NormalizeHEAD main

author: nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> 2025-02-07 17:50:21 -0800
committer: nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> 2025-02-07 17:50:21 -0800
commit: 89bd9e16acba463429fa1f33e5bf281c53ad94c1 (patch)
tree: c1aa9b61bb0af0724b40e7d6ddf0bdd278ae9307
parent: e790cb7347d94f8f1b1edea7c800f188b0f8c614 (diff)
166 files changed, 17 insertions, 29361 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7b82bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+*.txt text eol=lf
+*.htm text eol=lf
+*.html text eol=lf
+*.md text eol=lf
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b39f21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #55838 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55838)
diff --git a/old/55838-0.txt b/old/55838-0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index f8ba61b..0000000
--- a/old/55838-0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,14049 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Signers of the Declaration
-       Historic Places Commemorating the Signing of the Declaration
-       of Independence
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Robert G. Ferris
-
-Release Date: October 28, 2017 [EBook #55838]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the
-Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Note: Italics is indicated by _underscores_, boldface by
-=equals signs=.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: Independence Hall in 1776. Here the Continental Congress
-adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence.]
-
-
-
-
-_Signers of the Declaration_
-
-[Illustration: John Trumbull’s “The Declaration of Independence” hangs
-in the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol. Depicting the drafting committee
-presenting the document to the Continental Congress, the painting
-commemorates the signers.]
-
-
-
-
-  THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF HISTORIC SITES AND BUILDINGS • VOLUME XVIII
-
-
-  _Signers_
-  OF THE DECLARATION
-
-  Historic Places Commemorating the Signing
-  of the Declaration of Independence
-
-  ROBERT G. FERRIS
-  Series Editor
-
-
-  [Illustration]
-
-  UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
-  NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
-
-  Washington, D.C. 1973
-
-
-
-
-  ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR FOR PROFESSIONAL SERVICES
-  Ernest A. Connally
-
-  OFFICE OF ARCHEOLOGY AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION
-  Robert M. Utley, _Director_
-
-  DIVISION OF HISTORY
-  A. Russell Mortensen, _Chief_
-
-  HISTORIC SITES SURVEY
-  Horace J. Sheely, Jr., _Chief_
-
-
-This volume incorporates a comprehensive survey of sites and buildings
-associated with the signers accomplished by Charles W. Snell and the
-late John O. Littleton. Also utilized were survey and evaluation
-reports authored by the following individuals: S. Sydney Bradford,
-Charles E. Hatch, Jr., W. Brown Morton III, Denys Peter Myers, John
-D. R. Platt, Frank B. Sarles, Jr., Charles E. Shedd, Jr., Horace J.
-Sheely, Jr., and Martin I. Yoelson. These surveys and reports were
-reviewed by the Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites,
-Buildings, and Monuments. Members of this group are listed in the
-Acknowledgments. Directly involved in all aspects of the preparation
-of this book were Assistant Editor Richard E. Morris and Editorial
-Assistant James H. Charleton. It was designed by Gary Gore.
-
-
-THIS BOOK IS ISSUED AS PART OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE OBSERVANCE OF
-OUR NATION’S BICENTENNIAL.
-
-
-As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of
-the Interior has basic responsibilities for water, fish, wildlife,
-mineral, land, park, and recreational resources. Indian and Territorial
-affairs are other major concerns of America’s “Department of Natural
-Resources.” The Department works to assure the wisest choice in
-managing all our resources so each will make its full contribution to a
-better United States—now and in the future.
-
-
-LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-600028
-
-  For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
-  Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 · Price $5.65
-  Stock Number 2405-00496
-
-
-
-
-_Foreword_
-
-
-As we approach the two hundredth anniversary of the signing of the
-Declaration of Independence, each of us is stirred by the memory of
-those who framed the future of our country.
-
-In the coming years we will have many opportunities to refresh our
-understanding of what America means, but none can mean more than
-personal visits to the sites where freedom was forged and our founding
-fathers actually made the decisions which have stood the severest tests
-of time.
-
-I remember my reactions, for example, when I visited Independence Hall
-in Philadelphia in 1972 to sign the new revenue sharing legislation.
-Walking into the building where that small group of patriots gathered
-some two centuries ago, I thought back to what it must have been
-like when the giants of our American heritage solemnly committed
-themselves and their children to liberty. The dilemmas they faced, the
-uncertainties they felt, the ideals they cherished—all seemed more
-alive to me than ever before, and I came away with an even stronger
-appreciation for their courage and their vision.
-
-As people from all over the world visit the places described in this
-valuable book, they, too, will feel the excitement of history and
-relive in their minds the beginnings of a great Nation.
-
-I commend this book to your attention and encourage all people,
-Americans and foreigners alike, to make a special effort to visit our
-historic sites during these Bicentennial years.
-
-            _The White House_
-            _Washington, D.C._
-
-[Illustration: Richard Nixon (signature)]
-
-
-
-
-_Preface_
-
-
-Nearly two hundred years have passed since America proclaimed her
-independence. Yet this action and the beliefs and hopes motivating
-those responsible for it are as central to us as a people today as
-they were to Abraham Lincoln, whose words still remind us that “...
-our fathers brought forth upon this continent, a new nation, conceived
-in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created
-equal....”
-
-To understand what we have become, we must know what we have been.
-This volume illuminates the role of those who framed the Declaration
-of Independence and took the bold risk of putting their signatures to
-it, thus bringing into being a new Nation on a new model of stated
-principle. It will stimulate our visual memory of the persons and
-events that cast this Nation upon its course, and I commend it to all
-who would more fully appreciate that heritage.
-
-            ROGERS C. B. MORTON
-            _Secretary of the Interior_
-
-
-It is my hope that this volume will not only increase popular knowledge
-of the Declaration of Independence and its signers, but that it will
-also undergird the efforts of historic preservationists to protect
-sites and buildings associated with them. Written records alone cannot
-convey the appreciation and understanding that come from personal
-acquaintance with historic places. Thus, while we preserve and study
-the documents of the American Revolution, we must also save and
-experience what physical evidences remain to illustrate the lives of
-those who so boldly brought it about. With the assistance of this
-book, many more Americans may come to know the sites and structures
-frequented by the signers of the Declaration, to visit them personally,
-and to appreciate more deeply the importance of their preservation.
-
-Credit for the preparation of this volume is shared widely by persons
-both in and out of the National Park Service. The historic preservation
-activities of the Service have particularly benefited from the
-assistance of the National Trust for Historic Preservation in the
-United States, cosponsor of the National Survey of Historic Sites and
-Buildings. The Survey is authorized by the Historic Sites Act of 1935.
-
-            RONALD H. WALKER
-            _Director_
-            _National Park Service_
-
-
-
-
-Contents
-
-
-  Part I
-
-  Signers of the Declaration:
-  Historical Background                                                1
-
-
-  Part II
-
-  Signers of the Declaration:
-  Biographical Sketches                                               25
-
-      John Adams • _Massachusetts_                              33
-      Samuel Adams • _Massachusetts_                            36
-      Josiah Bartlett • _New Hampshire_                         39
-      Carter Braxton • _Virginia_                               41
-      Charles Carroll • _Maryland_                              43
-      Samuel Chase • _Maryland_                                 45
-      Abraham Clark • _New Jersey_                              47
-      George Clymer • _Pennsylvania_                            49
-      William Ellery • _Rhode Island_                           51
-      William Floyd • _New York_                                53
-      Benjamin Franklin • _Pennsylvania_                        55
-      Elbridge Gerry • _Massachusetts_                          59
-      Button Gwinnett • _Georgia_                               62
-      Lyman Hall • _Georgia_                                    65
-      John Hancock • _Massachusetts_                            67
-      Benjamin Harrison • _Virginia_                            70
-      John Hart • _New Jersey_                                  71
-      Joseph Hewes • _North Carolina_                           73
-      Thomas Heyward, Jr. • _South Carolina_                    75
-      William Hooper • _North Carolina_                         77
-      Stephen Hopkins • _Rhode Island_                          79
-      Francis Hopkinson • _New Jersey_                          81
-      Samuel Huntington • _Connecticut_                         83
-      Thomas Jefferson • _Virginia_                             85
-      Francis Lightfoot Lee • _Virginia_                        90
-      Richard Henry Lee • _Virginia_                            92
-      Francis Lewis • _New York_                                94
-      Philip Livingston • _New York_                            96
-      Thomas Lynch, Jr. • _South Carolina_                      99
-      Thomas McKean • _Delaware_                               100
-      Arthur Middleton • _South Carolina_                      103
-      Lewis Morris • _New York_                                104
-      Robert Morris • _Pennsylvania_                           106
-      John Morton • _Pennsylvania_                             109
-      Thomas Nelson, Jr. • _Virginia_                          110
-      William Paca • _Maryland_                                113
-      Robert Treat Paine • _Massachusetts_                     115
-      John Penn • _North Carolina_                             116
-      George Read • _Delaware_                                 118
-      Caesar Rodney • _Delaware_                               120
-      George Ross • _Pennsylvania_                             122
-      Benjamin Rush • _Pennsylvania_                           123
-      Edward Rutledge • _South Carolina_                       127
-      Roger Sherman • _Connecticut_                            129
-      James Smith • _Pennsylvania_                             132
-      Richard Stockton • _New Jersey_                          133
-      Thomas Stone • _Maryland_                                135
-      George Taylor • _Pennsylvania_                           137
-      Matthew Thornton • _New Hampshire_                       139
-      George Walton • _Georgia_                                140
-      William Whipple • _New Hampshire_                        142
-      William Williams • _Connecticut_                         144
-      James Wilson • _Pennsylvania_                            145
-      John Witherspoon • _New Jersey_                          149
-      Oliver Wolcott • _Connecticut_                           152
-      George Wythe • _Virginia_                                154
-
-
-  Part III
-
-  Signers of the Declaration:
-  Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings                             157
-
-      Huntington Birthplace, Conn.                             164
-      Huntington House, Conn.                                  165
-      Williams Birthplace, Conn.                               166
-      Williams House, Conn.                                    168
-      Wolcott House, Conn.                                     169
-
-      The White House, D.C.                                    170
-
-      College Hill, Ga.                                        173
-      Meadow Garden, Ga.                                       175
-      Tabby Cottage, Ga.                                       176
-
-      Whipple Birthplace, Maine                                177
-
-      Carroll Mansion, Md.                                     179
-      Carrollton Manor, Md.                                    180
-      Chase-Lloyd House, Md.                                   181
-      Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md.                          183
-      Doughoregan Manor, Md.                                   185
-      Habre-de-Venture, Md.                                    186
-      Paca House, Md.                                          188
-      Peggy Stewart House, Md.                                 189
-
-      Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass.                           191
-      Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass.                    192
-      Adams National Historic Site, Mass.                      193
-      Elmwood, Mass.                                           195
-      Gerry Birthplace, Mass.                                  197
-      Hancock-Clarke House, Mass.                              198
-
-      Bartlett House, N.H.                                     199
-      Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H.                                 201
-      Thornton House, N.H.                                     203
-
-      Hopkinson House, N.J.                                    204
-      Maybury Hill, N.J.                                       206
-      Morven, N.J.                                             207
-      President’s House, N.J.                                  208
-      Tusculum, N.J.                                           209
-
-      Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y.   210
-      General Floyd House, N.Y.                                212
-
-      Iredell House, N.C.                                      213
-      Nash-Hooper House, N.C.                                  214
-
-      Independence National Historical Park, Pa.               216
-      Parsons-Taylor House, Pa.                                226
-      Shippen-Wistar House, Pa.                                228
-      Summerseat, Pa.                                          229
-      Taylor House, Pa.                                        230
-
-      Governor Hopkins House, R.I.                             231
-
-      Heyward-Washington House, S.C.                           233
-      Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, S.C.                             234
-      Middleton Place, S.C.                                    236
-      Rutledge House, S.C.                                     237
-
-      Berkeley, Va.                                            239
-      Elsing Green, Va.                                        240
-      Menokin, Va.                                             242
-      Monticello, Va.                                          243
-      Mount Airy, Va.                                          246
-      Nelson House (Colonial National
-      Historical Park), Va.                                    247
-      Poplar Forest, Va.                                       249
-      Stratford Hall, Va.                                      251
-      Tuckahoe, Va.                                            253
-      Wythe House, Va.                                         255
-
-
-  Appendix
-
-  The Declaration and Its History                                    257
-
-      Text of the Declaration                                  259
-      History of the Document                                  262
-
-
-  Suggested Reading                                                  268
-
-  Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance  270
-
-  Acknowledgments                                                    272
-
-  Art and Picture Credits                                            274
-
-  Index                                                              281
-
-
-  Map: Signers of the Declaration—Historic Sites of National
-    Significance                                                 162–163
-
-
-  _All photographs are indexed._
-
-
-
-
-Part One
-
-Signers of the Declaration:
-
-Historical Background
-
-
-At Philadelphia in the summer of 1776, the Delegates to the Continental
-Congress courageously signed a document declaring the independence of
-the Thirteen American Colonies from Great Britain. Not only did the
-Declaration of Independence create a Nation, but it also pronounced
-timeless democratic principles. Enshrined today in the National
-Archives Building at Washington, D.C., it memorializes the founding of
-the United States and symbolizes the eternal freedom and dignity of Man.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-By the time the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration in July
-1776, the War for Independence had been underway for more than a year.
-Failing to obtain satisfactory redress from the mother country for
-their economic and political grievances during the previous decade, the
-colonists had finally resorted to armed conflict. These grievances had
-come to a head shortly after the French and Indian War (1754–63). Long
-and costly, the war depleted the royal treasury and added the financial
-burden of administering the vast territory acquired from France.
-Britain levied new, direct taxes in the Colonies and tightened customs
-controls.
-
-The colonists, accustomed to considerable economic freedom, resented
-these measures. A number of Americans also felt that some sort
-of conspiracy existed in England to destroy their liberties and
-self-government. They believed that the mission of the large force of
-redcoats assigned to the Colonies actually was internal suppression
-rather than protection from a nonexistent external threat, especially
-since the French had been expelled. Particularly aggravating was the
-realization that the new tax levies supported the force. Some of the
-discontent was regional in nature. Indebtedness to British creditors
-irritated Southern planters. Commercial interests in the Middle
-Colonies disliked the prohibition on manufacturing certain products.
-Frontier settlers and speculators were irked at restrictions on
-westward expansion and the Indian trade.
-
-[Illustration: George III, King of England during the War for
-Independence, was the focus of colonial hatred.]
-
-[Illustration: The Revolutionaries utilized this exaggerated version
-of the Boston Massacre (1770) by Paul Revere to nourish resentment of
-British troops.]
-
-[Illustration: “The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring &
-Feathering,” a British cartoon satirizing colonial methods of protest.]
-
-In various places, peaceful protest and harassment of tax and customs
-collectors gave way to rioting and mob violence. In New York and
-Massachusetts, clashes with British troops culminated in bloodshed.
-Realizing that some of these disturbances stemmed from agitation in
-the colonial assemblies, which had enjoyed wide autonomy, the Crown
-tightened its control over them. Disputes between legislators and
-the King’s officials, once spasmodic, became commonplace. In some
-instances, notably in Virginia and Massachusetts, the Royal Governors
-dissolved the assemblies. In these and a few other provinces the Whigs
-separated from their Tory, or Loyalist, colleagues, met extralegally,
-and adopted retaliatory measures. Nearly all the Colonies formed
-special “committees of correspondence” to communicate with each
-other—the first step toward unified action.
-
-[Illustration: In retaliation for the Boston Tea Party (1773), the
-Crown imposed rigid limitations on the freedom of Massachusetts
-citizens.]
-
-In May 1774, in retaliation for the “Boston Tea Party,” Parliament
-closed the port of Boston and virtually abolished provincial
-self-government in Massachusetts. These actions stimulated resistance
-across the land. That summer, the Massachusetts lower house, through
-the committees of correspondence, secretly invited all 13 Colonies
-to attend a convention. In response, on the fifth of September, 55
-Delegates representing 12 Colonies, Georgia excepted, assembled at
-Philadelphia. They convened at Carpenters’ Hall and organized the First
-Continental Congress.
-
-[Illustration: A rare contemporary engraving of the British-American
-clash in 1775 at North Bridge, near Concord, Mass.]
-
-Sharing though they did common complaints against the Crown, the
-Delegates propounded a wide variety of political opinions. Most of them
-agreed that Parliament had no right to control the internal affairs
-of the Colonies. Moderates, stressing trade benefits with the mother
-country, believed Parliament should continue to regulate commerce.
-Others questioned the extent of its authority. A handful of Delegates
-felt the answer to the problem lay in parliamentary representation.
-Most suggested legislative autonomy for the Colonies. Reluctant to
-sever ties of blood, language, trade, and cultural heritage, none yet
-openly entertained the idea of complete independence from Great Britain.
-
-After weeks of debate and compromise, Congress adopted two significant
-measures. The first declared that the American colonists were
-entitled to the same rights as Englishmen everywhere and denounced any
-infringement of those rights. The second, the Continental Association,
-provided for an embargo on all trade with Britain. To enforce the
-embargo and punish violators, at the behest of Congress counties,
-cities, and towns formed councils, or committees, of safety—many of
-which later became wartime governing or administrative bodies. When
-Congress adjourned in late October, the Delegates resolved to reconvene
-in May 1775 if the Crown had not responded by then.
-
-[Illustration: Headlines of a broadside showing American alarm over the
-Battle of Concord. The two rows of coffins at the top represent slain
-militiamen.]
-
-In a sense the Continental Congress acted with restraint, for while
-it was in session the situation in Massachusetts verged on war. In
-September, just before Congress met, British troops from Boston had
-seized ordnance supplies at Charlestown and Cambridge and almost
-clashed with the local militia. The next month, Massachusetts patriots,
-openly defying royal authority, organized a Revolutionary provincial
-assembly as well as a military defense committee. Whigs in three other
-colonies—Maryland, Virginia, and New Hampshire—had earlier that year
-formed governments. By the end of the year, all the Colonies except
-Georgia and New York had either set up new ones or taken control
-of those already in existence. During the winter of 1774–75, while
-Parliament mulled over conciliatory measures, colonial militia units
-prepared for war.
-
-[Illustration: Continental Army recruiting poster.]
-
-The crisis came in the spring of 1775, predictably in Massachusetts.
-Late on the night of April 18 the Royal Governor, Gen. Thomas Gage,
-alarmed at the militancy of the rebels, dispatched 600 troops from
-Boston to seize a major supply depot at Concord. Almost simultaneously
-the Boston council of safety, aware of Gage’s intentions, directed
-Paul Revere and William Dawes to ride ahead to warn militia units and
-citizens along the way of the British approach, as well as John Hancock
-and Samuel Adams, who were staying at nearby Lexington. Forewarned, the
-two men went into hiding.
-
-[Illustration: Title page of _Common Sense_, the anonymously written
-and widely distributed pamphlet that converted thousands of colonists
-to the Revolutionary cause.]
-
-About 77 militiamen confronted the redcoats when they plodded into
-Lexington at dawn. After some tense moments, as the sorely outnumbered
-colonials were dispersing, blood was shed. More flowed at Concord and
-much more along the route of the British as they retreated to Boston,
-harassed most of the way by an aroused citizenry. What had once been
-merely protest had evolved into open warfare; the War for Independence
-had begun.
-
-[Illustration: Thomas Paine, author of _Common Sense_, did not emigrate
-to America from England until 1774, but he became an ardent patriot.]
-
-[Illustration: Sir William Howe, British commander in chief in America
-from 1776 until 1778.]
-
-The Second Continental Congress convened in the Pennsylvania State
-House at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Burdened by wartime realities
-and the need to prepare a unified defense, it created a Continental
-Army, unanimously elected George Washington as commander in chief,
-appointed other generals, and tackled problems of military finance and
-supply. Yet, despite these warlike actions, many Delegates still hoped
-for a peaceful reconciliation.
-
-[Illustration: Robert R. Livingston of New York, the most conservative
-member of the drafting committee, neither voted on independence nor
-signed the Declaration.]
-
-In July Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition, a final attempt
-to achieve an understanding with the Crown. The petition appealed
-directly to King George III to cease hostilities and restore harmony.
-But, unwilling to challenge the supremacy of Parliament, he refused to
-acknowledge the plea and proclaimed the Colonies to be in a state of
-rebellion.
-
-During the winter of 1775–76, as the war intensified, all chance for
-accommodation vanished. Congress, for the first time representing all
-Thirteen Colonies because Georgia had sent Delegates in the fall,
-disclaimed allegiance to Parliament, created a navy, and appointed a
-committee of foreign affairs. Nevertheless the patriots, despite their
-mounting influence in the provincial assemblies, felt they needed more
-public support and hesitated to urge a final break with the Crown.
-
-The turning point came in January 1776 with publication in Philadelphia
-of the pamphlet _Common Sense_, authored anonymously by the recent
-English immigrant Thomas Paine. Attacking the “myth” of an evil
-Parliament and a benevolent King, he denounced George III for creating
-the Colonies’ miseries, condemned the British constitution as well
-as monarchy in general, and exhorted his fellow Americans to declare
-independence immediately. The pamphlet, widely reprinted, was purchased
-by many thousands of people and read by thousands more. It created a
-furor. From Georgia to New Hampshire, independence became the major
-topic of discussion and debate. The Revolutionaries won thousands of
-converts.
-
-In May Congress took a bold step toward political freedom by
-authorizing the Colonies to form permanent governments. Those that had
-not done so began to oust Crown officials and draft constitutions.
-Independence, though not yet officially declared, was for all practical
-purposes a reality.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The official movement for independence took root in the provincial
-assemblies. The North Carolina assembly in April 1776 instructed its
-congressional Delegates to vote for the issue should it be proposed.
-The next month, on May 4, Rhode Island announced its independence
-publicly—the first colony to do so. But it was Virginia that prodded
-Congress to action. On May 15 a Williamsburg convention declared
-Virginia independent and authorized its delegation at Philadelphia to
-propose a similar course for the Colonies. On June 7 the delegation’s
-leader, Richard Henry Lee, introduced the following resolution:
-
-    That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and
-    independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance
-    to the British Crown, and that all political connection between
-    them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally
-    dissolved.
-
-The resolution also incorporated proposals to form foreign alliances;
-and to devise a plan for confederation, which would be submitted to the
-Colonies for their approval.
-
-Despite the enthusiastic response of many Delegates, some of them,
-though they foresaw the inevitability of independence, objected to the
-timing. They believed the decision should reflect the desires of the
-people as expressed through the provincial assemblies and pointed out
-that the Middle Colonies, not yet ripe for freedom, needed more time
-for deliberation. On June 10 the moderates obtained a postponement of
-consideration of the Lee resolution until July 1.
-
-On June 11 the Revolutionaries, undaunted by the delay and convinced of
-their ultimate victory, persuaded Congress to appoint a committee to
-draft a declaration of independence. Three of its five members, John
-Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson, were Revolutionaries.
-Roger Sherman disliked extremism but had recently backed the
-independence movement. The most unlikely member, Robert R. Livingston,
-had stood in the front ranks of opposition to Lee’s resolution.
-Possibly he was appointed to exert a moderating effect on its
-supporters or, conversely, in the hope that his membership would help
-swing over the conservative New York delegation.
-
-At the time Lee had introduced his resolution, seven of the
-Colonies—New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
-Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia—favored independence. New York,
-New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, and Maryland were
-either opposed or undecided. Throughout the month, Revolutionaries in
-those provinces labored to gain control of the assemblies. Delaware
-and Pennsylvania, unable to reach a decision, instructed their
-representatives to vote in their colonies’ “best interests.” New
-Jersey issued similar directions, but also elected an entirely new
-and Whig-oriented slate of Delegates. The Maryland assembly, largely
-through the persuasion of Samuel Chase, Charles Carroll of Carrollton,
-and William Paca, voted unanimously for independence and so charged
-its Delegates. The South Carolinians, though they had been authorized
-months before to cast their lot with the majority, vacillated. The New
-Yorkers impatiently awaited instructions.
-
-[Illustration: First page of Jefferson’s rough draft of the
-Declaration.]
-
-July 1 was the day of decision. The Revolutionaries, overconfident from
-their progress of the preceding month, anticipated an almost unanimous
-vote for independence. They were disappointed. Following congressional
-procedure, each colony balloted as a unit, determined by the majority
-of Delegate opinion. Only nine of the Colonies voted affirmatively;
-Pennsylvania and South Carolina, negatively; New York abstained; and
-the two Delegates present from Delaware deadlocked. Technically the
-resolution had carried, but the solidarity desirable for such a vital
-decision was missing. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, hinting his
-colony might change sides, moved that the vote be retaken the next day.
-
-That day proved to be one of the most dramatic in the history of
-the Continental Congress. John Adams of Massachusetts exerted an
-overwhelming influence. South Carolina, its Delegates swayed by
-Rutledge, reversed its position. Two conservatives among the seven
-Pennsylvanians, Robert Morris and John Dickinson, though unwilling to
-make a personal commitment to independence, cooperated by purposely
-absenting themselves; the remaining Delegates voted three to two
-in favor. The most exciting moment of the day occurred when Caesar
-Rodney, Delaware’s third Delegate, galloped up to the statehouse after
-a harrowing 80-mile night ride from Dover through a thunderstorm and
-broke the Delaware tie. Home on a military assignment, the evening
-before he had received an urgent plea from Thomas McKean, the
-Delawarean who had voted for independence, to rush to Philadelphia. In
-the final vote, 12 Colonies approved Lee’s resolution, New York again
-abstaining. Congress declared the resolution to be in effect.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-For the remainder of July 2 and continuing until the 4th, Congress
-weighed and debated the content of the Declaration of Independence,
-which the drafting committee had submitted on June 28. Its author was
-young Thomas Jefferson, who had been in Congress about a year. The
-committee had chosen him for the task because he was from Virginia, the
-colony responsible for the independence resolution, and because of his
-reputation as an excellent writer and man of talent and action.
-
-[Illustration: Facsimile of the Declaration of Independence, engraved
-in 1823 while the document was still in relatively good condition.]
-
-Laboring in his rented rooms on the second floor of a private home at
-the corner of Seventh and Market Streets, Jefferson had completed a
-rough draft in about 2 weeks. Apparently Franklin and Adams made some
-minor changes, and Livingston and Sherman expressed no reservations
-so far as is known. To Jefferson’s irritation, however, Congress
-altered the final draft considerably. Most of the changes consisted of
-refinements in phraseology. Two major passages, however, were deleted.
-The first, a censure of the people of Great Britain, seemed harsh
-and needless to most of the Delegates. The second, an impassioned
-condemnation of the slave trade, offended Southern planters as well as
-New England shippers, many of whom were as culpable as the British in
-the trade.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The first official document of the American Republic and one of the
-most influential in human history, the Declaration expressed the spirit
-of human freedom and affirmed Man’s universal rights. Jefferson’s goal
-in drafting it was not, he said, to invent “new ideas” but to compose
-“an expression of the American mind” in a tone and spirit suitable
-for the momentous occasion. Stylistically, the Declaration resembled
-his own preamble to the Virginia constitution and contained an almost
-identical list of grievances. Its political philosophy, reflecting
-the Lockean concepts espoused by many intellectuals of the day, was
-certainly not new. Jefferson himself had touched on the basic points in
-previous writings, and in essence he echoed George Mason’s “Declaration
-of Rights,” which some of the Philadelphia newspapers had published
-early in June. In other words, the Declaration assimilated existing
-concepts into a concise statement of national doctrine.
-
-Jefferson began the preamble with the oft-quoted and stirring words,
-“When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one
-people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with
-another....” He then listed a series of “self-evident” truths—that “all
-men are created equal” and that they are “endowed by their creator
-with certain unalienable rights,” particularly “life, liberty, and
-the pursuit of happiness.” Governments, “deriving their just powers
-from the consent of the governed,” are instituted by men to insure
-these rights. When they fail to do so, it is the “right of the people
-to alter or to abolish” them and to institute new governments. Men
-should not carelessly change governments, but should only take such
-action after a long series of abuses and usurpations lead to “absolute
-despotism.” Then it becomes their duty to do so. The longest portion
-of the Declaration is a list of colonial grievances and examples of
-the King’s tyranny. The final section includes a restatement of Lee’s
-resolution and a pledge by the signers of their lives, their fortunes,
-and their sacred honor to the cause of independence.
-
-[Illustration: The Declaration first appeared in newspapers on July 9,
-the day after the official announcement in Philadelphia.]
-
-[Illustration: The New York City Sons of Liberty celebrated
-independence by pulling down a statue of George III, which they later
-melted and molded into bullets.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-On July 4 all the Colonies except New York voted to adopt the
-Declaration. Congress ordered it printed and distributed to colonial
-officials, military units, and the press. John Hancock and Charles
-Thomson, President and Secretary of Congress respectively, were
-the only signers of this broadside copy. On July 8, outside the
-Pennsylvania State House, the document was first read to the public.
-During the ensuing celebration, people cheered, bells rang out, and
-soldiers paraded. At other cities, similar celebrations soon took
-place. Yet many citizens—the Loyalists, or Tories—could not accept
-independence now that it had been declared any more than previously
-when it had been merely a concept. Some of them would continue to
-dream of reconciliation. Others would flee from or be driven out of
-the country. In addition, another sizable group of citizens remained
-noncommittal, neither supporting nor opposing independence.
-
-[Illustration: Artist’s rendition of the Battle of Germantown (October
-1777).]
-
-Four days after obtaining New York’s approval of the Declaration on
-July 15, Congress ordered it engrossed on parchment for signature.
-At this time, indicative of unanimity, the title was changed from “A
-Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America
-in General Congress Assembled” to “The Unanimous Declaration of the
-Thirteen United States of America.”
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Contrary to a widespread misconception, the 56 signers did not sign
-as a group and did not do so on July 4, 1776. The official event
-occurred on August 2, 1776, when 50 men probably took part. Later
-that year, five more apparently signed separately and one added his
-name in a subsequent year. Not until January 18, 1777, in the wake of
-Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton, did Congress, which
-had sought to protect the signers from British retaliation for as long
-as possible, authorize printing of the Declaration with all their names
-listed. At this time, Thomas McKean had not yet penned his name.
-
-The most impressive signature is that of John Hancock, President of
-Congress, centered over the others. According to tradition, Hancock
-wrote boldly and defiantly so that King George III would not need
-spectacles to identify him as a “traitor” and double the reward for
-his head. The other Delegates signed in six columns, which ran from
-right to left. They utilized the standard congressional voting order,
-by colony generally from north to south: New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
-Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
-Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and
-Georgia.
-
-Those who signed on August 2 undoubtedly did not realize that
-others would follow them and thus allowed no room to accommodate
-the signatures of the later six men. Two of them, George Wythe and
-Richard Henry Lee, found ample room above their fellow Virginians.
-One, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, crowded his name into the
-space between the Massachusetts and Rhode Island groups. Two of the
-others—Thomas McKean and Oliver Wolcott—signed at the bottom of columns
-following their State delegations. Only Matthew Thornton of New
-Hampshire needed to add his name separately from his colleagues—at the
-bottom of the first column on the right at the end of the Connecticut
-group.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Independence had been declared; it still had to be won on the field of
-battle. The War for Independence was already underway, but 5 more years
-of struggle and bloody campaigning lay ahead. In 1781 the Colonies
-achieved military victory, and 2 years later Britain in the Treaty of
-Paris officially recognized the independence they had proclaimed in
-1776. The building of the Nation could begin.
-
-
-
-
-Part Two
-
-Signers of the Declaration:
-
-Biographical Sketches
-
-
-
-
-Liberally endowed as a whole with courage and sense of purpose,
-the signers consisted of a distinguished group of individuals.
-Although heterogeneous in background, education, experience, and
-accomplishments, at the time of the signing they were practically all
-men of means and represented an elite cross section of 18th-century
-American leadership. Every one of them had achieved prominence in his
-colony, but only a few enjoyed a national reputation.
-
-The signers were those individuals who happened to be Delegates to
-Congress at the time. Such men of stature in the Nation as George
-Washington and Patrick Henry were not then even serving in the body.
-On the other hand, Jefferson, the two Adamses, Richard Henry Lee, and
-Benjamin Rush ranked among the outstanding people in the Colonies; and
-Franklin had already acquired international fame. Some of the signers
-had not taken a stand for or against independence in the final vote
-on July 2. For example, Robert Morris of Pennsylvania had purposely
-absented himself. Others had not yet been elected to Congress or
-were away on business or military matters. Some were last-minute
-replacements for opponents of independence. The only signer who
-actually voted negatively on July 2 was George Read of Delaware.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The signers possessed many basic similarities. Most were American-born
-and of Anglo-Saxon origin. The eight foreign-born—Button Gwinnett,
-Francis Lewis, Robert Morris, James Smith, George Taylor, Matthew
-Thornton, James Wilson, and John Witherspoon—were all natives of the
-British Isles. Except for Charles Carroll, a Roman Catholic, and a
-few Deists, every one subscribed to Protestantism. For the most part
-basically political nonextremists, many at first had hesitated at
-separation let alone rebellion. A few signed only reluctantly.
-
-[Illustration: Fervid Revolutionary Patrick Henry numbered among those
-patriots of national reputation who were not Members of Congress at the
-time of the signing of the Declaration.]
-
-The majority were well educated and prosperous. More than half the
-southerners belonged to the planter class and owned slaves, though
-Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, and others heartily opposed the
-institution of slavery, as did also several of the signers from the
-North. On the other hand, William Whipple, as a sea captain early in
-his career, had likely sometimes carried slaves on his ship.
-
-Although the signers ranged in age at the time from 26 (Edward
-Rutledge) to 70 (Benjamin Franklin), the bulk of them were in their
-thirties or forties. Probably as a result of their favored economic
-position, an amazingly large number attained an age that far exceeded
-the life expectancy of their time; 38 of the 56 lived into their
-sixties or beyond and 14 into the eighties and nineties.
-
-[Illustration: George Washington inspecting his troops at Valley Forge.
-Busy serving as commander in chief of the Continental Army, he did not
-sign the Declaration.]
-
-With few exceptions, those who subscribed to the Declaration continued
-in public service under the new Federal and State Governments. John
-Adams and Thomas Jefferson became President; they and Elbridge Gerry,
-Vice President. Samuel Chase and James Wilson won appointment to the
-Supreme Court. Others served as Congressmen, diplomats, Governors, and
-judges. Six of the signers—George Clymer, Benjamin Franklin, Robert
-Morris, George Read, Roger Sherman, and James Wilson—also signed the
-Constitution. Sixteen of them underwrote the Articles of Confederation.
-Only two, Roger Sherman and Robert Morris, affixed their signatures to
-the Declaration, Constitution, and Articles.
-
-Caesar Rodney and Joseph Hewes were the only bachelors in the group.
-All but five fathered children. Carter Braxton sired no fewer than
-18, but 10 others each had at least 10 offspring. The average number
-was about six. Some of the sons of the signers attained national
-distinction. John Adams’ son John Quincy became President; the son of
-Benjamin Harrison, William Henry, won the same office, as did also
-Benjamin’s great-grandson with the same name. Other male progeny of the
-signers served as U.S. Congressmen, Governors, and State legislators.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Yet the group manifested diversity. Each man tended to reflect the
-particular attitudes and interests of his own region and colony.
-Fourteen represented New England; 21, the Middle Colonies; and 21, the
-South. The largest number, nine, came from Pennsylvania; the least,
-two, from Rhode Island. All those from three Colonies (Georgia, New
-Hampshire, and North Carolina) were born elsewhere. About half of the
-men received their higher education in colonial colleges or abroad;
-most of the others studied at home, in local schools or private
-academies, or with tutors. A few were almost entirely self-taught.
-
-[Illustration: Harvard College, about 1725. Indicative of the favored
-economic circumstances of the signers, about half of them enjoyed
-a higher education. Eight, including all five from Massachusetts,
-attended Harvard.]
-
-In wealth, the signers ranged from Charles Carroll, one of the
-wealthiest men in the Colonies, to Samuel Adams, whose friends supplied
-money and clothes so he could attend Congress. About one-third were
-born into wealth; most of the others acquired it on their own. Some
-were self-made men. A few were of humble origin; one, George Taylor,
-had come to America as an indentured servant.
-
-Many pursued more than one vocation. More than half were trained in
-the law, but not all of them practiced it. Some won a livelihood as
-merchants and shippers. Roughly a quarter of the group earned their
-living from agriculture, usually as wealthy planters or landed gentry,
-but just a few could be called farmers. Four—Josiah Bartlett, Benjamin
-Rush, Lyman Hall, and Matthew Thornton—were doctors. Oliver Wolcott
-also studied medicine for awhile, but never entered the profession.
-George Taylor’s occupation was ironmaster. Of the four trained as
-ministers—Lyman Hall, William Hooper, Robert Treat Paine, and John
-Witherspoon—only the latter made it his lifetime vocation. William
-Williams received some theological training. Samuel Adams followed no
-real occupation other than politics.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-For their dedication to the cause of independence, the signers risked
-loss of fortune, imprisonment, and death for treason. Although none
-died directly at the hands of the British, the wife of one, Mrs.
-Francis Lewis, succumbed as a result of harsh prison treatment. About
-one-third of the group served as militia officers, most seeing wartime
-action. Four of these men (Thomas Heyward, Jr., Arthur Middleton,
-Edward Rutledge, and George Walton), as well as Richard Stockton,
-were taken captive. The homes of nearly one-third of the signers were
-destroyed or damaged, and the families of a few were scattered when the
-British pillaged or confiscated their estates.
-
-Nearly all of the group emerged poorer for their years of public
-service and neglect of personal affairs. Although a couple of the
-merchants and shippers among them profited from the war, the businesses
-of most of them deteriorated as a result of embargoes on trade with
-Britain and heavy financial losses when their ships were confiscated or
-destroyed at sea. Several forfeited to the Government precious specie
-for virtually worthless Continental currency or made donations or
-loans, usually unrepaid, to their colonies or the Government. Some even
-sold their personal property to help finance the war.
-
-Certainly most of the signers had little or nothing to gain materially
-and practically all to lose when they subscribed to the Declaration of
-Independence. By doing so, they earned a niche of honor in the annals
-of the United States. Whatever other heights they reached or whatever
-else they contributed to history, the act of signing insured them
-immortality.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-_The following biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically by
-last name. Readers interested in signers for a certain State should
-consult the Index under the appropriate State._
-
-
-
-
-John Adams
-
-MASSACHUSETTS
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Few men contributed more to U.S. Independence than John
-      Adams, the “Atlas of American Independence” in the eyes of
-      fellow signer Richard Stockton. A giant among the Founding
-      Fathers, Adams was one of the coterie of leaders who
-      generated the American Revolution, for which his prolific
-      writings provided many of the politico-philosophical
-      foundations. Not only did he help draft the Declaration,
-      but he also steered it through the Continental Congress.
-
-
-The subsequent career of Adams—as a diplomat and first Vice President
-and second President of the United States—overshadows those of all the
-other signers except Jefferson. Adams was also the progenitor of a
-distinguished family. His son John Quincy gained renown as diplomat,
-Congressman, Secretary of State, and President. John’s grandson
-Charles Francis and great-grandsons John Quincy II, Charles Francis,
-Jr., Henry, and Brooks excelled in politics, diplomacy, literature,
-historiography, and public service.
-
-Adams, descended from a long line of yeomen farmers, was born in 1735
-at Braintree (later Quincy), Mass. He graduated from Harvard College
-in 1755, and for a short time taught school at Worcester, Mass. At
-that time, he considered entering the ministry, but decided instead
-to follow the law and began its study with a local lawyer. Adams was
-admitted to the bar at Boston in 1758 and began to practice in his
-hometown. Six years later, he married Abigail Smith, who was to bear
-three sons and a daughter. She was also the first mistress of the
-White House and the only woman in U.S. history to be the wife of one
-President and the mother of another.
-
-Adams, like many others, was propelled into the Revolutionary camp by
-the Stamp Act. In 1765 he wrote a protest for Braintree that scores of
-other Massachusetts towns adopted. Three years later, he temporarily
-left his family behind and moved to Boston. He advanced in the law,
-but devoted more and more of his time to the patriot cause. In 1768 he
-achieved recognition throughout the Colonies for his defense of John
-Hancock, whom British customs officials had charged with smuggling.
-Adams later yielded to a stern sense of legal duty but incurred some
-public hostility by representing the British soldiers charged with
-murder in the Boston Massacre (1770). Ill health forced him to return
-to Braintree following a term in the colonial legislature (1770–71),
-and for the next few years he divided his time between there and Boston.
-
-A 3-year stint in the Continental Congress (1774–77), punctuated by
-short recuperative leaves and service in the colonial legislature in
-1774–75, brought Adams national fame. Because he was sharply attuned
-to the temper of Congress and aware that many Members resented
-Massachusetts extremism, he at first acceded to conciliatory efforts
-with Britain and restrained himself publicly. When Congress opted for
-independence, he became its foremost advocate, eschewing conciliation
-and urging a colonial confederation.
-
-Adams was a master of workable compromise and meaningful debate,
-though he was sometimes impatient. He chaired 25 of the more than 90
-committees on which he sat, the most important of which dealt with
-military and naval affairs. He played an instrumental part in obtaining
-Washington’s appointment as commander in chief of the Continental Army.
-Adams was a member of the five-man committee charged with drafting the
-Declaration in June of 1776, though he probably made no major changes
-in Jefferson’s draft. But, more directly involved, he defended it from
-its congressional detractors, advocated it to the wavering, and guided
-it to passage.
-
-The independence battle won, exhausted by the incessant toil and strain
-and worried about his finances and family, Adams in November 1777
-retired from Congress—never to return. He headed back to Braintree
-intending to resume his law practice. But, before the month expired,
-Congress appointed him to a diplomatic post in Europe—a phase of his
-career that consumed more than a decade (1777–88).
-
-Adams served in France during the period 1778–85, interrupted only
-by a visit to the United States in the summer of 1779, during
-which he attended the Massachusetts constitutional convention.
-Independent-minded and forthright, as well as somewhat jealous of the
-fame and accomplishments of others, he frequently found himself at
-odds with fellow diplomats Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee, as well
-as French officials, whose policies toward the Colonies he mistrusted.
-He joined Franklin and John Jay, however, in negotiating the Treaty
-of Paris (1783), by which Britain recognized the independence of the
-United States.
-
-Meanwhile, during the preceding 3 years, Adams had persuaded the Dutch
-to recognize the Colonies as an independent Nation, grant a series of
-loans, and negotiate a treaty of alliance. As the first American Envoy
-to Great Britain (1785–88), he strove to resolve questions arising from
-the Treaty of Paris and to calm the harsh feelings between the two
-countries.
-
-Back in the United States, Adams was soon elected as the first Vice
-President (1789–97), an office he considered insignificant but in which
-he emerged as a leader of the Federalist Party. During his stormy but
-statesmanlike Presidency (1797–1801), he inherited the deep political
-discord between the Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians that had taken root
-during Washington’s administration. Adams pursued a neutral course
-without abandoning his principles. He kept the United States out of a
-declared war with France and achieved an amicable peace. But he proved
-unable to unite his party, divided by Hamilton’s machinations and the
-ramifications of the French Revolution.
-
-The Jeffersonians drove the Federalists out of office in 1800, and
-Adams retired to Quincy, where he spent his later years quietly. The
-death of his wife in 1818 saddened him, but he never lost interest in
-public affairs and lived to see his son John Quincy become President.
-John died at the age of 90 just a few hours after Jefferson, on July 4,
-1826—dramatically enough the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the
-Declaration. Except for Charles Carroll, who was to live until 1832,
-Adams and Jefferson were the last two surviving signers. The remains of
-John and Abigail Adams are interred in a basement crypt at the United
-First Parish Church in Quincy.
-
-
-
-
-Samuel Adams
-
-MASSACHUSETTS
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      “Firebrand of the Revolution,” Samuel Adams probably more
-      than almost any other individual instigated and organized
-      colonial resistance to the Crown. A talented polemicist and
-      agitator-propagandist who relied more on his facile pen
-      than the podium in behind-the-scenes manipulation of men
-      and events, he religiously believed in the righteousness
-      of his political causes, to which he persistently tried
-      to convert others. He failed in business, neglected
-      his family, gained a reputation as an eccentric, and
-      demonstrated as much indifference to his own welfare as
-      he did solicitousness for that of the public. His second
-      cousin John Adams, more of a statesman, eclipsed him in
-      the Continental Congress, though Samuel signed both the
-      Declaration and the Articles of Confederation. In his later
-      years, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts bestowed on him
-      many high offices, capped by the governorship.
-
-
-Adams was one of 12 offspring of a prosperous and politically active
-brewer and landowner. He was born at Boston in 1722 and enjoyed an
-excellent education at the Boston Latin School and Harvard College.
-Upon his graduation in 1740, he first demonstrated his lifelong
-aversion to normal employment. He studied law for awhile and then
-skipped from job to job, working for a time in his father’s brewery
-as well as in a counting house and dissipating a paternal loan in an
-unsuccessful business venture.
-
-When his father died in 1748 and his mother soon afterwards, Adams
-inherited a sizable estate, including the family home and brewery.
-By 1764, when the colonial quarrel with Britain began, he had long
-since lost the latter. And, during the previous 8 years as city tax
-collector, he had fallen in arrears about £8,000 in his collections.
-At the age of 42, unable to support a new wife and two children from
-his first marriage and residing in his rundown birthplace, he was
-destitute and besieged by creditors. He subsisted mainly on gifts and
-donations from loyal friends and neighbors.
-
-Adams was a failure by most standards, but he had long before found the
-only meaningful “occupation” he ever pursued. For almost two decades he
-had been active in local political clubs, where he earned a reputation
-as a writer and emerged as leader of the “popular” party that opposed
-the powerful conservative aristocracy controlling the Massachusetts
-government. As clerk in the colonial legislature (1765–74), he drafted
-most of the body’s official papers and quickly seized the tools of
-power. He pounced on the taxation issue raised by the Sugar and Stamp
-Acts (1764–65), and within a year he and his party fanned popular
-hatred of the conservatives and gained control of the legislature.
-He also spurred organization of the militant Boston Sons of Liberty,
-a secret society. As time went on, the stridency of his anti-British
-harangues escalated and sometimes became shrill enough to distress John
-Hancock and John Adams.
-
-The Townshend Acts (1767), imposing a series of taxes on imports,
-provided Adams with a new cause for dissent. He urged merchants not
-to purchase goods from Britain, fomented opposition toward customs
-officials, inflamed the resentment toward British troops stationed
-in the colony that led to the Boston Massacre (1770), and humiliated
-the Royal Governor so much that he was recalled. Adams also authored
-a circular letter protesting British taxation and advocating united
-opposition. When, in 1768, the Massachusetts legislature sent it to
-the 12 other colonial assemblies, the Royal Governor dissolved the
-legislature, soon a common British practice in America. All these
-activities, coupled with authorship of scores of newspaper articles and
-extensive correspondence with prominent persons in the Colonies and
-England, brought Adams fame.
-
-The conservative reaction on the part of merchants, the legislature,
-and the populace that surfaced after the repeal of practically all the
-Townshend Acts in 1770 failed to stifle Adams, though his popularity
-and influence declined. Relentlessly, in perhaps his chief contribution
-to the Revolution, he kept the controversy alive by filling the columns
-of the Boston newspapers with reports of British transgressions and
-warnings of more to come. Furthermore, in 1772 he began constructing
-the framework of a Revolutionary organization in Massachusetts.
-Drawing on a similar scheme he had proposed for all the Colonies 2
-years earlier but which had come to naught, he convinced Boston and
-other towns to create committees of correspondence. The next year, he
-was appointed to the Massachusetts committee, formed in response to a
-call from the Virginia House of Burgesses.
-
-Passage of the Tea Act (1773) provided the spark Adams was seeking
-to rekindle the flame of rebellion. He helped to incite and probably
-participated in the “Boston Tea Party,” which engendered a series of
-rebellious incidents throughout the Colonies and pushed them closer to
-war. Parliament retaliated the next spring by passing a series of acts
-designed to punish Massachusetts.
-
-Adams, recognizing that the other Colonies would only adopt
-non-intercourse measures in concert, urged an intercolonial congress
-to discuss mutual grievances and plan a united course of action.
-Subsequently, in June, the Massachusetts house of representatives,
-meeting behind locked doors to prevent interference by the Royal
-Governor, resolved to invite the other 12 Colonies to send
-representatives to Philadelphia in September and also appointed five
-Delegates, including Adams. That same day, the Royal Governor disbanded
-the legislature for the last time. Before heading for Philadelphia,
-outfitted in new clothes supplied by friends, Adams helped organize the
-convention that adopted the Suffolk Resolves, which in effect declared
-Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion.
-
-Adams served in the Continental Congress until 1781, longer than most
-other Delegates, but his role was less conspicuous than his preceding
-career augured. In the early sessions, most of the time he shrewdly
-stayed in the background with his fellow Massachusetts Delegates,
-whose radicalism offended most of their colleagues. And, throughout
-the Congress, he walked in the shadow of John Adams, who dominated the
-proceedings.
-
-But nothing in the latter’s career could match the drama of an
-episode involving Samuel in the interim between the First and Second
-Continental Congresses. Back at Lexington, Mass., one night in April
-1775, he and Hancock had barely escaped the British force seeking to
-capture the colonial supply depot at Concord. The outbreak of armed
-conflict the next dawn—a “glorious morning” for Adams—marked the
-beginning of the War for Independence.
-
-While still in Congress, in 1779–80 Adams participated in the
-Massachusetts constitutional convention. He returned to Boston for
-good the next year and entered the State senate (1781–88), over which
-he presided. He refused to attend the Constitutional Convention of
-1787 because of his objection to a stronger National Government, and
-the following year unenthusiastically took part in the Massachusetts
-ratifying convention. A lifetime of public service culminated in his
-election as Lieutenant Governor (1789–93), interim Governor in the
-latter year upon Hancock’s death, and Governor (1794–97). Still living
-in “honest poverty,” he died at Boston in 1803 at the age of 81 and was
-buried in the Old Granary Burying Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Josiah Bartlett
-
-NEW HAMPSHIRE
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Thanks to the voting order in the Continental Congress,
-      Josiah Bartlett of New Hampshire was probably the first
-      Delegate to vote for independence, the second to sign
-      the Declaration (after President John Hancock), and the
-      first to ballot for and pen his name to the Articles of
-      Confederation. He also has the distinction of being one
-      of several physician signers. His State service, more
-      extensive than the National, included the governorship.
-
-
-Bartlett was born in 1729 at Amesbury, Mass. At the age of 16, equipped
-with a common school education and some knowledge of Latin and Greek,
-he began to study medicine in the office of a relative. Five years
-later, in 1750, he hung out his shingle at nearby Kingston, N.H. He
-quickly won a name not only as a general practitioner but also as an
-experimenter and innovator in diagnosis and treatment. Marrying in
-1754, he fathered 12 children.
-
-During the decade or so preceding the outbreak of the War for
-Independence, Bartlett held the offices of justice of the peace,
-militia colonel, and legislator. In 1774 he cast his lot with the
-Revolutionaries. He became a member of the New Hampshire committee
-of correspondence and the first provincial congress, which came into
-being when the Royal Governor disbanded the colonial assembly. Bartlett
-was elected that same year to the Continental Congress, but tragedy
-intervened and kept him at home. Arsonists, possibly Loyalists, burned
-his house to the ground. Discouraged but undeterred, he immediately
-constructed a new one on the very same site.
-
-While in Congress (1775–76), Bartlett also served on the New Hampshire
-council of safety. Although he rarely participated in congressional
-debates, whose seeming futility vexed him, he sat on various
-committees. He was reelected in 1777, but was too exhausted to attend.
-He nevertheless managed in August to lend his medical skills to Gen.
-John Stark’s force of New Hampshire militia and Continental troops.
-They defeated a predominantly German element of Gen. John Burgoyne’s
-command in the Battle of Bennington, N.Y.—one of the reverses that
-helped force him to surrender 2 months later at Saratoga, N.Y.
-Bartlett’s last tour in Congress was in 1778–79, after which he refused
-reelection because of fatigue.
-
-Bartlett spent the remainder of his life on the State scene. Despite
-his lack of legal training, he sat first as chief justice of the
-court of common pleas (1779–82), then as associate (1782–88) and
-chief (1788–90) justice of the Superior Court. Meantime, in 1788,
-he had taken part in the State convention that ratified the Federal
-Constitution, which he strongly favored. The next year, probably on
-account of his age and the weight of his judicial duties, he declined
-election to the U.S. Senate. The following year, he became chief
-executive, or president, of the State. He held that title for 2 years,
-in 1793–94 being named the first Governor, as the newly amended
-constitution redesignated the position.
-
-Despite all his political activities, Bartlett had never lost interest
-in the field of medicine. In 1790 Dartmouth College conferred on him an
-honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine. The next year, he founded the
-New Hampshire Medical Society and became its first president. In 1794,
-the year before he died in Kingston at the age of 65, ill health forced
-his retirement from public life. His remains lie in the yard of the
-Universalist Church in Kingston.
-
-
-
-
-Carter Braxton
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Carter Braxton, an aristocratic planter and probably the
-      most conservative of the seven Virginia signers, originally
-      opposed independence but later changed his mind and signed
-      the Declaration. His tour in the Continental Congress
-      lasted less than a year, but he held State office for most
-      of his life. His two wives bore him 18 children, more than
-      any other signer fathered.
-
-
-Braxton was born in 1736 at Newington Plantation, on the Mattaponi
-River, in King and Queen County, Va. His father was a wealthy and
-politically influential planter. His mother, who died at his birth,
-was the daughter of Robert “King” Carter, a prominent landowner and
-politician.
-
-In 1755, the same year Braxton graduated from the College of William
-and Mary, he married. His bride died in childbirth 2 years later. The
-following year, he left for an extended visit to England. He returned
-to Virginia in 1760 and moved into Elsing Green, an estate overlooking
-the Pamunkey River, in King William County, that his brother George had
-apparently built for him in 1758 during his absence. At the age of 25,
-in 1761, Carter remarried and entered the House of Burgesses. He served
-there, except for a term as county sheriff in 1772–73, until 1775.
-Meantime, in 1767, he had erected a new home, Chericoke, a couple of
-miles northwest of Elsing Green.
-
-When the trouble with Great Britain erupted, Braxton, like many
-other conservatives, sided with the patriots, though he did not
-condone violence. In 1769 he signed the Virginia Resolves, a document
-protesting parliamentary regulation of the colony’s affairs, and the
-Virginia Association, a nonimportation agreement. During the period
-1774–76, he attended various Revolutionary conventions. In 1775, upon
-dissolution of the royal government, he accepted a position on the
-council of safety, the temporary governing body.
-
-In the spring of that year, Braxton was instrumental in preventing the
-outbreak of war in Virginia. On April 20, the day after the clashes
-at Lexington and Concord, Royal Governor Lord John M. Dunmore seized
-the gunpowder in the Williamsburg magazine. Several colonial militia
-units prepared to retaliate, but moderate leaders such as George
-Washington and Peyton Randolph restrained them. Patrick Henry, however,
-refusing to be pacified, led a group of the Hanover County militia
-into Williamsburg and demanded the return of the gunpowder or payment
-for it. Before any hostilities occurred, Braxton, as spokesman for
-Henry, met with crown official Richard Corbin, his father-in-law, and
-convinced him to pay for the powder.
-
-In the fall of 1775 Braxton was selected to fill a vacancy in Congress
-caused by the death of Peyton Randolph. Arriving at Philadelphia early
-in 1776, he at first sharply criticized the independence movement,
-but eventually yielded to the majority and backed the Declaration.
-That same year, apparently both in writing and in a speech at a
-Virginia convention, he urged adoption of a conservative form of State
-government and expressed such a mistrust of popular government that he
-lost his congressional appointment. The conservatives, however, elected
-him to the new State legislature, in which he sat for the rest of his
-life. For many years, he was also a member of the Governor’s executive
-council.
-
-The War for Independence brought financial hardships to Braxton. At
-its beginning, he had invested heavily in shipping, but the British
-captured most of his vessels and ravaged some of his plantations and
-extensive landholdings. Commercial setbacks in later years ruined him.
-In 1786, though he retained Chericoke, he moved to Richmond, where he
-died in 1797 at the age of 61. He was buried in the family cemetery
-adjacent to Chericoke.
-
-
-
-
-Charles Carroll
-
-MARYLAND
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      As one of the wealthiest men in America, Charles Carroll
-      III of Carrollton risked his fortune as well as his life
-      when he joined the Revolutionaries. Possessing one of the
-      most cultivated minds of any of the signers, he achieved
-      remarkable success as planter, businessman, and politician.
-      He was the only Roman Catholic signer, the last to survive,
-      and the longest lived.
-
-
-Of Irish descent, Carroll was born in 1737 at his father’s townhouse,
-Carroll Mansion in Annapolis. Jesuits educated him until he reached
-about 11 years of age. He then voyaged to Europe and studied the
-liberal arts and civil law at various schools and universities in
-Paris, elsewhere in France, and in London.
-
-Carroll sailed home in 1765 at the age of 28, and built a home at
-Carrollton Manor, a 10,000-acre estate in Frederick County newly deeded
-to him by his father. At that time, he added “of Carrollton” to his
-name to distinguish himself from relatives of the same name. For most
-of his life, however, he preferred for his country residence the family
-ancestral home, Doughoregan Manor, in Howard County; when in Annapolis,
-he usually resided at his birthplace. For almost a decade after his
-return from Europe, barred from public life by his religion, he lived
-quietly. During that time, in 1768, he married. His offspring numbered
-seven, three of whom lived to maturity.
-
-In 1773 Carroll became a champion of the patriots through his newspaper
-attacks on the Proprietary Governor. The latter was opposing
-reforms in officers’ fees and stipends for Anglican clergy that the
-lower house of the legislature had proposed. From then on, Carroll
-took a prominent part in provincial affairs. In the years 1774–76
-he supported nonimportation measures, attended the first Maryland
-Revolutionary convention, and served on local and provincial committees
-of correspondence and the council of safety. In 1776 he and his cousin
-John, a priest—chosen because of their religion and knowledge of
-French—traveled to Canada with Benjamin Franklin and Samuel Chase on a
-congressionally appointed committee that sought but failed to obtain a
-union of Canada with the Colonies.
-
-Carroll and Chase arrived back in Philadelphia on June 11 that same
-year, the day after Congress had postponed the vote on Richard Henry
-Lee’s independence resolution (June 7) until July 1. Maryland had
-refused to commit herself. Carroll and Chase rushed to Annapolis,
-recruited William Paca’s aid, and conducted a whirlwind campaign that
-persuaded the provincial convention to pass a unanimous independence
-resolution. It reached Congress just in time to put the colony in
-the affirmative column on July 1, the day of the first vote. Three
-days later, Carroll himself became a Delegate and functioned in that
-capacity until 1778.
-
-Two years before, Carroll had also been elected to the State senate, a
-seat he retained until just after the turn of the century. Along with
-fellow signers Chase and Paca, he was a member of the committee that in
-1776 drafted Maryland’s constitution. Elected to but not attending the
-Constitutional Convention of 1787, he nevertheless allied himself with
-the Federalists and helped bring about his State’s ratification of the
-Constitution. In the years 1789–92, while also in the State senate, he
-served as a U.S. Senator, one of Maryland’s first two.
-
-Not reelected to the State senate in 1804, the 67-year-old Carroll
-retired from public life and concentrated on managing his landholdings,
-consisting of about 80,000 acres in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New
-York, and his business interests. The latter included investments in
-the Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, which established a canal system in
-the Potomac and Shenandoah Valleys, and its successor the Chesapeake
-and Ohio Canal Company. Carroll was also a member of the first board of
-directors of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
-
-In his final years, revered by the Nation as the last surviving signer
-of the Declaration, Carroll spent most of his time at Doughoregan
-Manor. But he passed the winters in the home of his youngest daughter
-and her husband in Baltimore. There, in 1832, he died at the age of 95.
-His body was interred in the family chapel at Doughoregan Manor.
-
-
-
-
-Samuel Chase
-
-MARYLAND
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Fervid Revolutionary Samuel Chase led the campaign that
-      crushed conservative opposition and alined his colony
-      with the others in the independence struggle. Labeled
-      the “Demosthenes of Maryland” for his fancy albeit
-      effective oratory, he also demonstrated skill as a writer.
-      But his independent attitude, stormy disposition, and
-      outspokenness diluted his political effectiveness. As an
-      Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, he became a
-      controversial figure.
-
-
-Chase was the son of an Anglican clergyman. He was born in 1741 at the
-farmhouse of his mother’s parents on Maryland’s Eastern Shore near
-the city of Princess Anne. His mother had come there from her home
-at nearby Allen for a visit. She died at or soon after the birth.
-Likely Chase’s grandparents cared for him at least a few years, until
-about the time his father took over a parish in Baltimore. The latter
-provided the youth with his initial education, mainly in the classics.
-
-Between the ages of 18 and 20, Chase read law with an Annapolis firm
-and joined the bar in 1761. The next year, he married; his wife bore
-at least two sons and two daughters. Two years after his marriage, he
-entered the colonial/State legislature and retained membership for two
-decades. From the beginning, he opposed the royal government. Annapolis
-officials denounced him for his participation in the violent protests
-of the Sons of Liberty in 1765 against the Stamp Act. In 1774–75 he
-took part in the Maryland committee of correspondence, council of
-safety, and the provincial convention.
-
-In the former year, Chase had joined the Continental Congress. He
-advocated an embargo on trade with Britain, showed special interest
-in diplomatic matters, early urged a confederation of the Colonies,
-defended George Washington from his congressional detractors, and in
-1776 journeyed to Montreal with a commission that tried but failed to
-achieve a union with Canada. When he returned to Philadelphia around
-the middle of June, Congress had just postponed the vote on the Lee
-independence resolution. Realizing that Maryland was straddling the
-fence on the issue, Chase rushed home. Along with Charles Carroll
-of Carrollton and William Paca, he labored for 2 weeks to overcome
-opposition and won a committal to independence from the convention. The
-Maryland Delegates registered it in time for the first congressional
-vote, on July 1. In 1778 Chase lost his office because of adverse
-publicity generated by the advantage he had taken of knowledge gained
-in Congress to engage in a profiteering scheme.
-
-In 1783–84 Chase traveled to London as a State emissary on an
-unfruitful mission to recover Maryland stock in the Bank of England
-from two fugitive Loyalists. Upon his return apparently, his first
-wife having died, he remarried; resumed his law practice; and engaged
-in various unsuccessful business enterprises that led to bankruptcy in
-1789. Meantime, he had reentered politics. In 1785 he had represented
-Maryland at the Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference, forerunner of the
-Annapolis Convention. The next year, he moved his family from Annapolis
-to Baltimore, where he soon became chief judge of the Baltimore County
-criminal court (1788–95). As a delegate to the Maryland ratifying
-convention in 1788, he strongly opposed the Constitution, though he
-later became a staunch Federalist. From 1791 until 1794, while still
-a county judge, he also held the position of chief justice of the
-Maryland Superior Court.
-
-Chase achieved his greatest fame as an Associate Justice of the
-U.S. Supreme Court (1796–1811). He was one of the ablest jurists
-in the body prior to Chief Justice John Marshall (1801–35), and
-delivered many influential opinions. His inability to control his
-political partisanship while on the bench—a trait he shared with some
-other judges of his time—led to various judicial improprieties and
-impeachment proceedings against him in 1805. But Congress acquitted him.
-
-Still a Justice, Chase died in Baltimore 2 months after he celebrated
-his 70th birthday. His grave is in St. Paul’s Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Abraham Clark
-
-NEW JERSEY
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Abraham Clark—farmer, surveyor, self-taught lawyer, and
-      politician—typifies those signers who dedicated most of
-      their lives to public service but never gained national
-      renown.
-
-
-An only child, Clark was born in 1726 at his father’s farm in what is
-now Roselle, N.J. In his boyhood, he was too frail for farmwork. He
-received only a minimum of formal education, but in his independent
-study demonstrated a bent for mathematics. When he reached manhood,
-besides farming his father’s land, he took up surveying and informally
-read law to aid in mediating land disputes. Although probably never
-admitted to the bar, he gained a reputation as the “poor man’s
-counselor” for his willingness to dispense free legal advice or accept
-produce or merchandise in lieu of a fee. He married in 1749, and
-fathered 10 children.
-
-Clark followed his father’s example by taking an active part in civic
-affairs. For many years, he served the Crown as high sheriff of Essex
-County and as clerk in the colonial legislature. The exact date of his
-entry into the patriot ranks is not known, but in the period 1774–76
-he became a member and secretary of the New Jersey council of safety,
-attended several Revolutionary conventions, and won election to the
-provincial assembly. In June of the latter year, he and four other
-men replaced the existing congressional Delegates, who were opposing
-independence.
-
-Despite poor health and deep concern for the welfare of his family
-and the safety of his home, located not far from an area of British
-occupation, Clark stayed in Congress throughout the War for
-Independence and sometimes sat concurrently in the State legislature.
-He suffered additional anxiety when the British captured his two
-soldier sons and incarcerated them for a time on the prison ship
-_Jersey_, where hundreds of captives perished.
-
-[Illustration: Thousands of American soldiers, including two of Abraham
-Clark’s sons, endured the agonies of captivity on the British prison
-ship _Jersey_.]
-
-At the end of the war in 1783, Clark resumed his life back in
-New Jersey. The next year he began a 3-year tour in the State
-legislature, which he represented at the Annapolis Convention (1786).
-The following year, ill health prevented his attendance at the
-Constitutional Convention. He subsequently opposed the Constitution
-until it incorporated the Bill of Rights. In 1787–89 he returned
-to the Continental Congress, but in 1789–90 remained in New Jersey
-as commissioner to settle his State’s accounts with the Federal
-Government. In 1791–94 he climaxed a long career of alternating
-State-National service as a Representative in the Second and Third
-Congresses.
-
-Clark was stricken with a sunstroke in 1794 at his birthplace in
-Roselle, where he had lived all his life except when political duty
-called him away. He died a few hours later, at the age of 68, in
-the nearby town of Rahway and was buried there in the Presbyterian
-Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-George Clymer
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      George Clymer, a leading Philadelphia merchant, rendered
-      long years of service to his city, State, and Nation. He
-      signed the Constitution as well as the Declaration, and
-      applied his commercial acumen to the financial problems of
-      the Colonies and the Confederation.
-
-
-Clymer was orphaned in 1740, only a year after his birth in
-Philadelphia. A wealthy uncle reared and informally educated him and
-advanced him from clerk to a full-fledged partner in his mercantile
-firm, which on his death he bequeathed to his ward. Later, Clymer
-merged operations with the Merediths, prominent businessmen, and
-cemented the relationship by marrying his senior partner’s daughter.
-
-Motivated at least partly by the impact of British economic
-restrictions on his business, Clymer early adopted the Revolutionary
-cause and was one of the first to recommend independence. He attended
-patriotic meetings, served on the Pennsylvania council of safety, and
-in 1773 headed a committee that forced the resignation of Philadelphia
-tea consignees appointed by Britain under the Tea Act. Inevitably,
-in light of his economic background, he channeled his energies into
-financial matters. In 1775–76 he acted as one of the first two
-Continental treasurers, even personally underwriting the war by
-exchanging all his own specie for Continental currency.
-
-In the Continental Congress (1776–77 and 1780–82) the quiet and
-unassuming Clymer rarely spoke in debate but made his mark in committee
-efforts, especially those pertaining to commerce, finance, and
-military affairs. During and between his two congressional tours, he
-also served on a series of commissions that conducted important field
-investigations. In December 1776, when Congress fled from Philadelphia
-to Baltimore, he and fellow signers George Walton and Robert Morris
-remained behind to carry on congressional business. Within a year,
-after their victory at the Battle of Brandywine, Pa. (Sept. 11, 1777),
-British troops advancing on Philadelphia detoured for the purpose of
-vandalizing Clymer’s home in Chester County, about 25 miles outside the
-city, while his wife and children hid nearby in the woods.
-
-[Illustration: George Clymer lived in this Philadelphia townhouse
-during the Revolutionary period.]
-
-After a brief retirement following his last tour in the Continental
-Congress, Clymer was reelected in the years 1784–88 to the Pennsylvania
-legislature, where he had also served part time in 1780–82 while still
-in Congress. As a State legislator, he advocated reform of the penal
-code, opposed capital punishment, and represented Pennsylvania in
-the Constitutional Convention (1787). The next phase of his career
-consisted of service as a U.S. Representative in the First Congress
-(1789–91), followed by appointment as collector of excise taxes on
-alcoholic beverages in Pennsylvania (1791–94). In 1795–96 he sat on a
-Presidential commission that negotiated a treaty with the Indians in
-Georgia.
-
-During his retirement, Clymer advanced various community projects,
-including the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, the Philadelphia
-Academy of Fine Arts, and the Philadelphia Bank. At the age of 73, in
-1813, he died at Summerseat, an estate a few miles outside Philadelphia
-at Morrisville that he had purchased and moved to in 1806. His grave is
-in the Friends Meeting House Cemetery at Trenton, N.J.
-
-
-
-
-William Ellery
-
-RHODE ISLAND
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      One of a small group of lesser known signers whose
-      achievements were comparatively modest, William Ellery
-      gained little fame beyond his hometown—in sharp contrast
-      to fellow Rhode Island signer Stephen Hopkins. The office
-      of Delegate to the Continental Congress was the only
-      significant position, State or National, to which Ellery
-      ever won election, but he occupied it for a far longer
-      period than most other Members.
-
-
-The second son in a family of four, Ellery was born in 1727 at Newport,
-his lifelong residence. He followed in the footsteps of his father,
-a rich merchant and political leader, by attending Harvard. On his
-graduation in 1747, he returned home. During the following two decades
-or so, he tried his hand at several occupations, eventually taking up
-the study of law, which he began practicing in 1770. Meantime, he had
-married twice and was to rear two sons and three daughters. Among his
-grandchildren were William Ellery Channing, influential theologian and
-apostle of Unitarianism, and Richard Henry Dana, Sr., noted poet and
-essayist.
-
-By May 1776, when the colonial legislature sent Ellery to the
-Continental Congress, he had already earned a reputation for his work
-on local patriotic committees. Tradition records that, at the formal
-signing of the Declaration on August 2, he placed himself beside the
-Secretary and observed “undaunted resolution” on every face as the
-Delegates subscribed to their “death warrant.” The next year, Rhode
-Island initiated popular election of congressional Delegates, and
-Ellery’s Newport constituency maintained him in office until 1786
-except for the years 1780 and 1782. In 1780 he remained in Philadelphia
-as an ex officio member of the board of admiralty, on which he had
-been sitting. His other committee assignments included those dealing
-with commercial and naval affairs. On occasion, to entertain himself
-and others, he wrote witty epigrams about various speakers. In 1785 he
-turned down the chief justiceship of the Rhode Island Superior Court to
-remain in Congress, where he had attained commanding seniority.
-
-The very next year, Ellery terminated his congressional career
-to accept an appointment as commissioner of the Continental Loan
-Office for Rhode Island (1786–90). Probably the need to straighten
-out his finances compelled him to accept. British troops in 1778,
-during their 3-year occupation of Newport, had destroyed his home
-and property, and he had been too busy to rebuild his fortune. In
-1790 President Washington appointed Ellery as customs collector
-for the district of Newport, a position he held for three decades.
-Although he was a Federalist, he managed to retain office during
-the Democratic-Republican administrations, probably because of his
-Revolutionary record and competence.
-
-In his later years, Ellery prospered. He kept active in public affairs
-and spent many hours in scholarly pursuits and correspondence. Living
-to 92, a more advanced age than all the signers except Charles Carroll,
-he died in 1820 at Newport. His remains rest there in the Common Ground
-Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-William Floyd
-
-NEW YORK
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      William Floyd, a wealthy landowner-farmer, belongs to the
-      category of signers who played only a peripheral part in
-      the Revolution. Nevertheless, he suffered anguish when
-      British troops and Loyalists ravaged his estate during
-      the war and drove his family into a 7-year exile in
-      Connecticut. He also climbed to the rank of major general
-      in the State militia, and served in the U.S. First Congress.
-
-
-Floyd was born in 1734 at present Mastic, Long Island, N.Y., in
-Brookhaven Township. He was the second child and eldest of two sons in
-a family of nine. His father, a prosperous farmer of Welsh ancestry,
-kept the youth busy with chores. As a result, his education consisted
-only of informal instruction at home. When Floyd reached his 20th
-year, his father and mother died within 2 months of each other, and he
-inherited a large estate along with the responsibility of caring for
-his brothers and sisters. Six years later, he married. His bride helped
-care for the family and assisted in managing the farm, for which slaves
-supplied most of the labor. A community stalwart, Floyd also devoted
-considerable time to the affairs of the Brookhaven church, occupied the
-position of town trustee (1769–71), and moved up in the ranks of the
-Suffolk County militia to a colonelcy in 1775.
-
-The Revolutionary movement in New York was much less fervent
-and started later than that in the other Colonies. The spirited
-Massachusetts opposition to the Tea Act in the later half of 1773
-and in 1774 created the first major ferment in New York. One of the
-scattered focal points was eastern Long Island, where Floyd lived. He
-and many of his neighbors attended meetings that extended sympathy and
-aid to Massachusetts and protested the closing of the port of Boston
-by the British. Despite such local outbursts, by the end of 1774 New
-York was one of only two Colonies, Georgia being the other, in which
-the patriots did not control the government. For this reason, the
-Revolutionaries operated mainly on a county basis.
-
-In 1774 Suffolk County sent Floyd to the Continental Congress. He
-remained there until 1777, returned in the period 1779–83, and in
-the interim served in the State senate and on the council of safety.
-Yielding the floor of Congress to the other New York Delegates, he
-labored without special distinction on a few committees. But worry
-about the welfare of his family presented a major distraction. In
-1776, when British forces occupied Long Island, his wife, son, and
-two daughters fled northward across the sound and took refuge in
-Middletown, Conn. His wife died there in 1781. To make matters worse,
-the redcoats used his home at Mastic for a barracks, and Loyalists
-plundered his lands and belongings. When he brought his children back
-in 1783, he found the fields and timber stripped, the fences destroyed,
-and the house damaged.
-
-After the war, Floyd sat for several terms in the State senate,
-attended the constitutional convention of 1801, supported the Federal
-Constitution, won election in the years 1789–91 as a Representative in
-the First Congress, served as presidential elector on four occasions,
-and became a major general in the New York militia. His second wife,
-whom he had married in 1784, bore him two daughters.
-
-About this time, Floyd acquired an interest in western lands. The
-year of his marriage, he purchased a tract in central New York at the
-headwaters of the Mohawk River in the environs of present Rome; he
-supplemented this 3 years later by obtaining a State grant of more than
-10,000 acres in the area. He spent most of his summers visiting and
-developing the acreage.
-
-In 1803, in his late sixties, at a time when most men possess lesser
-ambitions, Floyd deeded his Long Island home and farm to his son
-Nicoll, and set out with the rest of his family to make a new life
-on the frontier. During the first year, he built a home at present
-Westernville, N.Y. There he succumbed, at the age of 86 in 1821, and
-was buried in the Presbyterian Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Benjamin Franklin
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Benjamin Franklin, elder statesman of the Revolution
-      and oldest signer of both the Declaration and the
-      Constitution, sat on the committee that drafted the
-      Declaration, attended the Constitutional Convention, and
-      distinguished himself as a diplomat. But he was a self-made
-      and self-educated intellectual colossus whose interests
-      far transcended politics. He won international renown
-      as a printer-publisher, author, philosopher, scientist,
-      inventor, and philanthropist. On both sides of the Atlantic
-      he mingled with the social elite, whom he impressed with
-      his sagacity, wit, and zest for life.
-
-
-Franklin was born in 1706 at Boston. He was the tenth son of a soap-
-and candle-maker. He received some formal education but was principally
-self-taught. After serving an apprenticeship to his father between
-the ages of 10 and 12, he went to work for his half-brother James, a
-printer. In 1721 the latter founded the _New England Courant_, the
-fourth newspaper in the Colonies. Benjamin secretly contributed to it
-14 essays, his first published writings.
-
-In 1723, because of dissension with his half-brother, Franklin moved to
-Philadelphia. He spent only a year there, and then sailed to London for
-two more years. Back in Philadelphia, he rose rapidly in the printing
-industry. He published _The Pennsylvania Gazette_ (1730–48), which had
-been founded by another man in 1728, but his most successful venture
-was annual _Poor Richard’s Almanac_ (1733–58). It won a popularity in
-the Colonies second only to the Bible, and its fame eventually spread
-to Europe.
-
-Meantime, in 1730 Franklin had taken a common-law wife, who was to
-bear him a son and a daughter, as was another woman out of wedlock.
-By 1748 he had achieved financial independence and gained recognition
-for his philanthropy and the stimulus he provided to such worthwhile
-civic causes as libraries, educational institutions, and hospitals.
-Energetic and tireless, he also found time to pursue his deep interest
-in science, as well as enter politics.
-
-Franklin served as clerk (1736–51) and member (1751–64) of the colonial
-legislature, and as deputy postmaster of Philadelphia (1737–53) and
-deputy postmaster general of the Colonies (1753–74). In addition, he
-represented Pennsylvania at the Albany Congress (1754), called to unite
-the Colonies during the French and Indian War. The congress adopted his
-“Plan of Union,” but the colonial assemblies rejected it because it
-encroached on their powers.
-
-During the years 1757–62 and 1764–75, Franklin resided in England,
-originally in the capacity of agent for Pennsylvania and later for
-Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. During the latter period, which
-coincided with the growth of colonial unrest, he underwent a political
-metamorphosis. Until then a contented Englishman in outlook, primarily
-concerned with Pennsylvania provincial politics, he distrusted popular
-movements and saw little purpose to be served in carrying principle to
-extremes. Until the issue of parliamentary taxation undermined the old
-alliances, he led the conservative Quaker party in its attack on the
-Anglican proprietary party and its Presbyterian frontier cohorts. His
-purpose throughout the years at London in fact had been displacement of
-the Penn family administration by royal authority—the conversion of the
-province from a proprietary to a royal colony.
-
-It was during the Stamp Act crisis that Franklin evolved from leader
-of a shattered provincial party’s faction to celebrated spokesman at
-London for American rights. Although as agent for Pennsylvania he
-opposed by every conceivable persuasive means enactment of the bill
-in 1765, he did not at first realize the depth of colonial hostility.
-He regarded passage as unavoidable and preferred to submit to it
-while actually working for its repeal. His nomination of a friend and
-political ally as stamp distributor in Pennsylvania, coupled with
-his apparent acceptance of the legislation, armed his proprietary
-opponents with explosive issues. Their energetic exploitation of
-them endangered his reputation at home until reliable information
-was published demonstrating his unabated opposition. For a time, mob
-resentment threatened his family and new home in Philadelphia until his
-tradesmen supporters rallied. Subsequently, Franklin’s defense of the
-American position in the House of Commons during the debates over the
-Stamp Act’s repeal restored his prestige at home.
-
-[Illustration: Benjamin Franklin being arraigned in 1774 by a committee
-of Lords of Parliament for disloyalty to the Crown. The following day,
-he was dismissed as deputy postmaster general of the Colonies.]
-
-Franklin returned to Philadelphia in May 1775, and immediately
-became a Member of the Continental Congress. Thirteen months later,
-he served on the committee that drafted the Declaration. According
-to a traditional anecdote, when he finished signing he declared,
-“Gentlemen, we must now all hang together, or we shall most assuredly
-all hang separately,” He subsequently contributed to the Government
-in other important ways, and took over the duties of president of the
-Pennsylvania constitutional convention.
-
-But, within less than a year and a half after his return, the aged
-statesman set sail once again for Europe, beginning a career as
-diplomat that would occupy him for most of the rest of his life. In
-1776–79, one of three commissioners, he directed the negotiations that
-led to treaties of commerce and alliance with France, where the people
-adulated him, but he and the other commissioners squabbled constantly.
-While he was sole commissioner to France (1779–85), he and John Jay and
-John Adams negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the War
-for Independence.
-
-Back in the United States, in 1785–87 Franklin became president of
-the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. At the Constitutional
-Convention (May 1787), though he did not approve of many aspects
-of the finished document, he lent his prestige, soothed passions,
-and compromised disputes. In his twilight years, working on his
-_Autobiography_, he could look back on a fruitful life as the toast of
-two continents. Active nearly to the last, in 1787 he was elected as
-first president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition
-of Slavery—a cause to which he had committed himself as early as
-the 1730’s. His final public act was signing a memorial to Congress
-recommending dissolution of the slavery system. Shortly thereafter, in
-1790 at the age of 84, Franklin passed away in Philadelphia and was
-buried in Christ Church Burial Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Elbridge Gerry
-
-MASSACHUSETTS
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      During an extended and controversial career, Elbridge Gerry
-      experienced many triumphs and disappointments. A prosperous
-      merchant who worked alongside the two Adamses and John
-      Hancock in the cause of independence, he integrated
-      personal interests with public service and translated them
-      into wartime profits. In the course of his long tenure in
-      the Continental Congress, he signed both the Declaration
-      and Articles of Confederation. But throughout his years
-      in office, which crested in the U.S. Vice-Presidency, his
-      inconsistencies, ambivalence, and truculence stirred up
-      animosity among his colleagues—though he usually managed to
-      muster enough party and popular support to win reelection.
-
-
-Gerry was born in 1744 at Marblehead, Mass., the third of 12 children.
-His mother was the daughter of a Boston merchant; his father, a
-wealthy and politically active merchant-shipper who had once been a
-sea captain. Upon graduating from Harvard in 1762, Gerry joined his
-father and two brothers in the family business, which consisted of
-exporting dried codfish to Barbados and Spain. In 1772–74 he entered
-the colonial legislature, where he came under the influence of Samuel
-Adams, and took part in the Marblehead and Massachusetts committees
-of correspondence. In June of the latter year, when Parliament closed
-Boston Harbor and Marblehead became a major port of entry for supplies
-donated by patriots throughout the Colonies to relieve the Bostonians,
-he aided in the transshipment.
-
-Between 1774 and 1776, Gerry attended the first and second provincial
-congresses; served with Samuel Adams and John Hancock on the council
-of safety, which prepared the colony for war; and, as chairman of the
-committee of supply, a job for which his merchant background ideally
-suited him, raised troops and dealt with military logistics. During the
-night of April 18, 1775, he barely eluded capture by the British troops
-marching on Lexington and Concord. Following the adjournment of a
-meeting of the council of safety at an inn in Menotomy (Arlington), on
-the road from Cambridge to Lexington, he had retired for the night but
-responded to the alarm and fled.
-
-Gerry entered the Continental Congress in 1776 and voted for
-independence in July, but his absence at the formal ceremonies on
-August 2 necessitated his signing the Declaration later in the year.
-His congressional specialties were military and financial matters, in
-both of which he demonstrated a duality of attitude that was to become
-his political trademark. He earned the nickname “soldiers’ friend”
-for his advocacy of better pay and equipment, yet he vacillated on
-the issue of pensions. Despite his disapproval of standing armies, he
-recommended long-term enlistments. Although mistrustful of military
-officials, he befriended both George Washington and Thomas Conway, two
-generals who were implacable enemies.
-
-Until 1779 Gerry sat on and sometimes presided over the congressional
-treasury board, which regulated Continental finances. An Army
-procurement agent as well as a merchant-supplier, he utilized
-information he obtained in Congress to benefit his lucrative business.
-On the other hand, he denounced profiteering and personally adhered to
-a fair-price schedule. In 1780, as wartime financial problems mounted,
-however, the Delegates resolved to revise the schedule. Gerry’s
-vehement objections led to a quarrel, and he stormed out of Congress.
-Although nominally a Member, he did not reappear for 3 years. During
-the interim, he engaged in trade and privateering and saw duty in the
-lower house of the State legislature.
-
-Back in Congress in 1783–85, Gerry numbered among those Representatives
-who had possessed talent as Revolutionary agitators and wartime
-leaders but who could not effectually cope with the painstaking
-task of stabilizing the National Government. He was experienced and
-conscientious, but created many enemies with his lack of humor,
-suspicion of the motives of others, and obsessive fear of political and
-military tyranny. In 1786, the year after leaving Congress, his fortune
-well established, he retired from business, married, and took a seat
-in the State legislature. The next year, he moved from Marblehead to
-Cambridge and purchased a confiscated Loyalist estate, where he was to
-reside for the rest of his life.
-
-Gerry was one of the most vocal of the delegates at the Constitutional
-Convention of 1787. He antagonized practically everyone by his
-inconsistency and, according to a colleague, “objected to everything he
-did not propose.” At first he advocated a strong Central Government,
-but ultimately rejected and refused to sign the Constitution,
-especially because it lacked a bill of rights and because he deemed
-it a threat to republicanism. He led the drive against ratification
-in Massachusetts. In 1789, when he changed his mind and announced his
-intention to support the Constitution, he was elected to the First
-Congress, where to the chagrin of the Antifederalists he championed
-Federalist policies.
-
-Gerry left Congress for the last time in 1793 and retired for 4 years.
-During this time, he came to mistrust the aims of the Federalists,
-particularly their attempts to nurture an alliance with Britain, and
-sided with the pro-French Democratic-Republicans. In 1797 President
-John Adams appointed him as the only non-Federalist member of a
-three-man commission charged with negotiating a reconciliation with
-France, on the brink of war with the United States. During the ensuing
-XYZ affair (1797–98), Gerry tarnished his reputation. The French
-foreign minister duped him into believing that his presence in France
-would prevent war, and he lingered on long after the departure of the
-other disgusted commissioners. Finally, the embarrassed Adams recalled
-him, amid Federalist vituperation.
-
-In 1800–03 Gerry, never very popular among the Massachusetts electorate
-because of his aristocratic haughtiness, met defeat in four bids for
-the Massachusetts governorship, but finally triumphed in 1810–12.
-Near the end of his two terms, scarred by partisan controversy, the
-Democratic-Republicans passed a devious redistricting measure to insure
-their domination of the State senate. In response, the Federalists
-heaped ridicule on Gerry and punningly coined the term “gerrymander” to
-describe the salamander-like shape of one of the redistricted areas.
-
-Despite his advanced age, frail health, and the threat of poverty
-brought on by neglect of personal affairs, in 1813 Gerry accepted
-the Vice-Presidency in James Madison’s Democratic-Republican
-administration. In the fall of 1814, the 70-year-old politician was
-stricken fatally while on the way to the Senate. He left his wife, who
-was to live until 1849, the last surviving widow of a signer, as well
-as three sons and four daughters. Gerry is buried in Congressional
-Cemetery at Washington, D.C.
-
-
-
-
-Button Gwinnett
-
-GEORGIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Tempestuousness and ill-fortune marked the destiny of
-      uniquely named Button Gwinnett, whose forename is that
-      of a branch of his mother’s family. The second signer
-      to die, he met a tragic end in a duel while only in his
-      forties. The only highlight of his brief tour in the
-      Continental Congress was signing the Declaration. Even
-      in Georgia, where he rose to the acting governorship,
-      controversy and failure usually dogged him. Financial
-      misfortunes were continual distractions, and he found that
-      his paltry rewards as a merchant and planter matched his
-      disappointments in politics.
-
-
-Gwinnett was likely born in 1735, at the village of Down Hatherly,
-Gloucestershire, England. The second male in a family numbering at
-least seven, he was the son of an Anglican vicar of Welsh ancestry
-and a mother with English ties. He probably learned trade and finance
-from an uncle, a Bristol merchant, and in 1757 moved to Wolverhampton,
-Staffordshire. He married a grocer’s daughter, who was to bear three
-girls, and for a time he joined her father in a partnership. In 1759,
-however, Gwinnett entered the export shipping business and built up an
-extensive trade with the American Colonies, possibly sometimes visiting
-them himself.
-
-The date of Gwinnett’s emigration to Savannah, Ga., is not known but
-in 1765 he purchased a store there. Later that same year, for some
-reason, he sold it and abruptly switched vocation. Apparently dazzled
-by visions of a planter’s life on a great estate but undeterred by
-his lack of capital, experience, and training, he borrowed £3,000
-and purchased large St. Catherine’s Island. It was located off the
-Georgia coast not far from the busy mainland port of Sunbury, a rival
-of Savannah. At this time, he probably erected a home on the island.
-Before long, though already deep in debt, he also purchased some
-coastal lands on credit and received grants of others from the colony;
-and bought large numbers of slaves to work his holdings. Poachers
-aggravated his problems by raiding the island’s livestock.
-
-[Illustration: Fanciful depiction of Button Gwinnett’s duel with Gen.
-Lachlan McIntosh in 1777 that resulted in the former’s death.]
-
-Gwinnett’s land, slaves, and other possessions were soon gobbled up by
-creditors. Finally, in 1773, they took over the island, but allowed
-Gwinnett to maintain his home there. He did so for the rest of his
-life. During the war, however, the approach of British vessels, who
-replenished their food supplies from the livestock on the exposed
-island, sometimes forced him and his family to scurry over in their
-boat to Sunbury for temporary refuge.
-
-Meantime, Gwinnett had long since entered politics. In 1768–69 he had
-been designated as one of His Majesty’s justices of the peace and as
-a local pilotage commissioner. In the years 1769–71 the voters of St.
-John’s Parish elected him to the colonial assembly at Savannah, but he
-attended only spasmodically because of his financial woes. When they
-worsened, he left public office for 5 years.
-
-Gwinnett returned on the national level. Unlike the other two Georgia
-signers, Lyman Hall and George Walton, he belatedly joined the patriot
-side—apparently held back for some time by his English birth and close
-family connections in England. His friend Hall, a Sunbury resident and
-fellow member of the Midway Congregational Church, swung him over,
-probably beginning in the summer of 1775. The next February, the
-provincial congress named Gwinnett to the Continental Congress, though
-he did not arrive in Philadelphia until May. He attended for only about
-10 weeks. Right after he signed the Declaration on August 2, he trekked
-back to Georgia, where he hoped but failed to win at least an Army
-colonelcy in one of the units the State was forming.
-
-In October Gwinnett was reelected to the Continental Congress, but
-chose not to attend. Instead, during the next 5 months, he played a
-key role in drafting the State’s first constitution, in the course of
-which he helped thwart a proposed union of South Carolina and Georgia.
-Upon the death of the Governor, or president of the Executive Council,
-in March 1777 the council commissioned Gwinnett as Acting Governor for
-2 months, but he failed to achieve reelection. Before leaving office,
-he had clashed with controversial Gen. Lachlan McIntosh, an old rival.
-The result was a pistol duel in May just outside Savannah. Both men
-suffered wounds, but Gwinnett died a few days later of a gangrenous
-infection in his leg. Colonial Park Cemetery in Savannah contains a
-grave reputed to be his.
-
-
-
-
-Lyman Hall
-
-GEORGIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Lyman Hall was one of the four signers originally trained
-      as ministers. He eventually found his pulpit in politics,
-      though he had to preach vigorously to inspire the
-      “congregation” of Georgia. He enthusiastically sparked the
-      slow-developing independence movement there with George
-      Walton and recruited Button Gwinnett, the third Georgia
-      signer. Somehow Hall also managed to pursue careers as
-      doctor, planter, and Governor.
-
-
-A native of Wallingford, Conn., Hall was born in 1724. He graduated
-from Yale College in 1747 at the age of 23, returned home, and heeded a
-family call to the Congregational ministry. An uncle, Rev. Samuel Hall,
-trained him in theology. In 1749 he began preaching in Bridgeport and
-adjacent towns. Young and immature, he probably entrapped himself in
-the middle of a liberal-conservative schism and in some way alienated
-his congregation, but repentance brought quick reinstatement from
-dismissal in 1751, and for a couple of years he temporarily filled
-vacant pulpits.
-
-During this period, in 1752, Hall married, but his wife lived only
-a year; about 2 years later he remarried, a union that was to
-bring forth a son. Meantime, Hall had become disillusioned by his
-ministerial experiences. He studied medicine with a local doctor,
-partially supporting himself by teaching. When his medical training was
-completed, he moved back to Wallingford and hung out his shingle.
-
-In 1757 the 33-year-old Hall, seeking brighter fields, emigrated to
-Dorchester, S.C., a settlement of New England Puritans not far from
-Charleston. Within a few months, he joined some of the residents in
-a relocation that had been underway since 1752. They were pushing
-southward to Georgia’s coastal Midway District, in St. John’s Parish
-(present Liberty County). This area provided more land and a healthier
-climate.
-
-In 1758 the colonists finished their emigration and founded Sunbury. It
-evolved into the thriving seaport-hub of the surrounding slave-based,
-rice-indigo economy. Like many other planters, Hall maintained a home
-there, where it was healthier than inland, as well as at Hall’s Knoll,
-the plantation just north of the present town of Midway that he had
-purchased shortly after arriving in the area. Because its plantations
-skirted malarial swamps, Hall kept busy providing medical treatment, as
-well as managing his estate.
-
-St. John’s Parish became the wealthiest in Georgia. This was not its
-only uniqueness, for the populace was steeped in the New England
-tradition of independence. When the trouble with Britain erupted in the
-mid-1760’s the parish, guided by Hall, stood apart in its opposition
-from virtually all the rest of the colony except for another cluster of
-Revolutionaries at Savannah led by George Walton and others. Georgia,
-which was to be the last of the Colonies to join the Continental
-Association, was the youngest, most remote, and most sparsely settled.
-Also the poorest, it felt less the impact of British economic
-restrictions. The Loyalist ruling aristocracy of Georgia, regarding the
-tiny band of Revolutionaries with contempt, resisted their every move.
-
-Hall was appalled by the poor representation of the parishes as a
-whole and the indecisiveness of Revolutionary conventions he attended
-at Savannah in the summer of 1774 and the next January, especially
-by their failure to send Delegates to the Continental Congress. He
-dejectedly returned to St. John’s Parish. It was ready to secede from
-the colony, and proposed an alliance to South Carolina, which refused.
-Not to be denied, in March 1775 the parish held its own convention and
-sent Hall as its own “delegate” to the Continental Congress.
-
-Two months later, Congress admitted Hall as a nonvoting member. In
-July, Georgia, finally coming into the fold, sanctioned Hall’s presence
-in Congress and appointed four other Delegates. Hall served until 1780.
-Two years earlier, he had moved his family somewhere to the north just
-before British troops ravaged and conquered the Georgia coast. In the
-process, they destroyed Hall’s Knoll and Hall’s Sunbury residence and
-confiscated his property.
-
-When the British evacuated Savannah in 1782, Hall settled there and
-resumed his medical practice to mend his fortune. The next January,
-St. John’s Parish, where he had maintained ties, elected him to the
-State legislature. That body, in turn, awarded him the governorship
-(1783–84). His reconstruction-oriented administration, though marred by
-his purchase of and speculation in lands confiscated from Loyalists,
-rehabilitated the wartorn State and laid foundations for future growth.
-
-In Hall’s final years he acted for a time as a judge of the inferior
-court of Chatham County and as a trustee of a proposed State university
-(to be called first Franklin College and later the University of
-Georgia). But his duties as executor of Button Gwinnett’s tangled
-estate required years of legal wrangling. In 1785 he sold his Hall’s
-Knoll land. Five years later, he moved from Savannah to Burke County
-and purchased Shell Bluff Plantation, on the Savannah River about 25
-miles below Augusta. A few months hence he died and was buried there.
-His remains are now interred at the Signers’ Monument in Augusta.
-
-
-
-
-John Hancock
-
-MASSACHUSETTS
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      One of the fathers of U.S. independence, John Hancock
-      helped spearhead the pivotal revolt in Massachusetts,
-      presided as President of Congress during the voting for
-      independence and adoption of the Declaration, and boldly
-      penned the first signature on the document. Subsequently
-      he served as the first and longtime Governor of his
-      Commonwealth. Despite all these achievements and the
-      persistent loyalty of his constituents, whom he wooed
-      with lavish expenditures for public projects, his vanity,
-      ostentation, and regal way of life irked many of his
-      professional associates.
-
-
-Hancock, born in 1737 at Braintree (present Quincy), Mass., lost
-his father, a Congregational pastor, at the age of 7. He spent the
-next 6 years with his grandparents at Lexington before joining his
-guardian, Thomas Hancock, a childless uncle who was one of the richest
-merchant-shippers in Boston. After studying at Boston Latin School
-and graduating from Harvard College in 1754, John began working as
-a clerk in his uncle’s business and learned it rapidly. In 1760–61,
-while visiting London to observe the English side of the business, he
-attended the funeral of George II and the coronation of George III,
-who apparently granted him an audience. In 1763 he became a partner of
-his uncle, who died the next year and willed him the firm, a fortune
-that was probably the greatest in New England, and a luxurious house on
-Beacon Street.
-
-Hancock allied with other merchants in protesting the Stamp Act (1765),
-and the next year inaugurated a long legislative career. But he did not
-strongly identify with the patriots until 2 years later. At that time,
-British customs officials, their courage bolstered by the arrival of a
-warship in Boston Harbor, charged him with smuggling and seized one of
-his ships. During the ensuing riots, the terrified customs officials
-fled to an island in the harbor. A few months later, the first major
-contingent of British troops sailed into port and created a tense
-situation that resulted in the Boston Massacre (1770). John Adams ably
-defended Hancock in court until the British dropped the smuggling
-charge, but the episode made him a hero throughout the Colonies.
-
-Other factors tied Hancock to the patriots. Samuel and John Adams,
-shrewdly perceiving the advantages of such a rich and well-known
-affiliate, welcomed him into their ranks, encouraged his idolatry by
-the populace, and pushed him upward in the Revolutionary hierarchy.
-When the first provincial congress met at Salem and Concord in 1774,
-he acted as its president as well as chairman of the vital council of
-safety. The second provincial congress, convening the next year at
-Cambridge and Concord, elected him to the Continental Congress.
-
-On April 18, only 3 days after the provincial congress adjourned,
-British troops marched from Boston to seize rebel stores at Concord.
-Warned of their approach during the night by Paul Revere, Hancock and
-Samuel Adams, who were visiting at nearby Lexington, escaped. But the
-British-American clashes at Lexington and Concord marked the outbreak
-of war. The two men avoided Boston and hid at various places for 2
-weeks before proceeding to Philadelphia. Later that summer, Hancock
-married, siring a daughter who died in infancy and a son, John George
-Washington Hancock, who lived but 9 years.
-
-From 1775 until 1777 Hancock presided over the Continental Congress.
-The very first year, his egotism, which regularly aroused the antipathy
-of many Members, created personal embitterment as well. Blind to his
-own limitations, particularly his lack of military experience, he
-unrealistically entertained the hope that he, instead of Washington,
-would be appointed as commander in chief of the Continental Army.
-Hancock also provoked ill will among his fellow New Englanders,
-especially Samuel Adams, by courting moderates such as John Dickinson
-and Benjamin Harrison. Hancock believed that Samuel Adams was
-responsible in 1777 for blocking a congressional vote of thanks for his
-services and never forgave him.
-
-Only Hancock and Charles Thomson, the President and Secretary of
-Congress, signed the broadside copy of the Declaration, printed the
-night of its adoption, July 4, 1776, and disseminated to the public the
-following day. At the formal signing of the parchment copy on August 2,
-tradition holds that Hancock wrote his name in large letters so that
-the King would not need spectacles to recognize him as a “traitor.”
-After resigning as presiding officer in 1777, he remained a Member
-of Congress until 1780, though he spent much of his time in Boston
-and for the rest of his life solidified his political position in
-Massachusetts. In 1778, as a major general in the militia, he commanded
-an expedition that failed to recapture Newport, R.I., from the
-British. He made a more tangible contribution to the war by accepting
-Continental currency from his debtors, even though his fortune had
-already been dented by wartime-induced reverses.
-
-In 1780, the same year Hancock gave up his seat in Congress and
-attended his Commonwealth’s constitutional convention, he was
-overwhelmingly elected as first Governor (1780–85). He won reelection
-in 1787–93. In the interim (1785–86), he once again sat in Congress.
-In 1788 he chaired the Massachusetts convention that ratified the U.S.
-Constitution, which he favored.
-
-While still Governor, in 1793 at the age of 56, Hancock died at Boston.
-His funeral, one of the most impressive ever held in New England,
-culminated in burial at Old Granary Burying Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Benjamin Harrison
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Benjamin Harrison, the most conservative of the Virginia
-      signers except for Carter Braxton, was a member of one of
-      the most prominent planter families in the South and was
-      the fifth in a line of active politicians bearing the same
-      name. Because of his rotundity, joviality, love of good
-      foods and wines, and fondness for luxury, he acquired the
-      nickname “Falstaff of Congress.” His son, William Henry,
-      and his great-grandson, Benjamin, served as the ninth and
-      23d Presidents of the United States.
-
-
-Harrison was born in 1726 at his father’s estate, Berkeley, in Charles
-City County, Va. He matriculated at the College of William and Mary,
-but left before graduating in 1745 upon the death of his father in
-order to assume management of the family plantation. Shortly thereafter
-he married; seven of his children were to survive infancy. In time, his
-landholdings grew to include eight plantations and other properties,
-and he also expanded into shipping and shipbuilding. Following the
-precedent set by his forebears, about 1749 he gained admission to the
-House of Burgesses. He sat there, frequently as speaker, until 1774,
-when the Royal Governor disbanded the body.
-
-Harrison’s conservatism manifested itself early in the Revolutionary
-movement. In 1764 the burgesses, learning about the Stamp Act,
-impending in Parliament, named a committee to draw up a protest. As
-one of the committeemen, Harrison helped pen the document. The very
-next year, however, when the act went into effect, he refused to
-endorse Patrick Henry’s resolutions urging civil disobedience as a
-countermeasure. Forced to take a stand as the rift with the Crown
-widened, Harrison cast his lot with the patriots. Between 1773 and
-1776, he shared in the tasks of the Revolutionary conventions, the
-committee of correspondence, and the provincial congresses.
-
-Meantime, in 1774, Harrison had been appointed to the First
-Continental Congress. Although usually silent on the floor, he made
-valuable contributions on the foreign affairs, marine, military,
-and financial committees. As chairman of the committee of the whole
-(1776–77), he chaired the deliberations leading up to the adoption
-of the Declaration and the early debates on the proposed Articles of
-Confederation.
-
-In 1777, the same year Harrison withdrew from Congress, he entered
-the lower house of the Virginia legislature, where he presided as
-speaker in the years 1778–81. His three terms as Governor (1781–84)
-reflected the ascendancy in Virginia of the conservatives, who included
-in addition to Harrison and Braxton such former extremists as Patrick
-Henry and Richard Henry Lee. Succeeded by Henry, Harrison rejoined the
-legislature (1784–91), holding the speakership part of the time. In
-1788 at the Virginia ratifying convention he objected to the Federal
-Constitution because it lacked a bill of rights. Once ratification had
-occurred, however, he supported the new Government. Three years later,
-Harrison died in his mid-sixties at Berkeley and was buried there in
-the family cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-John Hart
-
-NEW JERSEY
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Signing the Declaration represented John Hart’s one
-      significant act during an ephemeral tour in the Continental
-      Congress, his only role in national politics. Yet, like
-      most of the signers, he was dominant in community and
-      State affairs. And he and his family directly experienced
-      the tragedy of the war. Unfortunately, he died before the
-      attainment of victory.
-
-The year after Hart’s birth in 1711 at Stonington, Conn., his parents
-emigrated to New Jersey and settled on a farm in the Hopewell vicinity.
-Hart was to live there and till the soil all his life. In 1740 he
-married and began raising a family of 13. In time, while gaining the
-sobriquet “Honest John,” he acquired considerable property, including
-grist, saw, and fulling mills, and emerged as a civic leader. From the
-1750’s until the outbreak of the War for Independence in 1775, despite
-a paucity of education, he worked his way up the political ladder in
-Hunterdon County and the State. He held the offices of justice of the
-peace, county judge, colonial legislator (1761–71), and judge of the
-New Jersey court of common pleas.
-
-In the legislature’s dispute with the Royal Governor, Hart opposed
-parliamentary taxation and the stationing of British troops in the
-colony. During the years 1774–76, he attended the New Jersey provincial
-congresses, where he achieved the vice-presidency, and won appointment
-to the council of safety and the committee of correspondence. In June
-1776 he and four other Delegates were chosen to replace the incumbent
-conservatives in the Continental Congress. The new delegation arrived
-at Philadelphia just a few days before the votes for independence on
-July 1 and 2 and cast affirmative ballots.
-
-In August 1776, just after Hart signed the Declaration, he departed
-to accept the speakership in the lower house of the New Jersey
-legislature. That winter, during the British invasion of the province,
-the redcoats wreaked havoc on his farm and mills and drove him into
-hiding among the hills surrounding the Sourland Mountains. When he
-ended his exile in the wake of the American victories at Princeton and
-Trenton, he discovered that his wife, ill at the time of the attack,
-had died and his family scattered. In 1777–78 he sat again on the
-council of safety, but failing health forced his retirement. He died
-the next year, at the age of 69, on his Hopewell farm. He is buried in
-the yard of the First Baptist Church at Hopewell.
-
-
-
-
-Joseph Hewes
-
-NORTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Even in an age and land of such unlimited opportunities
-      as 18th-century America, few men attained such success
-      as merchant Joseph Hewes. He was rarely thwarted in his
-      ambitions and enjoyed wealth and social prestige, reflected
-      in political conservatism.
-
-
-Born in 1730 at Maybury Hill, an estate on the outskirts of Princeton,
-N.J., Hewes was the son of a pious and well-to-do Quaker farmer. He
-received a strict religious upbringing, and studied at a local school.
-After learning trade from a Philadelphia merchant, he entered business
-for himself. About 1760, anxious to expand his modest fortune, he moved
-to the thriving seaport town of Edenton, N.C. There, where he was to
-reside for the rest of his life, he founded a profitable mercantile and
-shipping firm and gained prominence. Only one fateful event marred his
-life. A few days before his intended wedding date, his fiancée suddenly
-died. Hewes remained a bachelor for the rest of his life.
-
-As a member of the North Carolina assembly (1766–75), the committee
-of correspondence (1773), and the provincial assemblies (1774–75),
-Hewes helped the Whigs overthrow the royal government. Elected
-to the Continental Congress in 1774, he vigorously supported
-nonimportation measures even though it meant personal financial
-loss. By the time of the outbreak of the War for Independence, the
-next year, anathema to the pacifistic Quakers, he had rejected the
-faith altogether—culminating a trend that had been evolving because
-of his love of dancing and other social pleasures, as well as his
-Revolutionary activities.
-
-[Illustration: Joseph Hewes sponsored the American career of his friend
-John Paul Jones, who became the most famous naval officer of the
-Revolution.]
-
-Hewes was one of those who originally opposed separation from Great
-Britain. Thus it was a disagreeable task for him, in May 1776, to
-present the Halifax Resolves to the Continental Congress. Enacted the
-month before by the provincial assembly, they instructed the North
-Carolina Delegates to vote for independence should it be proposed.
-Hewes, who considered the resolves premature, ignored his State’s
-commitment and at first opposed Richard Henry Lee’s June 7 independence
-resolution. According to John Adams, however, at one point during
-debate a transformation came over Hewes. “He started suddenly upright,”
-reported Adams, “and lifting up both his hands to Heaven, as if he had
-been in a trance, cried out, ‘It is done! and I will abide by it.’”
-
-One episode involving Hewes illustrates the recurring problem of
-sectional rivalries among the Delegates. As key members of the marine
-committee, Hewes and John Adams were instrumental in establishing the
-Continental Navy. When the time came to appoint the Nation’s first
-naval captains, the two men clashed. For one of the positions, Hewes
-nominated his friend John Paul Jones, an experienced seaman who had
-recently emigrated to Virginia from Scotland. Adams, maintaining that
-all the captaincies should be filled by New Englanders, stubbornly
-protested. New England had yielded to the South in the selection of a
-commander in chief of the Continental Army and Adams had fostered the
-selection of the able Virginian George Washington, so he was not now
-about to make a concession on the Navy. Hewes, sensing the futility
-of argument, reluctantly submitted. Jones, who was to become the most
-honored naval hero of the Revolution, received only a lieutenant’s
-commission.
-
-In 1777 Hewes lost his bid for reelection to Congress, one of the few
-failures in his life, and in 1778–79 he found solace in the State
-legislature. In the latter year, despite health problems, he accepted
-reelection to the Continental Congress. A few months after arriving
-back in Philadelphia and not long before his 50th birthday, overworked
-and fatigued, he died. His grave is in Christ Church Burial Ground
-there.
-
-
-
-
-Thomas Heyward, Jr.
-
-SOUTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      An aristocratic planter, lawyer, and jurist, Thomas
-      Heyward, Jr., sat in the State legislature and the
-      Continental Congress and commanded a militia battalion.
-      He was one of three South Carolina signers captured and
-      imprisoned by the British.
-
-
-The eldest son of one of the wealthiest planters in South Carolina,
-Heyward was born in 1746 at Old House Plantation, in St. Helena’s
-Parish (later St. Luke’s Parish and present Jasper County) near the
-Georgia border about 25 miles northeast of Savannah. In 1771, following
-5 years of study in London, he began practicing law. The next year,
-his parish sent him to the colonial legislature (1772–75), which was
-feuding with the Royal Governor over parliamentary taxation. During
-that period, in 1773, he married and settled down at White Hall
-Plantation, only a couple of miles from the residence of his father.
-
-While a legislator, Heyward apparently joined the Revolutionaries, for
-in the summer of 1774 he attended a provincial convention that chose
-Delegates to the Continental Congress. During 1775–76 he was active in
-the first and second provincial congresses and on the council of safety
-and the committee that drafted a State constitution. In the Continental
-Congress (1776–78), he signed the Articles of Confederation as well as
-the Declaration. At the end of his tour, he journeyed to Charleston and
-took up residence in the townhouse he had inherited from his father the
-year before. He became a circuit court judge; represented Charleston in
-the State legislature, which convened in the city; and held a militia
-captaincy.
-
-In 1779 Heyward was wounded during Brig. Gen. William Moultrie’s
-repulse of a British attack on Port Royal Island, along the South
-Carolina coast near Heyward’s home. The following year, the British
-plundered White Hall and carried off all the slaves. When they took
-Charleston, they captured Heyward, who was helping defend the city. He
-was imprisoned at St. Augustine, Fla., until July 1781. Shortly before
-his release, he celebrated Independence Day by setting patriotic verses
-to the British national anthem. “God save the King” became “God save
-the thirteen States,” a rendition that soon echoed from New Hampshire
-to Georgia.
-
-From 1782 until 1789 Heyward resumed his position of circuit court
-judge, concurrently serving two terms in the State legislature
-(1782–84). In 1785 he helped found and became the first president of
-the Agricultural Society of South Carolina. The following year, his
-wife passed away and he remarried; apparently only one child from his
-two marriages reached maturity. He devoted most of his remaining days,
-except for attendance in 1790 at the State constitutional convention,
-to managing his plantation; he sold his Charleston townhouse in 1794.
-The last to survive among the South Carolina signers, he died in 1809
-at the age of 62 and was interred in the family cemetery at Old House
-Plantation.
-
-
-
-
-William Hooper
-
-NORTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      The ambivalence of William Hooper’s convictions prevented
-      him from ever carving a solid niche in the field of
-      politics. His youthful choice of occupation and political
-      affiliation brought estrangement from his family and
-      emigration from Massachusetts to far-off North Carolina.
-      Motivated sometimes by self-interest and sometimes by
-      intense patriotism, he flourished in law and politics.
-      He originally supported the royal government, but became
-      a Whig leader during the Revolution. After the war, his
-      aristocratic leanings caused him to lose favor among the
-      electorate.
-
-
-Hooper was born in Boston, Mass., in 1742, the first child of William
-Hooper, a Scotch immigrant and Congregationalist clergyman who 5 years
-later was to transfer to the Anglican Church. Groomed for the ministry
-in his youth, Hooper undertook 7 years of preparatory education at
-Boston Latin School. This qualified him in 1757 to enter Harvard
-College in the sophomore class. He graduated 3 years later, but much
-to the chagrin of his father rejected the ministry as a profession.
-The next year, he further alienated his Loyalist father and isolated
-himself from his family by taking up the study of law under James Otis,
-a brilliant but radical lawyer.
-
-Partly to ameliorate family strife and partly to better his legal
-opportunities, about 1764 Hooper sought his fortune at Wilmington, N.C.
-Three years later, he married the daughter of an early settler, by whom
-he was to have two sons and a daughter. He resided either in Wilmington
-or at his nearby estate, Finian, about 8 miles away on Masonboro Sound,
-rode the circuit from court to court, and built up a clientele among
-the wealthy planters of the lower Cape Fear region. Ambitious, he
-harbored political aspirations and by 1770–71 had obtained the position
-of deputy attorney general of North Carolina.
-
-In this capacity, protecting his own economic interests and political
-goals, Hooper sided with Royal Governor William Tryon in a conflict
-between the government and a group of North Carolina frontiersmen
-known as the Regulators. They were rebelling against governmental
-corruption and oppression and high legal and other fees. Hooper urged
-the use of force to quell the rebellion, and in 1771 accompanied the
-government forces that defeated the rebels in the Battle of Alamance.
-
-Within a few years, Hooper’s allegiance to the royal government waned.
-At the time of his election to the colonial assembly (1773–75), the
-act providing for the colony’s court system was about to expire. The
-assembly attempted to attach to the new court act a clause by which the
-colony could confiscate American property owned by foreign debtors,
-including inhabitants of Great Britain. When the Royal Governor blocked
-the bill, a 4-year struggle for control of the colony ensued. Hooper,
-though deprived of a source of income as a lawyer and dependent upon
-his wife’s small fortune for subsistence, championed the cause of the
-assembly.
-
-Hooper rose to a position of leadership among the Whigs, though
-he disapproved of extremism. In a letter dated April 1774 to his
-friend James Iredell, he prophesized the Colonies’ break with Great
-Britain—the earliest known prediction of independence, which won for
-Hooper the epithet “Prophet of Independence.” In the summer, after
-the Royal Governor had dissolved the colonial assembly, he helped
-organize and presided over an extralegal conference at Wilmington. It
-voted to convene a provincial assembly, which met in August at New
-Bern and elected Delegates, one of whom was Hooper, to the Continental
-Congress. Later that same year, he became a member of the committee of
-correspondence.
-
-During the period 1774–77, Hooper divided his time between Congress,
-where he gained a reputation as an orator, and the North Carolina
-provincial assembly, in which he labored to set up a State government.
-In 1777, however, the financial difficulties with his law practice and
-a desire to be near his family prompted him to resign from Congress
-and return to Wilmington. He was immediately elected to the State
-legislature and served there almost continuously until 1786.
-
-In 1780 the British invaded North Carolina. Hooper moved his family
-from Finian into Wilmington for safety, but in January 1781, while he
-was away on business, the city fell to the enemy. Separated from his
-loved ones for more than 10 months and often destitute, he depended
-upon friends in Edenton and vicinity for shelter and food. On one
-occasion, taken violently ill with malaria, he was nursed back to
-health by Iredell’s wife. Upon the British evacuation of the Wilmington
-area, in November, Hooper returned to find most of his property,
-including Finian, in ruins. Shortly thereafter he rejoined his wife and
-children, who had fled to Hillsborough, which he made his home for the
-rest of his life.
-
-During the aftermath of the Revolution, Hooper, despite continuing
-political aspirations, lost favor with the public. Unable to adjust
-to the rise of republicanism in the State, he adopted a conservative
-stance. His aristocratic pretensions, forgiving attitude toward
-Loyalists, and lack of faith in the common people undermined his
-popularity. In 1788 he strenuously campaigned for State ratification of
-the Federal Constitution, which occurred early the next year. By this
-time, he was in ill health and despondent, but lingered on for nearly 2
-years. He died in 1790 in his late forties. His remains, moved from the
-Hillsborough town cemetery in 1894, rest today at Guilford Courthouse
-National Military Park near Greensboro.
-
-
-
-
-Stephen Hopkins
-
-RHODE ISLAND
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      This signer, the second oldest next to Benjamin Franklin,
-      is noted for his tremulous signature. Aged 69 and afflicted
-      with palsy, according to tradition he declared, “My hand
-      trembles, but my heart does not!” Before, during, and after
-      a comparatively brief stretch of congressional service, he
-      occupied Rhode Island’s highest offices and fostered the
-      cultural and economic growth of Providence.
-
-
-Hopkins attained success purely by his own efforts. Born in 1707 at
-Providence and equipped with but a modicum of basic education, he grew
-up in the adjacent agricultural community of Scituate, earned his
-living as a farmer and surveyor, and married at the age of 19. Five
-years later, in 1731, when Scituate Township separated from Providence,
-he plunged into politics. During the next decade, he held the following
-elective or appointive offices: moderator of the first town meeting,
-town clerk, president of the town council, justice of the peace,
-justice and clerk of the Providence County court of common pleas,
-legislator, and speaker of the house.
