.’ While -waiting for the Chautauqua songs our president has carefully prepared by -hektograph, for our use, both notes and words of several selected from -his copy, and we are delighted with the harmonies. Should we discover -any new departure that would be helpful to local circles, we shall write -again.” - -Almost as numerous reports reach us this month from the “Empire State” -as we received last; several are of circles hitherto unknown to our -columns. The “DeKalb” circle, of BROOKLYN, is one of these. It was -organized in the fall of 1883, with fifteen members. Since that time the -membership has increased to twenty-six.——At BATAVIA a local circle was -formed in October last, and consists of about fifty members. These are -mostly beginners in the Chautauqua course, with a few who will finish -next year. They have done some good work in the way of essays, readings -and experiments, and hope to do more. The work upon Greece has been made -particularly interesting, from the fact that the leader, the Rev. C. -A. Johnson, has described so faithfully many of these landmarks of the -past as seen by him in recent years.——In October, 1884, a new C. L. S. -C. was organized at WHITESTOWN. It is called the “Hestia” circle, and -has fifteen enthusiastic members, all ladies. At one meeting leaders are -appointed to conduct the exercises on the various readings at the next -meeting, having as many different leaders as there are different subjects -in the readings for the week. The leaders are appointed in alphabetical -order, so each member is required to lead in some exercise as often as -once in every three or four weeks.——The “Lakeside” circle, of FAIR HAVEN, -is to be counted “one of us.” Many readers have been at Lakeside, but the -circle is a new organization. Thus far the work has been, most of it, -on the Greek course; they take the questions in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, have -essays on the leading characters, selections, questions, discussions, -etc. The president drew for them a large map of Greece, which was a great -help in fixing the position of the different places in their minds—an -admirable plan, which more presidents would do well to follow.——A -delightful circle of seventeen exists in the pleasant city of ROME. -Unfortunately, they have recently lost their president, a gentleman of -scholarly taste, to whom the success of the first two years of their life -was largely due.——At LITTLE GENESEE there is an enthusiastic circle of -sixteen members. At each circle one of the members presents a program -for the next session, every member taking his turn in the order in which -his name stands on the secretary’s book. Although not formally made a -rule, it is understood that no member shall refuse to undertake any work -assigned on the program. Chautauqua songs, roll call, and “Questions and -Answers” from THE CHAUTAUQUAN are the standard features of the programs. -Essays, discussions, select reading, questions, etc., furnish variety, -and conversation is always in order. At the last circle the responses -were to be from “Kitchen Science.” The responses assumed form, as well as -expression, and a bountifully spread table gave opportunity for practical -tests of kitchen science. - -At LATROBE, PENNSYLVANIA, a C. L. S. C. was properly organized, and went -earnestly to work October 1, 1884, with twenty-five members. It being the -first Chautauqua circle in the place some difficulties had to be overcome -before getting rightly started. The circle is now under good progress, -and doing a good work. They have enjoyable monthly meetings, where a -regular program is carried out, consisting of readings, recitations, -music, etc. The benefit gained by the members is far beyond expression. -Both old and young are alike profited and pleased with the readings. -October 22, 1884, the circle was called to mourn the sad death of Miss -Alice Newcomer, one of their most beloved members.——A very interesting -variation from the usual response by roll call has been introduced into -a program of the HARRISBURG circle. It is that each person respond by -mentioning some one important event which has occurred in the past month. -This circle sends a very skilfully prepared program.——At BERWICK the C. -L. S. C. pursues the plan of study laid down in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, finding -it admirably adapted to complete the required reading in the given time. -A friend telling of their prosperity says: “We have lost a few members by -removals, and one or two have withdrawn, after a year’s study, but the -backbone and sinew of the circle remain, and the body is growing vigorous -and symmetrical. At the dawn of the Chautauqua year we were compelled -to part with our learned and valued preceptor, Prof. L. H. Bower, who -was called to the Dickinson College Preparatory School. The circle, with -appropriate ceremony, presented him with a copy of ‘Knight’s Illuminated -Pictorial Shakspere,’ in eight volumes, as a token of their appreciation -of his services. His talented brother, Prof. A. V. Bower, was elected to -succeed him as president of the circle, and the change was made without -any friction whatever. We congratulate ourselves upon being members of -the Class of ’86.” - -The outlook which a friend from MARYLAND sends of the new circle at -FREDERICK is very encouraging: “Through the energy of a lady of the -Methodist church we have organized a C. L. S. C. local circle under -the name of ‘Mountain City.’ We organized November 24, 1884, with nine -members, elected a president, vice president, secretary and treasurer. We -are glad to say we now have thirteen members, and hope soon to increase -this number. We have enthusiastic meetings every week at the homes of the -members; read in the circle some of THE CHAUTAUQUAN required readings, -and carry out as far as practicable the programs for local circles, and -expect to observe all memorial days.” - -We have just received a very encouraging report from the MADISONVILLE, -OHIO, circle which was organized last year. They have twenty-five -members, all of whom take a great interest in the circle. The committee -of instruction, composed of the officers, has a full program prepared -for each meeting. Two ministers of the town belong and take an active -part. Miscellaneous questions have been introduced, and beside a question -on the lesson, each member is required to bring one on outside matters. -All questions remaining unanswered are distributed, to be answered at -the following meeting. There is no doubt that if the interest in the -circle still continues there will be a second circle started in the town -next year.——At DEFIANCE a local circle was organized October 1st, with -a membership of twenty, all of whom belong to the general Circle of -the C. L. S. C. The president is the Rev. B. W. Slagle, pastor of the -Presbyterian church in the town. They have prepared special programs -for the memorial days, which have proved very delightful, as well as -instructive. There is a good prospect of doubling the membership by next -year. - -The annual report of the work of Calvary church, DETROIT, MICHIGAN, for -last year, includes an account of the work done by the “Calvary” circle, -a society which has been made a part of the church organization. From -it we learn that the society has thirty-three active members. They have -held twenty-two meetings; the programs have included—essays, 36; select -readings, 28; music—instrumental pieces 21, vocal pieces 17; general -talks, 4; debates, 2. The regular CHAUTAUQUAN review questions have -been taken up at each meeting. There has been a great deal of interest -manifested in the meetings and a disposition on the part of officers and -members to make them a success; every one who has attended them has been -benefited, not only in the improvement of his or her mind, but also in -some degree morally. - -INDIANA reports two circles: the “Wide Awakes,” of MOSCOW, a circle -of four, and the “Laconia,” of GUMFIELD. Some five years ago, when -the “Chautauqua wave” was moving westward, it reached Gumfield in a -modified form. Eight persons began taking THE CHAUTAUQUAN, but did -not perfect an organization; only one of the number matriculated and -kept up the required reading. In the fall of 1882 they began the work -vigorously, organizing a promising circle. As time advanced their -influence gradually widened and extended, until this year there are over -twenty enthusiastic Chautauquans enrolled at the Plainfield office. The -“Laconia” meets weekly, and has endeavored to make thoroughness one of -the characteristics of its work. It is composed entirely of housekeepers, -but they feel more than compensated for sacrifice of time by inspiration -received from the reading and study. Most memorial days have been -observed. By this means the public has become interested in the C. L. S. -C., and a similar society has been organized among the young people. - -One of the most enthusiastic circles of ILLINOIS is a quartette of -“Irrepressibles,” at NOKOMIO. The circle had the novel experience of -graduating in a body at Chautauqua last August. Now they are working more -vigorously than ever, trying to cover their diplomas with seals.——ELGIN -has four large circles, the result of the “Alpha” circle, an organization -formed in December, 1883, with six members. Last fall this society -increased its numbers to nine, and most zealous has been their work. A -sad loss recently befell them in the death of one of the charter members, -Miss Mary Warde.——The circle at SULLIVAN, was organized in October, with -a membership of eleven—one “Progressive” and ten “Plymouth Rocks.” They -meet once a week at the homes of the members. The president appoints -the members in turn to act as leaders, and the circle is composed -of enthusiastic workers. Seven members visited New Orleans in the -holidays, and two are spending this month in the “Crescent City.”——From -PROPHETSTOWN a friend writes: “We are a modest bouquet of ‘Pansies,’ -counting only seven, but we feel the charm of the Chautauqua Idea, and -propose to ‘Neglect not the gift that is in us.’ One of our number, Mrs. -Amelia K. Seely, passed ‘beyond the gates’ December 15, 1884. We sadly -miss her cheery presence and unfailing interest in the work.”——Wednesday, -January 21st, was a “red-letter” day for the Chautauquans of HINSDALE. -Their usual enthusiasm was raised to a high key by the long-looked-for -visit to their suburb of Chancellor Vincent, who made a stop of two hours -on his way to Aurora. He was received by the class, who were out in full -force, at the residence of the secretary. A lunch was served, and the -time was most agreeably and profitably spent in conversation upon topics -of interest connected with the C. L. S. C. - -The “Oak Branch” circle was organized at OAKFIELD, WISCONSIN, in -November. There are only seven members, and all are busy people, but they -are zealous and interested in the work, and thankful that they may enjoy -the benefits of the C. L. S. C. They meet once in two weeks, their circle -being conducted similarly to others which have been reported in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. - -The “Centenary” local circle, of MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA, writes us: “Our -city boasts no less than twelve circles, but Centenary, the pioneer -circle, still lives, and while our members are about one half what they -were when ours was the only one in the city, we are going on quietly and -promptly with all our work, and expect to furnish ten graduates for the -class of ’85. We have our cottage engaged for the coming Assembly at -Chautauqua, and hope to send a good delegation next summer. We have some -eight or nine members of the class of ’88, and several representatives of -classes of ’86 and ’87.”——At SPRING VALLEY, a circle of seventeen members -organized last fall, the president being from the class of ’84, but the -members from ’88. The interest in the circle is decidedly increasing. - -The friends of THE CHAUTAUQUAN in IOWA have been unusually kind this -month. The following brief clippings from their letters give an excellent -outlook on the work there: “A circle was organized at AFTON, in October -last, consisting of eleven regular and fifteen local members. Although -nearly a month behind in organizing, we intend continuing our society -through July, so as to be able to commence the next year at the regular -time. In making out our program for local circle work we usually -follow the one given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and find it a great help, but -occasionally vary our exercises to adapt it to peculiar circumstances. -The average attendance is good, and most of the members seem to take -quite an interest. We hope the society will prove of lasting benefit to -each member.”——“Through the energetic efforts of our village doctor, -there was started last October a C. L. S. C. circle at LE GRAND, and -we feel worthy of mention in your columns. The circle consists of -eleven members of the great Circle, and four or five local members. We -appoint a new teacher for each book. We are learning much, and very much -enjoy the circles. We have chosen for our name ‘Philohellemon.’”——“The -‘Ladies’ Chautauqua Reading Circle,’ of SIOUX CITY, IOWA, has seventeen -members. We organized in October, 1884. Our society is full of earnest -enthusiasm. We meet once a week, following with slight variations the -programs suggested in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Chemistry is a favorite study, -made specially interesting by the fact that a gentleman familiar with the -subject gives us lectures with illustrative experiments.”——The “Kelly -Humboldt” circle, of HUMBOLDT, was reorganized last fall with renewed -energy and vigor. About fourteen new members were admitted. “Our circle -being now so large (numbering about twenty-six) as to almost require -dividing, next season we intend organizing one in the adjoining town, -just half a mile from here; then those living in that vicinity can -withdraw from our circle to their own, leaving room for more to join -us. To say that we enjoy our study, would be saying but very little; we -can hardly wait for Monday evening to come, so anxious are we to meet -and discuss the topics prepared for us. The programs arranged in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN are a great help to us, although we vary them a little, -generally opening by prayer and music; then, as a sentiment, we each -give a current event of the week. We observe all the memorial days, -and are now making extensive preparations to hold a public meeting in -the church on Longfellow’s day. So that we may not be confused with -the other ‘Humboldt’ circle, we have, in honor of the originator, Miss -Mary Kelly, named our circle the ‘Kelly Humboldt’ C. L. S. C.”——WAPELLO -has the “Qui Vive” circle, which enjoys the work. It was organized in -September, 1884, and is composed almost entirely of members of the class -of ’88.——In a recent letter from BURLINGTON, we find some entertaining -news from still another Iowa friend: “You always have something in the -local circle column from Iowa. You know Iowa has two great staples, corn -and Chautauquans, and we think you would surely be glad to hear of our -flourishing circle, as well as others of the thousands of Chautauquans. -Our circle was organized for the year’s work on Garfield day. We have the -best circle we ever had, and are conceited enough to think there are no -better ones anywhere. Our president is a busy lawyer. Indeed, our circle -is composed of the busiest people in the town. We meet _regularly_ and -_promptly_ every Monday evening. Burlington is a city of seven hills. -Then you understand what regular meetings are here, for the circle is -comprehensive and takes in all the hills. Our chemistry lessons are -taught by a practicing physician who is a thorough chemist and teaches -intelligently and enthusiastically. We have the willing coöperation of -many of the educated people of the city, and when necessary for either -our own advancement, or more perfect instruction on a topic, we find -them ready to give us an address or essay. Our most enthusiastic members -are graduates of colleges, or advanced academies. We recognize each -memorial day. One of our daily papers freely makes any announcement we -have to make, and aids us all it can. I can not undertake to tell you the -good our circle is doing for us individually. Some of us, deprived of -early advantages, can not be too thankful for the C. L. S. C. It is an -influence for good that enters into our everyday life, and overbalances -and counteracts some of the _other_ influences that every soul must -encounter.” - -With an excellent program of a regular meeting has come to us a notice -of a circle at HATBORO, TENNESSEE. The secretary says: “With great -pleasure I report a local circle in our little town. We started with -two members; we now enroll thirteen. We all are deeply interested, -and think the Chautauqua Idea a grand one. We call ourselves ‘Golden -Flower’ (Chrysanthemum) local circle, and our badges are clusters of -chrysanthemums.” - -From GREENVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA, come very cheering reports: “Our -circle was organized in the fall of 1883, and we are therefore of the -‘Pansy’ order. We have twelve members, six young ladies and six young -men. Most of the members are college graduates, and take the course to -keep bright in their studies. We adhere, with occasional changes, to the -following order of business: First, roll call and reading of minutes; -second, examination of question box, in which each member is required to -deposit at least three questions, bearing directly on the subjects for -the time in the regular course; third, an essay; fourth, reading by two -members appointed by the president; fifth, twenty minutes allowed for -informal discussion of the lessons. We of course celebrate the memorial -days with appropriate ceremonies. Some additional interest is given by -having some extra literary entertainment. A Dickens party we had recently -was very enjoyable. The book we selected was ‘Our Mutual Friend.’ Each -member represented one of the leading characters in the book. Besides -we acted several scenes, which added much to the enjoyment. We are all -enthusiastic in our interest in Chautauqua, and fully determined to -finish the course.” - -At ATLANTA, GEORGIA, there is a circle of fifteen in West End, the -largest suburb of Atlanta. The Rev. H. C. Crumley, a pastor of the city, -deserves the credit of founding this organization. - -A very kindly and graceful courtesy has been extended to those -Chautauquans visiting New Orleans, by the “Longfellow” circle, of that -city. It is an invitation prettily framed, which has been hung in the -Chautauqua alcove. The placard reads: - - C. L. S. C. - - GREETING - OF THE LONGFELLOW CIRCLE OF NEW ORLEANS. - - _To any and all Fellow-Chautauquans who may be visiting The - World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, we offer a - cordial invitation to attend the meetings of our Local Circle, - which are held every Tuesday afternoon, at five o’clock, at No. - 393 South Rampart Street, corner of Erato Street._ - - _Also, we extend a like invitation to all Resident Chautauquans - to join our Circle, wishing to awaken renewed interest in the - Great Movement._ - - O. F. GROAT, Secretary. - J. HASAM, Cor. Sec’y. - K. L. RIGGS, President. - - NEW ORLEANS, January 26, 1885. - -A very encouraging report of the circle at EUREKA SPRINGS, ARKANSAS, has -reached us: “We organized the Eureka Springs Chautauqua Literary and -Scientific Circle October 1st, 1884. Our circle has about thirty members, -half of whom are reading the books. We follow the programs given in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN. A great many spectators attend. Everybody is interested -in our circle. We are talking of establishing a lecture course at this -place for the summer months, probably in July, in the interest of the -Chautauqua Circle. We always have between 4,000 and 6,000 people here, -in the summer many more. We have very suitable grounds, near the purest -water in the place. Our town is easy of access from Missouri and Kansas, -as well as from other parts of this State. So far as known, we are the -only organized Chautauquans in this State. Probably many persons are -reading the course at different places, but we know of no circle.” - -From CLARKSVILLE, MISSOURI, a lady writes: “This Pansy bed by the ‘Father -of Waters’ has much for which to be thankful: Fifteen earnest workers -compose our number. We are all teachers and scholars, by turns. We -attempt as much thoroughness as practicable in the readings, brought out -by recitations and conversation. We carry out some parts of the programs -in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Some of the Pansies hope to be transplanted for a -time to Chautauqua in ’87.” - -OTTAWA, KANSAS, circle was organized in time for the October work, with -a membership of fourteen. “Our circle has increased, until now we are -twenty-eight in number. Our meetings, held twice a month, are both -pleasant and profitable, each member faithfully doing his part. We -respond to roll call by quotations or class mottoes. We find the programs -in THE CHAUTAUQUAN quite beneficial. The essays, recitations and music -form a pleasing variety. We adopted the question match, also the question -box, and find these not only amusing but profitable. This month we will -try some of the chemical experiments in connection with a lecture. We are -all looking forward to the Sunday-school Assembly, which meets here in -June, and to the meetings of the circle conducted by the Rev. Hurlbut. -The spirit of the C. L. S. C. is spreading, and we hope to report a large -circle to you next year.” - -A friend writes from SEATTLE, WASHINGTON TERRITORY: “I notice in your -January number a communication from Mr. K. A. Burnell, in which he -states that at Seattle and Tacoma he found but a single reader and one -family reading the Chautauqua course, a statement from which one might -infer that he was indeed so much under the ‘shadow of Mount Tacoma’ as -to obscure his vision. There are at Seattle as many as forty readers, -at least, who have been pursuing the Chautauqua course of study since -October last. There are three regularly organized circles in this place, -holding weekly meetings, and a general semi-monthly meeting in which -the members of all the circles join. One of the circles, named ‘Alki,’ -has a membership of sixteen. This circle has the honor and advantage -of numbering among its members a noted linguist and scientist in the -person of Dr. John C. Sundberg. Considerable interest is being awakened -throughout the whole of the Puget Sound country in the Chautauqua -readings, and it would not be surprising if, in another year, the regular -Chautauquans in this section of country are numbered by hundreds.” - -The “Washakie” circle, of EVANSTON, WYOMING, was organized on the 10th -of last October. The names of twenty-six members have been enrolled. -Starting late, they were behind with their studies until lately, -consequently the program for each week as laid down in THE CHAUTAUQUAN -was not followed. The meetings, however, have been very interesting. -The leaders appointed for the different subjects on each evening came -well prepared. Essays on Milton, Burns, and others, have been read. -Prof. Halleck, of the public schools, has delivered short lectures on -the scientific subjects. Prof. Capen has given experiments in chemistry. -Music, and recitations from the classic authors by a fine elocutionist, -have rendered the meetings more entertaining. The enthusiasm has grown -with the year. - -The first circle that was regularly organized in PORTLAND, OREGON, -was that established by the Y. M. C. A., last October. This circle is -composed of about twenty members. The other two circles which have joined -the class of ’88 are those connected with the Taylor Street and Grace -Methodist Episcopal Churches. The latter was organized during the month -of December, and is composed of about twenty-five members, who seem to be -now deeply interested in their work. The former is the largest circle in -the State, composed of about forty active and progressive young men and -women, who are now deeply interested in their studies, and a notable fact -of this circle is that there is no restraint in thought by the members, -as is often the case where freedom of opinion is withheld, thus repelling -the progress of the meeting. The able secretary of their circle deserves -great credit for the time and trouble he has exercised performing that -office, and volunteering to assume all responsibility with regard to -books, dues, and pamphlets. The Rev. G. W. Chandler, the efficient -president, is the originator of this circle. Their efforts and untiring -energies have made this circle most interesting, and have brought into -it some of the best scholars in the State. By perseverance and thorough -study, with the watchword “Forward,” they are determined to ever press -onward and upward in this grand work, and receive their reward. - - - - -THE C. L. S. C. CLASSES. - - -CLASS OF 1885.—“THE INVINCIBLES.” - -“_Press on, reaching after those things which are before._” - -OFFICERS. - - _President_—J. B. Underwood, Meriden, Conn. - - _Vice President_—C. M. Nichols, Springfield, Ohio. - - _Treasurer_—Miss Carrie Hart, Aurora, Ind. - - _Secretary_—Miss M. M. Canfield, Washington, D. C. - - _Executive Committee_—Officers of the class. - - Class badges may be procured of either President or Treasurer. - -The members of the Chautauqua circles have now a third of a year only -in which to finish their readings and fill out their papers for the -current year. So far as we have been able to learn, a much larger number -of persons have been pursuing the C. L. S. C. course this year than -have been in the ranks during any previous corresponding period. Those -connected with journalism, in looking over their exchanges, rarely pick -up a local paper that does not have some reference to the doings of a -local Chautauqua circle. Then it has been discovered that those who read -the Chautauqua books and periodicals have been led to go beyond the -lines, and to search for intellectual treasures in “pastures new”—in -books, reviews, public journals of character and excellence, and, also, -to seek association with people of culture. Indeed, it is pleasantly and -encouragingly apparent that the Chautauqua system is becoming, from month -to month, broader, deeper, more far-reaching in its wholesome and really -powerful influence, in promoting moral as well as intellectual culture. - -The members of the Class of 1885 should bear these facts in mind, and -accept the special degree of responsibility involved. Let this class be -not only the best, but the largest that has ever passed within the Golden -Gate on Commencement day! Why should it not be three thousand strong? If -we begin now, in April, to make our plans and preparations, perhaps we -can all “get there,” and present a solid phalanx of honest, thorough, -intelligent and aggressive Chautauquans, marching toward and through -the Gate and into the Hall, with banners and songs, that will promise -largely and grandly for the moral and mental improvement of thousands of -communities throughout the land. - - * * * * * - -“What would be the result if we report to Miss Canfield our intentions to -be at Chautauqua to receive our diplomas, and something should happen to -prevent?” - -The only result would be that those who expected you would be as sadly -disappointed as you would be in not being able to come. The fact that you -intended to come and were detained by good cause would be accepted, and -you would “stand excused,” and would receive your diploma in good time. - - * * * * * - -MISSOURI.—As one of the “Invincibles,” I would add my testimony with -others of Class ’85 as having received pleasure and benefit beyond -computation in pursuing the C. L. S. C. course. I commenced alone, but -after a few months succeeded in organizing a circle for ’86, which keeps -up a large membership, persistent and thorough in study, with rigid class -drill; also remembrance of memorial days. - - * * * * * - -PENNSYLVANIA.—What a well-spring of joy is the C. L. S. C. in the homes -of those who have not enjoyed the advantages of a liberal education! The -students born of this great movement are rising up all over this great -land with blessings for the founder of this happy Circle. I am reading -alone, as there are no members near me, but at some little distance I -have interested some bright young friends of mine in the work, and I am -glad to know that they are so much pleased with it. - - -CLASS OF 1886.—“THE PROGRESSIVES.” - -“_We study for light, to bless with light._” - -CLASS ORGANIZATION. - - _President_—The Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Maine. - - _Vice Presidents_—The Rev. J. C. Whitley, Salisbury, Maryland; - Mr. L. F. Houghton, Peoria, Illinois; Mr. Walter Y. Morgan, - Cleveland, Ohio; Mrs. Delia Browne, Louisville, Kentucky; Miss - Florence Finch, Palestine, Texas. - - _Secretary_—The Rev. W. L. Austin, New Albany, Ind. - -The new badge, bearing the motto and emblem of the class, is now ready -to be sent out. The design meets hearty approval. The cost, including -postage, will be 15 cents. For badges, address the president or the -secretary. - - * * * * * - -The New England branch of the class will have superior headquarters at -the Framingham Assembly in July. This important section of ’86 have plans -and arrangements in view that will insure a most pleasant and successful -class gathering at the Assembly. - - -CLASS OF 1887.—“THE PANSIES.” - -“_Neglect not the gift that is in thee._” - -OFFICERS. - - _President_—The Rev. Frank Russell, Mansfield, Ohio. - - _Western Secretary_—K. A. Burnell, Esq., 150 Madison Street, - Chicago, Ill. - - _Eastern Secretary_—J. A. Steven, M.D., 164 High Street, - Hartford, Conn. - - _Treasurer_—Either Secretary, from either of whom badges may be - procured. - - _Executive Committee_—The officers of the class. - - Class paper may be procured from Mr. Henry Hart, Atlanta, Ga. - -The attention of the members of ’87 is called to the letter by Mrs. Alden -in the March number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, page 353. - - * * * * * - -President Russell had charge of the Sunday-school Normal Department -at the Florida Chautauqua, Lake de Funiak, and is one of the Board of -Managers. - -At Milton, Mass., recently, the representatives of the Class of ’87 had a -table at a church fair and cleared over $100. - -It is our painful duty to record the death of two members of the Class -of 1887: Miss Mary Dayton, of Binghamton, N. Y., and Mrs. Lou L. Dunn, -of Bonham, Texas. The deepest sympathy not only of the class, but of all -members of the C. L. S. C. is with the sorrowing friends. - - * * * * * - -TO NEW ENGLAND ’87S.—The second mid-year reunion of New England ’87s will -be held on Friday, April 3d, in Union Congregational Chapel, Stewart -Street, Providence, R. I. The business meeting will be held at half-past -one o’clock p. m.; the literary and musical entertainment at two o’clock. -A social reunion will precede and follow the regular exercises. Will -all New England members of ’87 please make a special effort to attend -this reunion? Providence Chautauquans are enthusiastic, and will -doubtless strive to make this meeting thoroughly enjoyable. Let us, by -our presence, show our appreciation of their efforts. Our Providence -classmates have kindly offered to meet at the station any strangers who -will communicate the hour of their arrival to Miss Nellie F. Crocker, 6 -Kepler Street, Providence. - - -CLASS OF 1888.—“THE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.” - -“_Let us be seen by our deeds._” - -CLASS ORGANIZATION. - - _President_—The Rev. A. E. Dunning, D.D., Boston, Mass. - - _Vice Presidents_—Prof. W. N. Ellis, 108 Gates Avenue, Brooklyn, - N. Y.; the Rev. Wm. G. Roberts, Bellevue, Ohio. - - _Secretary_—Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio. - - _Treasurer_—Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio. - - All items for this column should be sent, in condensed form, to - the Rev. C. C. McLean, St. Augustine, Florida. - -The “Chautauqua Quartette,” Avon, Indiana, organized December 5, 1884, -writes: “We are four country girls, living two to three miles apart, but -hold weekly meetings, alternately, at our homes.” - - * * * * * - -In Harlem, N. Y., is a class of seven, organized October 1, 1884. The -secretary writes: “Each member in turn takes charge, assigning lessons -and questioning the class.” In addition to the required study they take -some prominent author, giving biography and quoting from works. - - * * * * * - -From Portland, Maine, we learn that they have a large and interesting -circle, meeting semi-monthly. - - * * * * * - -The “Castalian,” of Philadelphia, ten members, was organized October, -1884. This circle thinks too many members make each other timid, and -therefore advocates many circles of few members. They are fortunate in -having a president who makes chemical experiments. - - * * * * * - -A flourishing circle of fifty members was organized in Batavia, New York, -October, 1884. - -The Rev. J. D. Gillilan, of Toocle, Utah, writes that “here among the -Mormons a class of three is formed; one of the number was a Mormon -when he joined the circle, but has since united himself with the M. E. -Church.” There is a flourishing circle in Salt Lake City. - - * * * * * - -The “Wilkesbarre” circle, of Wilkesbarre, Pa., was organized October, -1884, with sixty members. This circle meets every alternate week, each -member responding to roll call with a quotation from the “readings.” A -physician makes fine experiments in chemistry. - - * * * * * - -A circle has been organized in Topeka, Kan., with thirty members. The -secretary says: “Most of us are busy girls, figuring as teachers, office -and store clerks, but find time to take the reading course thoroughly, -and hope to graduate with the 88s.” - - * * * * * - -KANSAS.—“I am well pleased with our class motto and name. I am a sculptor -by profession and wish a higher aim, a sculptor of life, for I have -caught that angel vision. I am pursuing my studies with energy and -enthusiasm, and life to me is more pleasant since I have taken up the -course. Whenever I feel vexed and comfortless I only need to read over -Chancellor Vincent’s articles in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for encouragement.” - - * * * * * - -From Buffalo, Pa., a friend says that “_all_ dislike the Class name, and -desire it changed.” - - * * * * * - -Toronto, Canada, raises a protesting voice against our name, saying, “I -am well aware of the fact that the name stands on history’s page as a -synonym for grand and noble qualities, but I am forced nevertheless to -object to it on account of its ‘fowl’ association. Could we not have a -name _unwinged_, _unplumed_, and of no marketable value.” - - * * * * * - -One of the ’88s, who is reading alone, tells us, “In the study of the -past four months I have received more instruction and enjoyment than in -any amount of the general reading done in the same number of years.” - - * * * * * - -“Vincent” circle, of Portland, Maine, sends us an interesting program of -a meeting held January 16th. A most exquisite Plymouth Rock engraving -graces its first page. - - * * * * * - -“Longfellow” circle, of Eastern Promontory, Portland, Maine, sends us -their constitution and by-laws, including the names of its 103 members. - - * * * * * - -KANSAS.—I am pursuing the course alone, and feel that I need the stimulus -of outside aid and correspondence. Since my school days were over my -reading has been of too miscellaneous a character to result in the profit -it should have done. I am enjoying the Greek History and the Preparatory -Course very much. My husband has been brushing up his knowledge of the -Greek language, and comes to my assistance occasionally, so it is a -source of profit to him as well. Even my eleven-year-old boy has caught -the spirit, and begs me to mark all the battles for him to read, and is -learning the Greek alphabet. I am pleased with the name of our class—“The -Plymouth Rocks.” My ancestors were among those that landed on the bleak -old Rock, and I know something of the sturdy perseverance and uprightness -of their character. I can only hope that the “mantle” of those old -pilgrims will fall upon us as “Plymouth Rocks,” and that, like them, we -may grow strong in wisdom and goodness. - - - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -BY A. M. MARTIN, - -General Secretary C. L. S. C. - - -I.—SEVENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “SHORT HISTORY OF THE -REFORMATION.” - -1. Q. What is the Reformation? A. It is that great religious and -intellectual revolution which marks the boundary line between the Middle -Ages and the Modern Period. - -2. Q. What was the first aim of the reformers, and which proved a total -failure? A. The purification of the church within itself, and by its own -servants. - -3. Q. What was the next step, and one which succeeded? A. To withdraw -from the fold, and establish an independent confession, and a separate -ecclesiastical structure. - -4. Q. Who planted the first seeds of Protestantism in France? A. The -Paris reformers. - -5. Q. Who were three prominent Paris reformers? A. D’Ailly, Gerson, and -Clémanges. - -6. Q. What was the most obvious cause of the failure of the Paris -theologians? A. They never withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church, or -took steps to establish a separate ecclesiastical organization. - -7. Q. How did the Mystics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries -arise? A. As a spiritual reaction against the supremacy of the scholastic -philosophy. - -8. Q. What was the central scene and native country of the most notable -reformatory Mystics? A. Germany. - -9. Q. What four names are prominent among the early Mystics of Germany? -A. Eckart, Ruysbroek, Suso, and Tauler. - -10. Q. Who were the two most notable members of the school of St. Victor? -A. Hugo and Richard. - -11. Q. What was the chief of important general movements, without -connection with prominent characters, in progress to hasten the approach -of reform? A. In the field of intellectual progress, was the revival of -literature, which took the name of Humanism. - -12. Q. In this revival, what were the studies, as distinguished from the -theological themes which had long held sway in all the universities and -learned circles of Europe? A. They were purely human and literary. - -13. Q. Who were three prominent champions of the new Humanism? A. John -Reuchlin, of Germany, Erasmus, of Rotterdam, and Thomas More, of England. - -14. Q. What three councils were formal acknowledgments, on the part -of the Roman Catholic Church, of the evils within its pale, and the -necessity of relief from them? A. The councils of Pisa, Kostnitz, and -Basel. - -15. Q. With what bitter controversy did the fourteenth century open? A. A -controversy between the church and the leading civil rulers. It was the -old question of authority—whether pope or king was the supreme head. - -16. Q. Why was the Avignon papacy popularly called by the Romanists -“The Babylonian Captivity?” A. From the light in which it was held as -an ecclesiastical calamity, and from its continuance of nearly seventy -years—from 1309 to 1377. - -17. Q. Although the three councils failed of their prime object, what -fact did they reveal to the world? A. The fact that no prospect for -reform could exist in any new council. - -18. Q. What way was it now clear was the only one open for improvement? -A. The independence of the individual reformer. - -19. Q. What now became the theater for the Reformation? A. Central -Germany. - -20. Q. Who responded to the universal aspiration for a leader to guide -into new and safe paths? A. Martin Luther. - -21. Q. When and where was Luther born? A. In Eisleben, Saxony, November -11, 1483. - -22. Q. What wealthy lady befriended Luther in youth, and gave him the -advantages of an excellent teacher? A. Ursula Cotta. - -23. Q. After finishing his course at the University of Erfurt, what did -Luther then do? A. He bade the world farewell, and in 1505 entered the -Augustinian cloister as a monk. - -24. Q. In 1508 to what place was Luther called as professor? A. To -Wittenberg. - -25. Q. After two years in Wittenberg to what city did he make a visit? A. -Rome. - -26. Q. What effect did this visit have upon Luther? A. He took with him, -when he left Rome, an abhorrence of the superstition and immorality of -the church at its fountainhead, which never left him. - -27. Q. In what bill of charges did Luther subsequently arraign the -church? A. His ninety-five theses, directed principally against the sale -of indulgences. - -28. Q. In an “Address to the Nobles of the German People” what did Luther -declare which led to his excommunication by the pope? A. That the time -had come when Germany ought to cast off allegiance to Rome, to start out -on an independent religious and national life, and take care of its own -interests. - -29. Q. Before what body was Luther summoned, where his doctrines were -condemned, and the sentence of ban and double ban pronounced against him? -A. The Diet of Worms. - -30. Q. To what place was Luther taken for safety after leaving Worms? A. -To the Wartburg Castle, where he remained for eight months. - -31. Q. About how many separate writings appeared from the pen of Luther? -A. About one hundred and twenty, among them a translation of the Bible. - -32. Q. To whom did Luther commit the task of formulating a systematic -treatment of doctrine? A. To his nearest friend, Melancthon. - -33. Q. Of what do the annals of literature and theology not furnish -a more beautiful illustration than we find in the case of Luther and -Melancthon? A. Of the manner in which a great work can be performed by -the combined action of two men. - -34. Q. To what were the labors of Melancthon directed, in the great -cause of reform? A. To the improvement of the methods of study in the -university of Wittenberg. He urged the students to the fountain-heads -of truth, and placed before them the Bible as the only source of real -knowledge. - -35. Q. What five princes of Saxony were devoted friends of the new -movement for the liberation of the conscience? A. George, Maurice, -Frederick the Wise, John, and John Frederick. - -36. Q. Who was the leader of the new movement in Switzerland? A. Ulric -Zwingli. - -37. Q. Into what did the religious conflict in the eastern cantons of -Switzerland grow? A. Into an appeal to arms, that resulted in civil war. - -38. Q. What followed the battle of Cappel, where Zwingli was killed? A. -The peace of Cappel, which declared that each canton should decide its -religion for itself. - -39. Q. What name is most prominent in connection with the Reformation in -French Switzerland? A. John Calvin. - -40. Q. What work did Calvin publish in 1536, which became the doctrinal -standard for all the Reformed Churches of the Continent and Great -Britain? A. “The Institutes of the Christian Religion.” - -41. Q. By what great reformer was the work, left unfinished by Calvin at -his death, taken up? A. Beza. - -42. Q. In the history of the Reformation, what honor belongs to -England? A. That of having discovered the need of a universal religious -regeneration in Europe. - -43. Q. In whom did the beginnings of reform in England center? A. -Wyckliffe, who was born about 1324. - -44. Q. What were Wyckliffe’s greatest services to the coming Reformation? -A. First, his translation of the New Testament, and afterward the whole -Bible, into English. - -45. Q. What was a striking feature of the English Reformation, from the -outside? A. Its political character. - -46. Q. What three names are prominent in the first period of the English -Reformation? A. Colet, Sir Thomas More, and Cranmer. - -47. Q. What was the most powerful single agency in bringing about the -English Reformation? A. The publication of the Bible in the language of -the people. - -48. Q. What followed the ascension of Mary to the throne of England? A. -A violent persecution of the Protestants, during which, it is estimated, -about eight hundred persons were burned at the stake. - -49. Q. What faith did Elizabeth, the successor of Mary, recognize as -national? A. Protestantism. - -50. Q. From what sect did the puritan Pilgrims of America come? A. The -Brownist sect. - -51. Q. Who was the first Protestant leader in Scotland? A. Patrick -Hamilton. He suffered martyrdom. - -52. Q. Who was the natural successor to Hamilton? A. John Knox. By the -time of his death the triumph of the Scotch Reformation was complete. - -53. Q. What was the chief aim of the Brothers of the Common Life, a -society of the Netherlands, founded in 1384? A. To improve the morals of -the people, and looked intently upon a thorough reform. - -54. Q. What preparation was there for the Reformation in the Netherlands? -A. In no land was there such a complete and popular preparation for the -Reformation as in the Netherlands. - -55. Q. What character did the Reformation assume in the Netherlands? A. A -political character. - -56. Q. What order against all sympathy with the Protestant cause was -made binding upon the Netherlands? A. The Edict of Worms. - -57. Q. Who, of Rotterdam, belongs to the front rank of reformers? A. -Erasmus. - -58. Q. How alone was Erasmus important as a Reformer? A. As a profound -and versatile scholar. - -59. Q. What is one of the most unpleasant chapters in the history of the -Reformation? A. The unfraternal relationship between Erasmus and Luther. - -60. Q. From what did the real danger to the French Protestants come? -A. From a firm alliance between the authorities at Rome and the French -throne. - -61. Q. What were the Protestants in France called? A. Huguenots. - -62. Q. What great massacre of the Protestants took place in France on the -24th of August, 1572? A. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. - -63. Q. By whom were the Italians prepared to give hearty credence to the -new doctrines of the Reformation? A. Savonarola. - -64. Q. What causes led to the failure of the Reformation in the Spanish -Peninsula? A. Protestantism was largely a measure of scholars and -thinkers, while the persistent energy of the Spanish authorities, -reinforced from Rome, made thorough work of suppression. - -65. Q. In what was the groundwork of Protestantism in the three -Scandinavian countries—Sweden, Denmark, and Norway—already laid? A. In -the dissatisfaction of the people with the prevailing order of civil and -ecclesiastical government. - -66. Q. Into what two Scandinavian countries was the Reformation -introduced and formally adopted? A. Sweden and Norway. - -67. Q. Who was the great reformer of Bohemia? A. John Huss. - -68. Q. As what did his followers afterward become known, under -Zinzendorf? A. As the United Brethren. - -69. Q. What was the political effect of the Reformation? A. To elevate -the people to a thirst for liberty, and a higher and purer citizenship. - -70. Q. Of what did the Reformation become the mother? A. Of republics. - -71. Q. To what does the American Union owe a large measure of its -genesis? A. To the European struggle for reform. - -72. Q. What was one of not the least benefits conferred upon the world by -the Reformation? A. The promotion of learning. - -73. Q. What sprang up throughout Germany, as an immediate fruit of the -Reformation? A. Universities. - -74. Q. By what celebration have the memories of the Reformation been -recently renewed? A. By the celebration on November 11, 1883, of the four -hundredth anniversary of the birth of Luther. - -75. Q. How was the day observed? A. With becoming festivities in all the -Protestant countries of the world. - - -II.—TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “CHEMISTRY,” FROM PAGE 157 TO -THE END OF THE BOOK. - -76. Q. What are some of the most important uses of borax? A. In the -manufacture of porcelain, and in other of the industrial arts, and as a -remedial agency in medicine. - -77. Q. In addition to the well known substances sodium and oxygen, what -element does borax contain? A. A special and peculiar element, called -boron. - -78. Q. What are two of the most important sources of borax? A. Borax -Lake, in California, and the borax lagos in Tuscany. - -79. Q. What element constitutes about eighty per cent. of our atmospheric -air? A. Nitrogen. - -80. Q. As a simple and uncombined substance, by what is nitrogen -characterized? A. By extreme inactivity. It does not burn; it does not -support combustion; it can not be made to enter into chemical union with -other substances, except by specially devised and circuitous processes. - -81. Q. Of what is nitrogen a constituent? A. Of a very large number of -compounds, which are themselves often characterized by a high degree of -activity. - -82. Q. What are two important compounds of nitrogen? A. Ammonia gas and -nitric acid. - -83. Q. In addition to oxygen and nitrogen what are some of the other -substances always present in atmospheric air? A. Vapor of water, carbon -di-oxide, and ammonia gas; minute quantities of a vast multitude of other -gaseous substances; and it is likewise charged most of the time with -still more minute quantities of solid dust materials of various kinds. - -84. Q. To what do the principal explosives owe their activity to a very -large degree? A. To the presence of nitrogen in them. - -85. Q. What are the four explosives of chief importance? A. Gunpowder, -the fulminates, gun cotton, and nitro-glycerine. - -86. Q. What are the three principal constituents of gunpowder? A. -Potassic nitrate, charcoal, and sulphur. - -87. Q. Why is phosphorus a most interesting chemical element? A. Because -of its exceptional chemical properties, the very important part it plays -in the chemistry of animal and vegetable life, and its employment in the -friction match. - -88. Q. In what country is the manufacture of friction matches carried on -to a very large extent? A. In Sweden; and that country, it is now stated, -produces about seventy-five per cent. of all the matches made in the -world. - -89. Q. What is probably the most familiar and representative form of -carbon? A. That known as charcoal. - -90. Q. How is lamp-black produced? A. It is a product of the imperfect -combustion of substances like oil, tar, resin, and the like, which are -very rich in carbon. - -91. Q. What are two well known compounds of carbon? A. Anthracite coal -and bituminous coal. - -92. Q. Of what origin do both of these combustibles, when carefully -studied, show distinct evidences? A. Of their vegetable origin. - -93. Q. What is the diamond? A. It is nearly pure carbon, crystallized. - -94. Q. What are some of the other natural forms in which carbon is found -in large quantities? A. In petroleum, marble, and limestone. - -95. Q. When combined with oxygen alone, what two compounds only does -carbon form? A. Carbon mon-oxide and carbon di-oxide. - -96. Q. What is the material on which the manufacture of illuminating gas -is based? A. Bituminous coal. - -97. Q. In the distillation of coal for the manufacture of gas, what three -distinct classes of substances are produced? A. Solids, which are left -in the retorts; liquids, which are condensed in the various coolers; and -gases, which pass on to the gas holder. - -98. Q. What coloring matters are obtained from the liquids produced by -these processes? A. Alzorine, affording Turkey red and other colors, and -the well known analine colors. - -99. Q. To what quantity does silicon exist in our globe? A. In a quantity -equal to about one fourth its entire weight, including its atmospheres -and its oceans. - -100. Q. What is the principal earthy matter of our planet? A. The -compound of silicon and oxygen, existing either alone in the form of -sand, quartz crystal, and similar minerals, or else in combination with -other well known abundant earth materials, such as oxides of calcium, -magnesium, and aluminum. - - - - -EDITOR’S OUTLOOK. - - -PUBLIC MEN IN LITERATURE. - -Until recently Americans have had good grounds for complaining that -their public servants were almost a minus quantity in literature. The -complaint had an especially sharp edge in view of the fact that at an -earlier period our Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Adams, and others, -had been among the foremost writers of the country; and it was still -further aggravated by the contrast we seemed to present to France, -England, and Germany, where a public man is usually also a literary man. -The rule in France is that an eminent politician is an author, and the -most distinguished statesmen and princes have written books. Even Louis -Napoleon wrote a book on Cæsar, and one of the best accounts of our late -war is the stately volumes of Count de Paris. In England, the rule is the -same. The queen herself takes pride in the books she has produced. John -Bright is almost alone in having no literary tastes, but his speeches -will long survive in the volumes they will fill. Disraeli and Gladstone, -Bulwer and Macaulay, Fawcett and Dilke, are only a few contemporary names -in along list of distinguished statesmen who have excelled as writers -for periodicals and as producers of books. In this country, from about -1830 to 1880, our public men wrote little. Benton’s “Thirty Years,” -Webster’s speeches, and Sumner’s orations, and some other less famous -works, do indeed redeem the half century; but when we have said all that -can be said in praise of exceptions, the rule seems to have been that an -American politician was not a writer, and a phrase of contempt attributed -to an eminent Senator expresses the feelings of our politicians against -“them literary fellers” in a form which is full of a significance from -which we prefer to turn away our ears. Too many of our public men have -despised literature, and justified literature in returning the sentiment -with interest. - -We are entering upon a happier period. The American statesman is -returning to authorship. It is a wholesome change. Mr. Blaine’s history -will occur to many readers as an illustration. It is hardly less -noteworthy that his late associate on the Republican ticket has written -for THE CHAUTAUQUAN able papers on a public question which is a living -issue. A very long list might be made of public men who are in good -fame as writers. The witty S. S. Cox will at once occur to all our -memories, and another eminent Democrat is said to be writing a history -of his times. General Grant finds relief from the terrible strain of his -financial misfortunes in writing the history of his battles. We have -employed some of our most gifted authors as diplomats; as, for example, -Motley, the historian, James Russell Lowell, the poet and literary -critic, and George P. Marsh, the man of universal knowledge; but it may, -probably will, come to pass that some of their stamp will more and more -appear in our public life at home. We have kept poets, philosophers, and -novelists alive by giving them clerkships in Custom Houses. Nathaniel -Hawthorne, Howells, “Ik Marvel” (Donald G. Mitchell), and others, rose -to the dignity of consulships. Francis Lieber was tolerated in a Custom -House clerkship in New York. We are probably coming to the time when such -men may be members of Congress and shape the legislation of the country. -Literary men are usually the most practical of men; that they are -dreamers of impossibilities is the strangest of our popular delusions. A -few exceptions have been carelessly