-
-In 1742, about 2 years after he and his brother Esek founded a
-mercantile-shipping firm, Stephen moved back to Providence. For the
-next three decades, he built up his business and would probably have
-acquired a fortune had he not at the same time supported a variety of
-civic enterprises and broadened his political activities. He continued
-in the legislature, served as assistant and chief justice of the
-Superior Court and ten-time Governor, and represented Rhode Island
-at various intercolonial meetings. At the Albany Congress (1754), he
-cultivated a friendship with Franklin and assisted him in framing
-a plan of colonial union that the congress passed but the Colonies
-rejected. The next year, 2 years after the demise of his first wife,
-who had given birth to five sons and two daughters, he remarried.
-
-About this time, Hopkins took over leadership of the colony’s radical
-faction, supported by Providence merchants. For more than a decade,
-it bitterly fought for political supremacy in Rhode Island with a
-conservative group in Newport, led by Samuel Ward, a political enemy of
-Hopkins.
-
-Hopkins was a man of broad interests, including humanitarianism,
-education, and science, and exerted his talents in many fields. About
-1754 he helped set up a public subscription library in Providence.
-He acted as first chancellor of Rhode Island College (later Brown
-University), founded in 1764 at Warren, and 6 years later was
-instrumental in relocating it to Providence. He also held membership
-in the Philosophical Society of Newport. Strongly opposing slavery,
-in 1774 he authored a bill enacted by the Rhode Island legislature
-that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony—one of the
-earliest antislavery laws in the United States.
-
-Long before, Hopkins had sided with the Revolutionaries. In 1762 he
-helped found the influential _Providence Gazette and Country Journal_.
-Two years later, he contributed to it an article entitled “The Rights
-of the Colonies Examined,” which criticized parliamentary taxation and
-recommended colonial home rule. Issued as a pamphlet the next year,
-it circulated widely throughout the Colonies and Great Britain and
-established Hopkins as one of the earliest of the patriot leaders. He
-also sat on the Rhode Island committee of correspondence and carried on
-with his duties in the legislature and Superior Court while a Member of
-the Continental Congress (1774–76). He served on the committees that
-prepared the Articles of Confederation and that created the Continental
-Navy and appointed Esek Hopkins as its commander in chief. Ill health
-compelled Stephen to retire in September 1776, a month after he signed
-the Declaration.
-
-Hopkins declined subsequent reelections to Congress, but sat in the
-State legislature for a time and took part in several New England
-political conventions. He withdrew from public service about 1780 and
-died 5 years later in Providence at the age of 78. He was interred in
-the North Burial Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Francis Hopkinson
-
-NEW JERSEY
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      The literary and artistic talents of this versatile signer
-      brought him more acclaim than his political and legal
-      activities. Although a lawyer and judge by profession, he
-      achieved more eminence as an essayist, poet, artist, and
-      musician. His verse and satirical essays rank among the
-      better literary efforts of the Revolutionary and early
-      Federal periods, and he was one of America’s first native
-      composers. His eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842), wrote “Hail
-      Columbia” and won distinction as a lawyer, jurist, U.S.
-      Congressman, and patron of the arts.
-
-Hopkinson was born at Philadelphia in 1737, the eldest of eight
-children. His father, who died when he was 14, was a prominent
-lawyer-jurist, politician, and civic leader. Upon graduation from the
-College of Philadelphia (later part of the University of Pennsylvania)
-in 1757, young Hopkinson studied law under Benjamin Chew, attorney
-general of the province, and 4 years later joined the bar. In 1763
-he obtained the position of customs collector at Salem, N.J. Three
-years hence, after failing in business, he sailed to England to seek
-an appointment as colonial customs collector through the influence of
-friends and relatives. During his yearlong stay, though unsuccessful
-in his vocational quest, he visited Benjamin Franklin, Lord North, and
-other prominent people, and may have studied under artist Benjamin West.
-
-Back in Philadelphia, Hopkinson operated a store and married in 1768.
-Four years later he became the customs collector at New Castle, Del.
-About 1774 he took up residence at the home of his father-in-law
-in Bordentown, N.J., practiced law, and began a 2-year tour in the
-legislature. As a Member of the Continental Congress for only a few
-months in 1776, he relieved his ennui by drawing caricatures of
-his colleagues. His later offices included: chairman (1777–78) of
-Philadelphia’s Continental Navy Board, treasurer of loans (1778–81),
-judge of the admiralty court of Pennsylvania (1779), and Federal
-circuit judge for the eastern district of the State (1789–91).
-
-During his busy public career, the ambitious Hopkinson managed to
-leave his stamp on the fields of music, art, and literature. His “My
-Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (1759) probably represents the first
-American composition of secular music; his “Temple of Minerva” (1781),
-the first American attempt at opera. In art, he was noted particularly
-for his crayon portraits and his work on heraldic emblems. But his
-literary attainments surpassed all his others.
-
-Between 1757 and 1773, Hopkinson contributed numerous poems and essays,
-many of them in a humorous and satirical vein, to various periodicals.
-The following year, he began advancing the patriot cause. A profusion
-of widely read and influential pamphlets, essays, and letters, often
-presented in an allegorical style, derided and ridiculed the British
-and the Loyalists, outlined colonial grievances, and encouraged the
-colonists. _The Prophecy_, written in 1776 before the adoption of the
-Declaration of Independence, predicted that event. After the war,
-Hopkinson continued to treat political and social themes, and became
-one of the best known writers in the United States.
-
-While a Federal circuit judge, Hopkinson died in Philadelphia at
-the age of 53. He was laid to rest in Christ Church Burial Ground.
-Surviving him were his widow and five children.
-
-
-
-
-Samuel Huntington
-
-CONNECTICUT
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Several of the signers were self-made men. One of the most
-      successful of them was Samuel Huntington. Reared amid
-      humble surroundings, he educated himself in the law and,
-      despite recurring health problems, climbed to the pinnacles
-      of the State and National Governments.
-
-
-Born into a large family in 1731 at Windham (present Scotland), Conn.,
-Huntington grew up on a farm, received a limited education, and at the
-age of 16 began work as a cooper. But his ambition soon pushed him
-onward. He independently studied borrowed legal tomes, won admittance
-to the bar about 1758, and set up practice. Two years later, he moved
-to nearby Norwich. The next year, he married; he and his wife, who were
-to be childless, later adopted three children. As time went on, he
-prospered in the law and became a community leader.
-
-In 1764 Huntington began his public career, in the Connecticut
-legislature. The next year, he was appointed as King’s Attorney of the
-colony and won election as justice of the peace for New London County.
-He occupied these positions for practically the entire decade or so
-prior to the outbreak of the War for Independence, in 1775. Meantime,
-2 years earlier, the colonial legislature had named him as a judge of
-the Connecticut Superior Court, an appointment renewed annually for a
-decade.
-
-In 1774 Huntington, registering his growing sympathy for the Colonies
-in their struggle against the Crown, resigned as King’s Attorney and
-joined the front ranks of the Revolutionaries. The next year, he
-became a member of the upper house of the legislature (1775–84), and
-entered national politics when he became a Delegate to the Continental
-Congress. His committee assignments included those dealing with
-Indian affairs, ordnance supply, and marine matters. In the fall of
-1776, fatigue and health worries caused him to return to Connecticut.
-Between then and 1783, plagued with spells of illness, he attended
-congressional sessions intermittently (1778, 1779–81, 1783), often
-returning home to recuperate. Despite this burden, he assumed the heavy
-responsibilities of President of Congress (1779–81), presiding on March
-1, 1781, when the Articles of Confederation were adopted.
-
-Huntington’s well-earned “retirement” when he returned to Connecticut
-in 1783, after 8 years of service to the Nation, turned out to involve
-12 years of vigorous activity—despite his waning health. Even while he
-had been in Congress, he had served his State in various other ways,
-and all his legislative and other positions had been held open for him.
-A succession of appointive and elective offices followed: chief justice
-of the Superior Court (1784), Lieutenant Governor (1785), and Governor
-(1786–96). In the latter capacity, he led the battle for Connecticut’s
-ratification of the Federal Constitution and improved the educational
-system. As one of Connecticut’s seven first presidential electors, in
-1789 he won two “favorite son” votes for the Presidency.
-
-Ever interested in education, despite his own lack of a college degree,
-in the 1780’s Huntington received honorary degrees from Princeton,
-Yale, and Dartmouth; and was appointed one of the original trustees of
-Plainfield (Conn.) Academy. Before that time, he had acted as adviser
-to the president of Yale.
-
-In 1796 at the age of 65, still Governor, he died at his home in
-Norwich and was interred in the Old Burial Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Thomas Jefferson
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      An intellectual and political titan who ranked among
-      the most brilliant men of his time, Thomas Jefferson
-      richly contributed to his State and Nation—as statesman,
-      diplomat, scientist, architect, author, and educator.
-      Graced with a wide-ranging and probing mind, he also delved
-      into linguistics, law, art, geography, ethnology, music,
-      agriculture, paleontology, botany, meteorology, geology,
-      parliamentary practice, and invention.
-
-
-As author of the Declaration of Independence, influential political
-theorist, cofounder of the Democratic-Republican Party, Virginia
-legislator and Governor, first U.S. Secretary of State, second Vice
-President, and third President, Jefferson has left an indelible
-impression on our political system and philosophy. Beyond that, he laid
-the basis for the westward expansion of the Nation; and two of his
-disciples, Madison and Monroe, followed him into the White House.
-
-Like most successful politicians, however, Jefferson created his
-share of enemies and felt the sting of failure. Inability to
-reconcile his contradictory traits of idealism and pragmatism
-resulted in inconsistencies that rendered him vulnerable. He lacked
-the aggressiveness and charisma of many leaders. To compensate for
-his basic shyness and his deficiencies as a speaker, he mastered
-written expression and learned to exercise administrative power. His
-governorship ended ignominiously. And his vision of an agricultural
-America, peopled by well-educated and politically astute yeomen
-farmers was never to be realized. Yet none of these factors diminishes
-his stature or undermines his achievements.
-
-The eldest of two sons in a family of ten, Jefferson was born in 1743
-at Shadwell, a frontier plantation in Goochland (present Albemarle)
-County, Va. But 2 years later his father, Peter, a self-made
-surveyor-magistrate-planter who had married into the distinguished
-Randolphs, moved his family eastward to Tuckahoe Plantation, near
-Richmond. His reason for doing so was a promise he had made to his
-wife’s newly deceased first cousin, William Randolph, to act as
-guardian of his son, Thomas Mann Randolph. Young Jefferson passed most
-of his boyhood in the Randolph home, beginning his elementary education
-with private tutors. In 1752, when he was about 9 years old, the family
-returned to Shadwell. His father died 5 years later and bequeathed him
-almost 3,000 acres.
-
-In 1760, at the age of 17, Jefferson matriculated at the College of
-William and Mary, in Williamsburg. An incidental benefit was the chance
-to observe the operation of practical politics in the colonial capital.
-Jefferson graduated in 1762, studied law locally under the noted
-teacher George Wythe, and in 1767 was admitted to the bar.
-
-At Shadwell, Jefferson assumed the civic responsibilities and
-prominence his father had enjoyed. In 1770, when fire consumed the
-structure, he moved to his nearby estate Monticello, where he had
-already begun building a home. In 1772 he married Martha Wayles
-Skelton, a widow. During their decade of life together, she was to bear
-six children, but only two daughters reached maturity.
-
-Meanwhile, in 1769 at the age of 26, Jefferson had been elected to
-the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg. He was a member continuously
-until 1775, and alined himself with the anti-British group. Unlike his
-smooth-tongued confreres Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, Jefferson
-concentrated his efforts in committee work rather than in debate.
-A literary stylist, he drafted many of the Revolutionary documents
-adopted by the House of Burgesses. His _A Summary View of the Rights of
-British America_ (1774), one of the most influential essays of the era,
-disavowed parliamentary control of the Colonies and contended that they
-were tied to the King only by their own volition and recognition of
-mutual benefits.
-
-[Illustration: First page of Thomas Jefferson’s pamphlet _A Summary
-View_ (1774), one of the earliest and most influential Revolutionary
-tracts.]
-
-Jefferson utilized the same working methods in the Continental Congress
-(1775–76), where his decisiveness in committee contrasted markedly
-with his silence on the floor. His colleagues, however, rejected
-several of the documents he drafted his first year because of their
-extreme anti-British tone. But, by the time he returned the following
-May, after spending the winter in Virginia, the temper of Congress had
-changed drastically. The very next month, though only 33 years old, he
-was assigned to the five-man committee chosen to draft the Declaration
-of Independence, a task his colleagues assigned to him. In September,
-not long after Congress had adopted the draft with modifications and
-most of the Delegates signed it, Jefferson returned to Virginia—anxious
-to be nearer home and feeling he could make a deeper political mark
-there.
-
-A notable career in the House of Delegates (1776–79), the lower house
-of the legislature, followed. There Jefferson took over leadership of
-the “progressive” party from Patrick Henry, who relinquished it to
-become Governor. Highlights of this service included revision of the
-State laws (1776–79), in which Jefferson collaborated with George Wythe
-and Edmund Pendleton; and authorship of a bill for the establishment of
-religious freedom in Virginia, introduced in 1779 but not passed until
-7 years later.
-
-Although hampered as Governor (1779–81) by wartime conditions and
-constitutional limitations, Jefferson proved to be a weak executive,
-even in emergencies hesitating to wield his authority. When the British
-invaded the State in the spring of 1781, the situation became chaotic.
-On June 3, while the legislature was meeting in Charlottesville
-because the redcoats held Richmond, Jefferson recommended the
-combining of civil and military agencies under Gen. Thomas Nelson,
-Jr., and virtually abdicated office. The next day, British raiders
-almost captured him and a group of legislators he was entertaining at
-Monticello. Although later formally vindicated for his abandonment of
-the governorship, the action fostered a conservative takeover of the
-government and his reputation remained clouded for some time.
-
-Jefferson stayed out of the limelight for 2 years, during which time
-his wife died. In 1783 he reentered Congress, which the next year
-sent him to Paris to aid Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in their
-attempts to negotiate commercial treaties with European nations. During
-his 5-year stay, Jefferson succeeded Franklin as Minister to France
-(1785–89), gained various commercial concessions from and strengthened
-relations with the French, visited England and Italy, absorbed
-European culture, and observed the beginnings of the French Revolution.
-
-[Illustration: The University of Virginia in 1826, the year of the
-death of founder Jefferson.]
-
-In the years that followed, interspersed with pleasant interludes
-at Monticello, Jefferson filled the highest offices in the land:
-Secretary of State (1790–93), Vice President (1797–1801), and two-term
-President (1801–9). Ever averse to political strife, he occupied these
-positions as much out of a sense of civic and party duty as personal
-ambition. Aggravating normal burdens and pressures were his bitter
-feuds with Alexander Hamilton on most aspects of national policy, and
-the vindictiveness of Federalist attacks. Jefferson took considerable
-satisfaction, however, from his many accomplishments. Among these was
-the cofounding with James Madison of the Democratic-Republican Party,
-which in time drove the Federalists out of power.
-
-Physically and mentally exhausted, in 1809 Jefferson retired for the
-final time to Monticello. He retained his health and varied interests
-and corresponded with and entertained statesmen, politicians,
-scientists, explorers, scholars, and Indian chiefs. When the pace of
-life grew too hectic, he found haven at Poplar Forest, a retreat near
-Lynchburg he had designed and built in 1806–19. His pet project during
-most of his last decade was founding the University of Virginia (1819),
-in Charlottesville.
-
-Painfully distressing to Jefferson, however, was the woeful state of
-his finances. His small salary in public office, the attendant neglect
-of his fortune and estate, general economic conditions, and debts he
-inherited from his wife had taken a heavy toll. He lived more frugally
-than was his custom in an attempt to stave off disaster and sold off as
-many of his lands and slaves as he could. But when a friend defaulted
-on a note for a large sum, Jefferson fell hopelessly into debt and was
-forced to sell his library to the Government. It became the nucleus of
-the Library of Congress.
-
-Jefferson died only a few hours before John Adams at the age of 83
-on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the
-Declaration of Independence. For his tombstone at Monticello, ignoring
-his many high offices and multitudes of other achievements, he chose
-three accomplishments that he wanted to be remembered for: authorship
-of the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia Statute for
-Religious Freedom and the founding of the University of Virginia.
-
-
-
-
-Francis Lightfoot Lee
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      No less a patriot than his dynamic elder brother Richard
-      Henry and his gifted younger brothers Arthur and William,
-      Francis Lightfoot Lee preferred the uneventful life of a
-      country squire to the public spotlight and chose to follow
-      rather than to lead. Despite his shyness and weakness as
-      a speaker, he exercised extensive political influence,
-      took an active part in the Revolution, and signed both the
-      Declaration and the Articles of Confederation.
-
-
-Lee, a member of one of the most famous families in Virginia and U.S.
-history and the sixth son and eighth child of planter Thomas Lee, was
-born in 1734 at the family estate, Stratford Hall, in Westmoreland
-County, Va. He was educated by a private tutor and never attended
-college. In 1750, upon the death of his father, he inherited Coton,
-an estate in Fairfax County. Seven years later, newly created Loudoun
-County absorbed Coton. At that time, the colonial legislature nominated
-him as Loudoun lieutenant. The next year, he moved to Coton and became
-trustee of the newly incorporated village of Leesburg, named after
-him or his brother Philip Ludwell, both local landowners. For the
-next decade, Francis Lightfoot represented the county in the House of
-Burgesses.
-
-In 1769 Lee married socialite Rebecca Tayloe of Richmond County. The
-newlyweds resided at Mount Airy estate with Rebecca’s parents for a
-few months until Menokin, a new home that Colonel Tayloe was building
-nearby for them, was completed. From then until 1774, Lee sat again
-with the burgesses.
-
-Lee had joined the Revolutionary movement at an early date. From the
-time of the Stamp Act (1765) until the outbreak of war a decade later,
-he participated in most of the Virginia protests and assemblies. He
-rarely debated on the floor in Congress (1775–79), but often opposed
-the position of his brother Richard Henry, and served on the military
-and marine committees as well as that charged with drafting the
-Articles of Confederation.
-
-In 1779, weary of office and longing for the peace and quiet of
-Menokin, Lee left Congress. Except for a few years in the State
-legislature, he abandoned public service altogether and lived quietly.
-In 1797, only a few months after the death of his childless wife, at
-the age of 62 he succumbed. Burial took place in the Tayloe family
-graveyard at Mount Airy.
-
-
-
-
-Richard Henry Lee
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Richard Henry Lee, brilliant orator and fiery Revolutionary
-      leader, introduced the independence resolution in
-      the Continental Congress, served for awhile as its
-      President, and later became a U.S. Senator. Fearing undue
-      centralization of power, he fought against the Constitution
-      and led the campaign that brought inclusion of the Bill of
-      Rights. Throughout his life, he strenuously opposed the
-      institution of slavery. He and Francis Lightfoot Lee were
-      the only brothers among the signers.
-
-
-Fifth son and seventh of 11 children, Lee was born in 1732 along the
-Potomac shore at Stratford Hall. His initial tutorial education was
-supplemented by extensive study at Wakefield Academy, in Yorkshire,
-England, and a tour of northern Europe. He sailed home about 1751 at
-the age of 19, the year after his father’s death, and resided with
-his eldest brother Philip Ludwell at Stratford Hall. In 1757 Richard
-Henry married. About this time, he began building and soon occupied
-Chantilly, about 3 miles to the east on land leased from his brother.
-In 1768 Richard Henry’s wife died, leaving four children; the next
-year, he remarried, a union that yielded five more offspring.
-
-Lee meantime, following family tradition, had committed himself to
-politics. In 1757, at the age of 25, he became justice of the peace
-for Westmoreland County. The following year, he moved up to the House
-of Burgesses and sat there until 1775. One of the first to oppose
-Britain, he early allied with Patrick Henry. As a protest against the
-Stamp Act (1765), Lee drew up the Westmoreland Association (1766), a
-nonimportation agreement signed by some of the citizens of his county.
-The next year, he denounced the Townshend Acts. And a year later
-he proposed in a letter to John Dickinson of Pennsylvania that the
-individual colonies set up committees to correspond with each other—an
-idea that did not come to fruition for 5 years.
-
-In 1769, when Lee and Henry penned an address to the King protesting
-several actions of Parliament, the Royal Governor disbanded the House
-of Burgesses. Lee thereupon met with other patriots at Raleigh’s Tavern
-and helped frame the Virginia Association, a nonimportation agreement.
-Many other colonies formed similar associations, but in 1770 Parliament
-repealed most of the duties and the protest spirit subsided.
-
-In March 1773, when anti-British feeling flared once again, Lee,
-Henry, and Jefferson, who had entered the House of Burgesses in 1769,
-organized a Virginia committee of correspondence and invited the other
-colonies to do likewise. Learning of the British closing of Boston
-Harbor in May 1774, they persuaded their colleagues to declare, as
-a protest, a day of fasting and prayer. The Royal Governor again
-dissolved the burgesses. The Revolutionaries reconvened at Raleigh’s
-Tavern, drew up a new nonimportation agreement, and resolved to appeal
-to the other colonies for an intercolonial congress. But, before
-such action could be taken, Virginia received an invitation from
-Massachusetts to send representatives to a congress to be held in
-September at Philadelphia—the First Continental Congress. Virginia’s
-first provincial assembly met in August and designated seven Delegates,
-including Lee and Henry.
-
-Lee’s outstanding congressional act was the introduction on June 7,
-1776, of the resolution for independence from Britain, seconded by
-John Adams. This document, Lee’s condensed redraft of one forwarded
-him by a convention that had met in Williamsburg on May 15, proposed
-severing relations with Britain, the forming of foreign alliances, and
-preparation of a plan for confederation. On June 13, or 2 days after a
-committee was appointed to draft the Declaration, Lee journeyed back
-to Virginia, apparently because of illness in the family. He did not
-return and sign the Declaration until sometime subsequent to the formal
-ceremony on August 2. Like his brother Francis Lightfoot, in 1777 he
-also subscribed to the Articles of Confederation. After 1776, however,
-his influence in Congress waned, and 3 years later ill health forced
-his resignation.
-
-As a State legislator (1780–84) Lee joined the conservative faction,
-which represented the interests of the large planters. A Member of
-Congress again in the period 1784–89, he served in 1784–85 as its
-President. In 1787, though elected to the Constitutional Convention, he
-refused to attend and led congressional opposition to the Constitution,
-especially because of the absence of a bill of rights. Although he
-was well aware of the deficiencies of the Articles of Confederation,
-he and others feared a stronger Central Government. Lee’s “Letters of
-the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” the collective title for two
-pamphlets outlining his objections to the Constitution, epitomized
-antifederalist sentiment.
-
-In 1789 Lee entered the U.S. Senate, but because of failing health
-resigned in 1792, the year after the Bill of Rights was incorporated
-into the Constitution. He died in 1794, aged 62, at Chantilly. His
-grave is in the Lee family cemetery near Hague, Virginia.
-
-
-
-
-Francis Lewis
-
-NEW YORK
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Few other signers felt the tragedy of the War for
-      Independence more directly than Francis Lewis, whose wife
-      died as a result of British imprisonment. To further the
-      cause, he also expended a considerable portion of the
-      fortune he had acquired as a merchant.
-
-
-Lewis was the only child of a minister. He was born in 1713 at
-Llandaff, Glamorganshire, Wales. Orphaned at an early age and raised
-by relatives, he studied at Westminster School in London and then took
-employment with a local firm. In 1738, deciding to go into business for
-himself, he set up branches in New York and Philadelphia and for a few
-years shuttled between those cities and northern European ports. In
-1745 he married a New York girl, his partner’s sister.
-
-During the French and Indian War, in 1756, while functioning as a
-clothing contractor for British troops at Fort Oswego, in present New
-York, Lewis was taken captive and sent to France for imprisonment. Upon
-his release, apparently in 1763, as a recompense the British Government
-awarded him a large land grant in America. He returned to New York
-City, reentered business, and quickly earned a fortune. In 1765 he
-retired to the village of Whitestone (now part of Flushing), on Long
-Island, but in 1771 he temporarily returned to New York City to help
-his son enter the business world, even probably making a voyage to
-England with him.
-
-Back home, Lewis devoted most of his energies to the Revolutionary
-movement, which he had joined in 1765 by attending the Stamp Act
-Congress. He was also likely one of the leaders of the New York Sons
-of Liberty. In 1774 he became a member of the New York Revolutionary
-committees of fifty-one and sixty, the next year attended the
-provincial convention, and subsequently helped set up the State
-government.
-
-In the Continental Congress (1775–79), Lewis rarely took the floor but
-served on the marine, foreign affairs, and commerce committees, as
-well as sitting on the Board of Admiralty and engaging in troop supply
-matters. He defended Gen. George Washington from the attacks of the
-Conway Cabal. Because of Tory dominance in New York, Lewis and the
-other Delegates were instructed not to vote for independence on July 1
-and 2, 1776, but Lewis signed the Declaration on August 2.
-
-That same year, when the British invaded Long Island, they destroyed
-Lewis’ home in Whitestone and took his wife into custody. She was
-eventually released in an exchange for wives of British officials, but
-the hardships she had endured ruined her health and brought about her
-death in 1779. The grief-stricken Lewis immediately left Congress,
-but remained on the Board of Admiralty until 1781, at which time he
-abandoned politics altogether. He lived in retirement with his sons,
-and died in 1802 at the age of 89 in New York City. He was buried there
-in an unmarked grave in the yard of Trinity Church.
-
-
-
-
-Philip Livingston
-
-NEW YORK
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      A member of the landed gentry, merchant Philip
-      Livingston lived a princely life and devoted much energy
-      to civic affairs and philanthropic enterprises. He
-      was a conservative in politics, and at first opposed
-      independence. On the other hand, despite wartime business
-      reverses, he contributed generously to the Revolutionary
-      effort and continued in public service until the day he
-      died.
-
-
-Livingston was the fifth son of Philip Livingston, second lord of
-Livingston Manor, of Scotch descent, and Catherine Van Brugh, of Dutch
-lineage. Young Livingston was born in 1716 at his father’s townhouse in
-Albany and spent most of his childhood there or at the family manor at
-Linlithgo, about 30 miles to the south.
-
-Upon receiving a degree from Yale in 1737, Livingston entered the
-import business in New York City. Three years later, he married and
-moved into a townhouse on Duke Street in Manhattan; he was to sire
-five sons and four daughters. As time went on, he built up a fortune,
-particularly as a trader-privateer during the French and Indian War
-(1754–63). In 1764, though retaining his Duke Street home, he acquired
-a 40-acre estate on Brooklyn Heights overlooking the East River and New
-York Harbor.
-
-While prospering as a merchant, Livingston devoted many of his energies
-to humanitarian and philanthropic endeavors. Among the organizations he
-fostered, financially aided, or helped administer were King’s College
-(later Columbia University), the New York Society Library, St. Andrew’s
-Society, the New York Chamber of Commerce, and New York Hospital.
-
-Livingston was also a proponent of political and religious freedom.
-As a New York City alderman (1754–63), he identified with the popular
-party that opposed the aristocratic ruling class of the colony. In
-a decade of service (1759–69) in the colonial legislature, he stood
-behind the Whigs in their quarrel with the Royal Governor and attended
-the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. But, a believer in the sort of
-dignified protests mounted by lawyers and merchants, he resented the
-riotous behavior of such groups as the Sons of Liberty.
-
-[Illustration: The Brooklyn home of Philip Livingston from 1764 until
-his death in 1778. When the British occupied New York, they used it as
-a hospital. In 1811 fire destroyed it.]
-
-In the 1769 elections the Tories gained control of the legislature. In
-his bid for reelection, Livingston, fearful of the rise of extremism
-among the populace, attempted to unite the moderate factions. Defeated
-in New York City, which from then on was Tory-dominated, he managed to
-obtain reelection from the Livingston Manor district. The new assembly,
-claiming he could not represent an area in which he did not reside,
-unseated him.
-
-In 1774 Livingston became a member of the committee of fifty-one,
-an extralegal group that selected New York City Delegates to the
-Continental Congress, one of whom was Livingston. He also served on
-the committee of sixty, formed to enforce congressional enactments.
-The next year, he won election to the committee of one hundred, which
-governed New York City temporarily until the first provincial congress
-of the colony met later that year.
-
-Between 1774 and 1778 Livingston divided his time between the
-Continental Congress and the New York provincial assembly/legislature.
-In Congress he sat on committees dealing with marine, commerce,
-finance, military, and Indian matters. He was absent on July 1–2,
-1776, perhaps on purpose even though the New York Delegates abstained
-from voting on the independence issue, but on August 2 he signed the
-Declaration.
-
-After their defeat in the Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776),
-Washington and his officers met at Livingston’s residence in Brooklyn
-Heights and decided to evacuate the island. Subsequent to the ill-fated
-peace negotiations at Staten Island in September between Admiral Lord
-Richard Howe and three representatives of the Continental Congress, the
-British occupied New York City. They utilized Livingston’s Duke Street
-home as a barracks and his Brooklyn Heights residence as a Royal Navy
-hospital, as well as confiscating his business interests. He later
-sold some of his remaining property to sustain public credit. With the
-advance of the British, Livingston and his family had fled to Esopus
-(later Kingston), N.Y., where the State capital was temporarily located
-before moving to nearby Poughkeepsie.
-
-Livingston passed away at the age of 62 in 1778, the third earliest
-signer to die (after John Morton and Button Gwinnett). At the time,
-though in poor health, he was still in Congress, then meeting at York,
-Pa. He is buried in Prospect Hill Cemetery in that city.
-
-
-
-
-Thomas Lynch, Jr.
-
-SOUTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Like two of the three other South Carolina signers, Heyward
-      and Middleton, Thomas Lynch, Jr., was an aristocratic
-      planter. But, despite his wealth and social position,
-      he experienced one of the most tragic lives of all the
-      signers. He was stricken by illness in the midst of his
-      political and military labors for his State, never fully
-      recovered his health, and perished at sea in his 30th year.
-      He died at a younger age than any other signer, though a
-      couple succumbed at an earlier date. He was also the second
-      youngest in the group, next to fellow South Carolinian
-      Edward Rutledge.
-
-
-The only son of Thomas Lynch, Sr., a rich rice planter, Lynch was born
-in 1749 at Hopsewee Plantation, located at Winyaw on the North Santee
-River in Prince George’s Parish (present Georgetown County), S.C.
-After attending the Indigo Society School at nearby Georgetown, from
-1764 until 1772 he studied abroad at Eton and Cambridge and read law
-in London. Upon his return home, deciding not to engage in the law, he
-married and settled at Peach Tree Plantation. A gift from his father,
-it was situated in St. James Parish (present Charleston County) on the
-South Santee River about 4 miles south of Hopsewee.
-
-As the heir of one of the most fervent Revolutionaries and influential
-men in the colony, Lynch naturally took a deep interest in politics and
-enjoyed strong support from the electorate. During the years 1774–76,
-while his father served in the Continental Congress, he labored on
-the home front, attending the first and second provincial congresses
-as well as the first State legislature and sitting on the State
-constitutional committee.
-
-In 1775, however, fate dealt Lynch a cruel blow. He accepted a
-captaincy in the First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals—to the
-dismay of his father who had hoped to use his position to obtain a
-higher rank for him. On a recruiting trip to North Carolina, young
-Lynch contracted bilious fever. This ended his military days and
-rendered him a partial invalid for his few remaining years.
-
-Early in 1776 at Philadelphia the elder Lynch suffered a stroke that
-virtually incapacitated him for further public service. In the spring,
-his concerned colleagues in South Carolina elected his son to the
-Continental Congress, probably so that he could care for his father
-and act officially on his behalf. Although ill himself, Lynch made the
-onerous trip to Philadelphia. He stayed there throughout the summer,
-long enough to vote for and sign, at the age of 27, the Declaration
-of Independence. His father was unable to take part in the ceremony.
-The two were the only father-son team that served concurrently in the
-Continental Congress.
-
-By the end of the year, the failing health of both men compelled them
-to start homeward. En route, at Annapolis, Md., a second stroke took
-the life of the senior Lynch. His son, broken in spirit and physically
-unable to continue in politics, retired to Peach Tree. Late in 1779 he
-and his wife, heading for southern France in an attempt to regain his
-health, boarded a ship bound for the West Indies that foundered. The
-couple died childless.
-
-
-
-
-Thomas McKean
-
-DELAWARE
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Lawyer-jurist Thomas McKean stands out from the other
-      signers in a variety of ways. He was the last to pen his
-      signature to the Declaration, sometime after January 18,
-      1777. Although many Delegates simultaneously took part in
-      State affairs, none did so as extensively as McKean—and he
-      figured prominently in not one but two States, Delaware and
-      Pennsylvania. He was also the only signer to be the chief
-      executive of and concurrent officeholder in two States.
-      Furthermore, he numbered among those who also subscribed to
-      the Articles of Confederation, and he served a long tour in
-      Congress.
-
-
-Of Scotch-Irish ancestry, McKean was born in 1734. He was the second
-son of a farmer-tavernkeeper who lived in New London Township, in
-Chester County, Pa., near the New Jersey and Delaware boundaries. After
-studying for 7 years at Rev. Francis Alison’s academy at nearby New
-London, McKean read law with a cousin at New Castle, Del. In 1754, at
-the age of 20, he was admitted to the Delaware bar and soon expanded
-his practice into Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
-
-During the next two and a half decades, McKean occupied an array of
-appointive and elective offices in Delaware, some simultaneously: high
-sheriff of Kent County; militia captain; trustee of the loan office
-of New Castle County; customs collector and judge at New Castle;
-deputy attorney general of Sussex County; chief notary officer for the
-province; and clerk (1757–59) and member (1762–79) of the legislature,
-including the speakership of the lower house (1772–73). In 1762, he had
-also helped compile the colony’s laws.
-
-McKean’s Revolutionary tendencies had first revealed themselves
-during the Stamp Act (1765) controversy. He was one of the most
-vociferous of the delegates at the Stamp Act Congress. In 1774, a year
-after the death of his wife, whom he had wed in 1763, he remarried
-and established his home in Philadelphia. He nevertheless retained
-membership in the Delaware legislature, which that same year elected
-him to the Continental Congress. Except for the period December
-1776-January 1778, when conservative opposition unseated him, he stayed
-there until 1783 and served as President for a few months in 1781.
-He played a key role in the Revolutionary program, at the same time
-fostering the establishment of governments in Delaware and Pennsylvania.
-
-Furthermore, it was McKean who was responsible for breaking the
-Delaware tie in the congressional vote for independence. On July
-1, 1776, date of the first vote, the two Delaware representatives
-present, McKean and George Read, deadlocked. McKean, who had balloted
-affirmatively, dispatched an urgent message to the third Delegate,
-Caesar Rodney, who was at his home near Dover, Del., on military
-matters, to rush to Philadelphia. Rodney, making an 80-mile horseback
-ride through a storm, arrived just in time to swing Delaware over to
-independence on July 2.
-
-During the hiatus in his congressional career, from late 1776 until
-early in 1778, McKean had remained in the lower house of the Delaware
-legislature, of which he became speaker once again. In that capacity,
-in September-November 1777, he temporarily replaced the president of
-Delaware, whom the British had captured. In vain they also pursued
-McKean, who was forced to move his family several times. Meantime, in
-July, he had been appointed chief justice of the Pennsylvania Superior
-Court, a position he was to hold for 22 years.
-
-After 1783, when his congressional service ended, McKean focused his
-political activities in Pennsylvania. As a Federalist, in 1787 he was
-instrumental in that State’s ratification of the U.S. Constitution. In
-the State constitutional convention of 1789–90 he demonstrated mistrust
-of popular government. During the 1790’s, disenchanted with Federalist
-foreign policy, he switched to the Democratic-Republicans.
-
-While Governor for three terms (1799–1808), McKean was the storm
-center of violent partisan warfare. Although he exercised strong
-leadership and advanced education and internal improvements, his
-imperiousness infuriated the Federalists, alienated many members of
-his own party, and resulted in an attempt to impeach him. Especially
-controversial were his rigid employment of the spoils system, including
-the appointment of friends and relatives, and his refusal to call a
-convention to revise the constitution. As a result, he won reelection
-only with the support of members of both parties who opposed the
-revision.
-
-McKean lived out his life quietly in Philadelphia. He died in 1817 at
-the age of 83, survived by his second wife and four of the 11 children
-from his two marriages. He was buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery. His
-substantial estate consisted of stocks, bonds, and huge tracts of land
-in Pennsylvania.
-
-
-
-
-Arthur Middleton
-
-SOUTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Despite long years of study in England, exceptional wealth,
-      and social eminence, Arthur Middleton evolved into an avid
-      Revolutionary. Because of preoccupation with State matters,
-      particularly military defense, his attendance in Congress
-      was spasmodic. The British captured him during their attack
-      on Charleston and ravished his estate.
-
-
-Middleton was born in 1742 at Middleton Place, the family estate on
-the Ashley River near Charleston. His father, who owned a score of
-plantations comprising 50,000 acres and employing some 800 slaves,
-ranked among the wealthiest and most politically active men in the
-province. While still a young boy, Arthur sailed to England for an
-education. He attended Hackney School, graduated from Cambridge
-University, and studied law in London. In 1764, the year after his
-return, he wed the woman who was to bear him nine children, and
-embarked on a career as justice of the peace and colonial legislator.
-In the years 1768–71, however, he and his wife made an extended tour of
-Europe.
-
-Reelected the next year to the legislature, Middleton joined the
-Revolutionaries in their campaign against the Royal Governor. While
-sitting in the first and second provincial assemblies (1775–76),
-Middleton aided in organizing a night raid on public arms stores at
-Charleston before the Governor could seize them, raised money for
-armed resistance, recommended defense measures for Charleston Harbor,
-served on the council of safety, and urged tight enforcement of the
-Continental Association. An extremist, he advocated the tarring and
-feathering of Loyalists and confiscation of the estates of those who
-had fled the country.
-
-In 1776, while engaged in helping draft a State constitution, Middleton
-was chosen to replace his more conservative father in the Continental
-Congress. Two years later, when young Middleton declined reelection,
-he also rejected an offer of the governorship of South Carolina by the
-legislature, which had enacted a new constitution that he opposed. In
-1779 and 1780, though reelected to the Continental Congress, Middleton
-failed to attend, probably because of concern over the British threat
-to his State. While serving in the militia during the siege of
-Charleston in 1780, along with fellow signers Heyward and Rutledge he
-was captured by the British and imprisoned at St. Augustine, Fla.,
-until July 1781.
-
-Two months later, Middleton returned to Congress and served throughout
-1782. He then retired to Middleton Place, which had been ravaged by
-the British. He rehabilitated it, resumed his life as a planter, sat
-intermittently in the State legislature, and accepted assignment as one
-of the original trustees of the College of Charleston. He died in 1787
-at the age of 44. His remains rest at Middleton Place.
-
-
-
-
-Lewis Morris
-
-NEW YORK
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Although Lewis Morris was a wealthy landowner who enjoyed
-      the prestige of the social elite, he represented the
-      patriot element in Tory-dominated New York. The British
-      sacked his estate during the war, and his three eldest sons
-      fought under Washington.
-
-
-Born in 1726, Morris was the eldest son of the second lord of the vast
-manor of Morrisania, in Westchester (present Bronx) County, N.Y. Upon
-graduating from Yale College in 1746, he helped manage the estate.
-Three years later, he married, siring 10 children. In 1762, when his
-father died, he inherited Morrisania and became its third lord. About
-this time, he gained an interest in local politics, and in 1769 served
-a term in the colonial legislature.
-
-As time went on, though residing in a pro-Loyalist county, Morris
-became increasingly critical of British policy. In 1775 he helped
-organize a meeting at White Plains that overcame strong opposition and
-chose county delegates, including Morris as chairman, to New York’s
-first provincial convention. It elected him to the Continental Congress
-(1775–77), where he specialized in military and Indian affairs. For
-most of 1776, he was absent from Philadelphia, serving as a brigadier
-general in the Westchester County militia. During the British invasion
-of New York that year, the redcoats ravaged Morrisania, and forced
-Morris’ family to flee.
-
-When his career in Congress ended, Morris rose to the rank of major
-general in the militia and became a county judge (1777–78) and State
-senator (1777–81 and 1784–88). After war’s end in 1783, when he
-was able to return to Morrisania, he devoted much of his time to
-rehabilitating it. In 1784 he sat on the first board of regents of
-the University of New York. And 4 years later, at the State ratifying
-convention in Poughkeepsie, he strongly supported Alexander Hamilton’s
-successful drive for approval of the U.S. Constitution.
-
-Morris died in 1798 at Morrisania at the age of 71. His grave is in the
-family vault in the yard of St. Ann’s Church in the Bronx.
-
-
-
-
-Robbert Morris
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Merchant Robert Morris was a man of many distinctions.
-      One of the wealthiest individuals in the Colonies and an
-      economic wizard, he won the accolade “Financier of the
-      Revolution,” yet died penniless and forgotten. He and Roger
-      Sherman were the only signers of all three of the Nation’s
-      basic documents: the Declaration of Independence, Articles
-      of Confederation, and Constitution. Morris, who turned down
-      appointment as the first Secretary of the Treasury, also
-      served as a Senator in the First Congress.
-
-
-Morris was born in or near Liverpool, England, in 1734. At the age of
-13, he emigrated to Maryland to join his father, a tobacco exporter at
-Oxford, Md. After brief schooling at Philadelphia, the youth obtained
-employment with Thomas and Charles Willing’s well-known shipping firm.
-In 1754 he became a partner, and for almost four decades was one of the
-company’s directors as well as one of Philadelphia’s most influential
-citizens. Marrying in 1769 at the age of 35, he fathered five sons and
-two daughters.
-
-During the Stamp Act turmoil in 1765, Morris had joined other merchants
-in protest, but not until the outbreak of hostilities a decade hence
-did he fully commit himself to the Revolution. In 1775 the Continental
-Congress contracted with his firm to import arms and ammunition; and
-he was elected to the Pennsylvania council of safety (1775–76), the
-committee of correspondence, the provincial assembly (1775–76), the
-State legislature (1776–78), and the Continental Congress (1775–78). In
-the latter body, on July 1, 1776, he voted against independence, which
-he personally considered premature, but the next day purposely absented
-himself to facilitate an affirmative ballot by his State.
-
-Morris, a key Member of Congress, specialized in financial affairs and
-military procurement. Although he and his firm profited handsomely,
-had it not been for his assiduous labors the Continental Army would
-probably have needed to demobilize. He worked closely with General
-Washington, wheedled money and supplies from the States, borrowed
-money in the face of overwhelming difficulties, and on occasion
-even obtained personal loans to further the war cause. Immediately
-following his congressional service, Morris sat for two more terms in
-the Pennsylvania legislature in the period 1778–81. During this time,
-Thomas Paine and others attacked him for profiteering in Congress,
-which investigated his accounts and vindicated him. Nevertheless, his
-reputation slipped.
-
-[Illustration: In 1794 Robert Morris began building this palatial
-townhouse in Philadelphia. After his imprisonment for debt in 1798, the
-unfinished house came to be known as “Morris’ Folly.” It stood until
-1800.]
-
-Morris embarked on the most dramatic phase of his career by accepting
-the office of Superintendent of Finance (1781–84) under the Articles of
-Confederation. Congress, recognizing the perilous state of the Nation’s
-finances and its impotence to remedy it, granted him dictatorial
-powers and acquiesced to his condition that he be allowed to continue
-his private commercial enterprises. He slashed all governmental and
-military expenditures, personally purchased Army and Navy supplies,
-tightened accounting procedures, prodded the States to fulfill quotas
-of money and supplies, and when necessary strained his personal credit
-by issuing notes over his own signature or borrowing from friends.
-
-To finance Washington’s Yorktown campaign in 1781, in addition to
-the above techniques Morris obtained a sizable loan from France. He
-used part of it, along with some of his own fortune, to organize
-the Bank of North America, chartered that December. The first
-Government-incorporated bank in the United States, it aided war
-financing.
-
-Although Morris was reelected to the Pennsylvania legislature in
-1785–86, his private commercial ventures consumed most of his time.
-In the latter year, he attended the Annapolis Convention, and the
-following year the Constitutional Convention, where he sympathized with
-the Federalists. In 1789, declining Washington’s offer of appointment
-as the first Secretary of the Treasury, he took instead a senatorial
-seat in Congress (1789–95).
-
-During the later years of his public life, Morris speculated wildly,
-often on overextended credit, in lands in the West and at the site
-of Washington, D.C. To compound his difficulties, in 1794 he began
-constructing on Philadelphia’s Chestnut Street a palatial townhouse
-designed by Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant. Not long thereafter, Morris
-attempted to escape creditors by retreating to The Hills, the country
-estate along the Schuylkill River on the edge of Philadelphia that he
-had acquired in 1770.
-
-Arrested at the behest of creditors in 1798 and forced to abandon
-completion of the townhouse, henceforth known in its unfinished state
-as “Morris’ Folly,” Morris was thrown into the Philadelphia debtors’
-prison, where he was well treated. Nevertheless, by the time he was
-released in 1801, under a Federal bankruptcy law, his property and
-fortune had vanished, his health deteriorated, and his spirit been
-broken. He lingered on amid poverty and obscurity, living in a simple
-Philadelphia home on an annuity Gouverneur Morris had obtained for his
-wife. He died in 1806 in his 72d year. He was buried in the yard of
-Christ Church.
-
-
-
-
-John Morton
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      John Morton, one of the nine signers from Pennsylvania,
-      is better known there than in the Nation, but he rendered
-      meritorious service to both. He cast the decisive ballot
-      that swung his State over to an affirmative vote for
-      independence in the Continental Congress. He was the first
-      signer to die.
-
-
-Morton was born of Finnish-Swedish descent in 1725, shortly after the
-death of his father, on a farm in Ridley Township, Chester (present
-Delaware) County. John Sketchley, an Englishman who subsequently
-married the widowed mother of the youth, reared and educated him. Their
-relationship was apparently close, for Morton later named his eldest
-son Sketchley. The stepfather, learned in mathematics, taught the boy
-the three R’s as well as surveying. He practiced that profession on and
-off all his life, as well as farming, politics, and jurisprudence. He
-married in his early 20’s, in 1748 or 1749, and fathered five daughters
-and four sons.
-
-At the age of 30, Morton entered politics, which from then on absorbed
-most of his energies. From 1756 until a few months before he died in
-1777, he served 18 terms in the colonial/State legislature (1756–66
-and 1769–76), which he presided over during the last year and a half.
-In 1774 he won appointment as an associate justice of the Pennsylvania
-Supreme Court.
-
-Meantime, despite his rise in State circles, Morton had always
-maintained strong ties with his own county. He resided there all his
-life, remained active in civic and church affairs, and stayed close
-to the people. Between terms of office as county justice of the peace
-(1757–64 and 1770–74), he worked in a tour as sheriff (1766–69).
-
-Morton’s service to the Nation began in 1765, while he was a member of
-the Pennsylvania legislature. He and two colleagues represented the
-colony at the Stamp Act Congress in New York. His most dramatic act as
-Delegate to the Continental Congress (1774–77), in which he numbered
-among the moderates, was his sudden and crucial switch on July 1, 1776,
-to the side of his friend Benjamin Franklin and James Wilson in the
-vote for national independence. On the final vote the next day, these
-three ballots outweighed those of Thomas Willing and Charles Humphreys.
-Robert Morris and John Dickinson being purposely absent, Pennsylvania
-registered a “yea.” Less glamorously, Morton was a member of many
-committees, in 1777 chairing the committee of the whole on the adoption
-of the Articles of Confederation, finally ratified after his death.
-
-Within a year of signing the Declaration, in the spring of 1777, Morton
-fell ill and died on his farm at the age of 51. A few months earlier,
-he had bequeathed his land and property, including a few slaves, to
-his wife and five daughters and three surviving sons. But he could not
-will them security; shortly after his demise they had to flee from
-their home in the face of an imminent British attack. Morton’s grave is
-located in Old St. Paul’s Cemetery in Chester, Pa.
-
-
-
-
-Thomas Nelson, Jr.
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Thomas Nelson, Jr., a rich planter-merchant who at one
-      time owned more than 400 slaves, was one of the most
-      active of the Virginia patriots. Mainly because of health
-      problems, however, his career in Congress was brief and
-      undistinguished, though he made great financial sacrifices
-      during the war and won fame as a militia commander and
-      State politician.
-
-
-The eldest of five sons, Nelson was born at Yorktown, Va., in 1738.
-At the age of 14, he sailed to England to supplement his initial
-tutorial education. In 1761, after graduating from Hackney School and
-Cambridge University, he returned to Virginia to help his father manage
-his plantation and mercantile business. The next year, young Nelson
-married; he and his wife were to have 11 children.
-
-In 1764 Nelson became a justice of the peace for York County and
-entered the House of Burgesses. He served in the house until May 1774,
-when Royal Governor Lord Dunmore, provoked at its protests over the
-Boston Port Act, dissolved it. That year and the next, Nelson attended
-three of the Virginia provincial assemblies, where he worked closely
-with Patrick Henry. The last assembly elected Nelson to the Continental
-Congress, at which time he resigned his colonelcy in the Virginia
-militia.
-
-In Congress, Nelson was outspoken in his desire to sever the bonds
-with England. He journeyed to Virginia in the spring of 1776. At a
-convention held in Williamsburg in May, he introduced and won approval
-for a resolution recommending national independence, drafted by
-Edmund Pendleton. Nelson carried it to Philadelphia and presented it
-to Richard Henry Lee, who redrafted and condensed it into his June
-7 resolution. Not long afterward, Nelson’s health began to decline.
-Subsequently, he divided his time between Philadelphia and Virginia,
-and in the spring of 1777 resigned from Congress.
-
-Back in Virginia, Nelson was awarded the rank of brigadier general in
-the militia and was elected to the lower house of the legislature. In
-the spring of 1778 Congress appealed to men of means in the Colonies
-to form troops of light cavalry. Nelson, partially at his own expense,
-raised, outfitted, and trained such a unit. In July he marched it
-northward to Philadelphia. The next month, Congress decided it was not
-needed and it returned home.
-
-Nelson served in Congress again for a short time in 1779, but poor
-health forced him to retire once more. Nevertheless, the next year he
-obtained munitions and supplies for the militia, commanded troops,
-attended the legislature, and raised money to help subsidize the
-war. He was particularly effective in soliciting funds from wealthy
-plantation owners, to whom he pledged to repay the loans personally if
-the State should fail to do so.
-
-When the British invaded Virginia in 1780–81, civilian control
-seriously hampered Nelson’s effectiveness as a militia commander.
-Consequently, in the latter year the legislature elected him as
-Governor and granted him powers approaching those of a military
-dictator. Although still bothered by bad health, he kept the government
-intact and strengthened defenses. In September-October 1781, while
-taking part in the Yorktown siege, according to family tradition he
-ordered troops to shell his own mansion when he learned it was a
-British headquarters. Soon after the victory at Yorktown, overwhelmed
-by the burdens of office and still in poor physical condition, he
-resigned the governorship.
-
-[Illustration: This painting commemorates one of the highlights of
-the siege of Yorktown (1781). Thomas Nelson, Jr., commander in chief
-of Virginia troops, took an active part.]
-
-That same year, Nelson partially retired to Offley Hoo, a modest estate
-in Hanover County that his father had willed to him on his death in
-1772. In financial distress from his wartime sacrifices, the younger
-Nelson lacked money to renovate his Yorktown home, where he had lived
-since 1767. Except for occasional tours in the legislature and visits
-to Yorktown, he devoted the rest of his life to his business affairs.
-He died at Offley Hoo in 1789 at the age of 50. His grave is at
-Yorktown in the yard of Grace Episcopal Church.
-
-
-
-
-William Paca
-
-MARYLAND
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      William Paca was one of the earliest Revolutionaries in a
-      conservative colony. A wealthy planter and eminent lawyer
-      and judge, he held numerous State offices, including the
-      governorship, but his role in national affairs was limited.
-
-
-The second son of a prominent planter-landowner, Paca was born,
-probably of Italian descent, in 1740 at Chilbury Hall, near Abingdon in
-Harford County, Md. He received his early education from private tutors
-and at the age of 15 matriculated at the College of Philadelphia (later
-part of the University of Pennsylvania). Upon graduating, he studied
-with an attorney in Annapolis and read law in London. In 1763, the year
-before initiating his practice in the former city, he married a local
-girl from a wealthy family and began building a home, completed 2 years
-later. When in the country, he resided at Wye Plantation, in Queen
-Annes County, which he had purchased about 1760.
-
-In 1768 Paca won a seat in the colonial legislature, where he soon
-alined himself with Samuel Chase and other Whigs in protesting the
-powers of the Proprietary Governor. In the early 1770’s Paca joined
-other Maryland patriots in urging governmental regulation of fees
-paid to civil officers and in opposing the poll tax, used to pay the
-salaries of Anglican clergy, representing the established church. In
-1773 he became a member of the Maryland committee of correspondence.
-The following year, along with Samuel Chase and Thomas Johnson, he
-acted as counsel for fellow legislator Joseph H. Harrison, who had
-been jailed for refusing to pay the poll tax. All three men also
-attended the first provincial convention that same year and received
-appointments to the First Continental Congress. About this time, Paca’s
-wife died.
-
-Although he sat in Congress until 1779, Paca’s most noteworthy efforts
-were on the State level. In the spring and early summer of 1776, the
-provincial convention, a relatively conservative body, refused to
-authorize its congressional Delegates to vote for independence. Paca,
-aiding Chase and Carroll, drummed up enough support on the home front
-to persuade the convention to change its mind and bring Maryland into
-the affirmative column in the congressional voting on July 1–2, 1776. A
-few months later, he helped draft a State constitution. The next year,
-he began a 2-year term in the Maryland senate and saw militia duty. In
-addition, he sat on the council of safety and spent large amounts of
-his own money outfitting troops.
-
-Between the years 1778 and 1782, Paca distinguished himself first as
-chief justice of the State Superior Court and then as chief judge of
-the circuit court of appeals in admiralty and prize cases. During that
-time, in 1780, a few months after the demise of his second wife, whom
-he had married 3 years earlier, he sold his home in Annapolis and moved
-permanently to Wye Plantation. In 1782 he raised funds for Washington
-College, founded that same year in Chestertown as the first institution
-of higher learning in Maryland, and served on its board of visitors. As
-Governor of Maryland (1782–85), he concerned himself with the welfare
-of war veterans and other postwar problems.
-
-A delegate to the State convention to ratify the Federal Constitution
-in 1788, Paca urged its adoption if amended and helped draw up a list
-of proposed amendments. In 1789 President Washington appointed him as
-Federal district judge. He held this position until 1799, the year
-of his death at the age of 58, at Wye Hall, on Wye Island across the
-narrows from his own home, Wye Plantation. The former was the home of
-his son John, probably the only one of his five children from his two
-or possibly three marriages who reached maturity. At first interred at
-Wye Hall, Paca’s remains now rest in the family burial ground near Wye
-Plantation.
-
-
-
-
-Robert Treat Paine
-
-MASSACHUSETTS
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      A clergyman turned lawyer-jurist, Robert Treat Paine spent
-      only a short time in Congress but enjoyed considerable
-      political prestige in Massachusetts. His second son
-      (1773–1811) and great-grandson (1835–1910), both bearing
-      exactly the same names as he, gained fame respectively as
-      poet and businessman-philanthropist.
-
-
-Among the ancestors of Paine, who was born at Boston in 1731, were
-many New England religious and political leaders. His father was a
-merchant who had once been a clergyman. Young Paine led his class at
-Boston Latin School and graduated from Harvard in 1749. He then taught
-school for a time before yielding to family tradition and entering the
-ministry.
-
-In 1755, during the French and Indian War, he served as chaplain on
-a military expedition to Crown Point, N.Y. To improve his health, he
-made a voyage to the Carolinas, England, Spain, and Greenland. About
-this time, he decided to forsake the ministry for the law, in which he
-had become interested during his theological studies. Admitted to the
-Massachusetts bar in 1757, he opened an office in Portland but in 1761
-moved to Taunton.
-
-Paine, a friend of John Adams and John Hancock, early became involved
-in the patriot movement. As a result, he was chosen in 1770 as one of
-the prosecuting attorneys in the Boston Massacre trial and thus gained
-recognition throughout the Colonies. That same year, he married, siring
-eight children. Between 1773 and 1778, except in 1776, he served in the
-Massachusetts legislature, in 1777 being speaker of the lower house.
-He was one of the first five Delegates sent by Massachusetts to the
-Continental Congress (1774–76), where he specialized in military and
-Indian affairs. He gained the nickname “Objection Maker” because he
-argued against so many proposals.
-
-Although reelected to Congress in 1777, Paine chose to stay in
-Massachusetts. In addition to his legislative speakership, he was
-elected as the first attorney general, a position he held until 1790.
-Between 1778 and 1780 he played a prominent role in drafting the
-Massachusetts constitution. From 1790 until 1804, appointed by his old
-friend Hancock, he sat as an associate justice of the Superior Court.
-
-Meantime, in 1780, Paine had moved from Taunton to Boston and become
-active in civic affairs. Indicative of his lifelong interest in
-science, that same year he was one of the founders of the American
-Academy of Arts and Sciences. In religion, he broke away from Calvinism
-and embraced Unitarianism. Politically, he alined himself with the
-Federalists. In 1804 increasing deafness brought about his retirement
-from the Superior Court, and he died a decade later at the age of 83 in
-Boston. He was buried in the Old Granary Burying Ground.
-
-
-
-
-John Penn
-
-NORTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Like fellow signers Joseph Hewes and William Hooper, John
-      Penn adopted North Carolina as his home. Except for a
-      5-year stint in the Continental Congress and a brief career
-      in State service, he passed the years peacefully as a
-      country lawyer far from the clamor of the public forum.
-
-
-Penn was born in 1740 or 1741 in Caroline County, Va. His father was a
-well-to-do farmer, and his mother the daughter of a prominent county
-judge. Despite the family’s social position, Penn received only a few
-years of formal schooling. At the age of 18, when his father died, he
-inherited a sizable estate. But he was dissatisfied with the prospects
-it offered, and decided to continue his education. Encouraged by a
-relative, Edmund Pendleton, a well-known lawyer who made available his
-personal library, Penn studied law on his own and within 3 years gained
-admittance to the bar. Soon thereafter he married; he and his wife
-reared three children.
-
-In 1774, at the end of more than a decade of successful law practice in
-Virginia, Penn journeyed to Granville County, N.C., and made his home
-near Stovall. The next year, he was elected to the provincial assembly
-and only a few weeks later to the Continental Congress (1775–80).
-In 1777, upon the retirement of Hewes and Hooper, he inherited the
-leadership of his State’s delegation. He was one of the 16 signers of
-the Declaration who also signed the Articles of Confederation.
-
-Unobtrusive and unassuming but remarkably efficient, likeable, and
-discreet, Penn quickly won the respect of his congressional colleagues.
-He rarely disputed with others, but when he did his good humor and
-peaceful manner saved the day. On one occasion, he feuded with
-President of Congress Henry Laurens of South Carolina over a personal
-matter. He accepted Laurens’ challenge to a duel, but en route to the
-proposed site convinced Laurens that they should bury their differences
-and drop the matter.
-
-Late in 1780 the Governor of North Carolina recalled Penn from Congress
-to sit on the emergency Board of War, created by the legislature in
-September to share with the Governor responsibility for military
-affairs. The three-man board, of which Penn became the leading
-member, in effect soon assumed control of all military matters. The
-Governor and military officials, resenting the infringement upon their
-prerogatives and their loss of authority, persuaded the legislature to
-abolish the board in January 1781.
-
-His health declining, the following July Penn declined an appointment
-to the Governor’s Council. With the exception of a short tour in 1784
-as State tax receiver for the Confederation, he apparently devoted his
-last years to his law practice. In 1788, only in his late forties,
-he died at his home near Stovall. Originally buried in the family
-graveyard adjacent to his home, his remains now rest in Guilford
-Courthouse National Military Park near Greensboro.
-
-
-
-
-George Read
-
-DELAWARE
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Conservative lawyer George Read was the only signer who
-      voted against independence in the final congressional vote
-      on July 2, 1776. In addition to attaining many prominent
-      State offices, he attended the Constitutional Convention,
-      where he defended the rights of the smaller States, and
-      subsequently served as a Senator in the First Congress.
-
-
-Read’s mother was the daughter of a Welsh planter, and his Dublin-born
-father a landholder of means. Soon after George’s birth in 1733 near
-North East in Cecil County, Md., his family moved to New Castle, Del.,
-where the youth grew up. He attended school at Chester, Pa., and Rev.
-Francis Alison’s academy at New London, Pa., and about the age of 15
-began reading law with a Philadelphia lawyer. In 1753 he was admitted
-to the bar and began to practice. The next year, he journeyed back to
-New Castle, hung out his shingle, and before long enlisted a clientele
-that extended into Maryland. In 1763 he wed the widowed sister of
-future fellow signer George Ross, and she bore him four sons and a
-daughter.
-
-While crown attorney general (1763–74) for the Three Lower Counties
-(present Delaware), Read protested against the Stamp Act. In 1765 he
-began a career in the colonial legislature that extended for more than
-a decade. A moderate Whig, he supported nonimportation measures and
-dignified protests. His attendance in Congress (1774–77) was irregular.
-Like his friend John Dickinson, he was willing to protect colonial
-rights but was wary of extremism. He balloted against independence on
-July 2, 1776, apparently either bowing to the strong Tory sentiment in
-Delaware or believing reconciliation with Britain was still possible.
-
-That same year, Read gave priority to State responsibilities. He
-presided over the Delaware constitutional convention, in which he
-chaired the drafting committee, and began a term as speaker of the
-legislative council, which in effect made him vice president of the
-State. When the British captured Wilmington the next fall, they
-captured the president, a resident of the city. At first, because
-Read was away in Congress, Thomas McKean, speaker of the lower house,
-took over as acting president. But in November, after almost being
-captured himself while he and his family were en route to Dover from
-Philadelphia, newly captured by the British, Read assumed the office
-and held it until the spring of 1778.
-
-During 1779, in poor health, Read resigned from the legislative
-council, refused reelection to Congress, and began a period of
-inactivity. In the years 1782–88, he again sat on the council, and
-concurrently held the position of judge of the court of appeals in
-admiralty cases. Meantime, in 1784, he had served on a commission
-that adjusted New York-Massachusetts land claims. In 1786 he attended
-the Annapolis Convention. The next year, he participated in the
-Constitutional Convention. He later led the ratification movement in
-Delaware, the first State to ratify.
-
-In the U.S. Senate (1789–93), Read’s attendance was again spasmodic,
-but when present he allied with the Federalists. He resigned to accept
-the post of chief justice of Delaware. He held this office until his
-death at New Castle 5 years later, just 3 days after he celebrated his
-65th birthday. His grave is located there in the Immanuel Episcopal
-Churchyard.
-
-
-
-
-Caesar Rodney
-
-DELAWARE
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Self-educated Caesar Rodney climbed to high State and
-      National offices, but his military-political duties
-      in Delaware spared him little time for the affairs of
-      Congress. He is noted mainly for his emergency ride to
-      Philadelphia that broke his State’s deadlock in the vote
-      for independence, but he was also one of two bachelor
-      signers and the only native of the three from Delaware.
-
-
-Rodney was born in 1728 on his father’s 800-acre plantation, Byfield,
-near Dover in Kent County. In 1745, as the eldest child, he inherited
-the plantation. Despite a lack of formal and legal education, a decade
-later he accepted the first of a series of county offices: high
-sheriff, register of wills, recorder of deeds, clerk of the orphans’
-court, justice of the peace, militia captain, and cotrustee of the loan
-office.
-
-On the provincial level, for most of the period 1758–76 Rodney
-functioned as a justice of the Superior Court for the Three Lower
-Counties (present Delaware) and as a legislator in the lower house,
-including many tours as speaker. Between 1765 and 1774, he owned and
-occupied a townhouse that he used while in Dover. He and Thomas McKean
-compiled the colony’s laws, and they both attended the Stamp Act
-Congress (1765). Three years later, the two of them and George Read,
-all three later to sign the Declaration, drafted a protest to the King
-concerning the Townshend Acts. In 1774, after Parliament closed Boston
-Harbor, Rodney usurped the prerogative of the Proprietary Governor by
-calling a special meeting of the legislature at New Castle, the first
-Revolutionary convention in the State. Rodney, McKean, and Read were
-sent to the First Continental Congress.
-
-Although a congressional Member for 2 years, Rodney was often absent
-in Delaware, sometimes presiding over the legislature and sometimes
-meeting military responsibilities. In May 1775 he was elected a colonel
-in the militia, and in September moved up to brigadier general. Late
-the next June, while the independence resolution was pending in
-Congress, he was investigating Loyalist agitations in Sussex County.
-On the evening of July 1, after his return to Byfield, he received
-McKean’s dispatch pointing out that Read had voted against independence
-that day and pleading with Rodney to hurry to Philadelphia to break
-the tie. Riding all night through a thunderstorm and stopping only
-to change horses, he completed the 80-mile trip just in time to make
-possible an affirmative vote for Delaware.
-
-This brought down the wrath of the Kent County conservatives on
-Rodney, who was not reelected to Congress nor to the legislature and
-not appointed to the State constitutional convention. Out of office,
-that fall and the next year he turned to military affairs, recruiting
-troops and taking part in minor actions in Delaware and New Jersey.
-In September 1777 acting State president McKean commissioned him as a
-major general.
-
-That spring, the legislature had designated Rodney as an admiralty
-judge. In December it reelected him to the Continental Congress. The
-next year, it nominated him as State president (1778–81), in which
-capacity he stimulated the Delaware war effort. When he left office,
-he belatedly sought medical treatment in Philadelphia for a cancerous
-growth on his face, which had been bothering him for a decade and which
-he had covered with a green silk veil. In 1783, though a dying man,
-he entered the State senate and accepted the speakership, but passed
-away the next year at the age of 55. Interred originally at Byfield
-Plantation, his remains are now buried in the yard of Christ Episcopal
-Church in Dover.
-
-
-
-
-George Ross
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      A few of the signers, such as George Ross, were latecomers
-      to the Revolutionary cause. Like many others, he exerted
-      more influence in State than national affairs.
-
-
-The oldest son of an Anglican clergyman who had immigrated from
-Scotland, Ross was born in 1730 at New Castle, Del. After a preliminary
-classical education, he read law with his stepbrother John at
-Philadelphia and in 1750 entered the bar. Settling the next year at
-Lancaster, Pa., where he married and fathered two sons and a daughter,
-he built up a successful law practice and served as crown prosecutor
-for Cumberland County (1751–63). A member of the colonial legislature
-from 1768 until 1775, he sometimes joined in its disputes with the
-Proprietary Governor and demonstrated an interest in Indian affairs.
-
-Meantime, in 1774, despite his Loyalist leanings, a provincial
-convention to which Ross had been elected sent him to the Continental
-Congress. The next year, by which time he had for some reason
-decided to affiliate with the Revolutionaries, he also served on the
-Pennsylvania council of safety and held a militia colonelcy. In 1776 he
-assisted in negotiating a peace treaty with the Indians in northwestern
-Pennsylvania, and acted as vice president of the State constitutional
-convention, for which he helped draft a declaration of rights. Not a
-Member of Congress during the voting for independence on July 1–2,
-1776, he received his appointment soon enough to sign the Declaration
-on August 2. He won a reputation among his colleagues for his
-eloquence, wit, and conviviality, but made no noteworthy contributions
-to congressional proceedings. Illness brought about his resignation in
-January 1777.
-
-In 1778, while Ross was acting as admiralty judge in Pennsylvania,
-a congressional court of appeals overruled his decision in a case
-involving a dispute between a citizen of Connecticut and the State
-of Pennsylvania. Ross, refusing to acknowledge the authority of the
-higher court to counter State decisions, initiated a dispute between
-Pennsylvania and the Central Government that represented an early
-manifestation of the States rights controversy and did not subside
-until 1809. But Ross did not live to see the outcome, for he died in
-Philadelphia in 1779 at the age of 49. He was buried in Christ Church
-Burial Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Benjamin Rush
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Doctor, medical educator, chemist, humanitarian,
-      politician, author, reformer-moralist, soldier, temperance
-      advocate, abolitionist—Benjamin Rush was all of these. One
-      of the younger signers, only 30 years of age at the time,
-      he was already a physician of note.
-
-
-Rush, the fourth of seven children, was born in 1745 at Byberry (“The
-Homestead”), near Philadelphia. At the age of 5, his farmer-gunsmith
-father died. The youth obtained a sound education at West Nottingham
-Academy, in Rising Sun, Md., operated by an uncle, and graduated from
-the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). Returning to
-Philadelphia in 1760, he apparently first considered studying law
-but chose medicine. In 1766, at the end of a 5-year apprenticeship
-to a local physician, he sailed to Scotland, where 2 years later the
-University of Edinburgh awarded him a medical degree.
-
-While there, assisted by a fellow college alumnus and one-day fellow
-signer, Richard Stockton, Rush helped overcome the objections of John
-Witherspoon’s wife and persuaded Witherspoon to accept the presidency
-of the College of New Jersey. In 1769, after further training in
-London, where Rush made the acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin, and a
-short visit to Paris, he came back to Philadelphia and set up practice.
-Before the year was out, he obtained the first professorship of
-chemistry in the country at the College of Philadelphia, and wrote the
-first American textbook on the subject.
-
-While prospering as a physician, Rush cultivated the friendship of such
-men as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine. In fact, Rush
-suggested to the latter that he write his famous tract _Common Sense_
-(1776), supplied the title, and aided in its publication. He also
-contributed political articles to the press. That same year, he married
-Stockton’s eldest daughter, Julia.
-
-Rush’s tour in the Continental Congress was brief. In June 1776 he
-attended a Pennsylvania conference of patriots and helped draft a
-declaration of the colony’s support for national independence. In
-recognition of these services, the following month the provincial
-convention sent him to Congress—after the adoption of the Declaration.
-In December, Philadelphia threatened by British invasion, the
-Government fled to Baltimore. Rush apparently, however, did not spend
-much time there. That same month, he relocated his wife at the home of
-a relative in Cecil County, Md., and took part in General Washington’s
-New Jersey campaign as a surgeon in the Philadelphia militia.
-
-In April 1777, not reelected to Congress because of his opposition to
-the Pennsylvania constitution of the previous year, Rush accepted the
-position of surgeon general in the Middle Department of the Continental
-Army. Abhorring the deplorable conditions prevailing in the medical
-service, in a complaint to Washington he accused his superior, Dr.
-William Shippen, of maladministration. Washington referred the matter
-to Congress, which vindicated Shippen. In January 1778 Rush angrily
-resigned. His subsequent criticisms of Washington and his participation
-in the Conway Cabal, a movement to replace General Washington, ended
-his military and, for a time, his political career. He resumed his
-medical practice in Philadelphia.
-
-[Illustration: Benjamin Rush long served on the staff of Philadelphia’s
-Pennsylvania Hospital, shown here in 1799. Founded in 1751 and still in
-use today, it is the oldest hospital in the United States.]
-
-In 1787 Rush wrote tracts in the newspapers endorsing the U.S.
-Constitution. In the Commonwealth ratifying convention that same year,
-he aided James Wilson in the struggle for its adoption. In 1789–90 Rush
-attended the Pennsylvania constitutional convention. From 1797 until
-1813 he served as Treasurer of the U.S. Mint.
-
-Meantime Rush, through his writings and lectures, had become probably
-the best known physician and medical teacher in the land, and he
-fostered Philadelphia’s ascendancy as the early medical center of
-the Nation. His students, who idolized him, came from as far away
-as Europe to attend his classes at the College of Philadelphia, and
-its successors the University of the State of Pennsylvania and the
-University of Pennsylvania (1791). He also served on the staff of the
-Pennsylvania Hospital from 1783 until the end of his life, helped found
-the Philadelphia College of Physicians (1787), and held office as first
-president of the Philadelphia Medical Society. In 1786 he founded the
-Philadelphia Dispensary, the first free medical clinic in the country.
-His work among the insane at the Pennsylvania Hospital resulted in
-_Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind_
-(1812), which to some degree foreshadowed modern psychiatric techniques.
-
-Rush won much less favor from his professional peers than he did from
-his students. His critics particularly attacked his theory of bleeding
-and purging for the treatment of disease. Although he was one of the
-few doctors who remained in Philadelphia during the devastating yellow
-fever epidemics of 1793 and 1798, his opponents criticized his methods
-of treatment.
-
-Aroused by the idealism of the Revolution as well as the plight
-of the poor and sick he encountered in his medical practice, Rush
-helped pioneer various humanitarian and social movements that were to
-restructure U.S. life in the 19th century. These included abolition of
-slavery and educational and prison reform. Rush also condemned public
-and capital punishment and advocated temperance. Many of his reform
-articles appeared in Essays: _Literary, Moral, and Philosophical_
-(1798).
-
-Finally, Rush helped organize and sat as a trustee of Dickinson College
-(1783); aided in founding the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the
-Abolition of Slavery (1787) and later served as its president; enjoyed
-membership in the American Philosophical Society; and was a cofounder
-and vice president of the Philadelphia Bible Society, which advocated
-the use of scripture in the public schools.
-
-A typhus epidemic claimed Rush’s life at the age of 67 in 1813.
-Surviving him were six sons and three daughters of the 13 children
-he had fathered. His grave is in Christ Church Burial Ground at
-Philadelphia.
-
-
-
-
-Edward Rutledge
-
-SOUTH CAROLINA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Edward Rutledge, at the age of 26, was the youngest of the
-      signers. Despite his youth, he had already made a name
-      for himself in South Carolina as a lawyer-politician and
-      had assumed leadership of his congressional delegation.
-      A moderate, he at first fought against the independence
-      resolution but finally submitted to the majority and voted
-      for it. His later State career, which included combat
-      action in the militia, culminated in the governorship.
-
-
-The fifth son and youngest child of an Irish immigrant and physician,
-Rutledge was born in 1749 at or near Charleston, S.C. Like Middleton,
-Lynch, and Heyward, the other South Carolina signers, as a young man he
-studied law in England. In 1773, during his first year of practice on
-his return to Charleston, he won Whig acclaim by obtaining the release
-of newspaper publisher Thomas Powell, who had been imprisoned by the
-Crown for printing an article critical of the Loyalist upper house
-of the colonial legislature. The next year, the grateful Whigs named
-Rutledge as one of five Delegates to the First Continental Congress;
-and he married Henrietta Middleton, his colleague’s sister. The
-Rutledges were to have three children.
-
-Rutledge spent his first congressional term in the shadow of the more
-experienced South Carolina Delegates, among them his older brother,
-John, and his father-in-law, Henry Middleton. During 1775–76, however,
-both in Congress and in two South Carolina provincial assemblies, his
-increasing self-confidence and maturation of judgment brought him the
-esteem of his associates. In the latter year, two of the senior South
-Carolina Delegates, Christopher Gadsden and Henry Middleton, retired
-from Congress and Thomas Lynch, Sr., suffered an incapacitating stroke.
-Rutledge, his brother absent on State business, found himself the
-delegation leader.
-
-On June 7, 1776, when Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed national
-independence, Rutledge led the moderates in securing a delay in
-the voting. He knew that independence was inevitable. In March his
-colony, preceded only by New Hampshire, had adopted a constitution.
-Moreover, that same month the provincial assembly had empowered its
-Delegates to vote for independence if they so desired. Yet Rutledge
-firmly believed that the Colonies should first confederate and nurture
-foreign alliances to strengthen themselves for the perilous step they
-were about to take. When the vote on independence came up on July
-1, he refused to yield and South Carolina balloted negatively. But
-nine of the Colonies voted affirmatively. Rutledge, realizing that
-the resolution would probably carry anyway, proposed that the vote
-be recast the following day. He persuaded the other South Carolina
-Delegates to submit to the will of the majority for the sake of
-unanimity, and South Carolina reversed its position.
-
-Rutledge’s last important assignment occurred in September, when he
-accompanied John Adams and Benjamin Franklin on a vain peace mission
-to Staten Island to negotiate with British Admiral Lord Richard Howe,
-who in union with his brother, Gen. William Howe, was belatedly and
-idealistically trying to resolve the differences between the Colonies
-and the mother country. Two months later, Rutledge departed from
-Congress in order to resume his law practice in Charleston.
-
-In 1778 Rutledge accepted a seat in the State legislature and the next
-year won reelection to Congress, though military duties prevented his
-attendance. As a militia captain, in February 1779 he took part in Gen.
-William Moultrie’s defeat of the British at Port Royal Island, S.C. But
-in May, 1780, during the siege of Charleston, the redcoats captured
-Rutledge, as well as Heyward and Middleton, and imprisoned them at St.
-Augustine, Fla., until July 1781.
-
-From 1782 until 1798 Rutledge sat in the State legislature, which
-on three occasions designated him as a presidential elector. During
-this period, his mistrust of unbridled republicanism reinforced his
-conservatism and brought him into the Federalist Party. In private
-life he flourished, his wealth increasing through his law practice
-and investments in plantations. In 1792 his first wife died and he
-remarried. To crown his achievements, 6 years later the people of
-South Carolina chose him as Governor. But, his health poor, he died at
-Charleston early in 1800 at the age of 50, nearly a year before the end
-of his term. The yard of St. Philip’s Episcopal Church is the site of
-his grave.
-
-
-
-
-Roger Sherman
-
-CONNECTICUT
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      By dint of self-education, hard work, and business acumen,
-      Roger Sherman soared above his humble origins to prominence
-      in local, State, and National political affairs. He was
-      a member of the committee that drafted the Declaration
-      of Independence. He and Robert Morris were the only men
-      to sign the three bulwark documents of the Republic: the
-      Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and
-      Constitution. Twice married, Sherman fathered 15 children.
-
-
-In 1723, when Sherman was 2 years of age, his family relocated from his
-Newton, Mass., birthplace to Dorchester (present Stoughton). As a boy,
-he was spurred by a desire to learn, and read widely in his spare time
-to supplement his minimal education at a common school. But he spent
-most of his waking hours helping his father with farming chores and
-learning the cobbler’s trade from him. In 1743, or 2 years after his
-father’s death, Sherman joined an elder brother who had settled at New
-Milford, Conn.
-
-Purchasing a store, becoming county surveyor, and winning a variety
-of town offices, Sherman prospered and assumed leadership in the
-community. Without benefit of a legal education, he was admitted to the
-bar in 1754 and embarked upon a distinguished judicial and political
-career. In the period 1755–61, except for a brief interval, he served
-as a representative in the colonial legislature and held the offices
-of justice of the peace and county judge. Somehow he also eked out
-time to publish an essay on monetary theory and a series of almanacs
-incorporating his own astronomical observations and verse.
-
-In 1761, abandoning his law practice, Sherman moved to New Haven, Conn.
-There he managed a store that catered to Yale students and another one
-in nearby Wallingford. He also became a friend and benefactor of Yale
-College, functioning for many years as its treasurer.
-
-[Illustration: Residence of Roger Sherman, in New Haven, Conn., from
-1768 until his death in 1793.]
-
-Meanwhile, Sherman’s political career had blossomed. He rose from
-justice of the peace and county judge to an associate judge of the
-Connecticut Superior Court and to representative in both houses of the
-colonial assembly. Although opposed to extremism, he early joined the
-fight against Britain. He supported nonimportation measures and headed
-the New Haven committee of correspondence.
-
-Sherman was a longtime and influential Member of the Continental
-Congress (1774–81 and 1783–84). He won membership on the committees
-that drafted the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of
-Confederation, as well as those concerned with Indian affairs,
-national finance, and military matters. To solve economic problems,
-at both the National and State levels, he advocated high taxes rather
-than excessive borrowing or the issuance of paper currency. While
-in Congress, Sherman remained active in State and local politics,
-continuing to hold the office of judge of the Connecticut Superior
-Court, as well as membership on the council of safety. In 1783 he
-helped codify Connecticut’s statutory laws. The next year, he was
-elected mayor of New Haven (1784–86).
-
-Sherman could not resist the lure of national service. In 1787 he
-represented his State at the Constitutional Convention, in which he
-played a major role. He conceived and introduced the Connecticut,
-or so-called Great, Compromise, which broke a deadlock between
-the large and small States by providing for a dual legislative
-system—representation by proportion of population in the lower house
-and equal representation in the upper house. He was also instrumental
-in Connecticut’s ratification of the Constitution.
-
-Sherman capped his career by serving as U.S. Representative (1789–91)
-and Senator (1791–93), espousing the Federalist cause. He died at
-New Haven in 1793 at the age of 72 and is buried in the Grove Street
-Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-James Smith
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      James Smith, a lawyer who had emigrated from Ireland to
-      the Colonies, represented the Pennsylvania back-country in
-      Revolutionary conventions and the Continental Congress. He
-      also helped draft the Pennsylvania constitution.
-
-
-Smith, the second son in a large family, was born in northern Ireland
-about 1719. When he was around 10 years old, his father emigrated to
-America and settled on acreage west of the Susquehanna River in York
-County, Pa. James studied surveying and classical languages at Rev.
-Francis Alison’s academy in New London, Pa., and then read law in the
-office of his elder brother at Lancaster. He was admitted to the bar
-in 1745 and moved westward to the Shippensburg vicinity in Cumberland
-County. A lack of clients and surveying work caused him about 1750 to
-relocate eastward to York, where he married a decade later. Although he
-was the only lawyer in town until 1769, he experienced difficulty in
-recruiting clients. Probably for this reason, during the years 1771–78
-he undertook iron manufacturing, but the venture failed and he lost
-£5,000.
-
-Smith early emerged as a local Whig leader. In 1774, at a provincial
-convention in Philadelphia, he supported nonimportation measures
-and advocated an intercolonial congress. That same year, at York
-he raised a militia company, in which he served as captain and
-later honorary colonel. At two provincial meetings in 1775–76, he
-championed the interests of the western counties and helped formulate
-resolutions calling for independence, the strengthening of defenses,
-and establishment of a new provincial government. During the latter
-year, he sat on the drafting committee in the State constitutional
-convention. Elected to Congress (1776–78) on July 20, 1776, after the
-vote on independence had been taken, he arrived in Philadelphia in time
-to sign the Declaration. Among his colleagues he gained a reputation as
-a wit, conversationalist, and eccentric.
-
-During the period 1779–82 Smith held various State offices: one-term
-legislator, judge of the Pennsylvania high court of errors and appeals,
-brigadier general in the militia, and State counselor during the
-Wyoming Valley land dispute between Pennsylvania and Connecticut. In
-1785 he turned down reelection to Congress because of his age. His
-major activity prior to his retirement in 1801 was the practice of law.
-Smith died at about the age of 87 in 1806 at York, survived by two
-of his five children. His grave is in the First Presbyterian Church
-Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Richard Stockton
-
-NEW JERSEY
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Circumstances of the times draw some men into public life
-      who otherwise might avoid its burdens—and sorrows. One of
-      these was Richard Stockton, whose wartime detention by the
-      British contributed to his untimely death.
-
-
-Stockton, son of a wealthy landowner and judge, was born in 1730 at
-Morven, the family estate and his lifelong home, at Princeton, N.J.
-After a preparatory education at West Nottingham Academy, in Rising
-Sun, Md., he graduated in 1748 from the College of New Jersey (later
-Princeton University), then in Newark but relocated 8 years hence at
-Princeton. In 1754 he completed an apprenticeship with a Newark lawyer
-and joined the bar. The next year, he wed poetess Annis Boudinot, by
-whom he had two sons and four daughters. By the mid-1760’s he was
-recognized as one of the ablest lawyers in the Middle Colonies.
-
-Like his father a patron of the College of New Jersey, in 1766 Stockton
-sailed on its behalf to Scotland to recruit Rev. John Witherspoon
-for the presidency. Aiding in this endeavor, complicated by the
-opposition of Witherspoon’s wife, was Benjamin Rush, a fellow alumnus
-then enrolled at the University of Edinburgh. In 1768, the year after
-Stockton’s departure, Witherspoon finally accepted.
-
-Stockton resumed his law practice, spending his spare hours at Morven
-breeding choice cattle and horses, collecting art objects, and
-expanding his library. Yet, though he had some time before expressed
-disinterest in public life, in 1768 he began a 6-year term on the
-executive council of New Jersey and then sat on the provincial Supreme
-Court (1774–76).
-
-Stockton became associated with the Revolutionary movement during
-its initial stages. In 1764 he advocated American representation in
-Parliament, but during the Stamp Act crisis the next year questioned
-its right to control the Colonies at all. By 1774, though dreading
-the possibility of war, he was espousing colonial self-rule under the
-Crown. Elected to Congress 2 years later, he voted for independence and
-signed the Declaration. That same year, he met defeat in a bid for the
-New Jersey governorship, but rejected the chance to become first chief
-justice of the State Supreme Court to remain in Congress.
-
-Late in 1776 fate turned against Stockton. In November, while
-inspecting the northern Continental Army in upper New York State
-with fellow Congressman George Clymer, Stockton hurried home when he
-learned of the British invasion of New Jersey and removed his family
-to a friend’s home in Monmouth County. While he was there, Loyalists
-informed the British, who captured and imprisoned him under harsh
-conditions at Perth Amboy, N.J., and later in New York. A formal
-remonstrance from Congress and other efforts to obtain his exchange
-resulted in his release, in poor physical condition, sometime in
-1777. To add to his woes, he found that the British had pillaged and
-partially burned Morven. Still an invalid, he died at Princeton in 1781
-at the age of 50. He is buried at the Stony Brook Quaker Meeting House
-Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Thomas Stone
-
-MARYLAND
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      By the time the Continental Congress voted for independence
-      from Great Britain on July 2, 1776, only a handful of
-      conservatives remained in the body. Included in this
-      group were Thomas Stone of Maryland, Carter Braxton of
-      Virginia, George Read of Delaware, and Edward Rutledge of
-      South Carolina—erstwhile opponents of independence who,
-      except for Read, submitted to the will of the majority and
-      balloted for it. Stone, a rich planter-lawyer of retiring
-      disposition, preferred to stay in the background during his
-      long but limited political career.
-
-
-Stone was born in 1743 at Poynton Manor, his father’s plantation
-near the village of Welcome in Charles County, Md. He enjoyed all
-the advantages that accrued to the eldest son. Following tutorial
-instruction in the classics as a youth, he apprenticed himself to an
-Annapolis lawyer and in 1764 joined the bar. For the first 2 years he
-practiced at Frederick, Md., and then settled in his home county. He
-married 2 years later. Apparently with part of his wife’s dowry, he
-purchased land a few miles to the northeast of his birthplace. There,
-near Port Tobacco, in 1771 he built Habre-de-Venture, his home and
-principal residence for the rest of his life.
-
-Stone entered politics in 1773 as a member of the Charles County
-committee of correspondence. The next year, on behalf of the
-Proprietary Governor, he helped prosecute Joseph H. Harrison, a
-Maryland legislator who had refused to pay the poll tax for the support
-of the Anglican clergy. This action, despite its legal ethicality,
-did not endear Stone to the patriots. His opponents, counsel for
-the defense, consisted of Thomas Johnson, Samuel Chase, and William
-Paca—all three of whom later became his congressional colleagues.
-
-That same year, 1774, Stone won appointment to the provincial
-convention, which the following year sent him to Congress. A far less
-enthusiastic Revolutionary than most Congressmen, he heartily favored
-reconciliation almost up to the time of the vote on independence and
-was one of the few Delegates who favored peace negotiations with
-Britisher Lord Richard Howe in September 1776, some 2 months after the
-adoption of the Declaration. A poor speaker, Stone rarely participated
-in debates but sat on the committee that drafted the Articles of
-Confederation, though he did not sign the document. He remained in
-Congress until 1778.
-
-Meantime, a couple of years earlier, Stone had begun a tour in the
-State senate that was to last for practically the remainder of his
-life. In 1784 he also returned to the Continental Congress, where he
-served for a few days as acting President but resigned before the year
-expired to resume his law practice. His last act of public service
-occurred the following year, when he and two others represented
-Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference.
-
-In 1787 Stone’s wife, whose health had been failing for more than
-a decade, passed away at the age of 34. The grief-stricken Stone
-abandoned his work, declined to attend the Constitutional Convention to
-which he had been elected, and decided to visit England. A few months
-later, though only in his mid-forties, he died suddenly while awaiting
-a vessel at Alexandria, Va. Three of his children survived him. Stone
-is buried in the family graveyard adjacent to Habre-de-Venture.
-
-
-
-
-George Taylor
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Surmounting the poverty that forced him to come to the
-      American Colonies from Ireland as an indentured servant
-      to an ironmaster, George Taylor climbed to the top of the
-      industry. In the process, merging politics with commerce,
-      he gained enough distinction in county and State affairs
-      to win election to the Continental Congress—his only
-      service on the national level. Even then, he attended only
-      a few months, just long enough to sign the Declaration. He
-      contributed more directly to the cause of liberty as an
-      ironmaster, producing ordnance for the Continental Army.
-
-
-When Taylor was about 20 years of age, he indentured himself and
-emigrated from northern Ireland, where he had been born in 1716,
-to Pennsylvania. He began as a laborer and then became a clerk at
-Warwick Furnace, in Chester County, and within 3 years rose to
-bookkeeper-manager of nearby Coventry Forge, another enterprise of his
-employer. In 1742, the year after the latter died, Taylor acquired his
-business when he married his widow; she bore him a son and daughter.
-
-In the mid-1750’s Taylor moved northeastward to Bucks County, where
-he and a partner leased Durham Furnace, about 2 miles south of the
-Northampton County line and 10 miles south of Easton. Apparently after
-1763 Taylor lived much of the time at or near Easton and acquired
-property there. In 1768 his wife died; he subsequently sired five
-children by his housekeeper out of wedlock. The year of his wife’s
-death, he built a home about 15 miles west of the city on a 331-acre
-tract he had purchased the year before. In 1771 he leased most of the
-land out as a farm, and 5 years later sold the house and land.
-
-Taylor had begun his public life in 1747, when he took a commission
-as a captain in the Chester County militia. In 1761 he was appointed
-as justice of the peace for Bucks County, but devoted most of his
-energies to Northampton County, which he served as justice of the peace
-(1764–75) and representative in the colonial legislature (1764–70). In
-1774 Taylor, a political moderate, became a member of the Northampton
-County committee of correspondence. The next year, he attended a
-provincial Revolutionary convention, was elected to the provincial
-assembly, served on the council of safety, and became a colonel in the
-Bucks and Northampton County militias.
-
-In July 1776 the Pennsylvania assembly selected Taylor as one of its
-new Delegates to the Continental Congress. His only noteworthy action
-there was signing the Declaration. The next January, however, he and
-fellow signer George Walton of Georgia negotiated a peace treaty with
-the Six Indian Nations (Iroquois) at Easton, Pa., but Congress did not
-ratify it. In March the voters of Northampton County elected Taylor to
-the new Supreme Executive Assembly of Pennsylvania, but illness and
-financial difficulties restricted his participation to only 6 weeks, at
-the end of which he retired from public life.
-
-By this time, Taylor’s Durham Furnace was turning out grapeshot,
-cannonballs, bar shot, and cannon for the Revolutionary army—for which
-Taylor was ill-compensated. In 1778 the State dispossessed him of his
-lease on the Durham Furnace, owned by the Philadelphia Loyalist John
-Galloway and confiscated by the State. Taylor then moved to Greenwich
-Township, N.J., and leased Greenwich Forge, which he operated until his
-death at the age of 65 in 1781. The year before, his health failing,
-Taylor had returned to Easton and leased a home. Originally buried in
-the yard of the German Evangelical Lutheran Church at Easton, his body
-was later moved to the Easton Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Matthew Thornton
-
-NEW HAMPSHIRE
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Probably six of the 56 signers belatedly penned their
-      signatures, eight of them were foreign-born, and four
-      were physicians. Matthew Thornton belongs in all three
-      categories. Less exclusively, he ranks among the
-      substantial number of signers whose national service was
-      brief or relatively insignificant.
-
-
-Thornton was born in Ireland about 1714. Approximately 4 years later,
-his Scotch-Irish parents emigrated with their family to America,
-settling first at Wiscasset, in present Maine, and then near Worcester,
-Mass. Young Thornton, after attending common schools, undertook the
-study of medicine with a local doctor. In 1740 he began what proved
-to be a thriving practice in the Scotch-Irish town of Londonderry
-(present Derry Village), N.H. Five years later, as a surgeon in the New
-Hampshire militia during King George’s War (1740–48), he participated
-in the British expedition from New England that captured Louisbourg,
-the French fortress in Nova Scotia.
-
-By 1758 Thornton was representing Londonderry in the colonial
-legislature and stayed there until 1775. During the long interim,
-about 1760 he married and began a family of five; and throughout
-the period he figured prominently in New Hampshire politics and
-Revolutionary activities. In 1775–76 he held the offices of president
-of the provincial assembly and constitutional convention, chairman
-of the council of safety, and member of the upper and lower houses of
-the legislature, as well as speaker of the former. Although he did
-not enter Congress until November 1776, or 3 months after the formal
-signing of the Declaration, he was granted permission to affix his
-signature.
-
-About a year later, Thornton left Congress to devote his time to his
-duties as associate justice of the State Superior Court. Despite a lack
-of legal education, he had acquired this position in 1776. He held it
-until 1782, some 2 years after he retired from his medical practice
-in Londonderry and settled on a farm he purchased near Merrimack,
-N.H. Later, in 1784–86, he completed a tour in the State senate. He
-spent his last years farming and operating a ferry—Lutwyche’s (later
-Thornton’s) Ferry—across the Merrimack River.
-
-Thornton died in 1803 at about the age of 89 while visiting his
-daughter in Newburyport, Mass. His grave is in Thornton’s Ferry
-Cemetery, near the site of his Merrimack home.
-
-
-
-
-George Walton
-
-GEORGIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Like signers Button Gwinnett and Lyman Hall a nonnative
-      of Georgia, George Walton fought hard to win independence
-      for his adopted State and his Nation—both in the political
-      arena and on the battlefield. He was wounded in the British
-      siege of Savannah late in 1778 and endured captivity for
-      almost a year. He evinced the same kind of tenacity in all
-      his other endeavors and conquered a string of adversities
-      in his ascent from humble origins to the highest National
-      and State offices.
-
-
-Born sometime in the 1740’s near Farmville, Va., Walton was orphaned
-early and reared by an uncle, who apprenticed him to a carpenter.
-Walton supplemented extensive independent study with some formal
-schooling. In 1769 he moved to Savannah, Ga., read law under a local
-attorney, and 5 years later joined the bar.
-
-That same year, Walton plunged into politics. Rallying Revolutionaries
-at Savannah as did Lyman Hall in St. John’s Parish—the two Whig hotbeds
-in a lukewarm colony—Walton helped organize and played a key part in
-meetings at Savannah in July and August 1774 and the first provincial
-congress the next January. But these meetings, to which only a few
-parishes sent representatives, hardly set the dissent in motion.
-The divided delegates, aware of their limited constituency, failed
-to send Delegates to the Continental Congress, as had all the other
-Colonies, and thus alienated St. John’s Parish. Except for creation
-of a committee of correspondence, to which Walton was appointed, the
-conferees for the most part substituted patriotic talk for action.
-During this period, Walton, blending political activism with romance,
-took a bride. She later gave birth to two sons.
-
-By July 1775, when the second provincial congress convened and
-designated Walton as secretary, apathy in the Revolutionary ranks had
-given way to aggressiveness. The congress dispatched four Delegates to
-the Continental Congress to join Hall, already an unofficial “delegate”
-from St. John’s Parish. The next year, the third provincial congress
-elected Walton, by this time chairman of the council of safety, as a
-Delegate (1776–81). In this capacity, he sat on committees dealing with
-western lands, national finance, and Indian affairs. His only lapse in
-attendance occurred in 1778–79, when the military defense of his own
-State took precedence over his congressional obligations. As a colonel
-in the Georgia militia, he was wounded and captured during the siege
-of Savannah in November-December 1778—the beginning of the British
-invasion of the South. He was imprisoned until the following September,
-when he was exchanged for a navy captain.
-
-Right after his release, at Augusta Walton became involved in a
-factional dispute between two groups of Revolutionaries. Walton’s
-group, irritated because their conservative opponents had taken
-advantage of the confusion generated by the British occupation of
-Savannah by putting their own “governor” into office without benefit
-of a general election, countered by selecting Walton as its “governor”
-(November 1779-January 1780). In January the new legally elected
-legislature picked a Governor, another anti-conservative. Walton
-returned to the Continental Congress in 1780–81, after which he headed
-back to Georgia.
-
-Walton’s subsequent career suffered no diminution. His offices included
-those of chief justice (1783–89) and justice (1790–95 and 1799–1804)
-of the State Superior Court; delegate to the State constitutional
-convention (1788); presidential elector (1789); Governor (1789–90); and
-U.S. Senator (1795–96), filling out an unexpired term. Meantime, he
-had been elected as a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention
-(1787), but did not attend. An advocate of higher education, he was
-also a trustee and founder of Richmond Academy, in Augusta, and
-Franklin College (later the University of Georgia), in Athens.
-
-About 1790 while Governor, changing his residence from Savannah to
-the capital of Augusta, Walton built “Meadow Garden” cottage on
-the northern edge of the city on confiscated Loyalist lands he had
-acquired. He lived in the cottage for 5 years, when he moved to College
-Hill, a country estate he erected on the western outskirts. He died
-there in 1804. Assigned first to the Rosney Cemetery in Augusta, his
-remains now rest at the Signers’ Monument in that city.
-
-
-
-
-William Whipple
-
-NEW HAMPSHIRE
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      William Whipple, a sea captain turned merchant, retired
-      from business to further the Revolution. In addition to
-      sitting in Congress, he commanded New Hampshire militia in
-      two major campaigns and held various State offices.
-
-
-Whipple, the eldest of five children, was born in 1730, at Kittery, in
-present Maine. He attended local schools and went to sea while still a
-boy. In his early twenties he became a shipmaster, and later probably
-sometimes engaged in the slave trade. About 1760 he gave up the sea and
-founded a mercantile firm at Portsmouth, N.H., with his brother Joseph.
-In 1767 he married the daughter of a wealthy merchant-sea captain;
-their only child died in infancy.
-
-By the outbreak of the Revolution, Whipple had become one of the
-leading citizens of Portsmouth. In 1775, his fortune well established,
-he left business to devote his time to public affairs. That year,
-he represented Portsmouth in the provincial assembly at Exeter,
-and served on the New Hampshire council of safety. The following
-year, he won seats in the upper house of the State legislature and
-in the Continental Congress. His congressional tour, interrupted
-intermittently by militia duty, lasted until 1779. He concerned himself
-mainly with military, marine, and financial matters. A tough-minded,
-independent individual, he recommended military aggressiveness in the
-war instead of diplomacy and favored severe punishment of Loyalists and
-speculators.
-
-In the fall of 1777 Whipple, a brigadier general in the New Hampshire
-militia, led four regiments to upper New York State and helped encircle
-and besiege the British army at Saratoga. He was present on October
-17 at the surrender of Gen. John Burgoyne; signed the Convention of
-Saratoga, ending the New York campaign; and helped escort the British
-troops to a winter encampment near Boston to await embarkation for
-England. In 1778 he led another contingent of New Hampshire militia
-into Rhode Island on a campaign that sought but failed to recapture
-Newport from the British.
-
-During his last years, Whipple held the offices of State legislator
-(1780–84), associate justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court
-(1782–85), receiver of finances for Congress in New Hampshire
-(1782–84), and in 1782 president of a commission that arbitrated the
-Wyoming Valley land dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylvania. Ill
-the remaining few years of his life, he passed away in 1785 at the age
-of 55 at Portsmouth, where he was buried in Union Cemetery. His wife
-survived him.
-
-
-
-
-William Williams
-
-CONNECTICUT
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Merchant William Williams was prominent in Connecticut
-      politics, but never won national fame except for signing
-      the Declaration.
-
-
-A Congregational pastor’s son, Williams was born in 1731 at Lebanon,
-Conn., his lifelong home. After graduating from Harvard in 1751, he
-began studying for the ministry under his father. Four years later,
-during the French and Indian War (1754–63), he accompanied a British
-expedition to Lake George, in northeastern New York, that won a
-victory. Back home, he became a merchant. In 1771 he married a daughter
-of Jonathan Trumbull, Royal Governor of Connecticut; they had three
-children.
-
-During his long political career, Williams held a myriad of local,
-provincial, and State offices: town clerk (1752–96) and selectman
-(1760–85); member, clerk, and speaker of the lower house of the
-colonial legislature (1755–76); State legislator (1781–84); member of
-the Governor’s council (1784–1803); judge of the Windham County court
-(1776–1805); and probate judge for the Windham district (1775–1809).
-He also represented Connecticut at various New England meetings, and
-attended the 1788 convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, of
-which he approved.
-
-Upon the outbreak of the Revolution, Williams threw his weight behind
-the cause. Besides writing tracts for the press expressing the colonial
-viewpoint, he prepared Revolutionary state papers for Governor
-Trumbull. Williams also raised money for and personally contributed
-to the war effort. Between 1773 and 1776 he held a colonelcy in the
-Connecticut militia and served on the provincial council of safety. In
-Congress (1776–78 and 1783–84), he sat on the Board of War and helped
-frame the Articles of Confederation, though he did not sign them.
-During the winter of 1780–81, while a French regiment was stationed in
-Lebanon, he moved out of his home and turned it over to the officers.
-
-Williams died at the age of 80 in 1811. His grave is in the Trumbull
-Cemetery, about a mile northeast of town.
-
-
-
-
-James Wilson
-
-PENNSYLVANIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Brilliant yet enigmatic James Wilson possessed one of the
-      most complex and contradictory personalities of all the
-      signers. Never able to reconcile his strong personal drive
-      for wealth and power with his political goals nor to find
-      a middle road between conservatism and republicanism, he
-      alternately experienced either popularity or public scorn,
-      fame or obscurity, wealth or poverty. Yet his mastery of
-      the law and political theory enabled him to play a leading
-      role in framing the U.S. Constitution and to rise from
-      frontier lawyer to Justice of the Supreme Court.
-
-
-Wilson was born in 1741 or 1742 at Carskerdo, near St. Andrews,
-Scotland, and educated at the universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow,
-and Edinburgh. He then emigrated to America, arriving in the midst
-of the Stamp Act agitations in 1765. Early the next year, he accepted
-a position as Latin tutor at the College of Philadelphia, but almost
-immediately abandoned it to study law under John Dickinson.
-
-[Illustration: From 1778 until 1790 James Wilson resided in this
-Philadelphia residence, which became known as “Fort Wilson” in 1779,
-when a mob of citizens and militiamen attacked it.]
-
-In 1768, the year after his admission to the bar, Wilson set up
-practice at Reading, Pa. Two years later, he moved westward to the
-Scotch-Irish settlement of Carlisle, and the following year took a
-bride. He specialized in land law and built up a broad clientele. On
-borrowed capital, he also began to speculate in land. In some way he
-managed, too, to lecture for many years on English literature at the
-College of Philadelphia.
-
-Wilson also became involved in Revolutionary politics. In 1774 he
-took over chairmanship of the Carlisle committee of correspondence,
-attended the first provincial assembly, and completed preparation of
-_Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority
-of the British Parliament_. This tract circulated widely in England
-and America and established Wilson as a Whig leader. It denied
-Parliament’s authority over the Colonies, though it did not question
-their allegiance to the Crown, and recommended a reorganization of the
-imperial structure similar to the later British Commonwealth of Nations.
-
-The next year, Wilson was elected to both the provincial assembly and
-the Continental Congress, where he sat mainly on military and Indian
-affairs committees. In 1776, reflecting the wishes of his constituents,
-he joined the moderates in voting for a 3-week delay in considering
-Richard Henry Lee’s resolution of June 7. On July 1, however, Wilson
-dissented from the majority of the Pennsylvania delegation and
-balloted with John Morton and Benjamin Franklin for independence. On
-July 2 the three men, representing a majority of the Commonwealth’s
-Delegates present, voted the same. Wilson’s strenuous opposition to
-the republican Pennsylvania constitution of 1776, besides indicating
-a switch to conservatism on his part, led to his removal from
-Congress the following year. To avoid the clamor among his frontier
-constituents, he repaired to Annapolis during the winter of 1777–78,
-and then took up residence in Philadelphia.
-
-Wilson affirmed his newly assumed political stance by closely
-identifying with the aristocratic and conservative republican groups,
-multiplying his business interests, and accelerating his land
-speculation. He also took a position as Advocate-General for France in
-America (1779–83), dealing with commercial and maritime matters, and
-legally defended Loyalists and their sympathizers.
-
-In the fall of 1779, during a period of inflation and food shortages, a
-mob, including many militiamen and led by radical-constitutionalists,
-set out to attack the republican leadership. Wilson was a prime target.
-He and some 35 of his colleagues barricaded themselves in his home at
-Third and Walnut Streets, henceforth known as “Fort Wilson.” During a
-brief skirmish, several people on both sides were killed or wounded.
-The shock cooled sentiments and pardons were issued all around, though
-major political battles over the Commonwealth constitution still lay
-ahead.
-
-During 1781 Congress appointed Wilson as one of the directors of the
-Bank of North America, newly founded by Robert Morris with the legal
-advice of Wilson. In 1782–83, by which time the conservatives had
-regained some of their power, he was reelected to Congress, as well as
-in the period 1785–87.
-
-Wilson reached the apex of his career in the U.S. Constitutional
-Convention (1787), in which he was one of the leaders, both in
-the floor debates and the drafting committee. That same year,
-overcoming powerful opposition, he led the drive for ratification
-in Pennsylvania, the second State to ratify. The new Commonwealth
-constitution, drafted in 1789–90 along the lines of the U.S.
-Constitution, was also primarily Wilson’s work and represented the
-climax of his 14-year fight against the constitution of 1776.
-
-For his services in the formation of the Federal Government, though
-Wilson expected to be appointed Chief Justice, in 1789 President
-Washington named him as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. He
-was chosen that same year as the first law professor at the College of
-Philadelphia. Two years hence, he began an official digest of the laws
-of Pennsylvania, a project he never completed, though he carried on for
-awhile after funds ran out.
-
-Wilson, who wrote only a few opinions, did not achieve the success
-on the Supreme Court that his capabilities and experience promised.
-Indeed, during those years he was the object of much criticism and
-barely escaped impeachment. For one thing, he tried to influence the
-enactment of legislation in Pennsylvania favorable to land speculators.
-Between 1792 and 1795 he also made huge but unwise land investments in
-western New York and Pennsylvania, as well as in Georgia. This did not
-stop him from conceiving a grandiose but ill-fated scheme, involving
-vast sums of European capital, for the recruitment of European
-colonists and their settlement on western lands. Meantime, in 1793,
-a widower with six children, he had remarried; the one son from this
-union died in infancy.
-
-Four years later, to avoid arrest for debt, the distraught Wilson
-moved from Philadelphia to Burlington, N.J. The next year, apparently
-while on Federal circuit court business, he arrived at Edenton, N.C.,
-in a state of acute mental stress and was taken into the home of
-James Iredell, a fellow Supreme Court Justice. He died there within a
-few months. Although first buried at Hayes Plantation near Edenton,
-his remains were later reinterred in the yard of Christ Church at
-Philadelphia.
-
-
-
-
-John Witherspoon
-
-NEW JERSEY
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Rev. John Witherspoon, the only active clergyman among
-      the signers, achieved a greater reputation as a religious
-      leader and educator than as a politician. Emigrating
-      from Scotland to America in the midst of the controversy
-      between the Colonies and the Crown, he took part in the
-      Revolution, lost a son during the war, and signed the
-      Articles of Confederation as well as the Declaration. He is
-      better known, however, for his role in the growth of the
-      Presbyterian Church and for his distinguished presidency of
-      the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University).
-
-
-The son of a Calvinist minister, Witherspoon was born in 1723 at the
-village of Gifford, near Edinburgh. He attended grammar school at
-the neighboring town of Haddington and won master of arts (1739) and
-divinity (1743) degrees from the University of Edinburgh. In 1743
-the Haddington Presbytery licensed him to preach. He was ordained 2
-years later at Beith, where he occupied a pulpit until 1757. He then
-transferred to Paisley, not far from Glasgow. Meantime, in 1748, he had
-married; only five of his ten children survived childhood.
-
-Over the years, Witherspoon attained leadership of a group of
-conservative clergymen who were engaged in a prolonged struggle with a
-group of their colleagues to maintain the “purity” of orthodox Church
-doctrine. Witherspoon penned a stream of sermons and tracts attacking
-the opposition and denouncing moral decay in Scotland. He also defended
-the traditional prerogative of the people to choose their own
-ministers, a right ecclesiastical authorities had taken from them.
-
-In 1768 Witherspoon channeled his energies in a new direction. He gave
-up his post at Paisley and accepted the presidency of the College of
-New Jersey, after two representatives of the college had visited him
-and finally at the end of 2 years of effort overcome the objections of
-his wife. He sailed to America with his family. The college bloomed
-under his direction. He increased the endowment, instituted new
-methods of instruction, and broadened and revitalized the curriculum.
-Continuing also as a minister and church leader, he patched up a major
-schism in the Presbyterian Church; stimulated its expansion, especially
-in the Middle Colonies; and worked closely with the Congregationalists.
-
-[Illustration: The College of New Jersey (later Princeton University)
-in 1764. Rev. John Witherspoon served as its president from 1768 until
-1794. The main building, Nassau Hall, is on the left; the President’s
-House, on the right.]
-
-The Revolution fanned Witherspoon’s hatred of the English, which had
-originated in Scotland. By 1770 his students were openly demonstrating
-in favor of the patriot cause. In a commencement oration he advocated
-resistance to the Crown, which became his favorite theme in sermons
-and essays. In 1774–76 he represented his county in the New Jersey
-provincial assemblies, and sat on local committees of correspondence.
-In the latter year he figured prominently in the agitations that led to
-the removal from office and imprisonment of the Royal Governor, and
-then received an appointment to the Continental Congress.
-
-On July 2, 1776, in a congressional speech urging independence,
-Witherspoon declared that the Colonies were “not only ripe for the
-measure but in danger of rotting for the want of it.” In November,
-when the British invaded New Jersey, he closed the College of New
-Jersey. The redcoats occupied its major building, Nassau Hall, burned
-the library, and committed other acts of destruction. The next year,
-Witherspoon’s son James lost his life at the Battle of Germantown, Pa.
-
-Witherspoon stayed in Congress until 1782. His main committee
-assignments dealt with military and foreign affairs. He also
-participated in the debates on the Articles of Confederation, aided
-in setting up the executive departments, and argued for financial
-stability. Meantime, in 1779, he had moved from the President’s House
-at Princeton to Tusculum, a country home he had earlier built nearby.
-He left the Rev. Samuel S. Smith, his son-in-law and the college vice
-president, in charge of the nearly defunct institution.
-
-Witherspoon devoted most of his effort during the postwar years
-to rebuilding the college, which never fully recovered its prewar
-prosperity during his lifetime. In addition, during the years 1783–89
-he sat for two terms in the State legislature, attended the New Jersey
-(1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, participated
-in the reorganization of the Presbyterian Church, and moderated its
-first general assembly (1789). In 1791, at the age of 68, Witherspoon
-took a second wife, a 24-year-old widow, who bore him two daughters.
-Blind his last 2 years, he died in 1794, aged 71, at Tusculum. His
-remains rest in the Presidents’ Lot at Princeton Cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Oliver Wolcott
-
-CONNECTICUT
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Oliver Wolcott, as much a soldier as a politician, helped
-      convert the concept of independence into reality on the
-      battlefield. He also occupied many local, provincial, and
-      State offices, including the governorship. One of his five
-      children, Oliver, also held that position and became U.S.
-      Secretary of the Treasury.
-
-
-Wolcott was the youngest son in a family of 15. Sired by Roger Wolcott,
-a leading Connecticut politician, he was born in 1726 at Windsor
-(present South Windsor), Conn. In 1747, just graduated from Yale
-College at the top of his class, he began his military career. As a
-militia captain during King George’s War (1740–48), he accompanied an
-unsuccessful British expedition against the French in New France. Back
-home, he studied medicine for a time with his brother before deciding
-to turn to law.
-
-In 1751, when Litchfield County was organized, Wolcott moved about 30
-miles westward to the town of Litchfield and immediately took over the
-first of a long string of county and State offices: county sheriff
-(1751–71); member of the lower house (1764, 1767–68, and 1770) and
-upper house (1771–86) of the colonial and State legislatures; and
-probate (1772–81) and county (1774–78) judge. By 1774 he had risen to
-the rank of colonel in the militia.
-
-The next spring, the legislature named him as a commissary for
-Connecticut troops and in the summer the Continental Congress
-designated him as a commissioner of Indian affairs for the northern
-department. In that capacity he attended a conference that year with
-the Iroquois (Six Nations) at Albany, N.Y., that temporarily gained
-their neutrality in the war. Before the year was out, he also aided in
-arbitrating land disputes between Pennsylvania and Connecticut and New
-York and Vermont.
-
-Wolcott sat in Congress from 1775 until 1783 except for the year 1779.
-In June 1776 illness caused him to return to Connecticut. Absent at
-the time of the voting for independence the next month and at the
-formal signing of the Declaration in August, he added his signature
-sometime after his return to Congress in October. Throughout his tour,
-Wolcott devoted portions of each year to militia duty, highlighted
-by participation as a brigadier general in the New York campaigns of
-1776–77 that culminated in the surrender of Gen. John Burgoyne in
-October of the latter year at Saratoga (Schuylerville). During 1779, as
-a major general, Wolcott defended the Connecticut seacoast against the
-raids of William Tryon, Royal Governor of New York.
-
-Wolcott’s postwar career was varied. On the national level, he helped
-negotiate two Indian treaties: the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix,
-N.Y. (1784), in which the Iroquois ceded to the United States some of
-their lands in New York and Pennsylvania; and another (1789) with the
-Wyandottes, who gave up their tract in the Western Reserve, in present
-Ohio. On the State level, Wolcott continued his long period of service
-in the upper house of the legislature (ended 1786); enjoyed a lengthy
-stint as Lieutenant Governor (1787–96); attended the convention (1788)
-that ratified the U.S. Constitution; and, like his father before him
-and his son after him, held the office of Governor (1796–97).
-
-While occupying the latter position, Wolcott died, aged 71, at East
-Windsor. His remains rest in the East Cemetery at Litchfield.
-
-
-
-
-George Wythe
-
-VIRGINIA
-
-[Illustration]
-
-      Virginia’s George Wythe spent only about a year in the
-      Continental Congress, never aspired to any other national
-      office, and played a minor part in the Constitutional
-      Convention. But he made a deep impress on legal education
-      in the Nation and strongly influenced the government and
-      jurisprudence of his State. A brilliant classical scholar
-      and the first professor of law in an American college, he
-      instructed scores of young lawyers. Included among them
-      were Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, John Marshall, and
-      Henry Clay.
-
-
-Wythe was born in 1726, the second of three children, on his father’s
-plantation on the Back River in Elizabeth City County, Va., within the
-confines of present Hampton. He lost his parents at an early age and
-grew up under the guardianship of his older brother, Thomas. George
-acquired a knowledge of the classics from his well-educated mother
-before her death, and he probably attended for a time a grammar school
-operated by the College of William and Mary.
-
-Wythe’s brother later sent him to Prince George County to read law
-under an uncle. In 1746, at the age of 20, he joined the bar, moved
-to Spotsylvania County, and became associated with a lawyer there.
-In December 1747, he married his partner’s sister, but she succumbed
-the next year. In 1754 Lt. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie appointed him as
-acting colonial attorney general, a position he held for a few months
-and which likely required that he spend some time in Williamsburg.
-The next year, Wythe’s brother died and he inherited his birthplace.
-He chose, however, to live in Williamsburg in the house that his new
-father-in-law, an architect, designed and built for him and his
-betrothed, whom he married about 1755. Their only child died in infancy.
-
-At Williamsburg, Wythe immersed himself in further study of the
-classics and the law and achieved accreditation by the colonial Supreme
-Court. Like his father, he served in the House of Burgesses (mid-1750’s
-until 1775), first as delegate and after 1769 as clerk. During this
-period, in 1768 he held the mayorship of Williamsburg, and the next
-year sat on the board of visitors of the College of William and Mary.
-He also had found time during the years 1762–67 to train youthful
-Thomas Jefferson in the law. The two men, at first as mentor and pupil
-and later as political allies, maintained a lifetime friendship.
-
-Wythe first exhibited Revolutionary leanings in 1764 when Parliament
-hinted to the Colonies that it might impose a Stamp Tax. By then
-an experienced legislator, he drafted for the House of Burgesses a
-remonstrance to Parliament so strident that his fellow legislators
-modified it before adoption. Wythe was one of the first to express the
-concept of separate nationhood for the Colonies within the British
-Empire.