considered as making the rule for the -class. The sort of practicality—tempered by philosophy—which the literary -man brings to affairs is what our public life most needs. All clean -knowledge is a light where it abides, and the value of unclean knowledge -(such as some practical politicians boast themselves in), is a forlorn -minus quantity. - -The advantages to be anticipated from the increase of the literary spirit -in our public men are too numerous to be here set forth in detail. A -few suggestions must suffice for our present purpose. In the first -place, public men are experts, and have therefore valuable knowledge to -impart. We are all well aware that General Grant knows important things -about his battles which other men do not know. It is equally true that -any clerk in a department, or any member of Congress has an intimate -acquaintance with many concernments of considerable moment. A man who has -served ten years in Congress could instruct and please us all if he had -the art of describing the methods of law making. It is not a pleasant -fact that the writing of a book on “Congressional Government,” which -is at once philosophical and entertaining, should have been left to a -college professor; nor is it pleasant to feel that the author of this -book, Professor Woodrow Wilson, is probably the last man whom Baltimore -will think of sending to Congress. The men who see the meaning of -things and connect them with principles, and align them with historical -precedents, are needed in Congress to give it dignity and character. In -short, we ought to send our best men to Congress, and we are approaching -an era when “best men” will generally be possessed of literary tastes -and habits. Our public life is rich in materials for useful books and -entertaining novels. Most of these materials lie neglected because we -send inferior men to our public work. Another distinct advantage will be -found in the preservation of many bright men whom we send to Congress -from rusting out of intellectual brightness and becoming mere political -workers. The majority of men sent to Congress are college men; they have -had some literary tastes and habits. They have often been journalists. -The public opinion which hedges them in converts them into office hunters -and office peddlers, and consumes their lives in routine and political -anxiety, to the detriment of all generous and aspiring manhood. The man -whose brain work, in periodicals and books, will secure his position -before his constituents, is a man saved. - -The change which is going on is mainly the work of the enterprising -managers of periodicals. Most good literary work in our day first -reaches the public in periodicals. Much excellent work is found only in -periodicals. The editors have discovered that there is valuable matter -to be had by encouraging public men to write. Our articles by General -Logan, for example, contain a view of a great question which is best -seen in all its aspects by a public man who has seen all sides of it in -a Congressional committee. Many similar articles have in recent years -appeared in literary periodicals. An invitation to present his views to -the public through such a periodical as THE CHAUTAUQUAN is a challenge -to candor and a stimulus to thoroughness. The work done educates the -statesman while it informs the people. It creates an intelligent sympathy -between public servants and those whom they serve. It carries on that -form of education in which light and wisdom are put into the first place, -while turgid bombast and self-seeking buncombe are rendered odious to the -people whom they have deceived. - - -THE DECLINE OF SPIRITUALITY IN THE CHURCH. - -Among the unpleasant reflections which the reading of Bishop Hurst’s -“History of the Reformation” will be apt to awaken in many minds is -that there has been a great decline in the spirituality of the church. -In those days religious earnestness was at its maximum; we seem to be -passing through a period when it is at a minimum. How far the seeming is -accurate, it may not be easy to determine; but appearances are against -the modern church. All our religious services lack in spirituality. -The lack is in the sermon, the song, the prayer. Family religion has -_apparently_ little of the intense power of the former days. The -conversation of Christians is less frequently on religious subjects. -We are carefully weeding out of familiar speech the old references to -Providence, Death and Judgment. We fall into silence when one among us -introduces such themes. Religious feeling and expression have disappeared -_from the surface_ of our life in a most astonishing way. We are not -made, the unconverted are not made, to feel the force and warmth of -religious conviction. The sermons are logical, literary and cold; if -there be warmth, it seems to be rather intellectual than religious. The -more able religious editors complain that they can not get written for -them articles which are at once readable and spiritual; while other -editors condemn any articles of that type as savoring of a “dreary -religiosity;” and others say that the expression of religious experience -has “hopelessly gone into the keeping of cranks and weak-headed and -morally-unsound persons.” One man says: “I can imagine nothing sweeter -to hear than religious experience ought to be; but when I listen to it -I hear either out-worn phrases or senseless fanaticism; and these have -been driven from the respectable churches and are monopolized by ignorant -egotists in the out-of-the-way corners of the country.” - -A partial explanation of the facts lies in the statement just quoted. But -it is very partial. Why should fanatical zeal kill genuine earnestness? -If we think and feel earnestly in religion, why do we not talk of what -is burning in our hearts, as the fathers did, in language of our own? -A round of set phrases does denote vacancy of spirit, but the earnest -spirit is not banished from our heart by the formalism of another’s -speech. It may be pleaded for us that we are in a transition state; -that the Reformation did develop a form of earnestness, and that our -earnestness can not work in that harness and is reverently silent because -appropriate speech is wanting. But why do not hundreds of ministers -who have all gifts of intellect utter spiritual thought and emotion? -Why are they forever dealing rather with opinions than facts of the -spiritual life? We ask such questions in no censorious spirit; they -are pressed home to many anxious hearts, and the wonder grows whether -modern Christianity is tongueless respecting its experience because it -is backslidden and even skeptical. We could frame, as has often been -done, explanations; but we still doubt whether they really explain. The -spiritual activity is of all inner motions the one least likely to lose -all power to express itself. - -It is true that a vast body of believers have the spirit of giving -and of work. They make noble offerings, they teach the children in -Sunday-schools, they make sacrifices of time and ease and money to carry -on churches. In these things no former generation had so glorious a -record. It is probably true that this vast body of believers contains -as large a proportion as any Reformation body of persons who would die -for their faith. It can not be said of such a body of persons that faith -is not in it. Making all allowances for conventionality and religious -fashion, there remains proof enough that the modern church believes. Nor -can we doubt its spiritual poverty. It is poor in the divine life. This -state of things can not last. We are in a condition where faith must fail -if love does not come to the rescue. The greatest of all revivals may -be at the door. The church wants nothing but vital godliness—experience -of divine things. It has so much of zeal, benevolence, self-sacrifice, -philanthropy, that we can not so much as hint at despair. Is it possible -that some of our philanthropies are too consuming and exhaust us? If we -will stop to think and take account of ourselves, we shall probably find -that we lack spirituality because we do not want it. That discovery may -be the one thing needed to arouse us to strenuous spiritual endeavor. - - -THE SHAKSPEREAN ANNIVERSARY. - -The fourth century of Shakspere will be remembered either as the century -of Shaksperean skepticism or as the one in which the play-actor was -stripped of Bacon’s clothes and reduced to his proper condition of -play-actor. That we can so much as entertain this latter thought proves -that the skepticism has made considerable progress. We do not believe -that Bacon wrote the Shaksperean plays; but we are obliged to pay to -those who do believe it such respect as is paid to Strauss with his -theory that Jesus is a mythical person. Another Shaksperean year is -completed on the 23d of April, and its most significant event is an -increase of skeptics. We are doubtless to have a thorough sifting of the -facts and a large debate. No lover of the great dramas need regret the -discussion. It will provoke the study of them and enlarge their fame. -They are the great dramas of the world. No others equal them in breadth -and fervor. Whatever stimulates the study of them must be useful to the -higher forms of literature. One way of looking at the subject of the -authorship of these plays is to regard the question as of no absolute -importance. The plays are what they are, whoever wrote them; just as the -Homeric poetry does not lose a line through the Homeric skepticism. It -is an audacious thing to attack Shakspere as a wearer of another man’s -clothes, after three centuries of his renown. He lived in the public eye. -All London knew him. Some envied and sneered, but none doubted him until -some three hundred years after his birth; if there were doubts they were -so feeble that nothing came of them. Is it the function of the press and -the reporter—making great and small seem alike—which has made Shaksperean -skepticism almost respectable, if not entirely so? Whatever be the cause, -“the news” spreads that Bacon wrote our Shaksperean works, and the debate -is growing into bulk, if not into a serious concernment. We are not a bit -touched with the skepticism; it seems to us unreasonable, beyond ordinary -measure in unreason; and yet we must recognize the growth of the new -theory of the authorship of our glorious drama. - -The change next to the foregoing in importance which marks the fourth -Shaksperean century is the new way in which the great mass of his -admirers come to know and enjoy him. He has passed from the stage to the -study, the parlor, the school-room. He is acted a little; he is read -a great deal. In his first and second centuries he was known almost -exclusively through the stage; in his third, the stage and the book -divided about equally the office of making him known; in the fourth, -Shaksperean acting has become insignificant in comparison with the -general reading and teaching of Shakspere. His works are coming to be -studied in all high schools, academies and colleges. Shakspere is in -nearly all libraries, be they large or small. One may almost say that he -is at home in nearly every house where English is read. There is hardly -a town in the country which does not boast at least one well-established -“Shakspere Club.” Year after year the members meet weekly to read and -talk over the merits of the one writer who never tires them. The scholars -of all lands know him in the printed page; all the great tongues have -books of criticism in which he occupies a conspicuous place. One view -of this transition from the stage to the study and the school is that -Shakspere was always too large for the theater. It was in the largest -sense impossible to act his plays. All acting narrowed and misrepresented -him. The larger field of the book is his proper home. He gains by the -liberty and healthfulness of the modern environment. The two changes -which we note will bear on each other. Too many persons are coming to -know what and how Shakspere wrote to permit any star-chamber of criticism -to settle the authorship of these plays in darkness and secrecy; the -power to form a judgment is being created in the minds of the great jury -whose verdict will probably kill off the Shaksperean skepticism. We -do not believe it will survive to 1964, the end of Shakspere’s fourth -century. - - -ART IN THE UNITED STATES. - -If it is _possible_ for this nation to become artistic in tastes and -habits, we shall not fail. There is no branch of special education more -enthusiastically advocated and patronized. Of course the end in view will -require more advocacy and more patronage—a great deal more—but we are -doing so much that the necessary more will doubtless be done. It should -be remembered too, that if blood tells in the matter of art culture we -have no lack of blood drawn from the artistic nations. Flemings, Germans, -Italians, Spaniards, and even Greeks, come to New York in large numbers; -and if Anglo-Saxon blood were condemned as unartistic by inevitable -natural incapacity, we should still be able to produce great artists in -abundance—if method, zeal, and patronage could do this thing. We will not -prophesy; let us wait and see. It is understood, of course, that much, -perhaps most of our art, is industrial. We need to educate a large corps -of designers for useful goods, which are also ornamental; and this type -of artist is so well rewarded when he displays inventive faculty that we -are likely to surpass all other peoples in this department of work. It -is not easy to separate completely in our thinking this branch of art -from that which aims only at artistic pleasure. A design for goods may -be perfect art, and satisfy all the requirements of the æsthetic sense. -But it is obvious that decorative art is very close to industrial art in -nature and purpose. And the purpose has always been condemned by high -art, for it looks straight at the sale of the goods at good prices. - -It is complained every year in New York, when the art exhibitions come -on for criticism, that the pecuniary motive for work, and the avidity of -artists for good sales, depress the imagination of the lovers of good -work. In substance, then, our trouble as to art—that we are a commercial -race—seems to get into the schools and infect their atmosphere. The evil -is not that success is rewarded; but that success is not possible to an -artist who thinks always of his reward. Art, like religion, requires -a spirit of self-renunciation. Success in art is not possible to one -who consumes his energy in thinking about the sale of his pictures. To -become rich by art one must be first willing to starve to death in the -service of art truth. We are not demanding such sacrifices; we are only -suggesting that without the spirit of them the pure art of this country -will not attain the eminence which our enthusiasm seeks to reach. - -“Sordid treatment” of themes is inevitable in the sordid atmosphere -which, we are told, is breathed in all our circles of art. Besides, -the museums are founded by good natured people who are poor guides and -directors and yet must control, because they are patrons. One art journal -declares that enough energy has in the last five years been expended in -behalf of art to have given it a firm establishment. It adds that most -of this energy has been wasted. Art students and art teachers and art -institutions and publications multiply, but they do not give us high -art. We read this complaint and recall the story of the oil-king in -western Pennsylvania who ordered the teacher of his daughter to “buy her -a capacity, without regard to expense.” If art comes to us to stay it -will come by a slow change of thought, feeling, and aspiration. It is -probable that this change has begun; let us hope that it will ripen to a -gracious and mellowed maturity. The art-life will find ample room in our -hospitable civilization, if it can acquire the courage to live its own -life and escape being a parasite on the robust body of our commercial -life. - - - - -EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. - - -The force of the “Chautauqua Idea” is not abating; on the contrary it -works its way into new homes and distant fields—for instance, we have the -C. L. S. C. Class of 1888, which commenced to form last July, and now -numbers about 20,000 members. The “Florida Chautauqua,” in Florida, is a -new plant, and now our C. L. S. C. friends in Canada are raising a fund -of $50,000 with which to purchase and furnish grounds near Niagara Falls, -for an Assembly after the Chautauqua fashion. - - * * * * * - -Many prominent Chautauqua workers are at the Florida Chautauqua now in -session at Lake de Funiak. Among them are the Rev. Frank Russell, Mrs. G. -R. Alden (Pansy), the Rev. A. A. Wright, Dean of the Chautauqua School of -Theology, Prof. W. D. Bridge, Prof. W. F. Sherwin, Mrs. Juvia C. Hull, -the Rev. S. G. Smith, D.D., the Meigs-Underhill Combination, Prof. C. -E. Bolton, Mrs. Emily Huntington Miller, Dr. O. P. Fitzgerald, Prof. -R. L. Cumnock, Wallace Bruce, Hon. John N. Stearns, Col. G. W. Bain, -Mrs. Emma P. Ewing, Hon. Lewis Miller, etc. Many prominent lecturers, -singers and readers as yet not known publicly at Chautauqua, are at this -Southern Chautauqua, or on the program for the closing week. Dr. Gillet, -in preparing the royal feast of four weeks’ continuance, has subsidized -the country generally for his purposes, and all prominent denominations -are tributary thereto. Nearly or quite all the departments (save the C. -S. L.), known at Chautauqua, are in successful operation. The Assembly -already takes high rank in design and desire, and professors, lecturers, -readers, singers, helpers, are among the very best. No Assembly in the -land starts off with a more brilliant outlook, or with such strong -financial backing. - - * * * * * - -In our December issue we called attention to the effort being made to -establish an Assembly in Canada, at Niagara. The plan is developing -very satisfactorily. The proposition involves the acquirement from -the Dominion Government of the piece of land known as Paradise Grove, -containing about eighty acres, situated upon the bank of the Niagara -River just outside the town of Niagara. The company which holds the lease -has signified its willingness to consent to a transfer. Toronto is also -thoroughly aroused to the importance of the movement, so much so that at -a very largely attended public meeting called in February to discuss the -matter the citizens pledged themselves almost unanimously to give a bonus -of ten thousand