-
-Although elected to Congress in 1775–76, Wythe exerted little influence
-in that body. He spent considerable time helping draft a State
-constitution and design a State seal, and was not present at the time
-of the formal signing of the Declaration in August 1776. Furthermore,
-within a few months, Wythe, Jefferson, and Edmund Pendleton undertook
-a 3-year project to revise Virginia’s legal code. In 1777 Wythe also
-presided as speaker of the lower house of the legislature.
-
-An appointment as one of the three judges of the newly created Virginia
-high court of chancery followed the next year. Sitting on it for 28
-years, during 13 of which he was the only chancellor, Wythe charted the
-course of Virginia jurisprudence. In conjunction with these duties, he
-was an ex officio member of the State Superior Court.
-
-Wythe’s real love was teaching. In 1779 Jefferson and other officials
-of the College of William and Mary created the first chair of law in
-a U.S. institution of higher learning and appointed Wythe to fill
-it. In that position, he educated America’s earliest college-trained
-lawyers, among them John Marshall and James Monroe. To supplement his
-lectures, Wythe introduced the use of moot courts and legislatures,
-in which students could put their knowledge into actual practice. In
-1787 he also demonstrated his love of the classics and literature
-by offering free to anyone interested a class in Latin, Greek, and
-English literature. That same year, he attended the U.S. Constitutional
-Convention, but played an insignificant role and did not sign the
-Constitution. The following year, however, he was one of the Federalist
-leaders at the Virginia ratifying convention.
-
-In 1791, the year after Wythe resigned his professorship, his chancery
-duties caused him to move his home to Richmond, the State capital.
-But he was reluctant to give up his teaching and opened a private law
-school. One of his last and most promising pupils was a teenager named
-Henry Clay.
-
-In 1806, in his eighth decade, Wythe died at Richmond under mysterious
-circumstances—probably of poison administered by his heir, a favorite
-grandnephew. Reflecting a lifelong aversion to slavery, Wythe
-emancipated his slaves in his will. His grave is in the yard of St.
-John’s Episcopal Church at Richmond.
-
-
-
-
-Part Three
-
-Signers of the Declaration:
-
-Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings
-
-
-Over the decades that separate present-day America from the early
-periods of its history, a large number of the structures commemorating
-those periods have been marred or obliterated. Those relating to the
-signers of the Declaration of Independence have not been spared. The
-ravages of war, urbanization, fire, aging, weathering, neglect, and
-vandalism have destroyed all the residences of 21 of these 56 men and
-seriously impaired some of those that have survived.
-
-Beyond those factors detrimental to all historic buildings are
-two special ones that have hampered the marking and preserving of
-signers’ homes and other sites. For decades following adoption of the
-Declaration, these individuals were not accorded the reverence bestowed
-on them in modern times. Secondly, many of them have received only
-slight historical recognition because they lacked national reputations
-other than as signers.
-
-Yet among the residences and buildings that remain are many of major
-significance. As a whole, they reveal much about the way of life of
-the signers and illuminate the events involved in the creation of the
-Declaration. Of outstanding significance is Independence National
-Historical Park, Pa. Within its boundaries the document was written,
-debated, approved, and signed. The National Park Service administers
-the park in cooperation with the city of Philadelphia and various
-private agencies. Three residences of signers are also units of the
-National Park System: Adams National Historic Site, Mass.; the Floyd
-House, in Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y.; and the Nelson House,
-part of Colonial National Historical Park, Va.
-
-Almost half the extant homes of the signers are owned by private
-individuals, many of whom personally reside in them and a few of whom
-are descendants of the signers. The rest of the residences are owned
-and maintained by States, cities, and a wide variety of nongovernmental
-institutions, such as patriotic-civic organizations, memorial
-associations, local historical societies, foundations, universities,
-churches, and corporations and business firms.
-
-Reflecting the dedicated efforts of many of the above individuals and
-agencies, a considerable number of the buildings and residences provide
-fine examples of historic preservation and restoration. Unfortunately,
-some structures have badly deteriorated. But the increased recent
-interest in the signers has enhanced the identification, renovation,
-and preservation of pertinent sites and buildings.
-
-In addition to the preservation of sites and buildings, the subject
-of this book, the signers have been honored in many other ways.
-Commemoration varies widely, however, from State to State and from
-signer to signer. Some have been recognized in a major way; others
-hardly at all.
-
-In the forefront of the groups that have marked extant homes and
-buildings, as well as the sites of former structures and graves, or
-otherwise memorialized the signers are: Daughters of the American
-Revolution; Daughters of the Revolution; Colonial Dames of America;
-National Society of Colonial Dames of America; Sons of the American
-Revolution; Sons of the Revolution; and the Descendants of the Signers
-of the Declaration of Independence, Inc., chartered by Congress in 1907.
-
-A major share of the sites of residences with no physical remains
-has been marked. The 20 signers for whom no existing homes have been
-located are: Samuel Adams, Abraham Clark, William Ellery, Benjamin
-Franklin, Lyman Hall, John Hart, Francis Lewis, Philip Livingston,
-Thomas McKean, Lewis Morris, Robert Morris, John Morton, Robert Treat
-Paine, John Penn, George Read, Caesar Rodney, George Ross, Benjamin
-Rush, Roger Sherman, and James Smith. Another signer, Samuel Chase, is
-represented in this volume only by a structure (Chase-Lloyd House) that
-he began building but never resided in.
-
-Monuments and memorials range from simple plaques to the Thomas
-Jefferson Memorial, D.C., in the National Park System. Statues of
-several signers are located in the U.S. Capitol. Special monuments
-have been erected to those from two States. The Founders’ Monument,
-in Augusta, Ga., is dedicated to the three signers from that State
-(Gwinnett, Hall, and Walton) and contains the burial places of the
-latter two. A monument to the three North Carolina signers (Hewes,
-Hooper, and Penn) at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, in
-Greensboro, N.C., includes the tombs of Hooper and Penn.
-
-
-Described in the following pages are the principal buildings associated
-with the signers of the Declaration. They are comprised of three
-categories: National Park Service Areas, National Historic Landmarks,
-and Other Sites Considered.
-
-The principal aim of the National Survey of Historic Sites and
-Buildings is to identify nationally important sites that are not
-_National Park Service Areas_, but no survey of historic places would
-be complete without including them. This is particularly true because
-many of them were designated as National Historic Landmarks before they
-became part of the National Park System. Further information about
-a particular area may be obtained by writing directly to the park
-superintendent at the address listed immediately following the location.
-
-_National Historic Landmarks_ are those sites judged by the Advisory
-Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments to
-meet the criteria of national significance in commemorating the history
-of the United States (pp. 270–271). They have been declared by the
-Secretary of the Interior to be eligible for designation as National
-Historic Landmarks. Final designation occurs when the owners apply for
-such status. They receive certificates and bronze plaques attesting to
-the distinction.
-
-_Other Sites Considered_ consist of those sites deemed by the Advisory
-Board to possess noteworthy historical value but not national
-significance. The list of sites included in this category does not
-purport to be exhaustive; it is merely a representative sampling, all
-that is possible because of space limitations.
-
-Many sites in the Other Sites Considered category in all phases of
-history are listed on the National Register of Historic Places,
-maintained by the National Park Service’s Office of Archeology and
-Historic Preservation. The register consists not only of sites in the
-National Park System and National Historic Landmarks but also those of
-State and local significance, nominated through appropriate channels
-by the various States. It is published biennally and distributed by
-the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
-Washington, D.C., 20402. The latest volume is _The National Register of
-Historic Places, 1972_, price $7.80.
-
-
-[Illustration: SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION
-
-HISTORIC SITES OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE (map)]
-
-For the convenience of users of this volume, sites and buildings are
-listed alphabetically by State. The following code indicates site
-categories:
-
-  _Site Categories_
-
-  ☑ NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AREAS
-  ∆ NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS
-  ‎⊗ OTHER SITES CONSIDERED
-
-NOTE: _The following descriptions indicate sites that are open to the
-public. Before visiting any of them, inquiry should be made to the
-owners or custodians concerning dates and hours of access and admission
-costs, usually nominal. Special permission should be obtained to visit
-privately owned sites._
-
-
-
-
-Huntington Birthplace, Connecticut  ∆
-
-    _Location: Windham County, on the north side of Conn. 14, about 2
-    blocks west of its junction with Conn. 97, Scotland._
-
-
-This plain but charming farmhouse on the bank of Merrick’s Brook was
-the birthplace and home of Samuel Huntington through his boyhood and
-early manhood. He lived in it from 1731 probably until 1760, the year
-he moved to Norwich.
-
-The house, built in the period 1700–22, is shaded by huge trees and
-fronted by a spacious lawn. It is a large, two-story, clapboarded-frame
-structure of saltbox design. The gable roof slopes steeply at the rear.
-Exterior windows are topped by projecting cornices; the center door, by
-a rectangular transom. A one-story kitchen wing with front porch at the
-northeast end of the house along the main axis was added early in the
-19th century.
-
-[Illustration: Huntington Birthplace.]
-
-The floor plan is typical of a central chimney New England dwelling.
-Behind a short central entrance hall, which contains an L-shaped
-stairway, is a large stone central chimney with three fireplaces. Two
-of these heat the parlor and dining room, entered from the hall; a
-huge third one serves the large original kitchen, which ranges across
-the rear two-thirds of the house behind the dining room and chimney.
-A small bedroom is situated back of the parlor alongside the original
-kitchen, between it and the one-story new kitchen addition. Three
-additional bedrooms, one of which has a fully paneled fireplace wall,
-are located upstairs. Wallpaper has been added to some of the rooms,
-but the fireplaces, wainscoting, and wide-board floors are original.
-
-The privately owned house, which is in good condition and little
-altered, has never been restored, though some modern conveniences have
-been installed. It is not open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Huntington House, Connecticut  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: New London County, 34 East Town Street, Norwich._
-
-
-Samuel Huntington erected this house in the years 1783–85 and lived in
-it until his death in 1796. Since that time, the frame dwelling has
-been extensively modified on both the exterior and interior and a major
-addition made at the rear.
-
-[Illustration: Huntington House.]
-
-Originally the residence was a large, two-story, rectangular structure
-with a gable roof, two interior chimneys, tall corner pilasters, and
-triangular pediments above the first-story windows. By the middle of
-the 19th century, however, the structure had been remodeled in Greek
-Revival style, including the construction of a two-story portico across
-the entire front, or north, side, and in the center of this facade a
-central two-tiered porch. Later in the century, the portico and the two
-interior chimneys were removed. Sometime during the century, a large
-two-story section was added to the rear of the house, and a projecting
-two-story bay on the west side.
-
-The present two-tiered porch at the entrance is a modern replacement
-whose design differs considerably from the earlier one. Four large
-Doric columns support it, and a railing runs around the second-story
-level. The east entranceway consists of a one-story portico with an
-elliptical plan and Doric columns. Other modern features include
-clapboarding and window sash.
-
-The central hall, extending from the entranceway through the rest of
-the house and rear addition, has always dominated the floor plan, which
-otherwise has been completely obliterated. Interior partitions have
-either been removed to create larger rooms or added to make smaller
-ones. Stairs are located in the front and rear of the hall. Little, if
-any, of the original interior finish remains.
-
-The house, also known as the Governor Huntington House, in excellent
-condition, is owned and occupied by a charitable organization and
-is not open to the general public. Huntington’s remains rest in the
-adjacent Old Burial Ground.
-
-
-
-
-Williams Birthplace, Connecticut  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: New London County, on the west side of Conn. 87 at the
-    south end of the commons, Lebanon._
-
-
-William Williams was born in this house in 1731 and lived in it until
-1755, when his father gave him a residence elsewhere in Lebanon.
-Constructed about 1712 by Rev. Samuel Welles, a Congregational
-minister, it later came into the possession of Rev. Solomon Williams,
-the signer’s father, and is also known as the Welles-Williams House.
-Over the years, considerable alteration has occurred.
-
-The rectangular frame structure is two stories high with a gable roof.
-Exterior louvered shutters flank the windows on both stories. The
-Greek Revival architrave of the central door was added about 1830. A
-one-story ell, containing a kitchen and part of the dining room, is
-located at the rear southwest corner of the house. A barn has been
-built on the end of the ell. A more recent one-story frame wing extends
-from the southeast rear corner. The residence was recently covered with
-clapboard.
-
-[Illustration: Williams Birthplace.]
-
-In modern times the original large central stone chimney has been
-replaced by a much smaller brick one, which provides a fireplace for
-the present living room. This has resulted in a major revamping of the
-typical central chimney floor plan. It once consisted of two tiers of
-four rooms but today is divided into large living room, dining room,
-and parlor, plus a bath, and three bedrooms upstairs. Two of the latter
-originally had fully paneled walls. Only one is paneled today.
-
-The house, a private residence not accessible to the public, is in good
-condition.
-
-
-
-
-Williams House, Connecticut  ∆
-
-    _Location: New London County, southeast corner of the junction of
-    Conn. 207 and Conn. 87, Lebanon._
-
-
-Of the two extant residences of William Williams, this house, where he
-lived the greater part of his life, is less altered. His father, Rev.
-Solomon Williams, acquired it in 1748 and 7 years later presented it to
-William, who resided there until his death in 1811.
-
-The dwelling is a two-story, rectangular frame building. A long,
-1½-story service wing extends from the center of the rear of the
-house. The original clapboard siding, covered with asbestos shingles
-in the 1930’s, has recently been reexposed. The front entranceway, in
-the Greek Revival style, was probably constructed about 1830. Other
-exterior changes to the main house are limited to the lowering of the
-two original interior chimneys on the back side of the ridge of the
-gabled roof, the addition of a brick chimney at the north end, and the
-insertion of a one-story bay window in the living room at the south end.
-
-[Illustration: Williams House.]
-
-The central hall divides each floor into two large rooms. Downstairs,
-to the north of the hall, which incorporates the original stairway, is
-a parlor, whose entire fireplace wall is still covered with the old
-paneling; to the south of the hall is the living room. Its entranceway
-from the hall has been widened and two columns inserted. Upstairs are
-two bedrooms with fully paneled fireplace walls. The six original
-fireplaces, except for the one in the kitchen, have been closed up,
-but their mantels have been left in place. All the original wide
-floorboards remain. The rear service wing contains a dining room and
-kitchen on the first floor and four small bedrooms above.
-
-The well-preserved house is today a private home and is not open to the
-public.
-
-
-
-
-Wolcott House, Connecticut  ∆
-
-    _Location: Litchfield County, on the east side of South Street
-    nearly opposite its intersection with Wolcott Avenue, Litchfield._
-
-
-Oliver Wolcott erected and occupied this residence in 1753, some 2
-years after he moved from Windsor to Litchfield, and lived in it until
-he died in 1797. Except for a major rear addition, it has been only
-slightly altered.
-
-[Illustration: Wolcott House.]
-
-The two-story, frame structure has a gable roof, a large central
-chimney, and slight overhangs at the gable ends. Attached to the south
-end of the house on the main axis is a small, 1½-story frame wing with
-gambrel roof. A one-story porch, added by Wolcott about 1783, extends
-across this wing. The roof of the porch is of the coved, or “barrow,”
-type. The walls of the main house and wing are covered with clapboards,
-and the windows have louvered shutters. Triangular pediments cap the
-first-story windows. The center door, topped by a round arch fanlight,
-is sheltered by a Federal period broken-pediment portico supported by
-two fluted columns.
-
-Later additions include small bay windows on each side of the
-chimney in the south end wall of the south wing; a wide dormer in
-the west, or front, upper story of the wing; and a two-story, frame,
-clapboard-covered service wing, added in the 1880’s at the northeast
-corner on the rear of the main house, which gave the structure its
-present L-shape. The service wing, which cannot be seen from the
-street, contains the present kitchen and servants’ workrooms and
-bedrooms.
-
-The floor plan of the main house is the central chimney type. To the
-rear of the short central hall, which is equipped with the original
-L-shaped stairway and divides this portion of the house into two tiers
-of rooms, is the central chimney. On the first floor, to the north of
-the hall, is the dining room; to the south, the parlor. The fireplace
-walls in both rooms are fully paneled, and the floors have wide boards.
-Back of the parlor, a hall leads on the south to the morning room, or
-bedroom, in the south wing; and on the north, to the original kitchen,
-which contains a large fireplace. Four bedrooms occupy the second story
-of the main house, two of them featuring paneled overmantels, and one
-bedroom is located on the second floor of the south wing.
-
-One of Wolcott’s descendants, who acquired and restored the house about
-1920, resides in it today. In excellent condition, it is the oldest
-extant structure in Litchfield Historic District, a National Historic
-Landmark relating primarily to colonial architecture. The house is not
-accessible to the public.
-
-
-
-
-The White House, District of Columbia  ∆
-
-    _Location: 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW., Washington._
-
-
-Signers John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the first two occupants of
-the White House, official residence of our Nation’s Presidents since
-1800. It is a national shrine that symbolizes the honor and dignity of
-the highest office in the land, and has been the scene of many historic
-events and brilliant social affairs. Like the Nation itself, it bears
-the influences of successive Chief Executives. Although rebuilt and
-modernized, it retains the simplicity and charm of its original
-appearance.
-
-[Illustration: South facade of the White House.]
-
-President George Washington approved the plans for the White House,
-drawn by Irish-born James Hoban, winner of the prize competition.
-Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant, the French artist-engineer, located the
-mansion in his plan of the Federal City, in which it and the Capitol
-were the first public buildings erected. The cornerstone was laid on
-October 13, 1792. Workmen used light gray sandstone from the Aquia
-Creek Quarries, in Virginia, for the exterior walls. During the course
-of construction or soon thereafter, they apparently were painted
-white. The building was thus unofficially termed the “White House” from
-an early date, but for many years it was usually referred to as the
-“President’s House” or the “President’s Palace.”
-
-[Illustration: North facade of the White House in 1807.]
-
-In the Palladian style of architecture, the main facade resembles
-the Duke of Leinster’s mansion in Dublin. Hoban probably derived
-the details of other faces and the interior arrangement from
-other contemporary European mansions. He supervised the original
-construction; the rebuilding after the burning by British forces, in
-1814; and the erection of the north and south porticoes, some years
-later. Over the course of time, however, various architects modified
-Hoban’s original plans, notably Benjamin H. Latrobe during and after
-the Jefferson administration.
-
-President and Mrs. John Adams were the first occupants, in November
-1800 when the Government moved from Philadelphia to Washington. The
-interior had not yet been completed, and Mrs. Adams used the unfinished
-East Room to dry the family wash. During Jefferson’s administration
-the east and west terraces, or pavilions, were built. Jefferson, who
-practiced democratic simplicity in his social life, opened the mansion
-each morning to all arrivals.
-
-During the War of 1812, British forces captured the city and set the
-torch to the White House, the Capitol, and other Government buildings
-in retaliation for the destruction by U.S. troops of some public
-buildings in Canada. Only the partially damaged exterior walls and
-interior brickwork of the White House remained in the spring of 1815
-when reconstruction began. In 1817 the recently elected President,
-James Monroe, was able to occupy the structure. In 1824 builders
-erected the south portico; and in 1829, the large north portico over
-the entrance and driveway. The west wing, including the President’s
-oval office, was added during the first decade of the 20th century. The
-east wing was built in 1942.
-
-Over the years, the White House proper has been extensively renovated
-and modernized on various occasions. The old sandstone walls have been
-retained, however. The aim has been to keep the historical atmosphere
-while providing a more livable home for the President and his family.
-
-Located on the first floor of the main building are the East Room,
-Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, and Family Dining
-Room. These richly furnished rooms are open to the public on a special
-schedule. The ground and second floors are restricted to the use of the
-presidential family and guests. On the ground floor are the Diplomatic
-Reception Room, Curator’s Office, Vermeil Room, China Room, and
-Library. The second floor contains the Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting
-Room, Queens’ Bedroom (Rose Guest Room), Treaty Room, Yellow Oval Room,
-and Empire Guest Room. Neither of the wings, reserved for the President
-and his staff, are ordinarily accessible to the public.
-
-The simple dignity of the White House is enhanced by the natural beauty
-of its informal but carefully landscaped grounds.
-
-
-
-
-College Hill, Georgia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Richmond County, 2216 Wrightsboro Road, Augusta._
-
-
-In 1795 George Walton built this house on the western outskirts of
-Augusta on land that had been granted him by the State of Georgia in
-1787. He lived in it until his death in 1804.
-
-[Illustration: College Hill.]
-
-The handsome, two-story, frame structure features weatherboarded and
-clapboarded walls, a gable roof, and a brick chimney at each end.
-Of special interest is the two-tiered veranda extending across the
-entire main facade. At its front and sides on both levels are a series
-of segmental arches supported by delicate square columns on high
-pedestals. The fine balustrade is composed of delicate, sheaf-like
-balusters. Central double doors are located on the front of both
-stories. The doors are framed by pilasters and sidelights and topped
-by segmental fanlights. The windows have exterior louvered shutters.
-A one-story kitchen, added in 1898, extends from the southwest rear
-corner of the house.
-
-The central hall, which contains a U-shaped stairway, divides the main
-section of the structure into two pairs of rooms. The larger front two
-are equipped with fireplaces and have original mantels decorated in the
-Adam style. Behind the main hall is a smaller rear hall. The hall walls
-are plastered, and the board walls of the principal rooms are covered
-with paper and wainscoting. Five bedrooms occupy the second floor. The
-original kitchen was situated in a separate building that is no longer
-extant.
-
-Known today as the Walton-Harper House, since 1885 College Hill has
-been owned by the Harper family, descendants of Walton. Little altered
-but never restored, it is a private residence and is not shown publicly.
-
-
-
-
-Meadow Garden, Georgia  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Richmond County, 1320 Nelson Street, Augusta._
-
-
-About 1790 Gov. George Walton moved from Savannah to Augusta, then the
-capital. At that time, he built Meadow Garden cottage at the northern
-edge of the city, on confiscated Loyalist lands in his possession. He
-resided in it until 1795, the year he constructed and occupied a larger
-home, College Hill, just west of Augusta. He deeded Meadow Garden under
-trusteeship to Thomas Watkins, who later conveyed it to George Walton,
-Jr. Over the years, it has been doubled in size and otherwise altered.
-
-[Illustration: Meadow Garden.]
-
-Meadow Garden was originally a modest 1½-story cottage of frame
-construction built over a high brick basement. The gable roof was
-pierced by two front dormers and an interior central chimney. Windows
-were located in the gable ends. An entrance door and hall were situated
-on the western bay of the south facade, which had three bays. Two
-rooms on the first floor opened off the east of the hall, and the
-basement contained two more finished rooms.
-
-Sometime after 1800 the house was enlarged and converted into a
-central hall type by a major three-bay wide extension to the west of
-the side hall, which became the central hall. The gable roof of the
-original building was extended over the new portion, which was also
-equipped with an interior chimney. About 1903 a single dormer was
-added to the extension. The two first-floor rooms in the addition,
-which lacks a cellar, are about two steps lower than the two in the
-original structure. The second floor of the present house contains four
-bedrooms. A one-story porch, probably not original, extends across the
-front, or south, side. Its Doric columns rest on square pedestals and
-are linked by a light balustrade. About 1903 a one-story kitchen was
-added to the rear northwest corner of the house.
-
-Many interior features are intact, but the plaster walls are covered
-with paper. The southwest room, or library, located in the 1800
-addition and restored in 1969, contains an excellent late Georgian
-mantel and overmantel. The building has been roofed with modern
-material.
-
-The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution
-acquired the residence in 1900, and the following year opened it to
-visitors. In 1960 the National Society presented it to the State
-Society. It is currently operated as a historic house museum by the
-Augusta Chapter. A caretaker’s residence is located on the grounds.
-
-
-
-
-Tabby Cottage, Georgia  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Liberty County, on St. Catherines Island, which is
-    located about 10 miles off the Georgia coast southeast of Midway
-    between St. Catherines and Sapelo Sounds._
-
-
-The original portion of this structure, today an eight-bedroom house
-and the main building on St. Catherines Island, may have been built
-by Button Gwinnett in 1765 when he purchased the island, on which he
-resided until his death in 1777 at Savannah. In 1929 the owner of the
-island extensively remodeled the gable-roofed building. He retained
-its basic shape and preserved many of its features, including mantels,
-stair rail, and wide-board, hand-pegged floors. To the rear at a right
-angle on one side he added a 1½-story wing, also with gable roof, which
-more than doubled the floor space. The original, or front, section of
-the house, also 1½ stories in height, was constructed of “tabby,” a
-mixture of lime, ground from burned oyster shells, with sand, shells,
-and water. The wing is of frame with a stucco finish. Both parts of
-the residence are now roofed with Ludowici tile and feature dormers,
-interior chimneys, and shuttered exterior windows.
-
-Other tabby structures on the island include seven guest cottages and
-about a dozen slave quarters, all probably dating from the early 19th
-century. Many of them are in ruins but some are in good condition.
-Elsewhere are four present employee residences, as well as several
-barns and maintenance buildings. Boundaries of old cotton and tobacco
-fields are discernible, as well as dozens of Indian burial mounds. Of
-special interest, between Persimmon Point and Wamassee Head, is the
-undisturbed site of the Mission of Santa Catalina (1566-ca. 1684), a
-Spanish mission. None of the buildings remain, but potsherds and other
-surface debris are plentiful.
-
-When this volume went to press, the National Survey of Historic Sites
-and Buildings was making a further study of Tabby Cottage to determine
-the exact degree of its authenticity in relation to Gwinnett. Privately
-owned St. Catherines Island, not accessible to the public, has already
-been accorded National Historic Landmark status because of its
-associations with Spanish exploration and settlement.
-
-
-
-
-Whipple Birthplace, Maine  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: York County, 88 Whipple Street, Kittery._
-
-
-William Whipple, a signer from New Hampshire, was a native of Kittery,
-now in Maine but then in Massachusetts. Born in this house in 1730, he
-probably lived in it until, like many boys of the locality, he went to
-sea. About 1760 he abandoned his life as a seaman and took up residence
-in Portsmouth, N.H.
-
-This handsome frame residence, the only one extant associated with a
-signer in Maine, occupies a picturesque setting on a small cove along
-the Piscataqua River. The two-story building has been considerably
-altered and enlarged over the years, but it is in excellent condition
-and rests on original foundations. It has been painted red since at
-least 1873.
-
-[Illustration: Whipple Birthplace.]
-
-In its present form the house is Georgian in style with a central
-hall plan. The exterior walls are clapboarded. On the east, or
-front, elevation a round arch window on the second story sits over a
-pedimented center door. The ell at the rear is a 20th-century addition.
-A slight overhang on the south end of the house indicates that it may
-once have been a garrison house, and that the upper story projected
-over the first. This portion of the house was constructed of hemlock,
-square-dovetailed at the corners. At some later date, the structure
-was enlarged, and in the mid-19th century the exterior was completely
-renovated.
-
-The residence originally featured a center chimney floor plan. In the
-19th century the central chimney was removed and a center hall with
-stairway added, as well as two small interior chimneys with fireplaces,
-one at each side of the hall. On the first floor, to the south of the
-hall, is the bedroom where Whipple was born; to the north, a large
-parlor. The original kitchen is located to the rear, or west, of the
-center hall and parlor.
-
-Privately occupied, the house is not open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Carroll Mansion, Maryland
-
-    _Location: Anne Arundel County, Duke of Gloucester Street, between
-    Newman and St. Marys Streets, Annapolis._
-
-
-Charles Carroll III of Carrollton was born in 1737 at this townhouse,
-which his father had probably built about 1735. Around the age of 11,
-young Carroll traveled to Europe for an education and did not return to
-Maryland until 1765. Thereafter, he lived mainly at Doughoregan Manor
-but utilized his birthplace, which he inherited from his father, when
-in Annapolis. In 1804, when he retired from public life, he closed it
-up. In 1870 one of his granddaughters deeded the house and property to
-the Redemptionist Fathers of St. Mary’s Catholic Church, which had been
-built in 1858–60 on adjacent lands also donated by the Carrolls.
-
-[Illustration: Carroll Mansion.]
-
-Carroll Mansion, a brick rectangular structure constructed in Flemish
-bond, rises 2½ stories over a basement. Belt courses mark the first-
-and second-floor levels on the north and south sides. Segmental arches
-head the windows. Two massive chimneys penetrate the slate-covered
-gable roof. They are located at what may have been the original gable
-ends. Five gabled dormers protrude from the south side of the roof;
-four from the north. A wood cornice with dentils and modillions
-extends along the sides and up the gables at the ends.
-
-Exterior alterations include the addition of a one-story basement at
-the east, or present rear, end of the residence and a one-story porch
-and entrance at the west end. The front entrance, probably dating from
-the early or mid-19th century, is highlighted by a rectangular transom
-and sidelights. The original entrance was apparently located in the
-center of the north side of the house, where a passageway, erected in
-1858, now connects it to St. Mary’s Church.
-
-Interior alterations have practically obliterated the original floor
-plan. A stair hall occupies a central compartment at the north side,
-and the stairs appear to be original. Only two major rooms retain some
-of their original finish. A large one on the south side of the first
-floor, now used as a chapel, has walls paneled in plaster and a plaster
-cornice. Another, at the east end, features a plaster cornice, a
-ceiling divided by triple panels, and a wooden mantelpiece.
-
-The building, in fair condition, is used as a residence by the
-Redemptionist Fathers and is not accessible to the public. It is part
-of Colonial Annapolis Historic District.
-
-
-
-
-Carrollton Manor, Maryland  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Frederick County, on the south side of Manor Wood Road,
-    immediately east of the East Alco Aluminum Company Plant, just west
-    of Buckeystown._
-
-
-In 1765 Charles Carroll, returning to Maryland after completing his
-extensive education in Europe, built this home near the mouth of the
-Monocacy River along Tuscarora Creek on a 10,000-acre tract of land he
-had acquired from his father. Young Carroll never spent much time at
-Carrollton Manor. Shortly after he had constructed it, his father died,
-and he preferred to spend his time at Doughoregan Manor, the ancestral
-family home in Howard County.
-
-The rectangular manor is constructed of native limestone. It rises 2½
-stories above an elevated basement. A pair of chimneys are located at
-the west end of the gable roof, and a single chimney at the east end. A
-later one-story addition extends from the east end. The central door,
-sheltered by a one-story porch on the north, is topped by a rectangular
-transom and flanked by sidelights, both probably dating from the Greek
-Revival period. Dating from the same time are the two triple windows in
-the first story at the rear of the house. A one-story porch that once
-extended across that elevation has been removed.
-
-[Illustration: Carrollton Manor.]
-
-The house contains four rooms on each floor. East of the front entrance
-is a stair hall and a spacious dining room; to the west, a library and
-living room. Large double doors connect the living and dining rooms.
-The second floor contains four bedrooms; the attic, four more.
-
-Upon Carroll’s death, his descendants inherited the manor. In 1968 an
-aluminum company bought the property and erected a large office and
-plant buildings and a spur railroad track to the west of the house.
-In excellent condition, though never restored, it is today used as a
-company residence and is not open to visitors. A nearby chapel, erected
-by Carroll, is still used as a parish church.
-
-
-
-
-Chase-Lloyd House, Maryland  ∆
-
-    _Location: Anne Arundel County, 22 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis._
-
-
-Although Samuel Chase began building this house in 1769 while he was
-a young lawyer, he never resided in it, for he sold it unfinished in
-1771 to Edward Lloyd IV, a wealthy Maryland planter and politician.
-Lloyd immediately engaged architect William Buckland, newly arrived in
-Annapolis, to continue construction, completed 3 years later with the
-aid of local architect William Noke.
-
-[Illustration: Chase-Lloyd House.]
-
-The structure, one of the first three-story Georgian townhouses erected
-in the American Colonies, ranks among the finest of its type in the
-United States and is one of the major attractions in Colonial Annapolis
-Historic District. The house rises three full stories over a high
-basement. Two massive interior chimneys protrude through the broad,
-low, hip-on-hip roof. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond and
-adorned by belt courses of rubbed brick at the second- and third-floor
-levels. An enriched cornice embellishes the roofline. At the front,
-or east, facade the axial line features a tall, projecting central
-pavilion and entranceway, an arched window on the third floor, and
-crowning pediment with a small bull’s-eye window.
-
-Of particular note is the entranceway, in essentially a Palladian
-motif. The three-section composition was rarely used in Georgian houses
-before the Revolution. The door is topped by a fanlight and flanked by
-two panels of sidelights. The three openings are framed by two engaged
-Ionic columns and two Ionic pilasters which support an entablature
-that becomes an open pediment over the door. The triple windows on the
-second floor over the entrance door and the arched windows in the
-center of the three on the third are also unusual.
-
-The sides of the house lack architectural distinction, but in the rear
-a large Palladian window within a brick arch ornaments and lights the
-interior stair landing. The only exterior alterations are a three-story
-wooden screened porch and adjoining steel fire escape on the south side
-of the structure near the west corner.
-
-The floor plan is typical of the center hall type of house, with
-four rooms on each floor, except that lateral halls divide the front
-and rear rooms. The unusually large center hall is dominated by
-a magnificent stairway and a pair of free-standing Ionic columns
-bearing a full entablature. A parlor, large dining room, sitting
-room, and breakfast room are located on the first floor, which has
-been only slightly altered. A small back stairway is adjacent to the
-breakfast room. Ornamentation of the plaster ceilings and doorways is
-outstanding. The dining room, the most elaborate room, contains an
-imported Italian mantelpiece that is richly decorated. The second floor
-is also exquisitely ornamented.
-
-The Lloyd family owned the house until 1847, when Chase’s descendants
-acquired it. In 1888 one of them bequeathed it to the Protestant
-Episcopal Church for use as a home for elderly women. It is in
-excellent condition and is well maintained. The first floor is open to
-visitors and contains some items that belonged to the Lloyds or to the
-later Chase owners. The upper two floors are utilized for the ladies’
-home.
-
-
-
-
-Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Maryland  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: 800 East Lombard Street, Baltimore._
-
-
-This was the winter home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton during his
-twilight years and the site of his death in 1832. Christopher Deshon, a
-Baltimore merchant, built it in 1811–12, and in 1818 sold it to Richard
-Caton, husband of Carroll’s youngest daughter, Mary. Carroll spent the
-winters there with the couple until his demise. The rest of the time,
-he resided at Doughoregan Manor in Howard County.
-
-The Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, a good example of Classic Revival
-architecture, is constructed of brick laid in Flemish bond. It stands
-3½ stories high. Six pedimented dormers—three each at the south (front)
-and north elevations—as well as a central chimney and two end chimneys
-pierce the low gable roof. A belt course at the second-floor line and
-dentil cornice at roof level, both of sandstone, extend across the
-north and south elevations. Recessed rectangular panels of wood are
-inserted between the second- and third-story windows of the south
-and west elevations. A large semicircular window is located in the
-west gable of the attic story. The wide-paneled center door at the
-main entrance to the house is sheltered by an Ionic marble portico
-surmounted by an iron railing.
-
-[Illustration: Deshon-Caton-Carroll House.]
-
-The central hall plan provides for four large rooms, two on each side
-of the hallway on each of the first three floors. The front entrance
-opens into a stair hall, in which an elegant spiral stairway rises in
-an open well up through the three stories. A counting room for business
-purposes, family dining room, breakfast room, and study occupy the
-first floor. The second floor, once used primarily for recreation and
-formal entertainment, contains a large parlor, formal dining room,
-music room, and library. Bedrooms occupy the third floor, and the attic
-at one time contained slave quarters.
-
-The house remained in the Caton family until 1856. During the last
-quarter of that century, a furniture store occupied the first floor,
-and the owner divided the upper floors into apartments. In 1914 the
-city of Baltimore acquired the building, and 3 years later put it
-to use as the “Carroll Vocational School.” From about 1930 until
-1956 the structure served as a recreation center. Subsequently the
-house faced the threat of demolition, prevented by the efforts of
-the Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc. In 1963 the
-mayor of Baltimore decided that the residence should be preserved.
-Upon completion of restoration and renovation, in 1967, it was placed
-under the Municipal Museum, a nonprofit corporation. This organization
-operates it today for the city as a historic house museum.
-
-
-
-
-Doughoregan Manor, Maryland  ∆
-
-    _Location: Howard County, on the west side of Manor Lane, about 1
-    mile south of Md. 144 and 8 miles west of Ellicott City._
-
-
-Charles Carroll III of Carrollton preferred this manor, the ancestral
-family home, over his other residences. He lived in it for most of
-the period 1766–1832 rather than at Carrollton Manor or his Annapolis
-townhouse. In 1717 Charles Carroll I had acquired the 10,000 acres that
-originally comprised the estate. His son Charles II probably built the
-main section of the mansion about a decade later. In the 1760’s Charles
-III inherited it. In the 1830’s, after his death in 1832, it was
-greatly enlarged. It is still owned and occupied by the Carroll family.
-
-[Illustration: Doughoregan Manor.]
-
-Much changed over the years, Doughoregan Manor is now an
-architecturally distinguished complex of buildings united into one
-long structure, about 300 feet in extent. The original manor was a
-Georgian, 1½-story, brick structure with gambrel roof and two pairs of
-end chimneys. A kitchen-servants’ quarters and a chapel, both probably
-one-story and constructed of brick about 1780, stood detached from the
-house, on the south and north respectively.
-
-In the 1830’s Charles Carroll V undertook a comprehensive expansion
-in the Greek Revival style that converted the manor to its present
-five-part composition. He raised the main house to two stories and
-cut off the gable roof to form a flat deck, which was balustraded and
-surmounted by an octagonal cupola. At the front (east) center door
-he added a one-story portico with four Doric columns. To the rear of
-the residence, he attached another portico, over which he erected a
-room. Along both sides of the rear portico, he constructed a covered,
-one-story veranda with iron columns that extended the length of the
-main house. The heights of the kitchen-servants’ quarters and the
-chapel were raised and they were connected to the main house by
-two-story wings, topped by unifying wooden walkways.
-
-Inside the central part of the mansion, an oak-paneled central hall
-extends from front to rear. The principal stairway is located in a
-small side hall adjacent to the front of the main hall. On one side of
-the main hall in the 1727 portion of the house are library and large
-parlor; on the other, small parlor and dining room. The second-floor
-bedrooms, remodeled in the 1830’s, were completely renovated and
-redecorated about 1915. The chapel, refurbished in the 1830’s and again
-after the Civil War, is in good condition and is still used as a parish
-church. It is one of the few surviving private chapels in the United
-States dating from the 18th century. The grave of Charles Carroll III
-is located next to the altar.
-
-The estate, comprising 2,800 acres, and mansion are well maintained.
-They are not open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Habre-de-Venture, Maryland  ∆
-
-    _Location: Charles County, on the west side of Rose Hill Road,
-    which connects Md. 6 and Md. 225, about 1 mile north of Port
-    Tobacco._
-
-
-In 1771 Thomas Stone built this plantation house near the busy
-riverport town of Port Tobacco, Md. He lived in it during his most
-politically active years, and on his death in 1787 was buried in the
-adjacent family graveyard.
-
-[Illustration: Habre-de-Venture.]
-
-A Georgian structure of brick and frame, Habre-de-Venture consists
-of five parts: a central house connected to two wings by two covered
-passageways, or “hyphens.” The hyphens and wings extend southward to
-form a semicircle. The main building is a 1½-story structure over an
-elevated basement. It has a dormered gambrel roof flanked by external
-end chimneys. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond with glazed
-headers. Center doors and full-length, one-story porches are located at
-the front and rear of the house.
-
-A center hall, with stairs set against its west wall, divides the
-central unit into dining and living rooms. In 1928 the Baltimore Museum
-of Art removed the elaborate hand-carved paneling in the living room;
-it was subsequently replaced with a replica. The fireplace wall in the
-dining room protrudes out into the room, and the flue curves back to
-the wall and up to the ceiling.
-
-To the west of the central house is the kitchen wing, a low, two-story,
-gable-roofed structure with brick ends and frame sides. Its second
-story, added about 1820, contains two bedrooms. The connecting
-hyphen, originally gabled roof and one story in height and containing
-a breakfast room, was increased to 1½ stories by the addition of a
-gambrel roof with dormers to provide bathrooms for the second floor
-of the main house. The east wing, a gambrel-roofed, low, 1½-story
-frame structure that has one room on each floor, served as Stone’s law
-office. A one-story gabled brick hyphen connects it to the main house.
-
-Except for the alterations mentioned above, Habre-de-Venture has
-changed but slightly through the years. In excellent condition and
-carefully restored, it now serves as a private residence and is not
-shown publicly.
-
-
-
-
-Paca House, Maryland  ∆
-
-    _Location: Anne Arundel County, 186 Prince George Street,
-    Annapolis._
-
-
-William Paca, a young, newly married lawyer, built this townhouse in
-the years 1763–65 as his principal residence and occupied it until
-1780. At that time, a few months after the death of his second wife, he
-sold the house and moved to Wye Plantation, a country estate in Queen
-Annes County he had acquired about 1760.
-
-[Illustration: Paca House.]
-
-The Paca House is a large, five-part Georgian structure, today part
-of Colonial Annapolis Historic District. Two brick wings (kitchen and
-office) sit at right angles to the main axis of the central house, to
-which they are connected by brick passageways, or hyphens. The central
-unit is a gable-roofed brick structure of 2½ stories over an elevated
-basement. The front facade is laid in all-header bond, and the ends in
-Flemish bond. The window arches, of rubbed brick, are flat. A small,
-one-story frame porch, which is pedimented and done in modified Roman
-Doric style, provides access to the central entrance.
-
-Large brick chimneys rise from both ends of the central house, and
-smaller ones from the wings. Three gabled dormers are situated in the
-front of the main roof and two in the rear. The 1½-story wings are also
-gable-roofed. The west wing and both of the hyphens had been raised to
-two stories in the 19th century, but were recently lowered to their
-original height.
-
-On each side of the center hall in the main house are two rooms. The
-interior has been greatly altered over the years, and portions of the
-original wood and plaster finish remain only in the center hall, the
-stair hall behind it, and the parlor. The main stairway is equipped
-with the original Chinese Chippendale balustrade.
-
-In 1899 the Paca House became the Carvel Hall Hotel, enlarged in 1906
-by rear additions that completely hid the back of the original house.
-In 1964, when the structure faced demolition, Historic Annapolis,
-Inc., purchased the Paca House portion. The next year, the State of
-Maryland acquired the entire property. In 1967–69 it razed the 1906
-hotel additions and restored the gardens. Presently, the Maryland
-Historical Trust, a public agency, holds title to the house, but
-Historic Annapolis, Inc., retains all the responsibilities and rights
-of ownership and administration. When this volume went to press, the
-residence was undergoing an extensive restoration program and was not
-accessible to the public. Historic Annapolis, Inc., plans to utilize it
-as a guesthouse for visiting dignitaries, though the first floor will
-be open to visitors.
-
-
-
-
-Peggy Stewart House, Maryland
-
-    _Location: Anne Arundel County, 207 Hanover Street, Annapolis._
-
-
-Thomas Stone purchased this Georgian residence in 1783 and until
-his death 4 years later occupied it while in Annapolis, though he
-maintained his home at Habre-de-Venture in Charles County. The Peggy
-Stewart House was built sometime between 1761 and 1764 by Thomas
-Rutland. Its owner in the period 1772–79 was Anthony Stewart, an
-Annapolis merchant. In 1774 Revolutionaries forced him to burn his
-ship, the _Peggy Stewart_, when he attempted to land a cargo of tea on
-which he had paid taxes. Five years later, he fled to England.
-
-[Illustration: Peggy Stewart House.]
-
-Over the years, the rectangular brick house has been substantially
-modified on both the exterior and interior. Its 2½ stories rest on an
-elevated basement. At the time of a major alteration in 1894, the gable
-roof was replaced by the present hip roof, which has a cutoff deck and
-balustrade, and the chimneys were rebuilt in their current form. Two
-gabled dormers are located at the front of the roof and one at each
-side. Highlighting the ends of the house are central pavilions, which
-have triangular pediments with round center windows. The chimneys cut
-through the front corners of the pediments. A wooden box cornice with
-frieze board below extends around the eaves. A large wing at the rear
-is a later addition.
-
-The front facade of the house is comprised of all-header bond and
-the sides of English bond. The basement and first-story windows are
-topped by segmental arches, but the second-story windows have flat
-ones. The sills are of stone, and louvered shutters flank the first-
-and second-floor windows. The front entranceway, sheltered by a small
-wooden porch with a triangular broken pediment, has a paneled door that
-is surmounted by a rectangular glazed transom.
-
-In 1837 the house had 12 rooms, eight of which were equipped with
-fireplaces. The original portion of the house, excluding the rear
-addition, has a center hall floor plan. The stairs are set against the
-east wall, beyond which is a large living room. A parlor and dining
-room are situated to the west of the hall. Five bedrooms are located
-upstairs. The interior of the house has been extensively remodeled in
-recent times. Only one fireplace, in the southeast front room on the
-second floor, retains its original mantel.
-
-The Peggy Stewart House, also known as the Rutland-Peggy Stewart House
-and the Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, is privately owned and is not open
-to the public. It is part of Colonial Annapolis Historic District.
-
-
-
-
-Adams (John) Birthplace, Massachusetts  ∆
-
-    _Location: Norfolk County, 133 Franklin Street, Quincy._
-
-
-This was the original homestead of the Adams family and the birthplace
-of John Adams. Although not architecturally impressive, it is
-historically notable as the place where John Adams grew to manhood. It
-is adjacent to the John Quincy Adams Birthplace.
-
-The original house, a typical New England saltbox structure of frame
-construction with a massive central chimney, was probably built
-about 1681. It consisted of two lower and two upper rooms. Extensive
-alterations were made over the years. The rear lean-to, built at some
-unknown date in the 18th century, added two downstairs rooms and two
-small upper ones, separated by a large attic.
-
-In 1720 John Adams’ father, “Deacon” John Adams, purchased the house,
-where in 1735 young John was born. He lived there until his marriage
-in 1764. He and his bride moved into a residence next door that he
-had inherited from his father in 1761 and 6 years later was to be the
-birthplace of his son John Quincy. In 1774 John bought his birthplace
-home from his brother. His public duties and legal business kept him
-away most of the time. By 1783, when he and his family were in Europe,
-tenants resided in both the John Adams Birthplace and the John Quincy
-Adams Birthplace. In 1788, when John Adams sailed home, he settled at
-“Peacefield,” or the “Old House,” now Adams National Historic Site, in
-another part of Quincy. In 1803 he sold both birthplaces to his son
-John Quincy.
-
-[Illustration: John Adams and John Quincy Adams Birthplaces.]
-
-The John Adams Birthplace remained in the possession of the Adams
-family until 1940, when they deeded it to the city of Quincy. In 1896
-they had given the Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution,
-permission to restore the residence, which the next year was made
-accessible to the public. When the Adams Chapter dissolved in 1950, the
-Quincy Historical Society took over the administration. In excellent
-condition and still owned by the city, the house is open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Massachusetts  ∆
-
-    _Location: Norfolk County, 141 Franklin Street, Quincy._
-
-This frame structure was John Adams’ residence and law office during
-the War for Independence and the birthplace of his son John Quincy. In
-1744 “Deacon” John Adams had acquired the residence, the oldest part
-of which may date from 1663. In 1761 he bequeathed it to young John.
-At the time of the latter’s marriage 3 years later, he moved into it
-from his neighboring birthplace so that he could better accommodate his
-library and set up a law office. In 1767 John Quincy was born in the
-house.
-
-Shortly thereafter, John’s growing law practice and role in public
-affairs made it convenient for him to live in Boston most of the time,
-but his wife and son remained in the Quincy home until after the War
-for Independence. By 1783, when the family was in Europe, tenants were
-occupying it. After coming back to the United States in 1788, John
-Adams took up residence at “Peacefield,” or the “Old House,” now Adams
-National Historic Site. In 1803 John Quincy purchased both birthplaces
-from his father, and from 1805 to 1807 lived in his own birthplace.
-
-The John Quincy Adams Birthplace is well preserved. Like the John Adams
-Birthplace, it is of typical New England saltbox design, originally
-comprised of two upper and two lower rooms arranged around a huge
-central chimney, and has been extensively altered. John Adams added a
-lean-to of two rooms at the back for use as a new kitchen during the
-time he used the original kitchen as a law office-library.
-
-In 1897 the Quincy Historical Society, aided by Adams heirs, restored
-and opened the John Quincy Adams Birthplace to the public. In 1940 the
-Adams family turned it over to the city of Quincy. Administered by the
-Quincy Historical Society, it is accessible to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Adams National Historic Site, Massachusetts ‎☑
-
-    _Location: Norfolk County, bounded by Adams Street, Furnace Brook
-    Parkway, and Newport Avenue, Quincy; address: 135 Adams Street,
-    Quincy, Mass. 02169._
-
-
-Featuring the Adams Mansion, this site is a memorial to four
-generations of the distinguished Adams family, who resided in it from
-1788 until 1927.
-
-John Adams (1735–1826), signer of the Declaration of Independence,
-diplomat, the first Vice President, and the second President,
-founded a long line of men who were outstanding in politics and
-intellectual life. John Quincy (1767–1848), his son, won fame as a
-diplomat, U.S. Congressman, Secretary of State, and sixth President.
-Charles Francis Adams (1807–86), son of John Quincy, became a U.S.
-Congressman, diplomat, and author. His four sons—John Quincy II
-(1833–94), Charles Francis, Jr. (1835–1915), Henry (1838–1918), and
-Brooks (1848–1927)—made notable marks in politics, literature, and
-historiography.
-
-[Illustration: Adams Mansion.]
-
-The Adams Mansion, named “Peacefield” by John Adams but known to
-some as the Vassall-Adams House and later to the Adams family as
-the “Old House,” was dear and close to all of them. In 1730–31 Maj.
-Leonard Vassall, a wealthy West Indian sugar planter who had come
-to Massachusetts some 8 years before, built the oldest part of
-the building. Comprising the front western section of the present
-residence, it was a 2½-story frame structure of Georgian design with
-clapboarded walls and gambrel roof. The first floor contained two rooms
-separated by a central stair hall; the second floor, two bedrooms
-and center hall; and the dormered attic, three smaller chambers. The
-kitchen and servants’ quarters were detached.
-
-John Adams, while still Minister to Great Britain, bought the house in
-September 1787 from Vassall’s grandson, Leonard Vassall Borland, and on
-his return the next year took possession. At that time, he apparently
-attached the 2½-story kitchen and servants’ quarters to the rear, or
-northwest, corner of the main structure. In 1800, near the end of his
-Presidency, he doubled the size of the residence by adding a large,
-2½-story, L-shaped wing of frame at the east end. It was constructed
-in the same Georgian style as the original house and contained on the
-first floor a second entry hall and staircase and the “Long Room” to
-the east of the hall. Adams’ large study-library was located on the
-second floor.
-
-Other additions were made in the 19th century. In 1836 John Quincy
-Adams built the passage along the back, or north, side of the structure
-connecting the two rear service ells. In 1869 Charles Francis added
-30 feet to the kitchen ell for additional servants’ quarters; the
-following year, a detached stone library overlooking the garden; and in
-1873, the stone stable. Brooks constructed the present entrance gates
-in 1906.
-
-After retiring from the Presidency in 1801, John Adams lived in the
-house year round until his death in 1826. Subsequently, until Brooks’
-death in 1927, other family members resided in it full time or spent
-their summers there. The furnishings, to which each generation
-contributed, reveal the continuity of life in the residence and the
-tastes of the Adams family.
-
-In 1946 the Adams Memorial Society donated the property to the
-Federal Government. Consisting of almost 5 acres, it includes the
-well-maintained house, library, garden, and stables. It may be visited
-from spring until the fall.
-
-
-
-
-Elmwood, Massachusetts  ∆
-
-    _Location: Middlesex County, 33 Elmwood Street, Cambridge._
-
-
-This impressive 18th-century mansion, also known as the
-Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, was the residence of three men prominent
-in American history: Andrew Oliver, royal Lieutenant Governor of
-Massachusetts (1771–74); Elbridge Gerry, politician, diplomat, Governor
-of the Commonwealth, signer of the Declaration, U.S. Representative,
-and Vice President; and James Russell Lowell, author, poet, teacher,
-and statesman.
-
-In 1767 Andrew Oliver, while serving as royal secretary of
-Massachusetts, erected the building. An ex-stamp tax collector and a
-firm Tory, he aroused the hatred of the Whigs, who on at least one
-occasion attacked his home. He died in 1774 while serving as royal
-Lieutenant Governor. Some time during the War for Independence,
-Oliver’s estate including the mansion, was confiscated.
-
-[Illustration: Elmwood.]
-
-In 1787 Elbridge Gerry, who the previous year had retired from business
-in Marblehead, Mass., moved to Cambridge and purchased the estate.
-He lived there for the rest of his long career in public service. In
-March 1813 he took the oath of office as Vice President in his home.
-Because of heavy debts, on his death in Washington, D.C., in 1814, his
-Cambridge residence remained his sole real estate holding.
-
-The mansion was also the birthplace and lifelong home of James Russell
-Lowell (1819–91), one of the most distinguished men of letters of his
-era, as well as a prominent U.S. diplomat. Except during the period
-1877–85, when he served as Minister to Spain and Great Britain, he
-lived at his birthplace, which he named “Elmwood.”
-
-Elmwood is a large, square, clapboarded-frame structure in Georgian
-style with brick-lined walls and two interior chimneys. The first- and
-second-story windows are topped by cornices. Above the foreshortened
-third-story windows, typical in three-story Georgian houses, runs a
-boldly modillioned cornice. A balustrade encloses the low-pitched hip
-roof. The most striking exterior feature, however, is the entranceway,
-which is flanked by Tuscan pilasters supporting a classic entablature
-decorated with a frieze. A large window rests on the entablature
-parapet motif and is flanked by Ionic pilasters and topped by a
-triangular pediment.
-
-A one-story porch with balustraded roof deck on the north side of the
-house, as well as a terrace on the south side, are later additions.
-Located in the rear, at the northwest corner, is a two-story service
-wing; in the rear, at the southwest corner, a one-story wing. Both of
-them are of frame construction. All three floors in the main section
-are bisected into two rooms on either side by a central hall. Portions
-of the interior have been altered and modernized.
-
-Donated to Harvard University in 1962 and now used as the presidential
-residence, Elmwood is not open to the public. The house and grounds are
-in fine condition.
-
-
-
-
-Gerry Birthplace, Massachusetts  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Essex County, 44 Washington Street, Marblehead._
-
-
-Elbridge Gerry was born in this framehouse and resided in it until
-1787, when he moved to Cambridge, Mass. His father, Thomas, had built
-it about 1730, and it remained in possession of the Gerry family until
-1820.
-
-Architectural evidence strongly suggests that the L-shaped building was
-originally a two-story Georgian structure. About 1820 the two stories
-were apparently raised and a third one built underneath. Since that
-time, changes have been slight. The original interior finish of the
-first story is entirely 19th century, and the original paneling on the
-walls of the second story is clearly 18th century.
-
-[Illustration: Gerry Birthplace.]
-
-Today, the exterior is clapboarded. The long arm of the ell faces north
-toward the street. A central hall divides the first floor of the long
-arm into two rooms, the east and west parlors, both with 19th century
-mantels, fireplaces, and flanking arched alcoves. The west parlor opens
-into the short arm of the ell, which extends southward to the rear and
-contains the dining room. Attached to the rear of the short arm is a
-small rear service wing containing an L-shaped, one-story kitchen. A
-one-story open veranda runs around the east and south elevations of the
-long side of the ell, and a small porch flanks the dining room on its
-west side. The second story contains three bedrooms, all displaying the
-original 18th-century paneling on the fireplace walls. The third floor
-consists of four bedrooms.
-
-The house and grounds, privately owned and not open to the public, are
-well maintained.
-
-
-
-
-Hancock-Clarke House, Massachusetts  ∆
-
-    _Location: Middlesex County, 35 Hancock Street, Lexington._
-
-
-The only extant residence associated with John Hancock, this was his
-boyhood home. In 1744, upon the death of his father at Quincy, the
-7-year-old boy came to live at this house with his grandfather, Rev.
-John Hancock. In 1750 the lad joined his childless uncle, Thomas
-Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant who adopted him.
-
-[Illustration: Hancock-Clarke House.]
-
-By the time of the Revolution, Rev. Jonas Clarke, a relative by
-marriage of the Hancocks, occupied the house, which had been built as
-a parsonage by Rev. John Hancock. Clarke encouraged Revolutionaries to
-use his home as a meetingplace and refuge. On the evening of April 18,
-1775, patriot leaders Hancock and Samuel Adams were visiting there.
-Around midnight, after everyone had gone to bed, Paul Revere and later
-William Dawes, warning the countryside of the approach of British
-troops, galloped up and informed the household. A few hours later,
-Hancock and Adams fled northward to Burlington, Mass. They later moved
-from place to place, staying away from Boston, until they proceeded to
-Philadelphia to attend the Continental Congress, which convened the
-next month.
-
-The Hancock-Clarke House consists of two frame sections, erected by
-Rev. John Hancock at different times. The original one, built in 1698,
-presently forms the small rear ell, 1½ stories high with gambrel roof.
-A living room-kitchen and tiny study are located downstairs and two
-low-studded chambers upstairs. The 2½-story front, or main, section of
-the house dates from 1734 and was financed by Thomas Hancock for his
-father. It has a large central chimney and contains a short center hall
-and two rooms on each of the two floors.
-
-In 1896, when the building faced demolition, the Lexington Historical
-Society acquired it and moved it from across the street to its present
-location. In 1902 the society constructed a rear brick addition
-containing a fireproof vault to protect its more valuable possessions.
-Restored to its 18th-century appearance and well maintained, the
-Hancock-Clarke House is open to the public and serves as headquarters
-of the society. Recently the society purchased the original site of the
-house, where foundations are visible.
-
-
-
-
-Bartlett House, New Hampshire  ∆
-
-    _Location: Rockingham County, on the west side of N.H. 111,
-    opposite the town hall, Kingston._
-
-
-This is the only extant structure closely associated with Josiah
-Bartlett. He built it in 1774, after fire consumed his earlier home on
-the same site, and lived in it until his death in 1795.
-
-[Illustration: Bartlett House.]
-
-The rectangular frame residence is clapboarded and two stories in
-height. Two interior chimneys pierce the gabled roof. Exterior louvered
-shutters border the windows. Many of the house’s existing features
-date from the second third of the 19th century, when it was remodeled
-in the Greek Revival style. They include the giant corner pilasters;
-cornices over the first-story windows; the center door with cornice,
-sidelights, and pilasters; and the one-story porch across the south end
-of the structure. Another addition, at the southwest corner, was the
-two-story frame ell, which gave the building its present L-shape. This
-ell contains a summer kitchen and workroom on the first floor and four
-bedrooms on the second.
-
-Center halls bisect the rooms on both stories of the main house
-into pairs. The downstairs hall is divided into two sections, each
-containing a stairway set against the north wall. To the south of
-the hall on the first floor are the living room and the dining room,
-originally the kitchen. These rooms are equipped with the original
-chimneys and fireplaces. North of the hall is a parlor and behind it
-a bedroom. Around 1860 the chimney for these rooms and the fireplace
-in the parlor were rebuilt, and two closets that flanked the parlor
-fireplace were converted into the existing arched alcoves. The second
-floor contains four bedrooms, two on each side of the central hall. The
-original wide floorboards are still in place throughout the residence.
-
-The house, in excellent condition, is still in the possession of
-Bartlett descendants and is not open to the public. It has never
-been restored, but is furnished with some original Bartlett pieces,
-including a medical table and instruments.
-
-
-
-
-Moffatt-Ladd House, New Hampshire  ∆
-
-    _Location: Rockingham County, 154 Market Street, Portsmouth._
-
-
-An outstanding example of a late Georgian mansion, this impressive
-three-story structure was the longtime residence of William Whipple.
-Ship carpenters constructed it in 1763 for John Moffatt, a sea captain
-and wealthy merchant. He presented it the following year as a wedding
-gift to his son, Samuel, a merchant-shipowner. In 1768, after the
-latter had failed in business and fled to the West Indies to escape
-creditors, Captain Moffatt reacquired it and lived in it for the rest
-of his life. Whipple and his wife, Catherine, Moffatt’s daughter, moved
-into the house the same year as the captain. Whipple resided there
-until his death in 1785; his wife and apparently his father-in-law,
-too, survived him.
-
-[Illustration: Moffatt-Ladd House.]
-
-The square, clapboarded building stands on a slight elevation
-overlooking old Portsmouth Harbor. Noteworthy features of the elaborate
-exterior include white corner quoins and richly pedimented first- and
-second-floor windows. The third-story windows, smaller in size, abut
-the distinctive cornice. Side windows, like those on the third-floor
-front, lack pediments. Rear windows on the first two stories have flat
-arches with lengthened keystones. The hip roof, flanked by three end
-chimneys, is cut off to form a flat deck, or captain’s walk, which
-is enclosed by an attractive balustrade with urn finials. A delicate
-fence with large ornamental posts, also topped by urn finials, spans
-the front of the house, which is approached by a flight of granite
-steps that lead up to the portico-covered entranceway. Near the front
-northeast comer of the residence is the countinghouse, or office
-(1810), a small, square building with a hip roof.
-
-The interior of the house is as highly embellished as the exterior. The
-outstanding room on the first floor is the unusually spacious entrance
-hall, one of the finest in New England. Its carved cornice is handsome,
-and the walls are covered with rare imported French wallpaper of the
-early 19th century. The beautiful and finely carved flight of stairs
-is lighted by a roundheaded window in the side wall above the landing.
-Except for the simple detail in the drawing room, that in other
-first-floor rooms—dining room and pantry—is rich. Four bedrooms are
-located on the second floor, and five additional chambers on the third.
-Three of the second-floor bedrooms have richly carved overmantels.
-
-The carefully restored house and grounds were owned by the Ladd family,
-descendants of the Moffatts through marriage, until 1969. From 1913
-until 1969, they leased the house to the Colonial Dames of America,
-which maintained it for public display. In 1969 the Colonial Dames
-acquired full title to the property. The first two floors of the house
-are furnished in period pieces, and the third floor is not open.
-
-
-
-
-Thornton House, New Hampshire  ∆
-
-    _Location: Rockingham County, 2 Thornton Street, Derry Village._
-
-
-Matthew Thornton lived in this residence, which has since been
-considerably altered, during his medical and most of his political
-career. He probably acquired it in 1740, the year he moved from
-Worcester, Mass., to present Derry Village (then a part of Londonderry)
-to set up his medical practice. He resided in it until about 1780, when
-he retired as a doctor and moved to a farm near Merrimack, N.H.
-
-The gable roof of the two-story frame structure, of the saltbox type,
-slopes steeply to the rear, or north, and forms a one-story lean-to.
-Two interior chimneys sit behind the ridge of the roof. The exterior,
-remodeled in the Greek Revival style probably in the mid-19th century,
-features giant pilasters on the front corners and a one-story portico
-over the center door. The clapboarding is a replacement of the
-original. All windows, including those in the gable ends, have exterior
-louvered shutters, and flat cornices surmount those on the first floor.
-A one-story frame service ell, extending from the northwest corner and
-giving the house its present L-shape, contains the modernized kitchen
-and what were once workrooms for servants.
-
-[Illustration: Thornton House.]
-
-Inside the house, a center hall bisects the rooms into two pairs and is
-divided into two sections, each with its own stairway on the east wall.
-To the east of the hall are the living room and modern laundry room; to
-the west, dining room and present family room. The two chimneys, built
-between the pairs of rooms to provide four fireplaces, one for each
-room, were rebuilt on a smaller scale in the early 19th century for use
-with Franklin stoves. Thus none of the original fireplaces and mantels
-exist any longer, but a 19th-century mantel remains in the dining room.
-The opposite fireplace in the family room, however, is modern. Features
-dating from the 18th century include the framing and wide floorboards,
-visible in all rooms except the family room where they are covered. The
-second floor contains three bedrooms.
-
-The Thornton House, in fair condition, is used as a private residence
-and is not open to the public. Its present owner hopes to restore it.
-
-
-
-
-Hopkinson House, New Jersey  ∆
-
-    _Location: Burlington County, 101 Farnsworth Avenue, Bordentown._
-
-
-Owned by the Hopkinson family for several generations, this house was
-the residence of signer Francis Hopkinson from 1774 until his death in
-1791. It was built in 1750 by merchant John Imlay (Emley), who used
-part of it as a store. Sometime before 1768 Joseph Borden, a prominent
-New Jersey citizen, acquired it. Hopkinson married his daughter at
-Philadelphia in 1768, and, after a tour as customs collector at New
-Castle, Del. (1772–74), moved to Bordentown and took up residence with
-his father-in-law.
-
-Upon Hopkinson’s death, his eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842), inherited
-the house. He achieved fame as composer, lawyer, judge, and politician.
-Among his distinguished guests were Irish poet Thomas Moore, Thomas
-Paine, and Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother. The Hopkinson family
-retained possession of the property until 1915; since then, it has been
-owned by the Wells family.
-
-The Hopkinson House is an L-shaped, brick and frame structure with a
-gambrel, dormered roof. The main 2½-story section is constructed of
-brick. The center door is topped by a rectangular transom, flanked by
-sidelights, and sheltered by a segmental hood. A central hall, divided
-into two sections by means of a wide folding door with an arched
-fanlight above, bisects the first floor into two large rooms, living
-room and library. Both of these are currently used by the Bordentown
-Chamber of Commerce as an office and museum, open to the public. The
-front portion of the central hall serves as an entrance hall; the rear
-section, as the stair hall. A narrow hall extends from the stair hall
-south across the rear of the main house. The second and third floors,
-each containing four bedrooms, are used as apartments.
-
-[Illustration: Hopkinson House.]
-
-A two-story brick wing extends to the rear from the northeast corner
-of the main section. Its first-floor dining room and the two bedrooms
-comprising the second floor form an apartment unit. Attached to this
-wing at the rear of the brick arm is a two-story frame wing that once
-contained the kitchen and servant’s bedroom.
-
-The exterior of the house, except for the metal roof, appears to
-be little altered. Interior features are plastered walls, wide
-floorboards, and 19th-century mantels. Much of the original woodwork
-and trim has apparently been replaced, but the basic floor plan has not
-been greatly changed. The residence is in good condition.
-
-
-
-
-Maybury Hill, New Jersey  ∆
-
-    _Location: Mercer County, 346 Snowden Lane, Princeton._
-
-
-Maybury Hill, built about 1725, was the birthplace and boyhood home
-of North Carolina signer Joseph Hewes. His father leased it from 1730
-until 1755.
-
-The house provides a fine example of Georgian architecture. It was
-originally a small, two-story stone structure with gable roof. A short
-distance away, at the northeast corner, stood a detached kitchen
-building. In 1735, following a fire, the main house was rebuilt. In
-1753 a major addition was made on the north side connecting it with the
-kitchen building. This resulted in an L-shaped, two-story structure
-with gabled roof and three end chimneys. The only alteration of
-consequence since that time occurred about 1900, when the fieldstone
-exterior walls were covered with concrete.
-
-Flat brick arches top the windows. Second-story windows have exterior
-louvered shutters; those on the first, paneled shutters. Today the
-house has a center hall floor plan. To the south of the hall is the
-large parlor, which dates from 1725. To the north are the dining and
-living rooms, added in 1753. Both of them have paneled walls, shell
-cabinets, and exposed ceiling beams. The kitchen, dating from 1725,
-is still in the northeast corner of the building. The dining room
-fireplace is faced with tile. Four bedrooms occupy the upstairs. All
-the floors are constructed of wide boards.
-
-Little-altered Maybury Hill was renovated in 1920, and is still in
-excellent condition. A private residence, it is not open to visitors.
-
-[Illustration: Maybury Hill.]
-
-
-
-
-Morven, New Jersey  ∆
-
-    _Location: Mercer County, 55 Stockton Street, Princeton._
-
-
-Morven was the birthplace and lifelong home of Richard Stockton
-(1730–81). In the summer of 1783 it was also the official residence
-of his brother-in-law Elias Boudinot, President of the Continental
-Congress, which was then meeting in Princeton. That same year, many
-Revolutionary leaders gathered at the mansion to celebrate the signing
-of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the War for Independence.
-
-Between 1701 and 1709 Stockton’s grandfather, also named Richard,
-built the earliest section of Morven. It grew in a series of stages
-until about 1775, when its exterior appearance approximated that of
-today. Because fires in 1776, set by the British during the War for
-Independence, and 1821 necessitated extensive repairs, the interior
-dates from the late 18th or early 19th century.
-
-[Illustration: Morven.]
-
-A large Georgian mansion of brick, Morven consists of three sections: a
-main central, two-story section over a raised basement and two lower,
-attached, two-story wings. The facade of the main section, although
-basically early Georgian in style, was altered in the 19th century
-by the addition of a wide, one-story, Greek Revival porch. A central
-hall divides the section into a large dining room and the Gold Room.
-Fireplace walls in these rooms are fully paneled. The central hall
-intersects a stair hall, which runs across the rear of the main portion
-of the house and connects with the two wings. On the first floor of
-the east wing are two large family rooms, the Red Room and library.
-This wing was partially burned by the British. The west service wing
-includes the kitchen. The only recent change, in 1945–54, was the
-addition of a solarium, or Green Room, at the rear of the main section;
-a one-story porch was enclosed to form the new room.
-
-Morven remained in possession of the Stockton family until 1945, when
-Gov. and Mrs. Walter E. Edge acquired it. Nine years later, they
-donated it to the State of New Jersey. Since that time, it has been the
-official residence of the Governor. It is not accessible to the public.
-
-
-
-
-President’s House, New Jersey  ∆
-
-    _Location: Mercer County, on Nassau Street just northwest of Nassau
-    Hall, on the Princeton University campus, Princeton._
-
-
-From 1756 until 1879 this house was the official residence of the
-president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton University after
-1896). In 1768, when John Witherspoon emigrated from Scotland to
-America to assume the presidency, he occupied it. While living there,
-he represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress and signed the
-Declaration. In 1779 he moved to his nearby farm, Tusculum. From then
-until 1794 his son-in-law Samuel S. Smith, vice president of the
-college, resided in the President’s House. From 1879 until 1968 it
-was the home of the Dean of the Faculty and was known as the “Dean’s
-House.” Since 1968, it has been called the Maclean House and has been
-used by the Princeton Alumni Council.
-
-[Illustration: President’s House.]
-
-The Georgian building was designed and constructed in 1756 by Robert
-Smith, a master carpenter of Philadelphia. Both on the exterior and
-the interior, it has changed only slightly throughout the years. It
-was originally a two-story brick structure, rectangular in shape, with
-gable roof. A one-story polygonal bay extends westward from the rear
-southwest comer. Near the same corner, a two-story service wing of
-brick and stone runs southward. Above the windows of the main facade
-are flat stone winged arches with keystones. Over the center door is a
-fanlight surmounted by a triangular pediment. The exterior has retained
-its original appearance and arrangement except that small double
-dormers were later inserted in the center of the front and rear roofs
-to create a third level. Additions in 1868 were a wide one-story frame
-porch on the front of the residence and a one-story frame, polygonal
-bay on the east side near the northeast front corner.
-
-The center door opens into a central hall that extends through the
-house to rear stairs, against the east wall. To the east of the hall
-are a library and study. The fireplace wall in the library is fully
-paneled. To the west of the hall are a parlor and dining room. The
-second floor of the main house contains four bedrooms; the third floor,
-three additional rooms. Two bedrooms are located on the second floor
-of the service wing. In excellent condition, the house is open to the
-public.
-
-
-
-
-Tusculum, New Jersey  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Mercer County, 166 Cherry Hill Road, Princeton._
-
-
-John Witherspoon made this his home from 1779 until his death in 1794.
-In 1773, while serving as president of the College of New Jersey (later
-Princeton University), he acquired some farmland near Princeton and
-built Tusculum. For several years he leased out the house and farm, but
-in 1779 he moved from the President’s House to Tusculum.
-
-The two-story Georgian structure of fieldstone with gabled roof and
-two pairs of end chimneys originally had only one extension, a lower,
-two-story, stone and frame wing attached to the west end of the house
-along its main axis. First-story windows of both sections have exterior
-paneled shutters; second-story windows, louvered shutters. In later
-years, two additional wings, both of frame and two stories in height,
-were added to the east and west ends of the structure. Designed in the
-same style as the rest of the house, they do not seriously alter the
-original appearance of the front elevation.
-
-[Illustration: Tusculum.]
-
-The stairway is located in an ell at the rear portion of the center
-hall along the east wall. To the east of the hall lie the living room
-and study; to the west, a large dining room, which occupies the entire
-west half of the main house. Four bedrooms are upstairs. The finish in
-two of them date from about 1825. The original service wing, on the
-west side, contains a kitchen on the first floor and two bedrooms on
-the second.
-
-Tusculum has never undergone any major alterations and it is in
-excellent condition. In 1924 the present owner acquired it. Under
-his supervision, a Philadelphia firm restored it to its 18th-century
-appearance. The major changes were the removal of 19th-century porches
-at the front, or south, and elimination of a partition wall in the
-dining room. The structure continues to serve as a private residence
-and is not shown to visitors.
-
-
-
-
-Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), New York  ‎☑
-
-    _Location: Suffolk County, 20 Washington Avenue, Mastic, Long
-    Island; address: Fire Island National Seashore, P.O. Box 229,
-    Patchogue, N.Y. 11772._
-
-
-This farmhouse, which stood on a large estate the Floyd family had
-acquired in 1718, was the birthplace in 1734 of William Floyd and his
-residence for the greater part of his life—though he and his family
-were forced to abandon it in the period 1776–83 and flee to Middletown,
-Conn. During that time, British troops and Loyalists considerably
-damaged the estate. In 1803 Floyd presented the house to his son Nicoll
-and moved to present Westernville, N.Y.
-
-[Illustration: Floyd Birthplace.]
-
-The earliest section of the large, frame Georgian building, which was
-enlarged several times along its west side during the 18th century,
-dates from about 1724. The structure now consists of a two-story main
-section and three wings. The former, entered through a Dutch door,
-is laid out in central hall fashion. To the west of the hall are a
-parlor and back of that an office; to the east, a dining room, behind
-which are a gunroom and pantry side by side. Interesting features on
-the first floor are exposed ceiling beams and wide floorboards. Seven
-bedrooms occupy the second floor.
-
-Extending from the rear of the central hall is a two-story north
-service wing, probably added about 1900. A 1½-story east service wing,
-with a dormered, gable roof, dates from the 18th century. At the rear,
-or to the north, of this wing, is a third service wing, 1½ stories
-high. It contained the original kitchen and was once located at the
-west end of the main house. Except for this relocation and the addition
-of the north wing, the main house and east wing are basically unchanged
-from their 18th-century appearance. The overall structure is in good
-condition and is furnished with many original pieces belonging to the
-Floyd family.
-
-In 1965 Floyd descendants donated 613 acres of the estate to the U.S.
-Government for inclusion in Fire Island National Seashore, but retained
-use and occupational rights to 43 acres and the house for a period of
-25 years. Thus the residence will not be open to the public until 1990.
-
-
-
-
-General Floyd House, New York  ∆
-
-    _Location: Oneida County, on the west side of Main Street opposite
-    Gilford Hill Road, Westernville._
-
-
-William Floyd lived in this home from 1803 until his death in 1821.
-In 1784 he had begun purchasing frontier land near present Rome in
-western New York, and 3 years later the State granted him 10,240 acres
-in the same area. During the summers, he visited and developed his
-tracts. In 1803, nearly 70 years of age, he deeded his residence at
-present Mastic, on Long Island, N.Y., to his son Nicoll and moved the
-rest of his family to present Westernville, where he constructed this
-farmhouse. He spent the remainder of his life farming and improving his
-wilderness lands.
-
-[Illustration: General Floyd House.]
-
-Constructed of frame, the Georgian-style residence consists of a large,
-two-story main section with gable roof and a lower, two-story service
-wing attached to the west end. A center door, flanked by a pair of
-small windows, opens into a central hall that extends through the
-house to another door on the north side. The stairs are set against
-the west wall of the hall. To the east of the hall are two large
-parlors containing cupboards and paneled fireplace walls. To the west
-of the hall is a dining room and behind that a study. The rooms have
-plastered walls and ceilings and wide floorboards. Four bedrooms occupy
-the second floor, and the attic is unfinished. The service wing, which
-includes the kitchen, is located to the west of the dining room.
-
-The structure, unaltered except for metal roofs and modern plumbing,
-is in excellent condition. It remained in the possession of Floyd
-descendants until 1956. Still privately owned, it is not open to the
-public.
-
-
-
-
-Iredell House, North Carolina  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Chowan County, 107 East Church Street, Edenton._
-
-
-Early in 1798, in a state of extreme mental anguish because of mounting
-debts brought on by unwise speculation in lands, James Wilson, probably
-while visiting North Carolina on Federal circuit court matters, took
-refuge in this house. It was the home of his friend and fellow U.S.
-Supreme Court Justice James Iredell. Within a few months, Wilson died
-there.
-
-[Illustration: Iredell House.]
-
-The little-altered Iredell House is a large L-shaped structure. It is
-constructed of frame and is two stories in height with gable roof.
-Two-story verandas span the front, or south, and rear elevations of
-the long arm of the ell. The building was erected in three stages. The
-earliest, the present short, or east, arm of the ell, was built in 1759
-by John Wilkins, with its narrow gable end fronting on the street. In
-1776 Joseph Whedbee enlarged the structure by adding to its west side
-the two easternmost bays of the present five-bay long arm. In 1810
-Iredell’s widow extended the arm by three bays to its present size and
-added the verandas.
-
-The original section of the house contains a living room and one other
-room on the first floor and two bedrooms on the second. The first floor
-of the 1776 section consists of the dining room; the second floor, a
-large bedroom. These two sections are furnished as a historic house
-museum and are open to the public. The remaining section of the long
-arm, dating from 1810, serves as the caretaker’s quarters. The State
-owns and administers the residence.
-
-
-
-
-Nash-Hooper House, North Carolina  ∆
-
-    _Location: Orange County, 118 West Tryon Street, Hillsborough._
-
-
-The Nash-Hooper House is the only extant residence that can be
-associated with William Hooper and is the only surviving home of a
-signer in the State. It was built in 1772 by Francis Nash, who later
-attained the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army and
-lost his life in the War for Independence. In 1782, after the British
-had driven Hooper into hiding and destroyed his estate Finian near
-Wilmington, he moved to Hillsborough, where his family had fled. He
-purchased the Nash-Hooper House and resided in it until his death in
-1790. Subsequently, from 1869 until 1875, it was the home of William A.
-Graham, former Governor of North Carolina.
-
-The original portion of the rectangular, two-story house was
-constructed with a braced oak frame that was held together by pegs and
-pins. It rests on shale foundations over an elevated basement, in which
-are located two rooms and a center hall. The roof is gabled, with a
-chimney at each end. A one-story, frame, “sitting room” (later dining
-room) wing, added in 1819 on a log base, extends from the rear, or
-north, of the house and creates its present L-shape. Weatherboarded
-siding covers both sides of the wing and the front of the main section.
-All the windows are flanked with exterior louvered shutters. The
-one-story porch spanning the front of the house dates from the late
-19th century. A detached kitchen, erected in 1819 just east of the
-house adjacent to the storeroom and dining room in the north wing, was
-demolished in 1908. Sometime during the period 1939–59, the dining room
-in the north wing was converted into the present kitchen, and bathrooms
-were installed in the residence.
-
-[Illustration: Nash-Hooper House.]
-
-The center hall of the main house is divided into two sections by means
-of an arch near the rear. West of the hall are a large library and a
-small study or bedroom; to the east, a large parlor and in the rear
-corner a narrow, lateral stair hall, with the stairs set against the
-north wall. Three bedrooms are located on the second floor, and the
-attic is unfinished. Wide floorboards are exposed throughout most of
-the main house. An original pine mantel remains in the dining room.
-
-Although the little-altered Nash-Hooper House is structurally sound, it
-has never been restored, and extensive painting and plastering will be
-required to return it to good condition. It is privately owned and is
-not open to the public.
-
-Hooper was buried to the east of his home in the garden. That part
-of the garden was later absorbed by the town cemetery, behind the
-Presbyterian Church. In 1894 Hooper’s remains were reinterred at
-Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., though his original
-gravestone remains in the Hillsborough cemetery.
-
-
-
-
-Independence National Historical Park, Pennsylvania  ‎☑
-
-    _Location: Philadelphia County, in downtown Philadelphia; address:
-    313 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19106._
-
-
-This park in the old part of Philadelphia is not only preeminent
-among the sites associated with the signers of the Declaration of
-Independence, but also notably commemorates other major aspects of
-the Nation’s founding and initial growth and many momentous national
-events. These include meetings of the First and Second Continental
-Congresses; adoption and signing of the Declaration, which marked the
-creation of the United States; and the labors of the Constitutional
-Convention of 1787, which perpetuated it. As historian Carl Van Doren
-has said: “On account of the Declaration of Independence, [Independence
-Hall] is a shrine honored wherever the rights of man are honored. On
-account of the Constitution, it is a shrine cherished wherever the
-principles of self-government on a federal scale are cherished.”
-
-[Illustration: Independence Hall.]
-
-Independence Hall was originally the State House for the Province of
-Pennsylvania. In 1729 the provincial assembly set aside funds for
-the building, designed by lawyer Andrew Hamilton. Three years later,
-construction began under the supervision of master carpenter Edmund
-Wooley. In 1736 the assembly moved into the statehouse, which was not
-fully completed until 1756.
-
-As American opposition to British colonial policies mounted,
-Philadelphia became a center of organized protest. To decide on a
-unified course of action, in 1774 the First Continental Congress met
-in newly finished Carpenters’ Hall, whose erection the Carpenters’
-Company of Philadelphia had begun 4 years earlier. In 1775 the Second
-Continental Congress, taking over the east room of the ground floor
-of the statehouse from the Pennsylvania assembly, moved from protest
-to resistance. Warfare had already begun in Massachusetts. Congress
-created an Army and appointed George Washington as commander in chief.
-Yet the final break with the Crown had not come; not until a year later
-would independence be declared.
-
-On July 2, 1776, Congress passed Richard Henry Lee’s resolution of
-June 7 recommending independence. The Delegates then turned their
-attention to Thomas Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration, which had
-been submitted on June 28. After modification, it was adopted on July
-4. Four days later, in Independence Square, the document was first read
-publicly, to the citizens of Philadelphia. In a formal ceremony on
-August 2, about 50 of the 56 signers affixed their signatures to the
-Declaration; the others apparently did so later.
-
-Long, hard years of war ensued. In the late autumn and winter of
-1776–77, the British threatened Philadelphia and Congress moved to
-Baltimore. Again in the fall of 1777 it departed, this time for York,
-Pa. During the British occupation of Philadelphia that winter and the
-next spring, the redcoats used Independence Hall as a barracks and as a
-hospital for American prisoners. In the summer of 1778, the Government
-returned. On November 3, 1781, Congress officially received news of
-Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown. Independence practically had been
-won.
-
-Earlier that same year, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual
-Union had gone into effect. Under the Confederation, Congress stayed
-in Philadelphia until 1783, and later met in other cities. In 1787
-the Constitutional Convention also held its highly secret sessions in
-Independence Hall, in the same chamber in which the Declaration had
-been adopted.
-
-About the same time that Philadelphia became the second Capital
-(1790–1800) under the Constitution, after the Government had moved
-from New York City, Independence Hall acquired three new neighbors
-in Independence Square: City Hall (1791), on the east; County Court
-House (1789), on the west; and American Philosophical Society Hall,
-on the southeast. Beginning in 1790, Congress met in the County Court
-House (subsequently known as Congress Hall). The following year, after
-sitting for a few days in Independence Hall, the U.S. Supreme Court
-moved to City Hall. In 1793 George Washington was inaugurated for his
-second term as President in Congress Hall, and 4 years later President
-Adams also took his oath of office there.
-
-In 1799 the State government vacated Independence Hall and moved
-to Lancaster. The next year, the Federal Government relocated to
-Washington, D.C. The city of Philadelphia then used City Hall and
-Congress Hall, and various tenants occupied Independence Hall until the
-city acquired it in 1818. For example, during the period 1802–27 artist
-Charles Willson Peale operated a museum there. He and his son painted
-many of the signers and heroes of the War for Independence. These
-portraits form the nucleus of the park’s present collection, which is
-exhibited in the Second Bank of the United States Building; a special
-room is devoted to the signers.
-
-Stately and symmetrical Independence Hall, a 2½-story red brick
-structure that has been carefully restored, is the most beautiful
-18th-century public building of Georgian style in the United States.
-The tall belltower, reconstructed along the original lines in 1828 by
-architect William Strickland, dominates the south facade. Smaller
-two-story, hip-roofed, brick wings, erected in 1736 and 1739 and
-restored in 1897–98, one of which serves as a park information center,
-are connected to the main building by arcades.
-
-[Illustration: Independence Hall in 1778.]
-
-The interior focus of interest in Independence Hall is the Assembly
-Room, the eastern one on the first floor. Probably no other room in
-the United States has been the scene of such political courage and
-wisdom. In this chamber, members of the Continental Congress and the
-Constitutional Convention formulated and signed the Declaration of
-Independence and Constitution. The room is about 40 feet square and
-20 feet high. Twin segmental-arched fireplaces along the east wall
-flank the speaker’s dais. Massive fluted pilasters raised on pedestals
-adorn the paneled east wall. The other three walls are plastered.
-A heavy Roman Doric entablature borders the plaster ceiling. The
-furniture arrangement at the time of the Continental Congress has been
-duplicated. The only original furnishings are the “Rising Sun” chair
-and the silver inkstand with quill box and shaker used by the signers
-of the Declaration and the Constitution.
-
-[Illustration: Restored Assembly Room, Independence Hall, where Members
-of the Continental Congress adopted and signed the Declaration of
-Independence.]
-
-The other large room on the ground floor, where the U.S. Supreme Court
-held sessions for a few days in 1791 and again in August 1796, housed
-the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and later other State and local
-courts. The paneled walls are decorated with massive fluted pilasters
-of the Roman Doric order. The central hall between this room and the
-Assembly Room is richly adorned with a Roman Doric order of columns and
-entablature, fully membered. On the second floor are the Long Room,
-Governor’s Council Chamber, and Committee Room. These are furnished to
-represent the activities of the Pennsylvania legislature and government
-prior to 1775.
-
-The Liberty Bell, a worldwide emblem of freedom, is displayed in the
-tower stair hall on the south end of the first floor. [When this
-volume went to press, the bell was scheduled to be moved in the near
-future to a newly constructed belltower, part of the park visitor
-center, located 2 blocks from Independence Hall.] The source of the
-2,080-pound bell’s name is the “Proclaim Liberty” inscription, engraved
-on it to commemorate the 50th anniversary of William Penn’s Charter
-of Privileges (1701). In 1750 the Pennsylvania assembly authorized
-erection of the Independence Hall belltower, and the next year
-ordered a bell from England. After it arrived in 1752, it was cracked
-during testing and was twice recast by local workmen. As the official
-statehouse bell, it was rung on public occasions. In 1777, before the
-British occupied Philadelphia, the Government moved it temporarily to
-Allentown, Pa. Traditionally the bell cracked once again, in 1835,
-while tolling the death of Chief Justice John Marshall. The exterior
-appearances of City Hall and Congress Hall have changed little since
-the 1790’s, when many of the signers served in the Government. The
-interior of Congress Hall has been restored and refurnished as the
-meetingplace of Congress in the 1790’s. Exhibits in City Hall describe
-the activities of the U.S. Supreme Court during the same period of
-time, and portray Philadelphia life during the late 18th century.
-Carpenters’ Hall, a block east of Independence Square, is still owned
-and operated by the Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia. The hall
-memorializes the First Continental Congress and possesses architectural
-significance.
-
-The American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743 by Benjamin
-Franklin and the oldest learned society in the United States, still
-maintains its headquarters in Philosophical Hall. Its distinguished
-membership once included 15 of the signers. The society’s collections
-also contain furniture and documents associated with them.
-
-In the years 1789–91, the Library Company of Philadelphia (organized
-in 1731), one of the first public libraries in the United States,
-erected Library Hall, across from Independence Square on the corner of
-Library and Fifth Streets. Numbering among the members were 11 signers,
-including company founder Franklin. Library Hall, reconstructed by the
-American Philosophical Society, now serves as its library. The Library
-Company is quartered elsewhere in the city.
-
-In addition to the preceding buildings, numerous sites associated
-with the signers have also been identified within the park. Many of
-them have been marked. On some, later buildings now stand. In a few
-instances, the National Park Service has excavated and stabilized
-foundations. Outstanding among the sites is that of the Jacob Graff,
-Jr., House, two blocks from Independence Hall on the southwest corner
-of Seventh and Market Streets. Jefferson was occupying the second floor
-of the 3½-story brick house when he wrote the Declaration in June 1776.
-His rented quarters consisted of a bedroom and parlor. He likely did
-much of his writing on a portable writing desk of his own design. In
-1791 the Graff House was also the residence of signer James Wilson. It
-was demolished in 1883.
-
-Other sites include those of the home (1766–90) and other structures
-associated with Franklin, on Franklin Court in the block south of
-Market Street between Third and Fourth Streets; two adjoining homes
-(1785–90 and 1790–95) of Robert Morris, on the southeast corner of
-Market and Sixth Streets, one of which was the unofficial Presidential
-Mansion (1790–1800), where John Adams resided (1797–1800) while
-President; Clarke Hall, on the southwest corner of Chestnut and Third
-Streets, the residence of Samuel Huntington (1779–81) and Thomas
-McKean (1781); Benjamin Rush’s home (1791–93), on the northwest corner
-of Walnut and Third Streets; the James Wilson home (“Fort Wilson”)
-(1778–90), on the southwest corner of the same intersection; and City
-Tavern, near Walnut and Second Streets, a gathering place for members
-of the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention, as well as
-other Government officials.
-
-In connection with the U.S. Bicentennial commemoration, the National
-Park Service plans to reconstruct the Graff House and the City Tavern.
-
-[Illustration: Congress Hall, seat of the U.S. Congress from 1790 until
-1800.]
-
-The graves and tombs of seven signers are also located in the park.
-Five (Franklin, Hewes, Hopkinson, Ross, and Rush) are in Christ Church
-Burial Ground, at the southeast corner of Fifth and Arch Streets; and
-two (Wilson and Robert Morris) in the yard of Christ Church, on Second
-Street between Church and Filbert Streets. The graves of Hewes and Ross
-are unmarked. A rose garden, dedicated in January 1971 to the memory
-of the signers of the Declaration by the Daughters of the American
-Revolution, is situated in a plot in the area between Walnut and Locust
-and Fourth and Fifth Streets.
-
-[Illustration: Carpenters’ Hall, meetingplace in 1774–75 of the First
-Continental Congress.]
-
-Buildings and sites in the park that are mainly of interest in other
-themes of history than that treated in this volume include: the First
-Bank of the United States; the Second Bank of the United States (Old
-Custom House); New Hall (Marine Corps Museum); the Pemberton House
-(Army-Navy Museum); the Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange; the Bishop
-White House; the Deshler-Morris House, in Germantown; the Todd House;
-St. George’s Church; St. Joseph’s Church; St. Mary’s Church; Mikveh
-Israel Cemetery; and Gloria Dei (Old Swede’s) Church National Historic
-Site.
-
-[Illustration: The Graff House about 1855. By this time, alterations
-had rendered it almost completely unrecognizable from its original
-appearance. Among other changes, it had been joined to an adjacent
-building and raised a story higher, more than doubling its size.]
-
-The structures and properties in 22-acre Independence National
-Historical Park, most of which are open to the public, include those
-owned by the city of Philadelphia, but administered by the National
-Park Service. These consist of Independence Hall, Congress Hall, City
-Hall, and Independence Square. In recent years, to enhance the setting
-of the area, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has created Independence
-Mall in the three blocks directly north of Independence Hall. Federally
-owned buildings include the First and Second Banks of the United
-States; the Deshler-Morris House, administered by the Germantown
-Historical Society; Todd House; Bishop White House; New Hall; Pemberton
-House; and the Philadelphia Exchange.
-
-Among those privately owned buildings whose owners have cooperative
-agreements with the National Park Service are Carpenters’ Hall
-and Christ Church, both National Historic Landmarks. The American
-Philosophical Society owns Philosophical Hall, another Landmark and the
-only privately owned building on the square, but also operates Library
-Hall, on federally owned land.
-
-In 1948, upon recommendation of the Philadelphia National Shrines Park
-Commission, Congress created Independence National Historical Park.
-This act specified the Federal Government’s role in the commemoration
-of existing historic sites and buildings and the acquisition and
-management of others. The entire undertaking is guided by an advisory
-commission of distinguished citizens. Many individuals and private
-and civic organizations have contributed to the preservation and
-beautification of the park.
-
-
-
-
-Parsons-Taylor House, Pennsylvania  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Northampton County, northeast corner of Fourth and Ferry
-    Streets, Easton._
-
-
-This house, built by William Parsons in 1757, was leased by George
-Taylor during the last year of his life and was the site of his death
-in February 1781. His health failing and his iron business declining,
-he had moved there the previous April from Greenwich Township, N.J.
-
-[Illustration: Parsons-Taylor House.]
-
-The residence, a small, two-story Georgian structure constructed of
-fieldstone, has a steep gable roof and a pent roof extending along the
-front at the second-floor level. A single chimney is located in the
-north sidewall. The front door is surmounted by a rectangular transom;
-the center door, in the south side, is sheltered by a hood. A frame
-attachment to the house, probably existing in 1780, no longer stands.
-
-A single large room containing stairs and a fireplace on the north wall
-make up the first floor. The walls are plastered, and the joists are
-supported by heavy, exposed beams. Bedrooms occupy the second floor
-and attic. Restored about 1906, the structure is in fine condition
-and is owned by the George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American
-Revolution, which uses it as a meetingplace. It is not usually open to
-visitors.
-
-
-
-
-Shippen-Wistar House, Pennsylvania  ‎⊗
-
-    _Location: Philadelphia County, southwest corner of Fourth and
-    Locust Streets, Philadelphia._
-
-
-Meetingplace of medical and political dignitaries, this townhouse was
-the residence of three eminent doctors and was visited by some of the
-signers and other key governmental officials. It was erected about
-1750 by Dr. William Shippen, Sr. (1712–1802). A prominent medical man
-of his day, he also served in the Continental Congress and contributed
-to Philadelphia’s cultural life. His son, Dr. William Shippen, Jr.
-(1736–1808), won distinction as a teacher as well as a practitioner,
-helped found the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, and in
-the period 1777–81 directed medical services in the Continental Army.
-He and his father apparently shared the residence part of the time
-during their careers. Like the Shippens, Dr. Caspar Wistar (1761–1818),
-who acquired the house in 1798, was distinguished in medical and
-intellectual circles.
-
-Various signers and other Delegates to the Continental Congress paid
-visits to the home. Richard Henry Lee, brother-in-law of young Shippen,
-stayed there. Francis Lightfoot and Arthur Lee likely often made calls.
-On occasion John Adams and John Witherspoon stopped by. Other notables
-who did so later were George Washington, while presiding over the
-Constitutional Convention (1787); Benjamin Rush, before his clash with
-Shippen, Jr., over medical conditions in the Continental Army; Robert
-R. Livingston, who had served on the Declaration drafting committee,
-in the 1780’s; John Adams, while Vice President; and Jefferson, as
-Secretary of State.
-
-The exterior of the house is in good condition, but the interior
-has been extensively altered. A 3½-story building in the colonial
-Philadelphia architectural style, it is constructed in Flemish bond
-with red bricks and black headers. The windows are shuttered. Notable
-are a high gable on the Fourth Street side and brick parapet walls on
-the roof joining the two end chimneys, one on each side of the roof
-near the peak of the ridge. A garden extends along the Locust Street
-side at the original rear of the house, which is now entered from
-that side rather than from Fourth Street. The building is owned and
-occupied by an insurance company, which has built a passageway between
-it and the adjacent Cadwalader House on the south. Access to the two
-structures is limited to the company’s customers.
-
-
-
-
-Summerseat, Pennsylvania  ∆
-
-    _Location: Bucks County, on Clymer Street in the block bounded by
-    Morris and Hillcrest Avenues, Morrisville._
-
-
-Summerseat was erected in the 1770’s by Thomas Barclay, a Philadelphia
-merchant. In 1806 George Clymer acquired it and resided in it until his
-death in 1813. It is a two-story, brick and stone Georgian structure
-over an elevated basement. The roof is gabled and slate-covered. The
-wall of the front, or east, facade is brick; the end walls, probably
-also of brick, are covered with cement; the rear wall is of fieldstone.
-Front first- and second-story windows are topped by flat arches of
-gauged brick; rear windows on both levels and all the basement windows,
-by segmental arches, also of gauged brick. Exterior solid shutters
-flank the first- and second-story windows.
-
-A rectangular transom and triangular pediment surmount the front center
-door. Central halls divide the four rooms on each floor into pairs.
-Each of the rooms is equipped with a fireplace. The stairs, located
-at the rear of the hall along the south wall, are lighted by a large
-window over the landing. The walls, floors, and some of the woodwork
-appear to be original. Restored in 1931 and renovated 4 years later,
-the house is owned by the Morrisville School District and is used for
-educational purposes. It is open to the public only on a restricted
-basis.
-
-[Illustration: Summerseat.]
-
-
-
-
-Taylor House, Pennsylvania  ∆
-
-    _Location: Lehigh County, on Front Street, Catasauqua._
-
-
-In 1768 George Taylor employed Philadelphia carpenters to build this
-stone residence on the east bank of the Lehigh River, about 15 miles
-west of Easton at the site of present Catasauqua. The structure was
-located on a 331-acre tract of land, known as the “Manor of Chawton,”
-which he had acquired the previous year. In 1771 he leased out most
-of the manor as a farm, and 5 years later sold the house and land to
-Philadelphia merchant John Benezet.
-
-The rectangular residence is Georgian in style and consists of two
-stories over an elevated basement. The thick walls are built of stone
-masonry rubble faced with a whitish, slaked-lime stucco. Over the
-windows are flat arches of gauged brick. First-floor windows have
-exterior solid-panel shutters; those on the second floor, louvered. A
-heavy, overhanging cornice surrounds the truncated hip roof. The brick
-chimneys at both ends are symmetrically paired. A two-story stone
-kitchen wing, dating from about 1800, adjoins the house at the south
-end.
-
-[Illustration: Taylor House.]
-
-At the center of the front, or west, facade, a flight of marble
-pyramidal steps lead up to a double door, over which are a rectangular
-transom and triangular pediment. The central hall, which extends to the
-rear of the house toward the stairway, is divided by an archway, with
-fluted pilasters. Situated to the north of the hall are living room and
-parlor; to the south, dining room and reception, or service, room. Of
-special interest in the dining room, parlor, and living room are the
-finely executed door pediments and fully paneled fireplace walls. Other
-walls in these rooms have paneled wainscots and finely detailed chair
-rails. The fireplace paneling and mantel in the dining room date from
-the 19th century and represent the Greek Revival style, but the rest of
-the first-floor paneling and mantels are original, as are also the wide
-pine floorboards and iron hardware.
-
-The second floor consists of four bedrooms and two small dressing
-rooms. The fireplace paneling in the two bedrooms on the front side of
-the house is almost as elaborate as that downstairs. A 1½-story, brick
-summer kitchen, near the rear of the house, dates from about 1850.
-
-The slightly altered Taylor House, acquired in 1945 by the Lehigh
-County Historical Society and restored in 1966–68, is in excellent
-condition and is open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Governor Hopkins House, Rhode Island  ∆
-
-    _Location: Providence County, 15 Hopkins Street, Providence._
-
-
-Stephen Hopkins bought this framehouse in 1742 and resided in it until
-his death in 1785. It is the only extant structure closely associated
-with him. The oldest section, the lower level of the present southwest
-rear ell, dates from about 1707, when the small dwelling comprised two
-first-floor rooms and an attic. As soon as he acquired the building,
-Hopkins enlarged and remodeled it into its present L-shaped, two-story
-form.
-
-The Georgian building, which has a gabled roof and two chimneys, is
-clapboarded. Cornices decorate the first-story windows. In 1928, during
-a major restoration, a reconstructed door, with triangular pediment and
-pilasters typical of the 18th century, was inserted in place of one of
-the four windows along the present front elevation. This door, the only
-major alteration in the house, became the main entrance. It replaced
-a door on the west side, which opens into the original kitchen and is
-still extant.
-
-The central hall, along the east wall of which is the main stairway,
-divides the front of the residence into two rooms, study and parlor.
-The recessed parlor bookshelves, set in paneling above the hearth,
-are distinctive. The paneling of the two fireplaces in the study and
-ell is simpler. A passageway leads from the parlor to the southwest
-ell, which consists of the original kitchen and in the southeast
-corner a small bedroom. Five bedrooms, two of which are equipped with
-fireplaces, are located upstairs. The interior of the house, including
-stairs, woodwork, floors, and fireplaces, is largely original. The fine
-garden was designed by a descendant of Stephen Hopkins, the late Alden
-Hopkins, prominent landscape architect.
-
-[Illustration: Governor Hopkins House.]
-
-The Governor Hopkins House, first located on the northeast corner of
-Hopkins and South Main Streets, was moved eastward in 1804 along the
-north side of and about halfway up Hopkins Street. In 1927, to make
-way for the construction of a new courthouse, the building was again
-relocated eastward along the same street, to its present site, and the
-next year was restored. Since that time, the State of Rhode Island has
-owned the house and maintained the exterior and grounds. The Society of
-Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island maintains and administers
-the interior as a historic house museum.
-
-
-
-
-Heyward-Washington House, South Carolina  ∆
-
-    _Location: Charleston County, 87 Church Street, Charleston._
-
-
-From 1778 until 1794 this townhouse was the principal residence
-of Thomas Heyward, Jr. During this period, however, he also spent
-considerable time at White Hall, his country estate near that of
-his father about 25 miles northeast of Savannah, and in 1780–81 was
-imprisoned by the British at St. Augustine. In 1770 his father, Daniel,
-a rice planter, had purchased the lot and a two-story house standing on
-it. Within 2 years, he probably demolished it and erected the present
-one. Thomas inherited it in 1777, and moved in the following year,
-upon completion of his tour in the Continental Congress. In 1780, when
-the British took Charleston, they captured him and forced his family
-to flee from the townhouse. For a week in 1791 the city rented it for
-use of President Washington, who was visiting Charleston while touring
-the Southern States. Three years later, Heyward sold the property and
-retired to White Hall.
-
-[Illustration: Heyward-Washington House.]
-
-A slightly altered Georgian structure, the residence is a superb
-example of a Charleston “double house.” The floor plan is the typical
-Georgian center hall type, with four rooms on each floor. Two
-interior chimneys allow for two fireplaces in pairs set back to back
-on all floors. The first-floor rooms are simple; those on the second,
-elaborate, for entertaining. The downstairs hall, divided by an arch
-at midpoint, extends to a rear door. A Palladian window lights the
-stairway, located at the rear of the hall against the north wall.
-
-The large second-floor drawing room, the most elaborate room in the
-house, features paneled walls, pedimented doors, interior paneled
-shutters, an elaborate ceiling cornice, and a fireplace with a
-magnificent carved mantel. In addition to the drawing room, the second
-floor contains a smaller parlor and two bedrooms, each of which has a
-paneled fireplace wall. Four more rooms are located on both the first
-and third floors. Except for reconstruction in 1929 of one front room
-and the front of the hall on the first floor, the structure is largely
-original.
-
-The brick house is square and rises three stories. The hipped roof
-is pierced by a single front dormer and ornamented by a narrow,
-denticulated cornice. Brick flat arches head the windows. The upper
-windows have louvered shutters; those on the first floor, paneled
-shutters. The center entrance, a reconstruction, consists of a
-fan-lighted door surmounted by a pediment and flanked by Roman Doric
-columns. A rear courtyard contains a brick kitchen-laundry with slave
-quarters above, a carriage house, wood and tool sheds, a necessary, and
-garden.
-
-Subsequent to Heyward’s ownership, the house passed through several
-hands until rescued from the threat of demolition in 1929 by the
-Charleston Museum. After restoration and furnishing with period pieces,
-it was opened to the public. A collection of china once owned by
-Heyward is on display, as well as portraits of the Heyward family.
-
-
-
-
-Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, South Carolina  ∆
-
-    _Location: Georgetown County, on an unimproved road just west of
-    U.S. 17, about 13 miles southwest of Georgetown._
-
-
-Erected by his father during the 1740’s, this house on the north bank
-of the North Santee River was the birthplace in 1749 and the boyhood
-home of Thomas Lynch, Jr. He lived in it until his father sold it in
-1763, the year before young Lynch sailed to Europe to continue his
-education. It is the only surviving residence closely associated with
-him.
-
-[Illustration: Hopsewee-on-the-Santee.]
-
-The 2½-story framehouse rests on a brick foundation, which is covered
-with scored tabby. Two front dormers and two interior chimneys
-protrude from the hip roof. A broad, two-story porch, or piazza, with
-square columns extends across the front of the building. The frame,
-comprised of black cypress, is of mortise-and-tenon construction, and
-the walls are clapboarded. Exterior paneled shutters flank the first-
-and second-story windows. Except for the present metal roof and the
-screening of the front porch, the outside of the structure has not been
-appreciably altered.
-
-The central hall arrangement divides four rooms into pairs on the first
-two floors. All the rooms are equipped with fireplaces. Throughout, the
-mantels, wainscoting, cornice mold, and heart pine floors are original
-and excellently crafted. The full cellar is constructed of brick and
-divided into rooms. Two one-story, cypress, shingled outbuildings,
-located to the northeast and northwest of the main house, probably once
-served as kitchens. About 1948, by which time the house had fallen into
-decay and the grounds were overgrown, the present owner acquired the
-property, restored the garden, and repaired the residence. In fine
-condition, it is privately occupied, but is shown to the public part of
-the week.
-
-
-
-
-Middleton Place, South Carolina  ∆
-
-    _Location: Dorchester County, on an unimproved road just east of
-    S.C. 61, about 13 miles northwest of Charleston._
-
-
-This mansion, of which only the south wing stands today, was the
-birthplace and lifelong home of Arthur Middleton (1742–87). About 1738
-his grandfather had built a 3½-story brick house at the site. Some 3
-years later, Arthur’s father began laying out the surrounding gardens
-that have since won international fame as Middleton Place Gardens. More
-than 100 slaves labored for a decade to complete the 45-acre gardens
-and 16-acre lawn. In 1755 the mansion was enlarged by the addition
-of two two-story brick flankers, or detached wings, on the north and
-south sides of the original structure, for use respectively as a
-library-conservatory and guest quarters.
-
-During the War for Independence, British troops pillaged the residence
-and despoiled the plantation. In 1865, as Union soldiers approached
-during the Civil War, the slaves set the mansion to the torch, which
-left only the walls standing. In 1868 William Middleton erected a
-roof over the south wing, the least damaged section of the three, and
-reoccupied it. In 1886 an earthquake felled the ruined walls of the
-north wing and central section.
-
-[Illustration: The south wing (1755) of Middleton Place, the only
-18th-century section of the mansion that has survived.]
-
-In the 1930’s the two-story, brick south wing was renovated and
-enlarged. The major additions, both two-story brick and executed in an
-18th-century manner, were a service wing along the main axis of the
-wing at the south end; and, on the west side, a right-angled entrance
-wing, containing a vestibule and stairway, and constructed with a
-stepped and curvilinear gable roof to match those on the ends of the
-original south wing. A third addition in the 1930’s was a one-story
-brick porch on the east, or river, elevation. All the brickwork is
-Flemish bond, the shutters are paneled, and a louvered circular window
-decorates the gable end of the new entrance wing. The interior chimneys
-are three in number. A parlor, dining room, and living room are located
-on the first floor of the original south wing and three bedrooms on the
-second. The interior finish dates from the mid-19th century, but many
-of the furnishings are original 18th-century Middleton pieces.
-
-To the east and north of the present house and ruins of the central
-block and north wing are the famous gardens, which have been enlarged
-and perfected over the years. They extend from the Ashley River and
-the paired butterfly lakes at their foot west toward the residence and
-beyond in sweeping terraces. To the northwest of the house, in another
-18th-century formal garden, is the family graveyard, containing the
-mausoleum of Arthur Middleton.
-
-The estate comprises 7,000 acres and is still owned by Middleton
-descendants. They occupy the south wing, which is not open to the
-public, unlike the gardens. According to present plans, about 110
-acres, embracing the gardens, burial plot, plantation house, and
-reconstructed outbuildings, will be donated to a nonprofit organization
-that will preserve them and keep them open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Rutledge House, South Carolina  ∆
-
-    _Location: Charleston County, 117 Broad Street, Charleston._
-
-
-The residence of Edward Rutledge during his later years, this building
-is the only existing one that can be identified with him. Unfortunately
-the construction date and the exact years of his residence cannot be
-determined, though he was definitely the occupant in 1787.
-
-The large, rectilinear, clapboarded, frame structure is two stories
-high over a basement. The roof is hipped. A bilevel porch, supported
-by columns, extends across the west side and around the south, or
-rear, side of the house. A central modillioned pediment with circular
-window fronts the main roof and is “supported” by consoles. Exterior
-louvered shutters flank the corniced windows. The center doorway, once
-crowned by a cornice, now has a triangular pediment. A small, two-story
-clapboard wing, added to the front of the east end along the main
-axis in the late 19th century, is the only definite major exterior
-alteration. Behind it, runs a two-story porch.
-
-[Illustration: Rutledge House.]
-
-A center hall extends about halfway through the house. On one side are
-two rooms with fireplaces; on the other, a front stair hall containing
-a curved stairway. Behind this is a large room, accessible only from
-the entrance hall. The kitchen, possibly another later addition, is
-located in a wing that projects from the rear of the house at the
-southeast corner. The interior woodwork appears to date from the
-1880’s, and partition walls now subdivide the large original rooms into
-smaller ones.
-
-The Rutledge House, known in modern times as the Carter-May House, is
-now a Roman Catholic home for elderly women. Portions of the first
-floor may be visited upon request. A large garden is located at the
-rear of the building.
-
-
-
-
-Berkeley, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Charles City County, on the south side of Va. 5, about 8
-    miles west of Charles City._
-
-
-In historical interest this fine mansion has few rivals among the James
-River plantations. It was the birthplace and lifelong home of Benjamin
-Harrison V (1726–91), signer of the Declaration and three-term Governor
-of Virginia, as well as the birthplace and boyhood residence of his
-son, William Henry (1773–1841), ninth President of the United States
-and grandfather of Benjamin (1833–1901), the 23rd President. William
-Henry probably wrote his 1841 inaugural address at Berkeley in the room
-in which he had been born.
-
-[Illustration: Berkeley.]
-
-Benjamin Harrison IV, the signer’s father, built the structure in 1726.
-In 1781 British troops under Benedict Arnold plundered the plantation,
-but did not seriously harm the mansion. In the 1790’s one of the
-Harrisons, probably Benjamin VI, made some architectural alterations
-and redecorated the interior in the Adam style. By the time of the
-Civil War, the plantation was known as Harrison’s Landing. In 1862 it
-served as a supply base and camp for the Union Army of the Potomac
-following its retreat from the Battle of Malvern Hill, Va., which ended
-the Peninsular Campaign. Gen. George B. McClellan utilized the mansion
-as his headquarters. While quartered nearby, Gen. Daniel Butterfield
-composed the famous bugle call “Taps.”
-
-The early Georgian mansion has been altered somewhat over the years,
-but retains much of the original structure and character. It is 2½
-stories high and has a dormered, gable roof with two tall interior
-ridge chimneys, and distinctive pedimented gable ends, including
-modillioned cornice. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond. Gauged
-brick is employed in the flat window arches, the belt course, and
-door pediments. The broad-piered central doors on the north and south
-elevations, with pediments in gauged brick, are reconstructions. Two
-detached, two-story, brick dependencies, set slightly south of the
-house on the river side, were built in the 1840’s to replace similar
-structures that had been erected sometime before 1800.
-
-The center hall plan has been slightly modified. The hall bisects
-the four rooms on the first floor into pairs. A small stairs in the
-northwest corner was probably inserted about 1800. Most of the interior
-finish clearly reflects the Adam alterations of the 1790’s.
-
-By 1915 the mansion was in poor condition. Subsequent owners have
-reconstructed and restored it to its 18th-century appearance. This
-included removal of a 19th-century porch on all four sides, replacement
-of the window sash and exterior door framings, and reconstruction of
-the center stairs. The upper floors are used as a private residence,
-but the basement and first floor may be visited. The unmarked grave of
-signer Benjamin Harrison is located in the family cemetery, a quarter
-of a mile southeast of the plantation house.
-
-
-
-
-Elsing Green, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: King William County, on a private road about 1 mile
-    southwest of Va. 632, some 10 miles southwest of King William Court
-    House._
-
-
-In 1758, while Carter Braxton was visiting in England, his brother
-George probably built for him this impressive plantation home on a high
-bluff overlooking the Pamunkey River. Upon his return in 1760, Carter
-took up residence in it and lived there until 1767. He then moved to a
-new residence, Chericoke, a few miles to the northwest.
-
-[Illustration: Elsing Green.]
-
-The exterior is original, but about 1800 a fire destroyed the
-interior. The present 18th-century style woodwork is a 20th-century
-reconstruction. The Georgian structure of brick, laid in Flemish bond,
-is U-shaped. Two wings project to the north, or rear, of the central
-section. The large building is two stories in height and has a hip roof
-and four tall chimneys. Side doors are centered in each wing, and there
-are also central doors in the front and rear facades of the main house.
-The door on the front, or river, facade, with gauged brick triangular
-pediment, is a reconstruction.
-
-The flat window arches are constructed of splayed brick. The
-second-floor level is marked by a strong course of gauged brick,
-unmolded and four courses high. Two old, detached, brick dependencies,
-1½ stories high, flank the mansion. The eastern one may date from 1719;
-the western contains a restored kitchen. A reconstructed smokehouse and
-dairy rest on their original, symmetrically located, foundations.
-
-An off-center hall extends northward halfway through the main arm
-of the U from the south, or front, entrance and intersects with an
-east-west lateral hall running the length of the main mansion. The
-ends of this long cross hall each contain a stairway set against the
-south wall. The southeast comer of the residence is occupied by a large
-parlor; the southwest corner, by a smaller living room; and each of the
-north wings, by a single large room. Four bedrooms are upstairs, which
-has the same general plan as the ground floor.
-
-The carefully restored house and well maintained estate, which now
-includes about 3,000 acres, are in excellent condition but are
-privately occupied and not open to visitors.
-
-
-
-
-Menokin, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Richmond County, on an unimproved road about 1 mile west
-    of County Route 690, some 4 miles northwest of Warsaw._
-
-
-Menokin, completed in 1769 by Col. John Tayloe of nearby Mount Airy as
-a wedding gift for his daughter and her husband, Francis Lightfoot Lee,
-was the home where they spent most of their lives and the one Lee loved
-best. He died there in 1797.
-
-This late Georgian house, similar in many respects to Mount Airy though
-much smaller, was likely constructed by the same architect-builder,
-probably John Ariss. The exterior possesses the qualities of a large
-mansion, though the actual dimensions are rather modest.
-
-[Illustration: Ruins of Menokin.]
-
-The residence, constructed of local brown sandstone, is two stories
-high with hip-on-hip roof and two large interior chimneys. Its exterior
-walls are covered with plaster. The stone trim—quoins, belt courses,
-and window and door trim—is elaborate. Two stone belt courses, one at
-the second-floor line and the other at the sill level of the upper
-windows, divide the main, or north, facade horizontally. The upper
-course is eliminated on the other three facades. No longer standing are
-two two-story, gable-roofed, detached, symmetrical service buildings,
-a kitchen to the east and office to the west, which once stood in
-the forecourt at right angles to the main house. They undoubtedly
-heightened the impression of the mansion’s large size.
-
-A center hall extends halfway through the first floor, which contains
-dining room, living room, kitchen, and bedroom. Four bedrooms, divided
-into pairs by a central hall, are located on the second floor.
-
-Unoccupied for many years, Menokin is in ruinous condition. The roof
-and walls on the southeast side have collapsed. The yard and grounds,
-part of a 590-acre farm, are overgrown with vegetation and small trees.
-The owner has removed and stored the original interior paneling.
-Extensive reconstruction would be required to restore the structure to
-its original condition. It is not open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Monticello, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Albemarle County, just off Va. 53, about 2 miles
-    southeast of Charlottesville._
-
-
-“Monticello,” Italian for “Little Mountain,” is an enduring tribute to
-the genius and versatility of Thomas Jefferson, who personally designed
-and supervised erection of the splendid mansion. He resided in it for
-many years of his long life, his spirit lives on in its architectural
-perfection and the ingenious devices with which he equipped it, and
-he is buried nearby. Sitting amid pleasant gardens and lawns on a
-hilltop, the residence overlooks Charlottesville; the University of
-Virginia, which Jefferson founded and some of whose buildings he
-designed; and the green rolling hills of the surrounding countryside.
-Especially after his retirement from public life in 1809 until his
-death, at the age of 83 on July 4, 1826, the prominent men of his
-age made pilgrimages to Monticello. To this day it is visited by the
-humble, as well as the great—all who admire Jefferson’s character and
-accomplishments.
-
-[Illustration: Monticello.]
-
-In 1757 Jefferson’s father died and passed on the property, 2,750
-acres, to him. Eleven years later, he began leveling the hilltop. To
-make all parts of it accessible, he built paths, or roundabouts, as he
-called them, on its slopes at four different levels; remains of these
-are visible today. In 1770 fire destroyed Jefferson’s modest residence,
-his birthplace Shadwell, and he moved to Monticello, where he had
-already begun building a mansion. The first part of it completed was
-the small southwest pavilion, which Jefferson occupied as a bachelor’s
-quarters until January 1772, when he brought his bride, Martha Wayles
-Skelton, to share it with him. It is still known as “Honeymoon Cottage.”
-
-The first Monticello, vastly different from the present one, was
-probably completed in 1775. Constructed of brick with cut-stone
-trim, it consisted of a central two-story unit, with pedimented
-gable roof running from front to rear and one-story gabled wings,
-set perpendicularly to the central block. The chief architectural
-accent was the main two-story portico, Doric below and Ionic above.
-Small polygonal bays projected from the ends of the wings. Jefferson
-made numerous alterations and major changes after the War for
-Independence. The present two-wing structure, built between 1793 and
-1809, incorporates the rooms of the original house at its rear. It also
-reflects a shift in architectural preference in the United States from
-Georgian to Roman Revival—elements of both of which are represented.
-Jefferson was almost entirely responsible for starting the Roman
-Revival.
-
-The mansion consists of 2½ stories over a basement and contains 35
-rooms. The dominating feature is the central dome, over an octagonal
-room. The house is furnished largely with Jefferson belongings,
-including a replica of the small portable desk on which he probably
-wrote the Declaration of Independence. Some of the clever devices in
-the residence are a 7-day calendar-clock and a dumbwaiter. One room
-contains one of the first parquet floors in the United States. The
-upper levels, accessible only by narrow staircases, are not shown to
-the public.
-
-Before Jefferson built Monticello, every plantation had a group of
-small outbuildings such as the laundry, smokehouse, dairy, stable,
-weaving house, schoolhouse, and kitchen. Jefferson sought to render
-these as inconspicuous as possible and increase the efficiency of
-the facilities they provided by constructing two series of rooms for
-these purposes beneath the outer sides of two long L-shaped terraces
-extending from the house. Below the south terrace, beyond the angle
-of the ell, are the kitchen, the cook’s room, servants’ rooms, room
-for smoking meat, and the dairy. At the end of this terrace, stands
-“Honeymoon Cottage.” Under the far side of the north terrace are the
-stables, carriage house, icehouse, and laundry. Jefferson used the
-small building terminating this terrace, adjacent to which is the
-paddock, as an office. An underground passageway—containing storage
-rooms for wine, beer, cider, and rum—connects the basement of the main
-house with the series of service rooms along the outer sides of the
-ells. Jefferson is buried in the family graveyard, which is adjacent to
-the road leading from the house.
-
-Upon Jefferson’s death in 1826, his daughter Martha inherited
-Monticello, but was soon forced to sell it, to the first of a series of
-private owners. In 1923 the newly organized Thomas Jefferson Memorial
-Foundation purchased the estate, the following year opened it to the
-public, and has retained ownership to the present day.
-
-
-
-
-Mount Airy, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Richmond County, on the north side of U.S. 360, about 1½
-    miles west of Warsaw._
-
-
-Francis Lightfoot Lee resided in this beautiful mansion for a short
-time in 1769, while its owner, his new father-in-law, Col. John Tayloe,
-completed building Menokin nearby as a residence for him and his bride.
-
-Mount Airy, which sits on a ridge overlooking the Rappahannock Valley,
-is one of the finest late Georgian mansions to be erected in America.
-Built in the years 1758–62, it is attributed to noted Virginia
-architect John Ariss, and is considered to be his best work. It was
-the first residence in the English Colonies to carry out completely
-a full five-part Palladian villa plan: a main house connected to
-two dependencies by quadrant passageways that partially enclose
-a forecourt. The massive main section, standing over an elevated
-basement, and the two dependencies are two stories high and of dark
-brown sandstone construction trimmed in light-colored limestone. The
-one-story passageways curve from the main house to the dependencies and
-enclose a semicircular forecourt on the north, or entrance, facade.
-
-[Illustration: Mount Airy.]
-
-Prominent characteristics of the main building are front and rear
-central projecting pavilions of rusticated limestone, both having
-loggias, three windows in the second story, and crowning triangular
-pediments; limestone belt course; rusticated angle quoins; and two
-pairs of interior chimneys near the ridge of the hip roof, which was
-rebuilt after a fire in 1844 and may have replaced a hip-on-hip roof.
-The four square piers gracing the front loggia are faced with Roman
-Doric pilasters. The rear loggia has three round arches topped with
-heavy, marked, voussoired keystones.
-
-The two dependencies have hip roofs and central chimneys, and
-their corner quoins match those of the main house. The connecting
-passageways, also of stone, are covered with shed roofs concealed from
-the front. At the point where they connect with the main house, which
-rests on an elevated basement, they are stepped up to allow entrance to
-the first floor.
-
-Fire destroyed the probably fine wooden interiors in 1844, but the
-original floor plan was retained in the reconstruction. A magnificent
-central hall extends through the house between the front and rear
-loggias. Full-height windows flank both central entrance doors. The
-elliptical stairway in the front northwest corner room, in which there
-is also a pantry, dates from the 19th century, but the original stairs
-may have been in the present cross hall between the two east drawing
-rooms, lighted by the central arch of a Palladian window in the east
-end wall. In the southwest corner is a large dining room.
-
-Mount Airy, in good condition, is still used as a residence by Tayloe
-descendants and is not open to the public. Francis Lightfoot Lee is
-buried with his wife in the Tayloe family cemetery, located about 300
-yards northwest of the mansion.
-
-
-
-
-Nelson House (Colonial National Historical Park), Virginia  ‎☑
-
-    _Location: York County, northwest corner of Main and Pearl Streets,
-    Yorktown; address: Colonial National Historical Park, P.O. Box 210,
-    Yorktown, Va. 23490._
-
-
-Thomas Nelson, Jr., may have been born in this house in 1738, resided
-fulltime in it from 1767 until 1781, and probably stayed in it on
-occasion during the following 8 years prior to his death. During the
-latter period, he was living in partial retirement at his Hanover
-County estate, Offley Hoo.
-
-The probable builder, between 1732 and 1741, was Thomas (“Scotch Tom”)
-Nelson, Sr., the signer’s grandfather. Thomas Jr.’s father, William,
-lived in the residence until about 1738, the year of his marriage, when
-he moved to his own house across the street. Thomas, Jr., could have
-been born at either place. After “Scotch Tom” died, in 1745, his widow
-continued in residence. Upon her death in 1766, Thomas, Jr., who since
-his marriage 4 years earlier had apparently lived with his father,
-acquired her home and moved in the next year.
-
-[Illustration: Nelson House.]
-
-According to family tradition, the Nelson House served as the second
-headquarters of Gen. Charles Cornwallis during the siege of Yorktown
-(September-October 1781), and with Nelson’s permission American
-artillery shelled and hit the house. The historical record indicates
-that both British and French military personnel likely used it, but
-their identities cannot be definitely ascertained. And the southeast
-face of the residence does show evidence of damage from cannon fire.
-The Marquis de Lafayette, who revisited the United States in 1824–25,
-was quartered there when in the former year he attended the celebration
-of the anniversary of the Battle of Yorktown, in which he had played a
-key role.
-
-The Nelson House is an impressive specimen of early Georgian
-architecture, though the four south and five north dormers added in
-the 1920’s detract from the original design. The broad roof is gabled
-and pedimented at the ends, with two massive interior chimneys and
-strongly dentiled cornice. The Flemish bond brickwork includes gauged
-belt course, water table, and flat window arches with segmental
-soffits. Corner quoins, as well as the window sills and lintels and
-their tall keystones, are of stone. The quoins and two levels of tall
-windows give the house a strong vertical effect. The north center door
-has simple gauged and molded brick piers that are topped by a brick
-pediment. Destroying the symmetry of the south facade is the off-center
-door, enclosed in a vestibule. A more elaborate door on the west side
-is modern, replacing an original untrimmed service opening.
-
-On one side of the off-center hall are two small rooms, with a lobby
-and service stairs between them; on the opposite side of the hall,
-are two larger rooms, divided by a tiny one, probably a pantry. The
-general plan is repeated upstairs, where there are four bedrooms. Most
-of the original interior woodwork, highlighted by the first-floor
-wall-to-ceiling paneling, is still intact. From a decorative
-standpoint, the most striking chamber is the northeast drawing room.
-All the fireplaces in the residence are apparently reconstructions, as
-are also the balusters and handrails of the stairs.
-
-The house remained in possession of the Nelson family until 1914. In
-1920–21 its owners rehabilitated and restored it and renamed it York
-Hall. In 1968 the National Park Service acquired it. When this volume
-went to press, an extensive research and restoration program was being
-carried out preparatory to opening the building to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Poplar Forest, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Bedford County, on the east side of County Route 661,
-    about 6½ miles west of Lynchburg._
-
-
-In 1806–19 Thomas Jefferson designed and built this architecturally
-significant octagonal house on his 4,000-acre Bedford County plantation
-as a summer home and retreat. He occupied it intermittently until his
-death in 1826.
-
-The plantation came into the possession of Jefferson through Martha
-Wayles Skelton, whom he married in 1772. For many years, whenever he
-visited it to superintend its management, he resided in a two-room
-cottage, the only dwelling. In June 1781, just after abdicating the
-governorship and narrowly escaping capture with a group of legislators
-during a British raid on Charlottesville, he temporarily moved his
-family to the cottage. Before the month was out, a horse threw and
-injured him. During his recuperation, he wrote _Notes on the State
-of Virginia_, a study of social and political life in 18th-century
-Virginia. In 1806–19 he erected Poplar Forest, whose completion
-coincided with his retirement from public office. When visitors became
-too numerous at Monticello or the fancy struck, he took up residence at
-his retreat for a month or two, usually twice a year. As the years went
-on, he refined the structure.
-
-[Illustration: Poplar Forest.]
-
-In 1845 a fire destroyed the roof and interior, leaving only the four
-chimneys, the brick walls, and possibly the portico columns. That
-same year, the present unadorned roof, octagonal and hipped like its
-predecessor, and dormers were added. Prior to the fire, there was a
-skylight and balustraded deck at the edge of the roof, with a Tuscan
-cornice below that extended around the building. The one-story brick
-building is set over a high basement. Because of the sloping ground
-on the rear side, the structure is two stories high there. One- and
-two-story tetrastyle Tuscan porticoes are attached to the front and
-rear of the house respectively. The front one is pedimented; the
-unpedimented rear one is built over a one-story arcade.
-
-The original interior plan is unchanged. Four elongated octagonal rooms
-are grouped symmetrically around the present dining room, a square
-central room that was once lighted from above by the central skylight,
-not replaced in 1845. No aboveground traces remain of a flat-roofed
-office wing, referred to by Jefferson, but a kitchen and smokehouse
-still stand.
-
-Poplar Forest, in good condition, is a private residence and is not
-open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Stratford Hall, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Westmoreland County, just north of Va. 214, about 1 mile
-    northeast of Lerty._
-
-
-This architecturally outstanding mansion along the Potomac River
-was the ancestral home of the Lee family. It was the birthplace and
-boyhood home of two signers of the Declaration of Independence, Richard
-Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee, as well as their three distinguished
-brothers, Arthur, William, and Thomas Ludwell. A later resident was
-Col. Henry “Lighthorse Harry,” hero of the War for Independence. His
-son, Robert E., Confederate leader during the Civil War, was born in
-the house in 1807.
-
-[Illustration: Stratford Hall.]
-
-Thomas Lee—planter, merchant, shipowner, and politician—built the
-mansion in the years 1725–30 on his 16,000-acre plantation. Upon his
-death in 1750, the residence passed to his eldest son, Philip Ludwell.
-Meantime, Richard Henry had been born there in 1732 and Francis
-Lightfoot 2 years later. They maintained residence until 1757 and 1758
-respectively, when they moved to their own estates. In 1782 Philip
-Ludwell’s oldest daughter, Matilda, wife of “Lighthorse Harry,” her
-cousin, inherited the mansion. In 1790 she died, and 3 years later her
-husband remarried. One of his sons by that union was Robert E. Lee, who
-lived in the house only 3 or 4 years, at the end of which his parents
-moved to Alexandria.
-
-Stratford Hall is a magnificent and rare example of an H-shaped
-residence and illustrates the transition from the 17th-century William
-and Mary style of architecture to early Georgian. The mansion is one
-story high over an elevated basement and has a hip roof. Variations
-in color and size between the Flemish bond brickwork in the basement
-and upper story soften the austerity of the bold mass of the house. In
-the central connecting arm, the flights of stone steps leading up to
-the north and south entrances, which diminish in width as they ascend
-to the main floor level and are flanked by ponderous balustrades, are
-conjectural reconstructions, erected in 1929. Twin sets of four huge
-chimney stacks are centered over the east and west wings. The stacks
-are connected by arches and encompass balustraded roof decks, from
-which the Lees could view navigation on the Potomac River.
-
-“Lighthorse Harry” Lee made many changes. By 1800 he had altered or
-replaced the exterior stairs and changed most of the interior trim,
-except that in the central block’s great hall, to the Adam style. The
-floor plan is unusual in colonial dwellings. The two wings each have
-four rooms, divided laterally by a central hallway on the main floor.
-The connecting central block consists of the fully paneled great hall,
-or salon—one of the most formal and monumental rooms of the early
-Georgian period in the English Colonies. The basement contains service
-rooms and some bedrooms; the main floor, living quarters and bedrooms.
-In the east wing’s dining room is a service alcove, common in Virginia
-mansions. The 18th-century stairway was removed during the 1929
-restoration. The only access between floors is now a small stairway in
-the east wing.
-
-The mansion is built in the center of a square parterre, a service
-building being located at each corner of the square. Flanking the
-entrance forecourt are the kitchen and library, 1½-story brick
-structures with jerkin-head roofs. At the rear corners are a school
-and office, with hip roofs. Outside the square are balanced brick
-buildings: a stable on one side and smokehouse on the other. Seven of
-the 12 original structures that were still standing in 1929 have been
-restored. They provide an excellent picture of plantation life in the
-18th century. Farther removed from the house, near the wharf on the
-river, is the reconstructed mill.
-
-In 1929 the Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., acquired the
-mansion and 1,100 acres. Besides reconstructing the exterior stairs,
-the foundation restored the library and library closet in the west
-wing, as well as the dining room and service alcove in the east wing,
-to their 18th-century appearance. The east and west corridors, parlor
-in the west wing, Robert E. Lee’s birthplace room, and an adjoining
-bedroom in the east wing were left as they appeared about 1800. The
-formal garden, just east of the mansion, has also been restored. The
-foundation today operates Stratford Hall as a historic house museum.
-
-
-
-
-Tuckahoe, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: Goochland County, on the south side of Va. 650, about 13
-    miles west of Richmond._
-
-
-Tuckahoe, situated along the James River, was the boyhood home of
-Thomas Jefferson for 7 years and the place where he obtained his
-elementary education. The mansion, outbuildings, and surrounding
-gardens and lands constitute an outstanding example of a Southern
-colonial plantation.
-
-[Illustration: Tuckahoe.]
-
-The land on which Tuckahoe stands was patented in 1695 by William
-Randolph. His son Thomas inherited the plantation and built the north
-wing of the mansion about 1712. Sometime between 1730 and 1745, William
-Randolph II enlarged the residence to its present proportions. When
-Randolph died in 1745, Peter Jefferson moved his family, including
-2-year-old Thomas, from Shadwell to Tuckahoe to fulfill a promise Peter
-had made to Randolph, his wife’s cousin, to act as guardian of his son,
-Thomas Mann Randolph. In 1752 the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell.
-
-Like Stratford Hall, the house is an outstanding and rare example of
-an H-shaped structure of early Georgian style in the Colonies. It is a
-large, two-story frame structure lined with brick nogging and exterior
-weatherboarded walls, except for the two solid brick ends of the south
-wing. Two long gabled wings are connected by a broad central block.
-Tall slender chimneys accentuate the narrow gable ends and the marked
-verticality of the structure, which is further enhanced by the high
-brick foundations. The chimneys in the frame ends of the north wing
-project, but those in the south brick ends are flush with the walls.
-The second-floor level is marked by a wooden belt course and the
-roofline by a modillioned cornice.
-
-The central doorways on the north and south sides have low porches with
-square posts supporting gable roofs. The south porch is approached by
-a long flight of stone steps, splayed but lacking a balustrade; the
-north porch is near ground level. The doors in the center block, on
-the east and west elevations, are sheltered by pedimented hoods. All
-four exterior doors, one in each wing and two in the central block, are
-original, as are also the weatherboarding and sash.
-
-On the first floor of each of the wings are two rooms, divided by a
-center cross hall. The north wing contains two parlors; the south,
-a dining room and “children’s” room. The central connecting block
-contains one large room, or salon. The second floor repeats the plan of
-the first floor except that, of the original five bedrooms, the one in
-the central block has been modernized and subdivided into several rooms.
-
-The interior decoration and trim, of the finest workmanship, is
-remarkably unaltered and in fine condition. All the walls are covered
-with simple paneling. The original wide floorboards remain throughout
-the structure. The hall stairways, especially the north one, with
-elaborately turned and spiraled balusters, are outstanding examples of
-early Georgian style. Mantels throughout the house date from the 19th
-century, but the marble fireplace facing in the west bedroom of the
-north wing is original.
-
-East of the mansion is the small, one-room, brick, one-story
-schoolhouse attended by Jefferson, as well as fine boxwood gardens. A
-short distance to the west of the main house is a plantation street,
-containing a complex of eight early 18th-century buildings, all in
-excellent condition and little altered. They include kitchen, tobacco
-house, three slave quarters, smokehouse, and barn.
-
-Since Tuckahoe passed out of the possession of the Randolph family in
-1830, a succession of individuals have owned it. It is still a private
-residence, not open to the public.
-
-
-
-
-Wythe House, Virginia  ∆
-
-    _Location: On the west side of the Palace Green, between Duke of
-    Gloucester and Prince George Streets, Williamsburg._
-
-
-This house in Colonial Williamsburg is a superb example of a Georgian
-brick house. It was the residence of George Wythe from around 1755
-until 1791, a period that spanned some of his most active years in
-politics and jurisprudence. His father-in-law, the noted Virginia
-architect Richard Taliaferro, designed and built it for him and his
-second wife about 1755. When Taliaferro died two decades later, Wythe
-inherited it and resided in it until 1791, when he moved to Richmond.
-A decade earlier, the house had served as Gen. George Washington’s
-headquarters prior to the siege of Yorktown.
-
-The outstanding aspects of the little-altered early Georgian structure
-are its good lines and fine brickwork, in Flemish bond. It is two
-stories high over a basement and has a hip roof and two interior
-chimneys. Smaller windows on the upper level create an illusion that
-the modestly sized house is larger than it actually is. The simple
-facade is enriched mainly by the broad muntins and wide frames of the
-windows and a fine paneled double door with rectangular transom. The
-flat window arches are constructed of gauged brick. Windows, doors,
-and house corners have rubbed dressings, and a modillioned cornice
-decorates the eaveline.
-
-[Illustration: Wythe House.]
-
-Each floor consists of four rooms bisected into pairs by a central
-hall. Chimneys between each of the pairs afford fireplaces for all
-eight rooms. The handsome but unpretentious stairway contains the
-only elaborate woodwork. Plaster dadoes, however, are found in every
-room, with chair rails on plasterboard, and single molded cornices. On
-the first floor are study, parlor, students’ room, and dining room;
-on the second, four bedrooms. The existing mantels are replacements.
-Furnishings are of the late 18th century or earlier and represent
-American craftmanship. Extending behind the house is the formal garden;
-along the north, the kitchen, smokehouse, laundry, lumberhouse, and
-stable.
-
-In 1926, when Bruton Parish acquired the residence, it was in poor
-condition. By 1931 the parish had repaired and restored it, and
-utilized it as a parish house for 6 years. Colonial Williamsburg then
-acquired it, and in 1939–40 accomplished additional restoration. Today
-the building is one of the main attractions at Colonial Williamsburg
-and is part of Williamsburg Historic District, a National Historic
-Landmark.
-
-
-
-
-Appendix
-
-The Declaration and Its History
-
-
-_Text of the Declaration_
-
-IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776.
-
-The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
-
-When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people
-to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another,
-and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal
-station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them,
-a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should
-declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
-
-We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
-equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
-Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
-Happiness.——That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted
-among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
-governed.——That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive
-of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish
-it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such
-principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall
-seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence,
-indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be
-changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience
-hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are
-sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which
-they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations,
-pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them
-under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to
-throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future
-security.——Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and
-such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former
-Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain
-is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct
-object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To
-prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
-
-_He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary
-for the public good._
-
-_He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing
-importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should
-be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend
-to them._
-
-_He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large
-districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right
-of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and
-formidable to tyrants only._
-
-_He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual,
-uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records,
-for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his
-measures._
-
-_He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with
-manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people._
-
-_He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause
-others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of
-Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise;
-the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of
-invasion from without, and convulsions within._
-
-_He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that
-purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing
-to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the
-conditions of new Appropriations of Lands._
-
-_He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his
-Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers._
-
-_He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of
-their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries._
-
-_He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of
-Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance._
-
-_He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the
-Consent of our legislatures._
-
-_He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to
-the Civil power._
-
-_He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to
-our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to
-their Acts of pretended Legislation:_
-
-_For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:_
-
-_For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders
-which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:_
-
-_For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:_
-
-_For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:_
-
-_For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:_
-
-_For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:_
-
-_For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring
-Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging
-its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument
-for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:_
-
-_For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and
-altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:_
-
-_For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested
-with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever._
-
-_He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his
-Protection and waging War against us._
-
-_He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and
-destroyed the lives of our people._
-
-_He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries
-to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
-with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most
-barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation._
-
-_He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas
-to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their
-friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands._
-
-_He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured
-to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian
-Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction
-of all ages, sexes and conditions._
-
-_In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress
-in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered
-only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by
-every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free
-people._
-
-_Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We
-have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to
-extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them
-of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have
-appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured
-them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations,
-which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
-They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity.
-We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our
-Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in
-War, in Peace Friends._
-
-
-=We, therefore=, the Representatives of the =united States of America=,
-in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the
-world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by
-Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and
-declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be =Free
-and Independent States=; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to
-the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
-the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and
-that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War,
-conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all
-other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.
-
-And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the
-protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our
-Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
-
-
-
-
-_History of the Document_
-
-
-The best known of all the copies of the Declaration of Independence
-is the parchment copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack. This one, signed
-by 56 Delegates of the Continental Congress on and after August 2,
-1776, is displayed today in Exhibition Hall at the National Archives
-Building. Jefferson’s final draft of the Declaration, known as the
-“rough draft,” cumulatively bearing the corrections, amendments, and
-deletions of the drafting committee and of Congress as a whole, as
-well as Jefferson’s marginal and textual notes, is preserved among
-the Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress. The revised draft,
-adopted by the Delegates on July 4, 1776, and signed only by John
-Hancock and Charles Thomson, President and Secretary of the Continental
-Congress, is known as the broadside copy. It was sent to the printer
-and has never been located. Sixteen copies of the printed broadside
-have survived. In addition to the “rough draft,” as least six other
-handwritten contemporary copies of the Declaration, one fragmentary,
-have survived and are in various archival collections. Five were made
-by Jefferson and one by John Adams.
-
-The history of the parchment copy of the Declaration is fascinating.
-From 1776 until 1789, along with other important national papers, it
-was safeguarded by Secretary of Congress Thomson, who carried it
-with him as Congress, at first to escape British troops and later for
-other reasons, convened in various cities: Philadelphia, Baltimore,
-Lancaster, York, Princeton, Trenton, Annapolis, and New York.
-
-When the Constitution took effect in 1789 and Thomson left office,
-he relinquished the Declaration to the newly created Department of
-State, which was under the temporary stewardship of Acting Secretary
-John Jay. Its offices were in New York’s old City Hall (Federal
-Hall). The next March, Thomas Jefferson became the first Secretary
-of State and custodian of the instrument he had created. Later that
-year, Philadelphia became the seat of the Federal Government and the
-Declaration returned to its birthplace. There it remained for a decade,
-until 1800, when the Government moved to the new national Capital of
-Washington.
-
-Secretary of State John Marshall apparently at first stored the
-Declaration in his Department’s temporary offices in the old Treasury
-Building, at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., and possibly
-then at Seven Buildings, 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. After
-a few months, likely in 1801, the document was transferred to the War
-Office Building, at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., where
-the Department of State moved its offices. The Declaration remained
-there until the summer of 1814, during the War of 1812, when British
-troops invaded the Capital. Shortly before they arrived, Secretary of
-State James Monroe packed the instrument and other state papers in
-linen sacks and sent them by wagon to a barn on the Virginia side of
-the Potomac 2 miles above Chain Bridge for one night, and then to a
-clergyman’s home in Leesburg, Va. Within a few weeks, after the British
-threat had subsided, the documents were brought back to Washington and
-probably temporarily kept in various structures because of the burning
-of the War Office Building by the British.
-
-In 1820 the Department of State moved the Declaration to its
-headquarters at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Stored for
-years in scroll fashion, the document had already been damaged by
-numerous unrollings, other handling, and frequent moves. In the period
-1820–23 the use of a “wet” copying process to produce a facsimile
-apparently divested the parchment of some of its ink, especially that
-of the signatures.
-
-Subsequently the Declaration remained relatively undisturbed until
-1841, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster, concluding that it should
-be on public view, ordered that it be mounted, framed, and moved to
-the newly constructed Patent Office, in the block bounded by Seventh,
-Ninth, F, and G Streets NW. The Patent Office was then part of the
-Department of State. Placed beside George Washington’s commission
-as commander in chief of the Continental Army in a large frame on a
-wall of the second floor hall opposite a window, for 35 years the
-Declaration endured exposure to glare, summer heat, and winter cold.
-The text retained its legibility, but the parchment faded and yellowed,
-cracked and warped. Many of the signatures had faded, some becoming
-blurred or almost invisible.
-
-The Federal Government in 1876 lent the Declaration to the city of
-Philadelphia, site of the national Centennial Exposition. On July
-4 Richard Henry Lee, grandson of the signer, read it publicly. It
-was then exhibited in a fireproof safe behind a plate glass window
-and seen by more people than ever before. Philadelphians, deploring
-its condition, fought to retain it and only reluctantly returned
-it to Washington. Heeding the outcry of those who had viewed the
-timeworn parchment, a Government commission studied the possibility
-of restoration and in time concluded that such an attempt might be
-damaging.
-
-Meantime, in 1877, as a safeguard the Declaration was moved from
-the Patent Office to a more fireproof building at 17th Street and
-Pennsylvania Avenue NW. shared by the State, War, and Navy Departments.
-It had narrowly escaped destruction, for only a few months later fire
-gutted the Patent Office. Finally, in 1894, for protection from the
-light, State Department officials sealed the 118-year-old sheet between
-two glass plates and locked it in a safe in the basement. There it lay,
-except for rare occasions, in darkness and unobserved for more than a
-quarter of a century.
-
-In 1921 the Department of State, responding to the recommendation of a
-special commission, relinquished custodianship of the Declaration to
-the Library of Congress. The transfer was made personally by Herbert
-Putnam, the Librarian, using a library mail truck, a Model T Ford.
-At first he kept the document in his office. In 1924, however, he
-placed it together with the Constitution, on public exhibition in
-a bronze-and-marble shrine on the second floor. At this time, the
-Declaration was encased between heavy glass panes specially treated to
-keep out harmful rays of light.
-
-The Declaration and the Constitution remained there until the outbreak
-of World War II. On December 26, 1941, just 19 days after the Japanese
-attack on Pearl Harbor, they left Washington under heavy guard by
-train en route to Fort Knox, Ky., where they arrived the following
-day. Specialists took advantage of the opportunity and cleaned and
-restored the Declaration to the maximum degree. In 1944 both it and
-the Constitution were taken back to the Library of Congress. They
-remained there until 1952, at which time a tank under military escort
-carried them to Washington’s National Archives Building, repository of
-the Nation’s permanent records, which are under the jurisdiction of
-the National Archives and Records Service of the U.S. General Services
-Administration.
-
-[Illustration: Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives
-Building, Washington, D.C.]
-
-[Illustration: This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition
-Hall, National Archives Building, contains the Declaration of
-Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Still enshrined there today, along with thousands of other priceless
-national records, is the parchment copy of the Declaration. The massive
-bronze doors at the Constitution Avenue entrance to the building lead
-to the circular Exhibition Hall. At its rear center stands a marble
-shrine containing the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution,
-and the Bill of Rights. They are sealed in helium-filled bronze and
-glass cases, screened from harmful light rays by special filters, and
-can be lowered within seconds into a large fireproof, shockproof, and
-bombproof vault.
-
-The hall also features a “Formation of the Union” exhibit, a collection
-of documents illustrating the evolution of the U.S. Government from
-1774 until 1791. They include the Articles of Association (1774),
-the Articles of Confederation (1777), the Treaty of Paris (1783),
-and Washington’s inaugural address (1789). Above the exhibits are
-two murals. In one, Jefferson is presenting the Declaration to John
-Hancock, President of the Continental Congress; in the other, James
-Madison is submitting the Constitution to George Washington, President
-of the Constitutional Convention.
-
-
-
-
-Suggested Reading
-
-
-  BECKER, CARL L. _The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the
-      History of Political Ideas._ New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace,
-      1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in
-      1922, that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political
-      background, philosophical origins, and literary merit, and
-      discusses subsequent reaction to it.
-
-  BOYD, JULIAN P. _The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution
-      of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its
-      Author, Thomas Jefferson._ Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
-      Press, 1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study
-      published by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with
-      the bicentennial celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the
-      nature and evolution of the various drafts.
-
-  BURNETT, EDMUND C. _The Continental Congress._ New York: Macmillan,
-      1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book remains
-      one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing with
-      the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration.
-
-  DUMBAULD, EDWARD. _The Declaration of Independence and What It Means
-      Today._ Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950.
-      Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document and
-      differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying
-      intellectual and political influences.
-
-  MALONE, DUMAS. _The Story of the Declaration of Independence._ New
-      York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable
-      account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical
-      sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations
-      assembled by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan.
-
-  McGEE, DOROTHY H. _Famous Signers of the Declaration._ New York:
-      Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this
-      volume presents biographies of selected signers.
-
-  NATIONAL ARCHIVES. _The Formation of the Union._ Washington: National
-      Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970. A handsome
-      but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief history
-      of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents.
-
-  WHITNEY, DAVID C. _Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the Men
-      Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped to
-      Establish the United States of America._ Chicago: J. G. Ferguson,
-      1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular
-      versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those
-      associated with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers
-      and patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis.
-
-
-
-
-Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance
-
-
-=A.= National significance is ascribed to buildings, sites, objects, or
-districts which possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or
-interpreting the historical (history and archeology) heritage of our
-Nation, such as:
-
-1. Structures or sites at which events occurred that have made a
-significant contribution to, and are identified prominently with,
-or which outstandingly represent, the broad cultural, political,
-economic, military, or social history of the Nation, and from which an
-understanding and appreciation of the larger patterns of our American
-heritage may be gained.
-
-2. Structures or sites associated importantly with the lives of persons
-nationally significant in the history of the United States.
-
-3. Structures or sites associated significantly with an important event
-that outstandingly represents some great idea or ideal of the American
-people.
-
-4. Structures that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an
-architectural type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of
-a period, style, or method of construction; or a notable structure
-representing the work of a master builder, designer, or architect.
-
-5. Objects that figured prominently in nationally significant events;
-or that were prominently associated with nationally significant
-persons; or that outstandingly represent some great idea or ideal of
-the American people; or that embody distinguishing characteristics of a
-type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style,
-or method of construction; or that are notable as representations of
-the work of master workers or designers.
-
-6. Archeological sites that have produced information of a major
-scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light
-upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States.
-Such sites are those which have produced, or which may reasonably be
-expected to produce, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas to a
-major degree.
-
-7. When preserved or restored as integral parts of the environment,
-historic buildings not sufficiently significant individually by reason
-of historical association or architectural merit to warrant recognition
-may collectively compose a “historic district” that is of historical
-significance to the Nation in commemorating or illustrating a way of
-life in its developing culture.
-
-
-=B.= To possess national significance, a historic or prehistoric
-structure, district, site, or object must possess integrity. For a
-historic or prehistoric _site_, integrity requires original location
-and intangible elements of feeling and association. The site of a
-structure no longer standing may possess national significance if the
-person or event associated with the structure was of transcendent
-importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential.
-
-For a historic or prehistoric _structure_, integrity is a composite
-quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and
-intangible elements of feeling and association. A structure no longer
-on the original site may possess national significance if the person or
-event associated with it was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s
-history and the association consequential.
-
-For a historic _district_, integrity is a composite quality derived
-from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements
-of feeling and association inherent in an ensemble of historic
-buildings having visual architectural unity.
-
-For a historic _object_, integrity requires basic original workmanship.
-
-
-=C.= Structures or sites which are primarily of significance in the
-field of religion or to religious bodies but are not of national
-importance in other fields of the history of the United States, such as
-political, military, or architectural history, will not be eligible for
-consideration.
-
-
-=D.= Birthplaces, graves, burials, and cemeteries, as a general rule,
-are not eligible for consideration and recognition except in cases
-of historical figures of transcendent importance. Historic sites
-associated with the actual careers and contributions of outstanding
-historical personages usually are more important than their birthplaces
-and burial places.
-
-
-=E.= Structures, sites, and objects achieving historical importance
-within the past 50 years will not as a general rule be considered
-unless associated with persons or events of transcendent significance.
-
-
-
-
-Acknowledgments
-
-
-_Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
-Monuments (1971)_
-
-  Durward L. Allen, _Purdue University_.
-  Hon. E. Y. Berry, _Rapid City, S. Dak._
-  Anthony A. Buford, _Clayton, Mo._
-  Loren C. Eiseley, _University of Pennsylvania_.
-  Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson, _Stonewall, Tex._
-  Peter C. Murphy, Jr., _Springfield, Oreg._
-  Nathaniel A. Owings, _San Francisco, Calif._
-  Melvin M. Payne, _National Geographic Society_.
-  Linden C. Pettys, _Ann Arbor, Mich._
-  Steven Rose, _Arcadia, Calif._
-  William G. Shade, _Lehigh University_.
-  Elisha Walker, Jr., _New York, N.Y._
-  James W. Whittaker, _Seattle, Wash._
-
-
-_National Park Service_
-
-  Edwin C. Bearss, _Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East),
-    Denver Service Center_.
-
-  S. Sydney Bradford, _Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of
-    Historic Places_.
-
-  George S. Cattanach, Jr., _Program Coordinator, National Register of
-    Historic Places_.
-
-  Henry A. Judd, Chief, _Park Historic Architecture, Division of
-    Historic Architecture_.
-
-  Herbert E. Kahler, _Chief (retired), Division of History and
-    Archeology_.
-
-  Ronald F. Lee, _Special Assistant to the Director_.
-
-  John Luzader, Historian, _Historic Preservation Project (East),
-    Denver Service Center_.
-
-  Warren A. McCullough, _Management Assistant, Independence National
-    Historical Park, Pa._
-
-  John D. McDermott, _Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council
-    on Historic Preservation_.
-
-  Thomas W. Mullen, _Student Research Assistant (Northeastern
-    University), Division of History_.
-
-  Denys Peter Myers, _Architectural Historian, Division of History_.
-
-  John D. R. Platt, _Historian, Independence National Historical Park,
-    Pa._
-
-  Charles W. Porter III, _Chief Historian (retired), Division of
-    History_.
-
-  Charles W. Snell, _Historian, Division of History_.
-
-  Martin I. Yoelson, _Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence
-    National Historical Park, Pa._
-
-
-_Other Individuals_
-
-  Roland A. Block, _Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission,
-    Staatsburg, N.Y._
-
-  Jerry M. Bloomer, _Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery,
-    Shreveport_.
-
-  Edwin Cox, _President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond_.
-
-  Alonzo T. Dill, _West Point, Va._
-
-  Educational Programs Staff, _National Archives and Records Service,
-    U.S. General Services Administration_.
-
-  Ms. Constance M. Greiff, _Vice President, Historical Society of
-    Princeton, N.J._
-
-  Ms. Virginia Gunter, _Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society,
-    Concord_.
-
-  Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr., _Elsing Green, King William, Va._
-
-  Charles H. McCormick, _Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State
-    College, Fairmont, W. Va._
-
-  Ms. Mildred Steinbach, _Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New
-    York_.
-
-  E. Berkeley Tompkins, _Director, Division of Historical and Cultural
-    Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover_.
-
-
-
-
-Art and Picture Credits
-
-
-The National Park Service gratefully acknowledges the assistance
-of agencies and individuals furnishing illustrations and granting
-permission to reproduce them.
-
-_Page_
-
-   ii  Oil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of
-       the same name (1786–95). Color separations courtesy United
-       States Capitol Historical Society and Eastern National Park
-       and Monument Association. Of the 48 individuals in the
-       painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis for
-       many later portraits by other artists.
-
-    4  Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress.
-
-    5  Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress.
-
-    6  Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton,
-        after a cartoon (1774) published in London. Library of
-        Congress.
-
-    7  Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress.
-
-    8  Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service.
-
-    9  Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park
-        Service.
-
-   10  Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of
-       Congress.
-
-   11  Library of Congress.
-
-   12  Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   13  Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt.
-       Library of Congress.
-
-   14  Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
-       National Historical Park.
-
-   17  Library of Congress.
-
-   19  Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress.
-
-   21  Library of Congress.
-
-   22  Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S.
-       Oertel. Library of Congress.
-
-   23  Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.)
-       Historical Society.
-
-   28  Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   29  Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.)
-       Historical Society.
-
-   30  Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of
-       Congress.
-
-   33  Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
-       National Historical Park.
-
-   36  Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   39  Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   41  Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an
-       unknown artist. Independence National Historical Park. In
-       1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority on historical portraits,
-       maintained that this likeness was not Carter Braxton but was
-       that of his brother George.
-
-   43  Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   45  Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773
-       painting. Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   47  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   48  Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley,
-       from Henry Howe, _Life and Death on the Ocean_ (1855).
-       Library of Congress.
-
-   49  Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson
-       Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   50  Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of
-       American History_ (September 1880). Library of Congress.
-
-   51  Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   53  Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle).
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   55  Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of
-       Fine Arts, Philadelphia.
-
-   57  Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian
-       Schussele. Library of Congress.
-
-   59  Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   62  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
-       Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
-       Congress. The detail is a conjectural representation; no
-       portrait or reliable likeness of Button Gwinnett is known to
-       exist.
-
-   63  Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William
-       Brotherhead, _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of
-       Congress.
-
-   65  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
-       Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
-       Congress.
-
-   67  Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   70  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   71  Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan,
-       Jr. Independence National Historical Park. Some authorities
-       have questioned the authenticity of this likeness.
-
-   73  Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles
-       Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   74  Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale,
-       from James Herring and James B. Longacre, _The National
-       Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans_ (1836). Library
-       of Congress.
-
-   75  Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   77  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   79  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park. According to one
-       authority, Trumbull based his likeness on the features of
-       Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close resemblance to
-       his father.
-
-   81  Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after
-       Robert E. Pine. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   83  Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
-       Historical Park.
-
-   85  Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
-       Historical Park.
-
-   87  Library of Congress.
-
-   89  Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress.
-
-   90  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
-       Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
-       Congress.
-
-   92  Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
-       Historical Park.
-
-   94  Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John
-       Sanderson, _Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of
-       Independence_ (1824). Independence National Historical Park.
-
-   96  Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art
-       Reference Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park
-       Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.
-
-   97  Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of
-       American History_ (December 1885). Library of Congress.
-
-   99  Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence
-       National Historical Park.
-
-  100  Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
-       Historical Park.
-
-  103  Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  104  Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  106  Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
-       National Historical Park.
-
-  107  Engraving by William Birch, from _The City of Philadelphia_
-       (1800). Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  109  Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The
-       R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
-
-  110  Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason
-       Chamberlin. Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  112  Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia
-       State Capitol. National Park Service.
-
-  113  Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles
-       Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  115  Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  116  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
-       Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
-       Congress.
-
-  118  Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  120  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of
-       Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of
-       Congress.
-
-  122  Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  123  Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du
-       Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia
-       B. Henry.
-
-  125  Engraving (1799) by William Birch & Son. Library of Congress.
-
-  127  Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle).
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  129  Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle).
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  130  Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead,
-       _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of Congress.
-
-  132  Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton
-       Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
-
-  133  Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  135  Library of Congress.
-
-  137  Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T.
-       Pool. Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  139  Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire
-       Historical Society, Concord.
-
-  140  Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  142  Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs
-       in the Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer,
-       Douglas Armsden, Kittery Point, Maine.
-
-  144  Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  145  Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature
-       attributed to James Peale. Independence National Historical
-       Park.
-
-  146  Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society
-       of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  149  Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence
-       National Historical Park.
-
-  150  Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, from _An
-       Account of the College of New Jersey_ (1764). Library of
-       Congress.
-
-  152  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle).
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  154  Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-  164  National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn).
-
-  165  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  167  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  168  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  169  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  171  National Park Service (Abbie Rowe).
-
-  172  Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson, _The
-       Stranger in America_ (1807). Library of Congress.
-
-  174  National Park Service (Charles W. Snell).
-
-  175  National Park Service (John O. Littleton).
-
-  178  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  179  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  181  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  182  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  184  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  185  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  187  Photographer, William L. Klender.
-
-  188  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  190  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  192  Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff.
-       Library of Congress.
-
-  194  National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.).
-
-  196  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  197  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  198  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  200  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  201  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  203  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  205  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  206  Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer,
-       Constance Greiff.
-
-  207  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  208  Department of Public Information, Princeton University,
-       Princeton, N.J.
-
-  210  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  211  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  212  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  213  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  215  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  216  National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson).
-
-  219  Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine
-       (July 1787). Library of Congress.
-
-  220  National Park Service.
-
-  223  National Park Service.
-
-  224  National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher).
-
-  225  National Park Service.
-
-  227  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  229  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  230  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  232  National Park Service (Wrenn).
-
-  233  National Park Service.
-
-  235  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  236  Photographer, Jesse Gibbes.
-
-  238  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  239  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  241  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  242  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  244  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  246  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  248  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  250  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  251  National Park Service (Littleton).
-
-  253  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  256  National Park Service (Snell).
-
-  265  National Archives.
-
-  266  National Archives.
-
-    —  FRONT END PAPER: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae.
-       Independence National Historical Park.
-
-    —  REAR END PAPER: National Park Service sketch.
-
-
-
-
-Index
-
-
-  “A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America
-          in General Congress Assembled,” _see_ Declaration of
-          Independence
-
-  _A Summary View of the Rights of British America_ (tract), 86, 87
-
-  Abingdon, Md., 113
-
-  Abolition of slavery, _see under_ Slaves
-
-  Academies and academic affairs, _see_ Education
-
-  Adam architectural style, 174, 239–240, 251–253
-
-  Adams, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John
-
-  Adams, Brooks, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195
-
-  Adams, Charles Francis, grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195
-
-  Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
-
-  Adams, “Deacon” John, father of signer, 191–192, 193
-
-  Adams, Henry, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
-
-  Adams, John (signer) (“Atlas of American Independence”), career of and
-          sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 29, 30, _33–35_, 37,
-          38, 58, 59, 61, 68, 74, 75, 88, 90, 93, 115, 124, 128,
-          _170–173_, _191–195_, 218, 222, 228, 262
-
-  Adams, John Quincy, son of signer and sites associated with, 30, 33,
-          35, _191–195_
-
-  Adams, John Quincy II, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194
-
-  Adams, Mrs. John (Abigail Smith), wife of signer, 34, 35, 191–192, 193
-
-  Adams, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 37
-
-  Adams, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 37
-
-  Adams, Samuel (signer) (“Firebrand of the Revolution”), career of and
-          sites associated with, 12, 27, 31, _36–39_, 59, 60, 68,
-          69, 160, 199
-
-  Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass., _191–192_
-
-  Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass., 191, _192–193_
-
-  Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 192
-
-  Adams (John) family and descendants, 33, 34, 191–195 _passim_
-
-  Adams Mansion, _see_ Adams National Historic Site
-
-  Adams Memorial Society, 195
-
-  Adams National Historic Site (Adams Mansion; “Old House”; “Peacefield”;
-          Vassall-Adams House), Mass., 160, 192, _193–195_
-
-  Admiralty boards, courts, and judges:
-    civil, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-    naval, _see_ Continental Navy
-
-  Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
-          Monuments, 161, 272
-
-  Age of signers: at time of death, compared, 28–29, 43, 45, 52, 62, 98,
-          99, 109, 199;
-    at time of signing, compared, 28–29, 55, 79, 99, 123, 127.
-    _See also specific signers._
-
-  Agencies of U.S. Government, _see under_ United States
-
-  Agricultural Society of S.C., 76
-
-  Agriculture, _see_ Farms and farming
-
-  Alamance, Battle of, N.C., 78
-
-  Albany, N.Y., 96, 153
-
-  Albany Congress (1754) and Albany Plan of Union, 56, 79, 80
-
-  Albemarle County, Va., 86
-
-  Alcoholic beverages, 51
-
-  Alexandria, Va., 136, 252
-
-  Alison, Rev. Francis, educator, 101, 118, 132
-
-  Allen, Md., 45
-
-  Allentown, Pa., 221
-
-  Almanacs, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
-
-  America and Americans, _see_ United States;
-    _and appropriate topics throughout this index_
-
-  American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 116
-
-  American Philosophical Society, 126, 221, 222, 226
-
-  American Philosophical Society Hall (Philosophical Hall), Pa., 218–226
-
-  American Revolution, _see_ War for Independence;
-    _and appropriate topics throughout this index_
-
-  American Revolution, Daughters of the, _see_ Daughters of the
-          American Revolution
-
-  American Revolution, Sons of the, _see_ Sons of the American Revolution
-
-  Amesbury, Mass., 39
-
-  Ammunition, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
-
-  Ancestry of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_)
-
-  Anglican Church, 43–44, 45, 56, 62, 77, 113, 122, 136.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  Anglo-Saxon origin of signers, 27
-
-  Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., 43, 44, 45,
-          46, 100, 113, 147, 170–191 _passim_, 263
-
-  Annapolis Convention (_1786_), 46, 48, 108, 119
-
-  Antifederalists and Antifederalism, 61, 94
-
-  Antislavery movement, _see under_ Slaves
-
-  Aquia Creek Quarries, Va., 171
-
-  Archeologists and archeological excavation, 177
-
-  Architects, architectural styles, and architectural features, _see
-          specific architects, architectural styles, and buildings
-          and residences_
-
-  Archives: Federal, _see_ National Archives and Records Service;
-    non-Federal, and Declaration of Independence, 262
-
-  Ariss, John, architect-builder, 242, 246
-
-  Aristocrats and aristocracy, 31, 37, 41, 61, 66, 76, 77, 79, 97, 99,
-          147
-
-  Arlington, Mass., 60
-
-  Armies, standing, 60.
-    _See also especially_ Continental Army;
-    _and various wars, battles, and nations_.
-
-  Arms, ammunition, and ordnance, 9, 22, 38, 42, 84, 103, 106, 111,
-          137, 138, 248
-
-  Army-Navy Museum, Pa., 224
-
-  Army of the Potomac (Civil War), 239
-
-  Arnold, Gen. Benedict, British officer, 239
-
-  Arson, and historic sites, 40
-
-  Art and artists, 81–83, 85, 134, 218, 234, 267 (_and see_ Museums _and
-          illustrations throughout this volume_)
-
-  Articles of Association (_1774_), 267
-
-  Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union: debated, drafted,
-          adopted, and signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 71, 76, 81, 84, 90, 91,
-          93–94, 100, 106, 110, 117, 129, 131, 136, 145, 149, 151, 218;
-    document exhibited, 267;
-    signers of Declaration who also signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90,
-          93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149.
-    _See also_ Continental Congress.
-
-  Ashley River, 103, 237
-
-  Assemblies, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence
-          movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial
-          clash;
-    signers serve in, _see specific signers_.
-    _See also individual colonies/States._
-
-  Assembly Room (Independence Hall, Pa.), _219–221_
-
-  Athens, Ga., 142
-
-  Attorneys and attorneys-general, _see_ Legal practice, legal
-          education, and jurisprudence
-
-  Augusta, Ga., 67, 141, 142, 161, 173, 175, 176
-
-  Augusta (Ga.) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176
-
-  Authors, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts;
-    Literature and literary figures;
-    _and particular authors_
-
-  _Autobiography_, of Benjamin Franklin, 58
-
-
-  Bachelor signers, 29, 73, 120
-
-  Back River, 154
-
-  Baltimore, Md., 45, 46, 50, 124, 183, 184, 185, 187, 217, 263
-
-  Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 44
-
-  Baltimore County, Md., 46
-
-  Baltimore Municipal Museum, 183
-
-  Baltimore Museum of Art, 187
-
-  Bank of England, 46
-
-  Bank of North America, 108, 147
-
-  Bank of the United States, First and Second, 218, 224, 226
-
-  Banks and banking, governmental and private, 46, 108, 147,
-          218, 224, 226.
-    _See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing;
-      Currency and money;
-      Speculators and speculation.
-
-  Barbados, 59
-
-  Barclay, Thomas, merchant, 229
-
-  Bartlett, Josiah (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31,
-          _39–41_, _199–201_
-
-  Bartlett, Mrs. Josiah, wife of signer, 40
-
-  Bartlett descendants, 201
-
-  Bartlett House, N.H., _199–201_
-
-  Battles, _see under name of battle_
-
-  Bedford County, Va., 249
-
-  Beith (town), Scotland, 149
-
-  Benezet, John, merchant, 230
-
-  Bennington, Battle of, N.Y., 40
-
-  Berkeley (Harrison’s Landing) (estate), Va., 70, 71, _239–240_
-
-  Bible, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Bicentennial, U.S., 222
-
-  Bill of Rights, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution
-
-  Birthplaces of signers, _see specific signers_
-
-  Bishop White House, Pa., 224, 226
-
-  Blacks, _see_ Slaves
-
-  Bonaparte, Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, 204
-
-  Bonaparte, Napoleon, French ruler, 204
-
-  Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts:
-    favor or oppose U.S. Constitution, 94, 125;
-    on astronomy, 130;
-    on monetary theory, 130;
-    on religion, 149;
-    signers write, 33, 35, 55–56, 58, 86, 87, 94, 125, 126, 130, 145,
-          146, 149, 150;
-    support Revolutionary cause, 9, 11, 12, 15, 33, 35, 86, 87,
-          145, 146, 150.
-    _See also_ Libraries;
-      Literature and literary figures;
-      _and particular works_.
-
-  Borden, Joseph, father-in-law of signer, 204
-
-  Bordentown, N.J., 82, 204, 205
-
-  Bordentown (N.J.) Chamber of Commerce, 205
-
-  Borland, Leonard Vassall, and Adams National Historic Site, 194
-
-  Boston and Boston Harbor, Mass., 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 33–34, 36, 37–39,
-          53–54, 59–60, 68, 69, 77, 93, 115, 116, 120, 143, 193, 199.
-    _See also entries immediately following._
-
-  Boston (Mass.) Latin School, 36, 68, 77, 115
-
-  Boston Massacre, 5, 34, 37, 68, 115
-
-  Boston Port Act, 111
-
-  “Boston Tea Party,” 7, 38
-
-  “Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering,” (The)
-          (cartoon), reproduced, 6
-
-  Boudinot, Annis, marries signer, 134
-
-  Boudinot, Elias, brother-in-law of signer, 207
-
-  Boyhood homes of signers, _see specific signers_
-
-  Braintree, Mass., _see_ Quincy
-
-  Brandywine, Battle of, Pa., 50
-
-  Braxton, Carter (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29,
-          _41–42_, 70, 71, 135, _240–242_
-
-  Braxton, George, brother of signer, 41, 240
-
-  Braxton, Mrs. Carter, first wife of signer, 41
-
-  Braxton, Mrs. Carter, second wife of signer, 41
-
-  Bridgeport, Conn., 65
-
-  Bristol, England, 62
-
-  Britain, British, British Isles, British Empire, and British
-          Commonwealth of Nations, _see_ Great Britain
-
-  Broadside copies of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of
-          Independence
-
-  Bronx, N.Y., 105.
-    _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
-
-  Brookhaven and Brookhaven Township, N.Y., 53
-
-  Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., 97, 98.
-    _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor.
-
-  Brothers, among signers, 92
-
-  Brown University, R.I., 80
-
-  Bruton Parish, Va., 256
-
-  Buckland, William, architect, 181–182
-
-  Bucks County, Pa., 137, 138
-
-  Builders, buildings, and building materials, _see specific
-          builder-architects, buildings, and residences_
-
-  Burgesses, House of, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses
-
-  Burgoyne, Gen. John, British officer, 40, 143, 153
-
-  Burial places and burial grounds, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
-
-  Burke County, Ga., 67
-
-  Burlington, Mass., 199
-
-  Burlington and Burlington County, N.J., 148
-
-  Business and businessmen, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Butterfield, Gen. Daniel, and “Taps,” 240
-
-  Byberry (“The Homestead”), Pa., 124
-
-  Byfield (plantation), Del., 120, 121
-
-
-  Cadwalader House, Pa., 228
-
-  Calvinists and Calvinism, 116, 149.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion;
-      Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church.
-
-  Cambridge, Mass., 9, 60, 68, 196, 197
-
-  Cambridge University (England), 99, 103, 111
-
-  Canada, 44, 46, 173
-
-  Canals, 44
-
-  Cape Fear region of N.C., 77
-
-  Capital cities: national, _see_ United States Capitals;
-    State, _see particular cities_
-
-  Capital punishment, 50, 126
-
-  Capitol (U.S.), _see_ United States Capitol
-
-  Carlisle, Pa., 146
-
-  Carolinas, 115.
-    _See also_ North Carolina;
-      South Carolina.
-
-  Caroline County, Va., 117
-
-  Carpenters, 114, 201, 217, 221
-
-  Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia, 217, 221
-
-  Carpenters’ Hall, Pa., 8, 217, 221, 224, 226
-
-  Carroll, Charles I, grandfather of signer, 185
-
-  Carroll, Charles II, father of signer, 43, 185
-
-  Carroll, Charles III, of Carrollton (signer), career of and sites
-          associated with, 16, 28, 31, 35, _43–45_, 46, 52, 114,
-          _179–181_, _183–186_
-
-  Carroll, Charles V, grandson of signer, 186
-
-  Carroll, Father John, cousin of signer, 44
-
-  Carroll, Mary, daughter of signer, 45, 183
-
-  Carroll (Charles) American Heritage Association, Inc., 185
-
-  Carroll family and descendants, 43, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185
-
-  Carroll Mansion, Md., 43, _179–180_
-
-  “Carroll Vocational School,” Md., 184
-
-  Carrollton Manor, Md., 43, _180–181_, 185
-
-  Carskerdo, Scotland, 145
-
-  Carter, Robert “King,” grandfather of signer, 41
-
-  Carter-May House, S.C., _see_ Rutledge House
-
-  Carvel Hall Hotel, Md., 189
-
-  Catasauqua, Pa., 230
-
-  Catholic Church, _see_ Roman Catholic Church
-
-  Caton, Mary Carroll, daughter of signer, 45, 183
-
-  Caton, Richard, son-in-law of signer, 45, 183
-
-  Caton family, 184
-
-  Cecil County, Md., 118, 124
-
-  Cemeteries and burial places, of signers, marked, 160 (_and see
-          specific signers_)
-
-  Centennial (U.S.) Exposition, 264
-
-  Chain Bridge, 263
-
-  Chancery courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and
-          jurisprudence
-
-  Channing, William Ellery, descendant of signer, 52
-
-  Chantilly (estate), Va., 92, 94
-
-  Chapels and chaplains, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Charitable organizations, 166
-
-  Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc., 185
-
-  Charles City and Charles City County, Va., 70
-
-  Charles County, Md., 135–136, 189
-
-  Charleston and Charleston Harbor, S.C., 65, 76, 103, 104, 127,
-          128, 129, 233
-
-  Charleston County, S.C., 99
-
-  Charleston “double house,” 233–234
-
-  Charleston (S.C.) Museum, 234
-
-  Charlestown, Mass., 9
-
-  Charlottesville, Va., 88, 89, 243, 250
-
-  Charter of Privileges (_1701_), 221
-
-  Chase, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 45, 46
-
-  Chase, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 46
-
-  Chase, Samuel (signer) (“Demosthenes of Maryland”), career of and
-          sites associated with, 16, 29, 44, _45–46_, 113, 114, 136,
-          161, _181–182_
-
-  Chase family and descendants, 183
-
-  Chase-Lloyd House, Md., 161, _181–183_
-
-  Chatham County, Ga., 67
-
-  “Chawton Manor,” Pa., 230
-
-  Chemistry education, 123, 124
-
-  Chericoke (estate), Va., 42, 240
-
-  Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, 44
-
-  Chester and Chester County, Pa., 50, 101, 109, 110, 118, 137, 138
-
-  Chestertown, Md., 114
-
-  Chew, Benjamin, lawyer-jurist, 82
-
-  Chilbury Hall, Md., 113
-
-  Children of signers, number and careers of, compared, 29–30, 41 (_and
-          see individual signers_)
-
-  Christ Church, Christ Churchyard, and Christ Church Burial Ground,
-          Pa., 58, 75, 83, 108, 123, 126, 148, 224, 226
-
-  Christ Episcopal Church, Del., 121
-
-  Christianity and religion, and historic sites, 160, 181, 186, 199;
-    and signers, 28, 31, 33, 43, 45, 65, 68, 73, 77, 88, 90, 95, 97,
-          115, 116, 122, 149–150, 181, 186;
-    freedom in, 88, 90, 97;
-    in Colonies, 55–56;
-    in public education, 126;
-    in Scotland, 149–150;
-    in Va., 90, 93, 263;
-    theologian prominent in, 52.
-    _See also specific denominations and churches._
-
-  Churches and church affairs, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Circuit courts and judges, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary
-
-  Cities, towns, and villages: and committees/councils of
-          correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence;
-    and committees/councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety;
-    and historic preservation, 160;
-    and signers, _see particular signers_.
-    _See also individual cities, towns, and villages._
-
-  City Hall, old, New York City, _see_ Federal Hall
-
-  City Hall (Philadelphia), 218, 221
-
-  City Tavern (Philadelphia), 222
-
-  Civic affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_
-
-  Civic organizations, and historic preservation, 160
-
-  Civil War (U.S.), 186, 236, 239, 251
-
-  Clark, Abraham (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _47–48_, 160
-
-  Clarke, Rev. Jonas, relative of signer, 199
-
-  Clarke Hall (Philadelphia), 222
-
-  Classical and Classic Revival architectural style, 183–184.
-    _See also_ Greek Revival architectural style.
-
-  Classics, studied, _see under_ Education
-
-  Clay, Henry, law student, 154, 156
-
-  Clergymen, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Clymer, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29,
-          _49–51_, 134, _229_
-
-  Cobblers, 129
-
-  Codes, legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
-
-  Codfish, 59
-
-  College Hill (Walton-Harper House), Ga., 142, _173–175_
-
-  College of Charleston, S.C., 104
-
-  College of New Jersey, _see_ Princeton University
-
-  College of Philadelphia, 82, 113, 124, 126, 146, 148
-
-  College of William and Mary, Va., 41, 70, 86, 154–156
-
-  Colleges and universities, and historic sites, 160;
-    chemistry education in, 123, 124;
-    classical education in, 154, 156;
-    legal education in, 154–156;
-    medical education in, 123–126;
-    signers aid, head, and serve, 67, 123–126, 142, 146, 148,
-          150–151, 154–156;
-    signers attend, 30 (_and see particular signers_).
-    _See also_ Education;
-      and _specific colleges and universities_.
-
-  Colonial and colonial Philadelphia architectural style, 172,
-          228, 246, 252
-
-  Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., _see_ Annapolis and
-          Colonial Annapolis Historic District
-
-  Colonial Dames of America, 160, 202
-
-  Colonial National Historical Park, Va., 160, 247–249
-
-  Colonial Park Cemetery, Ga., 64
-
-  Colonial Williamsburg, Va., _see_ Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic
-          District, and Colonial Williamsburg
-
-  Colonies, Thirteen (British-American): and British Empire, 147, 156;
-    and signers, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and individual
-          signers_;
-    architecture in, _see particular styles_;
-    confederations of, actual and proposed, 16, 34, 56, 79, 80 (_and
-          see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union);
-    constitutions, legislatures, and governments of, 9, 15 (_and see
-          specific colonies/States_);
-    cultural heritage of, 8;
-    foreign nations recognize independence of, 35;
-    government and diplomacy of, _see_ Continental Congress;
-    heroes and prominent men in, 27, 31, 34, 37, 43, 55, 56, 68, 115;
-    independence movement in, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash, Declaration of Independence, _and_
-          Independence resolution;
-    meetings and congresses of, 56, 79, 80, 93, 132;
-    proprietary, 43, 56–57, 113, 120, 122, 136;
-    publications popular in, 15, 55–56, 81;
-    regions and trade of, 30, 62;
-    status of Ga. in, 15, 64, 89;
-    territory added to, 3;
-    wars in, _see specific wars_.
-    _See also_ Continental Congress;
-      States;
-      War for Independence;
-      _individual colonies/States and regions_;
-      _and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
-
-  Columbia University (King’s College), N.Y., 97
-
-  Commerce, trade, and manufacturing: and colonial protest, 97;
-    and historic sites, 160, 181, 228;
-    and signers, 27, 31 (_and see specific signers_);
-    Britain-Colonies, 4, 8, 9, 37–38, 62, 68;
-    Continental Congress regulates, 49, 52, 95;
-    embargoes and restrictions on, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash;
-    France-Colonies, 147;
-    in slaves, _see_ Slaves;
-    in various colonies, 36, 52, 55, 80, 101, 120, 184, 202;
-    Indian-Colonies, 4;
-    individuals other than signers in, 51, 59, 62, 68, 106, 111, 115,
-          184, 204, 251;
-    treaties deal with, 35, 58, 88–89.
-    _See also_ Banks and banking;
-      Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-      Taxes and taxation.
-
-  Commissions and commissioners, _see individual commissions,
-          governmental bodies, and topics_
-
-  Committee of fifty-one, 95, 98
-
-  Committee of one hundred, 98
-
-  Committee of sixty, 95, 98
-
-  Committees, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, topics, and
-          entries immediately preceding and following_
-
-  Committees of correspondence, 7–8, 37–38, 40, 44, 45, 59, 70, 72, 73,
-          78, 81, 93, 106, 113, 130, 136, 138, 146, 150
-
-  Committees of safety, 9, 10, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 54, 60, 68, 72,
-          76, 103, 106, 114, 122, 131, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 145
-
-  Common Ground Cemetery, R.I., 52
-
-  Common schools, _see_ Education
-
-  _Common Sense_ (pamphlet), 11, 12, 15, 124
-
-  Community affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific
-          signers_
-
-  Companies, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Composers, musical, _see_ Music and musicians
-
-  Concord and Battle of Concord, Mass., 8, 9, 10, 12, 38, 42, 60, 68
-
-  Confederacy (Civil War), 251
-
-  Confederations: of Colonies, actual and proposed, _see under_ Colonies;
-    of Thirteen States, _see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual
-          Union;
-      Continental Congress
-
-  Conferences, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, and topics_
-
-  Confiscation of lands, _see under_ Land
-
-  Congregationalists and Congregational Church, 65, 68, 77, 144, 150,
-          166.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  Congresses, colonies/States, _see individual colonies/States_;
-    Continental, see Continental Congress;
-    intercolonial, _see under_ Colonies;
-    U.S., _see_ United States Congress
-
-  Congress Hall (County Court House), Pa., 218, 221, 223, 226
-
-  Congressional Cemetery, D.C., 62
-
-  Connecticut (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16,
-          18, 24, 53, 72, 83–84, 123, 129–131, 133, 143, 144–145,
-          152–153, 164–170, 211
-
-  Connecticut (Great) Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131
-
-  Conservatives and conservatism, political, 14, 16, 18, 22–23, 37, 41,
-          42, 45–46, 56, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79, 80, 88, 94, 96, 101, 113,
-          114, 118, 119, 128, 135, 136, 141–142, 145, 147;
-    religious, 56, 65
-
-  _Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority
-          of the British Parliament_ (tract), 146
-
-  Constitutional conventions and constitutions: British, _see under_
-          Great Britain;
-    colonies/States, _see specific colonies/States_;
-    U.S., _see_ United States Constitution _and_ United States
-          Constitutional Convention
-
-  Continental Army, and signers, 27, 34, 40, 60, 99–100, 107, 111;
-    battles and campaigns of, _see_ War for Independence;
-    Continental Congress regulates, 34, 49, 60, 71, 84, 91, 98, 101,
-          105, 115, 143, 145, 147, 151;
-    created, 14, 217;
-    Declaration distributed to, 22;
-    financed, 14, 60, 106–108;
-    inspected, 134;
-    leadership of, 14, 29, 34, 41, 69, 74–75, 217, 264;
-    medical service and conditions in, 40, 125, 228;
-    recruiting poster of, reproduced, 10;
-    recruitment-enlistment for, 60, 121;
-    supplied, 14, 60, 84, 95, 106–108, 137, 138;
-    veterans of, 60, 114.
-    _See also_ Militia.
-
-  Continental Association, 9, 66, 103
-  Continental Congress (First and Second), adjourns and convenes, 7–8,
-          9, 14, 38, 93;
-    and Adams (John), 18, 33–35, 38;
-    and Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation and
-          Perpetual Union;
-    and Bank of North America, _see_ Bank of North America;
-    and Colonies, _see_ Colonies;
-    and committees of correspondence and safety, _see_ Committees of
-          correspondence _and_ Committees of safety;
-    and Cornwallis’ surrender, 218;
-    and Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of Independence;
-    and Halifax Resolves, 74;
-    and Hancock, 69;
-    and independence from Britain, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash _and_ Independence resolution;
-    and Indians, _see_ Indians and Indian affairs;
-    and maritime matters, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-    and Olive Branch Petition, 14;
-    and signers, _see particular signers_;
-    and U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution;
-    book on, 268;
-    Delegates and delegations to, _see individual Delegates and
-          colonies/States and under_ Counties and parishes;
-    diplomatic program of, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy;
-    father-son team in, 100;
-    fiscal problems and policies of, 31, 49–50, 60, 71, 106–108, 111,
-          117, 131, 141, 143, 151;
-    gathering place for members of, 222;
-    key days in, 18;
-    meetingplaces of, _front endpaper_, 8, 14, 50, 217, 219–221, 224,
-          263;
-    memorialized, 221;
-    officials of, 22, 24, 39, 52, 67, 69, 84, 92, 94, 101, 117, 136,
-          207, 262–263, 267;
-    organization and committees/commissions of, 8, 15, 16, 34, 40, 44,
-          49–50, 52, 54, 71, 74, 81, 84, 91, 95, 98, 105, 110, 115, 131,
-          138, 141, 143, 147, 151;
-    profiteering in, 31, 46, 106–107;
-    prominent men not Delegates to, 27;
-    regulates commerce, 49, 52, 95;
-    representation and voting procedures in, 8, 15, 18, 24, 27, 39, 66
-          (_and see individual colonies/States_);
-    sectional rivalries in, 74;
-    temper and range of political opinion in, 8–9, 14–15, 16, 18, 34,
-          88, 135, 136, 141, 147.
-    _See also entries immediately preceding and following, specific
-          colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout
-          this index._
-
-  Continental currency, 31, 49, 69
-
-  Continental Loan Office, 52
-
-  Continental Navy, 15, 34, 52, 74–75, 81, 82, 108
-
-  Continental Navy Board, 82. _See also_ Continental Navy.
-
-  Convention of Saratoga, _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga
-
-  Conventions, _see individual conventions, colonies/States, and
-          appropriate topics_
-
-  Conway, Thomas, and Conway Cabal, 60, 95, 125
-
-  Coopers, 83
-
-  Corbin, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 42
-
-  Cornwallis, Gen. Charles, British officer, 218, 248
-
-  Corporations, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Correspondence, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of
-          correspondence
-
-  Coton (estate), Va., 91
-
-  Cotton planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
-
-  Councils, _see particular councils, cities, towns, colonies/States,
-          and appropriate topics_
-
-  Councils of correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence
-
-  Councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety
-
-  Counties and parishes, and committees/councils of correspondence and
-          safety, _see_ Committees of correspondence _and_ Committees of
-          safety;
-    militia of, _see_ Militia;
-    offices in and affairs of, role of signers in, _see specific
-          signers_;
-    send Delegates to Continental Congress, 54, 66, 141.
-    _See also individual colonies/States and counties/parishes._
-
-  Counting rooms and houses, 36, 184, 202
-
-  County Court House, Pa., _see_ Congress Hall
-
-  Courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
-
-  Coventry Forge, Pa., 137
-
-  Criteria of eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic
-          Landmark status, 161, 270–271
-
-  Crown, British, _see_ Colonies;
-    Great Britain
-
-  Crown Point, N.Y., 115
-
-  Cumberland County, Pa., 122
-
-  Currency and money, and Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental
-          Congress;
-    British problems with, 3;
-    Continental, 31, 49, 69;
-    signers raise to further Revolutionary cause, 31, 49;
-    speculation in, _see_ Speculators and speculation;
-    status of signers regarding, _see_ Wealth and financial status of
-          signers;
-    theory on, 130. _See also_ Banks and banking.
-
-  Customs laws, collection, and officials, British and American, 3, 4,
-          6, 34, 37, 52, 68, 82, 101
-
-
-  Dana, Richard Henry, Sr., grandson of signer, 52
-
-  Dartmouth College, N.H., 40, 84
-
-  Daughters of signers, _see particular signers_
-
-  Daughters of the American Revolution, 160, 176, 192, 224, 227
-
-  Daughters of the Revolution, 160
-
-  Dawes, William, patriot, 10, 199
-
-  “Dean’s House,” N.J., _see_ President’s House
-
-  Deaths of signers: age at, compared, 28–29;
-    earliest, 62, 98, 109, 199;
-    latest, 35, 43;
-    on anniversary of adoption of Declaration, 35, 90.
-    _See also specific signers._
-
-  Debts and economic reversals of signers, 36–37, 46, 63–64, 69, 73, 78,
-          89–90, 107–108, 112, 132, 146, 148, 196, 213
-
-  “Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in
-          General Congress Assembled” (A), _see_ Declaration of
-          Independence
-
-  Declaration of Independence, and Adams (John), 16, 18, 20, 33–34;
-    and Va. constitution, 20;
-    anniversary of, 35, 90, 264;
-    author of, _see_ Jefferson, Thomas;
-    books on, 268–269;
-    broadside copies of, 22, 69, 262;
-    building, residence, and rooms involved in creation of, 18, 159–160,
-          217, 222, _rear endpaper_;
-    celebrated and read publicly, 22, 217, 264;
-    contents and style of, analyzed, 20, 22;
-    debated, altered, adopted, and signed, 3, 18, 20, 22, 23–24, 28, 33,
-          34, 67, 69, 71, 72, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 93, 95, 100, 106, 110,
-          117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 136, 159–160, 217, 219–220, 222, 262
-          (_and see individual signers_);
-    desk written on, 222, 245;
-    displayed, in various places, 3, 262–267;
-    displayed, photo of, 266;
-    drafted, 14, 16, 18, 33, 34, 55, 57–58, 88, 90, 93, 129, 130, 217,
-          228, 245, 262, 263;
-    drafting committee of, illus. of, ii;
-    historical background and origins of, 3–24;
-    history of document, 262–267;
-    Jefferson presents to Hancock, in mural, 267;
-    misconceptions concerning, 23–24;
-    newspapers describe and publish, 21;
-    parchment copy of, 23–24, 69, 262–267;
-    parchment copy of, facsimile of, reproduced, 19;
-    political philosophy of, 20;
-    preamble of, 20;
-    predicted, 78, 82;
-    presented to Continental Congress, illus. of, ii;
-    printed and distributed, 22, 23–24, 262;
-    reflects unanimity, 23;
-    revised draft of, 262;
-    rough draft of, illus. of first page of, 17;
-    rough drafts of, 17, 18, 20, 262;
-    signatures on, order and nature of, 23–24, 39, 60, 67, 93, 100, 139,
-          140, 153, 155, 217, 262;
-    signers of, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and specific signers_;
-    significance and influence of, 3, 20;
-    text of, reprinted, 259–262;
-    titles of, 23;
-    traditions concerning, 52, 58, 69, 79.
-    _See also_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash;
-      Independence resolution.
-
-  “Declaration of Independence” (The) (painting), reproduced, ii
-
-  “Declaration of Rights,” 20.
-    _See also_ Rights.
-
-  Degrees, academic and honorary, signers earn, _see individual signers_
-
-  Deists, 28
-
-  Delaware (Three Lower Counties) (colony and State), history of and
-          historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 27, 100–102, 118–121, 122, 135.
-    _See also_ Pennsylvania.
-
-  Delaware County, Pa., 109
-
-  Delegates, _see particular legislative bodies and appropriate topics_
-
-  Democracy, 3.
-    _See also appropriate related topics throughout this index._
-
-  Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party, 52, 61–62,
-          85, 89, 102.
-    _See also_ Jeffersonians.
-
-  Departments of U.S. Government, _see appropriate departments
-          following_ United States
-
-  Derry Village, N.H., 139, 203
-
-  Descendants of signers, achieve distinction, 29–30;
-    and historic sites, 160.
-    _See also specific signers and   individuals_.
-
-  Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence,
-          Inc., 160
-
-  Deshler-Morris House, Pa., 224, 226
-
-  Deshon, Christopher, merchant, 183
-
-  Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md., 45, _183–185_
-
-  Dickinson, John, lawyer-legislator, 18, 69, 93, 110, 119, 146
-
-  Dickinson College, Pa., 126
-
-  Dinwiddie, Robert, British official, 154
-
-  Diplomats and diplomacy, 15, 16, 29, 33, 35, 44, 46, 55, 58, 61, 71,
-          85, 88, 93, 95, 98, 128, 136, 143, 151, 193–196
-
-  Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers, _see
-          particular signers_
-
-  District courts, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary
-
-  District of Columbia, _see_ Washington, D.C.
-
-  Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals, 31,
-          39–40, 56, 65, 66, 67, 97, 98, 121, 123–127, 139–140, 152,
-          201, 203, 218, 228.
-    On the health of individual signers, _see specific signers._
-
-  Dorchester, Mass., 129
-
-  Dorchester, S.C., 65
-
-  Doric architectural style, 166, 176, 186, 244
-
-  “Double house,” 233–234
-
-  Doughoregan Manor, Md., 43, 45, 179, 180, 183, _185–186_
-
-  Dover, Del., 18, 101, 119, 120, 121
-
-  Down Hatherly (village), England, 62
-
-  Drafting, of Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation
-          and Perpetual Union;
-    of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence;
-    of key State documents, _see individual States_;
-    of U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution
-
-  Drafts, various, of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Dublin, Ireland, 118, 172
-
-  Duels, 62, 63, 64, 117
-
-  Duke of Leinster, 172
-
-  Dunmore, Lord John M., British official, 42, 111
-
-  Durham Furnace, Pa., 137, 138
-
-  Dutch, _see_ Holland
-
-  Duties, _see_ Customs laws, collection, and officials
-
-
-  East Cemetery, Conn., 153
-
-  East River, 97
-
-  East Windsor, Conn., 153
-
-  Eastern Shore, _see_ Maryland
-
-  Easton, Pa., 137, 138, 230
-
-  Easton Cemetery, Pa., 138
-
-  Economic matters, _see mainly_ Banks and banking;
-    Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Economic status of signers, _see_ Wealth and financial status of
-          signers
-
-  Edenton, N.C., 73, 78, 148
-
-  Edge, Gov. (N.J.) and Mrs. Walter E., and Morven, 208
-
-  Edinburgh, Scotland, 134, 149
-
-  Education, and Jefferson, 85, 86;
-    and Lowell, 195–196;
-    classical, 39, 45, 154;
-    in chemistry, 123, 124;
-    in various colonies/States, 84, 102, 229, 245, 252, 255;
-    legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence;
-    medical, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice,
-          and hospitals;
-    of signers, compared, 27, 28, 30 (_and see specific signers_);
-    reform of, 126;
-    religious, in public schools, 126 (_and see_ Christianity
-          and religion);
-    signers further as teachers, professors, and administrators, 33, 56,
-          65, 67, 80, 85, 115, 142, 154–156.
-    _See also_ Colleges and universities.
-
-  Elections and elective officials, _see particular legislative bodies,
-          offices, individuals, and colonies/States_
-
-  Electors, presidential, _see under_ United States Presidents
-          and Presidency
-
-  Elementary schools, _see_ Education
-
-  Eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark
-          status, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
-
-  Elizabeth City County, Va., 154
-
-  Ellery, William (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _51–52_, 160
-
-  Elmwood (Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House), Mass., _195–197_
-
-  Elsing Green (estate), Va., 41, 42, _240–242_
-
-  Emancipation of slaves, _see_ Slaves
-
-  Embargoes, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash
-
-  Emley, John, _see_ Imlay, John
-
-  England and Englishmen, _see_ Colonies;
-    Great Britain
-
-  English language and literature, _see_ Literature and literary figures
-
-  Epidemics, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice,
-          and hospitals
-
-  Esopus, N.Y., 98
-
-  Essays and essayists, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
-
-  _Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical_ (book), 126
-
-  Essex County, N.J., 47
-
-  Eton (school), England, 99
-
-  Europe, and _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56;
-    architecture in, 172;
-    capital from, 148;
-    colonists from, and western lands, 148;
-    culture of, 88;
-    medical students from, 126;
-    signers visit and study in, 30, 43, 88, 92, 95, 103, 179, 180,
-          192, 193, 235;
-    U.S. diplomats in, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy.
-    _See also specific countries._
-
-  Excavation, archeological, 177
-
-  “Exceptional value,” sites and buildings of, _see_ National
-          Historic Landmarks
-
-  Excise taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation
-
-  Exeter, N.H., 143
-
-  Exhibition Hall (National Archives Building, D.C.), 262, 266, 267
-
-  Exports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-
-  Facsimiles of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Fairfax County, Va., 91
-
-  Families of signers, suffer during War for Independence, 31, 47, 54,
-          71–72, 94–95, 104–105, 110.
-    _See also specific signers and families._
-
-  Farms and farming: and signers, 31, 45, 47, 53, 72, 80, 83, 85, 101,
-          109, 110, 117, 124, 129, 134, 140, 164, 203, 209, 210–211,
-          212–213;
-    in various areas, 33, 76, 101, 117, 138, 140, 164, 166, 230, 255.
-    _See also_ Planters and plantations.
-
-  Farmville, Va., 141
-
-  Federal, _see United States entries and those immediately following_
-
-  Federal City, _see_ Washington, D.C.
-
-  Federal Hall (old City Hall), New York City, 263
-
-  Federal period architecture and literature, 81, 170
-
-  Federalists and Federalist Party, 35, 44, 46, 52, 61, 89, 102, 108,
-          116, 119, 128, 131, 156.
-    _See also_ Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians.
-
-  Ferries, 140
-
-  Financial matters, _see_ Currency and money;
-    Wealth and financial status of signers
-
-  Finian (estate), N.C., 77, 78, 79, 214
-
-  Finns and Finland, 109
-
-  Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y., 160, 210–212
-
-  Fires, and historic sites, 40, 86, 97, 159, 199, 207, 247, 250, 263
-
-  First Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States
-
-  First Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 224, 226
-
-  First Baptist Church, N.J., 72
-
-  First Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress
-
-  First Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Pa., 133
-
-  First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals, 99
-
-  Fiscal matters, _see_ Currency and money
-
-  Floor plans, _see specific houses_
-
-  Florida (region and State), 76, 104, 128, 233
-
-  Floyd, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 53
-
-  Floyd, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 54
-
-  Floyd, Nicoll, son of signer, 54, 211, 212
-
-  Floyd, William (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _53–54_, _210–213_
-
-  Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y., 53, 54,
-          160, _210–212_
-
-  Floyd family and descendants, 54, 210–213
-
-  Floyd (General) House, N.Y., _see_ General Floyd House
-
-  Flushing, N.Y., 95
-
-  Food shortages, 147
-
-  Foreign affairs, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy
-
-  Foreign born signers, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_)
-
-  “Formation of the Union” exhibit, 267
-
-  Fort Knox, Ky., 265
-
-  Fort Oswego, N.Y., 95
-
-  Fort Stanwix, N.Y., Second Treaty of (_1784_), 153
-
-  “Fort Wilson” (residence), Pa., 146, 147, 222
-
-  Foundations, historic, and historic sites, 160
-
-  Founders’ Monument, Ga., _see_ Signers’ Monument
-
-  France, and Democratic-Republicans, 61;
-    and signers, 35, 43, 58, 95, 100, 145, 147;
-    and War for Independence, 145;
-    artist-engineer from, 171;
-    cedes land to Britain, 3, 4;
-    commerce of, 147;
-    diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 55, 58, 61, 88;
-    fortress of, 139;
-    loans money to Continental Congress, 108;
-    revolution in, 35, 88–89;
-    undeclared war of, with U.S., 35, 61;
-    wallpaper from, 202;
-    wars of, _see specific wars_.
-    _See also_ New France.
-
-  Franklin, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16,
-          18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 35, 44, _55–58_, 79, 82, 88, 110, 124,
-          128, 147, 160, 221, 222, 224
-
-  Franklin, James, half-brother of signer, 55
-
-  Franklin College, Ga., 67, 142
-
-  Franklin stoves, 204
-
-  Frederick and Frederick County, Md., 43, 135
-
-  French and Indian War, 3, 56, 95, 97, 115, 144
-
-  French language, 44
-
-  French Revolution, 35, 88–89
-
-  Friends Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 51
-
-  Frontier and frontiersmen, 4, 54, 56, 78, 85, 86, 108, 141,
-          147, 148, 212
-
-  Fulling mills, 72
-
-  Furniture and furnishings, associated with signers, collectively,
-          219, 221.
-    _See also individual sites._
-
-
-  Gadsden, Christopher, legislator, 128
-
-  Gage, Gen. Thomas, British officer-official, 10
-
-  Galloway, John, Loyalist, 138
-
-  Gardens, famous, 236–237. _See also specific sites._
-
-  Garrison house, 178
-
-  General Floyd House, N.Y., 54, _212–213_
-
-  General Services Administration (U.S.), _see_ United States General
-          Services Administration
-
-  George II, King of England, 68
-
-  George III, King of England, 4, 8, 15, 22, 24, 68
-
-  George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 227
-
-  Georgetown and Georgetown County, S.C., 99
-
-  Georgia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 8, 9,
-          15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 51, 54, 56, 62–67, 76, 138, 140–142, 148,
-          161, 173–177
-
-  Georgia State Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176
-
-  Georgian architectural style, 176–178, 181–183, 185–191, 194–198,
-          201–202, 206–213, 218–219, 226–227, 229–234, 239–249, 251–256
-
-  German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Pa., 138
-
-  Germans and Germany, 40
-
-  Germantown and Battle of Germantown, Pa., 23, 151, 224
-
-  Germantown (Pa.) Historical Society, 226
-
-  Gerry, Elbridge (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 29,
-          _59–62_, _195–198_
-
-  Gerry, Mrs. Elbridge, wife of signer, 61–62
-
-  Gerry, Thomas, father of signer, 197
-
-  Gerry Birthplace, Mass., _197–198_
-
-  Gerry family, 197
-
-  “Gerrymander,” 61
-
-  Gifford (village), Scotland, 149
-
-  Glamorganshire, Wales, 95
-
-  Glasgow, Scotland, 149
-
-  Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church National Historic Site, Pa., 226
-
-  Gloucestershire, England, 62
-
-  “God save the King” (British national anthem), 76
-
-  “God save the thirteen States” (song), 76
-
-  Goochland County, Va., 86
-
-  Governor Hopkins House, R.I., _231–232_
-
-  Governor Huntington House, Conn., _see_ Huntington House
-
-  Governors, _see specific colonies/States and individuals_
-
-  Grace Episcopal Church, Va., 112
-
-  Graff, Jacob, Jr., House, Pa.: and Declaration of Independence,
-          18, 222;
-    illus. of, 225, _rear endpaper_
-
-  Graham, Gov. (N.C.) William A., and Nash-Hooper House, 214
-
-  Grammar schools, _see_ Education
-
-  Granville County, N.C., 117
-
-  Graves, graveyards, and gravestones, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
-
-  Great Britain, agents of various American colonies in, 56;
-    and Federalists, 61;
-    and Ga., 15, 64, 89;
-    and Liberty Bell, 221;
-    and signers, 28, 31, 41, 56, 62, 64, 68, 76, 82, 88, 95, 99, 103,
-          106, 109, 111, 113, 115, 127, 136, 143, 240;
-    and slave trade, 20;
-    Army of, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash _and
-          specific wars_;
-    Bank of England in, 46;
-    clashes with American Colonies, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash _and_ War for Independence;
-    colonies of, _see_ Colonies;
-    Commonwealth of Nations of, 147;
-    “conspiracy” in, 3–4;
-    constitution of, 15;
-    creditors in, 4, 78;
-    debtors in, 78;
-    diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 194, 196;
-    Empire of, and Colonies, 155;
-    financial problems of, 3;
-    France cedes lands to, 3, 4;
-    grants lands, 95;
-    kings of, _see specific kings_;
-    national anthem of, 76;
-    navy of, 64, 98, 141;
-    Parliament of, _see under_ Independence movement and British-colonial
-          clash;
-    people of, and Declaration of Independence, 20;
-    recognizes U.S. independence, _see_ Treaty of Paris;
-    reorganization of imperial structure of, 147;
-    Revolutionary tracts circulate in, 81, 146;
-    rights of citizens of, 8–9;
-    ties of, to American Colonies, 8;
-    trade of, 8, 9, 31, 37, 46;
-    treasury of, 3;
-    wars of, _see specific wars_.
-    _See also_ Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish;
-      Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish;
-      Wales and Welshmen;
-      _and other appropriate topics throughout this index_.
-
-  Great Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131
-
-  Greek language, 39, 156
-
-  Greek Revival architectural style, 164–165, 166, 168, 180, 185–186,
-          199–201, 203–204, 207–208, 231
-
-  Greenland, 115
-
-  Greensboro, N.C., 79, 118, 161
-
-  Greenwich Forge and Greenwich Township, N.J., 138, 226
-
-  Grievances, colonial, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial
-          clash
-
-  Grist mills, 72
-
-  Grove Street Cemetery, Conn., 131
-
-  Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., 79, 118, 161, 216
-
-  Guns and gunpowder, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
-
-  Gwinnett, Button (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27–28,
-          _62–64_, 65, 67, 98, 140, 161, _176–177_
-
-  Gwinnett, Mrs. Button, wife of signer, 62
-
-
-  H-shaped buildings, 251–253, 253–255
-
-  Habre-de-Venture (estate), Md., 136, _186–188_, 189
-
-  Hackney School, England, 103, 111
-
-  Haddington (town) and Haddington Presbytery, Scotland, 149
-
-  Hague (town), Va., 94
-
-  “Hail Columbia” (song), 81
-
-  Halifax Resolves, 74
-
-  Hall, Lyman (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 64,
-          _65–67_, 140, 141, 160, 161
-
-  Hall, Mrs. Lyman, first wife of signer, 65
-
-  Hall, Mrs. Lyman, second wife of signer, 65
-
-  Hall, Rev. Samuel, uncle of signer, 65
-
-  Hall family, 66
-
-  Hall’s Knoll (estate), Ga., 66, 67
-
-  Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians, 35, 89.
-    _See also_ Federalists and Federalist Party.
-
-  Hamilton, Andrew, lawyer-architect, 217
-
-  Hampton, Va., 154
-
-  Hancock, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 12, 22,
-          24, 34, 37, 38, 39, 59, 60, _67–69_, 115, 116, _198–199_,
-          262, 267
-
-  Hancock, John George Washington, son of signer, 69
-
-  Hancock, Rev. John, grandfather of signer, 199
-
-  Hancock, Thomas, uncle of signer, 68, 199
-
-  Hancock-Clarke House, Mass., _198–199_
-
-  Hancock family, 199
-
-  Hanover County, Va., 42, 112, 247
-
-  Harford County, Md., 113
-
-  Harper family, 175
-
-  Harrison, Benjamin IV, father of signer, 239
-
-  Harrison, Benjamin V (signer) (“Falstaff of Congress”), career of and
-          sites associated with, 30, 69, _70–71_, _239–240_
-
-  Harrison, Benjamin VI, son of signer, 239
-
-  Harrison, Benjamin, great-grandson of signer and President, 30, 70, 239
-
-  Harrison, Joseph H., legislator, 114, 136
-
-  Harrison, Mrs. Benjamin V, wife of signer, 70
-
-  Harrison, William Henry, son of signer and President, 30, 70, 239
-
-  Harrison family, 70, 71, 240
-
-  Harrison’s Landing, Va., _see_ Berkeley
-
-  Hart, John (signer) (“Honest John”), career of and sites associated
-          with, _71–72_, 160
-
-  Hart, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 72
-
-  Harvard College and University, Mass., 30, 33, 36, 51, 59, 68, 77,
-          115, 144, 197
-
-  Hayes Plantation, N.C., 148
-
-  Health of signers, _see specific signers_
-
-  Henry, Patrick, career of, 27, 28, 42, 70, 71, 86, 88, 92, 93, 111
-
-  Heraldic emblems, 82
-
-  Hessians, _see_ Germans and Germany
-
-  Hewes, Joseph (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29,
-          _73–75_, 116, 117, 161, _206_, 224
-
-  Heyward, Daniel, father of signer, 233
-
-  Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., first wife of signer, 76
-
-  Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., second wife of signer, 76
-
-  Heyward, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          31, _75–76_, 99, 104, 127, 128, _233–234_
-
-  Heyward family, 76, 234
-
-  Heyward-Washington House, S.C., _233–234_
-
-  Higher education, _see_ Colleges and universities
-
-  Hills, The (estate), Pa., 108
-
-  Hillsborough, N.C., 79, 214
-
-  Historians and historiography, 33, 194.
-    _See also entries immediately following_.
-
-  Historic Annapolis, Inc., 189
-
-  Historic Districts, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
-
-  Historic foundations, and historic sites, 160
-
-  Historic Places, National Register of, _see_ National Register of
-          Historic Places
-
-  Historic preservation activities and problems, 159–162.
-    _See also entries immediately preceding and following_.
-
-  Historic sites and buildings of national significance, _see_ National
-          Historic Landmarks
-
-  Historical societies, State and local: and historic preservation, 160
-
-  Historiography, _see_ Historians and historiography
-
-  Hoban, James, architect, 171, 172
-
-  Holland (Dutch Republic; Netherlands), 35, 96, 211
-
-  Homes of signers, _see_ Residences of signers
-
-  “Homestead” (The), Pa., _see_ Byberry
-
-  “Honeymoon Cottage,” Va., 244, 245
-
-  Hooper, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 77
-
-  Hooper, Rev. William, father of signer, 77
-
-  Hooper, William (signer) (“Prophet of Independence”), career of and
-          sites associated with, 31, _77–79_, 116, 117, 161, _214–216_
-
-  Hopewell, N.J., 72
-
-  Hopkins, Alden, descendant of signer, 232
-
-  Hopkins, Esek, brother of signer, 80, 81
-
-  Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, first wife of signer, 80
-
-  Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, second wife of signer, 80
-
-  Hopkins, Stephen (signer), career of and sites associated with, 51,
-          _79–81_, _231–232_
-
-  Hopkins (Governor) House, R.I., _see_ Governor Hopkins House
-
-  Hopkinson, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _81–83_, _204–205_, 224
-
-  Hopkinson, Joseph, son of signer, 81, 204
-
-  Hopkinson, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, 82
-
-  Hopkinson family, 204
-
-  Hopkinson House, N.J., _204–205_
-
-  Hopsewee-on-the-Santee (plantation), S.C., 99, _234–236_
-
-  Horses, 101, 121, 134
-
-  Hospitals, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice,
-          and hospitals
-
-  House of Burgesses, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses
-
-  Howard County, Md., 43, 180, 183
-
-  Howe, Lord Richard, British admiral, 98, 128, 136
-
-  Howe, Sir William, British officer, 13, 128
-
-  Humanitarians and reformers, 50, 80, 97, 123–126
-
-  Humphreys, Charles, legislator, 110
-
-  Hunterdon County, N.J., 72
-
-  Huntington, Mrs. Samuel, wife of signer, 83
-
-  Huntington, Samuel (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _83–84_, _164–166_, 222
-
-  Huntington Birthplace, Conn., _164–165_
-
-  Huntington House (Governor Huntington House), Conn., _165–166_
-
-
-  Illnesses of signers, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical
-          afflictions of signers
-
-  Imlay (Emley), John, merchant, 204
-
-  Immanuel Episcopal Churchyard, Del., 119
-
-  Impeachment, 46, 102, 148
-
-  Imports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Imprisonment, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war
-
-  Inaugurations and inaugural addresses of U.S. Presidents, _see under_
-          United States Presidents and Presidency
-
-  Indentured servants, 31, 137
-
-  Independence Day (U.S.), 76
-
-  Independence Hall (State House for the Province of Pennsylvania), Pa.,
-          _front endpaper_, 14, 18, 22, 216, _217–226_
-
-  Independence Mall, Pa., 226
-
-  Independence movement (U.S.) and British-colonial clash: and Adams
-          (John), 18, 33–34;
-    and Adams (Samuel), 36–38;
-    and British Parliament, 8, 9, 14, 15, 38, 42, 56, 57, 59, 72, 81,
-          86, 93, 134, 146, 155;
-    and Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress;
-    and R.I., 15;
-    and Va., 15;
-    British actions and postures during, 3–156 _passim_, 199;
-    colonial grievances, protests, and actions during, 3–156 _passim_,
-          189–190, 195, 199, 217, 259–262;
-    fathers of, 33, 67;
-    fruition and celebration of, 15, 22, 218;
-    outcome of, predicted, 78, 82;
-    public attitudes toward, 22–23;
-    range of reaction to, _see_ Conservatives and conservatism,
-          Loyalists and Tories, Moderates, _and_ Radicals and radicalism;
-    results in war, _see_ War for Independence;
-    signers’ role in, _see individual signers_;
-    timing of, 8, 16, 217.
-    _See also_ Declaration of Independence;
-      Independence resolution;
-      _specific colonies/States_;
-      _and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
-
-  Independence National Historical Park, Pa., 159–160, _216–226_
-
-  Independence resolution (U.S.), background, introduction, and adoption
-          of, 14, 15–18, 22, 27, 34, 39, 44, 46, 60, 67, 72, 74, 92, 93,
-          95, 98, 100, 101, 106, 109, 110, 111, 114, 118, 119, 120–121,
-          122, 127, 128, 134, 135, 136, 147, 153, 217.
-    _See also_ Declaration of Independence;
-      Independence movement and British-colonial clash.
-
-  Independence Square, Pa., 217, 221, 222, 226
-
-  Indians and Indian affairs, 4, 51, 84, 89, 98, 105, 115, 122, 131,
-          138, 141, 147, 152–153, 177
-
-  Indigo, 66
-
-  Indigo Society School, S.C., 99
-
-  Individuals, and historic preservation, 160 (_and see particular
-          sites_);
-    rights of, _see_ Rights
-
-  Inflation, 147
-
-  Insane and insanity, 126
-
-  Intellectuals and intellectual life, 43, 55, 85, 145, 194, 228
-
-  Intercolonial affairs, _see_ Colonies
-
-  Interstate disputes, _see under_ States
-
-  Inventors and invention, 55, 85
-
-  Ionic architectural style, 182, 184, 197, 244
-
-  Iredell, James, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, 78, 148, 213
-
-  Iredell, Mrs. James, and certain signers, 79, 214
-
-  Iredell House, N.C., _213–214_
-
-  Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish, 43, 101, 118, 127, 132, 137, 139,
-          146, 171, 172, 204
-
-  Iron and iron manufacturing, 31, 132, 137, 226
-
-  Iroquois (Six Indian Nations) Indians, 138, 153
-
-  Italy and Italians, 88, 113, 183, 243
-
-
-  Jacob Graff, Jr., House, Pa., _see_ Graff, Jacob, Jr., House
-
-  Jails, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war
-
-  James River, 239, 253
-
-  Jasper County, S.C., 75
-
-  Jay, John, diplomat, 35, 58, 263
-
-  Jefferson, Martha, daughter of signer, 245
-
-  Jefferson, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, 88, 244, 249
-
-  Jefferson, Peter, father of signer, 86, 254
-
-  Jefferson, Thomas (signer and author of Declaration), career of and
-          sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35,
-          _85–90_, 93, 124, 154, 155, _170–173_, 217, 222, 228,
-          _243–245_, _249–251_, _253–255_, 262, 263, 267,
-          _rear endpaper_.
-    _See also_ Jeffersonians.
-
-  Jefferson family, 245
-
-  Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial, D.C., 161
-
-  Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial Foundation, 245
-
-  Jefferson Papers, 262
-
-  Jeffersonians, 35. _See also_ Democratic-Republicans and
-          Democratic-Republican Party.
-
-  _Jersey_ (ship), 48
-
-  Jesuits, _see_ Roman Catholic Church
-
-  John Adams Birthplace, Mass., _see_ Adams (John) Birthplace
-
-  John Quincy Adams Birthplace, Mass., _see_ Adams (John Quincy)
-          Birthplace
-
-  Johnson, Thomas, lawyer, 114, 136
-
-  Jones, John Paul, naval officer, 74–75
-
-  Judges, judicial matters, and jurisprudence, _see_ Legal practice,
-          legal education, and jurisprudence
-
-
-  Kent County, Del., 120, 121
-
-  King and Queen County, Va., 41
-
-  King George’s War, 139, 152
-
-  King William County and King William Courthouse, Va., 41
-
-  Kings, denounced, 15 (_and see specific kings_)
-
-  King’s Attorneys, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and
-          jurisprudence
-
-  King’s College, N.Y., _see_ Columbia University
-
-  Kingston, N.H., 39, 41
-
-  Kingston, N.Y., 98
-
-  Kittery, Maine, 143, 177
-
-
-  Ladd family, 201–202
-
-  Lafayette, Marquis de, visits U.S., 248
-
-  Lake George, 144
-
-  Lancaster, Pa., 122, 132, 218, 263
-
-  Land, and signers, 31, 47, 61, 63, 66, 67, 95, 102, 108, 119, 133,
-          138, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148, 175, 212, 213;
-    interstate disputes over, 119, 133, 143, 153;
-    Loyalist, confiscated, 61, 67, 103, 138, 142, 175;
-    major grants of, 54, 63, 95, 102, 212;
-    speculation in, 108, 147, 148, 213
-
-  Landmarks, National Historic, _see_ National Historic Landmarks
-
-  Languages, _see specific languages_
-
-  Latin language, 39, 146, 156
-
-  Latrobe, Benjamin H., architect, 172
-
-  Laurel Hill Cemetery, Pa., 102
-
-  Laurens, Henry, legislator, 117
-
-  Laws and lawyers, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and
-          jurisprudence
-
-  Learned societies, 80, 116, 126, 218–226 _passim_
-
-  Lebanon, Conn., 144–145, 166
-
-  Lee, Arthur, brother of signers, 35, 90, 228, 251
-
-  Lee, Francis Lightfoot (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _90–91_, 92, 93, 228, _242–243_, _246–247_, _251–253_
-
-  Lee, Henry (Col. “Lighthorse Harry”), relative of signers, 251–252
-
-  Lee, Matilda, niece of signers, 251–252
-
-  Lee, Mrs. Francis Lightfoot, wife of signer, 91, 242, 246
-
-  Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, first wife of signer, 92
-
-  Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, second wife of signer, 92
-
-  Lee, Philip Ludwell, brother of signers, 91, 92, 251
-
-  Lee, Richard Henry (signer and sponsor of independence resolution),
-          career of and sites associated with, 15–16, 18, 22, 24, 27,
-          28, 44, 46, 71, 74, 86, 90, 91, _92–94_, 111, 128, 147, 217,
-          228, _251–253_
-
-  Lee, Richard Henry, grandson of signer, 264
-
-  Lee, Robert E., Confederate officer, 251–253
-
-  Lee, Thomas, father of signers, 91, 92, 251
-
-  Lee, Thomas Ludwell, brother of signers, 251
-
-  Lee, William, brother of signers, 90, 251
-
-  Lee family, 91, 94, 251–253
-
-  Lee (Robert E.) Memorial Foundation, Inc., 253
-
-  Leesburg, Va., 91, 263
-
-  Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence: admiralty, _see_
-          Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-    and colonial protests, 97;
-    and slaves, 80;
-    codes for, State, compiled and revised, 88, 101, 120, 131, 148, 155;
-    famous trials in, 34;
-    Federal, _see_ United States Judiciary;
-    impeachment in, 46, 148;
-    individuals other than signers practice, 97, 101, 113, 117, 118,
-          122, 132, 134, 135, 141, 204, 217, 232;
-    political partisanship in, 46;
-    schools teach, 43, 154–156;
-    signers study and practice, _see specific signers_.
-    _See also particular laws._
-
-  Legislatures, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in
-          independence movement, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash;
-    signers serve in, _see individual signers_.
-    _See also specific colonies/States._
-
-  Lehigh County (Pa.) Historical Society, 231
-
-  Lehigh River, 230
-
-  Leinster, Duke of, 172
-
-  L’Enfant, Maj. Pierre Charles, artist-engineer-architect, 108, 171
-
-  “Letters of the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” 94
-
-  Lewis, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28,
-          _94–96_, 160
-
-  Lewis, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, 31, 94, 95
-
-  Lexington and Battle of Lexington, Mass., 12, 38, 42, 60, 68
-
-  Lexington (Mass.) Historical Society, 199
-
-  Liberty Bell, 221
-
-  Liberty County, Ga., 65–66
-
-  Libraries, public and private, 56, 80, 134, 151, 176, 186, 193, 195,
-          207, 209, 222, 236, 253, 262, 264–265.
-    _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts.
-
-  Library Company of Philadelphia, 222
-
-  Library Hall, Pa., 222, 226
-
-  Library of Congress, 90, 262, 264–265
-
-  Linlithgo, N.Y., 96
-
-  Litchfield, Litchfield Historic District, and Litchfield County,
-          Conn., 152, 153, 169
-
-  Literature (English and American) and literary figures, 8, 18, 33,
-          36–37, 45, 52, 55, 81–83, 86, 115, 123–126, 134, 146, 156,
-          194, 195–196, 204.
-    _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts.
-
-  Liverpool, England, 106
-
-  Livingston, Mrs. Philip, mother of signer, 96
-
-  Livingston, Mrs. Philip, wife of signer, 96–97
-
-  Livingston, Philip, father of signer, 96
-
-  Livingston, Philip (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _96–98_, 160
-
-  Livingston, Robert R., helps draft Declaration, 14, 16, 18, 20, 228
-
-  Livingston Manor, N.Y., 96, 98
-
-  Llandaff (city), Wales, 95
-
-  Lloyd, Edward IV, planter-politician, 181
-
-  Lloyd family, 183
-
-  Local affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_
-
-  Local groups and historical societies, and historic preservation, 160
-
-  Locke, John, British political philosopher, 20
-
-  London, England, 43, 46, 55, 56, 68, 76, 99, 103, 113, 124
-
-  Londonderry, N.H., 139, 140, 203
-
-  Long Island, Long Island Sound, and Battle of Long Island, N.Y., 53,
-          54, 95, 98, 212
-
-  Longevity of signers, _see_ Age of signers
-
-  Lord North, British official, 82
-
-  Loudoun County, Va., 91
-
-  Louisbourg (fortress), Nova Scotia, 139
-
-  Lowell, James Russell, career of, 195–196
-
-  Lower Counties, Three, _see_ Delaware
-
-  Loyalists and Tories: activities of, in various colonies/States, 7,
-          22–23, 40, 46, 53–54, 66, 77, 95, 104, 105, 119, 121, 122,
-          134, 138, 211;
-    criticized, 127;
-    forgiven, 79;
-    lands and property of, confiscated, 61, 67, 103, 138, 142, 175, 195;
-    legally defended, 147;
-    punishment of, recommended, 103, 143;
-    ridiculed, 82
-
-  Ludowici tile, 177
-
-  Lutwyche’s Ferry, N.H., 140
-
-  Lynch, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, 99, 100
-
-  Lynch, Thomas, Sr., father of signer, 99, 100, 128
-
-  Lynch, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _99–100_, 127, _234–236_
-
-  Lynchburg, Va., 89
-
-
-  Maclean House, N.J., _see_ President’s House
-
-  McClellan, Gen. George B., Union officer, 239–240
-
-  McIntosh, Gen. Lachlan, and signer Gwinnett, 63, 64
-
-  McKean, Mrs. Thomas, first wife of signer, 101
-
-  McKean, Mrs. Thomas, second wife of signer, 101
-
-  McKean, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 24,
-          _100–102_, 119, 120, 121, 160, 222
-
-  Madison, James, President, 61, 85, 89, 267
-
-  Magistrates, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
-
-  Mail service, 56, 57, 264
-
-  Maine (region and State), history of and historic site in, 139,
-          143, 177–178.
-    _See also_ Massachusetts.
-
-  Malvern Hill, Va., Battle of, 239
-
-  Manhattan, _see_ New York City and New York Harbor
-
-  Manor houses, 185–186, 230
-
-  “Manor of Chawton,” 230
-
-  Manufacturing, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Marblehead, Mass., 59, 196
-
-  Marine and maritime matters, _see_ Continental Navy;
-    Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-    United States Navy;
-    _and foreign navies_
-
-  Marine Corps Museum, Pa., _see_ New Hall
-
-  Marital status of signers, compared, 29 (_and see_ Bachelor signers
-          _and individual signers_)
-
-  Marshall, John, Supreme Court Justice and Secretary of State, 46, 154,
-          155, 221, 263
-
-  Maryland (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 9, 16,
-          18, 24, 43–46, 106, 113–114, 118, 124, 134, 135–136, 179–191
-
-  Maryland Historical Trust, 189
-
-  Mason, George, and Declaration of Independence, 20
-
-  Masonboro Sound, N.C., 77
-
-  Massachusetts (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 6,
-          7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 18, 24, 30, 33–39, 53–54, 55, 56, 59–62,
-          67–69, 77, 93, 115–116, 119, 129, 139, 140, 160, 177,
-          191–199, 203, 217.
-    _See also_ Maine.
-
-  Mastic, N.Y., 53, 54, 212
-
-  Mathematics, 47, 109
-
-  Matlack, Timothy, and Declaration of Independence, 262
-
-  Mattaponi River, 41
-
-  Maybury Hill (estate), N.J., 73, 206
-
-  Meadow Garden (cottage), Ga., 142, _175–176_
-
-  _Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the
-          Mind_ (book), 126
-
-  Medicine, medical practice, and medical societies, _see_ Doctors,
-          medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
-
-  Memorials and monuments to signers, 161.
-    _See also specific signers._
-
-  Menokin (estate), Va., 91, _242–243_, 246
-
-  Menotomy, Mass., 60
-
-  Merchant marine and maritime affairs, 20, 28, 31, 42, 52, 59, 64, 68,
-          70, 71, 73, 74, 80, 82, 84, 91, 95, 98, 99, 100, 114, 119,
-          121, 123, 136, 142–143, 147, 177, 201–202, 251.
-    _See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing.
-
-  Merchants and mercantile firms, _see_ Commerce, trade, and
-          manufacturing
-
-  Merchants’ Exchange, Pa., 224, 226
-
-  Meredith family, 49
-
-  Merrick’s Brook, Conn., 164
-
-  Merrimack, N.H., 140, 203
-
-  Merrimack River, 140
-
-  Middle Colonies, 4, 16, 30, 134, 150
-
-  Middleton, Arthur (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31,
-          99, _103–104_, 127, 128, _236–237_
-
-  Middleton, Henrietta, sister of one signer and wife of another, 127
-
-  Middleton, Henry, father of one signer and father-in-law of another,
-          104, 127, 128, 234
-
-  Middleton, Mrs. Arthur, wife of signer, 103
-
-  Middleton, William, and Middleton Place, 236
-
-  Middleton family and descendants, 103, 237
-
-  Middleton Place (estate), S.C., 103, 104, _236–237_
-
-  Middleton Place Gardens, S.C., 236–237
-
-  Middletown, Conn., 54, 211
-
-  Midway (town) and Midway District, Ga., 66
-
-  Midway Congregational Church, Ga., 64
-
-  Mikveh Israel Cemetery, Pa., 226
-
-  Military affairs, _see_ Continental Army;
-    Militia;
-    _specific nations and individuals_;
-    _and other appropriate topics throughout this index_
-
-  Militia, of various colonies/States and counties: activities of, 9,
-          10, 12, 22, 38, 40, 42, 53, 54, 64, 69, 76, 111, 146;
-    signers aid and serve in, 18, 27, 31, 40, 53, 54, 69, 75, 101, 103,
-          104, 105, 110–112, 114, 120–121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 132, 133,
-          138, 139, 140–141, 142–143, 145, 152–153
-
-  Mills, 72, 253
-
-  Ministers, diplomatic, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy;
-    religious, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Mint, U.S., _see_ United States Mint
-
-  Mission of Santa Catalina, Ga., 177
-
-  Moderates, political, 8, 16, 42, 69, 98, 110, 119, 127, 128, 138, 147
-
-  Moffatt, Catherine, marries signer, 202
-
-  Moffatt, John, father-in-law of signer, 201–202
-
-  Moffatt, Samuel, merchant-shipowner, 201
-
-  Moffatt family, 201–202
-
-  Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H., _201–202_
-
-  Mohawk River, 54
-
-  Monarchs and monarchy, _see_ Kings
-
-  Monetary theory and money, _see_ Currency and money
-
-  Monmouth County, N.J., 134
-
-  Monocacy River, 180
-
-  Monroe, James, President, 85, 154, 155, 173, 263
-
-  Monticello (“Little Mountain”) (estate), Va., 86, 88, 90,
-          _243–245_, 250
-
-  Montreal, Canada, 46
-
-  Monuments to signers, _see_ Memorials and monuments to signers
-
-  Moore, Thomas, Irish poet, 204
-
-  Morality, in Scotland, 149
-
-  Morris, Gouverneur, and Mrs. Robert Morris, 108
-
-  Morris, Lewis (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _104–105_, 160
-
-  Morris, Mrs. Lewis, wife of signer, 105
-
-  Morris, Mrs. Robert, wife of signer, 106
-
-  Morris, Robert (signer) (“Financier of the Revolution”), career of and
-          sites associated with, 18, 27, 28, 29, 50, _106–108_, 110,
-          129, 147, 160, 222, 224
-
-  Morris (Lewis) family, 105
-
-  “Morris’ Folly” (house), Pa., 107, 108
-
-  Morrisania (estate), N.Y., 105
-
-  Morrisville and Morrisville School District, Pa., 51, 229
-
-  Morton, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 98,
-          _109–110_, 147, 160
-
-  Morton, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 109
-
-  Morton, Sketchley, son of signer, 109
-
-  Morven (estate), N.J., 134, 135, _207–208_
-
-  Moultrie, Gen. William, Army officer, 76, 128
-
-  Mount Airy (estate), Va., 91, 242, _246–247_
-
-  Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference (_1785_), 46, 136
-
-  Municipal affairs and municipalities, _see_ Cities, towns,
-          and villages
-
-  Museums, 183, 187, 205, 218, 224, 234.
-    _See also specific historic house museums._
-
-  Music and musicians, 81–83, 85, 204
-
-  “My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (song), 82
-
-
-  Nash, Francis, and Nash-Hooper House, 214
-
-  Nash-Hooper House, N.C., _214–216_
-
-  Nassau Hall (Princeton University), 150, 151
-
-  National affairs, signers lack reputation in, 27, 39, 51, 71, 113,
-          116–117, 122, 137, 138, 139, 144, 154, 159;
-    signers later take major part in, 29
-
-  National Archives and Records Service, 265
-
-  National Archives Building, D.C., 3, 262, 265–266
-
-  National Historic Landmarks, described individually, 164–165, 168–175,
-          181–183, 185–189, 191–193, 195–209, 212–216, 229, 247, 249–256;
-    mapped, _facing page_ 163;
-    nature, eligibility, and designation of, 161–163, 226, 256, 270–271.
-    _See also_ National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings.
-
-  National origins of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see individual
-          signers_)
-
-  National parks, National Park Service, and National Park System: and
-          historic-archeological preservation, 159–162;
-    sites considered for inclusion in, 161;
-    sites in, described individually, 193–195, 210–212, 216–227, 247–249;
-    sites in, in National Register, 162;
-    sites in, mapped, _facing page_ 163.
-    _See also_ National Register of Historic Places;
-      National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings;
-      Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation.
-
-  National Register of Historic Places, 162
-
-  _National Register of Historic Places, 1972_, 162
-
-  National significance of historic sites and buildings, _see_ National
-          Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings
-
-  National Society of Colonial Dames of America, 160
-
-  National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, _see_
-          Daughters of the American Revolution
-
-  National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, purpose and
-          procedures of, 161–162.
-    _See also_ National Historic Landmarks;
-      Other Sites Considered.
-
-  Nativity of signers, _see_ National origins of signers
-
-  Navies, _see_ Continental Navy;
-    United States Navy;
-    _and specific nations_
-
-  Negroes, _see_ Slaves
-
-  Nelson, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, 111
-
-  Nelson, Thomas (“Scotch Tom”), Sr., grandfather of signer, 247–248
-
-  Nelson, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, 88,
-          _110–112_, _247–249_
-
-  Nelson, William, father of signer, 247–248
-
-  Nelson family, 249
-
-  Nelson House (York Hall), Va., 112, 160, _247–249_
-
-  Netherlands, _see_ Holland
-
-  New Bern, N.C., 78
-
-  New Castle and New Castle County, Del., 82, 101, 118, 119,
-          120, 122, 204
-
-  New England and New England architectural style, 20, 28, 30, 66, 68,
-          69, 74, 81, 115, 139, 144, 164, 191, 193, 202, 203.
-    _See also specific colonies/States._
-
-  _New England Courant_ (newspaper), 55
-
-  New France, 139, 152
-
-  New Hall (Marine Corps Museum), Pa., 224, 226
-
-  New Hampshire (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 9,
-          15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 39–41, 76, 128, 139–140, 142–143,
-          177, 199–204
-
-  New Hampshire Medical Society, 40
-
-  New Haven, Conn., 130, 131
-
-  New Jersey (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16,
-          18, 24, 47–48, 56, 71–72, 81–83, 101, 121, 124, 133–135,
-          149–151, 204–210
-
-  New Jersey, College of, _see_ Princeton University
-
-  New London and New London Township, Pa., 101, 118, 132
-
-  New London County, Conn., 84
-
-  New Milford, Conn., 129
-
-  New York (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 6, 9,
-          14, 16, 18, 22, 23, 24, 44, 53–54, 94–98, 104–105, 110, 115,
-          119, 134–135, 143, 144, 148, 153, 160, 210–213.
-    _See also entries immediately following._
-
-  New York Chamber of Commerce, 97
-
-  New York City and New York Harbor, N.Y., 22, 95–98, 135, 218, 263.
-    _See also_ Bronx;
-      Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights;
-      Staten Island.
-
-  New York Hospital, 97
-
-  New York Society Library, N.Y., 97
-
-  Newark, N.J., 134
-
-  Newburyport, Mass., 140
-
-  Newington Plantation, Va., 41
-
-  Newport, R.I., 51, 52, 69, 80, 143
-
-  Newspapers, 20, 22, 37, 43, 55, 81, 124, 125, 127, 145
-
-  Newton, Mass., 129
-
-  Noke, William, architect, 182
-
-  Nonimportation agreements and measures, _see_ Independence movement
-          and British-colonial clash
-
-  North, Lord, British official, 82
-
-  North America, Bank of, _see_ Bank of North America
-
-  North Bridge, Mass., 8
-
-  North Burial Ground, R.I., 81
-
-  North Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in,
-          15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 73–75, 77–79, 99, 116–118, 161,
-          206, 213–216.
-    _See also_ Carolinas.