dollars to the company. In addition to this promises of -stock subscriptions have been made of at least as much more. It is easy -to see that, if carried out, this project will prove a great boon to the -old town. Already a large number of persons on both sides of the line -have signified their intention to erect cottages and make it their summer -home. - - * * * * * - -The Chautauqua Circle has just added a new and important branch to the -many into which it is already divided. This is an art “circle,” to be -called the Chautauqua Society of Fine Arts, in which it is proposed to -give lessons in drawing and painting by correspondence. Every branch of -art will be taught, from elementary drawing to oil-painting. The plan is -a thoroughly practical one, and will be carried out in the best interests -of the fine arts. Mr. Frank Fowler has been appointed director, and -Messrs. R. Swain Gifford, Thomas Moran and Will H. Low will act as a -committee of award. The course of study will extend over two years, at -the end of which time diplomas will be given and prizes awarded for the -best work in the different classes. The membership fee is fifty cents a -year. Application for circulars and further information should be made to -Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. - - * * * * * - -With the fall of Khartoum, the death of General Gordon, the Irish -dynamiteurs and their explosions in London, together with the land -troubles in Ireland, a growing dissatisfaction with the Gladstone -ministry, and the threatening aspect of Russia, England has enough of -perplexing questions on hand to keep her Queen, Ministry and Parliament -employed for an indefinite period of time. To be an English politician -to-day is to have unrivaled opportunities for strong and vigorous action. -Apropos of the Soudan trouble our readers will find the article by Dr. -Wheeler, on England and Islam, in this impression, both spirited and -profitable reading. - - * * * * * - -Roller skating is now claiming the attention of, first, physicians, who -seem to be divided in their verdict as to the injurious physical effects -of the exercise; second, of clergymen and laymen in the churches, who -object to the “rink” on account of the associations, quite as much as -the doctors do to the skating; third, of economists. In a railroad car -bound west recently, we overheard a conversation between two cattle -drovers on the “Roller Rink,” one of whom held up a paper named the -_Rink and Roller_, the organ of the new sport. These two men discussed -the financial side of “roller skating,” one insisting thus: “A boy will -chop wood for seventy-five cents a day, or work at the bench for that -amount, and then spend fifty cents in the evening for himself and girl -to attend the rink; they keep it up; what’s the good; it is a craze.” -Rinks are being built in all our towns and cities, but it will come to an -end like every craze. Some will be injured physically—perhaps some will -date a moral lapse to an unfortunate acquaintance made in the promiscuous -company; while all who go will spend their money. _What is the profit?_ - - * * * * * - -The venerable Mr. George Bancroft, having passed his eightieth birthday, -still preserves his physical vigor and looks like one of the patriarchs -of Washington. His mind is active and retains its strength, though now -enjoying a much needed respite from literary work. Mr. Bancroft has -finished his “History of the United States,” which has been a long and -laborious task. Some new historian must appear, who can live in the midst -of political changes, and like this great man, preserve an impartial -judgment, as a historian, to continue Bancroft’s standard history of the -United States. - - * * * * * - -The closing act of President Arthur’s term of office was one of simple -justice to a worthy man. The following note explains it all: - - TO THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES—I nominate Ulysses S. Grant, - formerly General Commanding the armies of the United States, to - be General on the retired list of the army, with full pay of such - rank. - - CHESTER A. ARTHUR. - - Executive Mansion, March 4, 1885. - -Congress had passed an act which made it possible that General Grant -could be placed on the retired list. The Senate by a unanimous vote -confirmed the President’s nomination. - - * * * * * - -The number of books and periodicals supported on a given subject, is -a good sign of its interest to the public. Following this indication -we conclude that the public interest in sports and amusements is fully -double what it was a year ago. A tabulated statement of the publications -of 1884, compared with the books issued in 1883, gives the works on -sports in the two years as twenty-two in 1883 to fifty-one in 1884. This -suggestive comparison is but one of many signs that we are awakening to -the absolute necessity of healthful exercise, if we would lead useful -lives ourselves, and would propagate a sturdy race. - - * * * * * - -Every summer many ladies and gentlemen engaged in educational work make -a vacation tour to the Old World. Those having such intentions for the -coming summer will perhaps accept a few words of advice. In order to -economize your time and derive the full benefit of your trip abroad, the -best thing to be done is to join a party, the management of which is -in the hands of an experienced traveler. The question naturally arises, -Where is there a party formed in which we will find most advantages for -the money expended? We do not hesitate in saying that we can recommend no -better than Professor de Potter’s parties, organized each year in Albany, -New York, and which have the reputation of being ably conducted. - - * * * * * - -There is going on in the newspapers just now a very suggestive contest -over the spelling of a word. Shall it be dynami_teur_ or _ter_? Both -forms have reliable followings, though no reasons have been advanced for -either termination. The word is a good example of several interesting -features of word-making. It illustrates how each new development in -history requires a vocabulary, and how the vocabulary is formed from the -facts involved. Further, the difference in the termination shows how -each word must have its period of instability before usage selects the -form which shall be permanent. This Irish agitation has, by the way, -introduced several new words into the language. - - * * * * * - -We Americans believe very firmly in ourselves. But sometimes we can not -help wondering if this vigorous, athletic government of ours, and these -growing institutions, seem to others a success. It will be gratifying to -read Mr. Matthew Arnold’s opinion of us: “A people homogeneous, a people -which had to constitute itself in a modern age, an epoch of expansion, -and which has given to itself institutions entirely fitted for such an -age and epoch, and which suit it perfectly—a people not in danger of war -from without, not in danger of revolution from within—such is the people -of the United States. The political and social problem we must surely -allow that they solve successfully.” - - * * * * * - -Last year women were for the first time admitted to the Oxford University -examinations. Since they have been allowed to hear certain college -lectures, and are now finally admitted to the classes. It is a surprising -concession, but it is the course of the future. Women in England have -proven conclusively their ability to cope with university studies. -They have zealously and quietly improved each added liberty. This last -recognition comes as the inevitable effect of a law which works through -all human affairs, viz.: a demand creates a supply. - - * * * * * - -President Arthur closed his term of service with the confidence and -respect of the American people. He performed the difficult task of -filling the highest office in the government with prudence and ability, -when, in fact, he was not the choice of the people for the place, but it -fell to his lot in the order of a mysterious providence. Among the Vice -Presidents who have succeeded to the presidency Chester A. Arthur will -be honored in history as a wise statesman, faithful to the people whom -he served. President Cleveland’s administration is the dawn of a new -political era in the country, but we believe that he will make a safe -President. - - * * * * * - -There has been recently organized in New York State a State Forestry -Association. President White, of Cornell University, has accepted the -presidency. The society proposes to make a vigorous effort to arouse the -people to the necessity of laws which shall preserve their forests from -the lawless destruction which has robbed thousands upon thousands of -acres in the Adirondacks of their wealth of timber. Such a society is, -without doubt, the only means by which a proper sentiment can be aroused. -The cause of the wholesale depredations has been lack of thought. As one -of the lumbermen put it: “It all comes to this—it was because there was -nobody to think about it, or do anything about it. We were all busy, and -all to blame. But I could do nothing alone, and my neighbor could do -nothing alone, and there was nobody to set us to work together on a plan -to have things better; nobody to represent the common object. Why did not -you come along to talk to us about it years and years ago?” - - * * * * * - -A look through a railroad guide shows a list of names which are a sad -criticism on our refinement. Think of going down to posterity as born in -such a place as You Bet, Red Hot, Fair Play, Muddy Creek, Looking Glass, -Lone Star, or Saw Tooth. These undignified, ill-sounding names are very -common, and in the new portion of the country it seems to be a matter -of pride to invent absurd names. A gentleman who had the misfortune to -reside in a town which bore one of these unmelodious names recently -said to us: “I am actually ashamed to register myself when traveling, -as from ‘Goose Creek,’ and for years I have had my mail sent to a town -three miles away rather than endure the sight of that odious name on my -letters.” There are ways of changing these names, and in the interest of -good taste it should be done. - - * * * * * - -In spite of the difficulties in his way, the Rev. Sheldon Jackson has -succeeded in getting into his Industrial Training School for Indian Boys -and Girls at Sitka, Alaska. Not the least of these difficulties has been -getting lumber for the building. Here is the story as he writes us: -“Since coming here last August, I sent a crew of three Indians in a canoe -a round trip of 400 miles along the coast, with a letter to a saw mill. -The trees were felled, the logs were sawed up, a schooner chartered to -bring the lumber, and in due time 100,000 feet of lumber was rafted from -the schooner on the beach, through the surf, carried on men’s shoulders -to the building site, a three story building 130x50 feet in size erected, -and so far completed that we were able to move into it the first week -in January. I have also in the same time organized a church of seventy -members, of whom sixty are natives, received on confession of faith and -baptism. These converts are largely the fruit of the work of Mr. Austin, -one of our teachers.” - - * * * * * - -The Rev. H. M. Bacon, D.D., pastor of the Central Congregational Church, -Toledo, Ohio, in a recent article on “Our English Tongue,” in which he -quotes Richard Grant White’s statement in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December, -that “This modern English, which is the youngest, is also the greatest -language ever spoken,” mentions several valuable confirmations of this -opinion. Among them is the tribute of Jacob Grimm, the learned German -lexicographer, who says: “In wealth, good sense, and closeness of -structure, no other language at this day spoken, not even our German, -deserves to be compared to it” (the English). He also calls attention -to similar opinions expressed by the late Baron Humboldt, and by Guizot, -and recalls the fact that once when the Academy of Berlin offered a prize -for the best essay on a comparison of fourteen of the ancient and modern -tongues, the prize was awarded to a writer who had given the first place -to the English. - - * * * * * - -On the 23d of February the Washington Monument was formally dedicated at -Washington, D. C. Thirty-six years have elapsed since its corner stone -was laid. Of the Senate which attended the ceremonies on that occasion -but nine are still living, and since that date the most trying years of -our national life have been passed. Though the delays in completing the -work have been annoying, now that it is complete, it is gratifying to -know that the monument is in every way worthy of its object. Indeed, we -have no hesitancy in pronouncing it the most beautiful structure in the -nation’s capital. An obelisk of light gray stone, at a distance it looks -like a clearly defined cloud lying against the sky. Its great height (555 -feet) is not realized, so perfect is the proportion. The location of the -monument has been criticised. It stands on a Government reservation, -adjacent to the Potomac River, and directly facing the Capitol. The land -is low, and many believe it was a serious mistake not to have placed the -obelisk on Capitol Hill. We can not agree with them. The advantage of -having the monument on public grounds, where the view of the entire shaft -will never be obstructed, is much greater than a higher location with an -obstructed view would have been. Then, too, this site was one approved -by Washington himself for a monument which, in 1783, the Continental -Congress voted to be erected to him. Of course “going to the top” is, -and will be, one of the chief features of sight seeing in Washington. -Every half hour the steam elevator in the monument carries a crowded -load to the top, allowing them ten minutes for looking around before the -descent. The stairway is not yet open to the public, and even if it were -most people would hesitate before undertaking to mount its 900 steps. The -interior of the shaft is lighted by incandescent electric lights. Not the -least interesting feature of the monument is the number of marble tablets -presented by different states and institutions, and which are being -inserted in the inside walls. Several of these have considerable artistic -and historic value. - - - - -C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR APRIL. - - -SHORT HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION. - -There is so much reading on the Reformation, and it is so well known and -easily accessible that it seems almost unnecessary to give a list of -supplementary readings. But among so many books it is hard to choose, so -we append the names of a few, thinking we may perhaps help some to decide -what to read. In order to enjoy this little “History of the Reformation” -in the required course, one ought to read many larger ones. “History -of the Reformation.” By G. P. Fisher. $3.00; D’Aubigne’s “History of -the Reformation;” Burnet’s “Reformation in England;” “History of the -Christian Church.” By W. W. Blackburn. $2.50; Motley’s “Rise of the Dutch -Republic.” $6.00; “Protestantism.” By De Quincy. “Short Studies.” By J. -A. Froude. “History of the Rise of the Huguenots.” By Henry M. Baird. -$3.50; “John Knox.” By Thomas McCrie. $2.00; “Martin Luther and his -Work.” By J. H. Treadwell. $1.00; “The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.” By -Henry White. $1.75; “Schönberg-Cotta Family.” By Mrs. Charles. $1.00; -“The Martyrs of Spain.” By Mrs. Charles. $1.00; “Savonarola.” By W. -R. Clarke. $1.50; “Romola.” By George Eliot. (Treats of the times of -Savonarola); “Christians and Moors of Spain.” By Miss Yonge. $1.25. - -P. 3.—“Council of Constance.” A council of the Roman Catholic Church, -opened in 1414, and closed in 1418. In its earlier sessions the doctrines -of Wycliffe were examined and condemned. John Huss was also condemned and -executed, as was Jerome, of Prague. The council was called to consider -measures to remedy the division arising in the church from the long -residence of the popes at Avignon, and the consequent desire on the part -of the French for a national church. See page 89 in the “Short History.” - -“Julian, the Apostate.” (331-363.) A Roman emperor, the nephew of -Constantine the Great. Immediately upon his accession he openly avowed -his abandonment of Christianity, but he published an edict which granted -perfect liberty to all sects and all religions. He, however, excluded -Christians from civil and military offices, and compelled them to -contribute toward sustaining pagan temples. He permitted the Jews to -rebuild their temple at Jerusalem, and published a large volume against -Christianity. - -P. 4.—“Medici,” māˈde-che. A distinguished Florentine family appearing in -history since the close of the thirteenth century. - -P. 5.—“d’Ailly,” dāˈye; “John Chartier Gerson,” shär-te-ā zhair-soⁿᵍ. - -P. 6.—“Nicholas Clémanges,” clā-manj; “Gallican Church.” The name given -to the Catholic Church in France. - -“Father Hyacinthe.” Charles Loyson, a French pulpit orator, born in -1827. At the age of twenty-two he was ordained a priest. He was -highly educated. Suspicions as to his doctrines were awakened, and he -was summoned to appear before the pope, but cleared himself. Shortly -after some speeches of his gave offense, and he was ordered to change -his manner or be quiet, but he paid no heed. He was soon forbidden to -preach, and threatened with excommunication. In 1869 he visited America, -where he was warmly welcomed by many Protestants, but he declared he -had no intention of leaving the Catholic Church. He protested against -the doctrine of the pope’s infallibility, and defended the right of the -clergy to marry. In 1870, on his return to France, the pope relieved him -of his monastic vows, and he became a secular priest. In 1872 he was -married to an American lady. He is now pastor of a church in Paris, a -sort of independent Catholic church. - -P. 7.—“Huguenots,” hūˈgē-nots. The name applied to the French Reformers. -Its origin is uncertain, some asserting that it was derived from one of -the gates of the city of Tours, named Hugons, where the Protestants held -their first assemblies. Others say it came from the name of their first -leader, Hugues. - -P. 8.—“Dominican Order.” An order founded by St. Dominic, in 1216; “John -Ruysbroek,” roisˈbrek. - -P. 12.—“Wittenberg,” vitˈten-bairg. A town in Prussia, in which there -is an immense bronze statue of Luther, and not far from it one of -Melancthon. It is the seat of a great university. - -“St. Victor.” A monastery in Paris. - -P. 13.—“Origen.” (185-253.) One of the fathers of the church, noted for -his unwearied diligence and life of self-denial. For two years, during -the persecution under Maximin, he lay concealed in a friend’s house, and -here wrote his “Hexapla.” In the Decian persecution he was imprisoned and -subjected to extreme torture. Many of his valuable writings have been -lost. - -“Alexandrian school.” A name applied to the philosophers of Alexandria in -the second century. It aimed to harmonize all philosophy and all religion. - -P. 14.—“Thomas à Kempis. (1379-1471.) A German writer, a prior in the -monastery of Mount St. Agnes. - -“Kaisersheim,” kīˈzers-hīmeˌ; “Rheinfeld,” rīneˈfelt; “Pfaffenheim,” -päfˈfen-hime. - -P. 17.—“Boccaccio,” bok-katˈcho. (1313-1375.) An Italian novelist, and -friend of Petrarch; “Chrysoloras,” kris-o-loˈras. - -P. 18.—“Pa-læ-olˈo-gus;” “Bes-sāˈri-on.” - -P. 19.—“Argyropylus,” ar-ghe-ropˈoo-los; “Lasˈca-ris;” “Chalkondylas,” -kal-konˈde-las; “Gemistus Pletho,” je-misˈtus pleˈtho; “Moschopylus,” -mos-kopˈy-lus; “Gasperinus,” gäs-pä-reeˈnus; “Aurispa,” ow-rēsˈpä; -“Poggius,” pojˈus; “Perothes,” perˈō-tēs; “Politianus,” po-lishˈā-nus. - -P. 20.—“Hierarch.” One who rules or has authority in sacred things. - -P. 21.—“Vulgate Bible.” One of the oldest Latin versions of the -Scriptures. So called from its common use in the church. The Catholic -Church claims this to be the only authentic translation. - -“Guizot,” gēˌzōˈ. (1787-1874.) A French historian. - -“Reuchlin,” roikˈlin. (1455-1522.) - -P. 23.—“Bordeaux,” bor-dōˈ; “Avignon,” ă-vē-nyoⁿᵍ. - -P. 27.—“Eisleben,” iceˈla-ben. - -P. 28.—“Eisenach,” īˈzen-näk. - -P. 30.—“Scala Santa,” sacred staircase. A staircase in the church and -palace of the Lateran, so called because Christ was said to have ascended -and descended it. This magnificent building was used as the residence of -the popes, from 312 till their removal to Avignon in 1309. The staircase, -according to tradition, belonged to the house of Pilate, and was brought -to Rome by the mother of Constantine. It is composed of twenty-eight -marble steps, which have been covered by order of the popes with a -casing of wood. The wood has several times had to be replaced, having -been worn through by the knees of ascending pilgrims. This staircase was -preserved from the fire which destroyed the building in 1308. The Lateran -was rebuilt, to be again burned in 1360. It was restored in 1364, and -completely modernized in 1559. This church has always been the cathedral -of the bishops of Rome, and takes precedence of all other churches in the -Catholic world. - -P. 32.—“Schlosskirche,” schlusˈkeer-ka. The church belonging to a castle; -“Mos-celˈla-nus.” - -P. 33.—“Bull.” An edict of the pope, sent to the churches over which he -is head, containing some decree or decision. - -“Hapsburg.” Originally a castle in Switzerland. It gave its name to the -imperial house of Austria. - -P. 35.—“Frederick the Wise.” Frederick III., elector of Saxony. - -P. 37.—“Zwickaw,” tswikˈkow. A city in Saxony. - -P. 43.—“Augsburg Confession.” The first Protestant confession of faith. - -“Convention at Smalcald,” smälˈkält. A confederation of the Protestants -held in 1531, in which they were secretly aided by England and France. - -P. 45.—“Melancthon,” me-lankˈthon; “Pforzheim,” pfortsˈhime; -“Tüˈbing-en;” “Œcolampadius,” ĕkˌo-lăm-pāˈdĭ-us. - -“Terence.” (B. C. 195-159.) A Roman comic poet. - -P. 50.—“Ulrich von Hutten,” oolˈrik fon hootˈen; “Si-kingˈen;” “Cranach,” -kräˈnäk. - -P. 51.—“Zwingle,” tswinˈgle. - -P. 52.—“Wittenbach,” vitˈten-bäk; “Glarus,” gläˈroos. A canton of -Switzerland; “Einsiedeln,” īneˈze-deln. - -P. 53.—“Mariolatry,” mā-rí-olˈa-try. The worship of the Virgin Mary. - -P. 54.—“Helvetic Confession.” This differed materially from the Lutheran -only in holding that Christ was not bodily present in the eucharist. - -P. 57.—“Viret,” vē-rā; “Froment,” frō-moⁿᵍ; “Farel,” fä-rel. - -P. 58.—“Bourges,” boorzh; “Angoulême,” aⁿᵍ-goo-laim. - -“Psychopannychia,” sī-kō-pan-nikˈi-a. - -P. 59.—“Tillet,” til-lā; “Martianus Lucanius,” mar-she-āˈnus lu-caˈni-us; -“Courault,” coo-rō. - -P. 61.—“Neuenburg,” noiˈen-boorg. A town in Germany. - -P. 62.—“Bucer,” booˈtser. (1491-1551.) - -P. 64.—“Lausanne,” lō-zanˈ. - -P. 66.—“Archbishop of Canterbury.” This archbishop is the primate or -ruling officer in the national Church of England, the first peer of the -realm, and member of the privy council. It is he who places the crown -upon the king. - -P. 67.—“Lambeth Palace.” The town residence of the Archbishop of -Canterbury. It stands on the Thames River, and is surrounded by gardens -twelve acres in extent. - -P. 68.—“Ochino,” o-kīˈno; “Fagius,” fäˈge-ŏos; “Anne Boleyn,” ann bulˈlen. - -P. 72.—“Froschover,” froshˈo-vair. - -P. 78.—“Act of Uniformity.” An act enforcing observance of the English -Church service. Severe penalties were enforced against any one who should -conduct religious service in any other way than that prescribed by the -Book of Common Prayer. - -P. 80.—“Cardinal Beatoun,” bēˈtun. Usually written Beaton. (1494-1546.) -A persecutor of the Protestants. On the death of King James, he -conceived the idea of seizing the government, and forged a will of the -king’s, naming himself as successor, but he was prevented from carrying -out his plan and was imprisoned for a time. He was shortly afterward -reëstablished in his ecclesiastical administration. His enemies seeing no -release from his terrible persecutions put him to death. - -P. 84.—“Gerard Groot,” jĕ-rardˈ grōt; “Florentius Radewin,” -flo-ronˈshe-us räˈde-win; “Herzogenbusch,” hairts-ōˈgen-boosh. - -P. 85.—“Yuste,” yoosˈtā. - -“Inquisition.” This was a court established for the purpose of examining -and punishing heretics. - -P. 87.—Luther’s doctrine concerning the will was that it has no “positive -ability in the work of salvation, but has the negative ability of ceasing -its resistance under the general influence of the Spirit in the Word and -Sacraments.” - -P. 88.—“Momus.” In Greek mythology the god of mockery and censure. He is -represented as raising a mask from his face. - -P. 89.—“Vaudois,” vo-dwä. - -P. 90.—“Sorbonne,” sor-bun. A school of theology in Paris, founded in -1253, by Robert de Sorbonne, whence its name. The members were divided -into fellows and commoners. The former were selected for their eminent -learning, and took the position of teachers. The commoners were chosen -from among those receiving instruction, after a severe ordeal, and -were supported by the college, but had no voice in its government. They -ceased to be members when they graduated as doctors. No member of any -religious body was allowed to enter this order. The large lecture halls -of the institution were opened free of all charges, to all poor students, -and the professors were directed never to refuse instruction to such. -Students who had money were required to pay regular fees. The school was -without a rival all through the Middle Ages. Its controlling power was -felt everywhere. It was frequently appealed to in disputes between the -civil power and the papacy. It opposed the claims of Henry VIII. for -a divorce from Catharine; condemned the doctrines of Luther and other -reformers, and declared that Henry III. had forfeited his crown. It was -suppressed in 1789, and its buildings are now used by the University of -France. - -“Meaux,” mō; “Angers,” âⁿᵍ-zhā; “Poictiers,” pwä-tyā. - -P. 91.—“Gallic Confession.” This was essentially Calvinistic in its -import, as were also the system of government and method of discipline -adopted. They were, however, modified somewhat, to suit a church—not like -that at Geneva, in union with the state, but antagonistic to it. - -“Bourbons.” This line of kings in France began with Henry IV. Six of his -descendants in direct line occupied the throne after him. The Louises -XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVIII., and Charles X. The last representative of -this line was the Count de Chambord, who died in 1883. There is a younger -branch known as the Orleans branch. - -“Guises,” gheez. A branch of the ducal family of Loraine, which took a -prominent part in the civil and religious wars in France. - -P. 95.—“Sä-vo-nä-roˈlä,” “Brescia,” brāˈsha. - -P. 98.—“Chardon de la Rocette,” shar-doⁿᵍ dĕ lä rŏh-shĕt; “Brucioli,” -broo-choˈlee; “Marmochini,” mar-mo-keeˈnee; “Teofilo,” tā-o-feeˈlo. - -P. 99.—“Mauricha,” mä-rēˈka; “Della Rovere,” delˈlä rō-vāˈrā; “Cherbina,” -sher-beeˈna; “Gonzago,” gon-zäˈgō; “Ca-rafˈfa;” “Paschali,” pas-caˈlēe. - -P. 100.—“Paolo di Colli,” pä-oˈlo dē colˈlee; “Gratarole,” grät-ä-rōˈlee; -“Cor-räˈdo;” “Teglio,” täˈglē-o. - -P. 103.—“Vives,” vēˈvace; “Ponce de la Fuente,” pōnˈthā dā lā fwenˈtā; -“Enzinas,” en-zēˈnas; “Valladolid,” väl-yä-dō-leedˈ; “Varelo,” vä-rāˈlo; -“Ægidius,” ē-gidˈē-us. - -P. 104.—“Hernandez,” her-nanˈdā; “Boborguez,” bō-borˈgā. - -P. 110.—“Cyriace,” si-rēˈä-see. - -P. 116.—“Dollinger,” dolˈling-er. A learned Catholic theologian, born at -Bamberg, in 1799. He has published a church history, and several other -works. - - -CHEMISTRY. - -P. 169.—The formula (N₂O₂) shows that two atoms of nitrogen have united -with two atoms of oxygen to form a molecule of nitrogen di-oxide. The -formula Cu (NO₃)₂ shows that one atom of copper has united with two -molecules, each composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of -oxygen, to form one molecule of cupric nitrate. In like manner Fe₂ -(NO₃)₆ indicates that two atoms of iron have united with six molecules, -each composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of oxygen, to form -one molecule of ferric nitrate. - -P. 173.—“Refractive power” of water. When a ray of light strikes the -surface of a new medium, a portion of it is turned out of its original -course or refracted. This gives rise to some well-known effects. When any -object is placed in water and viewed obliquely it looks to be nearer the -surface than it is, because the light in passing from the denser medium -takes a direction more inclined to the horizontal, and an object always -appears directly in line with the ray of light entering the eye. - -P. 178.—“Crécy,” kresˈse. This battle took place August 26, 1346, between -the English under Edward III. and the French under Philip VI. It is said -that Edward had six pieces of artillery. Artillery had probably not been -used in the field before this time. - -P. 182.—“Trinˌi-tro-cĕlˈlu-lose.” - -P. 185.—“Mont Cenis,” mōⁿᵍ sŭh-nē. This tunnel under the Alps is in -reality some sixteen miles from Mont Cenis, whose name it bears. The -first mine was fired in 1857, and for four years the piercing was done -by hand; the need of a quicker method led to the invention of a machine -drill—a perforating machine worked by compressed air. The work was -carried on by day and night, from both sides of the mountains, until the -two bodies of workmen met, December 26, 1870. The tunnel was opened for -railway travel September 17, 1871. Its length is nearly eight miles, and -the cost of the tunnel was $15,000,000. - -“St. Gotˈhard.” This tunnel is also through the Alps. The length is nine -and one fourth miles. Its construction was begun in 1872, and it was -completed in eight years. - -P. 189.—“Phosphorus ne-croˈsis.” The latter term is derived from a Greek -word, meaning to make dead, to mortify, and is a disease which attacks -bony tissues, as gangrene effects the soft parts. “The acid fumes -thrown off from phosphorus in the various processes of making matches, -frequently cause among the people employed a terrible disease, which -attacks the teeth and jaws.… Its natural course is to rot the entire jaw -bone away.” - -P. 190.—“Al-lŏtˈro-pĭsm.” Dana says allotropism is “the property of -existing in two or more conditions which are distinct in their physical -or chemical relations. Thus, carbon occurs crystallized in octahedron, -and other related forms, in a state of extreme hardness, in the diamond; -it occurs in hexagonal forms, and of little hardness, in black lead; and -again occurs in a third form, with entire softness, in lamp-black and -charcoal. In some cases one of these is peculiarly an active state, and -the others a passive one. Thus, ozone is an active state of oxygen, and -is distinct from ordinary oxygen, which is the element in its passive -state.” - -P. 194.—“Chemicking,” kemˈik-ing. - -P. 203.—Translation of French sentence: “This last virtue I believe it -still to possess, if the husband is rich enough to buy the jewel which -his wife is ambitious to own.” - -P. 217.—“Boussingault,” booˌsănˈgoˌ; Jean Baptiste. A noted French -chemist of this century. - - - - -NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.” - - -ARISTOTLE. - -1. “Schoolmen.” Philosophers and divines who in the middle ages adopted -the principles of Aristotle and dwelt much upon abstract speculation. -Scholasticism was a philosophy of dogmas. “Its elements were doctrines -which the authority of the church made indisputable,” and which were -looked upon as absolute truth. Facts in nature were set aside and an -artificial, logical scheme developed. Scholiasts thought experiment only -fit to follow and illustrate theories. - -2. “Haroun-al-Raschid,” Aaron the Just. (765-809.) The caliph who raised -Bagdad to its greatest splendor, and whose reign was looked upon as the -golden era of the Mohammedan nation. He reigned twenty-three years and -performed the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times. He is famous as the hero of -the Arabian tales. Tennyson wrote of him in his “Recollections of Arabian -Nights.” - -3. “Ex post facto.” A Latin expression, meaning an after act or thing -done afterward. An _ex post facto_ law is a law enacted after the -commission of a crime, for the purpose of being enforced upon the person -having committed the crime, who could not be held a criminal, or at least -a criminal in the same degree, until after the enaction of the law. All -such laws are forbidden by the constitution of the United States. - -4. Transcriber’s Note: This note (presumably “Hypolais.”) was omitted -in the original. _Hippolais_ is a scientific genus of tree warblers. - - -CHEMISTRY. - -[ERRATA.—A few typographical errors in articles of this series have -escaped correction. Page 254, change “300,000,000” to 3,000,000; for -“alcohol,” thirty-third line, page 325, substitute paraffine; same page, -eighth line, second column, use not for “but;” in “experiment,” same -column, use heat for “sensation,” and in next to the last line of the -article change “topics” to optics.—_Prof. J. T. Edwards._] - -1. “Geysers,” gīˈsers. Intermittent hot springs, found in different -parts of the world. Those of Iceland are the best known. More than one -hundred of these springs are there found, within a space of two miles. -The geysers of the Yellowstone are the most wonderful ever discovered. -The country lying between latitude 43° and 47° north, and longitude 110° -and 114° west, is dotted with groups of springs. Some of them, when in -action, send up columns of water to a height of 200 feet. - -2. “Hugh Miller.” (1802-1856.) A British geologist. He was by trade -a stone mason, but he devoted all his leisure hours to study. Soon -“detecting the wonders of the fossil world” in the quarries in which he -worked, he made them the special subject of his thought, and soon became -an eminent geologist. He published many works, most of them bearing on -this subject. He worked so incessantly, taking little sleep or exercise, -that his mind was on the verge of giving way. Realizing this with terror, -he took his own life. A note left for his wife read as follows: “A -fearful dream rises upon me. I can not bear the horrible thought.” - -The old red sandstone is the name given to the rock in Great Britain -formed in the Devonian age, or age of fishes. Its thickness is in some -parts 8,000 to 10,000 feet. It includes sandstone, marlytes of red and -other colors, and some limestone. - -The sandstone of the Triassic period, which includes the latest -formations of the earth’s crust, is also characterized by fossils, and is -often red in color; hence the name, new red sandstone, has been applied -to it. - -3. “Dr. Hitchcock.” (1793-1864.) An American geologist and author. - -4. “Minute animals.” The carbonate of lime which is found in rocks is -most of it formed directly of shells, corals, and other animal remains. -These little creatures take their stony-like structures from the water -or from their food through the power of secretion, just as man forms his -bones, and after their death they are given over to be made into rocks. -The great extent and thickness of the limestone rocks of the earth give -some idea of the amount of life that flourished there in past time. - -5. “Anhydride.” For definition see “Chemistry,” page 151. - -6. “Old Stone Mill.” It is asserted by some antiquaries that this -structure was built by the Northmen, 500 years before Columbus landed on -these shores. Its purpose, as well as its origin, has been a theme of -much discussion. Its present appearance is that of a large round tower -overgrown with vines. - -7. “The Stone age.” One of the divisions of prehistoric time. In this age -men were not acquainted with the use of metal and fashioned their rude -implements exclusively out of stone. - -8. “Ceramic,” se-ramˈic. - -9. “Cesnola collection.” Cesnola was an American soldier and -archæological explorer, born in Italy in 1832. He served in the Crimean -war, and in the civil war, was for a long time in Libby Prison. At the -close of the war he was sent as consul to Cyprus. Having his attention -attracted by some fragments of terra cotta and some coins, he began -making excavations in search of relics. He met with such rewards that he -continued his work for three years, employing hundreds of men. Among his -discoveries were statues, lamps, vases, coins, glassware, gold ornaments, -bronzes, and inscriptions, in all about 13,000 articles. This remarkable -collection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. - -10. “The mound builders.” The race of people found in America by its -first settlers had clearly been preceded by a race of higher type and -attainments. Relics proving this have been discovered throughout the -Mississippi valley. Earthworks are their principal testimony, of which -many thousands have been found in Ohio alone. These mounds vary in size -and shape, but are always regularly formed, sometimes being square, -sometimes round, hexagonal, octagonal, or truncated. They are ascended by -spiral paths, and frequently contain skeletons. Sometimes the earthworks -are thrown up so as to represent in outline men and animals, and appear -as huge “bas-reliefs on the surface of the ground.” - -11. “Humboldt,” Baron von. (1769-1859.) A German naturalist, the most -distinguished scholar of the nineteenth century. After a thorough -education, under the best masters in different universities, he -determined to devote himself to finance as a business, and familiarized -himself with everything pertaining to this calling. He changed his career -and wished to engage in practical mining. And again he went through -with a full preparation for this work. He was sent to explore several -mining districts, and made many experiments to discover the nature of -fire-damp. Later he made a great scientific expedition which only led the -way to others, until he had visited as a scientist almost every land. He -is distinguished for the comprehensiveness of his researches. During his -travels he made astronomical, botanical and magnetic researches, measured -elevations, investigated the nature of the soil, and the thermometrical -relations; he also collected herbariums, and founded the new science of -the geography of plants. Of his numerous published works, “Kosmos” has -perhaps attracted public attention most widely. It has been without an -equal in giving an impulse to natural studies. - -12. “Lord Lytton,” Sir Edward George. Earle Lytton, son of General -William Earle Bulwer, born in 1805. Upon his succeeding to the vast -estates of his mother, the heiress of the Lyttons, he by royal license -assumed this name, writing it after his own. He is the author of several -works, mostly of fiction. - - -THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES. - -1. “Syllogism.” Every argument, to be valid, must be placed in regular -logical form, which consists of three propositions, two called the -_premises_, and the third the _conclusion_. The conclusion follows from -the premises, so that if the former are true, the conclusion must be. -For example: Major premise—It was not lawful to scourge a Roman citizen; -minor premise—Paul was a Roman citizen; conclusion—Therefore, it was not -lawful to scourge Paul. - -2. “Dr. Porter.” An American scholar and author, born in 1811. The -eleventh president of Yale College. - -3. “Ruskin,” John. (1819-⸺.) An English author. He has given much -attention to the study of art, many of his numerous books being written -on that subject. - -4. “Utopia.