-
-  North East (town), Md., 118
-
-  North Santee River, 99, 234
-
-  Northampton County, Pa., 137, 138
-
-  Northern United States, 28.
-    _See also specific colonies/States._
-
-  Norwich, Conn., 83, 84, 164
-
-  _Notes on the State of Virginia_ (book), 250
-
-  Nova Scotia, Canada, 139
-
-
-  Occupations of signers, _see_ Vocations of signers
-
-  Octagonal houses and rooms, 245, 249–251
-
-  Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Service,
-          programs and activities of, 162
-
-  Offices, political, various local, State, and National, held by
-          signers, _see individual signers_
-
-  Offley Hoo (estate), Va., 112, 247
-
-  Ohio (State), 153
-
-  Old Burial Ground, Conn., 84, 166
-
-  Old Custom House, Pa., 224
-
-  Old Granary Burying Ground, Mass., 39, 69, 116
-
-  “Old House,” Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site
-
-  Old House Plantation, S.C., 75, 76
-
-  Old St. Paul’s Cemetery, Pa., 110
-
-  Old Swedes’ Church, Pa., _see_ Gloria Dei Church National Historic Site
-
-  Olive Branch Petition, 14
-
-  Oliver, Andrew, British official, 195
-
-  Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, Mass., _see_ Elmwood
-
-  Orators and orations, and signers, 45, 52, 71, 78, 85, 86, 90, 92,
-          122, 136, 150, 151
-
-  Ordnance, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
-
-  Orphans, 49, 95, 120, 141
-
-  Other Sites Considered, described individually, 165–167, 175–181,
-          183–185, 189–191, 197–198, 209–210, 213–214, 220–228;
-    nature of, 161–162
-
-  Otis, James, lawyer-radical leader, 77
-
-  Oxford, Md., 106
-
-
-  Paca, John, son of signer, 114
-
-  Paca, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 113
-
-  Paca, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 114
-
-  Paca, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 44,
-          46, _113–114_, 136, _188–189_
-
-  Paca family, 114
-
-  Paca House, Md., 113, _188–189_
-
-  Paine, Mrs. Robert Treat, wife of signer, 115
-
-  Paine, Robert Treat (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31,
-          _115–116_, 160
-
-  Paine, Robert Treat, son of signer, 115
-
-  Paine, Robert Treat, great-grandson of signer, 115
-
-  Paine, Thomas, author-patriot, 12, 15, 107, 124, 204
-
-  Painters and painting, _see_ Art and artists
-
-  Paisley (town), Scotland, 149, 150
-
-  Palladian architectural style, 172, 182, 183, 234, 246, 247
-
-  Pamphlets, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
-
-  Pamunkey River, 41, 240
-
-  Parchment copy of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Parents of signers, _see specific signers_
-
-  Paris, France, 43, 88, 124.
-    _See also_ Treaty of Paris
-
-  Parishes, political, _see_ Counties and parishes;
-    religious, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Parliament, British: and Colonies, _see under_ Independence movement
-          and British-colonial clash
-
-  Parsons, William, and Parsons-Taylor House, 226
-
-  Parsons-Taylor House, Pa., _226–227_
-
-  Parties, political, _see particular political parties and individuals_
-
-  Patent Office, D.C., 264
-
-  Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, 44
-
-  Patriotic-civic organizations, and historic sites, 160
-
-  Patriots and patriotic movement, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash
-
-  Peace negotiations and treaties, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy;
-    Indians and Indian affairs;
-    _and specific treaties_
-
-  “Peacefield,” Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site
-
-  Peach Tree Plantation, S.C., 99, 100
-
-  Peale, Charles Willson, artist, 218
-
-  _Peggy Stewart_ (ship), 189–190
-
-  Peggy Stewart House (Rutland-Peggy Stewart House; Rutland-Stewart-Stone
-          House), Md., _189–191_
-
-  Pemberton House (Army-Navy Museum), Pa., 224, 226
-
-  Penal matters, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war
-
-  Pendleton, Edmund, lawyer-patriot, 88, 111, 117, 155
-
-  Peninsular Campaign (Civil War), 239–240
-
-  Penn, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, _116–118_,
-          160, 161
-
-  Penn, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 117
-
-  Penn, William, and Charter of Privileges, 221
-
-  Penn (John) family, 118
-
-  Penn (William) family, 56
-
-  Pennsylvania (colony and State), history of and historic sites in,
-          8–9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 24, 27, 30, 44, 49–51, 55–58, 82, 93,
-          100–102, 106–110, 118, 122–126, 132–133, 137–138, 143,
-          145–148, 153, 159–160, 216–231.
-    _See also_ Delaware.
-
-  _Pennsylvania Gazette (The)_ (newspaper), 55
-
-  Pennsylvania Hospital, 125, 126
-
-  Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 58, 126
-
-  Pennsylvania State House, _see_ Independence Hall
-
-  Persimmon Point, Ga., 177
-
-  Perth Amboy, N.J., 134
-
-  Philadelphia, Pa., 3, 8, 9, 14–24 _passim_, 38, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49–50,
-          51, 52, 55–56, 57, 58, 64, 73, 82, 83, 95, 100–133 _passim_,
-          138, 146–148, 159–160, 172, 199, 204, 209, 210, 216–226, 228,
-          230, 263–264.
-    _See also entries immediately following._
-
-  Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts, 51
-
-  Philadelphia Agricultural Society, 51
-
-  Philadelphia architectural style, 228
-
-  Philadelphia Bank, 51
-
-  Philadelphia Bible Society, 126
-
-  Philadelphia College of Physicians, 126
-
-  Philadelphia Dispensary, 126
-
-  Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange, 224, 226
-
-  Philadelphia Medical Society, 126
-
-  Philadelphia National Shrines Park Commission, 226
-
-  Philanthropists and philanthropy, 55, 56, 96, 97, 115
-
-  Philosophical Hall, Pa., _see_ American Philosophical Society Hall
-
-  Philosophical Society of Newport, R.I., 80
-
-  Physicians, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of
-          signers;
-    Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals
-
-  Piscataqua River, 177
-
-  Plainfield Academy, Conn., 84
-
-  Planters and plantations, 4, 28, 31, 41, 42, 43, 62, 63–64, 65, 66,
-          70, 75–76, 86, 94, 99, 103, 104, 106, 110, 111, 113, 120, 129,
-          135, 177, 186, 194, 233, 236–237, 239–256 _passim_.
-    _See also_ Slaves;
-    _and specific plantations._
-
-  Poets and poetry, _see_ Literature and literary figures
-
-  Politics, politicians, political parties, and political theory, _see
-          particular political parties, colonies/States, signers, other
-          individuals, and appropriate topics throughout this index_
-
-  Poll taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation
-
-  _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56
-
-  Poplar Forest (retreat), Va., 89, _249–251_
-
-  Port Royal Island, S.C., 76, 128
-
-  Port Tobacco (town), Md., 136, 186
-
-  Portland, Mass., 115
-
-  Portraits of signers: collection of, discussed, 218;
-    collective, reproduced, ii;
-    individual, reproduced, _see specific signers_
-
-  Portsmouth and Portsmouth Harbor, N.H., 143, 177, 202
-
-  Post offices and postal officials, _see_ Mail service
-
-  Potomac, Army of the (Civil War), 239
-
-  Potomac River and Potomac River Valley, 44, 92, 251, 263
-
-  Potowmack Company, _see_ Patowmack Company
-
-  Poughkeepsie, N.Y., 98, 105
-
-  Powell, Thomas, newspaper publisher, 127
-
-  Poynton Manor, Md., 135
-
-  Prehistory and prehistoric sites, 177
-
-  Presbyterian Cemetery, N.J., 48
-
-  Presbyterian Cemetery, N.Y., 54
-
-  Presbyterian Church, N.C., 216
-
-  Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church, 48, 54, 56, 149–151, 216.
-    _See also_ Calvinists and Calvinism;
-      Christianity and religion.
-
-  Presidential electors, _see under_ United States Presidents
-          and Presidency
-
-  Presidents, of Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress;
-    U.S., _see_ United States Presidents and Presidency
-
-  “President’s House,” D.C., _see_ White House
-
-  President’s House (Dean’s House; Maclean House) (Princeton
-          University), N.J., 150, 151, _208–209_
-
-  President’s Lot, Princeton (N.J.) Cemetery, 151
-
-  “President’s Palace,” D.C., _see_ White House
-
-  Press, _see_ Newspapers
-
-  Primogeniture, 120, 135
-
-  Prince George County, Va., 154
-
-  Prince George’s Parish, S.C., 99
-
-  Princess Anne (town), Md., 45
-
-  Princeton Alumni Council, 208
-
-  Princeton and Battle of Princeton, N.J., 23–24, 72, 73, 134,
-          135, 207, 263.
-    _See also_ Princeton University.
-
-  Princeton Cemetery, N.J., 151
-
-  Princeton University (College of New Jersey), 84, 124, 134, 149,
-          150–151, 208–209
-
-  Printing and publishing industry, 55.
-    _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts;
-      Newspapers.
-
-  Printing of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war, 31, 48, 50, 75, 76, 94, 103,
-          107, 108, 126, 128, 132, 134–135, 140–141
-
-  Private individuals, groups, and agencies: and historic
-          preservation, 160
-
-  Private schools, _see_ Education
-
-  Privateers and privateering, 60, 97
-
-  Professions of signers, _see_ Vocations of signers
-
-  Profiteering among signers, 31, 46, 59, 60, 106–107
-
-  “Progressive” party, in Va., 88
-
-  _Prophecy (The)_ (essay), 82
-
-  Proprietary colonies, _see under_ Colonies
-
-  Prospect Hill Cemetery, Pa., 98
-
-  Protestant Episcopal Church, 183.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  Protestants and Protestant Church, 28, 183.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  Protests, colonial, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial
-          clash
-
-  Providence and Providence County, R.I., 79–81
-
-  _Providence Gazette and Country Journal_ (newspaper), 81
-
-  Psychiatry, _see_ Insane and insanity
-
-  Public libraries, _see_ Libraries
-
-  Public schools, _see_ Education
-
-  Public service, role of signers in, 29, 31 (_and see specific signers_)
-
-  Public speaking, _see_ Orators and orations
-
-  Publishers and publishing, _see_ Printing and publishing industry
-
-  Puritans, 65–66
-
-  Putnam, Herbert, and Declaration of Independence, 264
-
-
-  Quakers, 56, 73. _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  Queen Annes County, Md., 113, 188
-
-  Quincy (Braintree), Mass., 33, 34–35, 68, 192, 193
-
-  Quincy (Mass.) Historical Society, 192, 193
-
-
-  Radicals and radicalism, 16, 18, 34, 37–38, 45, 49, 71, 77, 78, 80,
-          88, 98, 103, 119, 130, 141, 147, 155
-
-  Rahway, N.J., 48
-
-  Raleigh’s Tavern, Va., 93
-
-  Randolph, Peyton, legislator, 42
-
-  Randolph, Thomas, relative of signer, 254
-
-  Randolph, Thomas Mann, relative of signer, 86, 254
-
-  Randolph, William, relative of signer, 86, 254
-
-  Randolph, William II, relative of signer, 254
-
-  Randolph family, 86, 255
-
-  Rappahannock Valley, 246
-
-  Read, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27, 29,
-          101, _118–119_, 120, 121, 135, 160
-
-  Read, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 118
-
-  Reading, Pa., 146
-
-  Redemptionist Fathers, 179, 180
-
-  Reform and reformers, _see_ Humanitarians and reformers
-
-  Regulators, of North Carolina, 78
-
-  Relatives of signers, _see individual signers_
-
-  Religion, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Representation, political, and representative government, _see
-          specific governmental bodies, colonies/States, and appropriate
-          topics throughout this index_
-
-  Republicans and republicanism, 61, 79, 128, 145, 147
-
-  Residences of signers, condition and status of, 31 (_and see
-          particular residences_)
-
-  Retirement of signers, _see individual signers_
-
-  Revere, Paul, patriot and artist, 5, 10, 68, 199
-
-  Revolution, Daughters of the, 160
-
-  Revolution, Daughters of the American, _see_ Daughters of the
-          American Revolution
-
-  Revolution, Revolutionaries, and Revolutionary movement, _see_
-    Independence movement and British-colonial clash;
-     War for Independence;
-    _specific Revolutionaries_;
-    _and appropriate topics throughout this index_
-
-  Revolution, Sons of the, 160
-
-  Revolution, Sons of the American, 160
-
-  Revolutionary War (U.S.), _see_ War for Independence
-
-  Rhode Island (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 15,
-          16, 18, 24, 30, 51–52, 79–81, 143, 231–232
-
-  Rhode Island College, 80
-
-  Rice planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
-
-  Richmond, Va., 42, 86, 88, 156, 255
-
-  Richmond Academy, Ga., 142
-
-  Richmond County, Va., 91
-
-  Ridley Township, Pa., 109
-
-  Rights: Bill of, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution;
-    declarations of, by colonies/States, 20;
-    of Englishmen, and Colonies, 8–9;
-    of man, and Declaration of Independence, 20;
-    of States, 123
-
-  “Rights of the Colonies Examined” (The) (article-pamphlet), 81
-
-  Rising Sun (town), Md., 124, 134
-
-  “Rising Sun” chair, 219
-
-  Risks and sacrifices of signers, 22, 23–24, 31–32 (_and see
-          individual signers_)
-
-  Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., 253
-
-  Rodney, Caesar (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 29,
-          101, _120–121_, 160
-
-  Roman Catholic Church, 28, 43, 44, 179, 180, 238.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  Roman Doric and Roman Revival architectural style, 189, 219, 221,
-          234, 245, 247
-
-  Rome, N.Y., 54, 212
-
-  Roselle, N.J., 47, 48
-
-  Rosney Cemetery, Ga., 142
-
-  Ross, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 118,
-          _122–123_, 160, 224
-
-  Ross, John, stepbrother of signer, 122
-
-  Ross, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 122
-
-  Rough draft of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Royalists, _see_ Loyalists and Tories
-
-  Royalty, _see_ Kings
-
-  Rush, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27, 31,
-          _123–126_, 134, 160, 222, 224, 228
-
-  Rutland, Thomas, and Peggy Stewart House, 189
-
-  Rutland-Peggy Stewart House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House
-
-  Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House
-
-  Rutledge, Edward (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18,
-          28, 31, 99, 104, _127–129_, 135, _237–238_
-
-  Rutledge, John, brother of signer, 127, 128
-
-  Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, first wife of signer, 127
-
-  Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, second wife of signer, 129
-
-  Rutledge (Carter-May) House, S.C., _237–238_
-
-
-  Sacrifices of signers, _see_ Risks and sacrifices of signers
-
-  Safety, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of safety
-
-  St. Andrews (city), Scotland, 145
-
-  St. Andrew’s Society, 97
-
-  St. Ann’s Church, N.Y., 105
-
-  St. Augustine, Fla., 76, 104, 128, 233
-
-  St. Catherines Island, Ga., 63, 64, 176–177
-
-  St. George’s Church, Pa., 224
-
-  St. Helena’s Parish, S.C., 75
-
-  St. James Parish, S.C., 99
-
-  St. John’s Episcopal Church, Va., 156
-
-  St. John’s Parish, Ga., 64, 65–66, 67, 141
-
-  St. Joseph’s Church, Pa., 224–226
-
-  St. Luke’s Parish, S.C., 75
-
-  St. Mary’s Catholic Church, Md., 179–180
-
-  St. Mary’s Church, Pa., 226
-
-  St. Paul’s Cemetery, Md., 46
-
-  St. Paul’s Cemetery, Old, Pa., 110
-
-  St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, S.C., 129
-
-  Salem, Mass., 68
-
-  Salem, N.J., 82
-
-  Saltbox architectural style, 164, 191, 193, 203
-
-  Santa Catalina Mission, Ga., 177
-
-  Santee River, North, 99, 234
-
-  Santee River, South, 99
-
-  Saratoga (Schuylerville) and Battle of Saratoga, N.Y., 40, 143, 153
-
-  Savannah, Ga., 63, 64, 66, 67, 76, 140–142, 175, 176, 233
-
-  Savannah River, 67
-
-  Sawmills, 72
-
-  Schools, _see_ Education
-
-  Schuylerville, N.Y., _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga
-
-  Schuylkill River, 108
-
-  Science and scientists, 55, 56, 80, 85, 89, 116, 130
-
-  Scituate (city) and Scituate Township, R.I., 80
-
-  Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish, 74, 77, 96, 101, 122, 124, 134,
-          139, 145, 146, 149–150, 208.
-    _See also_ Great Britain.
-
-  Scotland (city), Conn., 83
-
-  Seamen, _see_ Continental Navy;
-    Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-    United States Navy;
-    _and various nations_
-
-  Second Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States
-
-  Second Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 218, 226
-
-  Second Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress
-
-  Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (N.Y.), 153
-
-  Secondary education, _see_ Education
-
-  Secretaries, of Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress;
-    of U.S. Government Departments, _see following_ United States;
-    of various other bodies, signers as, _see individual signers_
-
-  Senate, U.S., _see_ United States Senate
-
-  Servants, 31, 137, 186, 194, 195, 203.
-    _See also_ Slaves.
-
-  Seven Buildings, D.C., 263
-
-  Shadwell (plantation), Va., 86, 244, 254
-
-  Shell Bluff Plantation, Ga., 67
-
-  Shenandoah River Valley, 44
-
-  Sherman, Roger (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 18,
-          20, 29, 106, _129–131_, 160
-
-  Ship carpenters, 201
-
-  Shippen, Dr. William, Sr., and Philadelphia, 228
-
-  Shippen, Dr. William, Jr., brother-in-law of signers, 125, 228
-
-  Shippen-Wistar House, Pa., 228
-
-  Shippensburg, Pa., 132
-
-  Ships, shippers, and shipping, _see_ Continental Navy;
-    Merchant marine and maritime affairs;
-    United States Navy;
-    _and various nations_
-
-  Sickness of signers, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical
-          afflictions of signers
-
-  Signers of the Constitution (U.S.), _see_ United States Constitution
-
-  Signers of the Declaration: age of, at time of signing and death,
-          compared, _see_ Age of signers;
-    biographical analysis and comparison of, collective, 27–32;
-    biographical sketches of, individual, 33–156;
-    books on, 268–269;
-    early (formal signing), 23, 67, 217, 262;
-    furniture and items associated with, collectively, 219, 221;
-    honored and commemorated, ii, 159–160, 224;
-    interest in, increases, 160;
-    largest number of, from one State, 30;
-    late, 23, 24, 60, 93, 100, 139, 140, 153, 155, 217, 262;
-    nationally famous, 34;
-    one of, prominent in affairs of two States, _see_ McKean, Thomas;
-    one of, votes against independence, 27, 118, 121;
-    painted, ii, 218, _and see individual portraits_, 33–156 _passim_;
-    prominent patriots who were not, 27, 28, 29;
-    reflect regional and colonial attitudes, 30;
-    remarks of, on signing, 52, 58, 79;
-    replace opponents of independence, 27, 47, 72;
-    residences and sites associated with, collective, status of, 31,
-          159–163, 216 (_and see particular residences and sites_);
-    subsequent careers of, 29, 31 (_and see individual signers_);
-    traditions regarding, 24, 52, 58;
-    tragic life among, 99;
-    way of life of, 28–29, 159;
-    who also signed Articles of Confederation, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90,
-          93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149;
-    who also signed Articles of Confederation and Constitution (U.S.),
-          29, 106, 129;
-    who also signed Constitution (U.S.), 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 106, 129;
-    who did not vote for or take a stand on independence, 27,
-          106, 118–119;
-    who were non-natives of States they signed for, 30, 39, 55, 62, 65,
-          72, 73, 77, 82, 95, 101, 106, 116, 118, 122, 129, 132, 137,
-          139, 140, 143, 145, 149.
-    _See also_ Declaration of Independence;
-      _specific signers_;
-      _and appropriate topics throughout this index._
-
-  Signers’ Monument, Ga., 67, 142, 161
-
-  Six Indian Nations, _see_ Iroquois Indians
-
-  Skelton, Martha Wayles, marries signer, 86, 244, 249
-
-  Sketchley, John, stepfather of signer, 109
-
-  Slaves, and Congress, 58;
-    and Declaration of Independence, 20;
-    and Ga. economy, 66;
-    and New England shippers, 28;
-    British capture, 76;
-    burn estate, 236;
-    emancipated, 156;
-    in N.Y., 53;
-    institution of, opposed and condemned, 20, 28, 58, 80, 92,
-          123, 126, 156;
-    labor in gardens, 236;
-    laws on, 80;
-    quarters for, 177, 184, 234, 255;
-    signers own and trade, 28, 53, 63, 90, 110.
-    _See also_ Servants.
-
-  Smith, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John
-
-  Smith, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28,
-          _132–133_, 160–161
-
-  Smith, Rev. Samuel S., son-in-law of signer, 151, 208
-
-  Smith, Robert, carpenter, 209
-
-  Smugglers and smuggling, 34, 68
-
-  Social status of signers, _see_ Aristocrats and aristocracy;
-    _and individual signers_
-
-  Society of Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island, 232
-
-  Songs, _see_ Music and musicians
-
-  Sons of Liberty, 37, 45, 95, 97
-
-  Sons of signers, careers of, 30 (_and see particular signers_)
-
-  Sons of the American Revolution, 160
-
-  Sons of the Revolution, 160
-
-  Sourland Mountains, 72
-
-  South Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in,
-          16, 18, 24, 64, 66, 75–76, 99–100, 103–104, 117, 127–129,
-          135, 233–238.
-    _See also_ Carolinas.
-
-  South Santee River, 99
-
-  South Windsor, Conn., 152
-
-  Southern United States, 28, 30, 70, 74–75, 140–141, 233.
-    _See also_ Planters and plantations;
-    _and specific colonies/States._
-
-  Spain and Spaniards, 59, 115, 177, 196
-
-  Speaking, public, _see_ Orators and orations
-
-  Speculators and speculation, 4, 108, 143, 147, 148, 213
-
-  Spoils system, 102
-
-  Spotsylvania County, Va., 154
-
-  Staffordshire, England, 62
-
-  Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp Act agitation, 34,
-          37, 45, 56–57, 68, 70, 91, 93, 95, 97, 101, 106, 110, 119,
-          120, 134, 146, 155, 195
-
-  Stark, Gen. John, Army officer, 40
-
-  State Department, _see_ United States Department of State
-
-  State House for the Province of Pennsylvania, _see_ Independence Hall
-
-  Staten Island, N.Y., 98, 128. _See also_ New York City and New
-          York Harbor.
-
-  States (U.S.), and historic preservation, 160;
-    and National Register of Historic Places, 162;
-    economic and financial problems of, 107–108;
-    governmental bodies and other agencies of, _see individual
-          colonies/States_;
-    honor and maintain homes of signers, 160, 161;
-    land disputes among, 119, 133, 143, 153;
-    large and small, and U.S. Constitution, 131;
-    militia of, _see_ Militia;
-    receive taxes, 117;
-    rights of, _see_ States’ rights;
-    role of, in Revolution, _see particular States and appropriate
-          topics_;
-    seals of, 155;
-    signer prominent in affairs of two, _see_ McKean, Thomas;
-    signers non-natives of those they signed for, 30, 39, 55, 62, 65,
-          72–73, 77, 82, 95, 101, 106, 116, 118, 122, 129, 132, 137,
-          139, 140, 143, 145, 149;
-    signers’ role in affairs of, _see specific States and signers_.
-    _See also_ Continental Congress;
-      _and individual States._
-
-  States’ rights, 123
-
-  Statues of signers, 161
-
-  Stewart, Anthony, merchant, 189
-
-  Stewart (Peggy) House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House
-
-  Stockton, Julia, wife of one signer and daughter of another, 124
-
-  Stockton, Mrs. Richard, wife of signer, 134
-
-  Stockton, Richard, grandfather of signer, 207
-
-  Stockton, Richard (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31,
-          33, 124, _133–135_, _207–208_
-
-  Stockton family, 134, 208
-
-  Stone, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, 136
-
-  Stone, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with,
-          _135–136_, _186–188_, _189–191_
-
-  Stonington, Conn., 72
-
-  Stony Brook Quaker Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 135
-
-  Stores, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Stoughton, Mass., 129
-
-  Stovall (town), N.C., 117
-
-  Stratford Hall (estate), Va., 91–92, _251–253_
-
-  Strickland, William, architect, 218
-
-  Students, _see_ Education
-
-  Suffolk County, N.Y., 53, 54
-
-  Suffolk Resolves, 38
-
-  Sugar Act, 37
-
-  Sugar planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
-
-  _Summary View of the Rights of British America (A)_ (tract), 86, 87
-
-  Summerseat (estate), Pa., 51, _229_
-
-  Sunbury, Ga., 63, 64, 66
-
-  Superior Courts, State, _see individual States_
-
-  Supreme courts, of colonies and States, _see specific colonies/States_;
-    of United States, _see_ United States Judiciary
-
-  Surgeons, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice,
-          and hospitals
-
-  Surveyors and surveying, 47, 80, 86, 109, 130, 132
-
-  Susquehanna River, 132
-
-  Sussex County, Del., 101, 121
-
-  Swedes and Sweden, 109
-
-
-  Tabby construction material, 177, 235
-
-  Tabby Cottage, Ga., 63, _176–177_
-
-  Taliaferro, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 255
-
-  “Taps” (bugle call), 240
-
-  Tariffs, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Taunton, Mass., 115
-
-  Taverns, 222
-
-  Taxes and taxation, and British-colonial conflict, _see_ Independence
-          movement and British-colonial clash;
-    and signers, 37, 56, 131;
-    excise, on alcoholic beverages, 51;
-    in Boston, 36;
-    on stamps, _see_ Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp
-          Act agitation;
-    on sugar, _see_ Sugar Act;
-    on tea, _see_ Tea and Tea Act;
-    poll, 113, 114, 136;
-    States receive, 117.
-    _See also_ Customs laws, collection, and officials.
-
-  Tayloe, Col. John, father-in-law of signer, 91, 242, 246
-
-  Tayloe, Mrs. John, mother-in-law of signer, 91
-
-  Tayloe, Rebecca, marries signer, 91, 242, 246
-
-  Tayloe family and descendants, 91, 247
-
-  Taylor, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 31,
-          _137–138_, _226–227_, _230–231_
-
-  Taylor, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 137, 242
-
-  Taylor (George) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 227
-
-  Taylor House, Pa., 137–138, _230–231_
-
-  Tea and Tea Act, 7, 38, 49, 53–54, 189–190
-
-  Teachers and teaching, _see_ Education
-
-  Temperance, 123, 126
-
-  “Temple of Minerva” (opera), 82
-
-  “The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering”
-          (cartoon), reproduced, 6
-
-  “The Declaration of Independence” (painting), reproduced, ii
-
-  The Hills (estate), Pa., 108
-
-  “The Homestead,” Pa., _see_ Byberry
-
-  _The Pennsylvania Gazette_ (newspaper), 55
-
-  _The Prophecy_ (essay), 82
-
-  “The Rights of the Colonies Examined” (article-pamphlet), 81
-
-  “The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America,”
-          _see_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Theology, _see_ Christianity and religion
-
-  Thirteen Colonies, _see_ Colonies
-
-  Thomas Jefferson Memorial, D.C., 161
-
-  Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 245
-
-  Thomson, Charles, and Declaration of Independence, 22, 69, 262
-
-  Thornton, Matthew (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24,
-          28, 31, _139–140_, _203–204_
-
-  Thornton House, N.H., _203–204_
-
-  Thornton’s Ferry and Thornton’s Ferry Cemetery, N.H., 140
-
-  Three Lower Counties, _see_ Delaware
-
-  Tobacco planters, _see_ Planters and plantations
-
-  Todd House, Pa., 224, 226
-
-  Tombs and tombstones, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places
-
-  Tories, _see_ Loyalists and Tories
-
-  Townhouses, 43, 50, 76, 96, 97, 107, 108, 120, 179, 185, 188, 228, 233
-
-  Towns, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages
-
-  Townshend Acts (_1767_), 37, 93, 120
-
-  Tracts, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts
-
-  Trade and traders, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing
-
-  Traditions regarding signing of Declaration, 24, 52, 58
-
-  Treasury, British, _see under_ Great Britain;
-    U.S., _see_ United States Treasury Department
-
-  Treasury Building (old), D.C., 263
-
-  Treaties, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy;
-    Indians and Indian affairs;
-    _and specific nations and treaties_
-
-  Treaty of Fort Stanwix, Second, 153
-
-  Treaty of Paris (_1783_), 24, 35, 58, 207, 267
-
-  Trenton and Battle of Trenton, N.J., 23–24, 51, 72, 263
-
-  Trials, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence
-
-  Trinity Church, N.Y., 96
-
-  Trumbull, John, artist, painting by, reproduced, ii
-
-  Trumbull, Jonathan, father-in-law of signer, 144–145
-
-  Trumbull Cemetery, Conn., 145
-
-  Tryon, William, British official, 77, 153
-
-  Tuckahoe (estate), Va., 86, _253–255_
-
-  Tuscan architectural features, 196, 250
-
-  Tuscarora Creek, Md., 180
-
-  Tusculum (home), N.J., 151, 208, _209–210_
-
-  Tutors and tutorial system, _see_ Education
-
-
-  U-shaped buildings, 240, 242
-
-  “Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America”
-          (The), _see_ Declaration of Independence
-
-  Union Army, _see_ Civil War
-
-  Union Cemetery, N.H., 143
-
-  Unitarians and Unitarianism, 52, 116.
-    _See also_ Christianity and religion.
-
-  United First Parish Church, Mass., 35
-
-  United Kingdom, _see_ Great Britain
-
-  United States, and Declaration of Independence, 3, 32;
-    architectural and historical heritage of, 32, 159–160, 216–217,
-          218, 245;
-    early antislavery law in, 80;
-    early chapel in, 186;
-    early chemistry education in, 124;
-    early legal education in, 155–156;
-    early libraries in, 222;
-    early medical practice and hospitals in, 123–126;
-    early music in, 82;
-    famous families in, 33, 91, 193;
-    famous writer in, 83;
-    first banks in, 108;
-    founding and early growth of, 3, 216–217;
-    major literary and political figures of, 194;
-    oldest learned society in, 221.
-    _See also various colonies/States, regions, entries immediately
-          following, and appropriate topics throughout this index._
-
-  United States, Bank of the, _see_ Bank of the United States
-
-  United States Bicentennial, 222
-
-  United States Bill of Rights, _see under_ United States Constitution
-
-  United States Capitals, 50, 124, 217, 263, 264
-
-  United States Capitol, D.C., ii, 161, 171, 173
-
-  United States Centennial Exposition, 264
-
-  United States circuit courts and judges, _see_ United States Judiciary
-
-  United States Congress, 29, 30, 33, 40, 44, 46, 48, 50–51, 53, 54, 58,
-          61, 81, 106, 118, 160, 194, 218, 221.
-    _See also_ Continental Congress;
-      United States Government;
-      United States House of Representatives;
-      United States Senate;
-      _and specific Congressmen_.
-
-  United States Constitution, and Connecticut (Great) Compromise,
-          118, 131;
-    and Pa. constitution, 148;
-    and signers of Declaration, 29, 39, 40, 44, 46, 50, 55, 58, 92, 106,
-          129, 144, 145–148;
-    Bill of Rights of, 48, 61, 71, 92, 94;
-    Bill of Rights of, displayed, 266, 267;
-    Bill of Rights of, displayed, photo of, 266;
-    debated, drafted, adopted, and signed, 50, 106, 129, 145–148,
-          218–221;
-    displayed, 264–265, 267;
-    displayed, photo of, 266;
-    favored and advocated, 40, 51, 61, 69, 125;
-    history and protection of document, 264–267;
-    Madison presents to Washington, mural of, 267;
-    opposed, 39, 46, 48, 61, 69, 71, 79, 84, 92, 94, 102, 105, 114, 119,
-          125, 131, 144, 148, 151, 153, 156;
-    room adopted and signed in, 218–221;
-    signers of, who also signed Declaration, 29, 49, 50, 55,
-          58, 106, 129;
-    significance of, 217;
-    takes effect, 263.
-    _See also_ United States Constitutional Convention.
-
-  United States Constitutional Convention, and signers of Declaration,
-          39, 44, 48, 61, 94, 108, 118, 119, 131, 136, 142, 145–148;
-    compromise at, 118, 131;
-    leader in, 228;
-    membership, deliberations, and actions of, 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 61,
-          131, 145–148, 154, 156, 217, 218, 222, 267;
-    room held in, 218–221.
-    _See also_ United States Constitution.
-
-  United States courts, _see_ United States Judiciary
-
-  United States Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of
-          Independence
-
-  United States Department of State, 33, 85, 88, 194, 228, 263–264
-
-  United States Department of the Interior, and historic
-          preservation, 161.
-    _See also_ National parks, National Park Service, and National
-          Park System.
-
-  United States Department of War, 263, 264
-
-  United States General Services Administration, 265
-
-  United States Government, and Declaration, 264;
-    and historic sites and buildings, 195, 212, 226;
-    buildings of, 173;
-    capitals of, _see_ United States Capitals;
-    first official document of, _see_ Declaration of Independence;
-    formation of, exhibit on, 267;
-    Jefferson sells library to, 90;
-    permanent records of, 265, 267;
-    role of signers in, 29, 60 (_and see specific signers_).
-    _See also_ Colonies;
-      Continental Congress;
-      _entries immediately preceding and following_;
-      _and appropriate topics throughout this index_.
-
-  United States House of Representatives, 48, 50–51, 54, 131, 195.
-    _See also_ United States Congress.
-
-  United States Judiciary, 29, 45, 46, 114, 145, 148, 213, 218, 219, 221
-
-  United States Mint, 125
-
-  United States Navy, 264.
-    _See also_ Continental Navy.
-
-  United States Presidents and Presidency, and John and John Quincy
-          Adams, 29, 30, 33, 35, 193, 194, 195, 218, 222;
-    and Mrs. John Adams, 34;
-    and signers, 29, 30, 85, 89, 239;
-    dignity of, 171;
-    electors for, 54, 84, 128, 142;
-    inaugurations and inaugural addresses of, 239, 267;
-    official residence of, _see_ White House;
-    unofficial residence of, 222.
-    _See also specific Presidents._
-
-  United States Secretary of State, _see_ United States Department of
-          State
-
-  United States Secretary of the Interior, _see_ United States
-          Department of the Interior
-
-  United States Secretary of the Treasury, _see_ United States
-          Treasury Department
-
-  United States Senate, 40, 44, 62, 92, 94, 106, 108, 118, 119, 131, 142.
-    _See also_ United States Congress.
-
-  United States Supreme Court, _see_ United States Judiciary
-
-  United States Treasury Department, 106, 108, 152
-
-  United States Vice Presidents, 29, 33, 35, 59, 61, 85, 88, 193,
-          195, 196, 228
-
-  United States War Department, 263, 264
-
-  United States War for Independence, _see_ War for Independence
-
-  Universalist Church, N.H., 41
-
-  Universities, _see_ Colleges and universities
-
-  University of Edinburgh, Scotland, 124, 134, 145, 149
-
-  University of Georgia, 67, 142
-
-  University of Glasgow, Scotland, 145
-
-  University of New York, 105
-
-  University of Pennsylvania, 82, 113, 126, 228
-
-  University of Pennsylvania Medical School, 228
-
-  University of St. Andrews, Scotland, 145
-
-  University of the State of Pennsylvania, 126
-
-  University of Virginia, 89, 90, 243
-
-  Urbanization, and historic preservation, 159
-
-
-  Valley Forge, Pa., 29
-
-  Van Brugh, Catherine, and signer, 96
-
-  Van Doren, Carl, historian, quoted, 217
-
-  Vandalism, and historic sites, 50, 159
-
-  Vassall, Maj. Leonard, and Adams National Historic Site, 194
-
-  Vassall-Adams House, Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site
-
-  Vermont (colony and State), 153
-
-  Verse, _see_ Literature and literary figures
-
-  Vice Presidents, U.S., _see_ United States Vice Presidents
-
-  Villa architectural plan, 246
-
-  Villages, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages
-
-  Virginia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 7, 9,
-          15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 41–42, 70–71, 74, 75, 85–94, 110–112, 117,
-          135, 136, 141, 154–156, 160, 239–256, 263.
-    _See also entries immediately following._
-
-  Virginia Association, 42, 93
-
-  Virginia House of Burgesses, 38, 41–42, 70, 86, 91, 92, 93, 111, 155
-
-  Virginia Resolves, 42
-
-  Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, 88, 90
-
-  Vocations of signers, compared, 31.
-    _See also individual signers._
-
-
-  Wakefield Academy, England, 92
-
-  Wales and Welshmen, 53, 62, 118
-
-  Wallingford, Conn., 65, 130
-
-  Walton, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 50,
-          64, 65, 66, 138, _140–142_, 161, _173–176_
-
-  Walton, George, Jr., son of signer, 175
-
-  Walton, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 141
-
-  Walton descendants, 175
-
-  Walton-Harper House, Ga., _see_ College Hill
-
-  Wamassee Head, Ga., 177
-
-  War for Independence (U.S.), and Declaration of Independence,
-          3, 23–24, 217;
-    and Loyalists, _see_ Loyalists and Tories;
-    battles and campaigns, land and naval, and course of, 3–156
-          _passim_, 207–218 _passim_, 228, 233, 236, 239, 248, 263, 264;
-    begins, 12, 38, 42;
-    ends, _see_ Treaty of Paris;
-    feared, 134;
-    financed, _see_ Continental Congress, fiscal problems and
-          policies of;
-    generated, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash;
-    heroes of, 75, 251;
-    heroes of, painted, 218;
-    impact of, on signers and their families, _see_ Risks and
-          sacrifices of signers;
-    Iroquois Indians neutral during, 153;
-    peace negotiations during, 35, 58, 98, 128, 136;
-    verge of, 9;
-    won, 24.
-    _See also appropriate topics throughout this index._
-
-  War of _1812_, 172, 173, 263
-
-  War Office Building, D.C., 263
-
-  Ward, Samuel, politician, 80
-
-  Warren (town), R.I., 80
-
-  Wars, and historic sites, 159. _See also specific wars._
-
-  Warwick Furnace, Pa., 137
-
-  Washington, President George, career of and sites associated with, 14,
-          23–24, 27, 29, 34, 35, 42, 46, 52, 60, 69, 75, 95, 98, 104,
-          107, 108, 114, 124, 125, 148, 171, 217, 218, 228, 233,
-          255, 264, 267
-
-  Washington, D.C., history of and historic sites in, 3, 62, 108, 161,
-          170–173, 218, 263–266 _passim_
-
-  Washington College, Md., 114
-
-  Watkins, Thomas, and Meadow Garden, 175
-
-  Wealth and financial status of signers, compared, 27, 28–29, 30,
-          31, 43.
-    _See also_ Debts and economic reversals of signers;
-      _and individual signers._
-
-  Weapons, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance
-
-  Webster, Daniel, Secretary of State, 264
-
-  Welcome (village), Md., 135
-
-  Welles, Rev. Samuel, and Williams Birthplace, 166
-
-  Welles-Williams House, Conn., _see_ Williams Birthplace
-
-  Wells family, 204
-
-  West, Benjamin, artist, 82
-
-  West Indies, 100, 194, 202
-
-  West Nottingham Academy, Md., 124, 134
-
-  Westchester County, N.Y., 105
-
-  Western Reserve (in present Ohio), 153
-
-  Western United States, _see_ Frontier and frontiersmen
-
-  Westernville, N.Y., 54, 211, 212
-
-  Westminster School, England, 95
-
-  Westmoreland Association (_1766_), 93
-
-  Westmoreland County, Va., 91, 92
-
-  Westward expansion, _see_ Frontier and frontiersmen
-
-  Whedbee, Joseph, builder, 214
-
-  Whigs (patriots) and Whig Party, _see_ Independence movement and
-          British-colonial clash
-
-  Whipple, Joseph, brother of signer, 143
-
-  Whipple, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 143, 202
-
-  Whipple, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28,
-          _142–143_, _177–178_, _201–202_
-
-  Whipple Birthplace, Maine, _177–178_
-
-  White Hall Plantation, S.C., 76, 233
-
-  White (Bishop) House, Pa., 224, 226
-
-  White House (“President’s House”;
-    “President’s Palace”), D.C., 34, 85, _170–173_
-
-  White Plains, N.Y., 105
-
-  Whitestone, N.Y., 95
-
-  Widowers, signers as, 35, 41, 46, 54, 148
-
-  Widows of signers, _see_ Wives and widows of signers
-
-  Wilkins, John, builder, 214
-
-  William and Mary, College of, _see_ College of William and Mary
-
-  William and Mary architectural style, 252
-
-  Williams, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 144
-
-  Williams, Rev. Solomon, father of signer, 166, 168
-
-  Williams, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31,
-          _144–145_, _166–169_
-
-  Williams Birthplace (Welles-Williams House), Conn., _166–167_
-
-  Williams House, Conn., _168–169_
-
-  Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic District, and Colonial
-          Williamsburg, Va., 15, 42, 86, 93, 111, 154–156, 255–256
-
-  Willing, Charles, shipper, 106
-
-  Willing, Thomas, shipper-legislator, 106, 110
-
-  Wills, 67, 120, 156
-
-  Wilmington, Del., 119
-
-  Wilmington, N.C., 77, 78, 214
-
-  Wilson, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 29,
-          110, 125, _145–148_, _213–214_, 222, 224
-
-  Wilson, Mrs. James, first wife of signer, 146
-
-  Wilson, Mrs. James, second wife of signer, 148
-
-  Windham, Windham County, and Windham district, Conn., 83, 144
-
-  Windsor, Conn., 152, 169
-
-  Winyaw, S.C., 99
-
-  Wiscasset, Maine, 139
-
-  Wistar, Dr. Caspar, and Philadelphia, 228
-
-  Witherspoon, James, son of signer, 151
-
-  Witherspoon, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28,
-          31, 124, 134, _149–151_, _208–210_, 228
-
-  Witherspoon, Mrs. John, first wife of signer, 124, 134, 149, 150
-
-  Witherspoon, Mrs. John, second wife of signer, 151
-
-  Wives and widows of signers, last to survive, 62 (_and see particular
-          signers and individuals_)
-
-  Wolcott, Oliver (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 31,
-          _152–153_, _169–170_
-
-  Wolcott, Oliver, son of signer, 152, 153
-
-  Wolcott, Roger, father of signer, 152, 153
-
-  Wolcott descendants, 170
-
-  Wolcott House, Conn., _169–170_
-
-  Wolverhampton, England, 62
-
-  Wooley, Edmund, carpenter, 217
-
-  Worcester, Mass., 33, 139, 203
-
-  World War II, 265
-
-  Writers and writing, _see_ Literature and literary figures
-
-  Wyandotte Indians, 153
-
-  Wye Hall, Wye Island, and Wye Plantation, Md., 113, 114, 188
-
-  Wyoming Valley land dispute, 133, 143
-
-  Wythe, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 86,
-          88, _154–156_, _255–256_
-
-  Wythe, Mrs. George, first wife of signer, 154
-
-  Wythe, Mrs. George, second wife of signer, 154–155, 255
-
-  Wythe, Thomas, brother of signer, 154
-
-  Wythe House, Va., _255–256_
-
-
-  XYZ affair, 61
-
-
-  Yale College, Conn., 65, 84, 96, 105, 130, 152
-
-  Yeoman farmers, 86
-
-  York and York County, Pa., 98, 132, 133, 218, 263
-
-  York County, Va., 111
-
-  York Hall, Va., _see_ Nelson House
-
-  Yorkshire, England, 92
-
-  Yorktown and Battle (siege) of Yorktown, Va., 108, 111, 112,
-          218, 248, 255
-
-
-☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 O-477-940
-
-
-[Illustration: Sketch of proposed reconstruction of the Graff House,
-where Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.]
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
-preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
-
-Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced
-quotation marks retained.
-
-Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of
-inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed.
-
-For compatibility with various display devices, the symbols for Site
-Categories beginning on page 163 are slightly different from the ones
-used in the original book.
-
-Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55838-0.txt or 55838-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/3/55838/
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the
-Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
diff --git a/old/55838-0.zip b/old/55838-0.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 39ea532..0000000
--- a/old/55838-0.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h.zip b/old/55838-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index c475e30..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/55838-h.htm b/old/55838-h/55838-h.htm
deleted file mode 100644
index 8526bfa..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/55838-h.htm
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,15312 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
-    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
-  <head>
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
-    <title>
-      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Robert G. Ferris.
-    </title>
-    <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
-    <style type="text/css">
-
-body {
-    margin-left: 2.5em;
-    margin-right: 2.5em;
-}
-
-h1, h2 {
-    text-align: left;
-    clear: both;
-    margin-top: 2.5em;
-    margin-bottom: 1em;
-}
-
-h1 {line-height: 1; text-align: center; margin: 4em auto 4em auto;}
-
-h2.right {text-align: right;}
-h2.left {text-align: left;}
-h2.chap {margin-bottom: 0;}
-h2+p {margin-top: 1.5em;}
-h2 .subhead {display: block; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
-
-.transnote h2 {
-    margin-top: .5em;
-    margin-bottom: 1em;
-}
-
-.subhead {
-    text-indent: 0;
-    text-align: center;
-    font-size: smaller;
-}
-h2.right .subhead {text-align: right;}
-h2.left .subhead {text-align: left;}
-
-p {
-    text-indent: 1.75em;
-    margin-top: .51em;
-    margin-bottom: .24em;
-    text-align: justify;
-}
-.caption p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;}
-p.center {text-indent: 0;}
-
-.p0 {margin-top: 0em;}
-.p1 {margin-top: 1em;}
-.p2 {margin-top: 2em;}
-.p4 {margin-top: 4em;}
-
-.in0 {text-indent: 0;}
-.in1 {padding-left: 1em;}
-.in2 {padding-left: 2em;}
-.in4 {padding-left: 4em;}
-.l2  {padding-right: 2em;}
-
-.small   {font-size: 70%;}
-.smaller {font-size: 85%;}
-.larger  {font-size: 125%;}
-.xlarge  {font-size: 175%; line-height: 1.2;}
-.xxlarge {font-size: 300%; line-height: .8;}
-
-.center   {text-align: center;}
-
-.right   {text-align: right;}
-.italic {font-style: italic;}
-
-.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
-.smcap.smaller {font-size: 75%;}
-
-hr {
-    width: 33%;
-    margin-top: 4em;
-    margin-bottom: 4em;
-    margin-left: 33%;
-    margin-right: auto;
-    clear: both;
-}
-hr.dec {max-width: 20em; margin: 1em auto 1em 0;}
-hr.decwide {width: 100%; margin: 1em auto 1em 0;}
-#biographies hr, #survey hr {visibility: hidden; margin: 1em 0 0 0;}
-
-.tb {
-    text-align: center;
-    padding-top: .76em;
-    padding-bottom: .24em;
-}
-
-table {
-    margin-left: auto;
-    margin-right: auto;
-    max-width: 80%;
-    border-collapse: collapse;
-}
-
-.tdl {
-    text-align: left;
-    vertical-align: top;
-    padding-right: 1em;
-    padding-left: 1.5em;
-    text-indent: -1.5em;
-}
-
-.tdc.chapsub {padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: 1em; font-size: 90%;}
-
-.tdr {
-    text-align: right;
-    vertical-align: bottom;
-    padding-left: .3em;
-    white-space: nowrap;
-}
-
-table#toc tr.chap .tdl {padding: 2em 0 0 0; text-indent: 0; font-size: 150%;}
-table#toc tr.chapsub .tdl {padding: .5em 0 .5em 0; text-indent: 0;}
-table#toc tr.chapsub .tdl.wrap {padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
-table#toc tr.chapsub .tdr {padding: .5em 0 .5em 1em;}
-table#toc .tdl {padding: 0 0 0 4.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
-table#toc .tdr {padding: 0 4em 0 2em;}
-table#toc tr.state .tdl {padding: .5em 0 0 4.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
-table#toc tr.state .tdr {padding: .5em 4em 0 2em;}
-table#toc tr.chapsub.gap .tdl, table#toc tr.chapsub.gap .tdr {padding-top: 2em;}
-
-.pagenum {
-  position: absolute;
-  right: 4px;
-  text-indent: 0em;
-  text-align: right;
-  font-size: 70%;
-  font-weight: normal;
-  font-variant: normal;
-  font-style: normal;
-  letter-spacing: normal;
-  line-height: normal;
-  color: #acacac;
-  border: 1px solid #acacac;
-  background: #ffffff;
-  padding: 1px 2px;
-}
-
-.figcenter   {
-    margin: 2em auto 2em auto;
-    text-align: center;
-    page-break-inside: avoid;
-    max-width: 100%;
-}
-
-.figleft {
-    float: left;
-    clear: left;
-    margin-left: 0;
-    margin-bottom: 0;
-    margin-top: 0;
-    margin-right: 2em;
-    padding: 0;
-    text-align: left;
-    min-width: 20%;
-    max-width: 50%;
-    page-break-inside: avoid;
-}
-.figleft.in4 {padding-left: 4em;}
-.figleft.clear, .figright.clear, .clear {clear: both;}
-.figright {
-    float: right;
-    clear: right;
-    margin-left: 2em;
-    margin-bottom: 0;
-    margin-top: 0;
-    margin-right: 0;
-    padding: 0;
-    text-align: right;
-    min-width: 20%;
-    max-width: 50%;
-    page-break-inside: avoid;
-}
-
-img {
-    padding: 1em 0 .5em 0;
-    max-width: 100%;
-    height: auto;
-}
-
-.caption {
-    text-align: left;
-    margin-top: 0;
-    font-family: sans-serif, serif;
-    font-size: smaller;
-}
-.caption.center {text-align: center;}
-.largeimage {margin-top: 0; text-align: right; font-style: italic;}
-
-ul {margin-left: 3em; padding-left: 0;}
-li {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2.5em; text-align: left;}
-
-.index {margin-left: 1em;}
-ul.index {padding-left: 0;}
-li {list-style-type: none;}
-li.indx, li.ifrst {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; padding-top: .2em;}
-li.isub1 {padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -2em;}
-li.isub2 {padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -1em;}
-li.ifrst {padding-top: 1em;}
-
-blockquote {
-    margin-left: 5%;
-    margin-right: 5%;
-    font-size: 95%;
-}
-blockquote.hang p {padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
-blockquote.hang3 p {padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
-blockquote.hang.left, blockquote.hang.in1 {margin: auto;}
-blockquote.hang.in1 p {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -2.1em;}
-blockquote.inhead p {padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
-blockquote.inhead.center p {padding-left: 0; text-indent: 0; text-align: center;}
-
-.transnote {
-    background-color: #EEE;
-    border: thin dotted;
-    font-family: sans-serif, serif;
-    color: #000;
-    margin-left: 5%;
-    margin-right: 5%;
-    margin-top: 4em;
-    margin-bottom: 2em;
-    padding: 1em;
-}
-.covernote {visibility: hidden; display: none;}
-
-.sig-container {
-    text-align: right;
-    margin-right: 5%;
-}
-
-.sig {
-    display: inline-block;
-    text-align: left;
-    margin-left: 2em;
-}
-
-span.locked {white-space:nowrap;}
-
-.sans {font-family: sans-serif, serif;}
-
-h2.bio {text-align: left; margin-bottom: .2em;}
-p.biostate {
-    text-indent: 0;
-    margin-top: 0;
-    font-family: sans-serif, serif;
-    font-size: 100%;
-}
-blockquote.bio {margin: 1em auto 1em 0; font-size: 90%;}
-p.biosmy {
-    text-indent: 0;
-    font-family: sans-serif, serif;
-    font-weight: bold;
-    text-align: left;
-}
-p.biodetail {text-align: justify;}
-
-h2.site {
-    font-size: 120%;
-    text-align: left;
-    margin-bottom: .2em;
-    font-family: sans-serif, serif;
-}
-blockquote.site {font-size: 100%; font-style: italic; margin: 0 0 1em 4em;}
-p.siteloc {text-indent: 0; margin-top: 0;}
-p.sitedetail {text-indent: 0;}
-
-@media print, handheld
-{
-    h1, .chapter, .newpage {page-break-before: always;}
-
-    p {
-        margin-top: .5em;
-        text-align: justify;
-        margin-bottom: .25em;
-    }
-
-    table {width: 100%; max-width: 100%;}
-
-    .tdl {
-        padding-left: 1em;
-        text-indent: -1em;
-        padding-right: 0;
-    }
-
-    .figleft, .figright {
-        float: none;
-        clear: none;
-        margin: 1em auto 1em auto;
-        min-width: 0;
-        max-width: 100%;
-    }
-    .figleft, .figright {text-align: left; margin-left: 0; clear: both;}
-    .figleft.mb {margin-left: 8em; clear: none;}
-    p.clear {clear: both;}
-    .largeimage {display: none; visibility: hidden;}
-
-}
-
-@media handheld
-{
-    body {margin: 0;}
-
-    hr {
-        margin-top: .1em;
-        margin-bottom: .1em;
-        visibility: hidden;
-        color: white;
-        width: .01em;
-        display: none;
-    }
-
-    ul {margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 0;}
-    li {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
-
-    blockquote {margin: 1.5em 3% 1.5em 3%;}
-
-    .transnote {
-        page-break-inside: avoid;
-        margin-left: 2%;
-        margin-right: 2%;
-        margin-top: 1em;
-        margin-bottom: 1em;
-        padding: .5em;
-    }
-
-    .index {margin-left: 0;}
-
-    .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: center;}
-}
-  </style>
-  </head>
-
-<body>
-
-
-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Signers of the Declaration
-       Historic Places Commemorating the Signing of the Declaration
-              of Independence
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Robert G. Ferris
-
-Release Date: October 28, 2017 [EBook #55838]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the
-Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="transnote covernote"><p class="center">Transcriber’s Note</p>
-<p class="center">Cover created by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="newpage"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span></p>
-<div id="if_i_001" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="600" height="455" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Independence Hall in 1776. Here the Continental Congress adopted
-  and signed the Declaration of Independence.</div></div>
-
-<h1><a id="Signers_of_the_Declaration"></a><i>Signers of the Declaration</i></h1>
-
-<div id="if_i_002" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="600" height="429" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">John Trumbull’s “The Declaration of Independence” hangs in the rotunda
-  of the U.S. Capitol. Depicting the drafting committee presenting the
-  document to the Continental Congress, the painting commemorates
-  the signers.</div></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="newpage p1 sans smaller center">
-THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF HISTORIC SITES AND BUILDINGS • VOLUME XVIII</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0 xxlarge"><i class="xlarge">Signers</i><br />
-<span class="small">OF THE DECLARATION</span></p>
-<hr class="dec" />
-
-<p class="in0">Historic Places Commemorating the Signing<br />
-of the Declaration of Independence</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0 in4">ROBERT G. FERRIS<br />
-<span class="small sans">Series Editor</span></p>
-
-<div id="if_i_002b" class="figleft in4 mb" style="max-width: 3.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_002b.jpg" width="63" height="63" alt="Department Seal"/></div>
-
-<p class="clear in0 in4"><span class="sans small">UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR<br />
-NATIONAL PARK SERVICE<br />
-<br />
-<span class="smaller">Washington, D.C. 1973</span></span>
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="newpage center smaller">
-ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR FOR PROFESSIONAL SERVICES<br />
-Ernest A. Connally<br />
-<br />
-OFFICE OF ARCHEOLOGY AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION<br />
-Robert M. Utley, <i>Director</i><br />
-<br />
-DIVISION OF HISTORY<br />
-A. Russell Mortensen, <i>Chief</i><br />
-<br />
-HISTORIC SITES SURVEY<br />
-Horace J. Sheely, Jr., <i>Chief</i>
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0">This volume incorporates a comprehensive survey of sites and buildings
-associated with the signers accomplished by Charles W. Snell and the
-late John O. Littleton. Also utilized were survey and evaluation reports
-authored by the following individuals: S. Sydney Bradford, Charles E.
-Hatch, Jr., W. Brown Morton III, Denys Peter Myers, John D. R. Platt,
-Frank B. Sarles, Jr., Charles E. Shedd, Jr., Horace J. Sheely, Jr., and
-Martin I. Yoelson. These surveys and reports were reviewed by the Advisory
-Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments.
-Members of this group are listed in the Acknowledgments. Directly
-involved in all aspects of the preparation of this book were Assistant
-Editor Richard E. Morris and Editorial Assistant James H. Charleton.
-It was designed by Gary Gore.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0">THIS BOOK IS ISSUED AS PART OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
-OBSERVANCE OF OUR NATION’S BICENTENNIAL.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0 smaller">As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior
-has basic responsibilities for water, fish, wildlife, mineral, land, park, and
-recreational resources. Indian and Territorial affairs are other major concerns
-of America’s “Department of Natural Resources.” The Department works to
-assure the wisest choice in managing all our resources so each will make its
-full contribution to a better United States—now and in the future.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0">LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-600028</p>
-<hr class="decwide" />
-<p class="center smaller">
-For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing<br />
-Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 · Price $5.65<br />
-Stock Number 2405-00496
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Foreword" class="right"><i>Foreword</i></h2>
-
-<p>As we approach the two hundredth anniversary of the signing of
-the Declaration of Independence, each of us is stirred by the memory
-of those who framed the future of our country.</p>
-
-<p>In the coming years we will have many opportunities to refresh
-our understanding of what America means, but none can mean more
-than personal visits to the sites where freedom was forged and our
-founding fathers actually made the decisions which have stood the
-severest tests of time.</p>
-
-<p>I remember my reactions, for example, when I visited Independence
-Hall in Philadelphia in 1972 to sign the new revenue sharing legislation.
-Walking into the building where that small group of patriots
-gathered some two centuries ago, I thought back to what it must
-have been like when the giants of our American heritage solemnly
-committed themselves and their children to liberty. The dilemmas
-they faced, the uncertainties they felt, the ideals they cherished—all
-seemed more alive to me than ever before, and I came away with
-an even stronger appreciation for their courage and their vision.</p>
-
-<p>As people from all over the world visit the places described in this
-valuable book, they, too, will feel the excitement of history and relive
-in their minds the beginnings of a great Nation.</p>
-
-<p>I commend this book to your attention and encourage all people,
-Americans and foreigners alike, to make a special effort to visit our
-historic sites during these Bicentennial years.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0">
-<i>The White House</i><br />
-<i>Washington, D.C.</i>
-</p>
-
-<div id="if_i_003" class="figright" style="max-width: 11.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="187" height="51" alt="(signature)" />
-  <div class="caption">Richard Nixon</div></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Preface" class="right"><i>Preface</i></h2>
-
-<p>Nearly two hundred years have passed since America proclaimed
-her independence. Yet this action and the beliefs and hopes motivating
-those responsible for it are as central to us as a people today as
-they were to Abraham Lincoln, whose words still remind us that “...
-our fathers brought forth upon this continent, a new nation, conceived
-in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are
-created equal....”</p>
-
-<p>To understand what we have become, we must know what we have
-been. This volume illuminates the role of those who framed the Declaration
-of Independence and took the bold risk of putting their signatures
-to it, thus bringing into being a new Nation on a new model
-of stated principle. It will stimulate our visual memory of the persons
-and events that cast this Nation upon its course, and I commend it
-to all who would more fully appreciate that heritage.</p>
-
-<div class="sig-container"><div class="sig">
-<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Rogers C. B. Morton</span><br />
-<i>Secretary of the Interior</i>
-</p>
-</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></p>
-
-<p class="newpage p4">It is my hope that this volume will not only increase popular
-knowledge of the Declaration of Independence and its signers, but
-that it will also undergird the efforts of historic preservationists to
-protect sites and buildings associated with them. Written records
-alone cannot convey the appreciation and understanding that come
-from personal acquaintance with historic places. Thus, while we preserve
-and study the documents of the American Revolution, we must
-also save and experience what physical evidences remain to illustrate
-the lives of those who so boldly brought it about. With the assistance
-of this book, many more Americans may come to know the sites and
-structures frequented by the signers of the Declaration, to visit them
-personally, and to appreciate more deeply the importance of their
-preservation.</p>
-
-<p>Credit for the preparation of this volume is shared widely by
-persons both in and out of the National Park Service. The historic
-preservation activities of the Service have particularly benefited from
-the assistance of the National Trust for Historic Preservation in the
-United States, cosponsor of the National Survey of Historic Sites and
-Buildings. The Survey is authorized by the Historic Sites Act of 1935.</p>
-
-<div class="sig-container"><div class="sig">
-<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Ronald H. Walker</span><br />
-<i>Director</i><br />
-<i>National Park Service</i>
-</p>
-</div></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Contents" class="right italic">Contents</h2>
-
-<table id="toc" summary="Contents">
-  <tr class="chap">
-    <td class="tdl">Part I</td></tr>
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">Signers of the Declaration:<br />Historical Background</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
-  <tr class="chap">
-    <td class="tdl">Part II</td></tr>
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">Signers of the Declaration:<br />Biographical Sketches</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">John Adams • <i>Massachusetts</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_1">33</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Samuel Adams • <i>Massachusetts</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_2">36</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Josiah Bartlett • <i>New Hampshire</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_3">39</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Carter Braxton • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_4">41</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Charles Carroll • <i>Maryland</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_5">43</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Samuel Chase • <i>Maryland</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_6">45</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Abraham Clark • <i>New Jersey</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_7">47</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">George Clymer • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_8">49</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">William Ellery • <i>Rhode Island</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_9">51</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">William Floyd • <i>New York</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_10">53</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Benjamin Franklin • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_11">55</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Elbridge Gerry • <i>Massachusetts</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_12">59</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Button Gwinnett • <i>Georgia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_13">62</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Lyman Hall • <i>Georgia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_14">65</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">John Hancock • <i>Massachusetts</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_15">67</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Benjamin Harrison • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_16">70</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">John Hart • <i>New Jersey</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_17">71</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Joseph Hewes • <i>North Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_18">73</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thomas Heyward, Jr. • <i>South Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_19">75</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">William Hooper • <i>North Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_20">77</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Stephen Hopkins • <i>Rhode Island</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_21">79</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Francis Hopkinson • <i>New Jersey</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_22">81</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Samuel Huntington • <i>Connecticut</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_23">83</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thomas Jefferson • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_24">85</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Francis Lightfoot Lee • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_25">90</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Richard Henry Lee • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_26">92</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Francis Lewis • <i>New York</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_27">94</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Philip Livingston • <i>New York</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_28">96</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thomas Lynch, Jr. • <i>South Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_29">99</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thomas McKean • <i>Delaware</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_30">100</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Arthur Middleton • <i>South Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_31">103</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Lewis Morris • <i>New York</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_32">104</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Robert Morris • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_33">106</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">John Morton • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_34">109</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thomas Nelson, Jr. • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_35">110</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">William Paca • <i>Maryland</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_36">113</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Robert Treat Paine • <i>Massachusetts</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_37">115</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">John Penn • <i>North Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_38">116</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">George Read • <i>Delaware</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_39">118</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caesar Rodney • <i>Delaware</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_40">120</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">George Ross • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_41">122</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Benjamin Rush • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_42">123</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Edward Rutledge • <i>South Carolina</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_43">127</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Roger Sherman • <i>Connecticut</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_44">129</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">James Smith • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_45">132</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Richard Stockton • <i>New Jersey</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_46">133</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thomas Stone • <i>Maryland</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_47">135</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">George Taylor • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_48">137</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Matthew Thornton • <i>New Hampshire</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_49">139</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">George Walton • <i>Georgia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_50">140</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">William Whipple • <i>New Hampshire</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_51">142</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">William Williams • <i>Connecticut</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_52">144</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">James Wilson • <i>Pennsylvania</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_53">145</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">John Witherspoon • <i>New Jersey</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_54">149</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Oliver Wolcott • <i>Connecticut</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_55">152</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">George Wythe • <i>Virginia</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#bio_56">154</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chap">
-    <td class="tdl">Part III</td></tr>
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">Signers of the Declaration:<br />Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Huntington Birthplace, Conn.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_1">164</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Huntington House, Conn.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_2">165</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Williams Birthplace, Conn.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_3">166</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Williams House, Conn.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_4">168</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Wolcott House, Conn.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_5">169</a></td></tr>
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">The White House, D.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_6">170</a></td></tr>
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">College Hill, Ga.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_7">173</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Meadow Garden, Ga.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_8">175</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Tabby Cottage, Ga.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_9">176</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Whipple Birthplace, Maine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_10">177</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Carroll Mansion, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_11">179</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Carrollton Manor, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_12">180</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Chase-Lloyd House, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_13">181</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_14">183</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Doughoregan Manor, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_15">185</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Habre-de-Venture, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_16">186</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Paca House, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_17">188</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Peggy Stewart House, Md.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_18">189</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_19">191</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_20">192</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Adams National Historic Site, Mass.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_21">193</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Elmwood, Mass.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_22">195</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Gerry Birthplace, Mass.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_23">197</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Hancock-Clarke House, Mass.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_24">198</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Bartlett House, N.H.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_25">199</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_26">201</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thornton House, N.H.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_27">203</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Hopkinson House, N.J.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_28">204</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Maybury Hill, N.J.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_29">206</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Morven, N.J.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_30">207</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">President’s House, N.J.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_31">208</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Tusculum, N.J.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_32">209</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Seashore), N.Y.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_33">210</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">General Floyd House, N.Y.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_34">212</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Iredell House, N.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_35">213</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Nash-Hooper House, N.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_36">214</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Independence National Historical Park, Pa.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_37">216</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Parsons-Taylor House, Pa.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_38">226</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Shippen-Wistar House, Pa.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_39">228</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Summerseat, Pa.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_40">229</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Taylor House, Pa.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_41">230</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Governor Hopkins House, R.I.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_42">231</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Heyward-Washington House, S.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_43">233</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, S.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_44">234</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Middleton Place, S.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_45">236</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Rutledge House, S.C.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_46">237</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="state">
-    <td class="tdl">Berkeley, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_47">239</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Elsing Green, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_48">240</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Menokin, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_49">242</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Monticello, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_50">243</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mount Airy, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_51">246</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Nelson House (Colonial National</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Historical Park), Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_52">247</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Poplar Forest, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_53">249</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Stratford Hall, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_54">251</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Tuckahoe, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_55">253</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Wythe House, Va.</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#survey_56">255</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chap">
-    <td class="tdl">Appendix</td></tr>
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">The Declaration and Its History</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Text of the Declaration</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#dectext">259</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">History of the Document</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#History_of_the_Document">262</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub gap">
-    <td class="tdl">Suggested Reading</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl wrap">Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">Acknowledgments</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">Art and Picture Credits</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub">
-    <td class="tdl">Index</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Index">281</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub gap">
-    <td class="tdl wrap">Map: Signers of the Declaration—Historic Sites of National Significance</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_162">162–163</a></td></tr>
-
-  <tr class="chapsub gap">
-    <td class="tdl"><i>All photographs are indexed.</i></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Part_One" class="left italic larger">Part One<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">Signers of the Declaration:<br />
-
-Historical Background</span></h2>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0"><span class="smcap"><span class="xxlarge italic">A</span>t Philadelphia</span> in the summer of 1776, the Delegates to the
-Continental Congress courageously signed a document declaring the
-independence of the Thirteen American Colonies from Great Britain.
-Not only did the Declaration of Independence create a Nation, but it
-also pronounced timeless democratic principles. Enshrined today in
-the National Archives Building at Washington, D.C., it memorializes
-the founding of the United States and symbolizes the eternal freedom
-and dignity of Man.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>By the time the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration in
-July 1776, the War for Independence had been underway for more
-than a year. Failing to obtain satisfactory redress from the mother
-country for their economic and political grievances during the previous
-decade, the colonists had finally resorted to armed conflict.
-These grievances had come to a head shortly after the French and
-Indian War (1754–63). Long and costly, the war depleted the royal
-treasury and added the financial burden of administering the vast
-territory acquired from France. Britain levied new, direct taxes in the
-Colonies and tightened customs controls.</p>
-
-<p>The colonists, accustomed to considerable economic freedom, resented
-these measures. A number of Americans also felt that some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>
-sort of conspiracy existed in England to destroy their liberties and
-self-government. They believed that the mission of the large force of
-redcoats assigned to the Colonies actually was internal suppression
-rather than protection from a nonexistent external threat, especially
-since the French had been expelled. Particularly aggravating was the
-realization that the new tax levies supported the force. Some of the
-discontent was regional in nature. Indebtedness to British creditors
-irritated Southern planters. Commercial interests in the Middle Colonies
-disliked the prohibition on manufacturing certain products. Frontier
-settlers and speculators were irked at restrictions on westward
-expansion and the Indian trade.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="356" height="353" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">George III, King of England during the War for Independence,
-  was the focus of colonial hatred.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 49.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_004b.jpg" width="790" height="900" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The Revolutionaries utilized this exaggerated version of the Boston
-  Massacre (1770) by Paul Revere to nourish resentment of British troops.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="363" height="442" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">“The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring &amp; Feathering,”
-  a British cartoon satirizing colonial methods of protest.</div></div>
-
-<p>In various places, peaceful protest and harassment of tax and customs
-collectors gave way to rioting and mob violence. In New York
-and Massachusetts, clashes with British troops culminated in bloodshed.
-Realizing that some of these disturbances stemmed from agitation
-in the colonial assemblies, which had enjoyed wide autonomy,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
-the Crown tightened its control over them. Disputes between legislators
-and the King’s officials, once spasmodic, became commonplace.
-In some instances, notably in Virginia and Massachusetts, the Royal
-Governors dissolved the assemblies. In these and a few other provinces
-the Whigs separated from their Tory, or Loyalist, colleagues,
-met extralegally, and adopted retaliatory measures. Nearly all the Colonies
-formed special “committees of correspondence” to communicate
-with each other—the first step toward unified action.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_005b.jpg" width="491" height="324" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">In retaliation for the Boston Tea Party (1773), the Crown imposed rigid
-  limitations on the freedom of Massachusetts citizens.</div></div>
-
-<p>In May 1774, in retaliation for the “Boston Tea Party,” Parliament
-closed the port of Boston and virtually abolished provincial self-government
-in Massachusetts. These actions stimulated resistance
-across the land. That summer, the Massachusetts lower house,
-through the committees of correspondence, secretly invited all 13<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
-Colonies to attend a convention. In response, on the fifth of September,
-55 Delegates representing 12 Colonies, Georgia excepted, assembled
-at Philadelphia. They convened at Carpenters’ Hall and organized
-the First Continental Congress.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_006.jpg" width="431" height="282" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">A rare contemporary engraving of the British-American clash
-  in 1775 at North Bridge, near Concord, Mass.</div></div>
-
-<p>Sharing though they did common complaints against the Crown,
-the Delegates propounded a wide variety of political opinions. Most
-of them agreed that Parliament had no right to control the internal
-affairs of the Colonies. Moderates, stressing trade benefits with the
-mother country, believed Parliament should continue to regulate commerce.
-Others questioned the extent of its authority. A handful of
-Delegates felt the answer to the problem lay in parliamentary representation.
-Most suggested legislative autonomy for the Colonies.
-Reluctant to sever ties of blood, language, trade, and cultural heritage,
-none yet openly entertained the idea of complete independence
-from Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>After weeks of debate and compromise, Congress adopted two
-significant measures. The first declared that the American colonists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
-were entitled to the same rights as Englishmen everywhere and
-denounced any infringement of those rights. The second, the Continental
-Association, provided for an embargo on all trade with Britain.
-To enforce the embargo and punish violators, at the behest of Congress
-counties, cities, and towns formed councils, or committees, of
-safety—many of which later became wartime governing or administrative
-bodies. When Congress adjourned in late October, the Delegates
-resolved to reconvene in May 1775 if the Crown had not
-responded by then.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
-  <img src="images/i_006b.jpg" width="800" height="435" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Headlines of a broadside showing American alarm over the Battle of
-  Concord. The two rows of coffins at the top represent slain militiamen.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In a sense the Continental Congress acted with restraint, for while
-it was in session the situation in Massachusetts verged on war. In
-September, just before Congress met, British troops from Boston had
-seized ordnance supplies at Charlestown and Cambridge and almost
-clashed with the local militia. The next month, Massachusetts patriots,
-openly defying royal authority, organized a Revolutionary provincial
-assembly as well as a military defense committee. Whigs in
-three other colonies—Maryland, Virginia, and New Hampshire—had
-earlier that year formed governments. By the end of the year, all the
-Colonies except Georgia and New York had either set up new ones
-or taken control of those already in existence. During the winter of
-1774–75, while Parliament mulled over conciliatory measures, colonial
-militia units prepared for war.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
-  <img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="800" height="702" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Continental Army recruiting poster.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The crisis came in the spring of 1775, predictably in Massachusetts.
-Late on the night of April 18 the Royal Governor, Gen. Thomas
-Gage, alarmed at the militancy of the rebels, dispatched 600 troops
-from Boston to seize a major supply depot at Concord. Almost simultaneously
-the Boston council of safety, aware of Gage’s intentions,
-directed Paul Revere and William Dawes to ride ahead to warn militia
-units and citizens along the way of the British approach, as well
-as John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were staying at nearby
-Lexington. Forewarned, the two men went into hiding.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_007b.jpg" width="362" height="526" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Title page of <cite>Common Sense</cite>, the anonymously written and widely
-  distributed pamphlet that converted thousands of colonists to the
-  Revolutionary cause.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
-About 77 militiamen confronted the redcoats when they plodded
-into Lexington at dawn. After some tense moments, as the sorely
-outnumbered colonials were dispersing, blood was shed. More flowed
-at Concord and much more along the route of the British as they
-retreated to Boston, harassed most of the way by an aroused citizenry.
-What had once been merely protest had evolved into open
-warfare; the War for Independence had begun.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="362" height="398" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Thomas Paine, author of <cite>Common Sense</cite>, did not emigrate to America
-  from England until 1774, but he became an ardent patriot.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_008b.jpg" width="361" height="498" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sir William Howe, British commander in chief in America from 1776
-  until 1778.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>
-The Second Continental Congress convened in the Pennsylvania
-State House at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Burdened by wartime
-realities and the need to prepare a unified defense, it created a Continental
-Army, unanimously elected George Washington as commander
-in chief, appointed other generals, and tackled problems of
-military finance and supply. Yet, despite these warlike actions, many
-Delegates still hoped for a peaceful reconciliation.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="354" height="318" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Robert R. Livingston of New York, the most conservative member of the
-  drafting committee, neither voted on independence nor signed the
-  Declaration.</div></div>
-
-<p>In July Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition, a final
-attempt to achieve an understanding with the Crown. The petition
-appealed directly to King George III to cease hostilities and restore
-harmony. But, unwilling to challenge the supremacy of Parliament,
-he refused to acknowledge the plea and proclaimed the Colonies to
-be in a state of rebellion.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
-During the winter of 1775–76, as the war intensified, all chance for
-accommodation vanished. Congress, for the first time representing
-all Thirteen Colonies because Georgia had sent Delegates in the fall,
-disclaimed allegiance to Parliament, created a navy, and appointed
-a committee of foreign affairs. Nevertheless the patriots, despite their
-mounting influence in the provincial assemblies, felt they needed
-more public support and hesitated to urge a final break with the
-Crown.</p>
-
-<p>The turning point came in January 1776 with publication in Philadelphia
-of the pamphlet <cite>Common Sense</cite>, authored anonymously by
-the recent English immigrant Thomas Paine. Attacking the “myth”
-of an evil Parliament and a benevolent King, he denounced George
-III for creating the Colonies’ miseries, condemned the British constitution
-as well as monarchy in general, and exhorted his fellow Americans
-to declare independence immediately. The pamphlet, widely
-reprinted, was purchased by many thousands of people and read by
-thousands more. It created a furor. From Georgia to New Hampshire,
-independence became the major topic of discussion and debate. The
-Revolutionaries won thousands of converts.</p>
-
-<p>In May Congress took a bold step toward political freedom by
-authorizing the Colonies to form permanent governments. Those that
-had not done so began to oust Crown officials and draft constitutions.
-Independence, though not yet officially declared, was for all practical
-purposes a reality.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>The official movement for independence took root in the provincial
-assemblies. The North Carolina assembly in April 1776 instructed its
-congressional Delegates to vote for the issue should it be proposed.
-The next month, on May 4, Rhode Island announced its independence
-publicly—the first colony to do so. But it was Virginia that
-prodded Congress to action. On May 15 a Williamsburg convention
-declared Virginia independent and authorized its delegation at Philadelphia
-to propose a similar course for the Colonies. On June 7 the
-delegation’s leader, Richard Henry Lee, introduced the following
-resolution:</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0">That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and
-independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the
-British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
-the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
-The resolution also incorporated proposals to form foreign alliances;
-and to devise a plan for confederation, which would be submitted to
-the Colonies for their approval.</p>
-
-<p>Despite the enthusiastic response of many Delegates, some of them,
-though they foresaw the inevitability of independence, objected to
-the timing. They believed the decision should reflect the desires of
-the people as expressed through the provincial assemblies and
-pointed out that the Middle Colonies, not yet ripe for freedom,
-needed more time for deliberation. On June 10 the moderates obtained
-a postponement of consideration of the Lee resolution until
-July 1.</p>
-
-<p>On June 11 the Revolutionaries, undaunted by the delay and
-convinced of their ultimate victory, persuaded Congress to appoint a
-committee to draft a declaration of independence. Three of its five
-members, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson,
-were Revolutionaries. Roger Sherman disliked extremism but had
-recently backed the independence movement. The most unlikely
-member, Robert R. Livingston, had stood in the front ranks of opposition
-to Lee’s resolution. Possibly he was appointed to exert a moderating
-effect on its supporters or, conversely, in the hope that his
-membership would help swing over the conservative New York
-delegation.</p>
-
-<p>At the time Lee had introduced his resolution, seven of the Colonies—New
-Hampshire, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
-Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia—favored independence. New
-York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, and
-Maryland were either opposed or undecided. Throughout the month,
-Revolutionaries in those provinces labored to gain control of the
-assemblies. Delaware and Pennsylvania, unable to reach a decision,
-instructed their representatives to vote in their colonies’ “best interests.”
-New Jersey issued similar directions, but also elected an entirely
-new and Whig-oriented slate of Delegates. The Maryland
-assembly, largely through the persuasion of Samuel Chase, Charles
-Carroll of Carrollton, and William Paca, voted unanimously for
-independence and so charged its Delegates. The South Carolinians,
-though they had been authorized months before to cast their lot with
-the majority, vacillated. The New Yorkers impatiently awaited
-instructions.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_17" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="502" height="915" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">First page of Jefferson’s rough draft of the Declaration.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
-July 1 was the day of decision. The Revolutionaries, overconfident
-from their progress of the preceding month, anticipated an almost
-unanimous vote for independence. They were disappointed. Following
-congressional procedure, each colony balloted as a unit, determined
-by the majority of Delegate opinion. Only nine of the Colonies voted
-affirmatively; Pennsylvania and South Carolina, negatively; New
-York abstained; and the two Delegates present from Delaware deadlocked.
-Technically the resolution had carried, but the solidarity
-desirable for such a vital decision was missing. Edward Rutledge of
-South Carolina, hinting his colony might change sides, moved that
-the vote be retaken the next day.</p>
-
-<p>That day proved to be one of the most dramatic in the history of
-the Continental Congress. John Adams of Massachusetts exerted an
-overwhelming influence. South Carolina, its Delegates swayed by
-Rutledge, reversed its position. Two conservatives among the seven
-Pennsylvanians, Robert Morris and John Dickinson, though unwilling
-to make a personal commitment to independence, cooperated by
-purposely absenting themselves; the remaining Delegates voted three
-to two in favor. The most exciting moment of the day occurred when
-Caesar Rodney, Delaware’s third Delegate, galloped up to the statehouse
-after a harrowing 80-mile night ride from Dover through a
-thunderstorm and broke the Delaware tie. Home on a military assignment,
-the evening before he had received an urgent plea from Thomas
-McKean, the Delawarean who had voted for independence, to rush
-to Philadelphia. In the final vote, 12 Colonies approved Lee’s resolution,
-New York again abstaining. Congress declared the resolution
-to be in effect.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>For the remainder of July 2 and continuing until the 4th, Congress
-weighed and debated the content of the Declaration of Independence,
-which the drafting committee had submitted on June 28. Its author
-was young Thomas Jefferson, who had been in Congress about a year.
-The committee had chosen him for the task because he was from
-Virginia, the colony responsible for the independence resolution, and
-because of his reputation as an excellent writer and man of talent
-and action.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_19" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;">
-  <img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="800" height="977" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Facsimile of the Declaration of Independence, engraved in 1823 while
-  the document was still in relatively good condition.</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
-Laboring in his rented rooms on the second floor of a private home
-at the corner of Seventh and Market Streets, Jefferson had completed
-a rough draft in about 2 weeks. Apparently Franklin and
-Adams made some minor changes, and Livingston and Sherman
-expressed no reservations so far as is known. To Jefferson’s irritation,
-however, Congress altered the final draft considerably. Most of the
-changes consisted of refinements in phraseology. Two major passages,
-however, were deleted. The first, a censure of the people of Great
-Britain, seemed harsh and needless to most of the Delegates. The
-second, an impassioned condemnation of the slave trade, offended
-Southern planters as well as New England shippers, many of whom
-were as culpable as the British in the trade.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>The first official document of the American Republic and one of the
-most influential in human history, the Declaration expressed the
-spirit of human freedom and affirmed Man’s universal rights. Jefferson’s
-goal in drafting it was not, he said, to invent “new ideas” but
-to compose “an expression of the American mind” in a tone and
-spirit suitable for the momentous occasion. Stylistically, the Declaration
-resembled his own preamble to the Virginia constitution and
-contained an almost identical list of grievances. Its political philosophy,
-reflecting the Lockean concepts espoused by many intellectuals
-of the day, was certainly not new. Jefferson himself had touched on
-the basic points in previous writings, and in essence he echoed George
-Mason’s “Declaration of Rights,” which some of the Philadelphia
-newspapers had published early in June. In other words, the Declaration
-assimilated existing concepts into a concise statement of national
-doctrine.</p>
-
-<p>Jefferson began the preamble with the oft-quoted and stirring
-words, “When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary
-for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected
-them with another....” He then listed a series of “self-evident”
-truths—that “all men are created equal” and that they are “endowed
-by their creator with certain unalienable rights,” particularly “life,
-liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Governments, “deriving their
-just powers from the consent of the governed,” are instituted by men
-to insure these rights. When they fail to do so, it is the “right of the
-people to alter or to abolish” them and to institute new governments.
-Men should not carelessly change governments, but should only take
-such action after a long series of abuses and usurpations lead to
-“absolute despotism.” Then it becomes their duty to do so. The
-longest portion of the Declaration is a list of colonial grievances and
-examples of the King’s tyranny. The final section includes a restatement
-of Lee’s resolution and a pledge by the signers of their lives,
-their fortunes, and their sacred honor to the cause of independence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_21" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
-  <img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="352" height="559" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The Declaration first appeared in newspapers on July 9, the day after
-  the official announcement in Philadelphia.</div>
-  <div class="largeimage"><a href="images/i_012large.jpg">(larger)</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_22" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="474" height="316" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The New York City Sons of Liberty celebrated independence by pulling
-  down a statue of George III, which they later melted and molded into bullets.</div></div>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>On July 4 all the Colonies except New York voted to adopt the
-Declaration. Congress ordered it printed and distributed to colonial
-officials, military units, and the press. John Hancock and Charles
-Thomson, President and Secretary of Congress respectively, were the
-only signers of this broadside copy. On July 8, outside the Pennsylvania
-State House, the document was first read to the public. During
-the ensuing celebration, people cheered, bells rang out, and soldiers
-paraded. At other cities, similar celebrations soon took place. Yet
-many citizens—the Loyalists, or Tories—could not accept independence
-now that it had been declared any more than previously when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
-it had been merely a concept. Some of them would continue to dream
-of reconciliation. Others would flee from or be driven out of the
-country. In addition, another sizable group of citizens remained
-noncommittal, neither supporting nor opposing independence.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_23" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_013b.jpg" width="481" height="277" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Artist’s rendition of the Battle of Germantown (October 1777).</div></div>
-
-<p>Four days after obtaining New York’s approval of the Declaration
-on July 15, Congress ordered it engrossed on parchment for signature.
-At this time, indicative of unanimity, the title was changed
-from “A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of
-America in General Congress Assembled” to “The Unanimous
-Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America.”</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>Contrary to a widespread misconception, the 56 signers did not
-sign as a group and did not do so on July 4, 1776. The official event
-occurred on August 2, 1776, when 50 men probably took part. Later
-that year, five more apparently signed separately and one added his
-name in a subsequent year. Not until January 18, 1777, in the wake
-of Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton, did Congress,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
-which had sought to protect the signers from British retaliation for
-as long as possible, authorize printing of the Declaration with all
-their names listed. At this time, Thomas McKean had not yet penned
-his name.</p>
-
-<p>The most impressive signature is that of John Hancock, President
-of Congress, centered over the others. According to tradition, Hancock
-wrote boldly and defiantly so that King George III would not
-need spectacles to identify him as a “traitor” and double the reward
-for his head. The other Delegates signed in six columns, which ran
-from right to left. They utilized the standard congressional voting
-order, by colony generally from north to south: New Hampshire,
-Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
-Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
-Carolina, and Georgia.</p>
-
-<p>Those who signed on August 2 undoubtedly did not realize that
-others would follow them and thus allowed no room to accommodate
-the signatures of the later six men. Two of them, George Wythe and
-Richard Henry Lee, found ample room above their fellow Virginians.
-One, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, crowded his name into the
-space between the Massachusetts and Rhode Island groups. Two of
-the others—Thomas McKean and Oliver Wolcott—signed at the bottom
-of columns following their State delegations. Only Matthew
-Thornton of New Hampshire needed to add his name separately
-from his colleagues—at the bottom of the first column on the right
-at the end of the Connecticut group.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>Independence had been declared; it still had to be won on the
-field of battle. The War for Independence was already underway, but
-5 more years of struggle and bloody campaigning lay ahead. In 1781
-the Colonies achieved military victory, and 2 years later Britain in
-the Treaty of Paris officially recognized the independence they had
-proclaimed in 1776. The building of the Nation could begin.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Part_Two" class="left italic larger">Part Two<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">Signers of the Declaration:<br />
-
-Biographical Sketches</span></h2>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0"><span class="smcap"><span class="xxlarge italic">L</span>iberally endowed</span> as a whole with courage and sense of purpose,
-the signers consisted of a distinguished group of individuals.
-Although heterogeneous in background, education, experience, and
-accomplishments, at the time of the signing they were practically all
-men of means and represented an elite cross section of 18th-century
-American leadership. Every one of them had achieved prominence in
-his colony, but only a few enjoyed a national reputation.</p>
-
-<p>The signers were those individuals who happened to be Delegates
-to Congress at the time. Such men of stature in the Nation as George
-Washington and Patrick Henry were not then even serving in the
-body. On the other hand, Jefferson, the two Adamses, Richard Henry
-Lee, and Benjamin Rush ranked among the outstanding people in the
-Colonies; and Franklin had already acquired international fame.
-Some of the signers had not taken a stand for or against independence
-in the final vote on July 2. For example, Robert Morris of
-Pennsylvania had purposely absented himself. Others had not yet
-been elected to Congress or were away on business or military matters.
-Some were last-minute replacements for opponents of independence.
-The only signer who actually voted negatively on July 2 was
-George Read of Delaware.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>The signers possessed many basic similarities. Most were American-born
-and of Anglo-Saxon origin. The eight foreign-born—Button<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
-Gwinnett, Francis Lewis, Robert Morris, James Smith, George
-Taylor, Matthew Thornton, James Wilson, and John Witherspoon—were
-all natives of the British Isles. Except for Charles Carroll, a
-Roman Catholic, and a few Deists, every one subscribed to Protestantism.
-For the most part basically political nonextremists, many at
-first had hesitated at separation let alone rebellion. A few signed
-only reluctantly.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_28" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="353" height="262" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fervid Revolutionary Patrick Henry numbered among those patriots of
-  national reputation who were not Members of Congress at the time of
-  the signing of the Declaration.</div></div>
-
-<p>The majority were well educated and prosperous. More than half
-the southerners belonged to the planter class and owned slaves,
-though Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, and others heartily
-opposed the institution of slavery, as did also several of the signers
-from the North. On the other hand, William Whipple, as a sea captain
-early in his career, had likely sometimes carried slaves on his
-ship.</p>
-
-<p>Although the signers ranged in age at the time from 26 (Edward
-Rutledge) to 70 (Benjamin Franklin), the bulk of them were in their
-thirties or forties. Probably as a result of their favored economic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
-position, an amazingly large number attained an age that far exceeded
-the life expectancy of their time; 38 of the 56 lived into their sixties
-or beyond and 14 into the eighties and nineties.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_29" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_014b.jpg" width="487" height="263" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">George Washington inspecting his troops at Valley Forge. Busy serving
-  as commander in chief of the Continental Army, he did not sign
-  the Declaration.</div></div>
-
-<p>With few exceptions, those who subscribed to the Declaration
-continued in public service under the new Federal and State Governments.
-John Adams and Thomas Jefferson became President; they
-and Elbridge Gerry, Vice President. Samuel Chase and James Wilson
-won appointment to the Supreme Court. Others served as Congressmen,
-diplomats, Governors, and judges. Six of the signers—George
-Clymer, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, George Read, Roger
-Sherman, and James Wilson—also signed the Constitution. Sixteen
-of them underwrote the Articles of Confederation. Only two,
-Roger Sherman and Robert Morris, affixed their signatures to the
-Declaration, Constitution, and Articles.</p>
-
-<p>Caesar Rodney and Joseph Hewes were the only bachelors in the
-group. All but five fathered children. Carter Braxton sired no fewer
-than 18, but 10 others each had at least 10 offspring. The average<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
-number was about six. Some of the sons of the signers attained
-national distinction. John Adams’ son John Quincy became President;
-the son of Benjamin Harrison, William Henry, won the same
-office, as did also Benjamin’s great-grandson with the same name.
-Other male progeny of the signers served as U.S. Congressmen,
-Governors, and State legislators.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>Yet the group manifested diversity. Each man tended to reflect the
-particular attitudes and interests of his own region and colony.
-Fourteen represented New England; 21, the Middle Colonies; and 21,
-the South. The largest number, nine, came from Pennsylvania; the
-least, two, from Rhode Island. All those from three Colonies (Georgia,
-New Hampshire, and North Carolina) were born elsewhere.
-About half of the men received their higher education in colonial
-colleges or abroad; most of the others studied at home, in local
-schools or private academies, or with tutors. A few were almost
-entirely self-taught.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_30" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="355" height="269" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Harvard College, about 1725. Indicative of the favored economic
-  circumstances of the signers, about half of them enjoyed a higher education.
-  Eight, including all five from Massachusetts, attended Harvard.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
-In wealth, the signers ranged from Charles Carroll, one of the
-wealthiest men in the Colonies, to Samuel Adams, whose friends
-supplied money and clothes so he could attend Congress. About one-third
-were born into wealth; most of the others acquired it on their
-own. Some were self-made men. A few were of humble origin; one,
-George Taylor, had come to America as an indentured servant.</p>
-
-<p>Many pursued more than one vocation. More than half were
-trained in the law, but not all of them practiced it. Some won a livelihood
-as merchants and shippers. Roughly a quarter of the group
-earned their living from agriculture, usually as wealthy planters or
-landed gentry, but just a few could be called farmers. Four—Josiah
-Bartlett, Benjamin Rush, Lyman Hall, and Matthew Thornton—were
-doctors. Oliver Wolcott also studied medicine for awhile, but
-never entered the profession. George Taylor’s occupation was ironmaster.
-Of the four trained as ministers—Lyman Hall, William
-Hooper, Robert Treat Paine, and John Witherspoon—only the latter
-made it his lifetime vocation. William Williams received some theological
-training. Samuel Adams followed no real occupation other than
-politics.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p>For their dedication to the cause of independence, the signers
-risked loss of fortune, imprisonment, and death for treason. Although
-none died directly at the hands of the British, the wife of one, Mrs.
-Francis Lewis, succumbed as a result of harsh prison treatment.
-About one-third of the group served as militia officers, most seeing
-wartime action. Four of these men (Thomas Heyward, Jr., Arthur
-Middleton, Edward Rutledge, and George Walton), as well as Richard
-Stockton, were taken captive. The homes of nearly one-third of
-the signers were destroyed or damaged, and the families of a few
-were scattered when the British pillaged or confiscated their estates.</p>
-
-<p>Nearly all of the group emerged poorer for their years of public
-service and neglect of personal affairs. Although a couple of the
-merchants and shippers among them profited from the war, the
-businesses of most of them deteriorated as a result of embargoes on
-trade with Britain and heavy financial losses when their ships were
-confiscated or destroyed at sea. Several forfeited to the Government
-precious specie for virtually worthless Continental currency or made
-donations or loans, usually unrepaid, to their colonies or the Government.
-Some even sold their personal property to help finance the war.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
-Certainly most of the signers had little or nothing to gain materially
-and practically all to lose when they subscribed to the
-Declaration of Independence. By doing so, they earned a niche of
-honor in the annals of the United States. Whatever other heights
-they reached or whatever else they contributed to history, the act of
-signing insured them immortality.</p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p><i>The following biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically by
-last name. Readers interested in signers for a certain State should
-consult the Index under the appropriate State.</i></p>
-
-<div id="biographies">
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_1" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="John_Adams" class="bio">John Adams</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MASSACHUSETTS</p>
-
-<div id="ip_33" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="239" height="312" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Few men contributed more to U.S.
-Independence than John Adams, the
-“Atlas of American Independence”
-in the eyes of fellow signer Richard
-Stockton. A giant among the Founding
-Fathers, Adams was one of the
-coterie of leaders who generated the
-American Revolution, for which his
-prolific writings provided many
-of the politico-philosophical foundations.
-Not only did he help draft
-the Declaration, but he also steered
-it through the Continental Congress.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The subsequent career of Adams—as a diplomat and first Vice President
-and second President of the United States—overshadows those of
-all the other signers except Jefferson. Adams was also the progenitor
-of a distinguished family. His son John Quincy gained renown as diplomat,
-Congressman, Secretary of State, and President. John’s grandson
-Charles Francis and great-grandsons John Quincy II, Charles Francis,
-Jr., Henry, and Brooks excelled in politics, diplomacy, literature,
-historiography, and public service.</p>
-
-<p>Adams, descended from a long line of yeomen farmers, was born
-in 1735 at Braintree (later Quincy), Mass. He graduated from Harvard
-College in 1755, and for a short time taught school at Worcester,
-Mass. At that time, he considered entering the ministry, but
-decided instead to follow the law and began its study with a local
-lawyer. Adams was admitted to the bar at Boston in 1758 and began<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
-to practice in his hometown. Six years later, he married Abigail
-Smith, who was to bear three sons and a daughter. She was also the
-first mistress of the White House and the only woman in U.S. history
-to be the wife of one President and the mother of another.</p>
-
-<p>Adams, like many others, was propelled into the Revolutionary
-camp by the Stamp Act. In 1765 he wrote a protest for Braintree that
-scores of other Massachusetts towns adopted. Three years later, he
-temporarily left his family behind and moved to Boston. He advanced
-in the law, but devoted more and more of his time to the patriot
-cause. In 1768 he achieved recognition throughout the Colonies for
-his defense of John Hancock, whom British customs officials had
-charged with smuggling. Adams later yielded to a stern sense of legal
-duty but incurred some public hostility by representing the British
-soldiers charged with murder in the Boston Massacre (1770). Ill
-health forced him to return to Braintree following a term in the
-colonial legislature (1770–71), and for the next few years he divided
-his time between there and Boston.</p>
-
-<p>A 3-year stint in the Continental Congress (1774–77), punctuated
-by short recuperative leaves and service in the colonial legislature in
-1774–75, brought Adams national fame. Because he was sharply
-attuned to the temper of Congress and aware that many Members
-resented Massachusetts extremism, he at first acceded to conciliatory
-efforts with Britain and restrained himself publicly. When Congress
-opted for independence, he became its foremost advocate, eschewing
-conciliation and urging a colonial confederation.</p>
-
-<p>Adams was a master of workable compromise and meaningful debate,
-though he was sometimes impatient. He chaired 25 of the more
-than 90 committees on which he sat, the most important of which
-dealt with military and naval affairs. He played an instrumental part
-in obtaining Washington’s appointment as commander in chief of the
-Continental Army. Adams was a member of the five-man committee
-charged with drafting the Declaration in June of 1776, though he
-probably made no major changes in Jefferson’s draft. But, more
-directly involved, he defended it from its congressional detractors,
-advocated it to the wavering, and guided it to passage.</p>
-
-<p>The independence battle won, exhausted by the incessant toil and
-strain and worried about his finances and family, Adams in November
-1777 retired from Congress—never to return. He headed back to
-Braintree intending to resume his law practice. But, before the month<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>
-expired, Congress appointed him to a diplomatic post in Europe—a
-phase of his career that consumed more than a decade (1777–88).</p>
-
-<p>Adams served in France during the period 1778–85, interrupted
-only by a visit to the United States in the summer of 1779, during
-which he attended the Massachusetts constitutional convention. Independent-minded
-and forthright, as well as somewhat jealous of the
-fame and accomplishments of others, he frequently found himself at
-odds with fellow diplomats Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee, as
-well as French officials, whose policies toward the Colonies he mistrusted.
-He joined Franklin and John Jay, however, in negotiating the
-Treaty of Paris (1783), by which Britain recognized the independence
-of the United States.</p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile, during the preceding 3 years, Adams had persuaded
-the Dutch to recognize the Colonies as an independent Nation, grant
-a series of loans, and negotiate a treaty of alliance. As the first
-American Envoy to Great Britain (1785–88), he strove to resolve
-questions arising from the Treaty of Paris and to calm the harsh
-feelings between the two countries.</p>
-
-<p>Back in the United States, Adams was soon elected as the first
-Vice President (1789–97), an office he considered insignificant but
-in which he emerged as a leader of the Federalist Party. During his
-stormy but statesmanlike Presidency (1797–1801), he inherited the
-deep political discord between the Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians
-that had taken root during Washington’s administration. Adams pursued
-a neutral course without abandoning his principles. He kept the
-United States out of a declared war with France and achieved an
-amicable peace. But he proved unable to unite his party, divided
-by Hamilton’s machinations and the ramifications of the French
-Revolution.</p>
-
-<p>The Jeffersonians drove the Federalists out of office in 1800, and
-Adams retired to Quincy, where he spent his later years quietly. The
-death of his wife in 1818 saddened him, but he never lost interest in
-public affairs and lived to see his son John Quincy become President.
-John died at the age of 90 just a few hours after Jefferson, on July
-4, 1826—dramatically enough the 50th anniversary of the adoption
-of the Declaration. Except for Charles Carroll, who was to live until
-1832, Adams and Jefferson were the last two surviving signers. The
-remains of John and Abigail Adams are interred in a basement crypt
-at the United First Parish Church in Quincy.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_2" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Samuel_Adams" class="bio">Samuel Adams</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MASSACHUSETTS</p>
-
-<div id="ip_36" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_017.jpg" width="236" height="366" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">“Firebrand of the Revolution,” Samuel
-Adams probably more than almost
-any other individual instigated and
-organized colonial resistance to the
-Crown. A talented polemicist and
-agitator-propagandist who relied more
-on his facile pen than the podium in
-behind-the-scenes manipulation of
-men and events, he religiously
-believed in the righteousness of his
-political causes, to which he persistently
-tried to convert others. He
-failed in business, neglected his
-family, gained a reputation as an
-eccentric, and demonstrated as much
-indifference to his own welfare
-as he did solicitousness for that of
-the public. His second cousin John
-Adams, more of a statesman,
-eclipsed him in the Continental Congress,
-though Samuel signed both the
-Declaration and the Articles of
-Confederation. In his later years, the
-Commonwealth of Massachusetts
-bestowed on him many high offices,
-capped by the governorship.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Adams was one of 12 offspring of a prosperous and politically
-active brewer and landowner. He was born at Boston in 1722 and
-enjoyed an excellent education at the Boston Latin School and Harvard
-College. Upon his graduation in 1740, he first demonstrated his
-lifelong aversion to normal employment. He studied law for awhile
-and then skipped from job to job, working for a time in his father’s
-brewery as well as in a counting house and dissipating a paternal
-loan in an unsuccessful business venture.</p>
-
-<p>When his father died in 1748 and his mother soon afterwards,
-Adams inherited a sizable estate, including the family home and
-brewery. By 1764, when the colonial quarrel with Britain began, he
-had long since lost the latter. And, during the previous 8 years as
-city tax collector, he had fallen in arrears about £8,000 in his collections.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>
-At the age of 42, unable to support a new wife and two children
-from his first marriage and residing in his rundown birthplace, he
-was destitute and besieged by creditors. He subsisted mainly on gifts
-and donations from loyal friends and neighbors.</p>
-
-<p>Adams was a failure by most standards, but he had long before
-found the only meaningful “occupation” he ever pursued. For almost
-two decades he had been active in local political clubs, where he
-earned a reputation as a writer and emerged as leader of the “popular”
-party that opposed the powerful conservative aristocracy controlling
-the Massachusetts government. As clerk in the colonial
-legislature (1765–74), he drafted most of the body’s official papers
-and quickly seized the tools of power. He pounced on the taxation
-issue raised by the Sugar and Stamp Acts (1764–65), and within a
-year he and his party fanned popular hatred of the conservatives and
-gained control of the legislature. He also spurred organization of the
-militant Boston Sons of Liberty, a secret society. As time went on,
-the stridency of his anti-British harangues escalated and sometimes
-became shrill enough to distress John Hancock and John Adams.</p>
-
-<p>The Townshend Acts (1767), imposing a series of taxes on imports,
-provided Adams with a new cause for dissent. He urged merchants
-not to purchase goods from Britain, fomented opposition toward customs
-officials, inflamed the resentment toward British troops stationed
-in the colony that led to the Boston Massacre (1770), and
-humiliated the Royal Governor so much that he was recalled. Adams
-also authored a circular letter protesting British taxation and advocating
-united opposition. When, in 1768, the Massachusetts legislature
-sent it to the 12 other colonial assemblies, the Royal Governor
-dissolved the legislature, soon a common British practice in America.
-All these activities, coupled with authorship of scores of newspaper
-articles and extensive correspondence with prominent persons in the
-Colonies and England, brought Adams fame.</p>
-
-<p>The conservative reaction on the part of merchants, the legislature,
-and the populace that surfaced after the repeal of practically all the
-Townshend Acts in 1770 failed to stifle Adams, though his popularity
-and influence declined. Relentlessly, in perhaps his chief contribution
-to the Revolution, he kept the controversy alive by filling the columns
-of the Boston newspapers with reports of British transgressions
-and warnings of more to come. Furthermore, in 1772 he began constructing
-the framework of a Revolutionary organization in Massachusetts.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
-Drawing on a similar scheme he had proposed for all the
-Colonies 2 years earlier but which had come to naught, he convinced
-Boston and other towns to create committees of correspondence. The
-next year, he was appointed to the Massachusetts committee, formed
-in response to a call from the Virginia House of Burgesses.</p>
-
-<p>Passage of the Tea Act (1773) provided the spark Adams was
-seeking to rekindle the flame of rebellion. He helped to incite and
-probably participated in the “Boston Tea Party,” which engendered
-a series of rebellious incidents throughout the Colonies and pushed
-them closer to war. Parliament retaliated the next spring by passing
-a series of acts designed to punish Massachusetts.</p>
-
-<p>Adams, recognizing that the other Colonies would only adopt non-intercourse
-measures in concert, urged an intercolonial congress to
-discuss mutual grievances and plan a united course of action. Subsequently,
-in June, the Massachusetts house of representatives,
-meeting behind locked doors to prevent interference by the Royal
-Governor, resolved to invite the other 12 Colonies to send representatives
-to Philadelphia in September and also appointed five Delegates,
-including Adams. That same day, the Royal Governor disbanded the
-legislature for the last time. Before heading for Philadelphia, outfitted
-in new clothes supplied by friends, Adams helped organize the
-convention that adopted the Suffolk Resolves, which in effect declared
-Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion.</p>
-
-<p>Adams served in the Continental Congress until 1781, longer than
-most other Delegates, but his role was less conspicuous than his
-preceding career augured. In the early sessions, most of the time he
-shrewdly stayed in the background with his fellow Massachusetts
-Delegates, whose radicalism offended most of their colleagues. And,
-throughout the Congress, he walked in the shadow of John Adams,
-who dominated the proceedings.</p>
-
-<p>But nothing in the latter’s career could match the drama of an
-episode involving Samuel in the interim between the First and Second
-Continental Congresses. Back at Lexington, Mass., one night in April
-1775, he and Hancock had barely escaped the British force seeking
-to capture the colonial supply depot at Concord. The outbreak of
-armed conflict the next dawn—a “glorious morning” for Adams—marked
-the beginning of the War for Independence.</p>
-
-<p>While still in Congress, in 1779–80 Adams participated in the
-Massachusetts constitutional convention. He returned to Boston for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
-good the next year and entered the State senate (1781–88), over
-which he presided. He refused to attend the Constitutional Convention
-of 1787 because of his objection to a stronger National Government,
-and the following year unenthusiastically took part in the
-Massachusetts ratifying convention. A lifetime of public service culminated
-in his election as Lieutenant Governor (1789–93), interim
-Governor in the latter year upon Hancock’s death, and Governor
-(1794–97). Still living in “honest poverty,” he died at Boston in 1803
-at the age of 81 and was buried in the Old Granary Burying Ground.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_3" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Josiah_Bartlett" class="bio">Josiah Bartlett</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW HAMPSHIRE</p>
-
-<div id="ip_39" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="233" height="330" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Thanks to the voting order in the
-Continental Congress, Josiah Bartlett
-of New Hampshire was probably the
-first Delegate to vote for independence,
-the second to sign the Declaration
-(after President John Hancock), and
-the first to ballot for and pen his
-name to the Articles of Confederation.
-He also has the distinction of being
-one of several physician signers. His
-State service, more extensive than the
-National, included the governorship.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Bartlett was born in 1729 at Amesbury, Mass. At the age of 16,
-equipped with a common school education and some knowledge of
-Latin and Greek, he began to study medicine in the office of a relative.
-Five years later, in 1750, he hung out his shingle at nearby
-Kingston, N.H. He quickly won a name not only as a general practitioner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
-but also as an experimenter and innovator in diagnosis and
-treatment. Marrying in 1754, he fathered 12 children.</p>
-
-<p>During the decade or so preceding the outbreak of the War for
-Independence, Bartlett held the offices of justice of the peace, militia
-colonel, and legislator. In 1774 he cast his lot with the Revolutionaries.
-He became a member of the New Hampshire committee of
-correspondence and the first provincial congress, which came into
-being when the Royal Governor disbanded the colonial assembly.
-Bartlett was elected that same year to the Continental Congress,
-but tragedy intervened and kept him at home. Arsonists, possibly
-Loyalists, burned his house to the ground. Discouraged but
-undeterred, he immediately constructed a new one on the very same
-site.</p>
-
-<p>While in Congress (1775–76), Bartlett also served on the New
-Hampshire council of safety. Although he rarely participated in
-congressional debates, whose seeming futility vexed him, he sat on
-various committees. He was reelected in 1777, but was too exhausted
-to attend. He nevertheless managed in August to lend his medical
-skills to Gen. John Stark’s force of New Hampshire militia and
-Continental troops. They defeated a predominantly German element
-of Gen. John Burgoyne’s command in the Battle of Bennington,
-N.Y.—one of the reverses that helped force him to surrender 2
-months later at Saratoga, N.Y. Bartlett’s last tour in Congress was
-in 1778–79, after which he refused reelection because of fatigue.</p>
-
-<p>Bartlett spent the remainder of his life on the State scene. Despite
-his lack of legal training, he sat first as chief justice of the court of
-common pleas (1779–82), then as associate (1782–88) and chief
-(1788–90) justice of the Superior Court. Meantime, in 1788, he had
-taken part in the State convention that ratified the Federal Constitution,
-which he strongly favored. The next year, probably on account
-of his age and the weight of his judicial duties, he declined
-election to the U.S. Senate. The following year, he became chief
-executive, or president, of the State. He held that title for 2 years,
-in 1793–94 being named the first Governor, as the newly amended
-constitution redesignated the position.</p>
-
-<p>Despite all his political activities, Bartlett had never lost interest
-in the field of medicine. In 1790 Dartmouth College conferred on him
-an honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine. The next year, he founded
-the New Hampshire Medical Society and became its first president.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
-In 1794, the year before he died in Kingston at the age of 65, ill
-health forced his retirement from public life. His remains lie in the
-yard of the Universalist Church in Kingston.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_4" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Carter_Braxton" class="bio">Carter Braxton</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_41" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="230" height="317" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Carter Braxton, an aristocratic
-planter and probably the most conservative
-of the seven Virginia
-signers, originally opposed independence
-but later changed his mind
-and signed the Declaration. His tour
-in the Continental Congress lasted
-less than a year, but he held State
-office for most of his life. His two
-wives bore him 18 children, more
-than any other signer fathered.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Braxton was born in 1736 at Newington Plantation, on the Mattaponi
-River, in King and Queen County, Va. His father was a wealthy
-and politically influential planter. His mother, who died at his birth,
-was the daughter of Robert “King” Carter, a prominent landowner
-and politician.</p>
-
-<p>In 1755, the same year Braxton graduated from the College of
-William and Mary, he married. His bride died in childbirth 2 years
-later. The following year, he left for an extended visit to England.
-He returned to Virginia in 1760 and moved into Elsing Green, an
-estate overlooking the Pamunkey River, in King William County,
-that his brother George had apparently built for him in 1758 during
-his absence. At the age of 25, in 1761, Carter remarried and entered
-the House of Burgesses. He served there, except for a term as county<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
-sheriff in 1772–73, until 1775. Meantime, in 1767, he had erected a
-new home, Chericoke, a couple of miles northwest of Elsing Green.</p>
-
-<p>When the trouble with Great Britain erupted, Braxton, like many
-other conservatives, sided with the patriots, though he did not condone
-violence. In 1769 he signed the Virginia Resolves, a document
-protesting parliamentary regulation of the colony’s affairs, and the
-Virginia Association, a nonimportation agreement. During the period
-1774–76, he attended various Revolutionary conventions. In 1775,
-upon dissolution of the royal government, he accepted a position on
-the council of safety, the temporary governing body.</p>
-
-<p>In the spring of that year, Braxton was instrumental in preventing
-the outbreak of war in Virginia. On April 20, the day after the clashes
-at Lexington and Concord, Royal Governor Lord John M. Dunmore
-seized the gunpowder in the Williamsburg magazine. Several colonial
-militia units prepared to retaliate, but moderate leaders such as
-George Washington and Peyton Randolph restrained them. Patrick
-Henry, however, refusing to be pacified, led a group of the Hanover
-County militia into Williamsburg and demanded the return of the
-gunpowder or payment for it. Before any hostilities occurred, Braxton,
-as spokesman for Henry, met with crown official Richard Corbin,
-his father-in-law, and convinced him to pay for the powder.</p>
-
-<p>In the fall of 1775 Braxton was selected to fill a vacancy in Congress
-caused by the death of Peyton Randolph. Arriving at Philadelphia
-early in 1776, he at first sharply criticized the independence
-movement, but eventually yielded to the majority and backed the
-Declaration. That same year, apparently both in writing and in a
-speech at a Virginia convention, he urged adoption of a conservative
-form of State government and expressed such a mistrust of popular
-government that he lost his congressional appointment. The conservatives,
-however, elected him to the new State legislature, in which he
-sat for the rest of his life. For many years, he was also a member of
-the Governor’s executive council.</p>
-
-<p>The War for Independence brought financial hardships to Braxton.
-At its beginning, he had invested heavily in shipping, but the British
-captured most of his vessels and ravaged some of his plantations and
-extensive landholdings. Commercial setbacks in later years ruined
-him. In 1786, though he retained Chericoke, he moved to Richmond,
-where he died in 1797 at the age of 61. He was buried in the family
-cemetery adjacent to Chericoke.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_5" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Charles_Carroll" class="bio">Charles Carroll</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MARYLAND</p>
-
-<div id="ip_43" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="236" height="309" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">As one of the wealthiest men in
-America, Charles Carroll III of Carrollton
-risked his fortune as well as his
-life when he joined the Revolutionaries.
-Possessing one of the most
-cultivated minds of any of the signers,
-he achieved remarkable success as
-planter, businessman, and politician.
-He was the only Roman Catholic
-signer, the last to survive, and the
-longest lived.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Of Irish descent, Carroll was born in 1737 at his father’s townhouse,
-Carroll Mansion in Annapolis. Jesuits educated him until he
-reached about 11 years of age. He then voyaged to Europe and
-studied the liberal arts and civil law at various schools and universities
-in Paris, elsewhere in France, and in London.</p>
-
-<p>Carroll sailed home in 1765 at the age of 28, and built a home at
-Carrollton Manor, a 10,000-acre estate in Frederick County newly
-deeded to him by his father. At that time, he added “of Carrollton”
-to his name to distinguish himself from relatives of the same name.
-For most of his life, however, he preferred for his country residence
-the family ancestral home, Doughoregan Manor, in Howard County;
-when in Annapolis, he usually resided at his birthplace. For almost
-a decade after his return from Europe, barred from public life by his
-religion, he lived quietly. During that time, in 1768, he married. His
-offspring numbered seven, three of whom lived to maturity.</p>
-
-<p>In 1773 Carroll became a champion of the patriots through his
-newspaper attacks on the Proprietary Governor. The latter was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>
-opposing reforms in officers’ fees and stipends for Anglican clergy
-that the lower house of the legislature had proposed. From then on,
-Carroll took a prominent part in provincial affairs. In the years
-1774–76 he supported nonimportation measures, attended the first
-Maryland Revolutionary convention, and served on local and provincial
-committees of correspondence and the council of safety. In
-1776 he and his cousin John, a priest—chosen because of their religion
-and knowledge of French—traveled to Canada with Benjamin
-Franklin and Samuel Chase on a congressionally appointed committee
-that sought but failed to obtain a union of Canada with the
-Colonies.</p>
-
-<p>Carroll and Chase arrived back in Philadelphia on June 11 that
-same year, the day after Congress had postponed the vote on Richard
-Henry Lee’s independence resolution (June 7) until July 1. Maryland
-had refused to commit herself. Carroll and Chase rushed to
-Annapolis, recruited William Paca’s aid, and conducted a whirlwind
-campaign that persuaded the provincial convention to pass a unanimous
-independence resolution. It reached Congress just in time to
-put the colony in the affirmative column on July 1, the day of the
-first vote. Three days later, Carroll himself became a Delegate and
-functioned in that capacity until 1778.</p>
-
-<p>Two years before, Carroll had also been elected to the State
-senate, a seat he retained until just after the turn of the century.
-Along with fellow signers Chase and Paca, he was a member of the
-committee that in 1776 drafted Maryland’s constitution. Elected to
-but not attending the Constitutional Convention of 1787, he nevertheless
-allied himself with the Federalists and helped bring about his
-State’s ratification of the Constitution. In the years 1789–92, while
-also in the State senate, he served as a U.S. Senator, one of
-Maryland’s first two.</p>
-
-<p>Not reelected to the State senate in 1804, the 67-year-old Carroll
-retired from public life and concentrated on managing his landholdings,
-consisting of about 80,000 acres in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
-New York, and his business interests. The latter included investments
-in the Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, which established
-a canal system in the Potomac and Shenandoah Valleys, and its
-successor the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company. Carroll was also
-a member of the first board of directors of the Baltimore and Ohio
-Railroad.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
-In his final years, revered by the Nation as the last surviving
-signer of the Declaration, Carroll spent most of his time at Doughoregan
-Manor. But he passed the winters in the home of his youngest
-daughter and her husband in Baltimore. There, in 1832, he died at
-the age of 95. His body was interred in the family chapel at
-Doughoregan Manor.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_6" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Samuel_Chase" class="bio">Samuel Chase</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MARYLAND</p>
-
-<div id="ip_45" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="236" height="218" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Fervid Revolutionary Samuel Chase
-led the campaign that crushed conservative
-opposition and alined his
-colony with the others in the independence
-struggle. Labeled the
-“Demosthenes of Maryland” for his
-fancy albeit effective oratory, he also
-demonstrated skill as a writer. But his
-independent attitude, stormy disposition,
-and outspokenness diluted his
-political effectiveness. As an Associate
-Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court,
-he became a controversial figure.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Chase was the son of an Anglican clergyman. He was born in
-1741 at the farmhouse of his mother’s parents on Maryland’s Eastern
-Shore near the city of Princess Anne. His mother had come there
-from her home at nearby Allen for a visit. She died at or soon after
-the birth. Likely Chase’s grandparents cared for him at least a few
-years, until about the time his father took over a parish in Baltimore.