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for February, 1885. - -5. “Campanella.” (1568-1639.) An Italian philosopher. He was suspected -of joining a conspiracy against the Spanish government, was put to the -rack, and finally imprisoned in Spain. Later he was transferred to the -inquisition at Rome. On gaining his liberty he went to France. He was -famous for undermining other systems of philosophy rather than for -establishing one of his own. - -6. “Owen,” Robert. (1771-1858.) An English social reformer. He lived for -a few years in Scotland, where he advocated his theory of communism, -an absolute equality in all rights and duties. By the aid of his large -fortune he was enabled to distribute great numbers of tracts explaining -his views, and these soon won him a large following. He was, however, -opposed and attacked on all sides. In 1823 he came to the United States, -bought 20,000 acres of land in Indiana, intending to found his community -there, but the scheme proved a failure and he returned to England. He -spent the rest of his life as a traveler, advocating his views both by -his books and public lecturing. - -7. “Fourier,” (foo-ri-ā) Charles. (1772-1837.) A French writer on social -science. - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -1. “Thebes and Luxor.” Thebes was a celebrated Egyptian city, formerly -the capital of Upper Egypt. Its ruins are among the most magnificent in -the world, and comprise what form now nine villages, among which Luxor is -one. The large and costly palaces of the Luxor quarter were founded by -Amenophis III., and from here was taken the obelisk which stands in Place -de la Concorde in Paris. - -2. “Archbishop Whately.” (1787-1863.) An English prelate. He was for some -years a professor at Oxford, and in 1831 was consecrated archbishop of -Dublin. He was the author of many important works. - -3. “Paˌlæ-o-cosˈmic.” Pertaining to the ancient universe. - -4. “Old Man of Cromagnon.” “In the _Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ_, by Messrs. -Lartet and Christy, there is a full account of the archæology of the -old Stone age, as exhibited in the south of France, especially in the -caves in the valley of Cro-Magnon. … Bones of the reindeer are abundant, -and the co-existence of man with this animal in latitudes so much lower -than its present habitat implies a certain degree of elevation above -savages, as not only food, clothing and implements, but materials for -ornamentation were obtained from it. The domestic economy of these -earlier races is shown by their hearths, boiling stones, rough hammers, -and hollow, dish-like pebbles. … M. Pruner-Bey, from the examination of -skeletons found in the cave of Cro-Magnon maintains that the crania of -the reindeer age belong to a double series, one approaching the Lapp and -the other the Finn of the present day. He concludes that they had massive -bones, long, flat feet, comparatively short arms and long forearms, with -powerful muscles, greatly developed jaws, widely opened nostrils, and -were of unbridled passions.” - - -ANIMAL BIOLOGY. - -PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES IN TABLE. - -Pro-to-zoˈa, mo-neˈra, greg-a-rinˈi-da, rhiz-opˈo-da, in-fu-sōˈri-a, -spon-gĭˈda, cœ(kē)lenˈte-rā-ta, hy-dro-zoˈa, an-tho-zoˈa, -mad-re-poˈra, poˈrites, tuˌbi-pōˈra, cor-ralˈle-um, ruˈbrum, -cte(te)-nophˈo-ra, e-chinˌ(kin)o-dermˈa-ta, crī-noidˈe-a, as-ter-oidˈe-a, -e-chen(ken)-oidˈe-a, holˈo-thu-roidˌe-a, verˈmēs, ro-tifˈe-ra, -pol-y-zoˈa, brachˌ(brak)-i-opˈo-da, an-nelˈi-dæ, mol-lusˈca, -la-melˌle-bran(g)-chi(ki)-āˈta, gas-ter-opˈo-da, ceph(sef)-a-lopˈo-da, -ar-ticˈu-lāˈta, crus-taˈcē(se)-a, a-rachˈ(rak)-ni-da, myr-i-opˈo-da, -tu-ni-cāˈta, ver-te-brāˈta, pisˈ-cēs(sēs), aˈvēs. - -1. “Amœba.” This little animal is known to microscopists under the name -of proteus, from the rapid and continuous changes of shapes which it -presents to their notice. - -2. “Tentacles.” Processes usually slender and thread-like, proceeding -from the head of invertebrate animals, such as insects, snails and crabs, -being used for the purpose of feeling, prehension or motion. - -3. “Oviparous.” An adjective applied to all animals which produce eggs, -as distinguished from _viviparous_, producing young in the living state. - -4. “Ganglia.” Collections of nerve cells, from which nerve fibers are -given off in different directions. They are thought to be the organs in -which all action originates. - -5. “Ventral surface.” The surface of the body opposite the back. The back -is called the dorsal surface. - -6. “Medˈul-la-ry.” Consisting of marrow. The fibrous nervous matter of -the brain contains nerve tubes, within which is a layer of thick, fluid, -highly refractive matter, called the medullary layer. - - - - -PARAGRAPHS FROM NEW BOOKS. - - -PORTRAITS FROM CARLYLE.—If Carlyle had taken to the brush instead of -to the pen he would probably have left a gallery of portraits such as -this century has not seen. In his letters and journals, reminiscences, -etc., for him to mention a man is to describe his face, and with what -graphic pen and ink sketches they abound. Let me extract a few of them. -Here is Rousseau’s face, from “Heroes and Hero Worship:” “A high but -narrow contracted intensity in it; bony brows; deep, straight-set eyes, -in which there is something bewildered looking—bewildered, peering with -lynx-eagerness—a face full of misery, even ignoble misery, and also of an -antagonism against that; something mean, plebeian there, redeemed only by -_intensity_: the face of what is called a fanatic—a sadly _contracted_ -hero!…” - -Here we have Dickens in 1840: “Clear-blue, intelligent eyes; eyebrows -that he arches amazingly; large, protrusive, rather loose mouth; a face -of most extreme _mobility_, which he shuttles about—eyebrows, eyes, -mouth, and all—in a very singular manner while speaking. Surmount this -with a loose coil of common-colored hair, and set it on a small, compact -figure, very small, and dressed à la D’Orsay rather than well—this is -Pickwick.” - -Here is a glimpse of Grote, the historian of Greece: “A man with straight -upper lip, large chin, and open mouth (spout mouth); for the rest, a tall -man, with dull, thoughtful brows and lank, disheveled hair, greatly the -look of a prosperous Dissenting minister.” - -In telling Emerson whom he shall see in London, he says: “Southey’s -complexion is still healthy mahogany brown, with a fleece of white hair, -and eyes that seem running at full gallop; old Rogers, with his pale -head, white, bare, and cold as snow, with those large blue eyes, cruel, -sorrowful, and that sardonic shelf chin.” - -In another letter he draws this portrait of Webster: “As a logic-fencer, -advocate, or parliamentary Hercules, one would incline to back him, at -first sight, against all the extant world. The tanned complexion; that -amorphous, crag-like face; the dull black eyes under their precipice of -brows, like dull anthracite furnaces, needing only to be _blown_; the -mastiff mouth, accurately closed; I have not traced as much of silent -_Berserkir rage_, that I remember of, in any other man.”—_From John -Burroughs’s “Fresh Fields.”_ - - * * * * * - -SCOTT AT WORK.—I never can forget the description Sir Adam Fergusson -gave me of a morning he had passed with Scott at Abbottsford, which at -that time was still unfinished, and swarming with carpenters, painters, -masons, and bricklayers, was surrounded with all the dirt and disorderly -discomfort inseparable from the process of house-building. The room they -sat in was in the roughest condition which admitted of their occupying it -at all; the raw, new chimney smoked intolerably. Out-of-doors the whole -place was one chaos of bricks, mortar, scaffolding, tiles, and slates. -A heavy mist shrouded the whole landscape of lovely Tweed side, and -distilled in a cold, persistent and dumb drizzle. - -Maida, the well beloved stag-hound, kept fidgeting in and out of the -room. Walter Scott every five minutes exclaiming, “Eh, Adam! the puir -beast’s just wearying to get out;” or, “Eh, Adam! the puir creature’s -just crying to come in;” when Sir Adam would open the door to the raw, -chilly air for the wet, muddy hound’s exit or entrance, while Scott with -his face swollen with a grievous toothache, and one hand pressed hard to -his cheek, with the other was writing the inimitably humorous opening -chapters of “The Antiquary,” which he passed across the table, sheet -by sheet, to his friend, saying, “Now, Adam, d’ye think that will do?” -Such a picture of mental triumph over outward circumstances has surely -seldom been surpassed. House-builders, smoky chimney, damp draughts, -restless, dripping dog, and toothache form what our friend Miss Masson -called a “concatenation of exteriorities,” little favorable to literary -composition of any sort; but considered as accompaniments or inspiration -of that delightfully comical beginning of “The Antiquary,” they are all -but incredible.—_From Mason’s “Traits of British Authors.”_ - - * * * * * - -PARADISE FOUND.—Could it once be proven that the Arctic terminus of -the earth has always been the ice-bound region that it is, and which -for thousands of years it has been, it would of course be useless to -entertain for a moment the hypothesis that the cradle of the human -race was there located. Probably the popular impression that from the -beginning of the world the far North has been the region of unendurable -cold has been one of the chief reasons why our hypothesis is so late -in claiming attention. At the present time, however, so far as this -difficulty is concerned, scientific studies have abundantly prepared the -way for the new theory. - -That the earth is a slowly cooling body is a doctrine now all but -universally accepted. In saying this we say nothing for or against -the so-called nebular hypothesis of the origin of the world, for both -friends and foes of this unproven hypothesis believe in what is termed -the secular cooling or refrigeration of the earth. All authorities in -this field hold and teach that the time was when the slowly solidifying -planet was too hot to support any form of life, and that only in some -particular time in the cooling process was there a temperature reached -which was adapted to the necessities of living things. On what portion -of the earth’s surface, now, would this temperature first be reached? Or -would it everywhere be reached at the same time? … We asked the geologist -this question: “Is the hypothesis of a primeval polar Eden admissible?” -Looking at the slowly cooling earth alone, he replies: “Eden conditions -have probably at one time or another been found everywhere upon the -surface of the earth. Paradise may have been anywhere.” Looking at the -cosmic environment, however, he adds: “But while Paradise may have been -anywhere, the _first_ portions of the earth’s surface sufficiently -cool to present the conditions of Eden life were assuredly at the -Poles.”—_From Warren’s “Paradise Found.”_ - - * * * * * - -SEPARATION OF DE LONG AND MELVILLE.—De Long verbally directed both of -us to keep, if possible, within hail, and reiterated his orders in case -of separation: “Make the best of your way,” said he, “to Cape Barkin, -which is eighty or ninety miles off, southwest true. Don’t wait for me, -but get a pilot from the natives, and proceed up the river to a place of -safety as quick as you can; and be sure that you and your parties are all -right before you trouble yourselves about any one else. If you reach Cape -Barkin you will be safe, for there are plenty of natives there winter and -summer.” Then addressing me particularly, he continued: “Melville, you -will have no trouble in keeping up with me, but if anything should happen -to separate us, you can find your way in without any difficulty by the -trend of the coast-line; and you know as much about the natives and their -settlements as any one else.” This was our last conversation in a body. - -So when De Long waved me permission to leave him, I hoisted sail, shook -out one reef, and as we gathered way the boat shot forward like an arrow, -and the spray flew about us like feathers. Heretofore we had been running -dead before the wind on our southwest course for the land, but the heavy -sea and lively motion of the boat caused the sail to jibe and fill on -the other tack, whereupon we would broach to and ship water. For this -reason I hauled up the boat several points, or closer to the wind, and -our condition at once improved. Now that we were separated I resolved -to concern myself directly with the safety of my own boat; so that when -one of the men said that De Long was signaling us, I told him he must be -wrong, and further directed that no one should see any signals now that -we were cast upon our own resources. - -When last seen, the second cutter was about one thousand yards astern of -us, the first cutter probably midway between, and there is no doubt in my -mind that she then foundered. A conversation with the only two surviving -members of the first cutter (Nindemann and Noras) has confirmed me in -this belief; for they witnessed the scene as I have described it, and -state that it was the general opinion of DeLong’s crew that I had shared -the same fate simultaneously with Chipp.—_Melville’s “In the Lena Delta.”_ - - - - -TALK ABOUT BOOKS. - - -There can scarcely be a sadder story than that of the loss of the -Jeannette and the subsequent search for DeLong and his party. No event of -recent years has caused more horror in the public mind and led to more -urgent expostulation against further Arctic exploration. We believe, -however, that as a better knowledge of the aim and value of these -undertakings grows on the public, censure will be removed. Certainly -a careful reading of Melville’s “In the Lena Delta”[C] produces this -result. The book is perhaps more full of horror than most readers -imagine, but after reading there can be but one opinion; terrible as it -all is, it has been worth the suffering. It is worth while to have died -bravely in carrying out orders. The unflinching resolution of those men -places them among the heroes of modern history. You can not help feeling -that there is a wonderful amount of unusual heroism in the story. The -Jeannette expedition has furnished a much needed lesson on the nobility -of endurance. The results to our knowledge of these regions have been -considerable, the people of Siberia, the Russian exile, the homes and -customs of various tribes are more fully explained to us in Melville’s -notes than elsewhere; again, no future exploration will be open to equal -dangers. - -We have never experienced a greater shock in our book reviewing than that -which came to us when, on turning from Melville’s description of the -Arctic regions, we were told that Paradise had been found[D]—at the North -Pole. It will be a long time before the public mind with its present -ideas of the Pole will be willing to consent to this conclusion, even if -President Warren is able to advance still more skillful arguments than -he yet has in proof of his theory. And the arguments are skillful. He -has quoted high authority to prove that Eden conditions once existed on -every portion of the earth, and first of all at the Pole; he has done his -best to remove our prejudices against a night of six months by showing -that not more than “four fortnights” is the probable length of the night -there; he shows us that palæontology teaches that life first began at -the polar regions, and quotes the mythical lore of Egyptian, Assyrian, -Babylonian, Buddhist, Greek, and Roman, to support his theory. The -hypothesis is certainly entertaining, and this attempt at demonstrating -it contains some very probable arguments. - -A book bearing the title “Personal Traits of British Authors”[E] is -sufficient of itself to win the attention and awaken the interest of -all book lovers, but when, on turning its leaves, it is found that -these traits have been noted and given to the world by other authors, -the desire to know what they are is doubled. What great men think and -say about other great men is a matter of interest to all well informed -persons. That pardonable, commendable curiosity to know “what about” -earth’s gifted ones, that lurks in human hearts, has a sort of double -chance to satisfy itself with such an arrangement as this. The persons -of whom this book treats are seven in number: Scott, Hogg, Campbell, -Chalmers, Wilson, DeQuincey, and Jeffrey. In a tabulated form all the -leading events of their lives are given. Several pages are devoted to -sketches of each one, all filled with exquisite little pen pictures, -drawn by master hands at widely differing periods, and from widely -differing scenes in life, giving the greatest contrasts in attitudes, -words, and expression. Indeed, one has hard work sometimes to make -himself believe they were intended to represent the same person. It would -be difficult to find a finer collection of character studies than Mr. -Mason has given in this volume. - -There is considerable probability in the suggestion which Mr. Lang makes -in his “Custom and Myth.”