-The latter provided the youth with his initial education, mainly in
-the classics.</p>
-
-<p>Between the ages of 18 and 20, Chase read law with an Annapolis
-firm and joined the bar in 1761. The next year, he married; his wife
-bore at least two sons and two daughters. Two years after his marriage,
-he entered the colonial/State legislature and retained membership
-for two decades. From the beginning, he opposed the royal
-government. Annapolis officials denounced him for his participation
-in the violent protests of the Sons of Liberty in 1765 against the
-Stamp Act. In 1774–75 he took part in the Maryland committee of
-correspondence, council of safety, and the provincial convention.</p>
-
-<p>In the former year, Chase had joined the Continental Congress.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
-He advocated an embargo on trade with Britain, showed special
-interest in diplomatic matters, early urged a confederation of the
-Colonies, defended George Washington from his congressional detractors,
-and in 1776 journeyed to Montreal with a commission that tried
-but failed to achieve a union with Canada. When he returned to
-Philadelphia around the middle of June, Congress had just postponed
-the vote on the Lee independence resolution. Realizing that
-Maryland was straddling the fence on the issue, Chase rushed home.
-Along with Charles Carroll of Carrollton and William Paca, he
-labored for 2 weeks to overcome opposition and won a committal to
-independence from the convention. The Maryland Delegates registered
-it in time for the first congressional vote, on July 1. In 1778
-Chase lost his office because of adverse publicity generated by the
-advantage he had taken of knowledge gained in Congress to engage
-in a profiteering scheme.</p>
-
-<p>In 1783–84 Chase traveled to London as a State emissary on an
-unfruitful mission to recover Maryland stock in the Bank of England
-from two fugitive Loyalists. Upon his return apparently, his first wife
-having died, he remarried; resumed his law practice; and engaged
-in various unsuccessful business enterprises that led to bankruptcy in
-1789. Meantime, he had reentered politics. In 1785 he had represented
-Maryland at the Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference, forerunner
-of the Annapolis Convention. The next year, he moved his family
-from Annapolis to Baltimore, where he soon became chief judge of
-the Baltimore County criminal court (1788–95). As a delegate to the
-Maryland ratifying convention in 1788, he strongly opposed the
-Constitution, though he later became a staunch Federalist. From
-1791 until 1794, while still a county judge, he also held the position
-of chief justice of the Maryland Superior Court.</p>
-
-<p>Chase achieved his greatest fame as an Associate Justice of the
-U.S. Supreme Court (1796–1811). He was one of the ablest jurists
-in the body prior to Chief Justice John Marshall (1801–35), and
-delivered many influential opinions. His inability to control his political
-partisanship while on the bench—a trait he shared with some
-other judges of his time—led to various judicial improprieties and
-impeachment proceedings against him in 1805. But Congress acquitted
-him.</p>
-
-<p>Still a Justice, Chase died in Baltimore 2 months after he
-celebrated his 70th birthday. His grave is in St. Paul’s Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_7" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Abraham_Clark" class="bio">Abraham Clark</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW JERSEY</p>
-
-<div id="ip_47" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="237" height="246" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Abraham Clark—farmer, surveyor,
-self-taught lawyer, and politician—typifies
-those signers who dedicated
-most of their lives to public service
-but never gained national renown.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">An only child, Clark was born in 1726 at his father’s farm in what
-is now Roselle, N.J. In his boyhood, he was too frail for farmwork.
-He received only a minimum of formal education, but in his independent
-study demonstrated a bent for mathematics. When he
-reached manhood, besides farming his father’s land, he took up
-surveying and informally read law to aid in mediating land disputes.
-Although probably never admitted to the bar, he gained a reputation
-as the “poor man’s counselor” for his willingness to dispense
-free legal advice or accept produce or merchandise in lieu of a fee.
-He married in 1749, and fathered 10 children.</p>
-
-<p>Clark followed his father’s example by taking an active part in
-civic affairs. For many years, he served the Crown as high sheriff of
-Essex County and as clerk in the colonial legislature. The exact date
-of his entry into the patriot ranks is not known, but in the period
-1774–76 he became a member and secretary of the New Jersey
-council of safety, attended several Revolutionary conventions, and
-won election to the provincial assembly. In June of the latter year,
-he and four other men replaced the existing congressional Delegates,
-who were opposing independence.</p>
-
-<p>Despite poor health and deep concern for the welfare of his family
-and the safety of his home, located not far from an area of British
-occupation, Clark stayed in Congress throughout the War for Independence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
-and sometimes sat concurrently in the State legislature.
-He suffered additional anxiety when the British captured his two
-soldier sons and incarcerated them for a time on the prison ship
-<i>Jersey</i>, where hundreds of captives perished.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_48" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_023.jpg" width="354" height="259" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Thousands of American soldiers, including two of Abraham Clark’s sons,
-  endured the agonies of captivity on the British prison ship <i>Jersey</i>.</div></div>
-
-<p>At the end of the war in 1783, Clark resumed his life back in New
-Jersey. The next year he began a 3-year tour in the State legislature,
-which he represented at the Annapolis Convention (1786). The following
-year, ill health prevented his attendance at the Constitutional
-Convention. He subsequently opposed the Constitution until it incorporated
-the Bill of Rights. In 1787–89 he returned to the Continental
-Congress, but in 1789–90 remained in New Jersey as commissioner to
-settle his State’s accounts with the Federal Government. In 1791–94
-he climaxed a long career of alternating State-National service as a
-Representative in the Second and Third Congresses.</p>
-
-<p>Clark was stricken with a sunstroke in 1794 at his birthplace in
-Roselle, where he had lived all his life except when political duty
-called him away. He died a few hours later, at the age of 68, in the
-nearby town of Rahway and was buried there in the Presbyterian
-Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_8" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="George_Clymer" class="bio">George Clymer</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_49" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_023b.jpg" width="232" height="307" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">George Clymer, a leading Philadelphia
-merchant, rendered long years of
-service to his city, State, and Nation.
-He signed the Constitution as well
-as the Declaration, and applied his
-commercial acumen to the financial
-problems of the Colonies and the
-Confederation.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Clymer was orphaned in 1740, only a year after his birth in Philadelphia.
-A wealthy uncle reared and informally educated him and
-advanced him from clerk to a full-fledged partner in his mercantile
-firm, which on his death he bequeathed to his ward. Later, Clymer
-merged operations with the Merediths, prominent businessmen, and
-cemented the relationship by marrying his senior partner’s daughter.</p>
-
-<p>Motivated at least partly by the impact of British economic
-restrictions on his business, Clymer early adopted the Revolutionary
-cause and was one of the first to recommend independence. He
-attended patriotic meetings, served on the Pennsylvania council of
-safety, and in 1773 headed a committee that forced the resignation
-of Philadelphia tea consignees appointed by Britain under the Tea
-Act. Inevitably, in light of his economic background, he channeled
-his energies into financial matters. In 1775–76 he acted as one of the
-first two Continental treasurers, even personally underwriting the
-war by exchanging all his own specie for Continental currency.</p>
-
-<p>In the Continental Congress (1776–77 and 1780–82) the quiet and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
-unassuming Clymer rarely spoke in debate but made his mark in
-committee efforts, especially those pertaining to commerce, finance,
-and military affairs. During and between his two congressional tours,
-he also served on a series of commissions that conducted important
-field investigations. In December 1776, when Congress fled from
-Philadelphia to Baltimore, he and fellow signers George Walton and
-Robert Morris remained behind to carry on congressional business.
-Within a year, after their victory at the Battle of Brandywine, Pa.
-(Sept. 11, 1777), British troops advancing on Philadelphia detoured
-for the purpose of vandalizing Clymer’s home in Chester County,
-about 25 miles outside the city, while his wife and children hid
-nearby in the woods.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_50" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="355" height="249" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">George Clymer lived in this Philadelphia townhouse during the
-  Revolutionary period.</div></div>
-
-<p>After a brief retirement following his last tour in the Continental
-Congress, Clymer was reelected in the years 1784–88 to the Pennsylvania
-legislature, where he had also served part time in 1780–82
-while still in Congress. As a State legislator, he advocated reform of
-the penal code, opposed capital punishment, and represented Pennsylvania
-in the Constitutional Convention (1787). The next phase<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>
-of his career consisted of service as a U.S. Representative in the First
-Congress (1789–91), followed by appointment as collector of excise
-taxes on alcoholic beverages in Pennsylvania (1791–94). In 1795–96
-he sat on a Presidential commission that negotiated a treaty with
-the Indians in Georgia.</p>
-
-<p>During his retirement, Clymer advanced various community projects,
-including the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, the Philadelphia
-Academy of Fine Arts, and the Philadelphia Bank. At the age
-of 73, in 1813, he died at Summerseat, an estate a few miles outside
-Philadelphia at Morrisville that he had purchased and moved to in
-1806. His grave is in the Friends Meeting House Cemetery at
-Trenton, N.J.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_9" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="William_Ellery" class="bio">William Ellery</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">RHODE ISLAND</p>
-
-<div id="ip_51" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_024b.jpg" width="237" height="307" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">One of a small group of lesser
-known signers whose achievements
-were comparatively modest, William
-Ellery gained little fame beyond his
-hometown—in sharp contrast to
-fellow Rhode Island signer Stephen
-Hopkins. The office of Delegate to
-the Continental Congress was the
-only significant position, State or
-National, to which Ellery ever won
-election, but he occupied it for a far
-longer period than most other
-Members.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The second son in a family of four, Ellery was born in 1727 at
-Newport, his lifelong residence. He followed in the footsteps of his
-father, a rich merchant and political leader, by attending Harvard.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
-On his graduation in 1747, he returned home. During the following
-two decades or so, he tried his hand at several occupations, eventually
-taking up the study of law, which he began practicing in 1770.
-Meantime, he had married twice and was to rear two sons and three
-daughters. Among his grandchildren were William Ellery Channing,
-influential theologian and apostle of Unitarianism, and Richard
-Henry Dana, Sr., noted poet and essayist.</p>
-
-<p>By May 1776, when the colonial legislature sent Ellery to the Continental
-Congress, he had already earned a reputation for his work
-on local patriotic committees. Tradition records that, at the formal
-signing of the Declaration on August 2, he placed himself beside the
-Secretary and observed “undaunted resolution” on every face as the
-Delegates subscribed to their “death warrant.” The next year,
-Rhode Island initiated popular election of congressional Delegates,
-and Ellery’s Newport constituency maintained him in office until
-1786 except for the years 1780 and 1782. In 1780 he remained in
-Philadelphia as an ex officio member of the board of admiralty, on
-which he had been sitting. His other committee assignments included
-those dealing with commercial and naval affairs. On occasion, to
-entertain himself and others, he wrote witty epigrams about various
-speakers. In 1785 he turned down the chief justiceship of the Rhode
-Island Superior Court to remain in Congress, where he had attained
-commanding seniority.</p>
-
-<p>The very next year, Ellery terminated his congressional career to
-accept an appointment as commissioner of the Continental Loan
-Office for Rhode Island (1786–90). Probably the need to straighten
-out his finances compelled him to accept. British troops in 1778,
-during their 3-year occupation of Newport, had destroyed his home
-and property, and he had been too busy to rebuild his fortune. In
-1790 President Washington appointed Ellery as customs collector
-for the district of Newport, a position he held for three decades.
-Although he was a Federalist, he managed to retain office during the
-Democratic-Republican administrations, probably because of his
-Revolutionary record and competence.</p>
-
-<p>In his later years, Ellery prospered. He kept active in public affairs
-and spent many hours in scholarly pursuits and correspondence.
-Living to 92, a more advanced age than all the signers except Charles
-Carroll, he died in 1820 at Newport. His remains rest there in the
-Common Ground Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_10" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="William_Floyd" class="bio">William Floyd</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW YORK</p>
-
-<div id="ip_53" class="figright" style="max-width: 15em;">
-  <img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="240" height="333" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">William Floyd, a wealthy landowner-farmer,
-belongs to the category of
-signers who played only a peripheral
-part in the Revolution. Nevertheless,
-he suffered anguish when British
-troops and Loyalists ravaged his
-estate during the war and drove his
-family into a 7-year exile in Connecticut.
-He also climbed to the rank of
-major general in the State militia,
-and served in the U.S. First Congress.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Floyd was born in 1734 at present Mastic, Long Island, N.Y., in
-Brookhaven Township. He was the second child and eldest of two
-sons in a family of nine. His father, a prosperous farmer of Welsh
-ancestry, kept the youth busy with chores. As a result, his education
-consisted only of informal instruction at home. When Floyd reached
-his 20th year, his father and mother died within 2 months of each
-other, and he inherited a large estate along with the responsibility of
-caring for his brothers and sisters. Six years later, he married. His
-bride helped care for the family and assisted in managing the farm,
-for which slaves supplied most of the labor. A community stalwart,
-Floyd also devoted considerable time to the affairs of the Brookhaven
-church, occupied the position of town trustee (1769–71), and moved
-up in the ranks of the Suffolk County militia to a colonelcy in 1775.</p>
-
-<p>The Revolutionary movement in New York was much less fervent
-and started later than that in the other Colonies. The spirited Massachusetts
-opposition to the Tea Act in the later half of 1773 and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
-1774 created the first major ferment in New York. One of the scattered
-focal points was eastern Long Island, where Floyd lived. He
-and many of his neighbors attended meetings that extended sympathy
-and aid to Massachusetts and protested the closing of the port
-of Boston by the British. Despite such local outbursts, by the end
-of 1774 New York was one of only two Colonies, Georgia being the
-other, in which the patriots did not control the government. For this
-reason, the Revolutionaries operated mainly on a county basis.</p>
-
-<p>In 1774 Suffolk County sent Floyd to the Continental Congress.
-He remained there until 1777, returned in the period 1779–83, and
-in the interim served in the State senate and on the council of safety.
-Yielding the floor of Congress to the other New York Delegates, he
-labored without special distinction on a few committees. But worry
-about the welfare of his family presented a major distraction. In
-1776, when British forces occupied Long Island, his wife, son, and
-two daughters fled northward across the sound and took refuge in
-Middletown, Conn. His wife died there in 1781. To make matters
-worse, the redcoats used his home at Mastic for a barracks, and
-Loyalists plundered his lands and belongings. When he brought his
-children back in 1783, he found the fields and timber stripped, the
-fences destroyed, and the house damaged.</p>
-
-<p>After the war, Floyd sat for several terms in the State senate,
-attended the constitutional convention of 1801, supported the Federal
-Constitution, won election in the years 1789–91 as a Representative
-in the First Congress, served as presidential elector on four
-occasions, and became a major general in the New York militia. His
-second wife, whom he had married in 1784, bore him two daughters.</p>
-
-<p>About this time, Floyd acquired an interest in western lands. The
-year of his marriage, he purchased a tract in central New York at
-the headwaters of the Mohawk River in the environs of present
-Rome; he supplemented this 3 years later by obtaining a State grant
-of more than 10,000 acres in the area. He spent most of his summers
-visiting and developing the acreage.</p>
-
-<p>In 1803, in his late sixties, at a time when most men possess lesser
-ambitions, Floyd deeded his Long Island home and farm to his son
-Nicoll, and set out with the rest of his family to make a new life on
-the frontier. During the first year, he built a home at present
-Westernville, N.Y. There he succumbed, at the age of 86 in 1821,
-and was buried in the Presbyterian Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_11" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Benjamin_Franklin" class="bio">Benjamin Franklin</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_55" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="242" height="370" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Benjamin Franklin, elder statesman
-of the Revolution and oldest signer of
-both the Declaration and the Constitution,
-sat on the committee that
-drafted the Declaration, attended the
-Constitutional Convention, and distinguished
-himself as a diplomat.
-But he was a self-made and self-educated
-intellectual colossus whose
-interests far transcended politics.
-He won international renown as a
-printer-publisher, author, philosopher,
-scientist, inventor, and philanthropist.
-On both sides of the Atlantic he
-mingled with the social elite, whom
-he impressed with his sagacity, wit,
-and zest for life.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Franklin was born in 1706 at Boston. He was the tenth son of a
-soap- and candle-maker. He received some formal education but was
-principally self-taught. After serving an apprenticeship to his father
-between the ages of 10 and 12, he went to work for his half-brother
-James, a printer. In 1721 the latter founded the <cite>New England
-Courant</cite>, the fourth newspaper in the Colonies. Benjamin secretly
-contributed to it 14 essays, his first published writings.</p>
-
-<p>In 1723, because of dissension with his half-brother, Franklin
-moved to Philadelphia. He spent only a year there, and then sailed
-to London for two more years. Back in Philadelphia, he rose rapidly
-in the printing industry. He published <cite>The Pennsylvania Gazette</cite>
-(1730–48), which had been founded by another man in 1728, but
-his most successful venture was annual <cite>Poor Richard’s Almanac</cite><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>
-(1733–58). It won a popularity in the Colonies second only to the
-Bible, and its fame eventually spread to Europe.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, in 1730 Franklin had taken a common-law wife, who
-was to bear him a son and a daughter, as was another woman out of
-wedlock. By 1748 he had achieved financial independence and gained
-recognition for his philanthropy and the stimulus he provided to such
-worthwhile civic causes as libraries, educational institutions, and
-hospitals. Energetic and tireless, he also found time to pursue his
-deep interest in science, as well as enter politics.</p>
-
-<p>Franklin served as clerk (1736–51) and member (1751–64) of the
-colonial legislature, and as deputy postmaster of Philadelphia
-(1737–53) and deputy postmaster general of the Colonies (1753–74).
-In addition, he represented Pennsylvania at the Albany Congress
-(1754), called to unite the Colonies during the French and Indian
-War. The congress adopted his “Plan of Union,” but the colonial
-assemblies rejected it because it encroached on their powers.</p>
-
-<p>During the years 1757–62 and 1764–75, Franklin resided in England,
-originally in the capacity of agent for Pennsylvania and later
-for Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. During the latter period,
-which coincided with the growth of colonial unrest, he underwent
-a political metamorphosis. Until then a contented Englishman
-in outlook, primarily concerned with Pennsylvania provincial politics,
-he distrusted popular movements and saw little purpose to be served
-in carrying principle to extremes. Until the issue of parliamentary
-taxation undermined the old alliances, he led the conservative
-Quaker party in its attack on the Anglican proprietary party and
-its Presbyterian frontier cohorts. His purpose throughout the years
-at London in fact had been displacement of the Penn family administration
-by royal authority—the conversion of the province from a
-proprietary to a royal colony.</p>
-
-<p>It was during the Stamp Act crisis that Franklin evolved from
-leader of a shattered provincial party’s faction to celebrated spokesman
-at London for American rights. Although as agent for Pennsylvania
-he opposed by every conceivable persuasive means enactment
-of the bill in 1765, he did not at first realize the depth of colonial
-hostility. He regarded passage as unavoidable and preferred to submit
-to it while actually working for its repeal. His nomination of a
-friend and political ally as stamp distributor in Pennsylvania, coupled
-with his apparent acceptance of the legislation, armed his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
-proprietary opponents with explosive issues. Their energetic exploitation
-of them endangered his reputation at home until reliable
-information was published demonstrating his unabated opposition.
-For a time, mob resentment threatened his family and new home
-in Philadelphia until his tradesmen supporters rallied. Subsequently,
-Franklin’s defense of the American position in the House of Commons
-during the debates over the Stamp Act’s repeal restored his prestige
-at home.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_57" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_027.jpg" width="487" height="362" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Benjamin Franklin being arraigned in 1774 by a committee of Lords of
-  Parliament for disloyalty to the Crown. The following day, he was dismissed
-  as deputy postmaster general of the Colonies.</div></div>
-
-<p>Franklin returned to Philadelphia in May 1775, and immediately
-became a Member of the Continental Congress. Thirteen months<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
-later, he served on the committee that drafted the Declaration.
-According to a traditional anecdote, when he finished signing he
-declared, “Gentlemen, we must now all hang together, or we shall
-most assuredly all hang separately,” He subsequently contributed
-to the Government in other important ways, and took over the
-duties of president of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention.</p>
-
-<p>But, within less than a year and a half after his return, the aged
-statesman set sail once again for Europe, beginning a career as diplomat
-that would occupy him for most of the rest of his life. In
-1776–79, one of three commissioners, he directed the negotiations
-that led to treaties of commerce and alliance with France, where the
-people adulated him, but he and the other commissioners squabbled
-constantly. While he was sole commissioner to France (1779–85),
-he and John Jay and John Adams negotiated the Treaty of Paris
-(1783), which ended the War for Independence.</p>
-
-<p>Back in the United States, in 1785–87 Franklin became president
-of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. At the Constitutional
-Convention (May 1787), though he did not approve of
-many aspects of the finished document, he lent his prestige, soothed
-passions, and compromised disputes. In his twilight years, working
-on his <cite>Autobiography</cite>, he could look back on a fruitful life as the
-toast of two continents. Active nearly to the last, in 1787 he was
-elected as first president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting
-the Abolition of Slavery—a cause to which he had committed himself
-as early as the 1730’s. His final public act was signing a memorial
-to Congress recommending dissolution of the slavery system.
-Shortly thereafter, in 1790 at the age of 84, Franklin passed away
-in Philadelphia and was buried in Christ Church Burial Ground.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_12" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Elbridge_Gerry" class="bio">Elbridge Gerry</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MASSACHUSETTS</p>
-
-<div id="ip_59" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="232" height="353" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">During an extended and controversial
-career, Elbridge Gerry experienced
-many triumphs and disappointments.
-A prosperous merchant who worked
-alongside the two Adamses and John
-Hancock in the cause of independence,
-he integrated personal interests
-with public service and translated
-them into wartime profits. In the
-course of his long tenure in the
-Continental Congress, he signed both
-the Declaration and Articles of Confederation.
-But throughout his years
-in office, which crested in the U.S.
-Vice-Presidency, his inconsistencies,
-ambivalence, and truculence stirred
-up animosity among his colleagues—though
-he usually managed to muster
-enough party and popular support to
-win reelection.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Gerry was born in 1744 at Marblehead, Mass., the third of 12
-children. His mother was the daughter of a Boston merchant; his
-father, a wealthy and politically active merchant-shipper who had
-once been a sea captain. Upon graduating from Harvard in 1762,
-Gerry joined his father and two brothers in the family business,
-which consisted of exporting dried codfish to Barbados and Spain.
-In 1772–74 he entered the colonial legislature, where he came under
-the influence of Samuel Adams, and took part in the Marblehead
-and Massachusetts committees of correspondence. In June of the latter
-year, when Parliament closed Boston Harbor and Marblehead
-became a major port of entry for supplies donated by patriots
-throughout the Colonies to relieve the Bostonians, he aided in the
-transshipment.</p>
-
-<p>Between 1774 and 1776, Gerry attended the first and second<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
-provincial congresses; served with Samuel Adams and John Hancock
-on the council of safety, which prepared the colony for war; and, as
-chairman of the committee of supply, a job for which his merchant
-background ideally suited him, raised troops and dealt with military
-logistics. During the night of April 18, 1775, he barely eluded capture
-by the British troops marching on Lexington and Concord. Following
-the adjournment of a meeting of the council of safety at an inn in
-Menotomy (Arlington), on the road from Cambridge to Lexington,
-he had retired for the night but responded to the alarm and fled.</p>
-
-<p>Gerry entered the Continental Congress in 1776 and voted for
-independence in July, but his absence at the formal ceremonies on
-August 2 necessitated his signing the Declaration later in the year.
-His congressional specialties were military and financial matters, in
-both of which he demonstrated a duality of attitude that was to become
-his political trademark. He earned the nickname “soldiers’
-friend” for his advocacy of better pay and equipment, yet he vacillated
-on the issue of pensions. Despite his disapproval of standing
-armies, he recommended long-term enlistments. Although mistrustful
-of military officials, he befriended both George Washington and
-Thomas Conway, two generals who were implacable enemies.</p>
-
-<p>Until 1779 Gerry sat on and sometimes presided over the congressional
-treasury board, which regulated Continental finances.
-An Army procurement agent as well as a merchant-supplier, he
-utilized information he obtained in Congress to benefit his lucrative
-business. On the other hand, he denounced profiteering and personally
-adhered to a fair-price schedule. In 1780, as wartime financial
-problems mounted, however, the Delegates resolved to revise the
-schedule. Gerry’s vehement objections led to a quarrel, and he
-stormed out of Congress. Although nominally a Member, he did not
-reappear for 3 years. During the interim, he engaged in trade and
-privateering and saw duty in the lower house of the State legislature.</p>
-
-<p>Back in Congress in 1783–85, Gerry numbered among those Representatives
-who had possessed talent as Revolutionary agitators and
-wartime leaders but who could not effectually cope with the painstaking
-task of stabilizing the National Government. He was experienced
-and conscientious, but created many enemies with his lack
-of humor, suspicion of the motives of others, and obsessive fear of
-political and military tyranny. In 1786, the year after leaving Congress,
-his fortune well established, he retired from business, married,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
-and took a seat in the State legislature. The next year, he moved
-from Marblehead to Cambridge and purchased a confiscated Loyalist
-estate, where he was to reside for the rest of his life.</p>
-
-<p>Gerry was one of the most vocal of the delegates at the Constitutional
-Convention of 1787. He antagonized practically everyone by
-his inconsistency and, according to a colleague, “objected to everything
-he did not propose.” At first he advocated a strong Central
-Government, but ultimately rejected and refused to sign the Constitution,
-especially because it lacked a bill of rights and because he
-deemed it a threat to republicanism. He led the drive against ratification
-in Massachusetts. In 1789, when he changed his mind and
-announced his intention to support the Constitution, he was elected
-to the First Congress, where to the chagrin of the Antifederalists he
-championed Federalist policies.</p>
-
-<p>Gerry left Congress for the last time in 1793 and retired for 4
-years. During this time, he came to mistrust the aims of the Federalists,
-particularly their attempts to nurture an alliance with Britain,
-and sided with the pro-French Democratic-Republicans. In 1797
-President John Adams appointed him as the only non-Federalist
-member of a three-man commission charged with negotiating a
-reconciliation with France, on the brink of war with the United
-States. During the ensuing XYZ affair (1797–98), Gerry tarnished
-his reputation. The French foreign minister duped him into believing
-that his presence in France would prevent war, and he lingered on
-long after the departure of the other disgusted commissioners.
-Finally, the embarrassed Adams recalled him, amid Federalist
-vituperation.</p>
-
-<p>In 1800–03 Gerry, never very popular among the Massachusetts
-electorate because of his aristocratic haughtiness, met defeat in four
-bids for the Massachusetts governorship, but finally triumphed in
-1810–12. Near the end of his two terms, scarred by partisan controversy,
-the Democratic-Republicans passed a devious redistricting
-measure to insure their domination of the State senate. In response,
-the Federalists heaped ridicule on Gerry and punningly coined the
-term “gerrymander” to describe the salamander-like shape of one of
-the redistricted areas.</p>
-
-<p>Despite his advanced age, frail health, and the threat of poverty
-brought on by neglect of personal affairs, in 1813 Gerry accepted the
-Vice-Presidency in James Madison’s Democratic-Republican administration.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
-In the fall of 1814, the 70-year-old politician was stricken
-fatally while on the way to the Senate. He left his wife, who was to
-live until 1849, the last surviving widow of a signer, as well as three
-sons and four daughters. Gerry is buried in Congressional Cemetery
-at Washington, D.C.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_13" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Button_Gwinnett" class="bio">Button Gwinnett</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">GEORGIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_62" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15em;">
-  <img src="images/i_029.jpg" width="240" height="310" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Tempestuousness and ill-fortune
-marked the destiny of uniquely named
-Button Gwinnett, whose forename is
-that of a branch of his mother’s family.
-The second signer to die, he met a
-tragic end in a duel while only in his
-forties. The only highlight of his brief
-tour in the Continental Congress
-was signing the Declaration. Even
-in Georgia, where he rose to the
-acting governorship, controversy
-and failure usually dogged him.
-Financial misfortunes were continual
-distractions, and he found that his
-paltry rewards as a merchant and
-planter matched his disappointments
-in politics.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Gwinnett was likely born in 1735, at the village of Down Hatherly,
-Gloucestershire, England. The second male in a family numbering
-at least seven, he was the son of an Anglican vicar of Welsh ancestry
-and a mother with English ties. He probably learned trade and
-finance from an uncle, a Bristol merchant, and in 1757 moved to
-Wolverhampton, Staffordshire. He married a grocer’s daughter, who
-was to bear three girls, and for a time he joined her father in a
-partnership. In 1759, however, Gwinnett entered the export shipping
-business and built up an extensive trade with the American Colonies,
-possibly sometimes visiting them himself.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
-The date of Gwinnett’s emigration to Savannah, Ga., is not known
-but in 1765 he purchased a store there. Later that same year, for
-some reason, he sold it and abruptly switched vocation. Apparently
-dazzled by visions of a planter’s life on a great estate but undeterred
-by his lack of capital, experience, and training, he borrowed £3,000
-and purchased large St. Catherine’s Island. It was located off the
-Georgia coast not far from the busy mainland port of Sunbury, a
-rival of Savannah. At this time, he probably erected a home on the
-island. Before long, though already deep in debt, he also purchased
-some coastal lands on credit and received grants of others from the
-colony; and bought large numbers of slaves to work his holdings.
-Poachers aggravated his problems by raiding the island’s livestock.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_63" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_029b.jpg" width="355" height="289" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Fanciful depiction of Button Gwinnett’s duel with Gen. Lachlan McIntosh
-  in 1777 that resulted in the former’s death.</div></div>
-
-<p>Gwinnett’s land, slaves, and other possessions were soon gobbled
-up by creditors. Finally, in 1773, they took over the island, but
-allowed Gwinnett to maintain his home there. He did so for the rest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
-of his life. During the war, however, the approach of British vessels,
-who replenished their food supplies from the livestock on the exposed
-island, sometimes forced him and his family to scurry over in their
-boat to Sunbury for temporary refuge.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, Gwinnett had long since entered politics. In 1768–69
-he had been designated as one of His Majesty’s justices of the peace
-and as a local pilotage commissioner. In the years 1769–71 the voters
-of St. John’s Parish elected him to the colonial assembly at Savannah,
-but he attended only spasmodically because of his financial
-woes. When they worsened, he left public office for 5 years.</p>
-
-<p>Gwinnett returned on the national level. Unlike the other two
-Georgia signers, Lyman Hall and George Walton, he belatedly joined
-the patriot side—apparently held back for some time by his English
-birth and close family connections in England. His friend Hall, a
-Sunbury resident and fellow member of the Midway Congregational
-Church, swung him over, probably beginning in the summer of 1775.
-The next February, the provincial congress named Gwinnett to the
-Continental Congress, though he did not arrive in Philadelphia until
-May. He attended for only about 10 weeks. Right after he signed
-the Declaration on August 2, he trekked back to Georgia, where he
-hoped but failed to win at least an Army colonelcy in one of the units
-the State was forming.</p>
-
-<p>In October Gwinnett was reelected to the Continental Congress,
-but chose not to attend. Instead, during the next 5 months, he
-played a key role in drafting the State’s first constitution, in the
-course of which he helped thwart a proposed union of South Carolina
-and Georgia. Upon the death of the Governor, or president of the
-Executive Council, in March 1777 the council commissioned Gwinnett
-as Acting Governor for 2 months, but he failed to achieve
-reelection. Before leaving office, he had clashed with controversial
-Gen. Lachlan McIntosh, an old rival. The result was a pistol duel
-in May just outside Savannah. Both men suffered wounds, but
-Gwinnett died a few days later of a gangrenous infection in his leg.
-Colonial Park Cemetery in Savannah contains a grave reputed to
-be his.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_14" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Lyman_Hall" class="bio">Lyman Hall</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">GEORGIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_65" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="232" height="290" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Lyman Hall was one of the four
-signers originally trained as ministers.
-He eventually found his pulpit in
-politics, though he had to preach
-vigorously to inspire the “congregation”
-of Georgia. He enthusiastically
-sparked the slow-developing independence
-movement there with George
-Walton and recruited Button Gwinnett,
-the third Georgia signer. Somehow
-Hall also managed to pursue careers
-as doctor, planter, and Governor.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">A native of Wallingford, Conn., Hall was born in 1724. He graduated
-from Yale College in 1747 at the age of 23, returned home, and
-heeded a family call to the Congregational ministry. An uncle,
-Rev. Samuel Hall, trained him in theology. In 1749 he began preaching
-in Bridgeport and adjacent towns. Young and immature, he
-probably entrapped himself in the middle of a liberal-conservative
-schism and in some way alienated his congregation, but repentance
-brought quick reinstatement from dismissal in 1751, and for a couple
-of years he temporarily filled vacant pulpits.</p>
-
-<p>During this period, in 1752, Hall married, but his wife lived only a
-year; about 2 years later he remarried, a union that was to bring
-forth a son. Meantime, Hall had become disillusioned by his ministerial
-experiences. He studied medicine with a local doctor, partially
-supporting himself by teaching. When his medical training was
-completed, he moved back to Wallingford and hung out his shingle.</p>
-
-<p>In 1757 the 33-year-old Hall, seeking brighter fields, emigrated
-to Dorchester, S.C., a settlement of New England Puritans not far
-from Charleston. Within a few months, he joined some of the residents
-in a relocation that had been underway since 1752. They were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
-pushing southward to Georgia’s coastal Midway District, in St.
-John’s Parish (present Liberty County). This area provided more
-land and a healthier climate.</p>
-
-<p>In 1758 the colonists finished their emigration and founded Sunbury.
-It evolved into the thriving seaport-hub of the surrounding
-slave-based, rice-indigo economy. Like many other planters, Hall
-maintained a home there, where it was healthier than inland, as well
-as at Hall’s Knoll, the plantation just north of the present town of
-Midway that he had purchased shortly after arriving in the area.
-Because its plantations skirted malarial swamps, Hall kept busy
-providing medical treatment, as well as managing his estate.</p>
-
-<p>St. John’s Parish became the wealthiest in Georgia. This was not
-its only uniqueness, for the populace was steeped in the New
-England tradition of independence. When the trouble with Britain
-erupted in the mid-1760’s the parish, guided by Hall, stood apart in
-its opposition from virtually all the rest of the colony except for
-another cluster of Revolutionaries at Savannah led by George Walton
-and others. Georgia, which was to be the last of the Colonies to join
-the Continental Association, was the youngest, most remote, and
-most sparsely settled. Also the poorest, it felt less the impact of
-British economic restrictions. The Loyalist ruling aristocracy of
-Georgia, regarding the tiny band of Revolutionaries with contempt,
-resisted their every move.</p>
-
-<p>Hall was appalled by the poor representation of the parishes as a
-whole and the indecisiveness of Revolutionary conventions he attended
-at Savannah in the summer of 1774 and the next January,
-especially by their failure to send Delegates to the Continental Congress.
-He dejectedly returned to St. John’s Parish. It was ready to
-secede from the colony, and proposed an alliance to South Carolina,
-which refused. Not to be denied, in March 1775 the parish held
-its own convention and sent Hall as its own “delegate” to the
-Continental Congress.</p>
-
-<p>Two months later, Congress admitted Hall as a nonvoting member.
-In July, Georgia, finally coming into the fold, sanctioned Hall’s
-presence in Congress and appointed four other Delegates. Hall
-served until 1780. Two years earlier, he had moved his family
-somewhere to the north just before British troops ravaged and conquered
-the Georgia coast. In the process, they destroyed Hall’s
-Knoll and Hall’s Sunbury residence and confiscated his property.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
-When the British evacuated Savannah in 1782, Hall settled there
-and resumed his medical practice to mend his fortune. The next
-January, St. John’s Parish, where he had maintained ties, elected
-him to the State legislature. That body, in turn, awarded him the
-governorship (1783–84). His reconstruction-oriented administration,
-though marred by his purchase of and speculation in lands confiscated
-from Loyalists, rehabilitated the wartorn State and laid
-foundations for future growth.</p>
-
-<p>In Hall’s final years he acted for a time as a judge of the inferior
-court of Chatham County and as a trustee of a proposed State
-university (to be called first Franklin College and later the University
-of Georgia). But his duties as executor of Button Gwinnett’s
-tangled estate required years of legal wrangling. In 1785 he sold his
-Hall’s Knoll land. Five years later, he moved from Savannah to
-Burke County and purchased Shell Bluff Plantation, on the Savannah
-River about 25 miles below Augusta. A few months hence he
-died and was buried there. His remains are now interred at the
-Signers’ Monument in Augusta.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_15" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="John_Hancock" class="bio">John Hancock</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MASSACHUSETTS</p>
-
-<div id="ip_68" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="238" height="296" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">One of the fathers of U.S. independence,
-John Hancock helped spearhead
-the pivotal revolt in
-Massachusetts, presided as President
-of Congress during the voting
-for independence and adoption of
-the Declaration, and boldly penned
-the first signature on the document.
-Subsequently he served as the first
-and longtime Governor of his Commonwealth.
-Despite all these achievements
-and the persistent loyalty of his constituents,
-whom he wooed with lavish
-expenditures for public projects, his
-vanity, ostentation, and regal way of
-life irked many of his professional
-associates.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Hancock, born in 1737 at Braintree (present Quincy), Mass., lost
-his father, a Congregational pastor, at the age of 7. He spent the
-next 6 years with his grandparents at Lexington before joining his
-guardian, Thomas Hancock, a childless uncle who was one of the
-richest merchant-shippers in Boston. After studying at Boston Latin
-School and graduating from Harvard College in 1754, John began
-working as a clerk in his uncle’s business and learned it rapidly. In
-1760–61, while visiting London to observe the English side of the
-business, he attended the funeral of George II and the coronation of
-George III, who apparently granted him an audience. In 1763 he
-became a partner of his uncle, who died the next year and willed
-him the firm, a fortune that was probably the greatest in New
-England, and a luxurious house on Beacon Street.</p>
-
-<p>Hancock allied with other merchants in protesting the Stamp
-Act (1765), and the next year inaugurated a long legislative career.
-But he did not strongly identify with the patriots until 2 years
-later. At that time, British customs officials, their courage bolstered
-by the arrival of a warship in Boston Harbor, charged him with
-smuggling and seized one of his ships. During the ensuing riots, the
-terrified customs officials fled to an island in the harbor. A few
-months later, the first major contingent of British troops sailed into
-port and created a tense situation that resulted in the Boston Massacre
-(1770). John Adams ably defended Hancock in court until the
-British dropped the smuggling charge, but the episode made him a
-hero throughout the Colonies.</p>
-
-<p>Other factors tied Hancock to the patriots. Samuel and John
-Adams, shrewdly perceiving the advantages of such a rich and well-known
-affiliate, welcomed him into their ranks, encouraged his idolatry
-by the populace, and pushed him upward in the Revolutionary
-hierarchy. When the first provincial congress met at Salem and
-Concord in 1774, he acted as its president as well as chairman
-of the vital council of safety. The second provincial congress,
-convening the next year at Cambridge and Concord, elected him to
-the Continental Congress.</p>
-
-<p>On April 18, only 3 days after the provincial congress adjourned,
-British troops marched from Boston to seize rebel stores at Concord.
-Warned of their approach during the night by Paul Revere, Hancock
-and Samuel Adams, who were visiting at nearby Lexington, escaped.
-But the British-American clashes at Lexington and Concord marked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
-the outbreak of war. The two men avoided Boston and hid at various
-places for 2 weeks before proceeding to Philadelphia. Later that
-summer, Hancock married, siring a daughter who died in infancy
-and a son, John George Washington Hancock, who lived but 9 years.</p>
-
-<p>From 1775 until 1777 Hancock presided over the Continental
-Congress. The very first year, his egotism, which regularly aroused
-the antipathy of many Members, created personal embitterment as
-well. Blind to his own limitations, particularly his lack of military
-experience, he unrealistically entertained the hope that he, instead
-of Washington, would be appointed as commander in chief of the
-Continental Army. Hancock also provoked ill will among his fellow
-New Englanders, especially Samuel Adams, by courting moderates
-such as John Dickinson and Benjamin Harrison. Hancock believed
-that Samuel Adams was responsible in 1777 for blocking a
-congressional vote of thanks for his services and never forgave him.</p>
-
-<p>Only Hancock and Charles Thomson, the President and Secretary
-of Congress, signed the broadside copy of the Declaration, printed
-the night of its adoption, July 4, 1776, and disseminated to the
-public the following day. At the formal signing of the parchment copy
-on August 2, tradition holds that Hancock wrote his name in large
-letters so that the King would not need spectacles to recognize him
-as a “traitor.” After resigning as presiding officer in 1777, he remained
-a Member of Congress until 1780, though he spent much of
-his time in Boston and for the rest of his life solidified his political
-position in Massachusetts. In 1778, as a major general in the militia,
-he commanded an expedition that failed to recapture Newport, R.I.,
-from the British. He made a more tangible contribution to the war
-by accepting Continental currency from his debtors, even though his
-fortune had already been dented by wartime-induced reverses.</p>
-
-<p>In 1780, the same year Hancock gave up his seat in Congress and
-attended his Commonwealth’s constitutional convention, he was
-overwhelmingly elected as first Governor (1780–85). He won reelection
-in 1787–93. In the interim (1785–86), he once again sat in
-Congress. In 1788 he chaired the Massachusetts convention that
-ratified the U.S. Constitution, which he favored.</p>
-
-<p>While still Governor, in 1793 at the age of 56, Hancock died at
-Boston. His funeral, one of the most impressive ever held in New
-England, culminated in burial at Old Granary Burying Ground.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_16" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Benjamin_Harrison" class="bio">Benjamin Harrison</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_70" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="239" height="247" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Benjamin Harrison, the most conservative
-of the Virginia signers except
-for Carter Braxton, was a member of
-one of the most prominent planter
-families in the South and was the
-fifth in a line of active politicians
-bearing the same name. Because of
-his rotundity, joviality, love of good
-foods and wines, and fondness for
-luxury, he acquired the nickname
-“Falstaff of Congress.” His son,
-William Henry, and his great-grandson,
-Benjamin, served as the ninth and 23d
-Presidents of the United States.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Harrison was born in 1726 at his father’s estate, Berkeley, in
-Charles City County, Va. He matriculated at the College of William
-and Mary, but left before graduating in 1745 upon the death of his
-father in order to assume management of the family plantation.
-Shortly thereafter he married; seven of his children were to survive
-infancy. In time, his landholdings grew to include eight plantations
-and other properties, and he also expanded into shipping and shipbuilding.
-Following the precedent set by his forebears, about 1749
-he gained admission to the House of Burgesses. He sat there, frequently
-as speaker, until 1774, when the Royal Governor disbanded
-the body.</p>
-
-<p>Harrison’s conservatism manifested itself early in the Revolutionary
-movement. In 1764 the burgesses, learning about the Stamp Act,
-impending in Parliament, named a committee to draw up a protest.
-As one of the committeemen, Harrison helped pen the document.
-The very next year, however, when the act went into effect, he
-refused to endorse Patrick Henry’s resolutions urging civil disobedience
-as a countermeasure. Forced to take a stand as the rift with the
-Crown widened, Harrison cast his lot with the patriots. Between
-1773 and 1776, he shared in the tasks of the Revolutionary conventions,
-the committee of correspondence, and the provincial congresses.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, in 1774, Harrison had been appointed to the First<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
-Continental Congress. Although usually silent on the floor, he made
-valuable contributions on the foreign affairs, marine, military, and
-financial committees. As chairman of the committee of the whole
-(1776–77), he chaired the deliberations leading up to the adoption of
-the Declaration and the early debates on the proposed Articles of
-Confederation.</p>
-
-<p>In 1777, the same year Harrison withdrew from Congress, he
-entered the lower house of the Virginia legislature, where he presided
-as speaker in the years 1778–81. His three terms as Governor (1781–84)
-reflected the ascendancy in Virginia of the conservatives, who
-included in addition to Harrison and Braxton such former extremists
-as Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee. Succeeded by Henry,
-Harrison rejoined the legislature (1784–91), holding the speakership
-part of the time. In 1788 at the Virginia ratifying convention he
-objected to the Federal Constitution because it lacked a bill of
-rights. Once ratification had occurred, however, he supported the
-new Government. Three years later, Harrison died in his mid-sixties
-at Berkeley and was buried there in the family cemetery.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_17" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="John_Hart" class="bio">John Hart</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW JERSEY</p>
-
-<div id="ip_72" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_032b.jpg" width="231" height="294" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Signing the Declaration represented
-John Hart’s one significant act during
-an ephemeral tour in the Continental
-Congress, his only role in national
-politics. Yet, like most of the signers,
-he was dominant in community and
-State affairs. And he and his family
-directly experienced the tragedy of
-the war. Unfortunately, he died before
-the attainment of victory.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The year after Hart’s birth in 1711 at Stonington, Conn., his
-parents emigrated to New Jersey and settled on a farm in the Hopewell
-vicinity. Hart was to live there and till the soil all his life. In
-1740 he married and began raising a family of 13. In time, while
-gaining the sobriquet “Honest John,” he acquired considerable property,
-including grist, saw, and fulling mills, and emerged as a civic
-leader. From the 1750’s until the outbreak of the War for Independence
-in 1775, despite a paucity of education, he worked his way up
-the political ladder in Hunterdon County and the State. He held the
-offices of justice of the peace, county judge, colonial legislator
-(1761–71), and judge of the New Jersey court of common pleas.</p>
-
-<p>In the legislature’s dispute with the Royal Governor, Hart opposed
-parliamentary taxation and the stationing of British troops in the
-colony. During the years 1774–76, he attended the New Jersey provincial
-congresses, where he achieved the vice-presidency, and won
-appointment to the council of safety and the committee of correspondence.
-In June 1776 he and four other Delegates were chosen to
-replace the incumbent conservatives in the Continental Congress.
-The new delegation arrived at Philadelphia just a few days before
-the votes for independence on July 1 and 2 and cast affirmative
-ballots.</p>
-
-<p>In August 1776, just after Hart signed the Declaration, he
-departed to accept the speakership in the lower house of the New
-Jersey legislature. That winter, during the British invasion of the
-province, the redcoats wreaked havoc on his farm and mills and drove
-him into hiding among the hills surrounding the Sourland Mountains.
-When he ended his exile in the wake of the American victories at
-Princeton and Trenton, he discovered that his wife, ill at the time
-of the attack, had died and his family scattered. In 1777–78 he sat
-again on the council of safety, but failing health forced his retirement.
-He died the next year, at the age of 69, on his Hopewell farm.
-He is buried in the yard of the First Baptist Church at Hopewell.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_18" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Joseph_Hewes" class="bio">Joseph Hewes</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NORTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_73" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="235" height="258" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Even in an age and land of such
-unlimited opportunities as 18th-century
-America, few men attained such success
-as merchant Joseph Hewes. He
-was rarely thwarted in his ambitions
-and enjoyed wealth and social prestige,
-reflected in political
-conservatism.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Born in 1730 at Maybury Hill, an estate on the outskirts of
-Princeton, N.J., Hewes was the son of a pious and well-to-do Quaker
-farmer. He received a strict religious upbringing, and studied at a
-local school. After learning trade from a Philadelphia merchant, he
-entered business for himself. About 1760, anxious to expand his
-modest fortune, he moved to the thriving seaport town of Edenton,
-N.C. There, where he was to reside for the rest of his life, he founded
-a profitable mercantile and shipping firm and gained prominence.
-Only one fateful event marred his life. A few days before his intended
-wedding date, his fiancée suddenly died. Hewes remained a bachelor
-for the rest of his life.</p>
-
-<p>As a member of the North Carolina assembly (1766–75), the
-committee of correspondence (1773), and the provincial assemblies
-(1774–75), Hewes helped the Whigs overthrow the royal government.
-Elected to the Continental Congress in 1774, he vigorously supported
-nonimportation measures even though it meant personal
-financial loss. By the time of the outbreak of the War for Independence,
-the next year, anathema to the pacifistic Quakers, he had
-rejected the faith altogether—culminating a trend that had been
-evolving because of his love of dancing and other social pleasures, as
-well as his Revolutionary activities.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_74" class="figright" style="max-width: 17.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="273" height="200" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Joseph Hewes sponsored the American career of his friend John Paul Jones,
-  who became the most famous naval officer of the Revolution.</div></div>
-
-<p>Hewes was one of those who originally opposed separation from
-Great Britain. Thus it was a disagreeable task for him, in May 1776,
-to present the Halifax Resolves to the Continental Congress. Enacted
-the month before by the provincial assembly, they instructed the
-North Carolina Delegates to vote for independence should it be
-proposed. Hewes, who considered the resolves premature, ignored his
-State’s commitment and at first opposed Richard Henry Lee’s June
-7 independence resolution. According to John Adams, however, at
-one point during debate a transformation came over Hewes. “He
-started suddenly upright,” reported Adams, “and lifting up both his
-hands to Heaven, as if he had been in a trance, cried out, ‘It is done!
-and I will abide by it.’”</p>
-
-<p>One episode involving Hewes illustrates the recurring problem of
-sectional rivalries among the Delegates. As key members of the
-marine committee, Hewes and John Adams were instrumental in
-establishing the Continental Navy. When the time came to appoint
-the Nation’s first naval captains, the two men clashed. For one of
-the positions, Hewes nominated his friend John Paul Jones, an
-experienced seaman who had recently emigrated to Virginia from
-Scotland. Adams, maintaining that all the captaincies should be
-filled by New Englanders, stubbornly protested. New England had
-yielded to the South in the selection of a commander in chief of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
-Continental Army and Adams had fostered the selection of the able
-Virginian George Washington, so he was not now about to make a
-concession on the Navy. Hewes, sensing the futility of argument,
-reluctantly submitted. Jones, who was to become the most honored
-naval hero of the Revolution, received only a lieutenant’s commission.</p>
-
-<p>In 1777 Hewes lost his bid for reelection to Congress, one of the
-few failures in his life, and in 1778–79 he found solace in the State
-legislature. In the latter year, despite health problems, he accepted
-reelection to the Continental Congress. A few months after arriving
-back in Philadelphia and not long before his 50th birthday, overworked
-and fatigued, he died. His grave is in Christ Church Burial
-Ground there.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_19" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thomas_Heyward_Jr" class="bio">Thomas Heyward, Jr.</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">SOUTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_75" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_034b.jpg" width="236" height="308" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">An aristocratic planter, lawyer, and
-jurist, Thomas Heyward, Jr., sat in
-the State legislature and the Continental
-Congress and commanded a militia
-battalion. He was one of three South
-Carolina signers captured and
-imprisoned by the British.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The eldest son of one of the wealthiest planters in South Carolina,
-Heyward was born in 1746 at Old House Plantation, in St. Helena’s
-Parish (later St. Luke’s Parish and present Jasper County) near the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
-Georgia border about 25 miles northeast of Savannah. In 1771, following
-5 years of study in London, he began practicing law. The next
-year, his parish sent him to the colonial legislature (1772–75), which
-was feuding with the Royal Governor over parliamentary taxation.
-During that period, in 1773, he married and settled down at White
-Hall Plantation, only a couple of miles from the residence of his
-father.</p>
-
-<p>While a legislator, Heyward apparently joined the Revolutionaries,
-for in the summer of 1774 he attended a provincial convention that
-chose Delegates to the Continental Congress. During 1775–76 he was
-active in the first and second provincial congresses and on the council
-of safety and the committee that drafted a State constitution. In
-the Continental Congress (1776–78), he signed the Articles of Confederation
-as well as the Declaration. At the end of his tour, he
-journeyed to Charleston and took up residence in the townhouse he
-had inherited from his father the year before. He became a circuit
-court judge; represented Charleston in the State legislature, which
-convened in the city; and held a militia captaincy.</p>
-
-<p>In 1779 Heyward was wounded during Brig. Gen. William
-Moultrie’s repulse of a British attack on Port Royal Island, along
-the South Carolina coast near Heyward’s home. The following year,
-the British plundered White Hall and carried off all the slaves.
-When they took Charleston, they captured Heyward, who was helping
-defend the city. He was imprisoned at St. Augustine, Fla., until
-July 1781. Shortly before his release, he celebrated Independence
-Day by setting patriotic verses to the British national anthem. “God
-save the King” became “God save the thirteen States,” a rendition
-that soon echoed from New Hampshire to Georgia.</p>
-
-<p>From 1782 until 1789 Heyward resumed his position of circuit
-court judge, concurrently serving two terms in the State legislature
-(1782–84). In 1785 he helped found and became the first president
-of the Agricultural Society of South Carolina. The following year,
-his wife passed away and he remarried; apparently only one child
-from his two marriages reached maturity. He devoted most of his
-remaining days, except for attendance in 1790 at the State constitutional
-convention, to managing his plantation; he sold his Charleston
-townhouse in 1794. The last to survive among the South Carolina
-signers, he died in 1809 at the age of 62 and was interred in the
-family cemetery at Old House Plantation.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_20" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="William_Hooper" class="bio">William Hooper</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NORTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_77" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="233" height="231" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">The ambivalence of William Hooper’s
-convictions prevented him from ever
-carving a solid niche in the field of
-politics. His youthful choice of occupation
-and political affiliation brought
-estrangement from his family and
-emigration from Massachusetts to
-far-off North Carolina. Motivated
-sometimes by self-interest and sometimes
-by intense patriotism, he
-flourished in law and politics. He
-originally supported the royal government,
-but became a Whig leader
-during the Revolution. After the war,
-his aristocratic leanings caused him
-to lose favor among the electorate.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Hooper was born in Boston, Mass., in 1742, the first child of
-William Hooper, a Scotch immigrant and Congregationalist clergyman
-who 5 years later was to transfer to the Anglican Church.
-Groomed for the ministry in his youth, Hooper undertook 7 years of
-preparatory education at Boston Latin School. This qualified him in
-1757 to enter Harvard College in the sophomore class. He graduated
-3 years later, but much to the chagrin of his father rejected the
-ministry as a profession. The next year, he further alienated his
-Loyalist father and isolated himself from his family by taking up
-the study of law under James Otis, a brilliant but radical lawyer.</p>
-
-<p>Partly to ameliorate family strife and partly to better his legal
-opportunities, about 1764 Hooper sought his fortune at Wilmington,
-N.C. Three years later, he married the daughter of an early settler,
-by whom he was to have two sons and a daughter. He resided either
-in Wilmington or at his nearby estate, Finian, about 8 miles away on
-Masonboro Sound, rode the circuit from court to court, and built
-up a clientele among the wealthy planters of the lower Cape Fear
-region. Ambitious, he harbored political aspirations and by 1770–71
-had obtained the position of deputy attorney general of North
-Carolina.</p>
-
-<p>In this capacity, protecting his own economic interests and political
-goals, Hooper sided with Royal Governor William Tryon in a
-conflict between the government and a group of North Carolina<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
-frontiersmen known as the Regulators. They were rebelling against
-governmental corruption and oppression and high legal and other
-fees. Hooper urged the use of force to quell the rebellion, and in 1771
-accompanied the government forces that defeated the rebels in the
-Battle of Alamance.</p>
-
-<p>Within a few years, Hooper’s allegiance to the royal government
-waned. At the time of his election to the colonial assembly (1773–75),
-the act providing for the colony’s court system was about to
-expire. The assembly attempted to attach to the new court act a
-clause by which the colony could confiscate American property
-owned by foreign debtors, including inhabitants of Great Britain.
-When the Royal Governor blocked the bill, a 4-year struggle for
-control of the colony ensued. Hooper, though deprived of a source
-of income as a lawyer and dependent upon his wife’s small fortune
-for subsistence, championed the cause of the assembly.</p>
-
-<p>Hooper rose to a position of leadership among the Whigs, though
-he disapproved of extremism. In a letter dated April 1774 to his
-friend James Iredell, he prophesized the Colonies’ break with Great
-Britain—the earliest known prediction of independence, which won
-for Hooper the epithet “Prophet of Independence.” In the summer,
-after the Royal Governor had dissolved the colonial assembly, he
-helped organize and presided over an extralegal conference at Wilmington.
-It voted to convene a provincial assembly, which met in
-August at New Bern and elected Delegates, one of whom was
-Hooper, to the Continental Congress. Later that same year, he
-became a member of the committee of correspondence.</p>
-
-<p>During the period 1774–77, Hooper divided his time between Congress,
-where he gained a reputation as an orator, and the North
-Carolina provincial assembly, in which he labored to set up a State
-government. In 1777, however, the financial difficulties with his law
-practice and a desire to be near his family prompted him to resign
-from Congress and return to Wilmington. He was immediately
-elected to the State legislature and served there almost continuously
-until 1786.</p>
-
-<p>In 1780 the British invaded North Carolina. Hooper moved his
-family from Finian into Wilmington for safety, but in January 1781,
-while he was away on business, the city fell to the enemy. Separated
-from his loved ones for more than 10 months and often destitute, he
-depended upon friends in Edenton and vicinity for shelter and food.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
-On one occasion, taken violently ill with malaria, he was nursed
-back to health by Iredell’s wife. Upon the British evacuation of the
-Wilmington area, in November, Hooper returned to find most of his
-property, including Finian, in ruins. Shortly thereafter he rejoined
-his wife and children, who had fled to Hillsborough, which he made
-his home for the rest of his life.</p>
-
-<p>During the aftermath of the Revolution, Hooper, despite continuing
-political aspirations, lost favor with the public. Unable to adjust
-to the rise of republicanism in the State, he adopted a conservative
-stance. His aristocratic pretensions, forgiving attitude toward Loyalists,
-and lack of faith in the common people undermined his popularity.
-In 1788 he strenuously campaigned for State ratification of
-the Federal Constitution, which occurred early the next year. By
-this time, he was in ill health and despondent, but lingered on for
-nearly 2 years. He died in 1790 in his late forties. His remains,
-moved from the Hillsborough town cemetery in 1894, rest today at
-Guilford Courthouse National Military Park near Greensboro.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_21" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Stephen_Hopkins" class="bio">Stephen Hopkins</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">RHODE ISLAND</p>
-
-<div id="ip_80" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="251" height="308" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">This signer, the second oldest next
-to Benjamin Franklin, is noted for his
-tremulous signature. Aged 69 and
-afflicted with palsy, according to
-tradition he declared, “My hand
-trembles, but my heart does not!”
-Before, during, and after a comparatively
-brief stretch of congressional
-service, he occupied Rhode Island’s
-highest offices and fostered the cultural
-and economic growth of
-Providence.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Hopkins attained success purely by his own efforts. Born in 1707
-at Providence and equipped with but a modicum of basic education,
-he grew up in the adjacent agricultural community of Scituate,
-earned his living as a farmer and surveyor, and married at the age of
-19. Five years later, in 1731, when Scituate Township separated from
-Providence, he plunged into politics. During the next decade, he held
-the following elective or appointive offices: moderator of the first
-town meeting, town clerk, president of the town council, justice of
-the peace, justice and clerk of the Providence County court of
-common pleas, legislator, and speaker of the house.</p>
-
-<p>In 1742, about 2 years after he and his brother Esek founded a
-mercantile-shipping firm, Stephen moved back to Providence. For
-the next three decades, he built up his business and would probably
-have acquired a fortune had he not at the same time supported a
-variety of civic enterprises and broadened his political activities.
-He continued in the legislature, served as assistant and chief justice
-of the Superior Court and ten-time Governor, and represented Rhode
-Island at various intercolonial meetings. At the Albany Congress
-(1754), he cultivated a friendship with Franklin and assisted him
-in framing a plan of colonial union that the congress passed but
-the Colonies rejected. The next year, 2 years after the demise of his
-first wife, who had given birth to five sons and two daughters, he
-remarried.</p>
-
-<p>About this time, Hopkins took over leadership of the colony’s
-radical faction, supported by Providence merchants. For more than
-a decade, it bitterly fought for political supremacy in Rhode Island
-with a conservative group in Newport, led by Samuel Ward, a
-political enemy of Hopkins.</p>
-
-<p>Hopkins was a man of broad interests, including humanitarianism,
-education, and science, and exerted his talents in many fields. About
-1754 he helped set up a public subscription library in Providence.
-He acted as first chancellor of Rhode Island College (later Brown
-University), founded in 1764 at Warren, and 6 years later was instrumental
-in relocating it to Providence. He also held membership in
-the Philosophical Society of Newport. Strongly opposing slavery,
-in 1774 he authored a bill enacted by the Rhode Island legislature
-that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony—one of the
-earliest antislavery laws in the United States.</p>
-
-<p>Long before, Hopkins had sided with the Revolutionaries. In 1762<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
-he helped found the influential <cite>Providence Gazette and Country
-Journal</cite>. Two years later, he contributed to it an article entitled
-“The Rights of the Colonies Examined,” which criticized parliamentary
-taxation and recommended colonial home rule. Issued as a
-pamphlet the next year, it circulated widely throughout the Colonies
-and Great Britain and established Hopkins as one of the
-earliest of the patriot leaders. He also sat on the Rhode Island committee
-of correspondence and carried on with his duties in the
-legislature and Superior Court while a Member of the Continental
-Congress (1774–76). He served on the committees that prepared
-the Articles of Confederation and that created the Continental Navy
-and appointed Esek Hopkins as its commander in chief. Ill health
-compelled Stephen to retire in September 1776, a month after he
-signed the Declaration.</p>
-
-<p>Hopkins declined subsequent reelections to Congress, but sat in
-the State legislature for a time and took part in several New England
-political conventions. He withdrew from public service about 1780
-and died 5 years later in Providence at the age of 78. He was interred
-in the North Burial Ground.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_22" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Francis_Hopkinson" class="bio">Francis Hopkinson</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW JERSEY</p>
-
-<div id="ip_82" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="247" height="284" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">The literary and artistic talents of
-this versatile signer brought him
-more acclaim than his political and
-legal activities. Although a lawyer
-and judge by profession, he achieved
-more eminence as an essayist, poet,
-artist, and musician. His verse and
-satirical essays rank among the better
-literary efforts of the Revolutionary
-and early Federal periods, and he
-was one of America’s first native composers.
-His eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842),
-wrote “Hail Columbia” and
-won distinction as a lawyer, jurist,
-U.S. Congressman, and patron of
-the arts.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Hopkinson was born at Philadelphia in 1737, the eldest of eight
-children. His father, who died when he was 14, was a prominent
-lawyer-jurist, politician, and civic leader. Upon graduation from the
-College of Philadelphia (later part of the University of Pennsylvania)
-in 1757, young Hopkinson studied law under Benjamin Chew,
-attorney general of the province, and 4 years later joined the bar.
-In 1763 he obtained the position of customs collector at Salem, N.J.
-Three years hence, after failing in business, he sailed to England to
-seek an appointment as colonial customs collector through the influence
-of friends and relatives. During his yearlong stay, though
-unsuccessful in his vocational quest, he visited Benjamin Franklin,
-Lord North, and other prominent people, and may have studied
-under artist Benjamin West.</p>
-
-<p>Back in Philadelphia, Hopkinson operated a store and married in
-1768. Four years later he became the customs collector at New Castle,
-Del. About 1774 he took up residence at the home of his father-in-law
-in Bordentown, N.J., practiced law, and began a 2-year tour in
-the legislature. As a Member of the Continental Congress for only
-a few months in 1776, he relieved his ennui by drawing caricatures
-of his colleagues. His later offices included: chairman (1777–78) of
-Philadelphia’s Continental Navy Board, treasurer of loans (1778–81),
-judge of the admiralty court of Pennsylvania (1779), and Federal
-circuit judge for the eastern district of the State (1789–91).</p>
-
-<p>During his busy public career, the ambitious Hopkinson managed
-to leave his stamp on the fields of music, art, and literature. His
-“My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (1759) probably represents
-the first American composition of secular music; his “Temple
-of Minerva” (1781), the first American attempt at opera. In art,
-he was noted particularly for his crayon portraits and his work on
-heraldic emblems. But his literary attainments surpassed all his
-others.</p>
-
-<p>Between 1757 and 1773, Hopkinson contributed numerous poems
-and essays, many of them in a humorous and satirical vein, to various
-periodicals. The following year, he began advancing the patriot
-cause. A profusion of widely read and influential pamphlets, essays,
-and letters, often presented in an allegorical style, derided and ridiculed
-the British and the Loyalists, outlined colonial grievances, and
-encouraged the colonists. <cite>The Prophecy</cite>, written in 1776 before the
-adoption of the Declaration of Independence, predicted that event.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
-After the war, Hopkinson continued to treat political and social
-themes, and became one of the best known writers in the United
-States.</p>
-
-<p>While a Federal circuit judge, Hopkinson died in Philadelphia at
-the age of 53. He was laid to rest in Christ Church Burial Ground.
-Surviving him were his widow and five children.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_23" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Samuel_Huntington" class="bio">Samuel Huntington</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">CONNECTICUT</p>
-
-<div id="ip_83" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="244" height="295" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Several of the signers were self-made
-men. One of the most successful of
-them was Samuel Huntington. Reared
-amid humble surroundings, he educated
-himself in the law and, despite
-recurring health problems, climbed
-to the pinnacles of the State and
-National Governments.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Born into a large family in 1731 at Windham (present Scotland),
-Conn., Huntington grew up on a farm, received a limited education,
-and at the age of 16 began work as a cooper. But his ambition soon
-pushed him onward. He independently studied borrowed legal tomes,
-won admittance to the bar about 1758, and set up practice. Two
-years later, he moved to nearby Norwich. The next year, he married;
-he and his wife, who were to be childless, later adopted three
-children. As time went on, he prospered in the law and became a
-community leader.</p>
-
-<p>In 1764 Huntington began his public career, in the Connecticut
-legislature. The next year, he was appointed as King’s Attorney of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
-the colony and won election as justice of the peace for New London
-County. He occupied these positions for practically the entire
-decade or so prior to the outbreak of the War for Independence, in
-1775. Meantime, 2 years earlier, the colonial legislature had named
-him as a judge of the Connecticut Superior Court, an appointment
-renewed annually for a decade.</p>
-
-<p>In 1774 Huntington, registering his growing sympathy for the
-Colonies in their struggle against the Crown, resigned as King’s Attorney
-and joined the front ranks of the Revolutionaries. The next
-year, he became a member of the upper house of the legislature
-(1775–84), and entered national politics when he became a Delegate
-to the Continental Congress. His committee assignments included
-those dealing with Indian affairs, ordnance supply, and marine
-matters. In the fall of 1776, fatigue and health worries caused him
-to return to Connecticut. Between then and 1783, plagued with
-spells of illness, he attended congressional sessions intermittently
-(1778, 1779–81, 1783), often returning home to recuperate. Despite
-this burden, he assumed the heavy responsibilities of President of
-Congress (1779–81), presiding on March 1, 1781, when the Articles
-of Confederation were adopted.</p>
-
-<p>Huntington’s well-earned “retirement” when he returned to Connecticut
-in 1783, after 8 years of service to the Nation, turned out
-to involve 12 years of vigorous activity—despite his waning health.
-Even while he had been in Congress, he had served his State in
-various other ways, and all his legislative and other positions had
-been held open for him. A succession of appointive and elective
-offices followed: chief justice of the Superior Court (1784), Lieutenant
-Governor (1785), and Governor (1786–96). In the latter capacity,
-he led the battle for Connecticut’s ratification of the Federal
-Constitution and improved the educational system. As one of Connecticut’s
-seven first presidential electors, in 1789 he won two
-“favorite son” votes for the Presidency.</p>
-
-<p>Ever interested in education, despite his own lack of a college
-degree, in the 1780’s Huntington received honorary degrees from
-Princeton, Yale, and Dartmouth; and was appointed one of the
-original trustees of Plainfield (Conn.) Academy. Before that time, he
-had acted as adviser to the president of Yale.</p>
-
-<p>In 1796 at the age of 65, still Governor, he died at his home in
-Norwich and was interred in the Old Burial Ground.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_24" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thomas_Jefferson" class="bio">Thomas Jefferson</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_85" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="247" height="331" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">An intellectual and political titan
-who ranked among the most brilliant
-men of his time, Thomas Jefferson
-richly contributed to his State and
-Nation—as statesman, diplomat,
-scientist, architect, author, and educator.
-Graced with a wide-ranging
-and probing mind, he also delved into
-linguistics, law, art, geography,
-ethnology, music, agriculture, paleontology,
-botany, meteorology, geology,
-parliamentary practice, and invention.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">As author of the Declaration of Independence, influential political
-theorist, cofounder of the Democratic-Republican Party, Virginia
-legislator and Governor, first U.S. Secretary of State, second Vice
-President, and third President, Jefferson has left an indelible impression
-on our political system and philosophy. Beyond that, he
-laid the basis for the westward expansion of the Nation; and two
-of his disciples, Madison and Monroe, followed him into the White
-House.</p>
-
-<p>Like most successful politicians, however, Jefferson created his
-share of enemies and felt the sting of failure. Inability to reconcile
-his contradictory traits of idealism and pragmatism resulted in
-inconsistencies that rendered him vulnerable. He lacked the aggressiveness
-and charisma of many leaders. To compensate for his basic
-shyness and his deficiencies as a speaker, he mastered written expression
-and learned to exercise administrative power. His governorship
-ended ignominiously. And his vision of an agricultural America,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>
-peopled by well-educated and politically astute yeomen farmers was
-never to be realized. Yet none of these factors diminishes his stature
-or undermines his achievements.</p>
-
-<p>The eldest of two sons in a family of ten, Jefferson was born in
-1743 at Shadwell, a frontier plantation in Goochland (present Albemarle)
-County, Va. But 2 years later his father, Peter, a self-made
-surveyor-magistrate-planter who had married into the distinguished
-Randolphs, moved his family eastward to Tuckahoe Plantation, near
-Richmond. His reason for doing so was a promise he had made to
-his wife’s newly deceased first cousin, William Randolph, to act as
-guardian of his son, Thomas Mann Randolph. Young Jefferson
-passed most of his boyhood in the Randolph home, beginning his
-elementary education with private tutors. In 1752, when he was
-about 9 years old, the family returned to Shadwell. His father died
-5 years later and bequeathed him almost 3,000 acres.</p>
-
-<p>In 1760, at the age of 17, Jefferson matriculated at the College of
-William and Mary, in Williamsburg. An incidental benefit was the
-chance to observe the operation of practical politics in the colonial
-capital. Jefferson graduated in 1762, studied law locally under the
-noted teacher George Wythe, and in 1767 was admitted to the bar.</p>
-
-<p>At Shadwell, Jefferson assumed the civic responsibilities and
-prominence his father had enjoyed. In 1770, when fire consumed
-the structure, he moved to his nearby estate Monticello, where he
-had already begun building a home. In 1772 he married Martha
-Wayles Skelton, a widow. During their decade of life together, she
-was to bear six children, but only two daughters reached maturity.</p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile, in 1769 at the age of 26, Jefferson had been elected to
-the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg. He was a member continuously
-until 1775, and alined himself with the anti-British group.
-Unlike his smooth-tongued confreres Patrick Henry and Richard
-Henry Lee, Jefferson concentrated his efforts in committee work
-rather than in debate. A literary stylist, he drafted many of the
-Revolutionary documents adopted by the House of Burgesses. His
-<cite>A Summary View of the Rights of British America</cite> (1774), one of the
-most influential essays of the era, disavowed parliamentary control of
-the Colonies and contended that they were tied to the King only by
-their own volition and recognition of mutual benefits.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p>
-<div id="ip_87" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_040.jpg" width="369" height="580" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">First page of Thomas Jefferson’s pamphlet <cite>A Summary View</cite> (1774),
-  one of the earliest and most influential Revolutionary tracts.</div></div>
-
-<p>Jefferson utilized the same working methods in the Continental
-Congress (1775–76), where his decisiveness in committee contrasted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
-markedly with his silence on the floor. His colleagues, however, rejected
-several of the documents he drafted his first year because of
-their extreme anti-British tone. But, by the time he returned the
-following May, after spending the winter in Virginia, the temper of
-Congress had changed drastically. The very next month, though
-only 33 years old, he was assigned to the five-man committee chosen
-to draft the Declaration of Independence, a task his colleagues
-assigned to him. In September, not long after Congress had adopted
-the draft with modifications and most of the Delegates signed it,
-Jefferson returned to Virginia—anxious to be nearer home and
-feeling he could make a deeper political mark there.</p>
-
-<p>A notable career in the House of Delegates (1776–79), the lower
-house of the legislature, followed. There Jefferson took over leadership
-of the “progressive” party from Patrick Henry, who relinquished
-it to become Governor. Highlights of this service included revision
-of the State laws (1776–79), in which Jefferson collaborated with
-George Wythe and Edmund Pendleton; and authorship of a bill for
-the establishment of religious freedom in Virginia, introduced in
-1779 but not passed until 7 years later.</p>
-
-<p>Although hampered as Governor (1779–81) by wartime conditions
-and constitutional limitations, Jefferson proved to be a weak executive,
-even in emergencies hesitating to wield his authority. When
-the British invaded the State in the spring of 1781, the situation
-became chaotic. On June 3, while the legislature was meeting in
-Charlottesville because the redcoats held Richmond, Jefferson
-recommended the combining of civil and military agencies under
-Gen. Thomas Nelson, Jr., and virtually abdicated office. The next
-day, British raiders almost captured him and a group of legislators
-he was entertaining at Monticello. Although later formally vindicated
-for his abandonment of the governorship, the action fostered a conservative
-takeover of the government and his reputation remained
-clouded for some time.</p>
-
-<p>Jefferson stayed out of the limelight for 2 years, during which
-time his wife died. In 1783 he reentered Congress, which the next
-year sent him to Paris to aid Benjamin Franklin and John Adams
-in their attempts to negotiate commercial treaties with European
-nations. During his 5-year stay, Jefferson succeeded Franklin as
-Minister to France (1785–89), gained various commercial concessions
-from and strengthened relations with the French, visited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
-England and Italy, absorbed European culture, and observed the
-beginnings of the French Revolution.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_89" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="489" height="282" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The University of Virginia in 1826, the year of the death of founder
-  Jefferson.</div></div>
-
-<p>In the years that followed, interspersed with pleasant interludes
-at Monticello, Jefferson filled the highest offices in the land: Secretary
-of State (1790–93), Vice President (1797–1801), and two-term
-President (1801–9). Ever averse to political strife, he occupied these
-positions as much out of a sense of civic and party duty as personal
-ambition. Aggravating normal burdens and pressures were his bitter
-feuds with Alexander Hamilton on most aspects of national policy,
-and the vindictiveness of Federalist attacks. Jefferson took considerable
-satisfaction, however, from his many accomplishments. Among
-these was the cofounding with James Madison of the Democratic-Republican
-Party, which in time drove the Federalists out of power.</p>
-
-<p>Physically and mentally exhausted, in 1809 Jefferson retired for
-the final time to Monticello. He retained his health and varied
-interests and corresponded with and entertained statesmen, politicians,
-scientists, explorers, scholars, and Indian chiefs. When the
-pace of life grew too hectic, he found haven at Poplar Forest, a
-retreat near Lynchburg he had designed and built in 1806–19. His
-pet project during most of his last decade was founding the
-University of Virginia (1819), in Charlottesville.</p>
-
-<p>Painfully distressing to Jefferson, however, was the woeful state
-of his finances. His small salary in public office, the attendant neglect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
-of his fortune and estate, general economic conditions, and debts he
-inherited from his wife had taken a heavy toll. He lived more
-frugally than was his custom in an attempt to stave off disaster
-and sold off as many of his lands and slaves as he could. But when
-a friend defaulted on a note for a large sum, Jefferson fell hopelessly
-into debt and was forced to sell his library to the Government. It
-became the nucleus of the Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p>Jefferson died only a few hours before John Adams at the age of
-83 on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the
-Declaration of Independence. For his tombstone at Monticello,
-ignoring his many high offices and multitudes of other achievements,
-he chose three accomplishments that he wanted to be remembered
-for: authorship of the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia
-Statute for Religious Freedom and the founding of the University
-of Virginia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_25" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Francis_Lightfoot_Lee" class="bio">Francis Lightfoot Lee</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_91" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="239" height="344" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">No less a patriot than his dynamic
-elder brother Richard Henry and his
-gifted younger brothers Arthur and
-William, Francis Lightfoot Lee preferred
-the uneventful life of a country
-squire to the public spotlight and
-chose to follow rather than to lead.
-Despite his shyness and weakness
-as a speaker, he exercised extensive
-political influence, took an active
-part in the Revolution, and signed
-both the Declaration and the Articles
-of Confederation.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Lee, a member of one of the most famous families in Virginia and
-U.S. history and the sixth son and eighth child of planter Thomas
-Lee, was born in 1734 at the family estate, Stratford Hall, in Westmoreland
-County, Va. He was educated by a private tutor and never
-attended college. In 1750, upon the death of his father, he inherited
-Coton, an estate in Fairfax County. Seven years later, newly created
-Loudoun County absorbed Coton. At that time, the colonial legislature
-nominated him as Loudoun lieutenant. The next year, he moved
-to Coton and became trustee of the newly incorporated village of
-Leesburg, named after him or his brother Philip Ludwell, both local
-landowners. For the next decade, Francis Lightfoot represented the
-county in the House of Burgesses.</p>
-
-<p>In 1769 Lee married socialite Rebecca Tayloe of Richmond
-County. The newlyweds resided at Mount Airy estate with Rebecca’s
-parents for a few months until Menokin, a new home that Colonel
-Tayloe was building nearby for them, was completed. From then
-until 1774, Lee sat again with the burgesses.</p>
-
-<p>Lee had joined the Revolutionary movement at an early date.
-From the time of the Stamp Act (1765) until the outbreak of war
-a decade later, he participated in most of the Virginia protests and
-assemblies. He rarely debated on the floor in Congress (1775–79),
-but often opposed the position of his brother Richard Henry, and
-served on the military and marine committees as well as that charged
-with drafting the Articles of Confederation.</p>
-
-<p>In 1779, weary of office and longing for the peace and quiet of
-Menokin, Lee left Congress. Except for a few years in the State
-legislature, he abandoned public service altogether and lived quietly.
-In 1797, only a few months after the death of his childless wife, at
-the age of 62 he succumbed. Burial took place in the Tayloe family
-graveyard at Mount Airy.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_26" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Richard_Henry_Lee" class="bio">Richard Henry Lee</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_92" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_043.jpg" width="236" height="331" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Richard Henry Lee, brilliant orator
-and fiery Revolutionary leader, introduced
-the independence resolution
-in the Continental Congress, served
-for awhile as its President, and later
-became a U.S. Senator. Fearing undue
-centralization of power, he fought
-against the Constitution and led the
-campaign that brought inclusion of
-the Bill of Rights. Throughout his
-life, he strenuously opposed the
-institution of slavery. He and Francis
-Lightfoot Lee were the only brothers
-among the signers.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Fifth son and seventh of 11 children, Lee was born in 1732 along
-the Potomac shore at Stratford Hall. His initial tutorial education
-was supplemented by extensive study at Wakefield Academy, in
-Yorkshire, England, and a tour of northern Europe. He sailed home
-about 1751 at the age of 19, the year after his father’s death, and
-resided with his eldest brother Philip Ludwell at Stratford Hall. In
-1757 Richard Henry married. About this time, he began building
-and soon occupied Chantilly, about 3 miles to the east on land leased
-from his brother. In 1768 Richard Henry’s wife died, leaving four
-children; the next year, he remarried, a union that yielded five more
-offspring.</p>
-
-<p>Lee meantime, following family tradition, had committed himself
-to politics. In 1757, at the age of 25, he became justice of the peace
-for Westmoreland County. The following year, he moved up to the
-House of Burgesses and sat there until 1775. One of the first to
-oppose Britain, he early allied with Patrick Henry. As a protest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
-against the Stamp Act (1765), Lee drew up the Westmoreland Association
-(1766), a nonimportation agreement signed by some of the
-citizens of his county. The next year, he denounced the Townshend
-Acts. And a year later he proposed in a letter to John Dickinson of
-Pennsylvania that the individual colonies set up committees to
-correspond with each other—an idea that did not come to fruition
-for 5 years.</p>
-
-<p>In 1769, when Lee and Henry penned an address to the King protesting
-several actions of Parliament, the Royal Governor disbanded
-the House of Burgesses. Lee thereupon met with other patriots at
-Raleigh’s Tavern and helped frame the Virginia Association, a
-nonimportation agreement. Many other colonies formed similar associations,
-but in 1770 Parliament repealed most of the duties and the
-protest spirit subsided.</p>
-
-<p>In March 1773, when anti-British feeling flared once again, Lee,
-Henry, and Jefferson, who had entered the House of Burgesses in
-1769, organized a Virginia committee of correspondence and invited
-the other colonies to do likewise. Learning of the British closing of
-Boston Harbor in May 1774, they persuaded their colleagues to
-declare, as a protest, a day of fasting and prayer. The Royal Governor
-again dissolved the burgesses. The Revolutionaries reconvened
-at Raleigh’s Tavern, drew up a new nonimportation agreement, and
-resolved to appeal to the other colonies for an intercolonial congress.
-But, before such action could be taken, Virginia received an
-invitation from Massachusetts to send representatives to a congress
-to be held in September at Philadelphia—the First Continental Congress.
-Virginia’s first provincial assembly met in August and
-designated seven Delegates, including Lee and Henry.</p>
-
-<p>Lee’s outstanding congressional act was the introduction on June
-7, 1776, of the resolution for independence from Britain, seconded
-by John Adams. This document, Lee’s condensed redraft of one
-forwarded him by a convention that had met in Williamsburg on
-May 15, proposed severing relations with Britain, the forming of
-foreign alliances, and preparation of a plan for confederation. On
-June 13, or 2 days after a committee was appointed to draft the
-Declaration, Lee journeyed back to Virginia, apparently because of
-illness in the family. He did not return and sign the Declaration
-until sometime subsequent to the formal ceremony on August 2.
-Like his brother Francis Lightfoot, in 1777 he also subscribed to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
-Articles of Confederation. After 1776, however, his influence in
-Congress waned, and 3 years later ill health forced his resignation.</p>
-
-<p>As a State legislator (1780–84) Lee joined the conservative faction,
-which represented the interests of the large planters. A Member
-of Congress again in the period 1784–89, he served in 1784–85 as
-its President. In 1787, though elected to the Constitutional Convention,
-he refused to attend and led congressional opposition to the
-Constitution, especially because of the absence of a bill of rights.
-Although he was well aware of the deficiencies of the Articles of
-Confederation, he and others feared a stronger Central Government.
-Lee’s “Letters of the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” the collective
-title for two pamphlets outlining his objections to the
-Constitution, epitomized antifederalist sentiment.</p>
-
-<p>In 1789 Lee entered the U.S. Senate, but because of failing health
-resigned in 1792, the year after the Bill of Rights was incorporated
-into the Constitution. He died in 1794, aged 62, at Chantilly. His
-grave is in the Lee family cemetery near Hague, Virginia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_27" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Francis_Lewis" class="bio">Francis Lewis</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW YORK</p>
-
-<div id="ip_95" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="244" height="313" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Few other signers felt the tragedy of
-the War for Independence more directly
-than Francis Lewis, whose wife died
-as a result of British imprisonment.
-To further the cause, he also expended
-a considerable portion of the
-fortune he had acquired as a
-merchant.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Lewis was the only child of a minister. He was born in 1713 at
-Llandaff, Glamorganshire, Wales. Orphaned at an early age and
-raised by relatives, he studied at Westminster School in London and
-then took employment with a local firm. In 1738, deciding to go into
-business for himself, he set up branches in New York and Philadelphia
-and for a few years shuttled between those cities and northern
-European ports. In 1745 he married a New York girl, his partner’s
-sister.</p>
-
-<p>During the French and Indian War, in 1756, while functioning as
-a clothing contractor for British troops at Fort Oswego, in present
-New York, Lewis was taken captive and sent to France for imprisonment.
-Upon his release, apparently in 1763, as a recompense the
-British Government awarded him a large land grant in America. He
-returned to New York City, reentered business, and quickly earned
-a fortune. In 1765 he retired to the village of Whitestone (now part
-of Flushing), on Long Island, but in 1771 he temporarily returned
-to New York City to help his son enter the business world, even
-probably making a voyage to England with him.</p>
-
-<p>Back home, Lewis devoted most of his energies to the Revolutionary
-movement, which he had joined in 1765 by attending the
-Stamp Act Congress. He was also likely one of the leaders of the
-New York Sons of Liberty. In 1774 he became a member of the New
-York Revolutionary committees of fifty-one and sixty, the next year
-attended the provincial convention, and subsequently helped set up
-the State government.</p>
-
-<p>In the Continental Congress (1775–79), Lewis rarely took the floor
-but served on the marine, foreign affairs, and commerce committees,
-as well as sitting on the Board of Admiralty and engaging in troop
-supply matters. He defended Gen. George Washington from the
-attacks of the Conway Cabal. Because of Tory dominance in New
-York, Lewis and the other Delegates were instructed not to vote
-for independence on July 1 and 2, 1776, but Lewis signed the
-Declaration on August 2.</p>
-
-<p>That same year, when the British invaded Long Island, they
-destroyed Lewis’ home in Whitestone and took his wife into custody.
-She was eventually released in an exchange for wives of British
-officials, but the hardships she had endured ruined her health and
-brought about her death in 1779. The grief-stricken Lewis immediately
-left Congress, but remained on the Board of Admiralty until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
-1781, at which time he abandoned politics altogether. He lived in
-retirement with his sons, and died in 1802 at the age of 89 in New
-York City. He was buried there in an unmarked grave in the yard of
-Trinity Church.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_28" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Philip_Livingston" class="bio">Philip Livingston</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW YORK</p>
-
-<div id="ip_96" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="242" height="389" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">A member of the landed gentry,
-merchant Philip Livingston lived a
-princely life and devoted much energy
-to civic affairs and philanthropic
-enterprises. He was a conservative
-in politics, and at first opposed
-independence. On the other hand,
-despite wartime business reverses,
-he contributed generously to the
-Revolutionary effort and continued
-in public service until the day he died.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Livingston was the fifth son of Philip Livingston, second lord of
-Livingston Manor, of Scotch descent, and Catherine Van Brugh, of
-Dutch lineage. Young Livingston was born in 1716 at his father’s
-townhouse in Albany and spent most of his childhood there or at
-the family manor at Linlithgo, about 30 miles to the south.</p>
-
-<p>Upon receiving a degree from Yale in 1737, Livingston entered
-the import business in New York City. Three years later, he married<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
-and moved into a townhouse on Duke Street in Manhattan; he
-was to sire five sons and four daughters. As time went on, he built
-up a fortune, particularly as a trader-privateer during the French
-and Indian War (1754–63). In 1764, though retaining his Duke
-Street home, he acquired a 40-acre estate on Brooklyn Heights
-overlooking the East River and New York Harbor.</p>
-
-<p>While prospering as a merchant, Livingston devoted many of his
-energies to humanitarian and philanthropic endeavors. Among the
-organizations he fostered, financially aided, or helped administer
-were King’s College (later Columbia University), the New York
-Society Library, St. Andrew’s Society, the New York Chamber of
-Commerce, and New York Hospital.</p>
-
-<p>Livingston was also a proponent of political and religious freedom.
-As a New York City alderman (1754–63), he identified with the
-popular party that opposed the aristocratic ruling class of the colony.
-In a decade of service (1759–69) in the colonial legislature, he stood
-behind the Whigs in their quarrel with the Royal Governor and
-attended the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. But, a believer in the
-sort of dignified protests mounted by lawyers and merchants, he
-resented the riotous behavior of such groups as the Sons of Liberty.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_97" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_045b.jpg" width="357" height="207" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The Brooklyn home of Philip Livingston from 1764 until his death in 1778.
-  When the British occupied New York, they used it as a hospital. In 1811
-  fire destroyed it.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
-In the 1769 elections the Tories gained control of the legislature.
-In his bid for reelection, Livingston, fearful of the rise of extremism
-among the populace, attempted to unite the moderate factions.
-Defeated in New York City, which from then on was Tory-dominated,
-he managed to obtain reelection from the Livingston
-Manor district. The new assembly, claiming he could not represent
-an area in which he did not reside, unseated him.</p>
-
-<p>In 1774 Livingston became a member of the committee of fifty-one,
-an extralegal group that selected New York City Delegates to the
-Continental Congress, one of whom was Livingston. He also served
-on the committee of sixty, formed to enforce congressional enactments.
-The next year, he won election to the committee of one
-hundred, which governed New York City temporarily until the first
-provincial congress of the colony met later that year.</p>
-
-<p>Between 1774 and 1778 Livingston divided his time between the
-Continental Congress and the New York provincial assembly/legislature.
-In Congress he sat on committees dealing with marine,
-commerce, finance, military, and Indian matters. He was absent on
-July 1–2, 1776, perhaps on purpose even though the New York
-Delegates abstained from voting on the independence issue, but on
-August 2 he signed the Declaration.</p>
-
-<p>After their defeat in the Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776),
-Washington and his officers met at Livingston’s residence in Brooklyn
-Heights and decided to evacuate the island. Subsequent to the
-ill-fated peace negotiations at Staten Island in September between
-Admiral Lord Richard Howe and three representatives of the Continental
-Congress, the British occupied New York City. They
-utilized Livingston’s Duke Street home as a barracks and his
-Brooklyn Heights residence as a Royal Navy hospital, as well as
-confiscating his business interests. He later sold some of his remaining
-property to sustain public credit. With the advance of the
-British, Livingston and his family had fled to Esopus (later Kingston),
-N.Y., where the State capital was temporarily located before
-moving to nearby Poughkeepsie.</p>
-
-<p>Livingston passed away at the age of 62 in 1778, the third earliest
-signer to die (after John Morton and Button Gwinnett). At the time,
-though in poor health, he was still in Congress, then meeting at
-York, Pa. He is buried in Prospect Hill Cemetery in that city.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_29" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thomas_Lynch_Jr" class="bio">Thomas Lynch, Jr.</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">SOUTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_99" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="236" height="258" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Like two of the three other South
-Carolina signers, Heyward and
-Middleton, Thomas Lynch, Jr., was
-an aristocratic planter. But, despite
-his wealth and social position, he
-experienced one of the most tragic
-lives of all the signers. He was stricken
-by illness in the midst of his
-political and military labors for his
-State, never fully recovered his health,
-and perished at sea in his 30th year.
-He died at a younger age than any
-other signer, though a couple succumbed
-at an earlier date. He was
-also the second youngest in the
-group, next to fellow South Carolinian
-Edward Rutledge.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The only son of Thomas Lynch, Sr., a rich rice planter, Lynch
-was born in 1749 at Hopsewee Plantation, located at Winyaw on
-the North Santee River in Prince George’s Parish (present Georgetown
-County), S.C. After attending the Indigo Society School at
-nearby Georgetown, from 1764 until 1772 he studied abroad at Eton
-and Cambridge and read law in London. Upon his return home, deciding
-not to engage in the law, he married and settled at Peach Tree
-Plantation. A gift from his father, it was situated in St. James
-Parish (present Charleston County) on the South Santee River
-about 4 miles south of Hopsewee.</p>
-
-<p>As the heir of one of the most fervent Revolutionaries and influential
-men in the colony, Lynch naturally took a deep interest in
-politics and enjoyed strong support from the electorate. During the
-years 1774–76, while his father served in the Continental Congress,
-he labored on the home front, attending the first and second provincial
-congresses as well as the first State legislature and sitting on
-the State constitutional committee.</p>
-
-<p>In 1775, however, fate dealt Lynch a cruel blow. He accepted a
-captaincy in the First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals—to
-the dismay of his father who had hoped to use his position to obtain
-a higher rank for him. On a recruiting trip to North Carolina, young<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
-Lynch contracted bilious fever. This ended his military days and
-rendered him a partial invalid for his few remaining years.</p>
-
-<p>Early in 1776 at Philadelphia the elder Lynch suffered a stroke
-that virtually incapacitated him for further public service. In the
-spring, his concerned colleagues in South Carolina elected his son to
-the Continental Congress, probably so that he could care for his
-father and act officially on his behalf. Although ill himself, Lynch
-made the onerous trip to Philadelphia. He stayed there throughout
-the summer, long enough to vote for and sign, at the age of 27, the
-Declaration of Independence. His father was unable to take part in
-the ceremony. The two were the only father-son team that served
-concurrently in the Continental Congress.</p>
-
-<p>By the end of the year, the failing health of both men compelled
-them to start homeward. En route, at Annapolis, Md., a second
-stroke took the life of the senior Lynch. His son, broken in spirit and
-physically unable to continue in politics, retired to Peach Tree. Late
-in 1779 he and his wife, heading for southern France in an attempt
-to regain his health, boarded a ship bound for the West Indies that
-foundered. The couple died childless.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_30" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thomas_McKean" class="bio">Thomas McKean</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">DELAWARE</p>
-
-<div id="ip_101" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="235" height="282" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Lawyer-jurist Thomas McKean stands
-out from the other signers in a variety
-of ways. He was the last to pen his
-signature to the Declaration, sometime
-after January 18, 1777. Although
-many Delegates simultaneously took
-part in State affairs, none did so as
-extensively as McKean—and he
-figured prominently in not one but
-two States, Delaware and Pennsylvania.
-He was also the only signer
-to be the chief executive of
-and concurrent officeholder in two
-States. Furthermore, he numbered
-among those who also subscribed to
-the Articles of Confederation, and he
-served a long tour in Congress.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Of Scotch-Irish ancestry, McKean was born in 1734. He was the
-second son of a farmer-tavernkeeper who lived in New London
-Township, in Chester County, Pa., near the New Jersey and Delaware
-boundaries. After studying for 7 years at Rev. Francis Alison’s
-academy at nearby New London, McKean read law with a cousin at
-New Castle, Del. In 1754, at the age of 20, he was admitted to the
-Delaware bar and soon expanded his practice into Pennsylvania and
-New Jersey.</p>
-
-<p>During the next two and a half decades, McKean occupied an
-array of appointive and elective offices in Delaware, some simultaneously:
-high sheriff of Kent County; militia captain; trustee of the
-loan office of New Castle County; customs collector and judge at
-New Castle; deputy attorney general of Sussex County; chief notary
-officer for the province; and clerk (1757–59) and member (1762–79)
-of the legislature, including the speakership of the lower house
-(1772–73). In 1762, he had also helped compile the colony’s laws.</p>
-
-<p>McKean’s Revolutionary tendencies had first revealed themselves
-during the Stamp Act (1765) controversy. He was one of the most
-vociferous of the delegates at the Stamp Act Congress. In 1774, a
-year after the death of his wife, whom he had wed in 1763, he remarried
-and established his home in Philadelphia. He nevertheless
-retained membership in the Delaware legislature, which that same
-year elected him to the Continental Congress. Except for the period
-December 1776-January 1778, when conservative opposition unseated
-him, he stayed there until 1783 and served as President for a
-few months in 1781. He played a key role in the Revolutionary program,
-at the same time fostering the establishment of governments
-in Delaware and Pennsylvania.</p>
-
-<p>Furthermore, it was McKean who was responsible for breaking
-the Delaware tie in the congressional vote for independence. On July
-1, 1776, date of the first vote, the two Delaware representatives
-present, McKean and George Read, deadlocked. McKean, who had
-balloted affirmatively, dispatched an urgent message to the third
-Delegate, Caesar Rodney, who was at his home near Dover, Del.,
-on military matters, to rush to Philadelphia. Rodney, making an
-80-mile horseback ride through a storm, arrived just in time to
-swing Delaware over to independence on July 2.</p>
-
-<p>During the hiatus in his congressional career, from late 1776 until
-early in 1778, McKean had remained in the lower house of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
-Delaware legislature, of which he became speaker once again. In
-that capacity, in September-November 1777, he temporarily replaced
-the president of Delaware, whom the British had captured. In vain
-they also pursued McKean, who was forced to move his family
-several times. Meantime, in July, he had been appointed chief
-justice of the Pennsylvania Superior Court, a position he was to hold
-for 22 years.</p>
-
-<p>After 1783, when his congressional service ended, McKean focused
-his political activities in Pennsylvania. As a Federalist, in 1787 he
-was instrumental in that State’s ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
-In the State constitutional convention of 1789–90 he demonstrated
-mistrust of popular government. During the 1790’s, disenchanted
-with Federalist foreign policy, he switched to the Democratic-Republicans.</p>
-
-<p>While Governor for three terms (1799–1808), McKean was the
-storm center of violent partisan warfare. Although he exercised
-strong leadership and advanced education and internal improvements,
-his imperiousness infuriated the Federalists, alienated many
-members of his own party, and resulted in an attempt to impeach
-him. Especially controversial were his rigid employment of the
-spoils system, including the appointment of friends and relatives,
-and his refusal to call a convention to revise the constitution. As a
-result, he won reelection only with the support of members of both
-parties who opposed the revision.</p>
-
-<p>McKean lived out his life quietly in Philadelphia. He died in 1817
-at the age of 83, survived by his second wife and four of the 11
-children from his two marriages. He was buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery.
-His substantial estate consisted of stocks, bonds, and huge
-tracts of land in Pennsylvania.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_31" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Arthur_Middleton" class="bio">Arthur Middleton</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">SOUTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_103" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="241" height="260" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Despite long years of study in England,
-exceptional wealth, and social eminence,
-Arthur Middleton evolved into
-an avid Revolutionary. Because of
-preoccupation with State matters,
-particularly military defense, his
-attendance in Congress was spasmodic.
-The British captured him
-during their attack on Charleston and
-ravished his estate.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Middleton was born in 1742 at Middleton Place, the family estate
-on the Ashley River near Charleston. His father, who owned a score
-of plantations comprising 50,000 acres and employing some 800
-slaves, ranked among the wealthiest and most politically active men
-in the province. While still a young boy, Arthur sailed to England
-for an education. He attended Hackney School, graduated from
-Cambridge University, and studied law in London. In 1764, the
-year after his return, he wed the woman who was to bear him nine
-children, and embarked on a career as justice of the peace and
-colonial legislator. In the years 1768–71, however, he and his wife
-made an extended tour of Europe.</p>
-
-<p>Reelected the next year to the legislature, Middleton joined the
-Revolutionaries in their campaign against the Royal Governor.
-While sitting in the first and second provincial assemblies (1775–76),
-Middleton aided in organizing a night raid on public arms stores at
-Charleston before the Governor could seize them, raised money for
-armed resistance, recommended defense measures for Charleston
-Harbor, served on the council of safety, and urged tight enforcement
-of the Continental Association. An extremist, he advocated
-the tarring and feathering of Loyalists and confiscation of the estates
-of those who had fled the country.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
-In 1776, while engaged in helping draft a State constitution,
-Middleton was chosen to replace his more conservative father in the
-Continental Congress. Two years later, when young Middleton
-declined reelection, he also rejected an offer of the governorship of
-South Carolina by the legislature, which had enacted a new constitution
-that he opposed. In 1779 and 1780, though reelected to the
-Continental Congress, Middleton failed to attend, probably because
-of concern over the British threat to his State. While serving in the
-militia during the siege of Charleston in 1780, along with fellow
-signers Heyward and Rutledge he was captured by the British and
-imprisoned at St. Augustine, Fla., until July 1781.</p>
-
-<p>Two months later, Middleton returned to Congress and served
-throughout 1782. He then retired to Middleton Place, which had
-been ravaged by the British. He rehabilitated it, resumed his life as
-a planter, sat intermittently in the State legislature, and accepted
-assignment as one of the original trustees of the College of Charleston.
-He died in 1787 at the age of 44. His remains rest at Middleton
-Place.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_32" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Lewis_Morris" class="bio">Lewis Morris</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW YORK</p>
-
-<div id="ip_105" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="246" height="303" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Although Lewis Morris was a wealthy
-landowner who enjoyed the prestige
-of the social elite, he represented the
-patriot element in Tory-dominated
-New York. The British sacked his
-estate during the war, and his three
-eldest sons fought under Washington.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Born in 1726, Morris was the eldest son of the second lord of the
-vast manor of Morrisania, in Westchester (present Bronx) County,
-N.Y. Upon graduating from Yale College in 1746, he helped manage
-the estate. Three years later, he married, siring 10 children. In 1762,
-when his father died, he inherited Morrisania and became its third
-lord. About this time, he gained an interest in local politics, and in
-1769 served a term in the colonial legislature.</p>
-
-<p>As time went on, though residing in a pro-Loyalist county, Morris
-became increasingly critical of British policy. In 1775 he helped
-organize a meeting at White Plains that overcame strong opposition
-and chose county delegates, including Morris as chairman, to New
-York’s first provincial convention. It elected him to the Continental
-Congress (1775–77), where he specialized in military and Indian
-affairs. For most of 1776, he was absent from Philadelphia, serving
-as a brigadier general in the Westchester County militia. During the
-British invasion of New York that year, the redcoats ravaged
-Morrisania, and forced Morris’ family to flee.</p>
-
-<p>When his career in Congress ended, Morris rose to the rank of
-major general in the militia and became a county judge (1777–78)
-and State senator (1777–81 and 1784–88). After war’s end in 1783,
-when he was able to return to Morrisania, he devoted much of his
-time to rehabilitating it. In 1784 he sat on the first board of regents
-of the University of New York. And 4 years later, at the State ratifying
-convention in Poughkeepsie, he strongly supported Alexander
-Hamilton’s successful drive for approval of the U.S. Constitution.</p>
-
-<p>Morris died in 1798 at Morrisania at the age of 71. His grave is
-in the family vault in the yard of St. Ann’s Church in the Bronx.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_33" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Robbert_Morris" class="bio">Robbert Morris</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_106" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_050.jpg" width="245" height="262" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Merchant Robert Morris was a man
-of many distinctions. One of the
-wealthiest individuals in the Colonies
-and an economic wizard, he won the
-accolade “Financier of the Revolution,”
-yet died penniless and forgotten.
-He and Roger Sherman were the
-only signers of all three of the Nation’s
-basic documents: the Declaration of
-Independence, Articles of Confederation,
-and Constitution. Morris, who
-turned down appointment as the first
-Secretary of the Treasury, also served
-as a Senator in the First Congress.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Morris was born in or near Liverpool, England, in 1734. At the
-age of 13, he emigrated to Maryland to join his father, a tobacco
-exporter at Oxford, Md. After brief schooling at Philadelphia, the
-youth obtained employment with Thomas and Charles Willing’s
-well-known shipping firm. In 1754 he became a partner, and for
-almost four decades was one of the company’s directors as well as
-one of Philadelphia’s most influential citizens. Marrying in 1769 at
-the age of 35, he fathered five sons and two daughters.</p>
-
-<p>During the Stamp Act turmoil in 1765, Morris had joined other
-merchants in protest, but not until the outbreak of hostilities a
-decade hence did he fully commit himself to the Revolution. In 1775
-the Continental Congress contracted with his firm to import arms
-and ammunition; and he was elected to the Pennsylvania council of
-safety (1775–76), the committee of correspondence, the provincial
-assembly (1775–76), the State legislature (1776–78), and the Continental
-Congress (1775–78). In the latter body, on July 1, 1776, he
-voted against independence, which he personally considered premature,
-but the next day purposely absented himself to facilitate an
-affirmative ballot by his State.</p>
-
-<p>Morris, a key Member of Congress, specialized in financial affairs
-and military procurement. Although he and his firm profited handsomely,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
-had it not been for his assiduous labors the Continental
-Army would probably have needed to demobilize. He worked closely
-with General Washington, wheedled money and supplies from the
-States, borrowed money in the face of overwhelming difficulties, and
-on occasion even obtained personal loans to further the war cause.
-Immediately following his congressional service, Morris sat for two
-more terms in the Pennsylvania legislature in the period 1778–81.
-During this time, Thomas Paine and others attacked him for profiteering
-in Congress, which investigated his accounts and vindicated
-him. Nevertheless, his reputation slipped.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_107" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_050b.jpg" width="359" height="278" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">In 1794 Robert Morris began building this palatial townhouse in Philadelphia.
-  After his imprisonment for debt in 1798, the unfinished house came to be
-  known as “Morris’ Folly.” It stood until 1800.</div></div>
-
-<p>Morris embarked on the most dramatic phase of his career by
-accepting the office of Superintendent of Finance (1781–84) under
-the Articles of Confederation. Congress, recognizing the perilous
-state of the Nation’s finances and its impotence to remedy it, granted
-him dictatorial powers and acquiesced to his condition that he be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
-allowed to continue his private commercial enterprises. He slashed
-all governmental and military expenditures, personally purchased
-Army and Navy supplies, tightened accounting procedures, prodded
-the States to fulfill quotas of money and supplies, and when
-necessary strained his personal credit by issuing notes over his own
-signature or borrowing from friends.</p>
-
-<p>To finance Washington’s Yorktown campaign in 1781, in addition
-to the above techniques Morris obtained a sizable loan from France.
-He used part of it, along with some of his own fortune, to organize
-the Bank of North America, chartered that December. The first
-Government-incorporated bank in the United States, it aided war
-financing.</p>
-
-<p>Although Morris was reelected to the Pennsylvania legislature in
-1785–86, his private commercial ventures consumed most of his
-time. In the latter year, he attended the Annapolis Convention, and
-the following year the Constitutional Convention, where he sympathized
-with the Federalists. In 1789, declining Washington’s offer of
-appointment as the first Secretary of the Treasury, he took instead
-a senatorial seat in Congress (1789–95).</p>
-
-<p>During the later years of his public life, Morris speculated wildly,
-often on overextended credit, in lands in the West and at the site of
-Washington, D.C. To compound his difficulties, in 1794 he began
-constructing on Philadelphia’s Chestnut Street a palatial townhouse
-designed by Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant. Not long thereafter,
-Morris attempted to escape creditors by retreating to The Hills, the
-country estate along the Schuylkill River on the edge of Philadelphia
-that he had acquired in 1770.</p>
-
-<p>Arrested at the behest of creditors in 1798 and forced to abandon
-completion of the townhouse, henceforth known in its unfinished
-state as “Morris’ Folly,” Morris was thrown into the Philadelphia
-debtors’ prison, where he was well treated. Nevertheless, by the time
-he was released in 1801, under a Federal bankruptcy law, his property
-and fortune had vanished, his health deteriorated, and his spirit
-been broken. He lingered on amid poverty and obscurity, living in a
-simple Philadelphia home on an annuity Gouverneur Morris had
-obtained for his wife. He died in 1806 in his 72d year. He was
-buried in the yard of Christ Church.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_34" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="John_Morton" class="bio">John Morton</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_109" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="239" height="318" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">John Morton, one of the nine signers
-from Pennsylvania, is better known
-there than in the Nation, but he
-rendered meritorious service to both.
-He cast the decisive ballot that swung
-his State over to an affirmative vote
-for independence in the Continental
-Congress. He was the first signer
-to die.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Morton was born of Finnish-Swedish descent in 1725, shortly after
-the death of his father, on a farm in Ridley Township, Chester
-(present Delaware) County. John Sketchley, an Englishman who
-subsequently married the widowed mother of the youth, reared and
-educated him. Their relationship was apparently close, for Morton
-later named his eldest son Sketchley. The stepfather, learned in
-mathematics, taught the boy the three R’s as well as surveying. He
-practiced that profession on and off all his life, as well as farming,
-politics, and jurisprudence. He married in his early 20’s, in 1748 or
-1749, and fathered five daughters and four sons.</p>
-
-<p>At the age of 30, Morton entered politics, which from then on
-absorbed most of his energies. From 1756 until a few months before
-he died in 1777, he served 18 terms in the colonial/State legislature
-(1756–66 and 1769–76), which he presided over during the last year
-and a half. In 1774 he won appointment as an associate justice of
-the Pennsylvania Supreme Court.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, despite his rise in State circles, Morton had always<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
-maintained strong ties with his own county. He resided there all
-his life, remained active in civic and church affairs, and stayed close
-to the people. Between terms of office as county justice of the peace
-(1757–64 and 1770–74), he worked in a tour as sheriff (1766–69).</p>
-
-<p>Morton’s service to the Nation began in 1765, while he was a
-member of the Pennsylvania legislature. He and two colleagues
-represented the colony at the Stamp Act Congress in New York.
-His most dramatic act as Delegate to the Continental Congress
-(1774–77), in which he numbered among the moderates, was his
-sudden and crucial switch on July 1, 1776, to the side of his friend
-Benjamin Franklin and James Wilson in the vote for national independence.
-On the final vote the next day, these three ballots outweighed
-those of Thomas Willing and Charles Humphreys. Robert
-Morris and John Dickinson being purposely absent, Pennsylvania
-registered a “yea.” Less glamorously, Morton was a member of many
-committees, in 1777 chairing the committee of the whole on the
-adoption of the Articles of Confederation, finally ratified after his
-death.</p>
-
-<p>Within a year of signing the Declaration, in the spring of 1777,
-Morton fell ill and died on his farm at the age of 51. A few months
-earlier, he had bequeathed his land and property, including a few
-slaves, to his wife and five daughters and three surviving sons. But
-he could not will them security; shortly after his demise they had to
-flee from their home in the face of an imminent British attack.
-Morton’s grave is located in Old St. Paul’s Cemetery in Chester, Pa.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_35" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thomas_Nelson_Jr" class="bio">Thomas Nelson, Jr.</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_111" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="242" height="198" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Thomas Nelson, Jr., a rich planter-merchant
-who at one time owned
-more than 400 slaves, was one of the
-most active of the Virginia patriots.
-Mainly because of health problems,
-however, his career in Congress was
-brief and undistinguished, though he
-made great financial sacrifices during
-the war and won fame as a militia
-commander and State politician.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The eldest of five sons, Nelson was born at Yorktown, Va., in
-1738. At the age of 14, he sailed to England to supplement his initial
-tutorial education. In 1761, after graduating from Hackney School
-and Cambridge University, he returned to Virginia to help his father
-manage his plantation and mercantile business. The next year, young
-Nelson married; he and his wife were to have 11 children.</p>
-
-<p>In 1764 Nelson became a justice of the peace for York County
-and entered the House of Burgesses. He served in the house until
-May 1774, when Royal Governor Lord Dunmore, provoked at its
-protests over the Boston Port Act, dissolved it. That year and the
-next, Nelson attended three of the Virginia provincial assemblies,
-where he worked closely with Patrick Henry. The last assembly
-elected Nelson to the Continental Congress, at which time he resigned
-his colonelcy in the Virginia militia.</p>
-
-<p>In Congress, Nelson was outspoken in his desire to sever the bonds
-with England. He journeyed to Virginia in the spring of 1776. At a
-convention held in Williamsburg in May, he introduced and won
-approval for a resolution recommending national independence,
-drafted by Edmund Pendleton. Nelson carried it to Philadelphia and
-presented it to Richard Henry Lee, who redrafted and condensed it
-into his June 7 resolution. Not long afterward, Nelson’s health began
-to decline. Subsequently, he divided his time between Philadelphia
-and Virginia, and in the spring of 1777 resigned from Congress.</p>
-
-<p>Back in Virginia, Nelson was awarded the rank of brigadier general
-in the militia and was elected to the lower house of the legislature.
-In the spring of 1778 Congress appealed to men of means in the
-Colonies to form troops of light cavalry. Nelson, partially at his own
-expense, raised, outfitted, and trained such a unit. In July he marched
-it northward to Philadelphia. The next month, Congress decided it
-was not needed and it returned home.</p>
-
-<p>Nelson served in Congress again for a short time in 1779, but poor
-health forced him to retire once more. Nevertheless, the next year
-he obtained munitions and supplies for the militia, commanded
-troops, attended the legislature, and raised money to help subsidize
-the war. He was particularly effective in soliciting funds from wealthy
-plantation owners, to whom he pledged to repay the loans personally
-if the State should fail to do so.</p>
-
-<p>When the British invaded Virginia in 1780–81, civilian control
-seriously hampered Nelson’s effectiveness as a militia commander.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
-Consequently, in the latter year the legislature elected him as
-Governor and granted him powers approaching those of a military
-dictator. Although still bothered by bad health, he kept the government
-intact and strengthened defenses. In September-October 1781,
-while taking part in the Yorktown siege, according to family tradition
-he ordered troops to shell his own mansion when he learned it was
-a British headquarters. Soon after the victory at Yorktown, overwhelmed
-by the burdens of office and still in poor physical condition,
-he resigned the governorship.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_112" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="458" height="264" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">This painting commemorates one of the highlights of the siege of Yorktown
-  (1781). Thomas Nelson, Jr., commander in chief of Virginia troops,
-  took an active part.</div></div>
-
-<p>That same year, Nelson partially retired to Offley Hoo, a modest
-estate in Hanover County that his father had willed to him on his
-death in 1772. In financial distress from his wartime sacrifices, the
-younger Nelson lacked money to renovate his Yorktown home,
-where he had lived since 1767. Except for occasional tours in the
-legislature and visits to Yorktown, he devoted the rest of his life to
-his business affairs. He died at Offley Hoo in 1789 at the age of 50.
-His grave is at Yorktown in the yard of Grace Episcopal Church.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_36" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="William_Paca" class="bio">William Paca</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MARYLAND</p>
-
-<div id="ip_113" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_053b.jpg" width="254" height="304" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">William Paca was one of the earliest
-Revolutionaries in a conservative
-colony. A wealthy planter and eminent
-lawyer and judge, he held numerous
-State offices, including the governorship,
-but his role in national affairs
-was limited.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The second son of a prominent planter-landowner, Paca was born,
-probably of Italian descent, in 1740 at Chilbury Hall, near Abingdon
-in Harford County, Md. He received his early education from private
-tutors and at the age of 15 matriculated at the College of Philadelphia
-(later part of the University of Pennsylvania). Upon graduating,
-he studied with an attorney in Annapolis and read law in London.
-In 1763, the year before initiating his practice in the former city, he
-married a local girl from a wealthy family and began building a
-home, completed 2 years later. When in the country, he resided at
-Wye Plantation, in Queen Annes County, which he had purchased
-about 1760.</p>
-
-<p>In 1768 Paca won a seat in the colonial legislature, where he soon
-alined himself with Samuel Chase and other Whigs in protesting the
-powers of the Proprietary Governor. In the early 1770’s Paca joined
-other Maryland patriots in urging governmental regulation of fees
-paid to civil officers and in opposing the poll tax, used to pay the
-salaries of Anglican clergy, representing the established church. In
-1773 he became a member of the Maryland committee of correspondence.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
-The following year, along with Samuel Chase and Thomas
-Johnson, he acted as counsel for fellow legislator Joseph H. Harrison,
-who had been jailed for refusing to pay the poll tax. All three men
-also attended the first provincial convention that same year and
-received appointments to the First Continental Congress. About this
-time, Paca’s wife died.</p>
-
-<p>Although he sat in Congress until 1779, Paca’s most noteworthy
-efforts were on the State level. In the spring and early summer of
-1776, the provincial convention, a relatively conservative body,
-refused to authorize its congressional Delegates to vote for independence.
-Paca, aiding Chase and Carroll, drummed up enough support
-on the home front to persuade the convention to change its mind
-and bring Maryland into the affirmative column in the congressional
-voting on July 1–2, 1776. A few months later, he helped draft a
-State constitution. The next year, he began a 2-year term in the
-Maryland senate and saw militia duty. In addition, he sat on the
-council of safety and spent large amounts of his own money outfitting
-troops.</p>
-
-<p>Between the years 1778 and 1782, Paca distinguished himself first
-as chief justice of the State Superior Court and then as chief judge
-of the circuit court of appeals in admiralty and prize cases. During
-that time, in 1780, a few months after the demise of his second wife,
-whom he had married 3 years earlier, he sold his home in Annapolis
-and moved permanently to Wye Plantation. In 1782 he raised funds
-for Washington College, founded that same year in Chestertown as
-the first institution of higher learning in Maryland, and served on
-its board of visitors. As Governor of Maryland (1782–85), he concerned
-himself with the welfare of war veterans and other postwar
-problems.</p>
-
-<p>A delegate to the State convention to ratify the Federal Constitution
-in 1788, Paca urged its adoption if amended and helped draw
-up a list of proposed amendments. In 1789 President Washington
-appointed him as Federal district judge. He held this position until
-1799, the year of his death at the age of 58, at Wye Hall, on Wye
-Island across the narrows from his own home, Wye Plantation. The
-former was the home of his son John, probably the only one of his
-five children from his two or possibly three marriages who reached
-maturity. At first interred at Wye Hall, Paca’s remains now rest in
-the family burial ground near Wye Plantation.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_37" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Robert_Treat_Paine" class="bio">Robert Treat Paine</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MASSACHUSETTS</p>
-
-<div id="ip_115" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="254" height="240" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">A clergyman turned lawyer-jurist,
-Robert Treat Paine spent only a short
-time in Congress but enjoyed considerable
-political prestige in Massachusetts.
-His second son (1773–1811)
-and great-grandson (1835–1910),
-both bearing exactly the same names
-as he, gained fame respectively as
-poet and businessman-philanthropist.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Among the ancestors of Paine, who was born at Boston in 1731,
-were many New England religious and political leaders. His father
-was a merchant who had once been a clergyman. Young Paine led
-his class at Boston Latin School and graduated from Harvard in
-1749. He then taught school for a time before yielding to family
-tradition and entering the ministry.</p>
-
-<p>In 1755, during the French and Indian War, he served as chaplain
-on a military expedition to Crown Point, N.Y. To improve his health,
-he made a voyage to the Carolinas, England, Spain, and Greenland.
-About this time, he decided to forsake the ministry for the law, in
-which he had become interested during his theological studies.
-Admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1757, he opened an office in
-Portland but in 1761 moved to Taunton.</p>
-
-<p>Paine, a friend of John Adams and John Hancock, early became
-involved in the patriot movement. As a result, he was chosen in
-1770 as one of the prosecuting attorneys in the Boston Massacre trial
-and thus gained recognition throughout the Colonies. That same
-year, he married, siring eight children. Between 1773 and 1778,
-except in 1776, he served in the Massachusetts legislature, in 1777
-being speaker of the lower house. He was one of the first five Delegates
-sent by Massachusetts to the Continental Congress (1774–76),
-where he specialized in military and Indian affairs. He gained the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
-nickname “Objection Maker” because he argued against so many
-proposals.</p>
-
-<p>Although reelected to Congress in 1777, Paine chose to stay in
-Massachusetts. In addition to his legislative speakership, he was
-elected as the first attorney general, a position he held until 1790.
-Between 1778 and 1780 he played a prominent role in drafting the
-Massachusetts constitution. From 1790 until 1804, appointed by his
-old friend Hancock, he sat as an associate justice of the Superior
-Court.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, in 1780, Paine had moved from Taunton to Boston and
-become active in civic affairs. Indicative of his lifelong interest in
-science, that same year he was one of the founders of the American
-Academy of Arts and Sciences. In religion, he broke away from
-Calvinism and embraced Unitarianism. Politically, he alined himself
-with the Federalists. In 1804 increasing deafness brought about his
-retirement from the Superior Court, and he died a decade later at
-the age of 83 in Boston. He was buried in the Old Granary Burying
-Ground.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_38" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="John_Penn" class="bio">John Penn</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NORTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_117" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="251" height="304" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Like fellow signers Joseph Hewes
-and William Hooper, John Penn
-adopted North Carolina as his home.
-Except for a 5-year stint in the Continental
-Congress and a brief career
-in State service, he passed the years
-peacefully as a country lawyer far
-from the clamor of the public forum.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Penn was born in 1740 or 1741 in Caroline County, Va. His father
-was a well-to-do farmer, and his mother the daughter of a prominent
-county judge. Despite the family’s social position, Penn received only
-a few years of formal schooling. At the age of 18, when his father
-died, he inherited a sizable estate. But he was dissatisfied with the
-prospects it offered, and decided to continue his education. Encouraged
-by a relative, Edmund Pendleton, a well-known lawyer who
-made available his personal library, Penn studied law on his own and
-within 3 years gained admittance to the bar. Soon thereafter he
-married; he and his wife reared three children.</p>
-
-<p>In 1774, at the end of more than a decade of successful law practice
-in Virginia, Penn journeyed to Granville County, N.C., and made
-his home near Stovall. The next year, he was elected to the provincial
-assembly and only a few weeks later to the Continental Congress
-(1775–80). In 1777, upon the retirement of Hewes and Hooper, he
-inherited the leadership of his State’s delegation. He was one of the
-16 signers of the Declaration who also signed the Articles of
-Confederation.</p>
-
-<p>Unobtrusive and unassuming but remarkably efficient, likeable,
-and discreet, Penn quickly won the respect of his congressional
-colleagues. He rarely disputed with others, but when he did his good
-humor and peaceful manner saved the day. On one occasion, he
-feuded with President of Congress Henry Laurens of South Carolina
-over a personal matter. He accepted Laurens’ challenge to a duel, but
-en route to the proposed site convinced Laurens that they should
-bury their differences and drop the matter.</p>
-
-<p>Late in 1780 the Governor of North Carolina recalled Penn from
-Congress to sit on the emergency Board of War, created by the legislature
-in September to share with the Governor responsibility for
-military affairs. The three-man board, of which Penn became the
-leading member, in effect soon assumed control of all military matters.
-The Governor and military officials, resenting the infringement
-upon their prerogatives and their loss of authority, persuaded the
-legislature to abolish the board in January 1781.</p>
-
-<p>His health declining, the following July Penn declined an appointment
-to the Governor’s Council. With the exception of a short tour
-in 1784 as State tax receiver for the Confederation, he apparently
-devoted his last years to his law practice. In 1788, only in his late
-forties, he died at his home near Stovall. Originally buried in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
-family graveyard adjacent to his home, his remains now rest in
-Guilford Courthouse National Military Park near Greensboro.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_39" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="George_Read" class="bio">George Read</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">DELAWARE</p>
-
-<div id="ip_118" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="243" height="344" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Conservative lawyer George Read
-was the only signer who voted against
-independence in the final congressional
-vote on July 2, 1776. In addition
-to attaining many prominent State
-offices, he attended the Constitutional
-Convention, where he defended the
-rights of the smaller States, and
-subsequently served as a Senator in
-the First Congress.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Read’s mother was the daughter of a Welsh planter, and his Dublin-born
-father a landholder of means. Soon after George’s birth in 1733
-near North East in Cecil County, Md., his family moved to New
-Castle, Del., where the youth grew up. He attended school at Chester,
-Pa., and Rev. Francis Alison’s academy at New London, Pa., and
-about the age of 15 began reading law with a Philadelphia lawyer.
-In 1753 he was admitted to the bar and began to practice. The next
-year, he journeyed back to New Castle, hung out his shingle, and
-before long enlisted a clientele that extended into Maryland. In 1763
-he wed the widowed sister of future fellow signer George Ross, and
-she bore him four sons and a daughter.</p>
-
-<p>While crown attorney general (1763–74) for the Three Lower<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
-Counties (present Delaware), Read protested against the Stamp Act.
-In 1765 he began a career in the colonial legislature that extended
-for more than a decade. A moderate Whig, he supported nonimportation
-measures and dignified protests. His attendance in Congress
-(1774–77) was irregular. Like his friend John Dickinson, he was
-willing to protect colonial rights but was wary of extremism. He
-balloted against independence on July 2, 1776, apparently either
-bowing to the strong Tory sentiment in Delaware or believing
-reconciliation with Britain was still possible.</p>
-
-<p>That same year, Read gave priority to State responsibilities. He
-presided over the Delaware constitutional convention, in which he
-chaired the drafting committee, and began a term as speaker of the
-legislative council, which in effect made him vice president of the
-State. When the British captured Wilmington the next fall, they
-captured the president, a resident of the city. At first, because Read
-was away in Congress, Thomas McKean, speaker of the lower house,
-took over as acting president. But in November, after almost being
-captured himself while he and his family were en route to Dover from
-Philadelphia, newly captured by the British, Read assumed the office
-and held it until the spring of 1778.</p>
-
-<p>During 1779, in poor health, Read resigned from the legislative
-council, refused reelection to Congress, and began a period of inactivity.
-In the years 1782–88, he again sat on the council, and concurrently
-held the position of judge of the court of appeals in
-admiralty cases. Meantime, in 1784, he had served on a commission
-that adjusted New York-Massachusetts land claims. In 1786 he
-attended the Annapolis Convention. The next year, he participated
-in the Constitutional Convention. He later led the ratification
-movement in Delaware, the first State to ratify.</p>
-
-<p>In the U.S. Senate (1789–93), Read’s attendance was again spasmodic,
-but when present he allied with the Federalists. He resigned
-to accept the post of chief justice of Delaware. He held this office
-until his death at New Castle 5 years later, just 3 days after he
-celebrated his 65th birthday. His grave is located there in the
-Immanuel Episcopal Churchyard.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_40" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Caesar_Rodney" class="bio">Caesar Rodney</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">DELAWARE</p>
-
-<div id="ip_120" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="242" height="335" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Self-educated Caesar Rodney climbed
-to high State and National offices,
-but his military-political duties in
-Delaware spared him little time for
-the affairs of Congress. He is noted
-mainly for his emergency ride to
-Philadelphia that broke his State’s
-deadlock in the vote for independence,
-but he was also one of two bachelor
-signers and the only native of the three
-from Delaware.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Rodney was born in 1728 on his father’s 800-acre plantation,
-Byfield, near Dover in Kent County. In 1745, as the eldest child, he
-inherited the plantation. Despite a lack of formal and legal education,
-a decade later he accepted the first of a series of county offices: high
-sheriff, register of wills, recorder of deeds, clerk of the orphans’ court,
-justice of the peace, militia captain, and cotrustee of the loan office.</p>
-
-<p>On the provincial level, for most of the period 1758–76 Rodney
-functioned as a justice of the Superior Court for the Three Lower
-Counties (present Delaware) and as a legislator in the lower house,
-including many tours as speaker. Between 1765 and 1774, he owned
-and occupied a townhouse that he used while in Dover. He and
-Thomas McKean compiled the colony’s laws, and they both attended
-the Stamp Act Congress (1765). Three years later, the two of them
-and George Read, all three later to sign the Declaration, drafted a
-protest to the King concerning the Townshend Acts. In 1774, after
-Parliament closed Boston Harbor, Rodney usurped the prerogative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
-of the Proprietary Governor by calling a special meeting of the legislature
-at New Castle, the first Revolutionary convention in the State.
-Rodney, McKean, and Read were sent to the First Continental
-Congress.</p>
-
-<p>Although a congressional Member for 2 years, Rodney was often
-absent in Delaware, sometimes presiding over the legislature and
-sometimes meeting military responsibilities. In May 1775 he was
-elected a colonel in the militia, and in September moved up to
-brigadier general. Late the next June, while the independence resolution
-was pending in Congress, he was investigating Loyalist agitations
-in Sussex County. On the evening of July 1, after his return to
-Byfield, he received McKean’s dispatch pointing out that Read had
-voted against independence that day and pleading with Rodney to
-hurry to Philadelphia to break the tie. Riding all night through a
-thunderstorm and stopping only to change horses, he completed the
-80-mile trip just in time to make possible an affirmative vote for
-Delaware.</p>
-
-<p>This brought down the wrath of the Kent County conservatives on
-Rodney, who was not reelected to Congress nor to the legislature and
-not appointed to the State constitutional convention. Out of office,
-that fall and the next year he turned to military affairs, recruiting
-troops and taking part in minor actions in Delaware and New Jersey.
-In September 1777 acting State president McKean commissioned
-him as a major general.</p>
-
-<p>That spring, the legislature had designated Rodney as an admiralty
-judge. In December it reelected him to the Continental Congress.
-The next year, it nominated him as State president (1778–81), in
-which capacity he stimulated the Delaware war effort. When he left
-office, he belatedly sought medical treatment in Philadelphia for a
-cancerous growth on his face, which had been bothering him for a
-decade and which he had covered with a green silk veil. In 1783,
-though a dying man, he entered the State senate and accepted the
-speakership, but passed away the next year at the age of 55. Interred
-originally at Byfield Plantation, his remains are now buried in the
-yard of Christ Episcopal Church in Dover.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_41" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="George_Ross" class="bio">George Ross</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_122" class="figleft" style="max-width: 15.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="252" height="311" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">A few of the signers, such as George
-Ross, were latecomers to the Revolutionary
-cause. Like many others, he
-exerted more influence in State than
-national affairs.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The oldest son of an Anglican clergyman who had immigrated
-from Scotland, Ross was born in 1730 at New Castle, Del. After a
-preliminary classical education, he read law with his stepbrother John
-at Philadelphia and in 1750 entered the bar. Settling the next year
-at Lancaster, Pa., where he married and fathered two sons and a
-daughter, he built up a successful law practice and served as crown
-prosecutor for Cumberland County (1751–63). A member of the
-colonial legislature from 1768 until 1775, he sometimes joined in its
-disputes with the Proprietary Governor and demonstrated an interest
-in Indian affairs.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, in 1774, despite his Loyalist leanings, a provincial convention
-to which Ross had been elected sent him to the Continental
-Congress. The next year, by which time he had for some reason
-decided to affiliate with the Revolutionaries, he also served on the
-Pennsylvania council of safety and held a militia colonelcy. In 1776
-he assisted in negotiating a peace treaty with the Indians in northwestern
-Pennsylvania, and acted as vice president of the State constitutional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
-convention, for which he helped draft a declaration of
-rights. Not a Member of Congress during the voting for independence
-on July 1–2, 1776, he received his appointment soon enough to sign
-the Declaration on August 2. He won a reputation among his colleagues
-for his eloquence, wit, and conviviality, but made no noteworthy
-contributions to congressional proceedings. Illness brought
-about his resignation in January 1777.</p>
-
-<p>In 1778, while Ross was acting as admiralty judge in Pennsylvania,
-a congressional court of appeals overruled his decision in a case
-involving a dispute between a citizen of Connecticut and the State
-of Pennsylvania. Ross, refusing to acknowledge the authority of the
-higher court to counter State decisions, initiated a dispute between
-Pennsylvania and the Central Government that represented an early
-manifestation of the States rights controversy and did not subside
-until 1809. But Ross did not live to see the outcome, for he died in
-Philadelphia in 1779 at the age of 49. He was buried in Christ Church
-Burial Ground.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_42" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Benjamin_Rush" class="bio">Benjamin Rush</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_124" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_058b.jpg" width="236" height="307" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Doctor, medical educator, chemist,
-humanitarian, politician, author,
-reformer-moralist, soldier, temperance
-advocate, abolitionist—Benjamin
-Rush was all of these. One of the
-younger signers, only 30 years of
-age at the time, he was already a
-physician of note.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Rush, the fourth of seven children, was born in 1745 at Byberry
-(“The Homestead”), near Philadelphia. At the age of 5, his farmer-gunsmith
-father died. The youth obtained a sound education at West
-Nottingham Academy, in Rising Sun, Md., operated by an uncle, and
-graduated from the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University).
-Returning to Philadelphia in 1760, he apparently first considered
-studying law but chose medicine. In 1766, at the end of a
-5-year apprenticeship to a local physician, he sailed to Scotland,
-where 2 years later the University of Edinburgh awarded him a
-medical degree.</p>
-
-<p>While there, assisted by a fellow college alumnus and one-day
-fellow signer, Richard Stockton, Rush helped overcome the objections
-of John Witherspoon’s wife and persuaded Witherspoon to
-accept the presidency of the College of New Jersey. In 1769, after
-further training in London, where Rush made the acquaintance of
-Benjamin Franklin, and a short visit to Paris, he came back to
-Philadelphia and set up practice. Before the year was out, he obtained
-the first professorship of chemistry in the country at the
-College of Philadelphia, and wrote the first American textbook on
-the subject.</p>
-
-<p>While prospering as a physician, Rush cultivated the friendship of
-such men as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine. In
-fact, Rush suggested to the latter that he write his famous tract
-<cite>Common Sense</cite> (1776), supplied the title, and aided in its publication.
-He also contributed political articles to the press. That same
-year, he married Stockton’s eldest daughter, Julia.</p>
-
-<p>Rush’s tour in the Continental Congress was brief. In June 1776
-he attended a Pennsylvania conference of patriots and helped draft
-a declaration of the colony’s support for national independence. In
-recognition of these services, the following month the provincial
-convention sent him to Congress—after the adoption of the Declaration.
-In December, Philadelphia threatened by British invasion, the
-Government fled to Baltimore. Rush apparently, however, did not
-spend much time there. That same month, he relocated his wife at
-the home of a relative in Cecil County, Md., and took part in General
-Washington’s New Jersey campaign as a surgeon in the Philadelphia
-militia.</p>
-
-<p>In April 1777, not reelected to Congress because of his opposition
-to the Pennsylvania constitution of the previous year, Rush accepted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>
-the position of surgeon general in the Middle Department of the
-Continental Army. Abhorring the deplorable conditions prevailing in
-the medical service, in a complaint to Washington he accused his
-superior, Dr. William Shippen, of maladministration. Washington
-referred the matter to Congress, which vindicated Shippen. In January
-1778 Rush angrily resigned. His subsequent criticisms of Washington
-and his participation in the Conway Cabal, a movement to
-replace General Washington, ended his military and, for a time, his
-political career. He resumed his medical practice in Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_125" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="356" height="280" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Benjamin Rush long served on the staff of Philadelphia’s Pennsylvania
-  Hospital, shown here in 1799. Founded in 1751 and still in use today, it is
-  the oldest hospital in the United States.</div></div>
-
-<p>In 1787 Rush wrote tracts in the newspapers endorsing the U.S.
-Constitution. In the Commonwealth ratifying convention that same
-year, he aided James Wilson in the struggle for its adoption. In
-1789–90 Rush attended the Pennsylvania constitutional convention.
-From 1797 until 1813 he served as Treasurer of the U.S. Mint.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
-Meantime Rush, through his writings and lectures, had become
-probably the best known physician and medical teacher in the land,
-and he fostered Philadelphia’s ascendancy as the early medical center
-of the Nation. His students, who idolized him, came from as far away
-as Europe to attend his classes at the College of Philadelphia, and its
-successors the University of the State of Pennsylvania and the University
-of Pennsylvania (1791). He also served on the staff of the
-Pennsylvania Hospital from 1783 until the end of his life, helped
-found the Philadelphia College of Physicians (1787), and held office
-as first president of the Philadelphia Medical Society. In 1786 he
-founded the Philadelphia Dispensary, the first free medical clinic in
-the country. His work among the insane at the Pennsylvania Hospital
-resulted in <cite>Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases
-of the Mind</cite> (1812), which to some degree foreshadowed modern
-psychiatric techniques.</p>
-
-<p>Rush won much less favor from his professional peers than he did
-from his students. His critics particularly attacked his theory of bleeding
-and purging for the treatment of disease. Although he was one of
-the few doctors who remained in Philadelphia during the devastating
-yellow fever epidemics of 1793 and 1798, his opponents criticized his
-methods of treatment.</p>
-
-<p>Aroused by the idealism of the Revolution as well as the plight of
-the poor and sick he encountered in his medical practice, Rush helped
-pioneer various humanitarian and social movements that were to
-restructure U.S. life in the 19th century. These included abolition of
-slavery and educational and prison reform. Rush also condemned
-public and capital punishment and advocated temperance. Many of his
-reform articles appeared in Essays: <cite>Literary, Moral, and Philosophical</cite>
-(1798).</p>
-
-<p>Finally, Rush helped organize and sat as a trustee of Dickinson
-College (1783); aided in founding the Pennsylvania Society for
-Promoting the Abolition of Slavery (1787) and later served as its
-president; enjoyed membership in the American Philosophical Society;
-and was a cofounder and vice president of the Philadelphia Bible
-Society, which advocated the use of scripture in the public schools.</p>
-
-<p>A typhus epidemic claimed Rush’s life at the age of 67 in 1813.
-Surviving him were six sons and three daughters of the 13 children
-he had fathered. His grave is in Christ Church Burial Ground at
-Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_43" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Edward_Rutledge" class="bio">Edward Rutledge</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">SOUTH CAROLINA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_127" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="250" height="332" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Edward Rutledge, at the age of 26,
-was the youngest of the signers.
-Despite his youth, he had already
-made a name for himself in South
-Carolina as a lawyer-politician and
-had assumed leadership of his congressional
-delegation. A moderate,
-he at first fought against the independence
-resolution but finally submitted
-to the majority and voted for
-it. His later State career, which
-included combat action in the
-militia, culminated in the governorship.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The fifth son and youngest child of an Irish immigrant and physician,
-Rutledge was born in 1749 at or near Charleston, S.C. Like
-Middleton, Lynch, and Heyward, the other South Carolina signers,
-as a young man he studied law in England. In 1773, during his first
-year of practice on his return to Charleston, he won Whig acclaim by
-obtaining the release of newspaper publisher Thomas Powell, who
-had been imprisoned by the Crown for printing an article critical of
-the Loyalist upper house of the colonial legislature. The next year,
-the grateful Whigs named Rutledge as one of five Delegates to the
-First Continental Congress; and he married Henrietta Middleton, his
-colleague’s sister. The Rutledges were to have three children.</p>
-
-<p>Rutledge spent his first congressional term in the shadow of the
-more experienced South Carolina Delegates, among them his older
-brother, John, and his father-in-law, Henry Middleton. During
-1775–76, however, both in Congress and in two South Carolina provincial
-assemblies, his increasing self-confidence and maturation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
-judgment brought him the esteem of his associates. In the latter year,
-two of the senior South Carolina Delegates, Christopher Gadsden
-and Henry Middleton, retired from Congress and Thomas Lynch, Sr.,
-suffered an incapacitating stroke. Rutledge, his brother absent on
-State business, found himself the delegation leader.</p>
-
-<p>On June 7, 1776, when Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed
-national independence, Rutledge led the moderates in securing a
-delay in the voting. He knew that independence was inevitable. In
-March his colony, preceded only by New Hampshire, had adopted a
-constitution. Moreover, that same month the provincial assembly had
-empowered its Delegates to vote for independence if they so desired.
-Yet Rutledge firmly believed that the Colonies should first confederate
-and nurture foreign alliances to strengthen themselves for the
-perilous step they were about to take. When the vote on independence
-came up on July 1, he refused to yield and South Carolina
-balloted negatively. But nine of the Colonies voted affirmatively.
-Rutledge, realizing that the resolution would probably carry anyway,
-proposed that the vote be recast the following day. He persuaded the
-other South Carolina Delegates to submit to the will of the majority
-for the sake of unanimity, and South Carolina reversed its position.</p>
-
-<p>Rutledge’s last important assignment occurred in September, when
-he accompanied John Adams and Benjamin Franklin on a vain peace
-mission to Staten Island to negotiate with British Admiral Lord
-Richard Howe, who in union with his brother, Gen. William Howe, was
-belatedly and idealistically trying to resolve the differences between
-the Colonies and the mother country. Two months later, Rutledge
-departed from Congress in order to resume his law practice in
-Charleston.</p>
-
-<p>In 1778 Rutledge accepted a seat in the State legislature and the
-next year won reelection to Congress, though military duties prevented
-his attendance. As a militia captain, in February 1779 he took
-part in Gen. William Moultrie’s defeat of the British at Port Royal
-Island, S.C. But in May, 1780, during the siege of Charleston, the
-redcoats captured Rutledge, as well as Heyward and Middleton, and
-imprisoned them at St. Augustine, Fla., until July 1781.</p>
-
-<p>From 1782 until 1798 Rutledge sat in the State legislature, which
-on three occasions designated him as a presidential elector. During
-this period, his mistrust of unbridled republicanism reinforced his
-conservatism and brought him into the Federalist Party. In private<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
-life he flourished, his wealth increasing through his law practice and
-investments in plantations. In 1792 his first wife died and he remarried.
-To crown his achievements, 6 years later the people of South
-Carolina chose him as Governor. But, his health poor, he died at
-Charleston early in 1800 at the age of 50, nearly a year before the
-end of his term. The yard of St. Philip’s Episcopal Church is the site
-of his grave.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_44" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Roger_Sherman" class="bio">Roger Sherman</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">CONNECTICUT</p>
-
-<div id="ip_129" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="237" height="323" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">By dint of self-education, hard work,
-and business acumen, Roger Sherman
-soared above his humble origins to
-prominence in local, State, and
-National political affairs. He was a
-member of the committee that drafted
-the Declaration of Independence. He
-and Robert Morris were the only men
-to sign the three bulwark documents
-of the Republic: the Declaration of
-Independence, Articles of Confederation,
-and Constitution. Twice married,
-Sherman fathered 15 children.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">In 1723, when Sherman was 2 years of age, his family relocated
-from his Newton, Mass., birthplace to Dorchester (present Stoughton).
-As a boy, he was spurred by a desire to learn, and read widely
-in his spare time to supplement his minimal education at a common
-school. But he spent most of his waking hours helping his father with
-farming chores and learning the cobbler’s trade from him. In 1743,
-or 2 years after his father’s death, Sherman joined an elder brother
-who had settled at New Milford, Conn.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
-Purchasing a store, becoming county surveyor, and winning a
-variety of town offices, Sherman prospered and assumed leadership
-in the community. Without benefit of a legal education, he was
-admitted to the bar in 1754 and embarked upon a distinguished
-judicial and political career. In the period 1755–61, except for a brief
-interval, he served as a representative in the colonial legislature and
-held the offices of justice of the peace and county judge. Somehow
-he also eked out time to publish an essay on monetary theory and a
-series of almanacs incorporating his own astronomical observations
-and verse.</p>
-
-<p>In 1761, abandoning his law practice, Sherman moved to New
-Haven, Conn. There he managed a store that catered to Yale students
-and another one in nearby Wallingford. He also became a
-friend and benefactor of Yale College, functioning for many years
-as its treasurer.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_130" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="357" height="228" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Residence of Roger Sherman, in New Haven, Conn., from 1768 until
-  his death in 1793.</div></div>
-
-<p>Meanwhile, Sherman’s political career had blossomed. He rose from
-justice of the peace and county judge to an associate judge of the
-Connecticut Superior Court and to representative in both houses of
-the colonial assembly. Although opposed to extremism, he early
-joined the fight against Britain. He supported nonimportation
-measures and headed the New Haven committee of correspondence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
-Sherman was a longtime and influential Member of the Continental
-Congress (1774–81 and 1783–84). He won membership on the committees
-that drafted the Declaration of Independence and the Articles
-of Confederation, as well as those concerned with Indian affairs,
-national finance, and military matters. To solve economic problems,
-at both the National and State levels, he advocated high taxes rather
-than excessive borrowing or the issuance of paper currency. While in
-Congress, Sherman remained active in State and local politics, continuing
-to hold the office of judge of the Connecticut Superior Court,
-as well as membership on the council of safety. In 1783 he helped
-codify Connecticut’s statutory laws. The next year, he was elected
-mayor of New Haven (1784–86).</p>
-
-<p>Sherman could not resist the lure of national service. In 1787 he
-represented his State at the Constitutional Convention, in which he
-played a major role. He conceived and introduced the Connecticut,
-or so-called Great, Compromise, which broke a deadlock between the
-large and small States by providing for a dual legislative system—representation
-by proportion of population in the lower house and
-equal representation in the upper house. He was also instrumental
-in Connecticut’s ratification of the Constitution.</p>
-
-<p>Sherman capped his career by serving as U.S. Representative
-(1789–91) and Senator (1791–93), espousing the Federalist cause. He
-died at New Haven in 1793 at the age of 72 and is buried in the
-Grove Street Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_45" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="James_Smith" class="bio">James Smith</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_132" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="232" height="289" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">James Smith, a lawyer who had
-emigrated from Ireland to the Colonies,
-represented the Pennsylvania back-country
-in Revolutionary conventions
-and the Continental Congress. He
-also helped draft the Pennsylvania
-constitution.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Smith, the second son in a large family, was born in northern
-Ireland about 1719. When he was around 10 years old, his father
-emigrated to America and settled on acreage west of the Susquehanna
-River in York County, Pa. James studied surveying and
-classical languages at Rev. Francis Alison’s academy in New London,
-Pa., and then read law in the office of his elder brother at Lancaster.
-He was admitted to the bar in 1745 and moved westward to the
-Shippensburg vicinity in Cumberland County. A lack of clients and
-surveying work caused him about 1750 to relocate eastward to York,
-where he married a decade later. Although he was the only lawyer in
-town until 1769, he experienced difficulty in recruiting clients. Probably
-for this reason, during the years 1771–78 he undertook iron
-manufacturing, but the venture failed and he lost £5,000.</p>
-
-<p>Smith early emerged as a local Whig leader. In 1774, at a provincial
-convention in Philadelphia, he supported nonimportation measures
-and advocated an intercolonial congress. That same year, at
-York he raised a militia company, in which he served as captain and
-later honorary colonel. At two provincial meetings in 1775–76, he
-championed the interests of the western counties and helped formulate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>
-resolutions calling for independence, the strengthening of
-defenses, and establishment of a new provincial government. During
-the latter year, he sat on the drafting committee in the State constitutional
-convention. Elected to Congress (1776–78) on July 20,
-1776, after the vote on independence had been taken, he arrived in
-Philadelphia in time to sign the Declaration. Among his colleagues
-he gained a reputation as a wit, conversationalist, and eccentric.</p>
-
-<p>During the period 1779–82 Smith held various State offices: one-term
-legislator, judge of the Pennsylvania high court of errors and
-appeals, brigadier general in the militia, and State counselor during
-the Wyoming Valley land dispute between Pennsylvania and Connecticut.
-In 1785 he turned down reelection to Congress because of
-his age. His major activity prior to his retirement in 1801 was the
-practice of law. Smith died at about the age of 87 in 1806 at York,
-survived by two of his five children. His grave is in the First
-Presbyterian Church Cemetery.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_46" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Richard_Stockton" class="bio">Richard Stockton</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW JERSEY</p>
-
-<div id="ip_134" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="236" height="323" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Circumstances of the times draw
-some men into public life who otherwise
-might avoid its burdens—and
-sorrows. One of these was Richard
-Stockton, whose wartime detention
-by the British contributed to his
-untimely death.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Stockton, son of a wealthy landowner and judge, was born in 1730
-at Morven, the family estate and his lifelong home, at Princeton, N.J.
-After a preparatory education at West Nottingham Academy, in
-Rising Sun, Md., he graduated in 1748 from the College of New
-Jersey (later Princeton University), then in Newark but relocated 8
-years hence at Princeton. In 1754 he completed an apprenticeship
-with a Newark lawyer and joined the bar. The next year, he wed
-poetess Annis Boudinot, by whom he had two sons and four daughters.
-By the mid-1760’s he was recognized as one of the ablest
-lawyers in the Middle Colonies.</p>
-
-<p>Like his father a patron of the College of New Jersey, in 1766
-Stockton sailed on its behalf to Scotland to recruit Rev. John Witherspoon
-for the presidency. Aiding in this endeavor, complicated by
-the opposition of Witherspoon’s wife, was Benjamin Rush, a fellow
-alumnus then enrolled at the University of Edinburgh. In 1768, the
-year after Stockton’s departure, Witherspoon finally accepted.</p>
-
-<p>Stockton resumed his law practice, spending his spare hours at
-Morven breeding choice cattle and horses, collecting art objects, and
-expanding his library. Yet, though he had some time before expressed
-disinterest in public life, in 1768 he began a 6-year term on the
-executive council of New Jersey and then sat on the provincial
-Supreme Court (1774–76).</p>
-
-<p>Stockton became associated with the Revolutionary movement
-during its initial stages. In 1764 he advocated American representation
-in Parliament, but during the Stamp Act crisis the next year
-questioned its right to control the Colonies at all. By 1774, though
-dreading the possibility of war, he was espousing colonial self-rule
-under the Crown. Elected to Congress 2 years later, he voted for
-independence and signed the Declaration. That same year, he met
-defeat in a bid for the New Jersey governorship, but rejected the
-chance to become first chief justice of the State Supreme Court to
-remain in Congress.</p>
-
-<p>Late in 1776 fate turned against Stockton. In November, while
-inspecting the northern Continental Army in upper New York State
-with fellow Congressman George Clymer, Stockton hurried home
-when he learned of the British invasion of New Jersey and removed
-his family to a friend’s home in Monmouth County. While he was
-there, Loyalists informed the British, who captured and imprisoned
-him under harsh conditions at Perth Amboy, N.J., and later in New<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
-York. A formal remonstrance from Congress and other efforts to
-obtain his exchange resulted in his release, in poor physical condition,
-sometime in 1777. To add to his woes, he found that the British had
-pillaged and partially burned Morven. Still an invalid, he died at
-Princeton in 1781 at the age of 50. He is buried at the Stony Brook
-Quaker Meeting House Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_47" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thomas_Stone" class="bio">Thomas Stone</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">MARYLAND</p>
-
-<div id="ip_135" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="239" height="316" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">By the time the Continental Congress
-voted for independence from Great
-Britain on July 2, 1776, only a handful
-of conservatives remained in the
-body. Included in this group were
-Thomas Stone of Maryland, Carter
-Braxton of Virginia, George Read of
-Delaware, and Edward Rutledge
-of South Carolina—erstwhile opponents
-of independence who, except
-for Read, submitted to the will
-of the majority and balloted for it.
-Stone, a rich planter-lawyer of retiring
-disposition, preferred to stay in the
-background during his long but limited
-political career.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Stone was born in 1743 at Poynton Manor, his father’s plantation
-near the village of Welcome in Charles County, Md. He enjoyed all
-the advantages that accrued to the eldest son. Following tutorial
-instruction in the classics as a youth, he apprenticed himself to an
-Annapolis lawyer and in 1764 joined the bar. For the first 2 years
-he practiced at Frederick, Md., and then settled in his home county.
-He married 2 years later. Apparently with part of his wife’s dowry,
-he purchased land a few miles to the northeast of his birthplace.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>
-There, near Port Tobacco, in 1771 he built Habre-de-Venture, his
-home and principal residence for the rest of his life.</p>
-
-<p>Stone entered politics in 1773 as a member of the Charles County
-committee of correspondence. The next year, on behalf of the Proprietary
-Governor, he helped prosecute Joseph H. Harrison, a Maryland
-legislator who had refused to pay the poll tax for the support of
-the Anglican clergy. This action, despite its legal ethicality, did not
-endear Stone to the patriots. His opponents, counsel for the defense,
-consisted of Thomas Johnson, Samuel Chase, and William Paca—all
-three of whom later became his congressional colleagues.</p>
-
-<p>That same year, 1774, Stone won appointment to the provincial
-convention, which the following year sent him to Congress. A far less
-enthusiastic Revolutionary than most Congressmen, he heartily
-favored reconciliation almost up to the time of the vote on independence
-and was one of the few Delegates who favored peace negotiations
-with Britisher Lord Richard Howe in September 1776, some
-2 months after the adoption of the Declaration. A poor speaker,
-Stone rarely participated in debates but sat on the committee that
-drafted the Articles of Confederation, though he did not sign the
-document. He remained in Congress until 1778.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, a couple of years earlier, Stone had begun a tour in the
-State senate that was to last for practically the remainder of his life.
-In 1784 he also returned to the Continental Congress, where he
-served for a few days as acting President but resigned before the year
-expired to resume his law practice. His last act of public service
-occurred the following year, when he and two others represented
-Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference.</p>
-
-<p>In 1787 Stone’s wife, whose health had been failing for more than
-a decade, passed away at the age of 34. The grief-stricken Stone
-abandoned his work, declined to attend the Constitutional Convention
-to which he had been elected, and decided to visit England. A
-few months later, though only in his mid-forties, he died suddenly
-while awaiting a vessel at Alexandria, Va. Three of his children
-survived him. Stone is buried in the family graveyard adjacent to
-Habre-de-Venture.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_48" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="George_Taylor" class="bio">George Taylor</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_137" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="231" height="346" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Surmounting the poverty that forced
-him to come to the American Colonies
-from Ireland as an indentured servant
-to an ironmaster, George Taylor
-climbed to the top of the industry.
-In the process, merging politics
-with commerce, he gained enough
-distinction in county and State affairs
-to win election to the Continental
-Congress—his only service on the
-national level. Even then, he attended
-only a few months, just long enough
-to sign the Declaration. He contributed
-more directly to the cause of liberty
-as an ironmaster, producing ordnance
-for the Continental Army.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">When Taylor was about 20 years of age, he indentured himself
-and emigrated from northern Ireland, where he had been born in
-1716, to Pennsylvania. He began as a laborer and then became a
-clerk at Warwick Furnace, in Chester County, and within 3 years
-rose to bookkeeper-manager of nearby Coventry Forge, another
-enterprise of his employer. In 1742, the year after the latter died,
-Taylor acquired his business when he married his widow; she bore
-him a son and daughter.</p>
-
-<p>In the mid-1750’s Taylor moved northeastward to Bucks County,
-where he and a partner leased Durham Furnace, about 2 miles south
-of the Northampton County line and 10 miles south of Easton.
-Apparently after 1763 Taylor lived much of the time at or near
-Easton and acquired property there. In 1768 his wife died; he subsequently
-sired five children by his housekeeper out of wedlock. The
-year of his wife’s death, he built a home about 15 miles west of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
-city on a 331-acre tract he had purchased the year before. In 1771
-he leased most of the land out as a farm, and 5 years later sold the
-house and land.</p>
-
-<p>Taylor had begun his public life in 1747, when he took a commission
-as a captain in the Chester County militia. In 1761 he was
-appointed as justice of the peace for Bucks County, but devoted most
-of his energies to Northampton County, which he served as justice of
-the peace (1764–75) and representative in the colonial legislature
-(1764–70). In 1774 Taylor, a political moderate, became a member
-of the Northampton County committee of correspondence. The next
-year, he attended a provincial Revolutionary convention, was elected
-to the provincial assembly, served on the council of safety, and
-became a colonel in the Bucks and Northampton County militias.</p>
-
-<p>In July 1776 the Pennsylvania assembly selected Taylor as one
-of its new Delegates to the Continental Congress. His only noteworthy
-action there was signing the Declaration. The next January,
-however, he and fellow signer George Walton of Georgia negotiated
-a peace treaty with the Six Indian Nations (Iroquois) at Easton, Pa.,
-but Congress did not ratify it. In March the voters of Northampton
-County elected Taylor to the new Supreme Executive Assembly of
-Pennsylvania, but illness and financial difficulties restricted his participation
-to only 6 weeks, at the end of which he retired from public
-life.</p>
-
-<p>By this time, Taylor’s Durham Furnace was turning out grapeshot,
-cannonballs, bar shot, and cannon for the Revolutionary army—for
-which Taylor was ill-compensated. In 1778 the State dispossessed
-him of his lease on the Durham Furnace, owned by the Philadelphia
-Loyalist John Galloway and confiscated by the State. Taylor then
-moved to Greenwich Township, N.J., and leased Greenwich Forge,
-which he operated until his death at the age of 65 in 1781. The year
-before, his health failing, Taylor had returned to Easton and leased
-a home. Originally buried in the yard of the German Evangelical
-Lutheran Church at Easton, his body was later moved to the Easton
-Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_49" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Matthew_Thornton" class="bio">Matthew Thornton</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW HAMPSHIRE</p>
-
-<div id="ip_139" class="figright" style="max-width: 14.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_066.jpg" width="234" height="335" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Probably six of the 56 signers belatedly
-penned their signatures, eight of
-them were foreign-born, and four
-were physicians. Matthew Thornton
-belongs in all three categories. Less
-exclusively, he ranks among the
-substantial number of signers whose
-national service was brief or
-relatively insignificant.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Thornton was born in Ireland about 1714. Approximately 4 years
-later, his Scotch-Irish parents emigrated with their family to America,
-settling first at Wiscasset, in present Maine, and then near Worcester,
-Mass. Young Thornton, after attending common schools, undertook
-the study of medicine with a local doctor. In 1740 he began what
-proved to be a thriving practice in the Scotch-Irish town of Londonderry
-(present Derry Village), N.H. Five years later, as a surgeon in
-the New Hampshire militia during King George’s War (1740–48), he
-participated in the British expedition from New England that
-captured Louisbourg, the French fortress in Nova Scotia.</p>
-
-<p>By 1758 Thornton was representing Londonderry in the colonial
-legislature and stayed there until 1775. During the long interim,
-about 1760 he married and began a family of five; and throughout
-the period he figured prominently in New Hampshire politics and
-Revolutionary activities. In 1775–76 he held the offices of president
-of the provincial assembly and constitutional convention, chairman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
-of the council of safety, and member of the upper and lower houses
-of the legislature, as well as speaker of the former. Although he did
-not enter Congress until November 1776, or 3 months after the
-formal signing of the Declaration, he was granted permission to affix
-his signature.</p>
-
-<p>About a year later, Thornton left Congress to devote his time to
-his duties as associate justice of the State Superior Court. Despite
-a lack of legal education, he had acquired this position in 1776. He
-held it until 1782, some 2 years after he retired from his medical
-practice in Londonderry and settled on a farm he purchased near
-Merrimack, N.H. Later, in 1784–86, he completed a tour in the
-State senate. He spent his last years farming and operating a ferry—Lutwyche’s
-(later Thornton’s) Ferry—across the Merrimack River.</p>
-
-<p>Thornton died in 1803 at about the age of 89 while visiting his
-daughter in Newburyport, Mass. His grave is in Thornton’s Ferry
-Cemetery, near the site of his Merrimack home.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_50" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="George_Walton" class="bio">George Walton</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">GEORGIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_141" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="233" height="315" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Like signers Button Gwinnett and
-Lyman Hall a nonnative of Georgia,
-George Walton fought hard to win
-independence for his adopted State
-and his Nation—both in the political
-arena and on the battlefield. He was
-wounded in the British siege of
-Savannah late in 1778 and endured
-captivity for almost a year. He evinced
-the same kind of tenacity in all his
-other endeavors and conquered a
-string of adversities in his ascent
-from humble origins to the highest
-National and State offices.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Born sometime in the 1740’s near Farmville, Va., Walton was
-orphaned early and reared by an uncle, who apprenticed him to a
-carpenter. Walton supplemented extensive independent study with
-some formal schooling. In 1769 he moved to Savannah, Ga., read
-law under a local attorney, and 5 years later joined the bar.</p>
-
-<p>That same year, Walton plunged into politics. Rallying Revolutionaries
-at Savannah as did Lyman Hall in St. John’s Parish—the
-two Whig hotbeds in a lukewarm colony—Walton helped organize
-and played a key part in meetings at Savannah in July and August
-1774 and the first provincial congress the next January. But these
-meetings, to which only a few parishes sent representatives, hardly
-set the dissent in motion. The divided delegates, aware of their
-limited constituency, failed to send Delegates to the Continental
-Congress, as had all the other Colonies, and thus alienated St. John’s
-Parish. Except for creation of a committee of correspondence, to
-which Walton was appointed, the conferees for the most part substituted
-patriotic talk for action. During this period, Walton,
-blending political activism with romance, took a bride. She later
-gave birth to two sons.</p>
-
-<p>By July 1775, when the second provincial congress convened and
-designated Walton as secretary, apathy in the Revolutionary ranks
-had given way to aggressiveness. The congress dispatched four Delegates
-to the Continental Congress to join Hall, already an unofficial
-“delegate” from St. John’s Parish. The next year, the third
-provincial congress elected Walton, by this time chairman of the
-council of safety, as a Delegate (1776–81). In this capacity, he sat
-on committees dealing with western lands, national finance, and
-Indian affairs. His only lapse in attendance occurred in 1778–79, when
-the military defense of his own State took precedence over his congressional
-obligations. As a colonel in the Georgia militia, he was
-wounded and captured during the siege of Savannah in November-December
-1778—the beginning of the British invasion of the South.
-He was imprisoned until the following September, when he was
-exchanged for a navy captain.</p>
-
-<p>Right after his release, at Augusta Walton became involved in a
-factional dispute between two groups of Revolutionaries. Walton’s
-group, irritated because their conservative opponents had taken
-advantage of the confusion generated by the British occupation of
-Savannah by putting their own “governor” into office without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
-benefit of a general election, countered by selecting Walton as its
-“governor” (November 1779-January 1780). In January the new
-legally elected legislature picked a Governor, another anti-conservative.
-Walton returned to the Continental Congress in
-1780–81, after which he headed back to Georgia.</p>
-
-<p>Walton’s subsequent career suffered no diminution. His offices
-included those of chief justice (1783–89) and justice (1790–95 and
-1799–1804) of the State Superior Court; delegate to the State
-constitutional convention (1788); presidential elector (1789); Governor
-(1789–90); and U.S. Senator (1795–96), filling out an unexpired
-term. Meantime, he had been elected as a delegate to the U.S.
-Constitutional Convention (1787), but did not attend. An advocate
-of higher education, he was also a trustee and founder of Richmond
-Academy, in Augusta, and Franklin College (later the University of
-Georgia), in Athens.</p>
-
-<p>About 1790 while Governor, changing his residence from Savannah
-to the capital of Augusta, Walton built “Meadow Garden” cottage
-on the northern edge of the city on confiscated Loyalist lands he
-had acquired. He lived in the cottage for 5 years, when he moved to
-College Hill, a country estate he erected on the western outskirts.
-He died there in 1804. Assigned first to the Rosney Cemetery in
-Augusta, his remains now rest at the Signers’ Monument in that
-city.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_51" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="William_Whipple" class="bio">William Whipple</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW HAMPSHIRE</p>
-
-<div id="ip_143" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="237" height="231" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">William Whipple, a sea captain turned
-merchant, retired from business to
-further the Revolution. In addition
-to sitting in Congress, he commanded
-New Hampshire militia in two major
-campaigns and held various State
-offices.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Whipple, the eldest of five children, was born in 1730, at Kittery,
-in present Maine. He attended local schools and went to sea while
-still a boy. In his early twenties he became a shipmaster, and later
-probably sometimes engaged in the slave trade. About 1760 he gave
-up the sea and founded a mercantile firm at Portsmouth, N.H., with
-his brother Joseph. In 1767 he married the daughter of a wealthy
-merchant-sea captain; their only child died in infancy.</p>
-
-<p>By the outbreak of the Revolution, Whipple had become one of the
-leading citizens of Portsmouth. In 1775, his fortune well established,
-he left business to devote his time to public affairs. That year, he
-represented Portsmouth in the provincial assembly at Exeter, and
-served on the New Hampshire council of safety. The following year,
-he won seats in the upper house of the State legislature and in the
-Continental Congress. His congressional tour, interrupted intermittently
-by militia duty, lasted until 1779. He concerned himself
-mainly with military, marine, and financial matters. A tough-minded,
-independent individual, he recommended military aggressiveness in
-the war instead of diplomacy and favored severe punishment of
-Loyalists and speculators.</p>
-
-<p>In the fall of 1777 Whipple, a brigadier general in the New Hampshire
-militia, led four regiments to upper New York State and helped
-encircle and besiege the British army at Saratoga. He was present on
-October 17 at the surrender of Gen. John Burgoyne; signed the Convention
-of Saratoga, ending the New York campaign; and helped
-escort the British troops to a winter encampment near Boston to await
-embarkation for England. In 1778 he led another contingent of New
-Hampshire militia into Rhode Island on a campaign that sought but
-failed to recapture Newport from the British.</p>
-
-<p>During his last years, Whipple held the offices of State legislator
-(1780–84), associate justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court
-(1782–85), receiver of finances for Congress in New Hampshire
-(1782–84), and in 1782 president of a commission that arbitrated the
-Wyoming Valley land dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylvania.
-Ill the remaining few years of his life, he passed away in 1785 at the
-age of 55 at Portsmouth, where he was buried in Union Cemetery.
-His wife survived him.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_52" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="William_Williams" class="bio">William Williams</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">CONNECTICUT</p>
-
-<div id="ip_144" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="237" height="320" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Merchant William Williams was prominent
-in Connecticut politics, but never
-won national fame except for signing
-the Declaration.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">A Congregational pastor’s son, Williams was born in 1731 at
-Lebanon, Conn., his lifelong home. After graduating from Harvard in
-1751, he began studying for the ministry under his father. Four
-years later, during the French and Indian War (1754–63), he accompanied
-a British expedition to Lake George, in northeastern New
-York, that won a victory. Back home, he became a merchant. In
-1771 he married a daughter of Jonathan Trumbull, Royal Governor
-of Connecticut; they had three children.</p>
-
-<p>During his long political career, Williams held a myriad of local,
-provincial, and State offices: town clerk (1752–96) and selectman
-(1760–85); member, clerk, and speaker of the lower house of the
-colonial legislature (1755–76); State legislator (1781–84); member
-of the Governor’s council (1784–1803); judge of the Windham
-County court (1776–1805); and probate judge for the Windham
-district (1775–1809). He also represented Connecticut at various
-New England meetings, and attended the 1788 convention that
-ratified the Federal Constitution, of which he approved.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
-Upon the outbreak of the Revolution, Williams threw his weight
-behind the cause. Besides writing tracts for the press expressing the
-colonial viewpoint, he prepared Revolutionary state papers for
-Governor Trumbull. Williams also raised money for and personally
-contributed to the war effort. Between 1773 and 1776 he held a
-colonelcy in the Connecticut militia and served on the provincial
-council of safety. In Congress (1776–78 and 1783–84), he sat on the
-Board of War and helped frame the Articles of Confederation, though
-he did not sign them. During the winter of 1780–81, while a French
-regiment was stationed in Lebanon, he moved out of his home and
-turned it over to the officers.</p>
-
-<p>Williams died at the age of 80 in 1811. His grave is in the Trumbull
-Cemetery, about a mile northeast of town.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="bio_53" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="James_Wilson" class="bio">James Wilson</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_145" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_069b.jpg" width="242" height="310" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Brilliant yet enigmatic James Wilson
-possessed one of the most complex
-and contradictory personalities of all
-the signers. Never able to reconcile
-his strong personal drive for wealth
-and power with his political goals nor
-to find a middle road between conservatism
-and republicanism, he alternately
-experienced either popularity
-or public scorn, fame or obscurity,
-wealth or poverty. Yet his mastery of
-the law and political theory enabled
-him to play a leading role in framing
-the U.S. Constitution and to rise
-from frontier lawyer to Justice of the
-Supreme Court.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Wilson was born in 1741 or 1742 at Carskerdo, near St. Andrews,
-Scotland, and educated at the universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow,
-and Edinburgh. He then emigrated to America, arriving in the midst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
-of the Stamp Act agitations in 1765. Early the next year, he accepted
-a position as Latin tutor at the College of Philadelphia, but
-almost immediately abandoned it to study law under John Dickinson.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_146" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="358" height="250" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">From 1778 until 1790 James Wilson resided in this Philadelphia
-  residence, which became known as “Fort Wilson” in 1779, when a mob
-  of citizens and militiamen attacked it.</div></div>
-
-<p>In 1768, the year after his admission to the bar, Wilson set up
-practice at Reading, Pa. Two years later, he moved westward to the
-Scotch-Irish settlement of Carlisle, and the following year took a
-bride. He specialized in land law and built up a broad clientele. On
-borrowed capital, he also began to speculate in land. In some way he
-managed, too, to lecture for many years on English literature at the
-College of Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p>Wilson also became involved in Revolutionary politics. In 1774 he
-took over chairmanship of the Carlisle committee of correspondence,
-attended the first provincial assembly, and completed preparation
-of <cite>Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative
-Authority of the British Parliament</cite>. This tract circulated widely
-in England and America and established Wilson as a Whig leader.
-It denied Parliament’s authority over the Colonies, though it did
-not question their allegiance to the Crown, and recommended a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
-reorganization of the imperial structure similar to the later British
-Commonwealth of Nations.</p>
-
-<p>The next year, Wilson was elected to both the provincial assembly
-and the Continental Congress, where he sat mainly on military and
-Indian affairs committees. In 1776, reflecting the wishes of his
-constituents, he joined the moderates in voting for a 3-week delay
-in considering Richard Henry Lee’s resolution of June 7. On July 1,
-however, Wilson dissented from the majority of the Pennsylvania
-delegation and balloted with John Morton and Benjamin Franklin
-for independence. On July 2 the three men, representing a majority
-of the Commonwealth’s Delegates present, voted the same. Wilson’s
-strenuous opposition to the republican Pennsylvania constitution of
-1776, besides indicating a switch to conservatism on his part, led
-to his removal from Congress the following year. To avoid the clamor
-among his frontier constituents, he repaired to Annapolis during
-the winter of 1777–78, and then took up residence in Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p>Wilson affirmed his newly assumed political stance by closely
-identifying with the aristocratic and conservative republican groups,
-multiplying his business interests, and accelerating his land speculation.
-He also took a position as Advocate-General for France in
-America (1779–83), dealing with commercial and maritime matters,
-and legally defended Loyalists and their sympathizers.</p>
-
-<p>In the fall of 1779, during a period of inflation and food shortages, a
-mob, including many militiamen and led by radical-constitutionalists,
-set out to attack the republican leadership. Wilson was a prime
-target. He and some 35 of his colleagues barricaded themselves in
-his home at Third and Walnut Streets, henceforth known as “Fort
-Wilson.” During a brief skirmish, several people on both sides were
-killed or wounded. The shock cooled sentiments and pardons
-were issued all around, though major political battles over the
-Commonwealth constitution still lay ahead.</p>
-
-<p>During 1781 Congress appointed Wilson as one of the directors of
-the Bank of North America, newly founded by Robert Morris with
-the legal advice of Wilson. In 1782–83, by which time the conservatives
-had regained some of their power, he was reelected to Congress,
-as well as in the period 1785–87.</p>
-
-<p>Wilson reached the apex of his career in the U.S. Constitutional
-Convention (1787), in which he was one of the leaders, both in the
-floor debates and the drafting committee. That same year, overcoming
-powerful opposition, he led the drive for ratification in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
-Pennsylvania, the second State to ratify. The new Commonwealth
-constitution, drafted in 1789–90 along the lines of the U.S. Constitution,
-was also primarily Wilson’s work and represented the climax of
-his 14-year fight against the constitution of 1776.</p>
-
-<p>For his services in the formation of the Federal Government,
-though Wilson expected to be appointed Chief Justice, in 1789
-President Washington named him as an Associate Justice of the
-Supreme Court. He was chosen that same year as the first law professor
-at the College of Philadelphia. Two years hence, he began
-an official digest of the laws of Pennsylvania, a project he never
-completed, though he carried on for awhile after funds ran out.</p>
-
-<p>Wilson, who wrote only a few opinions, did not achieve the
-success on the Supreme Court that his capabilities and experience
-promised. Indeed, during those years he was the object of much
-criticism and barely escaped impeachment. For one thing, he tried
-to influence the enactment of legislation in Pennsylvania favorable
-to land speculators. Between 1792 and 1795 he also made huge but
-unwise land investments in western New York and Pennsylvania,
-as well as in Georgia. This did not stop him from conceiving a
-grandiose but ill-fated scheme, involving vast sums of European
-capital, for the recruitment of European colonists and their settlement
-on western lands. Meantime, in 1793, a widower with six
-children, he had remarried; the one son from this union died in
-infancy.</p>
-
-<p>Four years later, to avoid arrest for debt, the distraught Wilson
-moved from Philadelphia to Burlington, N.J. The next year, apparently
-while on Federal circuit court business, he arrived at
-Edenton, N.C., in a state of acute mental stress and was taken into
-the home of James Iredell, a fellow Supreme Court Justice. He died
-there within a few months. Although first buried at Hayes Plantation
-near Edenton, his remains were later reinterred in the yard of
-Christ Church at Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_54" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="John_Witherspoon" class="bio">John Witherspoon</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">NEW JERSEY</p>
-
-<div id="ip_149" class="figright" style="max-width: 15.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="243" height="349" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Rev. John Witherspoon, the only active
-clergyman among the signers,
-achieved a greater reputation as a
-religious leader and educator than as
-a politician. Emigrating from Scotland
-to America in the midst of the controversy
-between the Colonies and
-the Crown, he took part in the Revolution,
-lost a son during the war, and
-signed the Articles of Confederation
-as well as the Declaration. He is
-better known, however, for his role
-in the growth of the Presbyterian
-Church and for his distinguished
-presidency of the College of New
-Jersey (later Princeton University).</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">The son of a Calvinist minister, Witherspoon was born in 1723 at
-the village of Gifford, near Edinburgh. He attended grammar school
-at the neighboring town of Haddington and won master of arts
-(1739) and divinity (1743) degrees from the University of Edinburgh.
-In 1743 the Haddington Presbytery licensed him to preach.
-He was ordained 2 years later at Beith, where he occupied a pulpit
-until 1757. He then transferred to Paisley, not far from Glasgow.
-Meantime, in 1748, he had married; only five of his ten children
-survived childhood.</p>
-
-<p>Over the years, Witherspoon attained leadership of a group of
-conservative clergymen who were engaged in a prolonged struggle
-with a group of their colleagues to maintain the “purity” of orthodox
-Church doctrine. Witherspoon penned a stream of sermons and
-tracts attacking the opposition and denouncing moral decay in
-Scotland. He also defended the traditional prerogative of the people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span>
-to choose their own ministers, a right ecclesiastical authorities had
-taken from them.</p>
-
-<p>In 1768 Witherspoon channeled his energies in a new direction. He
-gave up his post at Paisley and accepted the presidency of the
-College of New Jersey, after two representatives of the college had
-visited him and finally at the end of 2 years of effort overcome
-the objections of his wife. He sailed to America with his family. The
-college bloomed under his direction. He increased the endowment,
-instituted new methods of instruction, and broadened and revitalized
-the curriculum. Continuing also as a minister and church leader, he
-patched up a major schism in the Presbyterian Church; stimulated
-its expansion, especially in the Middle Colonies; and worked closely
-with the Congregationalists.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_150" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="357" height="210" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1764.
-  Rev. John Witherspoon served as its president from 1768 until 1794. The
-  main building, Nassau Hall, is on the left; the President’s House,
-  on the right.</div></div>
-
-<p>The Revolution fanned Witherspoon’s hatred of the English, which
-had originated in Scotland. By 1770 his students were openly demonstrating
-in favor of the patriot cause. In a commencement oration
-he advocated resistance to the Crown, which became his favorite
-theme in sermons and essays. In 1774–76 he represented his county
-in the New Jersey provincial assemblies, and sat on local committees
-of correspondence. In the latter year he figured prominently in the
-agitations that led to the removal from office and imprisonment of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
-the Royal Governor, and then received an appointment to the
-Continental Congress.</p>
-
-<p>On July 2, 1776, in a congressional speech urging independence,
-Witherspoon declared that the Colonies were “not only ripe for the
-measure but in danger of rotting for the want of it.” In November,
-when the British invaded New Jersey, he closed the College of New
-Jersey. The redcoats occupied its major building, Nassau Hall,
-burned the library, and committed other acts of destruction. The
-next year, Witherspoon’s son James lost his life at the Battle of
-Germantown, Pa.</p>
-
-<p>Witherspoon stayed in Congress until 1782. His main committee
-assignments dealt with military and foreign affairs. He also participated
-in the debates on the Articles of Confederation, aided in setting
-up the executive departments, and argued for financial stability.
-Meantime, in 1779, he had moved from the President’s House at
-Princeton to Tusculum, a country home he had earlier built nearby.
-He left the Rev. Samuel S. Smith, his son-in-law and the college vice
-president, in charge of the nearly defunct institution.</p>
-
-<p>Witherspoon devoted most of his effort during the postwar years
-to rebuilding the college, which never fully recovered its prewar
-prosperity during his lifetime. In addition, during the years 1783–89
-he sat for two terms in the State legislature, attended the New
-Jersey (1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution,
-participated in the reorganization of the Presbyterian Church, and
-moderated its first general assembly (1789). In 1791, at the age
-of 68, Witherspoon took a second wife, a 24-year-old widow, who
-bore him two daughters. Blind his last 2 years, he died in 1794,
-aged 71, at Tusculum. His remains rest in the Presidents’ Lot at
-Princeton Cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_55" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Oliver_Wolcott" class="bio">Oliver Wolcott</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">CONNECTICUT</p>
-
-<div id="ip_152" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="239" height="304" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Oliver Wolcott, as much a soldier as
-a politician, helped convert the concept
-of independence into reality on
-the battlefield. He also occupied
-many local, provincial, and State
-offices, including the governorship.
-One of his five children, Oliver, also
-held that position and became U.S.
-Secretary of the Treasury.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Wolcott was the youngest son in a family of 15. Sired by Roger
-Wolcott, a leading Connecticut politician, he was born in 1726
-at Windsor (present South Windsor), Conn. In 1747, just graduated
-from Yale College at the top of his class, he began his military career.
-As a militia captain during King George’s War (1740–48), he accompanied
-an unsuccessful British expedition against the French in
-New France. Back home, he studied medicine for a time with his
-brother before deciding to turn to law.</p>
-
-<p>In 1751, when Litchfield County was organized, Wolcott moved
-about 30 miles westward to the town of Litchfield and immediately
-took over the first of a long string of county and State offices:
-county sheriff (1751–71); member of the lower house (1764,
-1767–68, and 1770) and upper house (1771–86) of the colonial
-and State legislatures; and probate (1772–81) and county (1774–78)
-judge. By 1774 he had risen to the rank of colonel in the militia.</p>
-
-<p>The next spring, the legislature named him as a commissary for
-Connecticut troops and in the summer the Continental Congress
-designated him as a commissioner of Indian affairs for the northern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
-department. In that capacity he attended a conference that year with
-the Iroquois (Six Nations) at Albany, N.Y., that temporarily gained
-their neutrality in the war. Before the year was out, he also aided
-in arbitrating land disputes between Pennsylvania and Connecticut
-and New York and Vermont.</p>
-
-<p>Wolcott sat in Congress from 1775 until 1783 except for the year
-1779. In June 1776 illness caused him to return to Connecticut.
-Absent at the time of the voting for independence the next month
-and at the formal signing of the Declaration in August, he added his
-signature sometime after his return to Congress in October. Throughout
-his tour, Wolcott devoted portions of each year to militia
-duty, highlighted by participation as a brigadier general in the
-New York campaigns of 1776–77 that culminated in the surrender of
-Gen. John Burgoyne in October of the latter year at Saratoga
-(Schuylerville). During 1779, as a major general, Wolcott defended
-the Connecticut seacoast against the raids of William Tryon, Royal
-Governor of New York.</p>
-
-<p>Wolcott’s postwar career was varied. On the national level, he
-helped negotiate two Indian treaties: the Second Treaty of Fort
-Stanwix, N.Y. (1784), in which the Iroquois ceded to the United
-States some of their lands in New York and Pennsylvania; and
-another (1789) with the Wyandottes, who gave up their tract in the
-Western Reserve, in present Ohio. On the State level, Wolcott continued
-his long period of service in the upper house of the legislature
-(ended 1786); enjoyed a lengthy stint as Lieutenant Governor
-(1787–96); attended the convention (1788) that ratified the U.S.
-Constitution; and, like his father before him and his son after him,
-held the office of Governor (1796–97).</p>
-
-<p>While occupying the latter position, Wolcott died, aged 71, at East
-Windsor. His remains rest in the East Cemetery at Litchfield.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span></p>
-
-<div id="bio_56" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="George_Wythe" class="bio">George Wythe</h2>
-
-<p class="biostate">VIRGINIA</p>
-
-<div id="ip_154" class="figleft" style="max-width: 14.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_074.jpg" width="239" height="316" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote class="bio">
-
-<p class="biosmy">Virginia’s George Wythe spent only
-about a year in the Continental Congress,
-never aspired to any other
-national office, and played a minor
-part in the Constitutional Convention.
-But he made a deep impress on legal
-education in the Nation and strongly
-influenced the government and jurisprudence
-of his State. A brilliant
-classical scholar and the first professor
-of law in an American college,
-he instructed scores of young lawyers.
-Included among them were Thomas
-Jefferson, James Monroe, John
-Marshall, and Henry Clay.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="biodetail">Wythe was born in 1726, the second of three children, on his
-father’s plantation on the Back River in Elizabeth City County, Va.,
-within the confines of present Hampton. He lost his parents at an
-early age and grew up under the guardianship of his older brother,
-Thomas. George acquired a knowledge of the classics from his well-educated
-mother before her death, and he probably attended for a
-time a grammar school operated by the College of William and Mary.</p>
-
-<p>Wythe’s brother later sent him to Prince George County to read
-law under an uncle. In 1746, at the age of 20, he joined the bar,
-moved to Spotsylvania County, and became associated with a lawyer
-there. In December 1747, he married his partner’s sister, but she
-succumbed the next year. In 1754 Lt. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie
-appointed him as acting colonial attorney general, a position he held
-for a few months and which likely required that he spend some time
-in Williamsburg. The next year, Wythe’s brother died and he
-inherited his birthplace. He chose, however, to live in Williamsburg
-in the house that his new father-in-law, an architect, designed and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
-built for him and his betrothed, whom he married about 1755. Their
-only child died in infancy.</p>
-
-<p>At Williamsburg, Wythe immersed himself in further study of the
-classics and the law and achieved accreditation by the colonial
-Supreme Court. Like his father, he served in the House of Burgesses
-(mid-1750’s until 1775), first as delegate and after 1769 as clerk.
-During this period, in 1768 he held the mayorship of Williamsburg,
-and the next year sat on the board of visitors of the College of
-William and Mary. He also had found time during the years 1762–67
-to train youthful Thomas Jefferson in the law. The two men, at
-first as mentor and pupil and later as political allies, maintained a
-lifetime friendship.</p>
-
-<p>Wythe first exhibited Revolutionary leanings in 1764 when Parliament
-hinted to the Colonies that it might impose a Stamp Tax. By
-then an experienced legislator, he drafted for the House of Burgesses
-a remonstrance to Parliament so strident that his fellow legislators
-modified it before adoption. Wythe was one of the first to express
-the concept of separate nationhood for the Colonies within the
-British Empire.</p>
-
-<p>Although elected to Congress in 1775–76, Wythe exerted little
-influence in that body. He spent considerable time helping draft a
-State constitution and design a State seal, and was not present at
-the time of the formal signing of the Declaration in August 1776.
-Furthermore, within a few months, Wythe, Jefferson, and Edmund
-Pendleton undertook a 3-year project to revise Virginia’s legal code.
-In 1777 Wythe also presided as speaker of the lower house of the
-legislature.</p>
-
-<p>An appointment as one of the three judges of the newly created
-Virginia high court of chancery followed the next year. Sitting on it
-for 28 years, during 13 of which he was the only chancellor, Wythe
-charted the course of Virginia jurisprudence. In conjunction with
-these duties, he was an ex officio member of the State Superior
-Court.</p>
-
-<p>Wythe’s real love was teaching. In 1779 Jefferson and other
-officials of the College of William and Mary created the first chair
-of law in a U.S. institution of higher learning and appointed Wythe
-to fill it. In that position, he educated America’s earliest college-trained
-lawyers, among them John Marshall and James Monroe.
-To supplement his lectures, Wythe introduced the use of moot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
-courts and legislatures, in which students could put their knowledge
-into actual practice. In 1787 he also demonstrated his love of the
-classics and literature by offering free to anyone interested a class
-in Latin, Greek, and English literature. That same year, he attended
-the U.S. Constitutional Convention, but played an insignificant
-role and did not sign the Constitution. The following year, however,
-he was one of the Federalist leaders at the Virginia ratifying
-convention.</p>
-
-<p>In 1791, the year after Wythe resigned his professorship, his
-chancery duties caused him to move his home to Richmond, the
-State capital. But he was reluctant to give up his teaching and
-opened a private law school. One of his last and most promising
-pupils was a teenager named Henry Clay.</p>
-
-<p>In 1806, in his eighth decade, Wythe died at Richmond under
-mysterious circumstances—probably of poison administered by his
-heir, a favorite grandnephew. Reflecting a lifelong aversion to slavery,
-Wythe emancipated his slaves in his will. His grave is in the yard
-of St. John’s Episcopal Church at Richmond.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey">
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Part_Three" class="left">Part Three<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">Signers of the Declaration:<br />
-
-Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0"><span class="smcap"><span class="xxlarge italic">O</span>ver</span> the decades that separate present-day America from the
-early periods of its history, a large number of the structures commemorating
-those periods have been marred or obliterated. Those
-relating to the signers of the Declaration of Independence have not
-been spared. The ravages of war, urbanization, fire, aging, weathering,
-neglect, and vandalism have destroyed all the residences of 21
-of these 56 men and seriously impaired some of those that have
-survived.</p>
-
-<p>Beyond those factors detrimental to all historic buildings are two
-special ones that have hampered the marking and preserving of
-signers’ homes and other sites. For decades following adoption of
-the Declaration, these individuals were not accorded the reverence
-bestowed on them in modern times. Secondly, many of them have
-received only slight historical recognition because they lacked
-national reputations other than as signers.</p>
-
-<p>Yet among the residences and buildings that remain are many
-of major significance. As a whole, they reveal much about the way
-of life of the signers and illuminate the events involved in the
-creation of the Declaration. Of outstanding significance is Independence
-National Historical Park, Pa. Within its boundaries the
-document was written, debated, approved, and signed. The National<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>
-Park Service administers the park in cooperation with the city of
-Philadelphia and various private agencies. Three residences of signers
-are also units of the National Park System: Adams National Historic
-Site, Mass.; the Floyd House, in Fire Island National Seashore,
-N.Y.; and the Nelson House, part of Colonial National Historical
-Park, Va.</p>
-
-<p>Almost half the extant homes of the signers are owned by private
-individuals, many of whom personally reside in them and a few of
-whom are descendants of the signers. The rest of the residences
-are owned and maintained by States, cities, and a wide variety
-of nongovernmental institutions, such as patriotic-civic organizations,
-memorial associations, local historical societies, foundations,
-universities, churches, and corporations and business firms.</p>
-
-<p>Reflecting the dedicated efforts of many of the above individuals
-and agencies, a considerable number of the buildings and residences
-provide fine examples of historic preservation and restoration.
-Unfortunately, some structures have badly deteriorated. But the increased
-recent interest in the signers has enhanced the identification,
-renovation, and preservation of pertinent sites and buildings.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the preservation of sites and buildings, the subject
-of this book, the signers have been honored in many other ways.
-Commemoration varies widely, however, from State to State and from
-signer to signer. Some have been recognized in a major way; others
-hardly at all.</p>
-
-<p>In the forefront of the groups that have marked extant homes
-and buildings, as well as the sites of former structures and graves,
-or otherwise memorialized the signers are: Daughters of the American
-Revolution; Daughters of the Revolution; Colonial Dames of America;
-National Society of Colonial Dames of America; Sons of the
-American Revolution; Sons of the Revolution; and the Descendants
-of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Inc., chartered
-by Congress in 1907.</p>
-
-<p>A major share of the sites of residences with no physical remains
-has been marked. The 20 signers for whom no existing homes have
-been located are: Samuel Adams, Abraham Clark, William Ellery,
-Benjamin Franklin, Lyman Hall, John Hart, Francis Lewis, Philip
-Livingston, Thomas McKean, Lewis Morris, Robert Morris, John
-Morton, Robert Treat Paine, John Penn, George Read, Caesar
-Rodney, George Ross, Benjamin Rush, Roger Sherman, and James<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
-Smith. Another signer, Samuel Chase, is represented in this volume
-only by a structure (Chase-Lloyd House) that he began building but
-never resided in.</p>
-
-<p>Monuments and memorials range from simple plaques to the
-Thomas Jefferson Memorial, D.C., in the National Park System.
-Statues of several signers are located in the U.S. Capitol. Special
-monuments have been erected to those from two States. The
-Founders’ Monument, in Augusta, Ga., is dedicated to the three
-signers from that State (Gwinnett, Hall, and Walton) and contains
-the burial places of the latter two. A monument to the three North
-Carolina signers (Hewes, Hooper, and Penn) at Guilford Courthouse
-National Military Park, in Greensboro, N.C., includes the tombs of
-Hooper and Penn.</p>
-
-<p>Described in the following pages are the principal buildings
-associated with the signers of the Declaration. They are comprised of
-three categories: National Park Service Areas, National Historic
-Landmarks, and Other Sites Considered.</p>
-
-<p>The principal aim of the National Survey of Historic Sites and
-Buildings is to identify nationally important sites that are not
-<em>National Park Service Areas</em>, but no survey of historic places would
-be complete without including them. This is particularly true
-because many of them were designated as National Historic Landmarks
-before they became part of the National Park System.
-Further information about a particular area may be obtained by
-writing directly to the park superintendent at the address listed
-immediately following the location.</p>
-
-<p><em>National Historic Landmarks</em> are those sites judged by the Advisory
-Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
-Monuments to meet the criteria of national significance in commemorating
-the history of the United States (pp. 270–271). They
-have been declared by the Secretary of the Interior to be eligible for
-designation as National Historic Landmarks. Final designation occurs
-when the owners apply for such status. They receive certificates and
-bronze plaques attesting to the distinction.</p>
-
-<p><em>Other Sites Considered</em> consist of those sites deemed by the Advisory
-Board to possess noteworthy historical value but not national
-significance. The list of sites included in this category does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
-purport to be exhaustive; it is merely a representative sampling, all
-that is possible because of space limitations.</p>
-
-<p>Many sites in the Other Sites Considered category in all phases
-of history are listed on the National Register of Historic Places,
-maintained by the National Park Service’s Office of Archeology
-and Historic Preservation. The register consists not only of sites
-in the National Park System and National Historic Landmarks
-but also those of State and local significance, nominated through
-appropriate channels by the various States. It is published biennally
-and distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
-Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402. The latest volume
-is <cite>The National Register of Historic Places, 1972</cite>, price $7.80.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_162" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="600" height="454" alt="(map)" />
-  <div class="caption.center"><p class="center">SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION</p>
-
-  <p class="p0 smaller center">HISTORIC SITES OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE</p></div>
-  <div class="largeimage"><a href="images/i_075large.jpg">(larger)</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
-For the convenience of users of this volume, sites and buildings are
-listed alphabetically by State. The following code indicates site
-categories:</p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-<span class="in1"><i>Site Categories</i></span><br />
-<br />
-☑  NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AREAS<br />
-∆   NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS<br />
-‎⊗  OTHER SITES CONSIDERED
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0">NOTE: <i>The following descriptions indicate sites that are open to
-the public. Before visiting any of them, inquiry should be made to
-the owners or custodians concerning dates and hours of access and
-admission costs, usually nominal. Special permission should be
-obtained to visit privately owned sites.</i></p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_1" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Huntington_Birthplace_Connecticut" class="site">Huntington Birthplace, Connecticut  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Windham County, on the north side of Conn. 14, about 2 blocks
-west of its junction with Conn. 97, Scotland.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This plain but charming farmhouse on the bank of Merrick’s Brook
-was the birthplace and home of Samuel Huntington through his boyhood
-and early manhood. He lived in it from 1731 probably until
-1760, the year he moved to Norwich.</p>
-
-<p>The house, built in the period 1700–22, is shaded by huge trees
-and fronted by a spacious lawn. It is a large, two-story, clapboarded-frame
-structure of saltbox design. The gable roof slopes steeply at the
-rear. Exterior windows are topped by projecting cornices; the center
-door, by a rectangular transom. A one-story kitchen wing with front
-porch at the northeast end of the house along the main axis was
-added early in the 19th century.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_164" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="466" height="328" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Huntington Birthplace.</div></div>
-
-<p>The floor plan is typical of a central chimney New England dwelling.
-Behind a short central entrance hall, which contains an L-shaped
-stairway, is a large stone central chimney with three fireplaces. Two
-of these heat the parlor and dining room, entered from the hall; a
-huge third one serves the large original kitchen, which ranges across
-the rear two-thirds of the house behind the dining room and chimney.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
-A small bedroom is situated back of the parlor alongside the original
-kitchen, between it and the one-story new kitchen addition. Three
-additional bedrooms, one of which has a fully paneled fireplace wall,
-are located upstairs. Wallpaper has been added to some of the rooms,
-but the fireplaces, wainscoting, and wide-board floors are original.</p>
-
-<p>The privately owned house, which is in good condition and little
-altered, has never been restored, though some modern conveniences
-have been installed. It is not open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_2" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Huntington_House_Connecticut" class="site">Huntington House, Connecticut  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: New London County, 34 East Town Street, Norwich.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Samuel Huntington erected this house in the years 1783–85 and lived
-in it until his death in 1796. Since that time, the frame dwelling has
-been extensively modified on both the exterior and interior and a
-major addition made at the rear.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_165" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_077b.jpg" width="488" height="338" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Huntington House.</div></div>
-
-<p>Originally the residence was a large, two-story, rectangular structure
-with a gable roof, two interior chimneys, tall corner pilasters,
-and triangular pediments above the first-story windows. By the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
-middle of the 19th century, however, the structure had been remodeled
-in Greek Revival style, including the construction of a two-story
-portico across the entire front, or north, side, and in the center
-of this facade a central two-tiered porch. Later in the century, the
-portico and the two interior chimneys were removed. Sometime
-during the century, a large two-story section was added to the rear
-of the house, and a projecting two-story bay on the west side.</p>
-
-<p>The present two-tiered porch at the entrance is a modern replacement
-whose design differs considerably from the earlier one. Four
-large Doric columns support it, and a railing runs around the second-story
-level. The east entranceway consists of a one-story portico with
-an elliptical plan and Doric columns. Other modern features include
-clapboarding and window sash.</p>
-
-<p>The central hall, extending from the entranceway through the rest
-of the house and rear addition, has always dominated the floor plan,
-which otherwise has been completely obliterated. Interior partitions
-have either been removed to create larger rooms or added to make
-smaller ones. Stairs are located in the front and rear of the hall.
-Little, if any, of the original interior finish remains.</p>
-
-<p>The house, also known as the Governor Huntington House, in
-excellent condition, is owned and occupied by a charitable organization
-and is not open to the general public. Huntington’s remains rest
-in the adjacent Old Burial Ground.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_3" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Williams_Birthplace_Connecticut" class="site">Williams Birthplace, Connecticut  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: New London County, on the west side of Conn. 87 at the south
-end of the commons, Lebanon.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">William Williams was born in this house in 1731 and lived in it until
-1755, when his father gave him a residence elsewhere in Lebanon.
-Constructed about 1712 by Rev. Samuel Welles, a Congregational
-minister, it later came into the possession of Rev. Solomon Williams,
-the signer’s father, and is also known as the Welles-Williams House.
-Over the years, considerable alteration has occurred.</p>
-
-<p>The rectangular frame structure is two stories high with a gable
-roof. Exterior louvered shutters flank the windows on both stories.
-The Greek Revival architrave of the central door was added about
-1830. A one-story ell, containing a kitchen and part of the dining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
-room, is located at the rear southwest corner of the house. A barn
-has been built on the end of the ell. A more recent one-story frame
-wing extends from the southeast rear corner. The residence was
-recently covered with clapboard.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_167" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="485" height="395" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Williams Birthplace.</div></div>
-
-<p>In modern times the original large central stone chimney has been
-replaced by a much smaller brick one, which provides a fireplace for
-the present living room. This has resulted in a major revamping of
-the typical central chimney floor plan. It once consisted of two tiers
-of four rooms but today is divided into large living room, dining
-room, and parlor, plus a bath, and three bedrooms upstairs. Two of
-the latter originally had fully paneled walls. Only one is paneled
-today.</p>
-
-<p>The house, a private residence not accessible to the public, is in
-good condition.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_4" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Williams_House_Connecticut" class="site">Williams House, Connecticut  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: New London County, southeast corner of the junction of
-Conn. 207 and Conn. 87, Lebanon.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Of the two extant residences of William Williams, this house, where
-he lived the greater part of his life, is less altered. His father, Rev.
-Solomon Williams, acquired it in 1748 and 7 years later presented
-it to William, who resided there until his death in 1811.</p>
-
-<p>The dwelling is a two-story, rectangular frame building. A long,
-1½-story service wing extends from the center of the rear of the
-house. The original clapboard siding, covered with asbestos shingles
-in the 1930’s, has recently been reexposed. The front entranceway, in
-the Greek Revival style, was probably constructed about 1830. Other
-exterior changes to the main house are limited to the lowering of the
-two original interior chimneys on the back side of the ridge of the
-gabled roof, the addition of a brick chimney at the north end, and
-the insertion of a one-story bay window in the living room at the
-south end.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_168" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_079.jpg" width="435" height="339" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Williams House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The central hall divides each floor into two large rooms. Downstairs,
-to the north of the hall, which incorporates the original stairway,
-is a parlor, whose entire fireplace wall is still covered with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
-old paneling; to the south of the hall is the living room. Its entranceway
-from the hall has been widened and two columns inserted.
-Upstairs are two bedrooms with fully paneled fireplace walls. The
-six original fireplaces, except for the one in the kitchen, have been
-closed up, but their mantels have been left in place. All the original
-wide floorboards remain. The rear service wing contains a dining
-room and kitchen on the first floor and four small bedrooms above.</p>
-
-<p>The well-preserved house is today a private home and is not open
-to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_5" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Wolcott_House_Connecticut" class="site">Wolcott House, Connecticut  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Litchfield County, on the east side of South Street nearly
-opposite its intersection with Wolcott Avenue, Litchfield.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Oliver Wolcott erected and occupied this residence in 1753, some
-2 years after he moved from Windsor to Litchfield, and lived in it
-until he died in 1797. Except for a major rear addition, it has been
-only slightly altered.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_169" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_079b.jpg" width="486" height="331" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Wolcott House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The two-story, frame structure has a gable roof, a large central
-chimney, and slight overhangs at the gable ends. Attached to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
-south end of the house on the main axis is a small, 1½-story frame
-wing with gambrel roof. A one-story porch, added by Wolcott about
-1783, extends across this wing. The roof of the porch is of the coved,
-or “barrow,” type. The walls of the main house and wing are
-covered with clapboards, and the windows have louvered shutters.
-Triangular pediments cap the first-story windows. The center door,
-topped by a round arch fanlight, is sheltered by a Federal period
-broken-pediment portico supported by two fluted columns.</p>
-
-<p>Later additions include small bay windows on each side of the
-chimney in the south end wall of the south wing; a wide dormer in
-the west, or front, upper story of the wing; and a two-story, frame,
-clapboard-covered service wing, added in the 1880’s at the northeast
-corner on the rear of the main house, which gave the structure its
-present L-shape. The service wing, which cannot be seen from the
-street, contains the present kitchen and servants’ workrooms and
-bedrooms.</p>
-
-<p>The floor plan of the main house is the central chimney type. To
-the rear of the short central hall, which is equipped with the
-original L-shaped stairway and divides this portion of the house into
-two tiers of rooms, is the central chimney. On the first floor, to the
-north of the hall, is the dining room; to the south, the parlor. The
-fireplace walls in both rooms are fully paneled, and the floors have
-wide boards. Back of the parlor, a hall leads on the south to the
-morning room, or bedroom, in the south wing; and on the north, to
-the original kitchen, which contains a large fireplace. Four bedrooms
-occupy the second story of the main house, two of them featuring
-paneled overmantels, and one bedroom is located on the second floor
-of the south wing.</p>
-
-<p>One of Wolcott’s descendants, who acquired and restored the
-house about 1920, resides in it today. In excellent condition, it is
-the oldest extant structure in Litchfield Historic District, a National
-Historic Landmark relating primarily to colonial architecture. The
-house is not accessible to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_6" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="The_White_House_District_of_Columbia" class="site">The White House, District of Columbia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW., Washington.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Signers John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the first two occupants
-of the White House, official residence of our Nation’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
-Presidents since 1800. It is a national shrine that symbolizes the
-honor and dignity of the highest office in the land, and has been
-the scene of many historic events and brilliant social affairs. Like
-the Nation itself, it bears the influences of successive Chief Executives.
-Although rebuilt and modernized, it retains the simplicity and
-charm of its original appearance.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_171" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="498" height="391" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">South facade of the White House.</div></div>
-
-<p>President George Washington approved the plans for the White
-House, drawn by Irish-born James Hoban, winner of the prize competition.
-Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant, the French artist-engineer,
-located the mansion in his plan of the Federal City, in which it and
-the Capitol were the first public buildings erected. The cornerstone
-was laid on October 13, 1792. Workmen used light gray sandstone
-from the Aquia Creek Quarries, in Virginia, for the exterior walls.
-During the course of construction or soon thereafter, they apparently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
-were painted white. The building was thus unofficially termed the
-“White House” from an early date, but for many years it was
-usually referred to as the “President’s House” or the “President’s
-Palace.”</p>
-
-<div id="ip_172" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_081.jpg" width="483" height="261" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">North facade of the White House in 1807.</div></div>
-
-<p>In the Palladian style of architecture, the main facade resembles
-the Duke of Leinster’s mansion in Dublin. Hoban probably derived
-the details of other faces and the interior arrangement from other
-contemporary European mansions. He supervised the original construction;
-the rebuilding after the burning by British forces, in
-1814; and the erection of the north and south porticoes, some years
-later. Over the course of time, however, various architects modified
-Hoban’s original plans, notably Benjamin H. Latrobe during and
-after the Jefferson administration.</p>
-
-<p>President and Mrs. John Adams were the first occupants, in
-November 1800 when the Government moved from Philadelphia to
-Washington. The interior had not yet been completed, and Mrs.
-Adams used the unfinished East Room to dry the family wash.
-During Jefferson’s administration the east and west terraces, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
-pavilions, were built. Jefferson, who practiced democratic simplicity
-in his social life, opened the mansion each morning to all arrivals.</p>
-
-<p>During the War of 1812, British forces captured the city and set
-the torch to the White House, the Capitol, and other Government
-buildings in retaliation for the destruction by U.S. troops of some
-public buildings in Canada. Only the partially damaged exterior walls
-and interior brickwork of the White House remained in the spring
-of 1815 when reconstruction began. In 1817 the recently elected
-President, James Monroe, was able to occupy the structure. In 1824
-builders erected the south portico; and in 1829, the large north
-portico over the entrance and driveway. The west wing, including
-the President’s oval office, was added during the first decade of the
-20th century. The east wing was built in 1942.</p>
-
-<p>Over the years, the White House proper has been extensively renovated
-and modernized on various occasions. The old sandstone walls
-have been retained, however. The aim has been to keep the historical
-atmosphere while providing a more livable home for the President
-and his family.</p>
-
-<p>Located on the first floor of the main building are the East Room,
-Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, and
-Family Dining Room. These richly furnished rooms are open to the
-public on a special schedule. The ground and second floors are
-restricted to the use of the presidential family and guests. On the
-ground floor are the Diplomatic Reception Room, Curator’s Office,
-Vermeil Room, China Room, and Library. The second floor contains
-the Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting Room, Queens’ Bedroom (Rose
-Guest Room), Treaty Room, Yellow Oval Room, and Empire Guest
-Room. Neither of the wings, reserved for the President and his
-staff, are ordinarily accessible to the public.</p>
-
-<p>The simple dignity of the White House is enhanced by the natural
-beauty of its informal but carefully landscaped grounds.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_7" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="College_Hill_Georgia" class="site">College Hill, Georgia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Richmond County, 2216 Wrightsboro Road, Augusta.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In 1795 George Walton built this house on the western outskirts of
-Augusta on land that had been granted him by the State of Georgia
-in 1787. He lived in it until his death in 1804.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_174" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="461" height="317" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">College Hill.</div></div>
-
-<p>The handsome, two-story, frame structure features weatherboarded
-and clapboarded walls, a gable roof, and a brick chimney at
-each end. Of special interest is the two-tiered veranda extending
-across the entire main facade. At its front and sides on both levels are
-a series of segmental arches supported by delicate square columns
-on high pedestals. The fine balustrade is composed of delicate, sheaf-like
-balusters. Central double doors are located on the front of both
-stories. The doors are framed by pilasters and sidelights and topped
-by segmental fanlights. The windows have exterior louvered shutters.
-A one-story kitchen, added in 1898, extends from the southwest rear
-corner of the house.</p>
-
-<p>The central hall, which contains a U-shaped stairway, divides the
-main section of the structure into two pairs of rooms. The larger
-front two are equipped with fireplaces and have original mantels
-decorated in the Adam style. Behind the main hall is a smaller rear
-hall. The hall walls are plastered, and the board walls of the principal
-rooms are covered with paper and wainscoting. Five bedrooms
-occupy the second floor. The original kitchen was situated in a
-separate building that is no longer extant.</p>
-
-<p>Known today as the Walton-Harper House, since 1885 College<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
-Hill has been owned by the Harper family, descendants of Walton.
-Little altered but never restored, it is a private residence and is not
-shown publicly.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_8" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Meadow_Garden_Georgia" class="site">Meadow Garden, Georgia  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Richmond County, 1320 Nelson Street, Augusta.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">About 1790 Gov. George Walton moved from Savannah to Augusta,
-then the capital. At that time, he built Meadow Garden cottage at
-the northern edge of the city, on confiscated Loyalist lands in his
-possession. He resided in it until 1795, the year he constructed and
-occupied a larger home, College Hill, just west of Augusta. He deeded
-Meadow Garden under trusteeship to Thomas Watkins, who later
-conveyed it to George Walton, Jr. Over the years, it has been
-doubled in size and otherwise altered.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_175" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_082b.jpg" width="468" height="328" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Meadow Garden.</div></div>
-
-<p>Meadow Garden was originally a modest 1½-story cottage of
-frame construction built over a high brick basement. The gable roof
-was pierced by two front dormers and an interior central chimney.
-Windows were located in the gable ends. An entrance door and hall
-were situated on the western bay of the south facade, which had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
-three bays. Two rooms on the first floor opened off the east of the
-hall, and the basement contained two more finished rooms.</p>
-
-<p>Sometime after 1800 the house was enlarged and converted into a
-central hall type by a major three-bay wide extension to the west of
-the side hall, which became the central hall. The gable roof of the
-original building was extended over the new portion, which was
-also equipped with an interior chimney. About 1903 a single
-dormer was added to the extension. The two first-floor rooms in the
-addition, which lacks a cellar, are about two steps lower than the
-two in the original structure. The second floor of the present house
-contains four bedrooms. A one-story porch, probably not original,
-extends across the front, or south, side. Its Doric columns rest on
-square pedestals and are linked by a light balustrade. About 1903
-a one-story kitchen was added to the rear northwest corner of the
-house.</p>
-
-<p>Many interior features are intact, but the plaster walls are covered
-with paper. The southwest room, or library, located in the 1800
-addition and restored in 1969, contains an excellent late Georgian
-mantel and overmantel. The building has been roofed with modern
-material.</p>
-
-<p>The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution
-acquired the residence in 1900, and the following year opened it
-to visitors. In 1960 the National Society presented it to the State
-Society. It is currently operated as a historic house museum by the
-Augusta Chapter. A caretaker’s residence is located on the grounds.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_9" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Tabby_Cottage_Georgia" class="site">Tabby Cottage, Georgia  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Liberty County, on St. Catherines Island, which is located
-about 10 miles off the Georgia coast southeast of Midway between St.
-Catherines and Sapelo Sounds.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">The original portion of this structure, today an eight-bedroom house
-and the main building on St. Catherines Island, may have been built
-by Button Gwinnett in 1765 when he purchased the island, on which
-he resided until his death in 1777 at Savannah. In 1929 the owner
-of the island extensively remodeled the gable-roofed building. He
-retained its basic shape and preserved many of its features, including
-mantels, stair rail, and wide-board, hand-pegged floors. To the rear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
-at a right angle on one side he added a 1½-story wing, also with
-gable roof, which more than doubled the floor space. The original,
-or front, section of the house, also 1½ stories in height, was constructed
-of “tabby,” a mixture of lime, ground from burned oyster
-shells, with sand, shells, and water. The wing is of frame with a
-stucco finish. Both parts of the residence are now roofed with Ludowici
-tile and feature dormers, interior chimneys, and shuttered exterior
-windows.</p>
-
-<p>Other tabby structures on the island include seven guest cottages
-and about a dozen slave quarters, all probably dating from the early
-19th century. Many of them are in ruins but some are in good condition.
-Elsewhere are four present employee residences, as well as
-several barns and maintenance buildings. Boundaries of old cotton
-and tobacco fields are discernible, as well as dozens of Indian burial
-mounds. Of special interest, between Persimmon Point and Wamassee
-Head, is the undisturbed site of the Mission of Santa Catalina
-(1566-ca. 1684), a Spanish mission. None of the buildings remain,
-but potsherds and other surface debris are plentiful.</p>
-
-<p>When this volume went to press, the National Survey of Historic
-Sites and Buildings was making a further study of Tabby Cottage
-to determine the exact degree of its authenticity in relation to
-Gwinnett. Privately owned St. Catherines Island, not accessible to
-the public, has already been accorded National Historic Landmark
-status because of its associations with Spanish exploration and
-settlement.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_10" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Whipple_Birthplace_Maine" class="site">Whipple Birthplace, Maine  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: York County, 88 Whipple Street, Kittery.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">William Whipple, a signer from New Hampshire, was a native of Kittery,
-now in Maine but then in Massachusetts. Born in this house
-in 1730, he probably lived in it until, like many boys of the locality,
-he went to sea. About 1760 he abandoned his life as a seaman and
-took up residence in Portsmouth, N.H.</p>
-
-<p>This handsome frame residence, the only one extant associated
-with a signer in Maine, occupies a picturesque setting on a small
-cove along the Piscataqua River. The two-story building has been
-considerably altered and enlarged over the years, but it is in excellent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
-condition and rests on original foundations. It has been painted
-red since at least 1873.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_178" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="444" height="327" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Whipple Birthplace.</div></div>
-
-<p>In its present form the house is Georgian in style with a central
-hall plan. The exterior walls are clapboarded. On the east, or front,
-elevation a round arch window on the second story sits over a pedimented
-center door. The ell at the rear is a 20th-century addition.
-A slight overhang on the south end of the house indicates that it
-may once have been a garrison house, and that the upper story projected
-over the first. This portion of the house was constructed of
-hemlock, square-dovetailed at the corners. At some later date, the
-structure was enlarged, and in the mid-19th century the exterior was
-completely renovated.</p>
-
-<p>The residence originally featured a center chimney floor plan. In
-the 19th century the central chimney was removed and a center hall
-with stairway added, as well as two small interior chimneys with fireplaces,
-one at each side of the hall. On the first floor, to the south
-of the hall, is the bedroom where Whipple was born; to the north, a
-large parlor. The original kitchen is located to the rear, or west, of
-the center hall and parlor.</p>
-
-<p>Privately occupied, the house is not open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_11" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Carroll_Mansion_Maryland" class="site">Carroll Mansion, Maryland</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Anne Arundel County, Duke of Gloucester Street, between
-Newman and St. Marys Streets, Annapolis.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Charles Carroll III of Carrollton was born in 1737 at this townhouse,
-which his father had probably built about 1735. Around the age of
-11, young Carroll traveled to Europe for an education and did not
-return to Maryland until 1765. Thereafter, he lived mainly at Doughoregan
-Manor but utilized his birthplace, which he inherited from
-his father, when in Annapolis. In 1804, when he retired from public
-life, he closed it up. In 1870 one of his granddaughters deeded the
-house and property to the Redemptionist Fathers of St. Mary’s
-Catholic Church, which had been built in 1858–60 on adjacent lands
-also donated by the Carrolls.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_179" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_083b.jpg" width="458" height="314" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Carroll Mansion.</div></div>
-
-<p>Carroll Mansion, a brick rectangular structure constructed in
-Flemish bond, rises 2½ stories over a basement. Belt courses mark
-the first- and second-floor levels on the north and south sides. Segmental
-arches head the windows. Two massive chimneys penetrate
-the slate-covered gable roof. They are located at what may have
-been the original gable ends. Five gabled dormers protrude from
-the south side of the roof; four from the north. A wood cornice with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>
-dentils and modillions extends along the sides and up the gables
-at the ends.</p>
-
-<p>Exterior alterations include the addition of a one-story basement
-at the east, or present rear, end of the residence and a one-story
-porch and entrance at the west end. The front entrance, probably
-dating from the early or mid-19th century, is highlighted by a
-rectangular transom and sidelights. The original entrance was apparently
-located in the center of the north side of the house, where
-a passageway, erected in 1858, now connects it to St. Mary’s Church.</p>
-
-<p>Interior alterations have practically obliterated the original floor
-plan. A stair hall occupies a central compartment at the north side,
-and the stairs appear to be original. Only two major rooms retain
-some of their original finish. A large one on the south side of the
-first floor, now used as a chapel, has walls paneled in plaster and a
-plaster cornice. Another, at the east end, features a plaster cornice,
-a ceiling divided by triple panels, and a wooden mantelpiece.</p>
-
-<p>The building, in fair condition, is used as a residence by the Redemptionist
-Fathers and is not accessible to the public. It is part
-of Colonial Annapolis Historic District.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_12" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Carrollton_Manor_Maryland" class="site">Carrollton Manor, Maryland  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Frederick County, on the south side of Manor Wood Road,
-immediately east of the East Alco Aluminum Company Plant, just west
-of Buckeystown.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In 1765 Charles Carroll, returning to Maryland after completing his
-extensive education in Europe, built this home near the mouth of
-the Monocacy River along Tuscarora Creek on a 10,000-acre tract of
-land he had acquired from his father. Young Carroll never spent
-much time at Carrollton Manor. Shortly after he had constructed
-it, his father died, and he preferred to spend his time at Doughoregan
-Manor, the ancestral family home in Howard County.</p>
-
-<p>The rectangular manor is constructed of native limestone. It
-rises 2½ stories above an elevated basement. A pair of chimneys
-are located at the west end of the gable roof, and a single chimney at
-the east end. A later one-story addition extends from the east end.
-The central door, sheltered by a one-story porch on the north, is
-topped by a rectangular transom and flanked by sidelights, both<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
-probably dating from the Greek Revival period. Dating from the
-same time are the two triple windows in the first story at the rear of
-the house. A one-story porch that once extended across that
-elevation has been removed.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_181" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="452" height="261" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Carrollton Manor.</div></div>
-
-<p>The house contains four rooms on each floor. East of the front
-entrance is a stair hall and a spacious dining room; to the west, a
-library and living room. Large double doors connect the living and
-dining rooms. The second floor contains four bedrooms; the attic,
-four more.</p>
-
-<p>Upon Carroll’s death, his descendants inherited the manor. In
-1968 an aluminum company bought the property and erected a large
-office and plant buildings and a spur railroad track to the west of the
-house. In excellent condition, though never restored, it is today
-used as a company residence and is not open to visitors. A nearby
-chapel, erected by Carroll, is still used as a parish church.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_13" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Chase-Lloyd_House_Maryland" class="site">Chase-Lloyd House, Maryland  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Anne Arundel County, 22 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Although Samuel Chase began building this house in 1769 while he
-was a young lawyer, he never resided in it, for he sold it unfinished
-in 1771 to Edward Lloyd IV, a wealthy Maryland planter and politician.
-Lloyd immediately engaged architect William Buckland, newly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
-arrived in Annapolis, to continue construction, completed 3 years
-later with the aid of local architect William Noke.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_182" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_085.jpg" width="443" height="317" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Chase-Lloyd House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The structure, one of the first three-story Georgian townhouses
-erected in the American Colonies, ranks among the finest of its type
-in the United States and is one of the major attractions in Colonial
-Annapolis Historic District. The house rises three full stories over
-a high basement. Two massive interior chimneys protrude through
-the broad, low, hip-on-hip roof. The brick walls are laid in Flemish
-bond and adorned by belt courses of rubbed brick at the second- and
-third-floor levels. An enriched cornice embellishes the roofline. At
-the front, or east, facade the axial line features a tall, projecting
-central pavilion and entranceway, an arched window on the third
-floor, and crowning pediment with a small bull’s-eye window.</p>
-
-<p>Of particular note is the entranceway, in essentially a Palladian
-motif. The three-section composition was rarely used in Georgian
-houses before the Revolution. The door is topped by a fanlight and
-flanked by two panels of sidelights. The three openings are framed
-by two engaged Ionic columns and two Ionic pilasters which support
-an entablature that becomes an open pediment over the door. The
-triple windows on the second floor over the entrance door and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>
-arched windows in the center of the three on the third are also
-unusual.</p>
-
-<p>The sides of the house lack architectural distinction, but in the
-rear a large Palladian window within a brick arch ornaments and
-lights the interior stair landing. The only exterior alterations are
-a three-story wooden screened porch and adjoining steel fire escape
-on the south side of the structure near the west corner.</p>
-
-<p>The floor plan is typical of the center hall type of house, with
-four rooms on each floor, except that lateral halls divide the front
-and rear rooms. The unusually large center hall is dominated by a
-magnificent stairway and a pair of free-standing Ionic columns bearing
-a full entablature. A parlor, large dining room, sitting room, and
-breakfast room are located on the first floor, which has been only
-slightly altered. A small back stairway is adjacent to the breakfast
-room. Ornamentation of the plaster ceilings and doorways is outstanding.
-The dining room, the most elaborate room, contains an
-imported Italian mantelpiece that is richly decorated. The second
-floor is also exquisitely ornamented.</p>
-
-<p>The Lloyd family owned the house until 1847, when Chase’s descendants
-acquired it. In 1888 one of them bequeathed it to the
-Protestant Episcopal Church for use as a home for elderly women.
-It is in excellent condition and is well maintained. The first floor
-is open to visitors and contains some items that belonged to the
-Lloyds or to the later Chase owners. The upper two floors are
-utilized for the ladies’ home.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_14" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Deshon-Caton-Carroll_House_Maryland" class="site">Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Maryland  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: 800 East Lombard Street, Baltimore.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This was the winter home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton during
-his twilight years and the site of his death in 1832. Christopher
-Deshon, a Baltimore merchant, built it in 1811–12, and in 1818 sold
-it to Richard Caton, husband of Carroll’s youngest daughter, Mary.
-Carroll spent the winters there with the couple until his demise. The
-rest of the time, he resided at Doughoregan Manor in Howard
-County.</p>
-
-<p>The Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, a good example of Classic Revival
-architecture, is constructed of brick laid in Flemish bond. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
-stands 3½ stories high. Six pedimented dormers—three each at the
-south (front) and north elevations—as well as a central chimney
-and two end chimneys pierce the low gable roof. A belt course at
-the second-floor line and dentil cornice at roof level, both of sandstone,
-extend across the north and south elevations. Recessed
-rectangular panels of wood are inserted between the second- and
-third-story windows of the south and west elevations. A large semicircular
-window is located in the west gable of the attic story. The
-wide-paneled center door at the main entrance to the house is
-sheltered by an Ionic marble portico surmounted by an iron railing.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_184" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="355" height="239" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Deshon-Caton-Carroll House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The central hall plan provides for four large rooms, two on each
-side of the hallway on each of the first three floors. The front
-entrance opens into a stair hall, in which an elegant spiral stairway
-rises in an open well up through the three stories. A counting room
-for business purposes, family dining room, breakfast room, and study
-occupy the first floor. The second floor, once used primarily for
-recreation and formal entertainment, contains a large parlor, formal
-dining room, music room, and library. Bedrooms occupy the third
-floor, and the attic at one time contained slave quarters.</p>
-
-<p>The house remained in the Caton family until 1856. During the
-last quarter of that century, a furniture store occupied the first
-floor, and the owner divided the upper floors into apartments. In
-1914 the city of Baltimore acquired the building, and 3 years later
-put it to use as the “Carroll Vocational School.” From about 1930
-until 1956 the structure served as a recreation center. Subsequently
-the house faced the threat of demolition, prevented by the efforts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
-the Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc. In 1963 the
-mayor of Baltimore decided that the residence should be preserved.
-Upon completion of restoration and renovation, in 1967, it was
-placed under the Municipal Museum, a nonprofit corporation. This
-organization operates it today for the city as a historic house
-museum.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_15" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Doughoregan_Manor_Maryland" class="site">Doughoregan Manor, Maryland  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Howard County, on the west side of Manor Lane, about 1
-mile south of Md. 144 and 8 miles west of Ellicott City.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Charles Carroll III of Carrollton preferred this manor, the ancestral
-family home, over his other residences. He lived in it for most of the
-period 1766–1832 rather than at Carrollton Manor or his Annapolis
-townhouse. In 1717 Charles Carroll I had acquired the 10,000 acres
-that originally comprised the estate. His son Charles II probably
-built the main section of the mansion about a decade later. In the
-1760’s Charles III inherited it. In the 1830’s, after his death in
-1832, it was greatly enlarged. It is still owned and occupied by the
-Carroll family.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_185" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_086b.jpg" width="489" height="272" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Doughoregan Manor.</div></div>
-
-<p>Much changed over the years, Doughoregan Manor is now an
-architecturally distinguished complex of buildings united into one
-long structure, about 300 feet in extent. The original manor was a
-Georgian, 1½-story, brick structure with gambrel roof and two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
-pairs of end chimneys. A kitchen-servants’ quarters and a chapel,
-both probably one-story and constructed of brick about 1780, stood
-detached from the house, on the south and north respectively.</p>
-
-<p>In the 1830’s Charles Carroll V undertook a comprehensive expansion
-in the Greek Revival style that converted the manor to its
-present five-part composition. He raised the main house to two
-stories and cut off the gable roof to form a flat deck, which was
-balustraded and surmounted by an octagonal cupola. At the front
-(east) center door he added a one-story portico with four Doric
-columns. To the rear of the residence, he attached another portico,
-over which he erected a room. Along both sides of the rear portico,
-he constructed a covered, one-story veranda with iron columns that
-extended the length of the main house. The heights of the kitchen-servants’
-quarters and the chapel were raised and they were connected
-to the main house by two-story wings, topped by unifying
-wooden walkways.</p>
-
-<p>Inside the central part of the mansion, an oak-paneled central hall
-extends from front to rear. The principal stairway is located in a
-small side hall adjacent to the front of the main hall. On one side of
-the main hall in the 1727 portion of the house are library and large
-parlor; on the other, small parlor and dining room. The second-floor
-bedrooms, remodeled in the 1830’s, were completely renovated and
-redecorated about 1915. The chapel, refurbished in the 1830’s and
-again after the Civil War, is in good condition and is still used as
-a parish church. It is one of the few surviving private chapels in the
-United States dating from the 18th century. The grave of Charles
-Carroll III is located next to the altar.</p>
-
-<p>The estate, comprising 2,800 acres, and mansion are well maintained.
-They are not open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_16" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Habre-de-Venture_Maryland" class="site">Habre-de-Venture, Maryland  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Charles County, on the west side of Rose Hill Road, which
-connects Md. 6 and Md. 225, about 1 mile north of Port Tobacco.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In 1771 Thomas Stone built this plantation house near the busy
-riverport town of Port Tobacco, Md. He lived in it during his most
-politically active years, and on his death in 1787 was buried in the
-adjacent family graveyard.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_187" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="488" height="279" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Habre-de-Venture.</div></div>
-
-<p>A Georgian structure of brick and frame, Habre-de-Venture consists
-of five parts: a central house connected to two wings by two
-covered passageways, or “hyphens.” The hyphens and wings extend
-southward to form a semicircle. The main building is a 1½-story
-structure over an elevated basement. It has a dormered gambrel
-roof flanked by external end chimneys. The brick walls are laid in
-Flemish bond with glazed headers. Center doors and full-length, one-story
-porches are located at the front and rear of the house.</p>
-
-<p>A center hall, with stairs set against its west wall, divides the
-central unit into dining and living rooms. In 1928 the Baltimore
-Museum of Art removed the elaborate hand-carved paneling in the
-living room; it was subsequently replaced with a replica. The fireplace
-wall in the dining room protrudes out into the room, and the
-flue curves back to the wall and up to the ceiling.</p>
-
-<p>To the west of the central house is the kitchen wing, a low, two-story,
-gable-roofed structure with brick ends and frame sides. Its
-second story, added about 1820, contains two bedrooms. The connecting
-hyphen, originally gabled roof and one story in height and
-containing a breakfast room, was increased to 1½ stories by the
-addition of a gambrel roof with dormers to provide bathrooms for
-the second floor of the main house. The east wing, a gambrel-roofed,
-low, 1½-story frame structure that has one room on each floor,
-served as Stone’s law office. A one-story gabled brick hyphen
-connects it to the main house.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
-Except for the alterations mentioned above, Habre-de-Venture
-has changed but slightly through the years. In excellent condition
-and carefully restored, it now serves as a private residence and is not
-shown publicly.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_17" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Paca_House_Maryland" class="site">Paca House, Maryland  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Anne Arundel County, 186 Prince George Street, Annapolis.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">William Paca, a young, newly married lawyer, built this townhouse
-in the years 1763–65 as his principal residence and occupied it until
-1780. At that time, a few months after the death of his second wife,
-he sold the house and moved to Wye Plantation, a country estate in
-Queen Annes County he had acquired about 1760.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_188" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="451" height="316" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Paca House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The Paca House is a large, five-part Georgian structure, today
-part of Colonial Annapolis Historic District. Two brick wings (kitchen
-and office) sit at right angles to the main axis of the central
-house, to which they are connected by brick passageways, or hyphens.
-The central unit is a gable-roofed brick structure of 2½ stories over
-an elevated basement. The front facade is laid in all-header bond,
-and the ends in Flemish bond. The window arches, of rubbed brick,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
-are flat. A small, one-story frame porch, which is pedimented and
-done in modified Roman Doric style, provides access to the central
-entrance.</p>
-
-<p>Large brick chimneys rise from both ends of the central house, and
-smaller ones from the wings. Three gabled dormers are situated in
-the front of the main roof and two in the rear. The 1½-story wings
-are also gable-roofed. The west wing and both of the hyphens had
-been raised to two stories in the 19th century, but were recently
-lowered to their original height.</p>
-
-<p>On each side of the center hall in the main house are two rooms.
-The interior has been greatly altered over the years, and portions of
-the original wood and plaster finish remain only in the center hall,
-the stair hall behind it, and the parlor. The main stairway is
-equipped with the original Chinese Chippendale balustrade.</p>
-
-<p>In 1899 the Paca House became the Carvel Hall Hotel, enlarged
-in 1906 by rear additions that completely hid the back of the original
-house. In 1964, when the structure faced demolition, Historic Annapolis,
-Inc., purchased the Paca House portion. The next year, the
-State of Maryland acquired the entire property. In 1967–69 it razed
-the 1906 hotel additions and restored the gardens. Presently, the
-Maryland Historical Trust, a public agency, holds title to the house,
-but Historic Annapolis, Inc., retains all the responsibilities and rights
-of ownership and administration. When this volume went to press,
-the residence was undergoing an extensive restoration program and
-was not accessible to the public. Historic Annapolis, Inc., plans to
-utilize it as a guesthouse for visiting dignitaries, though the first
-floor will be open to visitors.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_18" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Peggy_Stewart_House_Maryland" class="site">Peggy Stewart House, Maryland</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Anne Arundel County, 207 Hanover Street, Annapolis.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Thomas Stone purchased this Georgian residence in 1783 and until
-his death 4 years later occupied it while in Annapolis, though he
-maintained his home at Habre-de-Venture in Charles County. The
-Peggy Stewart House was built sometime between 1761 and 1764
-by Thomas Rutland. Its owner in the period 1772–79 was Anthony
-Stewart, an Annapolis merchant. In 1774 Revolutionaries forced him
-to burn his ship, the <i>Peggy Stewart</i>, when he attempted to land a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
-cargo of tea on which he had paid taxes. Five years later, he fled to
-England.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_190" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="487" height="463" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Peggy Stewart House.</div></div>
-
-<p>Over the years, the rectangular brick house has been substantially
-modified on both the exterior and interior. Its 2½ stories rest on an
-elevated basement. At the time of a major alteration in 1894, the
-gable roof was replaced by the present hip roof, which has a cutoff
-deck and balustrade, and the chimneys were rebuilt in their current
-form. Two gabled dormers are located at the front of the roof and
-one at each side. Highlighting the ends of the house are central pavilions,
-which have triangular pediments with round center windows.
-The chimneys cut through the front corners of the pediments. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
-wooden box cornice with frieze board below extends around the
-eaves. A large wing at the rear is a later addition.</p>
-
-<p>The front facade of the house is comprised of all-header bond and
-the sides of English bond. The basement and first-story windows are
-topped by segmental arches, but the second-story windows have flat
-ones. The sills are of stone, and louvered shutters flank the first- and
-second-floor windows. The front entranceway, sheltered by a small
-wooden porch with a triangular broken pediment, has a paneled door
-that is surmounted by a rectangular glazed transom.</p>
-
-<p>In 1837 the house had 12 rooms, eight of which were equipped with
-fireplaces. The original portion of the house, excluding the rear addition,
-has a center hall floor plan. The stairs are set against the east
-wall, beyond which is a large living room. A parlor and dining room
-are situated to the west of the hall. Five bedrooms are located upstairs.
-The interior of the house has been extensively remodeled in
-recent times. Only one fireplace, in the southeast front room on the
-second floor, retains its original mantel.</p>
-
-<p>The Peggy Stewart House, also known as the Rutland-Peggy
-Stewart House and the Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, is privately
-owned and is not open to the public. It is part of Colonial Annapolis
-Historic District.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_19" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Adams_John_Birthplace_Massachusetts" class="site">Adams (John) Birthplace, Massachusetts  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Norfolk County, 133 Franklin Street, Quincy.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This was the original homestead of the Adams family and the birthplace
-of John Adams. Although not architecturally impressive, it is
-historically notable as the place where John Adams grew to
-manhood. It is adjacent to the John Quincy Adams Birthplace.</p>
-
-<p>The original house, a typical New England saltbox structure of
-frame construction with a massive central chimney, was probably
-built about 1681. It consisted of two lower and two upper rooms.
-Extensive alterations were made over the years. The rear lean-to,
-built at some unknown date in the 18th century, added two
-downstairs rooms and two small upper ones, separated by a large
-attic.</p>
-
-<p>In 1720 John Adams’ father, “Deacon” John Adams, purchased
-the house, where in 1735 young John was born. He lived there until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>
-his marriage in 1764. He and his bride moved into a residence next
-door that he had inherited from his father in 1761 and 6 years later
-was to be the birthplace of his son John Quincy. In 1774 John
-bought his birthplace home from his brother. His public duties and
-legal business kept him away most of the time. By 1783, when he
-and his family were in Europe, tenants resided in both the John
-Adams Birthplace and the John Quincy Adams Birthplace. In 1788,
-when John Adams sailed home, he settled at “Peacefield,” or the
-“Old House,” now Adams National Historic Site, in another part
-of Quincy. In 1803 he sold both birthplaces to his son John Quincy.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_192" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="484" height="249" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">John Adams and John Quincy Adams Birthplaces.</div></div>
-
-<p>The John Adams Birthplace remained in the possession of the
-Adams family until 1940, when they deeded it to the city of Quincy.
-In 1896 they had given the Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American
-Revolution, permission to restore the residence, which the next
-year was made accessible to the public. When the Adams Chapter
-dissolved in 1950, the Quincy Historical Society took over the administration.
-In excellent condition and still owned by the city, the
-house is open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_20" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Adams_John_Quincy_Birthplace_Massachusetts" class="site">Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Massachusetts  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Norfolk County, 141 Franklin Street, Quincy.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This frame structure was John Adams’ residence and law office
-during the War for Independence and the birthplace of his son John<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
-Quincy. In 1744 “Deacon” John Adams had acquired the residence,
-the oldest part of which may date from 1663. In 1761 he bequeathed
-it to young John. At the time of the latter’s marriage 3 years later,
-he moved into it from his neighboring birthplace so that he could
-better accommodate his library and set up a law office. In 1767 John
-Quincy was born in the house.</p>
-
-<p>Shortly thereafter, John’s growing law practice and role in public
-affairs made it convenient for him to live in Boston most of the time,
-but his wife and son remained in the Quincy home until after the
-War for Independence. By 1783, when the family was in Europe,
-tenants were occupying it. After coming back to the United States in
-1788, John Adams took up residence at “Peacefield,” or the “Old
-House,” now Adams National Historic Site. In 1803 John Quincy
-purchased both birthplaces from his father, and from 1805 to 1807
-lived in his own birthplace.</p>
-
-<p>The John Quincy Adams Birthplace is well preserved. Like the
-John Adams Birthplace, it is of typical New England saltbox design,
-originally comprised of two upper and two lower rooms arranged
-around a huge central chimney, and has been extensively altered.
-John Adams added a lean-to of two rooms at the back for use as a
-new kitchen during the time he used the original kitchen as a law
-office-library.</p>
-
-<p>In 1897 the Quincy Historical Society, aided by Adams heirs,
-restored and opened the John Quincy Adams Birthplace to the public.
-In 1940 the Adams family turned it over to the city of Quincy.
-Administered by the Quincy Historical Society, it is accessible to
-the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_21" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Adams_National_Historic_Site_Massachusetts_-X-X" class="site">Adams National Historic Site, Massachusetts ‎☑</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Norfolk County, bounded by Adams Street, Furnace Brook
-Parkway, and Newport Avenue, Quincy; address: 135 Adams Street,
-Quincy, Mass. 02169.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Featuring the Adams Mansion, this site is a memorial to four generations
-of the distinguished Adams family, who resided in it from
-1788 until 1927.</p>
-
-<p>John Adams (1735–1826), signer of the Declaration of Independence,
-diplomat, the first Vice President, and the second President,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
-founded a long line of men who were outstanding in politics and
-intellectual life. John Quincy (1767–1848), his son, won fame as
-a diplomat, U.S. Congressman, Secretary of State, and sixth President.
-Charles Francis Adams (1807–86), son of John Quincy,
-became a U.S. Congressman, diplomat, and author. His four sons—John
-Quincy II (1833–94), Charles Francis, Jr. (1835–1915), Henry
-(1838–1918), and Brooks (1848–1927)—made notable marks in
-politics, literature, and historiography.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_194" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="486" height="249" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Adams Mansion.</div></div>
-
-<p>The Adams Mansion, named “Peacefield” by John Adams but
-known to some as the Vassall-Adams House and later to the Adams
-family as the “Old House,” was dear and close to all of them. In
-1730–31 Maj. Leonard Vassall, a wealthy West Indian sugar planter
-who had come to Massachusetts some 8 years before, built the oldest
-part of the building. Comprising the front western section of the
-present residence, it was a 2½-story frame structure of Georgian
-design with clapboarded walls and gambrel roof. The first floor contained
-two rooms separated by a central stair hall; the second floor,
-two bedrooms and center hall; and the dormered attic, three
-smaller chambers. The kitchen and servants’ quarters were detached.</p>
-
-<p>John Adams, while still Minister to Great Britain, bought the
-house in September 1787 from Vassall’s grandson, Leonard Vassall
-Borland, and on his return the next year took possession. At that time,
-he apparently attached the 2½-story kitchen and servants’ quarters
-to the rear, or northwest, corner of the main structure. In 1800,
-near the end of his Presidency, he doubled the size of the residence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
-by adding a large, 2½-story, L-shaped wing of frame at the east end.