[F] He has attempted to find the key to myths -in customs which have prevailed among early tribes, in opposition to -those scholars who find their solutions in the names which they claim -were once applied to objects, and of which the original meaning has been -lost. The essays are made valuable by a great deal of material gathered -evidently by much research in the lore of remote tribes, but they are -singularly unsatisfactory. The work is loosely done. The solutions are -mere suggestions, although such interesting suggestions that one feels -loath to give up the search without more work. In some cases the myths -presented simply show that similar tales exist in many nations. Until Mr. -Lang does more work on this entertaining theory he must not expect a very -wide following. - -A good work on English cathedrals has for a long time been in demand. The -interest in architecture which recent years has developed, the increase -in travel and the large scale on which the English people have carried on -the restoration of their cathedrals have made such a work necessary. “The -Cathedral Churches of England and Wales”[G] quite fills the demand. A -book of superior make up, a very handsome parlor book, indeed, it is yet -full of information. Thirty-five cathedrals are described, and so fully -illustrated as to give very satisfactory ideas of the leading features of -each. The articles, written in an encyclopedic style that seems slightly -out of place in the company of such illustrations, paper, and letter -press, are historic and architectural, concerning themselves very little -with poetic associations and fine descriptions. They are, however, all -the more useful for that. - -Two little books, helpful to all persons and bearing comfort for stricken -hearts, and for those weary with the burdens of life, are to be found -in “Meditations on Life, Death and Eternity.”[H] They are like friends -to whom one would turn for companionship. The books were translated and -compiled from the larger work of a distinguished German writer, and were -arranged in their present form at the request of Queen Victoria, who -prizes them very highly, as the original was a great favorite of the -Prince Consort. - -That Mr. Barnes fully accomplished what he set out to do when he produced -the “Hand-Book of Bible Biography,”[I] a brief examination of the work -will satisfy any one. His aim was to produce a book that would be -complete as to names, that should contain all the facts, and that should -be within the means of all Bible students. Each biography is a story -complete in itself, with many illustrations and maps. - - -FOOTNOTES - -[C] In the Lena Delta. A narrative of the search for Lieutenant Commander -De Long and his companions. Followed by an account of the Greely Relief -Expedition and a Proposed Method of Reaching the North Pole. By George W. -Melville. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885. - -[D] Paradise Found. The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. By -William F. Warren, S. T. D., LL D. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885. - -[E] Personal Traits of British Authors. By Edward T. Mason. New York: -Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1885. - -[F] Custom and Myth. By Andrew Lang, M.A. New York: Harper & Brothers. -1885. - -[G] The Cathedral Churches of England and Wales. Cassell & Company. New -York: 1884. Price, $5.00. - -[H] Meditations on Life, Death and Eternity. By Johann Heinrich Daniel -Zschokkè. Translated by Frederika Rowan. New York: Phillips & Hunt. -Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. - -[I] Hand-Book of Bible Biography. By the Rev. C. R. Barnes, A.B. New -York: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. Price, $2.25. - - - - -THE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY. - -WHAT ARE ITS CLAIMS? - -BY PROF. R. S. HOLMES, A.M. - - -We shall be careful in what we say to make no claim for the -correspondence system of teaching, as against any other. We claim for it -simply a place as a co-laborer in the work of education. Lest any one -should be misled by any utterances we may have made, or may hereafter -make, and think that here was cast up a royal road over which one -could pass with flying feet to the goal of educational culture, and -enter it, to find only a narrow path, rough, stony, and filled with -difficulties, we wish to plainly state what we claim for this system of -instruction. Lest any one should conceive that the need for university -and college has passed, and that results can be obtained by a home -correspondence-university course, as good or better than can be obtained -from actual college residence, we wish to plainly state what we do not -claim. It may place our positive claims in a stronger light, if we set -them forth against what we do not claim, as a background. Accordingly, -our first statements will be negatives, as follows: - -1. We do not claim that the correspondence system of teaching is the -superior of oral teaching; - -2. Nor that it is destined to supersede oral teaching; - -3. Nor that it has wrought or will work any revolution in educational -methods; - -4. Nor that it can compete with oral teaching, on anything like equal -terms; - -5. Nor that by this method, years of study in classroom, under able, -living teachers are made unnecessary; - -6. Nor that it uses newer and better methods of instruction than are used -in the classroom; - -7. Nor that it is freer from defects than other existing systems; - -8. Nor that a class, school, college, or university, dependent for its -entire work upon pen, paper and post, should be sought by the student in -preference to established resident institutions; - -9. Nor that it is without serious disadvantages, even to the student most -favorably circumstanced; - -10. Nor, finally, that it is able to teach all branches of study without -other than postal facilities. - -We might carry this line of disclaimer farther, but are persuaded -that enough has been said to enable us to make our claims for the -correspondence system, without danger of being misunderstood. Still -further, we desire the power of voice and pen, as far as it may reach, -to be felt on the side of the college and university. To all who can go -to college, our word is most emphatically—go; and having gone, stay; let -nothing come between you and the completion of the course. Still further, -we will say to such as are so limited by circumstances as to feel -unable to devote the requisite time, means, and presence, to a college -course, “If possible, let not circumstance compel you, but do you compel -circumstance, till the desired way shall open; and this though years be -occupied in the struggle. The goal is worth the race.” - -Here, then, we present what we claim for the correspondence system of -teaching: - -1. We claim that the majority of those who are likely to avail themselves -of this system, are men and women of mature mind, and hence are able to -make the very best use of whatever advantages are offered them; - -2. That the majority of those who are likely to avail themselves of the -advantages we offer, are actuated by an earnest purpose to obtain an -advanced education, by _any_ means which are available to them; - -3. That wise direction through correspondence, by competent and -experienced teachers, is calculated to produce better results than can be -expected ordinarily from unaided individual effort; - -4. That teaching by correspondence can be successfully applied to a -course of study so wide and comprehensive that one who masters it will -secure a culture that would be rightly called liberal; - -5. That this system of teaching is therefore entitled to a place, as -associate, in the ranks of the teaching systems of the age; - -6. That as a system, it is no untried experiment, but has been so tested -that it can point to tangible results with no fear of discomfiture if -these results be examined; - -7. That it requires determined effort, and calls for rigid -self-discipline, to insure success; - -8. That it tends to form critical habits of study; - -9. That it tends to produce self-reliance, and to develop individuality -in methods of study; - -10. That it affords marked opportunity for deliberation, and so fosters -the judicial habit in study; - -11. That it tends to systematize and render methodical all habits, -whether of study or of life; - -12. That opportunities for _mal-application_ are reduced to a minimum; - -13. That its possibilities are such as to warrant corporate effort to -extend its advantages to those who would be otherwise deprived of any -advanced educational opportunities; - -14. That such a corporation is entitled to be called a School of Liberal -Arts; - -15. That it allows tests of the student’s acquirement, as rigid as can be -desired by the highest standard of educational excellence; - -16. That the student who has submitted to such tests, and successfully -borne them, is entitled to the reward of a diploma and a degree; - -17. Finally, that the corporation or institution which can prepare the -student for such an ordeal is entitled to confer such diploma and degree. - -The claims which we have now presented are sufficient to show the -spirit and belief which have led to the incorporation of the Chautauqua -University. We have attempted to state them logically, clearly, and -forcibly. There is in them no element of disputation. - -We appeal to a vast, an eager and earnest constituency. To know, only -to know, is the earnest cry of multitudes of our fellows. Lament for -lack of early opportunities, and consequent self-depreciation, is the -undertow that sweeps to ruin the possibilities of many a life. High -purposes and noble ambitions have been thwarted on life’s threshold by -the cruel limitations of circumstance. Mistaken views of life’s best -aims, in days when opportunities were possible, have been dispelled -when the opportunities have long been left behind. To each of these -classes the Chautauqua University brings the correspondence system of -teaching, and says: for you, it is possible to supplement the lack of -early years; for you, to realize your ambitions, even within the bond by -which circumstance has bound you; and for you, in the new light which -experience has given, to see other opportunities for obtaining that -culture which, years ago, you neglected and passed by. - - - - -SPECIAL NOTES. - - - THE ACADEMY OF LATIN AND GREEK, - Summer Term of Six Weeks. - - TO THE CHANCELLOR OF CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY: - - _My Dear Doctor Vincent_: - - It gives me great pleasure to be able to offer this summer, at - Chautauqua, a course in Latin and Greek of unusual merit. Of the - assistant teachers, Mr. Otto is already favorably known to our - pupils of last summer, and to many correspondence students as - an energetic and thorough teacher. Dr. Bevier will be a great - acquisition for Chautauqua. He was graduated from Rutgers with - first honors, having also during his course won honors in Latin - and Greek at the inter-collegiate contest. After graduation he - studied at Johns Hopkins University (which conferred on him the - degree Ph.D.), and then continued his studies in Europe. He was a - student at the American School at Athens, Greece, and is now an - enthusiastic and successful teacher. - - Although our session in Latin last year began a week late, and we - suffered from other disadvantages, I believe our numbers in Latin - reached a total unparalleled in the history of Chautauqua. - - What was, however, especially gratifying, was the improved - quality of scholarship manifested by students. - - For this summer we offer the following course: - - 1. ROMAN LAW (using the Institutes of Justinian) with - information. Not only every lawyer, but every teacher of Latin - to-day should familiarize “_thon_”self with Roman law, lying, as - it does, _at the base of Roman civilization_. - - 2. THE LATIN OF THE EARLY CHURCH FATHERS.—Recent publication and - discussion have rendered so prominent the influence of the early - Latin Fathers on church doctrine that _every clergyman_, present - or prospective, will do well to examine this question for himself. - - 3. COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.—(Every student preparing to enter - either of these three classes should at once communicate with - the principal, that there may be no delay at the opening of the - session, in securing apparatus.) - - 4. PLATO.—Apology and Crito, Tyler’s Ed. (Appletons.) - - 5. CICERO.—_De Natura Deorum_, Stickney’s Ed. (Ginn, Heath & Co.) - - 6. HOMER.—Odyssey. - - 7. VIRGIL.—Æneid. - - 8. HORACE.—Chase’s Ed. (Eldridge & Bro’s.) - - 9. CICERO.—Orations. - - 10. XENOPHON.—Anabasis. - - 11. CÆSAR.—_De Bello Gallico_ (two hours per day). - - 12. BEGINNERS IN GREEK. Harkness’s Text-Book, last ed. - (Appletons.) - - 13. BEGINNERS IN LATIN (THREE HOURS PER DAY BY THE INDUCTION - METHOD). - - 🖙 Latin students must have the “Hand-Book of Latin Synonyms.” - (Ginn, Heath & Co.) - - I hope you will give us at Chautauqua zealous students, who - will concentrate their work on Latin and Greek, but especially - two classes: TEACHERS of Latin and Greek, and those who are - absolutely BEGINNERS. A clear-headed student who doesn’t know a - word of Latin, can, by devoting six weeks to it, secure FIVE - HOURS per day (_Beginners_ and _Cæsar_) or ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY - HOURS in six weeks—quite as much time as the average school gives - in one year. - - It is thought that teachers of Latin and Greek will find not only - the method of value, but also the inspiration which indubitably - does arise when teachers gather. - - Your ob’t servant, - - EDGAR S. SHUMWAY, Principal. - - RUTGERS COLLEGE, February 23, 1885. - - * * * * * - -The C. L. S. C. Correspondence Department, though not often heard from -publicly, is doing an important work. Several hundred students are -enrolled upon its books, and the work is being prosecuted this year -with renewed vigor. An Illinois lady writes: “Having enjoyed and been -benefited by the letters of my C. L. S. C. correspondent, I very much -wish to continue that branch of the work this year. We followed no -special plan, but the letters I received encouraged and strengthened -me, and kept me from falling by the wayside. I love the C. L. S. C. and -am proud to say I have gained for it some members. In my judgment the -Correspondence Circle is grand, good and beneficial.” From New Hampshire -comes the following: “I tender hearty thanks to the originator of the -Correspondence Circle. The frequent letters of my two correspondents are -a continual stimulus. The sympathetic words, the exchange of essays, the -comparing of work done, I find very helpful, while the questions of my -bright girl correspondent have led me to search for and find many items -of information I should have otherwise neglected.” These and many similar -letters received from members of the Correspondence Department show how -helpful this work is proving to many isolated members of the Circle, shut -out from all other means of communication with their fellow students. - - * * * * * - -From a circle in Connecticut numbering five members comes the suggestion -that Local Circles be put in communication with each other, the -correspondence to be carried on, of course, through the respective -secretaries. There is no reason why a correspondence of this sort should -not prove both interesting and valuable, as it will serve to increase the -feeling of fraternity among local circles, give opportunities for the -exchange of programs, the discussion of difficulties, and in other ways -make the circles of practical benefit to each other. - - * * * * * - -Members of the C. L. S. C. or local circles wishing to join the -Correspondence Department should report to the office of the C. L. S. C. -at Plainfield, N. J. - - * * * * * - -The list of C. L. S. C. graduates in the Class of ’84 has been lengthened -by the following names: - - Daniels, Mrs. Margaret P. S. New York. - Longee, Mrs. Mary P. New Hampshire. - McConnell, Edward B. Pennsylvania. - Smith, Miss Anna Michigan. - Van Ingen, M. Gertrude New York. - - * * * * * - -Communications intended for the “Local Circles” of THE CHAUTAUQUAN should -be sent directly to our office. Any circle which has not reported this -year we should be glad to have do so at once. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. - -Page 388, “II” changed to “IV” (Class IV.) - -Page 389, “carniverous” changed to “carnivorous” (they have all the five -senses, and are carnivorous) - -Page 398, “Fate” changed to “Gate” (Traitor’s Gate) - -Page 398, “Tewksbury” changed to “Tewkesbury” (in the field at Tewkesbury) - -Page 403, “ahd” changed to “and” (and have bought bonds) - -Page 405, “extirminated” changed to “exterminated” in two places (and -their kind exterminated / the native fish are actually exterminated) - -Page 406, “extirmination” changed to “extermination” (extermination so -recklessly begun) - -Page 406, “their” changed to “the” (the narrow, tortuous defiles) - -Page 407, “neans” changed to “means” (by artificial means) - -Page 408, “Mariner” changed to “Marner” (Silas Marner) - -Page 413, “Easer” changed to “Easter” (1. Essay—Easter.) - -Page 424, “make” changed to “made” (which has made Shaksperean skepticism -almost respectable) - -Page 429, “with” added (two atoms of nitrogen have united with two atoms -of oxygen) - -Page 429, “hydrogen” changed to “oxygen” (The formula Cu(NO₃)₂ … three -atoms of oxygen) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. V, April 1885, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. 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