-It was constructed in the same Georgian style as the original house
-and contained on the first floor a second entry hall and staircase and
-the “Long Room” to the east of the hall. Adams’ large study-library
-was located on the second floor.</p>
-
-<p>Other additions were made in the 19th century. In 1836 John
-Quincy Adams built the passage along the back, or north, side of the
-structure connecting the two rear service ells. In 1869 Charles
-Francis added 30 feet to the kitchen ell for additional servants’
-quarters; the following year, a detached stone library overlooking
-the garden; and in 1873, the stone stable. Brooks constructed the
-present entrance gates in 1906.</p>
-
-<p>After retiring from the Presidency in 1801, John Adams lived in
-the house year round until his death in 1826. Subsequently, until
-Brooks’ death in 1927, other family members resided in it full time
-or spent their summers there. The furnishings, to which each generation
-contributed, reveal the continuity of life in the residence and the
-tastes of the Adams family.</p>
-
-<p>In 1946 the Adams Memorial Society donated the property to the
-Federal Government. Consisting of almost 5 acres, it includes the
-well-maintained house, library, garden, and stables. It may be
-visited from spring until the fall.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_22" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Elmwood_Massachusetts" class="site">Elmwood, Massachusetts  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Middlesex County, 33 Elmwood Street, Cambridge.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This impressive 18th-century mansion, also known as the Oliver-Gerry-Lowell
-House, was the residence of three men prominent in
-American history: Andrew Oliver, royal Lieutenant Governor of
-Massachusetts (1771–74); Elbridge Gerry, politician, diplomat, Governor
-of the Commonwealth, signer of the Declaration, U.S. Representative,
-and Vice President; and James Russell Lowell, author,
-poet, teacher, and statesman.</p>
-
-<p>In 1767 Andrew Oliver, while serving as royal secretary of Massachusetts,
-erected the building. An ex-stamp tax collector and a firm
-Tory, he aroused the hatred of the Whigs, who on at least one occasion
-attacked his home. He died in 1774 while serving as royal
-Lieutenant Governor. Some time during the War for Independence,
-Oliver’s estate including the mansion, was confiscated.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_196" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="484" height="325" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Elmwood.</div></div>
-
-<p>In 1787 Elbridge Gerry, who the previous year had retired from
-business in Marblehead, Mass., moved to Cambridge and purchased
-the estate. He lived there for the rest of his long career in public
-service. In March 1813 he took the oath of office as Vice President
-in his home. Because of heavy debts, on his death in Washington,
-D.C., in 1814, his Cambridge residence remained his sole real estate
-holding.</p>
-
-<p>The mansion was also the birthplace and lifelong home of James
-Russell Lowell (1819–91), one of the most distinguished men of letters
-of his era, as well as a prominent U.S. diplomat. Except during the
-period 1877–85, when he served as Minister to Spain and Great
-Britain, he lived at his birthplace, which he named “Elmwood.”</p>
-
-<p>Elmwood is a large, square, clapboarded-frame structure in Georgian
-style with brick-lined walls and two interior chimneys. The
-first- and second-story windows are topped by cornices. Above the
-foreshortened third-story windows, typical in three-story Georgian
-houses, runs a boldly modillioned cornice. A balustrade encloses the
-low-pitched hip roof. The most striking exterior feature, however, is
-the entranceway, which is flanked by Tuscan pilasters supporting
-a classic entablature decorated with a frieze. A large window rests<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
-on the entablature parapet motif and is flanked by Ionic pilasters
-and topped by a triangular pediment.</p>
-
-<p>A one-story porch with balustraded roof deck on the north
-side of the house, as well as a terrace on the south side, are later
-additions. Located in the rear, at the northwest corner, is a two-story
-service wing; in the rear, at the southwest corner, a one-story
-wing. Both of them are of frame construction. All three floors in the
-main section are bisected into two rooms on either side by a central
-hall. Portions of the interior have been altered and modernized.</p>
-
-<p>Donated to Harvard University in 1962 and now used as the
-presidential residence, Elmwood is not open to the public. The house
-and grounds are in fine condition.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_23" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Gerry_Birthplace_Massachusetts" class="site">Gerry Birthplace, Massachusetts  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Essex County, 44 Washington Street, Marblehead.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Elbridge Gerry was born in this framehouse and resided in it until
-1787, when he moved to Cambridge, Mass. His father, Thomas, had
-built it about 1730, and it remained in possession of the Gerry family
-until 1820.</p>
-
-<p>Architectural evidence strongly suggests that the L-shaped building
-was originally a two-story Georgian structure. About 1820 the
-two stories were apparently raised and a third one built underneath.
-Since that time, changes have been slight. The original interior finish
-of the first story is entirely 19th century, and the original paneling
-on the walls of the second story is clearly 18th century.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_197" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_092b.jpg" width="324" height="243" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Gerry Birthplace.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>
-Today, the exterior is clapboarded. The long arm of the ell faces
-north toward the street. A central hall divides the first floor of the
-long arm into two rooms, the east and west parlors, both with 19th
-century mantels, fireplaces, and flanking arched alcoves. The west
-parlor opens into the short arm of the ell, which extends southward
-to the rear and contains the dining room. Attached to the rear of the
-short arm is a small rear service wing containing an L-shaped, one-story
-kitchen. A one-story open veranda runs around the east and
-south elevations of the long side of the ell, and a small porch flanks
-the dining room on its west side. The second story contains three
-bedrooms, all displaying the original 18th-century paneling on the
-fireplace walls. The third floor consists of four bedrooms.</p>
-
-<p>The house and grounds, privately owned and not open to the
-public, are well maintained.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_24" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Hancock-Clarke_House_Massachusetts" class="site">Hancock-Clarke House, Massachusetts  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Middlesex County, 35 Hancock Street, Lexington.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">The only extant residence associated with John Hancock, this was
-his boyhood home. In 1744, upon the death of his father at Quincy,
-the 7-year-old boy came to live at this house with his grandfather,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
-Rev. John Hancock. In 1750 the lad joined his childless uncle,
-Thomas Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant who adopted him.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_199" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.8125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="461" height="318" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hancock-Clarke House.</div></div>
-
-<p>By the time of the Revolution, Rev. Jonas Clarke, a relative by
-marriage of the Hancocks, occupied the house, which had been built
-as a parsonage by Rev. John Hancock. Clarke encouraged Revolutionaries
-to use his home as a meetingplace and refuge. On the
-evening of April 18, 1775, patriot leaders Hancock and Samuel
-Adams were visiting there. Around midnight, after everyone had
-gone to bed, Paul Revere and later William Dawes, warning the
-countryside of the approach of British troops, galloped up and informed
-the household. A few hours later, Hancock and Adams fled
-northward to Burlington, Mass. They later moved from place to
-place, staying away from Boston, until they proceeded to Philadelphia
-to attend the Continental Congress, which convened the next
-month.</p>
-
-<p>The Hancock-Clarke House consists of two frame sections, erected
-by Rev. John Hancock at different times. The original one, built in
-1698, presently forms the small rear ell, 1½ stories high with gambrel
-roof. A living room-kitchen and tiny study are located downstairs
-and two low-studded chambers upstairs. The 2½-story front, or
-main, section of the house dates from 1734 and was financed by
-Thomas Hancock for his father. It has a large central chimney and
-contains a short center hall and two rooms on each of the two floors.</p>
-
-<p>In 1896, when the building faced demolition, the Lexington Historical
-Society acquired it and moved it from across the street to its
-present location. In 1902 the society constructed a rear brick
-addition containing a fireproof vault to protect its more valuable
-possessions. Restored to its 18th-century appearance and well maintained,
-the Hancock-Clarke House is open to the public and serves
-as headquarters of the society. Recently the society purchased the
-original site of the house, where foundations are visible.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_25" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Bartlett_House_New_Hampshire" class="site">Bartlett House, New Hampshire  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Rockingham County, on the west side of N.H. 111, opposite
-the town hall, Kingston.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This is the only extant structure closely associated with Josiah Bartlett.
-He built it in 1774, after fire consumed his earlier home on the
-same site, and lived in it until his death in 1795.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_200" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="452" height="340" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Bartlett House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The rectangular frame residence is clapboarded and two stories in
-height. Two interior chimneys pierce the gabled roof. Exterior
-louvered shutters border the windows. Many of the house’s existing
-features date from the second third of the 19th century, when it
-was remodeled in the Greek Revival style. They include the giant
-corner pilasters; cornices over the first-story windows; the center
-door with cornice, sidelights, and pilasters; and the one-story porch
-across the south end of the structure. Another addition, at the
-southwest corner, was the two-story frame ell, which gave the
-building its present L-shape. This ell contains a summer kitchen and
-workroom on the first floor and four bedrooms on the second.</p>
-
-<p>Center halls bisect the rooms on both stories of the main house into
-pairs. The downstairs hall is divided into two sections, each containing
-a stairway set against the north wall. To the south of the hall on
-the first floor are the living room and the dining room, originally the
-kitchen. These rooms are equipped with the original chimneys and
-fireplaces. North of the hall is a parlor and behind it a bedroom.
-Around 1860 the chimney for these rooms and the fireplace in the
-parlor were rebuilt, and two closets that flanked the parlor fireplace<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>
-were converted into the existing arched alcoves. The second floor
-contains four bedrooms, two on each side of the central hall. The
-original wide floorboards are still in place throughout the residence.</p>
-
-<p>The house, in excellent condition, is still in the possession of
-Bartlett descendants and is not open to the public. It has never been
-restored, but is furnished with some original Bartlett pieces, including
-a medical table and instruments.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_26" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Moffatt-Ladd_House_New_Hampshire" class="site">Moffatt-Ladd House, New Hampshire  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Rockingham County, 154 Market Street, Portsmouth.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">An outstanding example of a late Georgian mansion, this impressive
-three-story structure was the longtime residence of William Whipple.
-Ship carpenters constructed it in 1763 for John Moffatt, a sea
-captain and wealthy merchant. He presented it the following year
-as a wedding gift to his son, Samuel, a merchant-shipowner. In 1768,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
-after the latter had failed in business and fled to the West Indies
-to escape creditors, Captain Moffatt reacquired it and lived in it
-for the rest of his life. Whipple and his wife, Catherine, Moffatt’s
-daughter, moved into the house the same year as the captain.
-Whipple resided there until his death in 1785; his wife and
-apparently his father-in-law, too, survived him.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_202" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.1875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_094b.jpg" width="483" height="381" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Moffatt-Ladd House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The square, clapboarded building stands on a slight elevation
-overlooking old Portsmouth Harbor. Noteworthy features of the
-elaborate exterior include white corner quoins and richly pedimented
-first- and second-floor windows. The third-story windows, smaller in
-size, abut the distinctive cornice. Side windows, like those on the
-third-floor front, lack pediments. Rear windows on the first two
-stories have flat arches with lengthened keystones. The hip roof,
-flanked by three end chimneys, is cut off to form a flat deck, or
-captain’s walk, which is enclosed by an attractive balustrade with urn
-finials. A delicate fence with large ornamental posts, also topped by
-urn finials, spans the front of the house, which is approached by a
-flight of granite steps that lead up to the portico-covered entranceway.
-Near the front northeast comer of the residence is the
-countinghouse, or office (1810), a small, square building with a hip
-roof.</p>
-
-<p>The interior of the house is as highly embellished as the exterior.
-The outstanding room on the first floor is the unusually spacious
-entrance hall, one of the finest in New England. Its carved cornice
-is handsome, and the walls are covered with rare imported French
-wallpaper of the early 19th century. The beautiful and finely carved
-flight of stairs is lighted by a roundheaded window in the side wall
-above the landing. Except for the simple detail in the drawing room,
-that in other first-floor rooms—dining room and pantry—is rich.
-Four bedrooms are located on the second floor, and five additional
-chambers on the third. Three of the second-floor bedrooms have
-richly carved overmantels.</p>
-
-<p>The carefully restored house and grounds were owned by the
-Ladd family, descendants of the Moffatts through marriage, until
-1969. From 1913 until 1969, they leased the house to the Colonial
-Dames of America, which maintained it for public display. In 1969
-the Colonial Dames acquired full title to the property. The first
-two floors of the house are furnished in period pieces, and the third
-floor is not open.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_27" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Thornton_House_New_Hampshire" class="site">Thornton House, New Hampshire  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Rockingham County, 2 Thornton Street, Derry Village.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Matthew Thornton lived in this residence, which has since been
-considerably altered, during his medical and most of his political
-career. He probably acquired it in 1740, the year he moved from
-Worcester, Mass., to present Derry Village (then a part of Londonderry)
-to set up his medical practice. He resided in it until about
-1780, when he retired as a doctor and moved to a farm near
-Merrimack, N.H.</p>
-
-<p>The gable roof of the two-story frame structure, of the saltbox
-type, slopes steeply to the rear, or north, and forms a one-story
-lean-to. Two interior chimneys sit behind the ridge of the roof. The
-exterior, remodeled in the Greek Revival style probably in the mid-19th
-century, features giant pilasters on the front corners and a one-story
-portico over the center door. The clapboarding is a replacement
-of the original. All windows, including those in the gable ends, have
-exterior louvered shutters, and flat cornices surmount those on the
-first floor. A one-story frame service ell, extending from the northwest
-corner and giving the house its present L-shape, contains the
-modernized kitchen and what were once workrooms for servants.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_203" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.6875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="459" height="337" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Thornton House.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
-Inside the house, a center hall bisects the rooms into two pairs and
-is divided into two sections, each with its own stairway on the east
-wall. To the east of the hall are the living room and modern laundry
-room; to the west, dining room and present family room. The two
-chimneys, built between the pairs of rooms to provide four fireplaces,
-one for each room, were rebuilt on a smaller scale in the early 19th
-century for use with Franklin stoves. Thus none of the original
-fireplaces and mantels exist any longer, but a 19th-century mantel
-remains in the dining room. The opposite fireplace in the family
-room, however, is modern. Features dating from the 18th century
-include the framing and wide floorboards, visible in all rooms except
-the family room where they are covered. The second floor contains
-three bedrooms.</p>
-
-<p>The Thornton House, in fair condition, is used as a private
-residence and is not open to the public. Its present owner hopes to
-restore it.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_28" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Hopkinson_House_New_Jersey" class="site">Hopkinson House, New Jersey  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Burlington County, 101 Farnsworth Avenue, Bordentown.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Owned by the Hopkinson family for several generations, this house
-was the residence of signer Francis Hopkinson from 1774 until his
-death in 1791. It was built in 1750 by merchant John Imlay (Emley),
-who used part of it as a store. Sometime before 1768 Joseph Borden,
-a prominent New Jersey citizen, acquired it. Hopkinson married his
-daughter at Philadelphia in 1768, and, after a tour as customs collector
-at New Castle, Del. (1772–74), moved to Bordentown and
-took up residence with his father-in-law.</p>
-
-<p>Upon Hopkinson’s death, his eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842), inherited
-the house. He achieved fame as composer, lawyer, judge,
-and politician. Among his distinguished guests were Irish poet
-Thomas Moore, Thomas Paine, and Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s
-brother. The Hopkinson family retained possession of the property
-until 1915; since then, it has been owned by the Wells family.</p>
-
-<p>The Hopkinson House is an L-shaped, brick and frame structure
-with a gambrel, dormered roof. The main 2½-story section is constructed
-of brick. The center door is topped by a rectangular transom,
-flanked by sidelights, and sheltered by a segmental hood. A central<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
-hall, divided into two sections by means of a wide folding door with
-an arched fanlight above, bisects the first floor into two large rooms,
-living room and library. Both of these are currently used by the
-Bordentown Chamber of Commerce as an office and museum, open
-to the public. The front portion of the central hall serves as an
-entrance hall; the rear section, as the stair hall. A narrow hall extends
-from the stair hall south across the rear of the main house. The
-second and third floors, each containing four bedrooms, are used as
-apartments.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_205" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_096.jpg" width="486" height="332" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hopkinson House.</div></div>
-
-<p>A two-story brick wing extends to the rear from the northeast
-corner of the main section. Its first-floor dining room and the two
-bedrooms comprising the second floor form an apartment unit.
-Attached to this wing at the rear of the brick arm is a two-story
-frame wing that once contained the kitchen and servant’s bedroom.</p>
-
-<p>The exterior of the house, except for the metal roof, appears to
-be little altered. Interior features are plastered walls, wide floorboards,
-and 19th-century mantels. Much of the original woodwork
-and trim has apparently been replaced, but the basic floor plan has
-not been greatly changed. The residence is in good condition.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_29" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Maybury_Hill_New_Jersey" class="site">Maybury Hill, New Jersey  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Mercer County, 346 Snowden Lane, Princeton.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Maybury Hill, built about 1725, was the birthplace and boyhood
-home of North Carolina signer Joseph Hewes. His father leased it
-from 1730 until 1755.</p>
-
-<p>The house provides a fine example of Georgian architecture. It was
-originally a small, two-story stone structure with gable roof. A short
-distance away, at the northeast corner, stood a detached kitchen
-building. In 1735, following a fire, the main house was rebuilt. In
-1753 a major addition was made on the north side connecting it
-with the kitchen building. This resulted in an L-shaped, two-story
-structure with gabled roof and three end chimneys. The only
-alteration of consequence since that time occurred about 1900, when
-the fieldstone exterior walls were covered with concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Flat brick arches top the windows. Second-story windows have
-exterior louvered shutters; those on the first, paneled shutters. Today
-the house has a center hall floor plan. To the south of the hall is
-the large parlor, which dates from 1725. To the north are the dining
-and living rooms, added in 1753. Both of them have paneled walls,
-shell cabinets, and exposed ceiling beams. The kitchen, dating from
-1725, is still in the northeast corner of the building. The dining
-room fireplace is faced with tile. Four bedrooms occupy the upstairs.
-All the floors are constructed of wide boards.</p>
-
-<p>Little-altered Maybury Hill was renovated in 1920, and is still in
-excellent condition. A private residence, it is not open to visitors.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_206" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="439" height="264" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Maybury Hill.</div></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_30" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Morven_New_Jersey" class="site">Morven, New Jersey  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Mercer County, 55 Stockton Street, Princeton.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Morven was the birthplace and lifelong home of Richard Stockton
-(1730–81). In the summer of 1783 it was also the official residence of
-his brother-in-law Elias Boudinot, President of the Continental Congress,
-which was then meeting in Princeton. That same year, many
-Revolutionary leaders gathered at the mansion to celebrate the
-signing of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the War for Independence.</p>
-
-<p>Between 1701 and 1709 Stockton’s grandfather, also named
-Richard, built the earliest section of Morven. It grew in a series of
-stages until about 1775, when its exterior appearance approximated
-that of today. Because fires in 1776, set by the British during the War
-for Independence, and 1821 necessitated extensive repairs, the
-interior dates from the late 18th or early 19th century.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_207" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.4375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_097b.jpg" width="487" height="260" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Morven.</div></div>
-
-<p>A large Georgian mansion of brick, Morven consists of three
-sections: a main central, two-story section over a raised basement
-and two lower, attached, two-story wings. The facade of the main
-section, although basically early Georgian in style, was altered in
-the 19th century by the addition of a wide, one-story, Greek
-Revival porch. A central hall divides the section into a large dining
-room and the Gold Room. Fireplace walls in these rooms are fully
-paneled. The central hall intersects a stair hall, which runs across
-the rear of the main portion of the house and connects with the
-two wings. On the first floor of the east wing are two large family
-rooms, the Red Room and library. This wing was partially burned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
-by the British. The west service wing includes the kitchen. The
-only recent change, in 1945–54, was the addition of a solarium, or
-Green Room, at the rear of the main section; a one-story porch was
-enclosed to form the new room.</p>
-
-<p>Morven remained in possession of the Stockton family until 1945,
-when Gov. and Mrs. Walter E. Edge acquired it. Nine years later,
-they donated it to the State of New Jersey. Since that time, it has
-been the official residence of the Governor. It is not accessible to the
-public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_31" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Presidents_House_New_Jersey" class="site">President’s House, New Jersey  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Mercer County, on Nassau Street just northwest of Nassau
-Hall, on the Princeton University campus, Princeton.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">From 1756 until 1879 this house was the official residence of the
-president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton University after
-1896). In 1768, when John Witherspoon emigrated from Scotland to
-America to assume the presidency, he occupied it. While living there,
-he represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress and signed
-the Declaration. In 1779 he moved to his nearby farm, Tusculum.
-From then until 1794 his son-in-law Samuel S. Smith, vice president
-of the college, resided in the President’s House. From 1879 until
-1968 it was the home of the Dean of the Faculty and was known as
-the “Dean’s House.” Since 1968, it has been called the Maclean
-House and has been used by the Princeton Alumni Council.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_208" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="489" height="262" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">President’s House.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
-The Georgian building was designed and constructed in 1756 by
-Robert Smith, a master carpenter of Philadelphia. Both on the
-exterior and the interior, it has changed only slightly throughout the
-years. It was originally a two-story brick structure, rectangular in
-shape, with gable roof. A one-story polygonal bay extends westward
-from the rear southwest comer. Near the same corner, a two-story
-service wing of brick and stone runs southward. Above the windows
-of the main facade are flat stone winged arches with keystones.
-Over the center door is a fanlight surmounted by a triangular
-pediment. The exterior has retained its original appearance and
-arrangement except that small double dormers were later inserted
-in the center of the front and rear roofs to create a third level.
-Additions in 1868 were a wide one-story frame porch on the front
-of the residence and a one-story frame, polygonal bay on the east
-side near the northeast front corner.</p>
-
-<p>The center door opens into a central hall that extends through
-the house to rear stairs, against the east wall. To the east of the
-hall are a library and study. The fireplace wall in the library is fully
-paneled. To the west of the hall are a parlor and dining room. The
-second floor of the main house contains four bedrooms; the third
-floor, three additional rooms. Two bedrooms are located on the
-second floor of the service wing. In excellent condition, the house
-is open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_32" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Tusculum_New_Jersey" class="site">Tusculum, New Jersey  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Mercer County, 166 Cherry Hill Road, Princeton.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">John Witherspoon made this his home from 1779 until his death in
-1794. In 1773, while serving as president of the College of New Jersey
-(later Princeton University), he acquired some farmland near
-Princeton and built Tusculum. For several years he leased out
-the house and farm, but in 1779 he moved from the President’s
-House to Tusculum.</p>
-
-<p>The two-story Georgian structure of fieldstone with gabled roof
-and two pairs of end chimneys originally had only one extension, a
-lower, two-story, stone and frame wing attached to the west end of
-the house along its main axis. First-story windows of both sections
-have exterior paneled shutters; second-story windows, louvered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
-shutters. In later years, two additional wings, both of frame and two
-stories in height, were added to the east and west ends of the
-structure. Designed in the same style as the rest of the house, they
-do not seriously alter the original appearance of the front elevation.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_210" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.5625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_099.jpg" width="473" height="225" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tusculum.</div></div>
-
-<p>The stairway is located in an ell at the rear portion of the center
-hall along the east wall. To the east of the hall lie the living room
-and study; to the west, a large dining room, which occupies the
-entire west half of the main house. Four bedrooms are upstairs. The
-finish in two of them date from about 1825. The original service
-wing, on the west side, contains a kitchen on the first floor and two
-bedrooms on the second.</p>
-
-<p>Tusculum has never undergone any major alterations and it is in
-excellent condition. In 1924 the present owner acquired it. Under
-his supervision, a Philadelphia firm restored it to its 18th-century
-appearance. The major changes were the removal of 19th-century
-porches at the front, or south, and elimination of a partition wall
-in the dining room. The structure continues to serve as a private
-residence and is not shown to visitors.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_33" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Floyd_Birthplace_Fire_Island_National_Seashore_New_York" class="site">Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), New York  ‎☑</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Suffolk County, 20 Washington Avenue, Mastic, Long Island;
-address: Fire Island National Seashore, P.O. Box 229, Patchogue, N.Y.
-11772.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This farmhouse, which stood on a large estate the Floyd family had
-acquired in 1718, was the birthplace in 1734 of William Floyd and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
-his residence for the greater part of his life—though he and his
-family were forced to abandon it in the period 1776–83 and flee to
-Middletown, Conn. During that time, British troops and Loyalists
-considerably damaged the estate. In 1803 Floyd presented the house
-to his son Nicoll and moved to present Westernville, N.Y.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_211" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;">
-  <img src="images/i_099b.jpg" width="480" height="264" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Floyd Birthplace.</div></div>
-
-<p>The earliest section of the large, frame Georgian building, which
-was enlarged several times along its west side during the 18th
-century, dates from about 1724. The structure now consists of a
-two-story main section and three wings. The former, entered
-through a Dutch door, is laid out in central hall fashion. To the
-west of the hall are a parlor and back of that an office; to the east,
-a dining room, behind which are a gunroom and pantry side by side.
-Interesting features on the first floor are exposed ceiling beams and
-wide floorboards. Seven bedrooms occupy the second floor.</p>
-
-<p>Extending from the rear of the central hall is a two-story north
-service wing, probably added about 1900. A 1½-story east service
-wing, with a dormered, gable roof, dates from the 18th century. At
-the rear, or to the north, of this wing, is a third service wing, 1½
-stories high. It contained the original kitchen and was once located
-at the west end of the main house. Except for this relocation and the
-addition of the north wing, the main house and east wing are basically
-unchanged from their 18th-century appearance. The overall
-structure is in good condition and is furnished with many original
-pieces belonging to the Floyd family.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
-In 1965 Floyd descendants donated 613 acres of the estate to the
-U.S. Government for inclusion in Fire Island National Seashore, but
-retained use and occupational rights to 43 acres and the house for a
-period of 25 years. Thus the residence will not be open to the public
-until 1990.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_34" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="General_Floyd_House_New_York" class="site">General Floyd House, New York  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Oneida County, on the west side of Main Street opposite
-Gilford Hill Road, Westernville.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">William Floyd lived in this home from 1803 until his death in 1821.
-In 1784 he had begun purchasing frontier land near present Rome
-in western New York, and 3 years later the State granted him
-10,240 acres in the same area. During the summers, he visited and
-developed his tracts. In 1803, nearly 70 years of age, he deeded his
-residence at present Mastic, on Long Island, N.Y., to his son Nicoll
-and moved the rest of his family to present Westernville, where he
-constructed this farmhouse. He spent the remainder of his life
-farming and improving his wilderness lands.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_212" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_100.jpg" width="442" height="256" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">General Floyd House.</div></div>
-
-<p>Constructed of frame, the Georgian-style residence consists of
-a large, two-story main section with gable roof and a lower, two-story
-service wing attached to the west end. A center door, flanked
-by a pair of small windows, opens into a central hall that extends
-through the house to another door on the north side. The stairs
-are set against the west wall of the hall. To the east of the hall are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
-two large parlors containing cupboards and paneled fireplace walls.
-To the west of the hall is a dining room and behind that a study. The
-rooms have plastered walls and ceilings and wide floorboards. Four
-bedrooms occupy the second floor, and the attic is unfinished.
-The service wing, which includes the kitchen, is located to the west
-of the dining room.</p>
-
-<p>The structure, unaltered except for metal roofs and modern
-plumbing, is in excellent condition. It remained in the possession of
-Floyd descendants until 1956. Still privately owned, it is not open
-to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_35" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Iredell_House_North_Carolina" class="site">Iredell House, North Carolina  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Chowan County, 107 East Church Street, Edenton.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Early in 1798, in a state of extreme mental anguish because of mounting
-debts brought on by unwise speculation in lands, James Wilson,
-probably while visiting North Carolina on Federal circuit court
-matters, took refuge in this house. It was the home of his friend and
-fellow U.S. Supreme Court Justice James Iredell. Within a few
-months, Wilson died there.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_213" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_100b.jpg" width="444" height="326" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Iredell House.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
-The little-altered Iredell House is a large L-shaped structure. It
-is constructed of frame and is two stories in height with gable roof.
-Two-story verandas span the front, or south, and rear elevations of
-the long arm of the ell. The building was erected in three stages.
-The earliest, the present short, or east, arm of the ell, was built in
-1759 by John Wilkins, with its narrow gable end fronting on the
-street. In 1776 Joseph Whedbee enlarged the structure by adding to
-its west side the two easternmost bays of the present five-bay
-long arm. In 1810 Iredell’s widow extended the arm by three bays
-to its present size and added the verandas.</p>
-
-<p>The original section of the house contains a living room and one
-other room on the first floor and two bedrooms on the second. The
-first floor of the 1776 section consists of the dining room; the second
-floor, a large bedroom. These two sections are furnished as a historic
-house museum and are open to the public. The remaining section of
-the long arm, dating from 1810, serves as the caretaker’s quarters.
-The State owns and administers the residence.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_36" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Nash-Hooper_House_North_Carolina" class="site">Nash-Hooper House, North Carolina  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Orange County, 118 West Tryon Street, Hillsborough.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">The Nash-Hooper House is the only extant residence that can be associated
-with William Hooper and is the only surviving home of a signer
-in the State. It was built in 1772 by Francis Nash, who later
-attained the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army and
-lost his life in the War for Independence. In 1782, after the British
-had driven Hooper into hiding and destroyed his estate Finian near
-Wilmington, he moved to Hillsborough, where his family had fled. He
-purchased the Nash-Hooper House and resided in it until his death
-in 1790. Subsequently, from 1869 until 1875, it was the home of
-William A. Graham, former Governor of North Carolina.</p>
-
-<p>The original portion of the rectangular, two-story house was
-constructed with a braced oak frame that was held together by pegs
-and pins. It rests on shale foundations over an elevated basement, in
-which are located two rooms and a center hall. The roof is gabled,
-with a chimney at each end. A one-story, frame, “sitting room”
-(later dining room) wing, added in 1819 on a log base, extends from
-the rear, or north, of the house and creates its present L-shape.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
-Weatherboarded siding covers both sides of the wing and the front
-of the main section. All the windows are flanked with exterior
-louvered shutters. The one-story porch spanning the front of the
-house dates from the late 19th century. A detached kitchen, erected
-in 1819 just east of the house adjacent to the storeroom and dining
-room in the north wing, was demolished in 1908. Sometime during
-the period 1939–59, the dining room in the north wing was converted
-into the present kitchen, and bathrooms were installed in the
-residence.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_215" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_101.jpg" width="460" height="334" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Nash-Hooper House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The center hall of the main house is divided into two sections by
-means of an arch near the rear. West of the hall are a large library
-and a small study or bedroom; to the east, a large parlor and in the
-rear corner a narrow, lateral stair hall, with the stairs set against
-the north wall. Three bedrooms are located on the second floor, and
-the attic is unfinished. Wide floorboards are exposed throughout most
-of the main house. An original pine mantel remains in the dining
-room.</p>
-
-<p>Although the little-altered Nash-Hooper House is structurally
-sound, it has never been restored, and extensive painting and plastering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>
-will be required to return it to good condition. It is privately
-owned and is not open to the public.</p>
-
-<p>Hooper was buried to the east of his home in the garden. That
-part of the garden was later absorbed by the town cemetery, behind
-the Presbyterian Church. In 1894 Hooper’s remains were reinterred
-at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., though his
-original gravestone remains in the Hillsborough cemetery.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_37" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Independence_National_Historical_Park_Pennsylvania" class="site">Independence National Historical Park, Pennsylvania  ‎☑</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Philadelphia County, in downtown Philadelphia; address: 313
-Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19106.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This park in the old part of Philadelphia is not only preeminent
-among the sites associated with the signers of the Declaration of
-Independence, but also notably commemorates other major aspects<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
-of the Nation’s founding and initial growth and many momentous
-national events. These include meetings of the First and Second
-Continental Congresses; adoption and signing of the Declaration,
-which marked the creation of the United States; and the labors of
-the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which perpetuated it. As
-historian Carl Van Doren has said: “On account of the Declaration
-of Independence, [Independence Hall] is a shrine honored wherever
-the rights of man are honored. On account of the Constitution, it
-is a shrine cherished wherever the principles of self-government on a
-federal scale are cherished.”</p>
-
-<div id="ip_217" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_102.jpg" width="481" height="383" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Independence Hall.</div></div>
-
-<p>Independence Hall was originally the State House for the Province
-of Pennsylvania. In 1729 the provincial assembly set aside funds
-for the building, designed by lawyer Andrew Hamilton. Three years
-later, construction began under the supervision of master carpenter
-Edmund Wooley. In 1736 the assembly moved into the statehouse,
-which was not fully completed until 1756.</p>
-
-<p>As American opposition to British colonial policies mounted,
-Philadelphia became a center of organized protest. To decide on a
-unified course of action, in 1774 the First Continental Congress met
-in newly finished Carpenters’ Hall, whose erection the Carpenters’
-Company of Philadelphia had begun 4 years earlier. In 1775 the
-Second Continental Congress, taking over the east room of the
-ground floor of the statehouse from the Pennsylvania assembly,
-moved from protest to resistance. Warfare had already begun
-in Massachusetts. Congress created an Army and appointed
-George Washington as commander in chief. Yet the final break with
-the Crown had not come; not until a year later would independence
-be declared.</p>
-
-<p>On July 2, 1776, Congress passed Richard Henry Lee’s resolution
-of June 7 recommending independence. The Delegates then turned
-their attention to Thomas Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration, which
-had been submitted on June 28. After modification, it was adopted
-on July 4. Four days later, in Independence Square, the document
-was first read publicly, to the citizens of Philadelphia. In a formal
-ceremony on August 2, about 50 of the 56 signers affixed their
-signatures to the Declaration; the others apparently did so later.</p>
-
-<p>Long, hard years of war ensued. In the late autumn and winter
-of 1776–77, the British threatened Philadelphia and Congress moved
-to Baltimore. Again in the fall of 1777 it departed, this time for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
-York, Pa. During the British occupation of Philadelphia that winter
-and the next spring, the redcoats used Independence Hall as a barracks
-and as a hospital for American prisoners. In the summer of
-1778, the Government returned. On November 3, 1781, Congress
-officially received news of Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown.
-Independence practically had been won.</p>
-
-<p>Earlier that same year, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual
-Union had gone into effect. Under the Confederation, Congress
-stayed in Philadelphia until 1783, and later met in other cities. In
-1787 the Constitutional Convention also held its highly secret
-sessions in Independence Hall, in the same chamber in which the
-Declaration had been adopted.</p>
-
-<p>About the same time that Philadelphia became the second Capital
-(1790–1800) under the Constitution, after the Government had
-moved from New York City, Independence Hall acquired three new
-neighbors in Independence Square: City Hall (1791), on the east;
-County Court House (1789), on the west; and American Philosophical
-Society Hall, on the southeast. Beginning in 1790, Congress met
-in the County Court House (subsequently known as Congress Hall).
-The following year, after sitting for a few days in Independence
-Hall, the U.S. Supreme Court moved to City Hall. In 1793 George
-Washington was inaugurated for his second term as President in Congress
-Hall, and 4 years later President Adams also took his oath of
-office there.</p>
-
-<p>In 1799 the State government vacated Independence Hall and
-moved to Lancaster. The next year, the Federal Government relocated
-to Washington, D.C. The city of Philadelphia then used City
-Hall and Congress Hall, and various tenants occupied Independence
-Hall until the city acquired it in 1818. For example, during the period
-1802–27 artist Charles Willson Peale operated a museum there. He
-and his son painted many of the signers and heroes of the War for
-Independence. These portraits form the nucleus of the park’s present
-collection, which is exhibited in the Second Bank of the United States
-Building; a special room is devoted to the signers.</p>
-
-<p>Stately and symmetrical Independence Hall, a 2½-story red brick
-structure that has been carefully restored, is the most beautiful 18th-century
-public building of Georgian style in the United States. The
-tall belltower, reconstructed along the original lines in 1828 by
-architect William Strickland, dominates the south facade. Smaller<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>
-two-story, hip-roofed, brick wings, erected in 1736 and 1739 and
-restored in 1897–98, one of which serves as a park information center,
-are connected to the main building by arcades.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_219" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_103.jpg" width="470" height="324" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Independence Hall in 1778.</div></div>
-
-<p>The interior focus of interest in Independence Hall is the Assembly
-Room, the eastern one on the first floor. Probably no other room in
-the United States has been the scene of such political courage and
-wisdom. In this chamber, members of the Continental Congress
-and the Constitutional Convention formulated and signed the
-Declaration of Independence and Constitution. The room is about
-40 feet square and 20 feet high. Twin segmental-arched fireplaces
-along the east wall flank the speaker’s dais. Massive fluted pilasters
-raised on pedestals adorn the paneled east wall. The other three walls
-are plastered. A heavy Roman Doric entablature borders the plaster
-ceiling. The furniture arrangement at the time of the Continental
-Congress has been duplicated. The only original furnishings are the
-“Rising Sun” chair and the silver inkstand with quill box and shaker
-used by the signers of the Declaration and the Constitution.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_220" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="479" height="619" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Restored Assembly Room, Independence Hall, where Members of the
-  Continental Congress adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>
-The other large room on the ground floor, where the U.S. Supreme
-Court held sessions for a few days in 1791 and again in August 1796,
-housed the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and later other State and
-local courts. The paneled walls are decorated with massive fluted
-pilasters of the Roman Doric order. The central hall between this
-room and the Assembly Room is richly adorned with a Roman
-Doric order of columns and entablature, fully membered. On the
-second floor are the Long Room, Governor’s Council Chamber, and
-Committee Room. These are furnished to represent the activities
-of the Pennsylvania legislature and government prior to 1775.</p>
-
-<p>The Liberty Bell, a worldwide emblem of freedom, is displayed in
-the tower stair hall on the south end of the first floor. [When this
-volume went to press, the bell was scheduled to be moved in the
-near future to a newly constructed belltower, part of the park
-visitor center, located 2 blocks from Independence Hall.] The source
-of the 2,080-pound bell’s name is the “Proclaim Liberty” inscription,
-engraved on it to commemorate the 50th anniversary of
-William Penn’s Charter of Privileges (1701). In 1750 the Pennsylvania
-assembly authorized erection of the Independence Hall belltower,
-and the next year ordered a bell from England. After it
-arrived in 1752, it was cracked during testing and was twice recast
-by local workmen. As the official statehouse bell, it was rung on
-public occasions. In 1777, before the British occupied Philadelphia,
-the Government moved it temporarily to Allentown, Pa. Traditionally
-the bell cracked once again, in 1835, while tolling the death
-of Chief Justice John Marshall. The exterior appearances of City
-Hall and Congress Hall have changed little since the 1790’s, when
-many of the signers served in the Government. The interior of
-Congress Hall has been restored and refurnished as the meetingplace
-of Congress in the 1790’s. Exhibits in City Hall describe the
-activities of the U.S. Supreme Court during the same period of time,
-and portray Philadelphia life during the late 18th century. Carpenters’
-Hall, a block east of Independence Square, is still owned
-and operated by the Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia. The
-hall memorializes the First Continental Congress and possesses
-architectural significance.</p>
-
-<p>The American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743 by
-Benjamin Franklin and the oldest learned society in the United
-States, still maintains its headquarters in Philosophical Hall. Its
-distinguished membership once included 15 of the signers. The
-society’s collections also contain furniture and documents associated
-with them.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>
-In the years 1789–91, the Library Company of Philadelphia (organized
-in 1731), one of the first public libraries in the United
-States, erected Library Hall, across from Independence Square on
-the corner of Library and Fifth Streets. Numbering among the
-members were 11 signers, including company founder Franklin.
-Library Hall, reconstructed by the American Philosophical Society,
-now serves as its library. The Library Company is quartered
-elsewhere in the city.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the preceding buildings, numerous sites associated
-with the signers have also been identified within the park. Many of
-them have been marked. On some, later buildings now stand. In a
-few instances, the National Park Service has excavated and stabilized
-foundations. Outstanding among the sites is that of the Jacob
-Graff, Jr., House, two blocks from Independence Hall on the southwest
-corner of Seventh and Market Streets. Jefferson was occupying
-the second floor of the 3½-story brick house when he wrote the
-Declaration in June 1776. His rented quarters consisted of a bedroom
-and parlor. He likely did much of his writing on a portable writing
-desk of his own design. In 1791 the Graff House was also the
-residence of signer James Wilson. It was demolished in 1883.</p>
-
-<p>Other sites include those of the home (1766–90) and other
-structures associated with Franklin, on Franklin Court in the block
-south of Market Street between Third and Fourth Streets; two
-adjoining homes (1785–90 and 1790–95) of Robert Morris, on the
-southeast corner of Market and Sixth Streets, one of which was the
-unofficial Presidential Mansion (1790–1800), where John Adams
-resided (1797–1800) while President; Clarke Hall, on the southwest
-corner of Chestnut and Third Streets, the residence of
-Samuel Huntington (1779–81) and Thomas McKean (1781);
-Benjamin Rush’s home (1791–93), on the northwest corner of Walnut
-and Third Streets; the James Wilson home (“Fort Wilson”) (1778–90),
-on the southwest corner of the same intersection; and City
-Tavern, near Walnut and Second Streets, a gathering place for
-members of the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention,
-as well as other Government officials.</p>
-
-<p>In connection with the U.S. Bicentennial commemoration, the
-National Park Service plans to reconstruct the Graff House and
-the City Tavern.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_223" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.9375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_105.jpg" width="479" height="589" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Congress Hall, seat of the U.S. Congress from 1790 until 1800.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
-The graves and tombs of seven signers are also located in the
-park. Five (Franklin, Hewes, Hopkinson, Ross, and Rush) are in
-Christ Church Burial Ground, at the southeast corner of Fifth and
-Arch Streets; and two (Wilson and Robert Morris) in the yard of
-Christ Church, on Second Street between Church and Filbert Streets.
-The graves of Hewes and Ross are unmarked. A rose garden,
-dedicated in January 1971 to the memory of the signers of the
-Declaration by the Daughters of the American Revolution, is
-situated in a plot in the area between Walnut and Locust and Fourth
-and Fifth Streets.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_224" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="434" height="379" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Carpenters’ Hall, meetingplace in 1774–75 of the First
-  Continental Congress.</div></div>
-
-<p>Buildings and sites in the park that are mainly of interest in other
-themes of history than that treated in this volume include: the First
-Bank of the United States; the Second Bank of the United States
-(Old Custom House); New Hall (Marine Corps Museum); the
-Pemberton House (Army-Navy Museum); the Philadelphia (Merchants’)
-Exchange; the Bishop White House; the Deshler-Morris
-House, in Germantown; the Todd House; St. George’s Church; St.
-Joseph’s Church; St. Mary’s Church; Mikveh Israel Cemetery; and
-Gloria Dei (Old Swede’s) Church National Historic Site.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_225" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_106b.jpg" width="442" height="569" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The Graff House about 1855. By this time, alterations had rendered it
-  almost completely unrecognizable from its original appearance. Among
-  other changes, it had been joined to an adjacent building and raised
-  a story higher, more than doubling its size.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
-The structures and properties in 22-acre Independence National
-Historical Park, most of which are open to the public, include those
-owned by the city of Philadelphia, but administered by the National
-Park Service. These consist of Independence Hall, Congress Hall,
-City Hall, and Independence Square. In recent years, to enhance the
-setting of the area, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has created
-Independence Mall in the three blocks directly north of Independence
-Hall. Federally owned buildings include the First and
-Second Banks of the United States; the Deshler-Morris House,
-administered by the Germantown Historical Society; Todd House;
-Bishop White House; New Hall; Pemberton House; and the
-Philadelphia Exchange.</p>
-
-<p>Among those privately owned buildings whose owners have cooperative
-agreements with the National Park Service are Carpenters’
-Hall and Christ Church, both National Historic Landmarks. The
-American Philosophical Society owns Philosophical Hall, another
-Landmark and the only privately owned building on the square, but
-also operates Library Hall, on federally owned land.</p>
-
-<p>In 1948, upon recommendation of the Philadelphia National
-Shrines Park Commission, Congress created Independence National
-Historical Park. This act specified the Federal Government’s role
-in the commemoration of existing historic sites and buildings and the
-acquisition and management of others. The entire undertaking is
-guided by an advisory commission of distinguished citizens. Many
-individuals and private and civic organizations have contributed to
-the preservation and beautification of the park.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_38" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Parsons-Taylor_House_Pennsylvania" class="site">Parsons-Taylor House, Pennsylvania  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Northampton County, northeast corner of Fourth and Ferry
-Streets, Easton.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This house, built by William Parsons in 1757, was leased by George
-Taylor during the last year of his life and was the site of his death
-in February 1781. His health failing and his iron business declining,
-he had moved there the previous April from Greenwich Township,
-N.J.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_227" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="482" height="387" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Parsons-Taylor House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The residence, a small, two-story Georgian structure constructed
-of fieldstone, has a steep gable roof and a pent roof extending along
-the front at the second-floor level. A single chimney is located in the
-north sidewall. The front door is surmounted by a rectangular
-transom; the center door, in the south side, is sheltered by a hood.
-A frame attachment to the house, probably existing in 1780, no
-longer stands.</p>
-
-<p>A single large room containing stairs and a fireplace on the north
-wall make up the first floor. The walls are plastered, and the joists
-are supported by heavy, exposed beams. Bedrooms occupy the
-second floor and attic. Restored about 1906, the structure is in fine
-condition and is owned by the George Taylor Chapter, Daughters
-of the American Revolution, which uses it as a meetingplace. It is
-not usually open to visitors.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_39" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Shippen-Wistar_House_Pennsylvania" class="site">Shippen-Wistar House, Pennsylvania  ‎⊗</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Philadelphia County, southwest corner of Fourth and Locust
-Streets, Philadelphia.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Meetingplace of medical and political dignitaries, this townhouse
-was the residence of three eminent doctors and was visited by some
-of the signers and other key governmental officials. It was erected
-about 1750 by Dr. William Shippen, Sr. (1712–1802). A prominent
-medical man of his day, he also served in the Continental Congress
-and contributed to Philadelphia’s cultural life. His son, Dr. William
-Shippen, Jr. (1736–1808), won distinction as a teacher as well as a
-practitioner, helped found the University of Pennsylvania Medical
-School, and in the period 1777–81 directed medical services in the
-Continental Army. He and his father apparently shared the residence
-part of the time during their careers. Like the Shippens,
-Dr. Caspar Wistar (1761–1818), who acquired the house in 1798, was
-distinguished in medical and intellectual circles.</p>
-
-<p>Various signers and other Delegates to the Continental Congress
-paid visits to the home. Richard Henry Lee, brother-in-law of young
-Shippen, stayed there. Francis Lightfoot and Arthur Lee likely often
-made calls. On occasion John Adams and John Witherspoon stopped
-by. Other notables who did so later were George Washington, while
-presiding over the Constitutional Convention (1787); Benjamin
-Rush, before his clash with Shippen, Jr., over medical conditions in
-the Continental Army; Robert R. Livingston, who had served on the
-Declaration drafting committee, in the 1780’s; John Adams, while
-Vice President; and Jefferson, as Secretary of State.</p>
-
-<p>The exterior of the house is in good condition, but the interior has
-been extensively altered. A 3½-story building in the colonial Philadelphia
-architectural style, it is constructed in Flemish bond with
-red bricks and black headers. The windows are shuttered. Notable
-are a high gable on the Fourth Street side and brick parapet walls
-on the roof joining the two end chimneys, one on each side of the
-roof near the peak of the ridge. A garden extends along the Locust
-Street side at the original rear of the house, which is now entered
-from that side rather than from Fourth Street. The building is
-owned and occupied by an insurance company, which has built a
-passageway between it and the adjacent Cadwalader House on the
-south. Access to the two structures is limited to the company’s
-customers.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_40" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Summerseat_Pennsylvania" class="site">Summerseat, Pennsylvania  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Bucks County, on Clymer Street in the block bounded by
-Morris and Hillcrest Avenues, Morrisville.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Summerseat was erected in the 1770’s by Thomas Barclay, a Philadelphia
-merchant. In 1806 George Clymer acquired it and resided in
-it until his death in 1813. It is a two-story, brick and stone Georgian
-structure over an elevated basement. The roof is gabled and slate-covered.
-The wall of the front, or east, facade is brick; the end walls,
-probably also of brick, are covered with cement; the rear wall is of
-fieldstone. Front first- and second-story windows are topped by flat
-arches of gauged brick; rear windows on both levels and all the basement
-windows, by segmental arches, also of gauged brick. Exterior
-solid shutters flank the first- and second-story windows.</p>
-
-<p>A rectangular transom and triangular pediment surmount the front
-center door. Central halls divide the four rooms on each floor into
-pairs. Each of the rooms is equipped with a fireplace. The stairs,
-located at the rear of the hall along the south wall, are lighted by a
-large window over the landing. The walls, floors, and some of the
-woodwork appear to be original. Restored in 1931 and renovated 4
-years later, the house is owned by the Morrisville School District and
-is used for educational purposes. It is open to the public only on a
-restricted basis.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_229" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="486" height="301" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Summerseat.</div></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_41" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Taylor_House_Pennsylvania" class="site">Taylor House, Pennsylvania  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Lehigh County, on Front Street, Catasauqua.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In 1768 George Taylor employed Philadelphia carpenters to build
-this stone residence on the east bank of the Lehigh River, about 15
-miles west of Easton at the site of present Catasauqua. The structure
-was located on a 331-acre tract of land, known as the “Manor of
-Chawton,” which he had acquired the previous year. In 1771 he
-leased out most of the manor as a farm, and 5 years later sold the
-house and land to Philadelphia merchant John Benezet.</p>
-
-<p>The rectangular residence is Georgian in style and consists of two
-stories over an elevated basement. The thick walls are built of stone
-masonry rubble faced with a whitish, slaked-lime stucco. Over the
-windows are flat arches of gauged brick. First-floor windows have
-exterior solid-panel shutters; those on the second floor, louvered.
-A heavy, overhanging cornice surrounds the truncated hip roof.
-The brick chimneys at both ends are symmetrically paired. A two-story
-stone kitchen wing, dating from about 1800, adjoins the house
-at the south end.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_230" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="410" height="260" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Taylor House.</div></div>
-
-<p>At the center of the front, or west, facade, a flight of marble
-pyramidal steps lead up to a double door, over which are a rectangular
-transom and triangular pediment. The central hall, which extends
-to the rear of the house toward the stairway, is divided by an archway,
-with fluted pilasters. Situated to the north of the hall are living
-room and parlor; to the south, dining room and reception, or service,
-room. Of special interest in the dining room, parlor, and living room<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
-are the finely executed door pediments and fully paneled fireplace
-walls. Other walls in these rooms have paneled wainscots and finely
-detailed chair rails. The fireplace paneling and mantel in the dining
-room date from the 19th century and represent the Greek Revival
-style, but the rest of the first-floor paneling and mantels are original,
-as are also the wide pine floorboards and iron hardware.</p>
-
-<p>The second floor consists of four bedrooms and two small dressing
-rooms. The fireplace paneling in the two bedrooms on the front side
-of the house is almost as elaborate as that downstairs. A 1½-story,
-brick summer kitchen, near the rear of the house, dates from about
-1850.</p>
-
-<p>The slightly altered Taylor House, acquired in 1945 by the Lehigh
-County Historical Society and restored in 1966–68, is in excellent
-condition and is open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_42" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Governor_Hopkins_House_Rhode_Island" class="site">Governor Hopkins House, Rhode Island  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Providence County, 15 Hopkins Street, Providence.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Stephen Hopkins bought this framehouse in 1742 and resided in it
-until his death in 1785. It is the only extant structure closely associated
-with him. The oldest section, the lower level of the present
-southwest rear ell, dates from about 1707, when the small dwelling
-comprised two first-floor rooms and an attic. As soon as he acquired
-the building, Hopkins enlarged and remodeled it into its present
-L-shaped, two-story form.</p>
-
-<p>The Georgian building, which has a gabled roof and two chimneys,
-is clapboarded. Cornices decorate the first-story windows. In 1928,
-during a major restoration, a reconstructed door, with triangular
-pediment and pilasters typical of the 18th century, was inserted in
-place of one of the four windows along the present front elevation.
-This door, the only major alteration in the house, became the main
-entrance. It replaced a door on the west side, which opens into the
-original kitchen and is still extant.</p>
-
-<p>The central hall, along the east wall of which is the main stairway,
-divides the front of the residence into two rooms, study and parlor.
-The recessed parlor bookshelves, set in paneling above the hearth, are
-distinctive. The paneling of the two fireplaces in the study and ell is
-simpler. A passageway leads from the parlor to the southwest ell,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
-which consists of the original kitchen and in the southeast corner a
-small bedroom. Five bedrooms, two of which are equipped with fireplaces,
-are located upstairs. The interior of the house, including stairs,
-woodwork, floors, and fireplaces, is largely original. The fine garden
-was designed by a descendant of Stephen Hopkins, the late Alden
-Hopkins, prominent landscape architect.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_232" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_110.jpg" width="485" height="390" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Governor Hopkins House.</div></div>
-
-<p>The Governor Hopkins House, first located on the northeast
-corner of Hopkins and South Main Streets, was moved eastward in
-1804 along the north side of and about halfway up Hopkins
-Street. In 1927, to make way for the construction of a new courthouse,
-the building was again relocated eastward along the same
-street, to its present site, and the next year was restored. Since that
-time, the State of Rhode Island has owned the house and maintained
-the exterior and grounds. The Society of Colonial Dames in the
-State of Rhode Island maintains and administers the interior as a
-historic house museum.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_43" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Heyward-Washington_House_South_Carolina" class="site">Heyward-Washington House, South Carolina  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Charleston County, 87 Church Street, Charleston.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">From 1778 until 1794 this townhouse was the principal residence of
-Thomas Heyward, Jr. During this period, however, he also spent
-considerable time at White Hall, his country estate near that of his
-father about 25 miles northeast of Savannah, and in 1780–81 was
-imprisoned by the British at St. Augustine. In 1770 his father,
-Daniel, a rice planter, had purchased the lot and a two-story house
-standing on it. Within 2 years, he probably demolished it and erected
-the present one. Thomas inherited it in 1777, and moved in the
-following year, upon completion of his tour in the Continental
-Congress. In 1780, when the British took Charleston, they captured
-him and forced his family to flee from the townhouse. For a week in
-1791 the city rented it for use of President Washington, who was
-visiting Charleston while touring the Southern States. Three years
-later, Heyward sold the property and retired to White Hall.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_233" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_110b.jpg" width="356" height="342" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Heyward-Washington House.</div></div>
-
-<p>A slightly altered Georgian structure, the residence is a superb
-example of a Charleston “double house.” The floor plan is the
-typical Georgian center hall type, with four rooms on each floor. Two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
-interior chimneys allow for two fireplaces in pairs set back to back
-on all floors. The first-floor rooms are simple; those on the second,
-elaborate, for entertaining. The downstairs hall, divided by an arch
-at midpoint, extends to a rear door. A Palladian window lights the
-stairway, located at the rear of the hall against the north wall.</p>
-
-<p>The large second-floor drawing room, the most elaborate room in
-the house, features paneled walls, pedimented doors, interior paneled
-shutters, an elaborate ceiling cornice, and a fireplace with a magnificent
-carved mantel. In addition to the drawing room, the second
-floor contains a smaller parlor and two bedrooms, each of which has
-a paneled fireplace wall. Four more rooms are located on both the
-first and third floors. Except for reconstruction in 1929 of one front
-room and the front of the hall on the first floor, the structure is
-largely original.</p>
-
-<p>The brick house is square and rises three stories. The hipped
-roof is pierced by a single front dormer and ornamented by a narrow,
-denticulated cornice. Brick flat arches head the windows. The upper
-windows have louvered shutters; those on the first floor, paneled
-shutters. The center entrance, a reconstruction, consists of a fan-lighted
-door surmounted by a pediment and flanked by Roman Doric
-columns. A rear courtyard contains a brick kitchen-laundry with
-slave quarters above, a carriage house, wood and tool sheds, a
-necessary, and garden.</p>
-
-<p>Subsequent to Heyward’s ownership, the house passed through
-several hands until rescued from the threat of demolition in 1929
-by the Charleston Museum. After restoration and furnishing with
-period pieces, it was opened to the public. A collection of china
-once owned by Heyward is on display, as well as portraits of the
-Heyward family.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_44" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Hopsewee-on-the-Santee_South_Carolina" class="site">Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, South Carolina  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Georgetown County, on an unimproved road just west of
-U.S. 17, about 13 miles southwest of Georgetown.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Erected by his father during the 1740’s, this house on the north
-bank of the North Santee River was the birthplace in 1749 and the
-boyhood home of Thomas Lynch, Jr. He lived in it until his father
-sold it in 1763, the year before young Lynch sailed to Europe to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
-continue his education. It is the only surviving residence closely
-associated with him.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_235" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_111.jpg" width="458" height="313" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Hopsewee-on-the-Santee.</div></div>
-
-<p>The 2½-story framehouse rests on a brick foundation, which is
-covered with scored tabby. Two front dormers and two interior
-chimneys protrude from the hip roof. A broad, two-story porch, or
-piazza, with square columns extends across the front of the building.
-The frame, comprised of black cypress, is of mortise-and-tenon
-construction, and the walls are clapboarded. Exterior paneled shutters
-flank the first- and second-story windows. Except for the present
-metal roof and the screening of the front porch, the outside of the
-structure has not been appreciably altered.</p>
-
-<p>The central hall arrangement divides four rooms into pairs on the
-first two floors. All the rooms are equipped with fireplaces. Throughout,
-the mantels, wainscoting, cornice mold, and heart pine floors are
-original and excellently crafted. The full cellar is constructed of brick
-and divided into rooms. Two one-story, cypress, shingled outbuildings,
-located to the northeast and northwest of the main house,
-probably once served as kitchens. About 1948, by which time the
-house had fallen into decay and the grounds were overgrown, the
-present owner acquired the property, restored the garden, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
-repaired the residence. In fine condition, it is privately occupied, but
-is shown to the public part of the week.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_45" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Middleton_Place_South_Carolina" class="site">Middleton Place, South Carolina  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Dorchester County, on an unimproved road just east of S.C.
-61, about 13 miles northwest of Charleston.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This mansion, of which only the south wing stands today, was the
-birthplace and lifelong home of Arthur Middleton (1742–87). About
-1738 his grandfather had built a 3½-story brick house at the site.
-Some 3 years later, Arthur’s father began laying out the surrounding
-gardens that have since won international fame as Middleton Place
-Gardens. More than 100 slaves labored for a decade to complete the
-45-acre gardens and 16-acre lawn. In 1755 the mansion was enlarged
-by the addition of two two-story brick flankers, or detached wings,
-on the north and south sides of the original structure, for use respectively
-as a library-conservatory and guest quarters.</p>
-
-<p>During the War for Independence, British troops pillaged the
-residence and despoiled the plantation. In 1865, as Union soldiers
-approached during the Civil War, the slaves set the mansion to the
-torch, which left only the walls standing. In 1868 William Middleton
-erected a roof over the south wing, the least damaged section
-of the three, and reoccupied it. In 1886 an earthquake felled the
-ruined walls of the north wing and central section.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_236" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.25em;">
-  <img src="images/i_112.jpg" width="484" height="274" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">The south wing (1755) of Middleton Place, the only 18th-century
-  section of the mansion that has survived.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>
-In the 1930’s the two-story, brick south wing was renovated and
-enlarged. The major additions, both two-story brick and executed
-in an 18th-century manner, were a service wing along the main axis
-of the wing at the south end; and, on the west side, a right-angled
-entrance wing, containing a vestibule and stairway, and constructed
-with a stepped and curvilinear gable roof to match those on the ends
-of the original south wing. A third addition in the 1930’s was a one-story
-brick porch on the east, or river, elevation. All the brickwork
-is Flemish bond, the shutters are paneled, and a louvered circular
-window decorates the gable end of the new entrance wing. The
-interior chimneys are three in number. A parlor, dining room, and
-living room are located on the first floor of the original south wing
-and three bedrooms on the second. The interior finish dates from
-the mid-19th century, but many of the furnishings are original
-18th-century Middleton pieces.</p>
-
-<p>To the east and north of the present house and ruins of the central
-block and north wing are the famous gardens, which have been enlarged
-and perfected over the years. They extend from the Ashley
-River and the paired butterfly lakes at their foot west toward
-the residence and beyond in sweeping terraces. To the northwest
-of the house, in another 18th-century formal garden, is the family
-graveyard, containing the mausoleum of Arthur Middleton.</p>
-
-<p>The estate comprises 7,000 acres and is still owned by Middleton
-descendants. They occupy the south wing, which is not open to the
-public, unlike the gardens. According to present plans, about 110
-acres, embracing the gardens, burial plot, plantation house, and reconstructed
-outbuildings, will be donated to a nonprofit organization
-that will preserve them and keep them open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_46" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Rutledge_House_South_Carolina" class="site">Rutledge House, South Carolina  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Charleston County, 117 Broad Street, Charleston.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">The residence of Edward Rutledge during his later years, this building
-is the only existing one that can be identified with him. Unfortunately
-the construction date and the exact years of his residence
-cannot be determined, though he was definitely the occupant in 1787.</p>
-
-<p>The large, rectilinear, clapboarded, frame structure is two stories
-high over a basement. The roof is hipped. A bilevel porch, supported<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>
-by columns, extends across the west side and around the south, or
-rear, side of the house. A central modillioned pediment with circular
-window fronts the main roof and is “supported” by consoles. Exterior
-louvered shutters flank the corniced windows. The center doorway,
-once crowned by a cornice, now has a triangular pediment. A small,
-two-story clapboard wing, added to the front of the east end along
-the main axis in the late 19th century, is the only definite major
-exterior alteration. Behind it, runs a two-story porch.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_238" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="460" height="318" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Rutledge House.</div></div>
-
-<p>A center hall extends about halfway through the house. On one
-side are two rooms with fireplaces; on the other, a front stair hall
-containing a curved stairway. Behind this is a large room, accessible
-only from the entrance hall. The kitchen, possibly another later
-addition, is located in a wing that projects from the rear of the house
-at the southeast corner. The interior woodwork appears to date from
-the 1880’s, and partition walls now subdivide the large original
-rooms into smaller ones.</p>
-
-<p>The Rutledge House, known in modern times as the Carter-May
-House, is now a Roman Catholic home for elderly women. Portions
-of the first floor may be visited upon request. A large garden is
-located at the rear of the building.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_47" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Berkeley_Virginia" class="site">Berkeley, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Charles City County, on the south side of Va. 5, about 8 miles
-west of Charles City.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In historical interest this fine mansion has few rivals among the
-James River plantations. It was the birthplace and lifelong home of
-Benjamin Harrison V (1726–91), signer of the Declaration and
-three-term Governor of Virginia, as well as the birthplace and boyhood
-residence of his son, William Henry (1773–1841), ninth President
-of the United States and grandfather of Benjamin (1833–1901),
-the 23rd President. William Henry probably wrote his 1841 inaugural
-address at Berkeley in the room in which he had been born.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_239" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_113b.jpg" width="486" height="351" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Berkeley.</div></div>
-
-<p>Benjamin Harrison IV, the signer’s father, built the structure in
-1726. In 1781 British troops under Benedict Arnold plundered the
-plantation, but did not seriously harm the mansion. In the 1790’s
-one of the Harrisons, probably Benjamin VI, made some architectural
-alterations and redecorated the interior in the Adam style. By the
-time of the Civil War, the plantation was known as Harrison’s
-Landing. In 1862 it served as a supply base and camp for the Union
-Army of the Potomac following its retreat from the Battle of Malvern
-Hill, Va., which ended the Peninsular Campaign. Gen. George B.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
-McClellan utilized the mansion as his headquarters. While quartered
-nearby, Gen. Daniel Butterfield composed the famous bugle call
-“Taps.”</p>
-
-<p>The early Georgian mansion has been altered somewhat over the
-years, but retains much of the original structure and character. It is
-2½ stories high and has a dormered, gable roof with two tall interior
-ridge chimneys, and distinctive pedimented gable ends, including
-modillioned cornice. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond. Gauged
-brick is employed in the flat window arches, the belt course, and
-door pediments. The broad-piered central doors on the north and
-south elevations, with pediments in gauged brick, are reconstructions.
-Two detached, two-story, brick dependencies, set slightly south of
-the house on the river side, were built in the 1840’s to replace similar
-structures that had been erected sometime before 1800.</p>
-
-<p>The center hall plan has been slightly modified. The hall bisects
-the four rooms on the first floor into pairs. A small stairs in the
-northwest corner was probably inserted about 1800. Most of the
-interior finish clearly reflects the Adam alterations of the 1790’s.</p>
-
-<p>By 1915 the mansion was in poor condition. Subsequent owners
-have reconstructed and restored it to its 18th-century appearance.
-This included removal of a 19th-century porch on all four sides,
-replacement of the window sash and exterior door framings, and reconstruction
-of the center stairs. The upper floors are used as a
-private residence, but the basement and first floor may be visited.
-The unmarked grave of signer Benjamin Harrison is located in the
-family cemetery, a quarter of a mile southeast of the plantation
-house.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_48" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Elsing_Green_Virginia" class="site">Elsing Green, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: King William County, on a private road about 1 mile
-southwest of Va. 632, some 10 miles southwest of King William Court
-House.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In 1758, while Carter Braxton was visiting in England, his brother
-George probably built for him this impressive plantation home on a
-high bluff overlooking the Pamunkey River. Upon his return in
-1760, Carter took up residence in it and lived there until 1767. He
-then moved to a new residence, Chericoke, a few miles to the
-northwest.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_241" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.0625em;">
-  <img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="481" height="322" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Elsing Green.</div></div>
-
-<p>The exterior is original, but about 1800 a fire destroyed the interior.
-The present 18th-century style woodwork is a 20th-century
-reconstruction. The Georgian structure of brick, laid in Flemish
-bond, is U-shaped. Two wings project to the north, or rear, of the
-central section. The large building is two stories in height and has
-a hip roof and four tall chimneys. Side doors are centered in each
-wing, and there are also central doors in the front and rear
-facades of the main house. The door on the front, or river, facade,
-with gauged brick triangular pediment, is a reconstruction.</p>
-
-<p>The flat window arches are constructed of splayed brick. The
-second-floor level is marked by a strong course of gauged brick, unmolded
-and four courses high. Two old, detached, brick dependencies,
-1½ stories high, flank the mansion. The eastern one may date from
-1719; the western contains a restored kitchen. A reconstructed
-smokehouse and dairy rest on their original, symmetrically located,
-foundations.</p>
-
-<p>An off-center hall extends northward halfway through the main
-arm of the U from the south, or front, entrance and intersects with
-an east-west lateral hall running the length of the main mansion. The
-ends of this long cross hall each contain a stairway set against the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
-south wall. The southeast comer of the residence is occupied by a
-large parlor; the southwest corner, by a smaller living room; and each
-of the north wings, by a single large room. Four bedrooms are
-upstairs, which has the same general plan as the ground floor.</p>
-
-<p>The carefully restored house and well maintained estate, which now
-includes about 3,000 acres, are in excellent condition but are privately
-occupied and not open to visitors.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_49" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Menokin_Virginia" class="site">Menokin, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Richmond County, on an unimproved road about 1 mile west
-of County Route 690, some 4 miles northwest of Warsaw.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Menokin, completed in 1769 by Col. John Tayloe of nearby Mount
-Airy as a wedding gift for his daughter and her husband,
-Francis Lightfoot Lee, was the home where they spent most of their
-lives and the one Lee loved best. He died there in 1797.</p>
-
-<p>This late Georgian house, similar in many respects to Mount Airy
-though much smaller, was likely constructed by the same architect-builder,
-probably John Ariss. The exterior possesses the qualities
-of a large mansion, though the actual dimensions are rather modest.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_242" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.75em;">
-  <img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="476" height="330" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Ruins of Menokin.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
-The residence, constructed of local brown sandstone, is two stories
-high with hip-on-hip roof and two large interior chimneys. Its exterior
-walls are covered with plaster. The stone trim—quoins, belt
-courses, and window and door trim—is elaborate. Two stone belt
-courses, one at the second-floor line and the other at the sill level of
-the upper windows, divide the main, or north, facade horizontally.
-The upper course is eliminated on the other three facades. No longer
-standing are two two-story, gable-roofed, detached, symmetrical
-service buildings, a kitchen to the east and office to the west, which
-once stood in the forecourt at right angles to the main house. They
-undoubtedly heightened the impression of the mansion’s large size.</p>
-
-<p>A center hall extends halfway through the first floor, which contains
-dining room, living room, kitchen, and bedroom. Four bedrooms,
-divided into pairs by a central hall, are located on the second
-floor.</p>
-
-<p>Unoccupied for many years, Menokin is in ruinous condition. The
-roof and walls on the southeast side have collapsed. The yard and
-grounds, part of a 590-acre farm, are overgrown with vegetation and
-small trees. The owner has removed and stored the original interior
-paneling. Extensive reconstruction would be required to restore the
-structure to its original condition. It is not open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_50" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Monticello_Virginia" class="site">Monticello, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Albemarle County, just off Va. 53, about 2 miles southeast of
-Charlottesville.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">“Monticello,” Italian for “Little Mountain,” is an enduring tribute to
-the genius and versatility of Thomas Jefferson, who personally designed
-and supervised erection of the splendid mansion. He resided
-in it for many years of his long life, his spirit lives on in its architectural
-perfection and the ingenious devices with which he equipped
-it, and he is buried nearby. Sitting amid pleasant gardens and lawns
-on a hilltop, the residence overlooks Charlottesville; the University of
-Virginia, which Jefferson founded and some of whose buildings he
-designed; and the green rolling hills of the surrounding countryside.
-Especially after his retirement from public life in 1809 until his
-death, at the age of 83 on July 4, 1826, the prominent men of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
-age made pilgrimages to Monticello. To this day it is visited by the
-humble, as well as the great—all who admire Jefferson’s character
-and accomplishments.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_244" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.875em;">
-  <img src="images/i_116.jpg" width="478" height="301" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Monticello.</div></div>
-
-<p>In 1757 Jefferson’s father died and passed on the property, 2,750
-acres, to him. Eleven years later, he began leveling the hilltop. To
-make all parts of it accessible, he built paths, or roundabouts, as he
-called them, on its slopes at four different levels; remains of these
-are visible today. In 1770 fire destroyed Jefferson’s modest residence,
-his birthplace Shadwell, and he moved to Monticello, where he had
-already begun building a mansion. The first part of it completed
-was the small southwest pavilion, which Jefferson occupied as a
-bachelor’s quarters until January 1772, when he brought his bride,
-Martha Wayles Skelton, to share it with him. It is still known as
-“Honeymoon Cottage.”</p>
-
-<p>The first Monticello, vastly different from the present one, was
-probably completed in 1775. Constructed of brick with cut-stone
-trim, it consisted of a central two-story unit, with pedimented gable
-roof running from front to rear and one-story gabled wings, set
-perpendicularly to the central block. The chief architectural accent
-was the main two-story portico, Doric below and Ionic above. Small
-polygonal bays projected from the ends of the wings. Jefferson made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span>
-numerous alterations and major changes after the War for Independence.
-The present two-wing structure, built between 1793 and
-1809, incorporates the rooms of the original house at its rear. It also
-reflects a shift in architectural preference in the United States from
-Georgian to Roman Revival—elements of both of which are represented.
-Jefferson was almost entirely responsible for starting the
-Roman Revival.</p>
-
-<p>The mansion consists of 2½ stories over a basement and contains
-35 rooms. The dominating feature is the central dome, over an
-octagonal room. The house is furnished largely with Jefferson
-belongings, including a replica of the small portable desk on which
-he probably wrote the Declaration of Independence. Some of the
-clever devices in the residence are a 7-day calendar-clock and a
-dumbwaiter. One room contains one of the first parquet floors in the
-United States. The upper levels, accessible only by narrow staircases,
-are not shown to the public.</p>
-
-<p>Before Jefferson built Monticello, every plantation had a group of
-small outbuildings such as the laundry, smokehouse, dairy, stable,
-weaving house, schoolhouse, and kitchen. Jefferson sought to render
-these as inconspicuous as possible and increase the efficiency of the
-facilities they provided by constructing two series of rooms for these
-purposes beneath the outer sides of two long L-shaped terraces
-extending from the house. Below the south terrace, beyond the angle
-of the ell, are the kitchen, the cook’s room, servants’ rooms, room
-for smoking meat, and the dairy. At the end of this terrace, stands
-“Honeymoon Cottage.” Under the far side of the north terrace are
-the stables, carriage house, icehouse, and laundry. Jefferson used the
-small building terminating this terrace, adjacent to which is the
-paddock, as an office. An underground passageway—containing
-storage rooms for wine, beer, cider, and rum—connects the basement
-of the main house with the series of service rooms along the outer
-sides of the ells. Jefferson is buried in the family graveyard, which
-is adjacent to the road leading from the house.</p>
-
-<p>Upon Jefferson’s death in 1826, his daughter Martha inherited
-Monticello, but was soon forced to sell it, to the first of a series of
-private owners. In 1923 the newly organized Thomas Jefferson
-Memorial Foundation purchased the estate, the following year
-opened it to the public, and has retained ownership to the present
-day.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p>
-
-<div id="survey_51" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Mount_Airy_Virginia" class="site">Mount Airy, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Richmond County, on the north side of U.S. 360, about 1½
-miles west of Warsaw.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Francis Lightfoot Lee resided in this beautiful mansion for a short
-time in 1769, while its owner, his new father-in-law, Col. John Tayloe,
-completed building Menokin nearby as a residence for him and his
-bride.</p>
-
-<p>Mount Airy, which sits on a ridge overlooking the Rappahannock
-Valley, is one of the finest late Georgian mansions to be erected in
-America. Built in the years 1758–62, it is attributed to noted Virginia
-architect John Ariss, and is considered to be his best work. It was
-the first residence in the English Colonies to carry out completely
-a full five-part Palladian villa plan: a main house connected to two
-dependencies by quadrant passageways that partially enclose a
-forecourt. The massive main section, standing over an elevated
-basement, and the two dependencies are two stories high and of
-dark brown sandstone construction trimmed in light-colored limestone.
-The one-story passageways curve from the main house to the
-dependencies and enclose a semicircular forecourt on the north, or
-entrance, facade.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_246" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="450" height="280" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Mount Airy.</div></div>
-
-<p>Prominent characteristics of the main building are front and rear
-central projecting pavilions of rusticated limestone, both having
-loggias, three windows in the second story, and crowning triangular
-pediments; limestone belt course; rusticated angle quoins; and two
-pairs of interior chimneys near the ridge of the hip roof, which was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>
-rebuilt after a fire in 1844 and may have replaced a hip-on-hip roof.
-The four square piers gracing the front loggia are faced with Roman
-Doric pilasters. The rear loggia has three round arches topped with
-heavy, marked, voussoired keystones.</p>
-
-<p>The two dependencies have hip roofs and central chimneys, and
-their corner quoins match those of the main house. The connecting
-passageways, also of stone, are covered with shed roofs concealed
-from the front. At the point where they connect with the main house,
-which rests on an elevated basement, they are stepped up to allow
-entrance to the first floor.</p>
-
-<p>Fire destroyed the probably fine wooden interiors in 1844, but
-the original floor plan was retained in the reconstruction. A magnificent
-central hall extends through the house between the front and
-rear loggias. Full-height windows flank both central entrance doors.
-The elliptical stairway in the front northwest corner room, in which
-there is also a pantry, dates from the 19th century, but the original
-stairs may have been in the present cross hall between the two east
-drawing rooms, lighted by the central arch of a Palladian window in
-the east end wall. In the southwest corner is a large dining room.</p>
-
-<p>Mount Airy, in good condition, is still used as a residence by Tayloe
-descendants and is not open to the public. Francis Lightfoot Lee is
-buried with his wife in the Tayloe family cemetery, located about
-300 yards northwest of the mansion.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_52" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Nelson_House_Colonial_National_Historical_Park_Virginia" class="site">Nelson House (Colonial National Historical Park), Virginia  ‎☑</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: York County, northwest corner of Main and Pearl Streets,
-Yorktown; address: Colonial National Historical Park, P.O. Box 210,
-Yorktown, Va. 23490.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Thomas Nelson, Jr., may have been born in this house in 1738,
-resided fulltime in it from 1767 until 1781, and probably stayed in it
-on occasion during the following 8 years prior to his death. During
-the latter period, he was living in partial retirement at his Hanover
-County estate, Offley Hoo.</p>
-
-<p>The probable builder, between 1732 and 1741, was Thomas
-(“Scotch Tom”) Nelson, Sr., the signer’s grandfather. Thomas Jr.’s
-father, William, lived in the residence until about 1738, the year
-of his marriage, when he moved to his own house across the street.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
-Thomas, Jr., could have been born at either place. After “Scotch Tom”
-died, in 1745, his widow continued in residence. Upon her death in
-1766, Thomas, Jr., who since his marriage 4 years earlier had apparently
-lived with his father, acquired her home and moved in the
-next year.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_248" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_118.jpg" width="453" height="330" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Nelson House.</div></div>
-
-<p>According to family tradition, the Nelson House served as the
-second headquarters of Gen. Charles Cornwallis during the siege of
-Yorktown (September-October 1781), and with Nelson’s permission
-American artillery shelled and hit the house. The historical record
-indicates that both British and French military personnel likely used
-it, but their identities cannot be definitely ascertained. And the
-southeast face of the residence does show evidence of damage from
-cannon fire. The Marquis de Lafayette, who revisited the United
-States in 1824–25, was quartered there when in the former year he
-attended the celebration of the anniversary of the Battle of Yorktown,
-in which he had played a key role.</p>
-
-<p>The Nelson House is an impressive specimen of early Georgian
-architecture, though the four south and five north dormers added in
-the 1920’s detract from the original design. The broad roof is
-gabled and pedimented at the ends, with two massive interior chimneys<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
-and strongly dentiled cornice. The Flemish bond brickwork
-includes gauged belt course, water table, and flat window arches
-with segmental soffits. Corner quoins, as well as the window sills and
-lintels and their tall keystones, are of stone. The quoins and two
-levels of tall windows give the house a strong vertical effect. The
-north center door has simple gauged and molded brick piers that are
-topped by a brick pediment. Destroying the symmetry of the south
-facade is the off-center door, enclosed in a vestibule. A more elaborate
-door on the west side is modern, replacing an original untrimmed
-service opening.</p>
-
-<p>On one side of the off-center hall are two small rooms, with a lobby
-and service stairs between them; on the opposite side of the hall, are
-two larger rooms, divided by a tiny one, probably a pantry. The
-general plan is repeated upstairs, where there are four bedrooms.
-Most of the original interior woodwork, highlighted by the first-floor
-wall-to-ceiling paneling, is still intact. From a decorative standpoint,
-the most striking chamber is the northeast drawing room. All the
-fireplaces in the residence are apparently reconstructions, as are also
-the balusters and handrails of the stairs.</p>
-
-<p>The house remained in possession of the Nelson family until 1914.
-In 1920–21 its owners rehabilitated and restored it and renamed it
-York Hall. In 1968 the National Park Service acquired it. When this
-volume went to press, an extensive research and restoration program
-was being carried out preparatory to opening the building to the
-public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_53" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Poplar_Forest_Virginia" class="site">Poplar Forest, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Bedford County, on the east side of County Route 661, about
-6½ miles west of Lynchburg.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">In 1806–19 Thomas Jefferson designed and built this architecturally
-significant octagonal house on his 4,000-acre Bedford County plantation
-as a summer home and retreat. He occupied it intermittently
-until his death in 1826.</p>
-
-<p>The plantation came into the possession of Jefferson through
-Martha Wayles Skelton, whom he married in 1772. For many years,
-whenever he visited it to superintend its management, he resided in
-a two-room cottage, the only dwelling. In June 1781, just after abdicating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>
-the governorship and narrowly escaping capture with a group
-of legislators during a British raid on Charlottesville, he temporarily
-moved his family to the cottage. Before the month was out, a horse
-threw and injured him. During his recuperation, he wrote <cite>Notes on
-the State of Virginia</cite>, a study of social and political life in 18th-century
-Virginia. In 1806–19 he erected Poplar Forest, whose completion
-coincided with his retirement from public office. When visitors
-became too numerous at Monticello or the fancy struck, he took up
-residence at his retreat for a month or two, usually twice a year. As
-the years went on, he refined the structure.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_250" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;">
-  <img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="480" height="249" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Poplar Forest.</div></div>
-
-<p>In 1845 a fire destroyed the roof and interior, leaving only the four
-chimneys, the brick walls, and possibly the portico columns. That
-same year, the present unadorned roof, octagonal and hipped like
-its predecessor, and dormers were added. Prior to the fire, there was
-a skylight and balustraded deck at the edge of the roof, with a Tuscan
-cornice below that extended around the building. The one-story brick
-building is set over a high basement. Because of the sloping ground
-on the rear side, the structure is two stories high there. One- and
-two-story tetrastyle Tuscan porticoes are attached to the front and
-rear of the house respectively. The front one is pedimented; the
-unpedimented rear one is built over a one-story arcade.</p>
-
-<p>The original interior plan is unchanged. Four elongated octagonal
-rooms are grouped symmetrically around the present dining room,
-a square central room that was once lighted from above by the central
-skylight, not replaced in 1845. No aboveground traces remain of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
-a flat-roofed office wing, referred to by Jefferson, but a kitchen and
-smokehouse still stand.</p>
-
-<p>Poplar Forest, in good condition, is a private residence and is not
-open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_54" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Stratford_Hall_Virginia" class="site">Stratford Hall, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Westmoreland County, just north of Va. 214, about 1 mile
-northeast of Lerty.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This architecturally outstanding mansion along the Potomac River
-was the ancestral home of the Lee family. It was the birthplace and
-boyhood home of two signers of the Declaration of Independence,
-Richard Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee, as well as their three distinguished
-brothers, Arthur, William, and Thomas Ludwell. A later
-resident was Col. Henry “Lighthorse Harry,” hero of the War for
-Independence. His son, Robert E., Confederate leader during the
-Civil War, was born in the house in 1807.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_251" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_119b.jpg" width="485" height="282" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Stratford Hall.</div></div>
-
-<p>Thomas Lee—planter, merchant, shipowner, and politician—built
-the mansion in the years 1725–30 on his 16,000-acre plantation. Upon
-his death in 1750, the residence passed to his eldest son, Philip
-Ludwell. Meantime, Richard Henry had been born there in 1732 and
-Francis Lightfoot 2 years later. They maintained residence until
-1757 and 1758 respectively, when they moved to their own estates.
-In 1782 Philip Ludwell’s oldest daughter, Matilda, wife of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
-“Lighthorse Harry,” her cousin, inherited the mansion. In 1790 she
-died, and 3 years later her husband remarried. One of his sons by
-that union was Robert E. Lee, who lived in the house only 3 or 4
-years, at the end of which his parents moved to Alexandria.</p>
-
-<p>Stratford Hall is a magnificent and rare example of an H-shaped
-residence and illustrates the transition from the 17th-century William
-and Mary style of architecture to early Georgian. The mansion is
-one story high over an elevated basement and has a hip roof.
-Variations in color and size between the Flemish bond brickwork in
-the basement and upper story soften the austerity of the bold mass
-of the house. In the central connecting arm, the flights of stone steps
-leading up to the north and south entrances, which diminish in width
-as they ascend to the main floor level and are flanked by ponderous
-balustrades, are conjectural reconstructions, erected in 1929. Twin
-sets of four huge chimney stacks are centered over the east and west
-wings. The stacks are connected by arches and encompass balustraded
-roof decks, from which the Lees could view navigation on the
-Potomac River.</p>
-
-<p>“Lighthorse Harry” Lee made many changes. By 1800 he had
-altered or replaced the exterior stairs and changed most of the
-interior trim, except that in the central block’s great hall, to the
-Adam style. The floor plan is unusual in colonial dwellings. The two
-wings each have four rooms, divided laterally by a central hallway
-on the main floor. The connecting central block consists of the fully
-paneled great hall, or salon—one of the most formal and monumental
-rooms of the early Georgian period in the English Colonies. The
-basement contains service rooms and some bedrooms; the main floor,
-living quarters and bedrooms. In the east wing’s dining room is a
-service alcove, common in Virginia mansions. The 18th-century
-stairway was removed during the 1929 restoration. The only access
-between floors is now a small stairway in the east wing.</p>
-
-<p>The mansion is built in the center of a square parterre, a service
-building being located at each corner of the square. Flanking the
-entrance forecourt are the kitchen and library, 1½-story brick
-structures with jerkin-head roofs. At the rear corners are a school
-and office, with hip roofs. Outside the square are balanced brick
-buildings: a stable on one side and smokehouse on the other. Seven
-of the 12 original structures that were still standing in 1929 have
-been restored. They provide an excellent picture of plantation life<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
-in the 18th century. Farther removed from the house, near the wharf
-on the river, is the reconstructed mill.</p>
-
-<p>In 1929 the Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., acquired
-the mansion and 1,100 acres. Besides reconstructing the exterior
-stairs, the foundation restored the library and library closet in the
-west wing, as well as the dining room and service alcove in the east
-wing, to their 18th-century appearance. The east and west corridors,
-parlor in the west wing, Robert E. Lee’s birthplace room, and an
-adjoining bedroom in the east wing were left as they appeared about
-1800. The formal garden, just east of the mansion, has also been
-restored. The foundation today operates Stratford Hall as a historic
-house museum.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_55" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Tuckahoe_Virginia" class="site">Tuckahoe, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: Goochland County, on the south side of Va. 650, about 13
-miles west of Richmond.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">Tuckahoe, situated along the James River, was the boyhood home of
-Thomas Jefferson for 7 years and the place where he obtained his
-elementary education. The mansion, outbuildings, and surrounding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>
-gardens and lands constitute an outstanding example of a Southern
-colonial plantation.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_254" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_120.jpg" width="486" height="318" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Tuckahoe.</div></div>
-
-<p>The land on which Tuckahoe stands was patented in 1695 by
-William Randolph. His son Thomas inherited the plantation and
-built the north wing of the mansion about 1712. Sometime between
-1730 and 1745, William Randolph II enlarged the residence to its
-present proportions. When Randolph died in 1745, Peter Jefferson
-moved his family, including 2-year-old Thomas, from Shadwell to
-Tuckahoe to fulfill a promise Peter had made to Randolph, his wife’s
-cousin, to act as guardian of his son, Thomas Mann Randolph. In
-1752 the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell.</p>
-
-<p>Like Stratford Hall, the house is an outstanding and rare example
-of an H-shaped structure of early Georgian style in the Colonies. It
-is a large, two-story frame structure lined with brick nogging and
-exterior weatherboarded walls, except for the two solid brick ends
-of the south wing. Two long gabled wings are connected by a broad
-central block. Tall slender chimneys accentuate the narrow gable ends
-and the marked verticality of the structure, which is further enhanced
-by the high brick foundations. The chimneys in the frame ends of the
-north wing project, but those in the south brick ends are flush with
-the walls. The second-floor level is marked by a wooden belt course
-and the roofline by a modillioned cornice.</p>
-
-<p>The central doorways on the north and south sides have low
-porches with square posts supporting gable roofs. The south porch is
-approached by a long flight of stone steps, splayed but lacking a
-balustrade; the north porch is near ground level. The doors in the
-center block, on the east and west elevations, are sheltered by
-pedimented hoods. All four exterior doors, one in each wing and two
-in the central block, are original, as are also the weatherboarding and
-sash.</p>
-
-<p>On the first floor of each of the wings are two rooms, divided by
-a center cross hall. The north wing contains two parlors; the south,
-a dining room and “children’s” room. The central connecting block
-contains one large room, or salon. The second floor repeats the plan
-of the first floor except that, of the original five bedrooms, the one
-in the central block has been modernized and subdivided into several
-rooms.</p>
-
-<p>The interior decoration and trim, of the finest workmanship, is
-remarkably unaltered and in fine condition. All the walls are covered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span>
-with simple paneling. The original wide floorboards remain throughout
-the structure. The hall stairways, especially the north one, with
-elaborately turned and spiraled balusters, are outstanding examples
-of early Georgian style. Mantels throughout the house date from the
-19th century, but the marble fireplace facing in the west bedroom
-of the north wing is original.</p>
-
-<p>East of the mansion is the small, one-room, brick, one-story
-schoolhouse attended by Jefferson, as well as fine boxwood gardens.
-A short distance to the west of the main house is a plantation street,
-containing a complex of eight early 18th-century buildings, all in
-excellent condition and little altered. They include kitchen, tobacco
-house, three slave quarters, smokehouse, and barn.</p>
-
-<p>Since Tuckahoe passed out of the possession of the Randolph
-family in 1830, a succession of individuals have owned it. It is still a
-private residence, not open to the public.</p>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="survey_56" class="chapter">
-<h2 id="Wythe_House_Virginia" class="site">Wythe House, Virginia  ∆</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="site">
-
-<p class="siteloc"><i>Location: On the west side of the Palace Green, between Duke of
-Gloucester and Prince George Streets, Williamsburg.</i></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p class="sitedetail">This house in Colonial Williamsburg is a superb example of a
-Georgian brick house. It was the residence of George Wythe from
-around 1755 until 1791, a period that spanned some of his most
-active years in politics and jurisprudence. His father-in-law, the
-noted Virginia architect Richard Taliaferro, designed and built it for
-him and his second wife about 1755. When Taliaferro died two
-decades later, Wythe inherited it and resided in it until 1791, when
-he moved to Richmond. A decade earlier, the house had served
-as Gen. George Washington’s headquarters prior to the siege of
-Yorktown.</p>
-
-<p>The outstanding aspects of the little-altered early Georgian
-structure are its good lines and fine brickwork, in Flemish bond. It
-is two stories high over a basement and has a hip roof and two
-interior chimneys. Smaller windows on the upper level create an
-illusion that the modestly sized house is larger than it actually is.
-The simple facade is enriched mainly by the broad muntins and wide
-frames of the windows and a fine paneled double door with rectangular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
-transom. The flat window arches are constructed of gauged
-brick. Windows, doors, and house corners have rubbed dressings,
-and a modillioned cornice decorates the eaveline.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_256" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.3125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="453" height="317" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Wythe House.</div></div>
-
-<p>Each floor consists of four rooms bisected into pairs by a central
-hall. Chimneys between each of the pairs afford fireplaces for all
-eight rooms. The handsome but unpretentious stairway contains the
-only elaborate woodwork. Plaster dadoes, however, are found in
-every room, with chair rails on plasterboard, and single molded
-cornices. On the first floor are study, parlor, students’ room, and
-dining room; on the second, four bedrooms. The existing mantels
-are replacements. Furnishings are of the late 18th century or earlier
-and represent American craftmanship. Extending behind the house is
-the formal garden; along the north, the kitchen, smokehouse,
-laundry, lumberhouse, and stable.</p>
-
-<p>In 1926, when Bruton Parish acquired the residence, it was in
-poor condition. By 1931 the parish had repaired and restored it, and
-utilized it as a parish house for 6 years. Colonial Williamsburg then
-acquired it, and in 1939–40 accomplished additional restoration.
-Today the building is one of the main attractions at Colonial
-Williamsburg and is part of Williamsburg Historic District, a
-National Historic Landmark.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Appendix" class="left italic larger">Appendix<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">The Declaration and Its History</span></h2>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></p>
-
-<p id="dectext" class="newpage p4 in0 larger"><i>Text of the Declaration</i></p>
-
-<p class="p2 center larger">IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776.</p>
-
-<p class="p1 in0">The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States
-of America,</p>
-
-<div class="smaller">
-<p class="p1">When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one
-people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with
-another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate
-and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God
-entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that
-they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.</p>
-
-<p>We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,
-that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
-that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.——That
-to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men,
-deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.——That
-whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends,
-it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
-new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing
-its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect
-their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments
-long established should not be changed for light and transient
-causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span>
-more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves
-by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when
-a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same
-Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is
-their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to
-provide new Guards for their future security.——Such has been the
-patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity
-which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The
-history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated
-injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of
-an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be
-submitted to a candid world.</p>
-
-<p><i>He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary
-for the public good.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and
-pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent
-should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to
-attend to them.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large
-districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of
-Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and
-formidable to tyrants only.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable,
-and distant from the depository of their public Records, for
-the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with
-manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others
-to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation,
-have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining
-in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without,
-and convulsions within.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that
-purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing
-to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the
-conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his
-Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of
-their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of
-Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the
-Consent of our legislatures.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior
-to the Civil power.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>
-<i>He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to
-our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to
-their Acts of pretended Legislation:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any
-Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring
-Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging
-its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument
-for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and
-altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:</i></p>
-
-<p><i>For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested
-with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection
-and waging War against us.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and
-destroyed the lives of our people.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries
-to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
-with circumstances of Cruelty &amp; perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most
-barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high
-Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of
-their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured
-to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages,
-whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all
-ages, sexes and conditions.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress
-in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered only
-by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every
-act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We
-have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to
-extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them
-of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have
-appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured
-them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations,
-which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
-They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We
-must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
-and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War,
-in Peace Friends.</i></p>
-
-<p class="p2"><b>We, therefore</b>, the Representatives of the <b>united States of America</b>,
-in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the
-world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by
-Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and
-declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be
-<b>Free and Independent States</b>; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance
-to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
-the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and
-that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War,
-conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all
-other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.</p>
-
-<p>And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the
-protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our
-Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-<h2 id="History_of_the_Document" class="left"><i>History of the Document</i></h2>
-
-<p>The best known of all the copies of the Declaration of Independence
-is the parchment copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack.
-This one, signed by 56 Delegates of the Continental Congress on and
-after August 2, 1776, is displayed today in Exhibition Hall at the
-National Archives Building. Jefferson’s final draft of the Declaration,
-known as the “rough draft,” cumulatively bearing the corrections,
-amendments, and deletions of the drafting committee and of Congress
-as a whole, as well as Jefferson’s marginal and textual notes, is preserved
-among the Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress. The
-revised draft, adopted by the Delegates on July 4, 1776, and signed
-only by John Hancock and Charles Thomson, President and Secretary
-of the Continental Congress, is known as the broadside copy.
-It was sent to the printer and has never been located. Sixteen copies
-of the printed broadside have survived. In addition to the “rough
-draft,” as least six other handwritten contemporary copies of the
-Declaration, one fragmentary, have survived and are in various
-archival collections. Five were made by Jefferson and one by
-John Adams.</p>
-
-<p>The history of the parchment copy of the Declaration is fascinating.
-From 1776 until 1789, along with other important national
-papers, it was safeguarded by Secretary of Congress Thomson, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
-carried it with him as Congress, at first to escape British troops and
-later for other reasons, convened in various cities: Philadelphia,
-Baltimore, Lancaster, York, Princeton, Trenton, Annapolis, and
-New York.</p>
-
-<p>When the Constitution took effect in 1789 and Thomson left
-office, he relinquished the Declaration to the newly created Department
-of State, which was under the temporary stewardship of Acting
-Secretary John Jay. Its offices were in New York’s old City Hall
-(Federal Hall). The next March, Thomas Jefferson became the first
-Secretary of State and custodian of the instrument he had created.
-Later that year, Philadelphia became the seat of the Federal Government
-and the Declaration returned to its birthplace. There it
-remained for a decade, until 1800, when the Government moved to
-the new national Capital of Washington.</p>
-
-<p>Secretary of State John Marshall apparently at first stored the
-Declaration in his Department’s temporary offices in the old
-Treasury Building, at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW.,
-and possibly then at Seven Buildings, 19th Street and Pennsylvania
-Avenue NW. After a few months, likely in 1801, the document
-was transferred to the War Office Building, at 17th Street and
-Pennsylvania Avenue NW., where the Department of State moved
-its offices. The Declaration remained there until the summer of
-1814, during the War of 1812, when British troops invaded the
-Capital. Shortly before they arrived, Secretary of State James Monroe
-packed the instrument and other state papers in linen sacks and sent
-them by wagon to a barn on the Virginia side of the Potomac 2 miles
-above Chain Bridge for one night, and then to a clergyman’s home
-in Leesburg, Va. Within a few weeks, after the British threat had
-subsided, the documents were brought back to Washington and
-probably temporarily kept in various structures because of the
-burning of the War Office Building by the British.</p>
-
-<p>In 1820 the Department of State moved the Declaration to its
-headquarters at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Stored
-for years in scroll fashion, the document had already been damaged
-by numerous unrollings, other handling, and frequent moves. In the
-period 1820–23 the use of a “wet” copying process to produce a
-facsimile apparently divested the parchment of some of its ink,
-especially that of the signatures.</p>
-
-<p>Subsequently the Declaration remained relatively undisturbed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>
-until 1841, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster, concluding that
-it should be on public view, ordered that it be mounted, framed, and
-moved to the newly constructed Patent Office, in the block bounded
-by Seventh, Ninth, F, and G Streets NW. The Patent Office was then
-part of the Department of State. Placed beside George Washington’s
-commission as commander in chief of the Continental Army in a
-large frame on a wall of the second floor hall opposite a window, for
-35 years the Declaration endured exposure to glare, summer heat,
-and winter cold. The text retained its legibility, but the parchment
-faded and yellowed, cracked and warped. Many of the signatures had
-faded, some becoming blurred or almost invisible.</p>
-
-<p>The Federal Government in 1876 lent the Declaration to the city
-of Philadelphia, site of the national Centennial Exposition. On July
-4 Richard Henry Lee, grandson of the signer, read it publicly. It was
-then exhibited in a fireproof safe behind a plate glass window and
-seen by more people than ever before. Philadelphians, deploring its
-condition, fought to retain it and only reluctantly returned it to
-Washington. Heeding the outcry of those who had viewed the timeworn
-parchment, a Government commission studied the possibility
-of restoration and in time concluded that such an attempt might be
-damaging.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, in 1877, as a safeguard the Declaration was moved from
-the Patent Office to a more fireproof building at 17th Street and
-Pennsylvania Avenue NW. shared by the State, War, and Navy
-Departments. It had narrowly escaped destruction, for only a few
-months later fire gutted the Patent Office. Finally, in 1894, for
-protection from the light, State Department officials sealed the
-118-year-old sheet between two glass plates and locked it in a safe
-in the basement. There it lay, except for rare occasions, in darkness
-and unobserved for more than a quarter of a century.</p>
-
-<p>In 1921 the Department of State, responding to the recommendation
-of a special commission, relinquished custodianship of the
-Declaration to the Library of Congress. The transfer was made
-personally by Herbert Putnam, the Librarian, using a library mail
-truck, a Model T Ford. At first he kept the document in his office.
-In 1924, however, he placed it together with the Constitution, on
-public exhibition in a bronze-and-marble shrine on the second floor.
-At this time, the Declaration was encased between heavy glass
-panes specially treated to keep out harmful rays of light.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span>
-The Declaration and the Constitution remained there until the
-outbreak of World War II. On December 26, 1941, just 19 days
-after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, they left Washington
-under heavy guard by train en route to Fort Knox, Ky., where they
-arrived the following day. Specialists took advantage of the opportunity
-and cleaned and restored the Declaration to the maximum
-degree. In 1944 both it and the Constitution were taken back to the
-Library of Congress. They remained there until 1952, at which time
-a tank under military escort carried them to Washington’s National
-Archives Building, repository of the Nation’s permanent records,
-which are under the jurisdiction of the National Archives and Records
-Service of the U.S. General Services Administration.</p>
-
-<div id="ip_265" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.125em;">
-  <img src="images/i_122.jpg" width="482" height="335" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives Building,
-  Washington, D.C.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span></p>
-
-<div id="ip_266" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.375em;">
-  <img src="images/i_123.jpg" width="470" height="600" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition Hall, National Archives
-  Building, contains the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution,
-  and the Bill of Rights.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span></p>
-
-<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
-
-<p class="in0">Still enshrined there today, along with thousands of other
-priceless national records, is the parchment copy of the Declaration.
-The massive bronze doors at the Constitution Avenue entrance to
-the building lead to the circular Exhibition Hall. At its rear center
-stands a marble shrine containing the Declaration of Independence,
-the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. They are sealed in helium-filled
-bronze and glass cases, screened from harmful light rays by
-special filters, and can be lowered within seconds into a large
-fireproof, shockproof, and bombproof vault.</p>
-
-<p>The hall also features a “Formation of the Union” exhibit, a
-collection of documents illustrating the evolution of the U.S. Government
-from 1774 until 1791. They include the Articles of Association
-(1774), the Articles of Confederation (1777), the Treaty of Paris
-(1783), and Washington’s inaugural address (1789). Above the
-exhibits are two murals. In one, Jefferson is presenting the
-Declaration to John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress;
-in the other, James Madison is submitting the Constitution to
-George Washington, President of the Constitutional Convention.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Suggested_Reading" class="left">Suggested Reading</h2>
-
-<blockquote class="hang3">
-
-<p>BECKER, CARL L. <cite>The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the
-History of Political Ideas.</cite> New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace,
-1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in 1922,
-that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political background,
-philosophical origins, and literary merit, and discusses subsequent
-reaction to it.</p>
-
-<p>BOYD, JULIAN P. <cite>The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution of
-the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its Author,
-Thomas Jefferson.</cite> Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
-1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study published
-by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with the bicentennial
-celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the nature and
-evolution of the various drafts.</p>
-
-<p>BURNETT, EDMUND C. <cite>The Continental Congress.</cite> New York: Macmillan,
-1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book
-remains one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing
-with the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration.</p>
-
-<p>DUMBAULD, EDWARD. <cite>The Declaration of Independence and What
-It Means Today.</cite> Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press,
-1950. Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document
-and differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying
-intellectual and political influences.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span>
-MALONE, DUMAS. <cite>The Story of the Declaration of Independence.</cite> New
-York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable
-account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical
-sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations assembled
-by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan.</p>
-
-<p>McGEE, DOROTHY H. <cite>Famous Signers of the Declaration.</cite> New York:
-Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this
-volume presents biographies of selected signers.</p>
-
-<p>NATIONAL ARCHIVES. <cite>The Formation of the Union.</cite> Washington:
-National Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970.
-A handsome but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief
-history of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents.</p>
-
-<p>WHITNEY, DAVID C. <cite>Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the
-Men Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped
-to Establish the United States of America.</cite> Chicago: J. G. Ferguson,
-1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular
-versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those associated
-with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers and
-patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis.</p></blockquote>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Criteria_for_Selection_of_Historic" class="left">Criteria for Selection of Historic<br />
-Sites of National Significance</h2>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> National significance is ascribed to buildings, sites, objects, or
-districts which possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or
-interpreting the historical (history and archeology) heritage of our
-Nation, such as:</p>
-
-<p>1. Structures or sites at which events occurred that have made a significant
-contribution to, and are identified prominently with, or which
-outstandingly represent, the broad cultural, political, economic, military,
-or social history of the Nation, and from which an understanding and
-appreciation of the larger patterns of our American heritage may be
-gained.</p>
-
-<p>2. Structures or sites associated importantly with the lives of persons
-nationally significant in the history of the United States.</p>
-
-<p>3. Structures or sites associated significantly with an important event
-that outstandingly represents some great idea or ideal of the American
-people.</p>
-
-<p>4. Structures that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an
-architectural type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a
-period, style, or method of construction; or a notable structure representing
-the work of a master builder, designer, or architect.</p>
-
-<p>5. Objects that figured prominently in nationally significant events;
-or that were prominently associated with nationally significant persons;
-or that outstandingly represent some great idea or ideal of the American
-people; or that embody distinguishing characteristics of a type specimen,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
-exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style, or method
-of construction; or that are notable as representations of the work of
-master workers or designers.</p>
-
-<p>6. Archeological sites that have produced information of a major
-scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light
-upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States. Such
-sites are those which have produced, or which may reasonably be
-expected to produce, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas to a
-major degree.</p>
-
-<p>7. When preserved or restored as integral parts of the environment,
-historic buildings not sufficiently significant individually by reason of
-historical association or architectural merit to warrant recognition may
-collectively compose a “historic district” that is of historical significance
-to the Nation in commemorating or illustrating a way of life in its
-developing culture.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> To possess national significance, a historic or prehistoric structure,
-district, site, or object must possess integrity. For a historic or prehistoric
-<em>site</em>, integrity requires original location and intangible elements of feeling
-and association. The site of a structure no longer standing may possess
-national significance if the person or event associated with the structure
-was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s history and the association
-consequential.</p>
-
-<p>For a historic or prehistoric <em>structure</em>, integrity is a composite quality
-derived from original workmanship, original location, and intangible
-elements of feeling and association. A structure no longer on the original
-site may possess national significance if the person or event associated
-with it was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s history and the
-association consequential.</p>
-
-<p>For a historic <em>district</em>, integrity is a composite quality derived from
-original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements of feeling
-and association inherent in an ensemble of historic buildings having visual
-architectural unity.</p>
-
-<p>For a historic <em>object</em>, integrity requires basic original workmanship.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> Structures or sites which are primarily of significance in the field
-of religion or to religious bodies but are not of national importance in
-other fields of the history of the United States, such as political, military,
-or architectural history, will not be eligible for consideration.</p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> Birthplaces, graves, burials, and cemeteries, as a general rule, are
-not eligible for consideration and recognition except in cases of historical
-figures of transcendent importance. Historic sites associated with the
-actual careers and contributions of outstanding historical personages
-usually are more important than their birthplaces and burial places.</p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> Structures, sites, and objects achieving historical importance within
-the past 50 years will not as a general rule be considered unless
-associated with persons or events of transcendent significance.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Acknowledgments" class="left">Acknowledgments</h2>
-
-<p class="in0"><i>Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites,<br />
-Buildings, and Monuments (1971)</i></p>
-
-<p class="in0">
-Durward L. Allen, <i>Purdue University</i>.<br />
-Hon. E. Y. Berry, <i>Rapid City, S. Dak.</i><br />
-Anthony A. Buford, <i>Clayton, Mo.</i><br />
-Loren C. Eiseley, <i>University of Pennsylvania</i>.<br />
-Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson, <i>Stonewall, Tex.</i><br />
-Peter C. Murphy, Jr., <i>Springfield, Oreg.</i><br />
-Nathaniel A. Owings, <i>San Francisco, Calif.</i><br />
-Melvin M. Payne, <i>National Geographic Society</i>.<br />
-Linden C. Pettys, <i>Ann Arbor, Mich.</i><br />
-Steven Rose, <i>Arcadia, Calif.</i><br />
-William G. Shade, <i>Lehigh University</i>.<br />
-Elisha Walker, Jr., <i>New York, N.Y.</i><br />
-James W. Whittaker, <i>Seattle, Wash.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p class="p2 in0"><i>National Park Service</i></p>
-
-<blockquote class="hang left">
-
-<p>Edwin C. Bearss, <i>Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver
-Service Center</i>.</p>
-
-<p>S. Sydney Bradford, <i>Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of
-Historic Places</i>.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
-George S. Cattanach, Jr., <i>Program Coordinator, National Register of
-Historic Places</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Henry A. Judd, Chief, <i>Park Historic Architecture, Division of Historic
-Architecture</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Herbert E. Kahler, <i>Chief (retired), Division of History and Archeology</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Ronald F. Lee, <i>Special Assistant to the Director</i>.</p>
-
-<p>John Luzader, Historian, <i>Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver
-Service Center</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Warren A. McCullough, <i>Management Assistant, Independence National
-Historical Park, Pa.</i></p>
-
-<p>John D. McDermott, <i>Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council on
-Historic Preservation</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Thomas W. Mullen, <i>Student Research Assistant (Northeastern University),
-Division of History</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Denys Peter Myers, <i>Architectural Historian, Division of History</i>.</p>
-
-<p>John D. R. Platt, <i>Historian, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.</i></p>
-
-<p>Charles W. Porter III, <i>Chief Historian (retired), Division of History</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Charles W. Snell, <i>Historian, Division of History</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Martin I. Yoelson, <i>Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence
-National Historical Park, Pa.</i></p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="p2 in0"><i>Other Individuals</i></p>
-
-<blockquote class="hang left">
-
-<p>Roland A. Block, <i>Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission,
-Staatsburg, N.Y.</i></p>
-
-<p>Jerry M. Bloomer, <i>Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery,
-Shreveport</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Edwin Cox, <i>President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Alonzo T. Dill, <i>West Point, Va.</i></p>
-
-<p>Educational Programs Staff, <i>National Archives and Records Service, U.S.
-General Services Administration</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Ms. Constance M. Greiff, <i>Vice President, Historical Society of Princeton,
-N.J.</i></p>
-
-<p>Ms. Virginia Gunter, <i>Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society,
-Concord</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr., <i>Elsing Green, King William, Va.</i></p>
-
-<p>Charles H. McCormick, <i>Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State
-College, Fairmont, W. Va.</i></p>
-
-<p>Ms. Mildred Steinbach, <i>Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New
-York</i>.</p>
-
-<p>E. Berkeley Tompkins, <i>Director, Division of Historical and Cultural
-Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover</i>.</p></blockquote>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Art_and_Picture_Credits" class="left">Art and Picture Credits</h2>
-
-<p>The National Park Service gratefully acknowledges the assistance of agencies
-and individuals furnishing illustrations and granting permission to reproduce
-them.</p>
-
-<blockquote class="hang in1">
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Page</i></p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#if_i_002">ii</a>  Oil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of the same name
-(1786–95). Color separations courtesy United States Capitol Historical Society
-and Eastern National Park and Monument Association. Of the 48
-individuals in the painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis
-for many later portraits by other artists.</p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#Page_4">4</a>  Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#Page_5">5</a>  Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#Page_6">6</a>  Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton, after a cartoon
-(1774) published in London. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#Page_7">7</a>  Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#Page_8">8</a>  Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p>  <a href="#Page_9">9</a>  Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>  Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_11">11</a>  Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_12">12</a>  Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney. Independence National
-Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_13">13</a>  Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_14">14</a>  Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_17">17</a>  Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_19">19</a>  Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_21">21</a>  Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_22">22</a>  Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S. Oertel. Library
-of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_23">23</a>  Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical
-Society.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_28">28</a>  Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_29">29</a>  Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_30">30</a>  Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
- <a href="#Page_33">33</a>  Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National
-Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_36">36</a>  Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_39">39</a>  Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_41">41</a>  Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an unknown artist.
-Independence National Historical Park. In 1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority
-on historical portraits, maintained that this likeness was not Carter
-Braxton but was that of his brother George.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_43">43</a>  Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_45">45</a>  Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773 painting. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_47">47</a>  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_48">48</a>  Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley, from Henry
-Howe, <cite>Life and Death on the Ocean</cite> (1855). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_49">49</a>  Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson Peale.
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_50">50</a>  Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from <cite>Magazine of American
-History</cite> (September 1880). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_51">51</a>  Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_53">53</a>  Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_55">55</a>  Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine
-Arts, Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_57">57</a>  Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian Schussele.
-Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_59">59</a>  Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn. Independence National
-Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_62">62</a>  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,”
-published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress. The detail is a
-conjectural representation; no portrait or reliable likeness of Button
-Gwinnett is known to exist.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_63">63</a>  Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William Brotherhead,
-<cite>The Book of the Signers</cite> (1861). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_65">65</a>  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,”
-published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_67">67</a>  Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>
- <a href="#Page_70">70</a>  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_71">71</a>  Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan, Jr. Independence
-National Historical Park. Some authorities have questioned the
-authenticity of this likeness.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_73">73</a>  Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles Willson Peale.
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_74">74</a>  Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale, from James
-Herring and James B. Longacre, <cite>The National Portrait Gallery of
-Distinguished Americans</cite> (1836). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_75">75</a>  Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_77">77</a>  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_79">79</a>  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National
-Historical Park. According to one authority, Trumbull based his
-likeness on the features of Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close
-resemblance to his father.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_81">81</a>  Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after Robert E. Pine.
-Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_83">83</a>  Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_85">85</a>  Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_87">87</a>  Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_89">89</a>  Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_90">90</a>  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,”
-published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_92">92</a>  Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_94">94</a>  Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John Sanderson,
-<cite>Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence</cite> (1824).
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_96">96</a>  Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art Reference
-Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg,
-N.Y.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_97">97</a>  Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from <cite>Magazine of American
-History</cite> (December 1885). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p> <a href="#Page_99">99</a>  Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence National
-Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>
-<a href="#Page_100">100</a>  Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_103">103</a>  Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_104">104</a>  Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_106">106</a>  Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_107">107</a>  Engraving by William Birch, from <cite>The City of Philadelphia</cite> (1800).
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_109">109</a>  Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The R. W. Norton
-Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_110">110</a>  Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason Chamberlin.
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_112">112</a>  Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia State Capitol.
-National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_113">113</a>  Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles Willson Peale.
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_115">115</a>  Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_116">116</a>  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,”
-published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_118">118</a>  Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine. Independence National
-Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_120">120</a>  Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,”
-published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_122">122</a>  Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_123">123</a>  Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du Pont
-Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia B. Henry.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_125">125</a>  Engraving (1799) by William Birch &amp; Son. Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_127">127</a>  Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle). Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_129">129</a>  Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_130">130</a>  Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead, <cite>The Book
-of the Signers</cite> (1861). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_132">132</a>  Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton Art
-Gallery, Shreveport, La.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_133">133</a>  Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>
-<a href="#Page_135">135</a>  Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_137">137</a>  Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T. Pool.
-Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_139">139</a>  Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire Historical
-Society, Concord.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_140">140</a>  Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_142">142</a>  Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs in the
-Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer, Douglas Armsden,
-Kittery Point, Maine.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_144">144</a>  Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_145">145</a>  Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature attributed to James
-Peale. Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_146">146</a>  Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society of
-Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_149">149</a>  Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical
-Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_150">150</a>  Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, from <cite>An Account of the
-College of New Jersey</cite> (1764). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_152">152</a>  Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_154">154</a>  Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull. Independence National
-Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_164">164</a>  National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_165">165</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_167">167</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_168">168</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_169">169</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_171">171</a>  National Park Service (Abbie Rowe).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_172">172</a>  Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson, <cite>The Stranger in
-America</cite> (1807). Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_174">174</a>  National Park Service (Charles W. Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_175">175</a>  National Park Service (John O. Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_178">178</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_179">179</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_181">181</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_182">182</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_184">184</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
-<a href="#Page_185">185</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_187">187</a>  Photographer, William L. Klender.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_188">188</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_190">190</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_192">192</a>  Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff. Library of
-Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_194">194</a>  National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_196">196</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_197">197</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_198">198</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_200">200</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_201">201</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_203">203</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_205">205</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_206">206</a>  Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer, Constance Greiff.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_207">207</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_208">208</a>  Department of Public Information, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_210">210</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_211">211</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_212">212</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_213">213</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_215">215</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_216">216</a>  National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_219">219</a>  Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine (July 1787).
-Library of Congress.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_220">220</a>  National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_223">223</a>  National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_224">224</a>  National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_225">225</a>  National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_227">227</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_229">229</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_230">230</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_232">232</a>  National Park Service (Wrenn).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_233">233</a>  National Park Service.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_235">235</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_236">236</a>  Photographer, Jesse Gibbes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>
-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_239">239</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_241">241</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_242">242</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_244">244</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_246">246</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_248">248</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_250">250</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_251">251</a>  National Park Service (Littleton).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_253">253</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_256">256</a>  National Park Service (Snell).</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_265">265</a>  National Archives.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Page_266">266</a>  National Archives.</p>
-
-<p> —  <a href="#if_i_001">FRONT END PAPER</a>: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae. Independence
-National Historical Park.</p>
-
-<p> —  <a href="#if_i_124">REAR END PAPER</a>: National Park Service sketch.</p></blockquote>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="Index" class="right italic larger">Index</h2>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="ifrst">“A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress Assembled,” <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ASummaryViewOfTheRightsOfBritishAmerica"><cite>A Summary View of the Rights of British America</cite> (tract), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AbingdonMd">Abingdon, Md., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AbolitionOfSlavery">Abolition of slavery, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AcademiesAndAcademicAffairs">Academies and academic affairs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamArchitecturalStyle">Adam architectural style, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239–240</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251–253</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsAbigail">Adams, Abigail, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsMrsJohn">Adams, Mrs. John</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsBrooksGreatGrandsonOfSigner">Adams, Brooks, great-grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsCharlesFrancisGrandsonOfSigner">Adams, Charles Francis, grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsCharlesFrancisJrGreatGrandsonOfSigner">Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., great-grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsDeaconJohnFatherOfSigner">Adams, “Deacon” John, father of signer, <a href="#Page_191">191–192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsHenryGreatGrandsonOfSigner">Adams, Henry, great-grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsJohnSignerAtlasOfAmericanIndependenceCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Adams, John (signer) (“Atlas of American Independence”), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <i><a href="#Page_33">33–35</a></i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <i><a href="#Page_170">170–173</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_191">191–195</a></i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsJohnQuincySonOfSignerAndSitesAssociatedWith">Adams, John Quincy, son of signer and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <i><a href="#Page_191">191–195</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsJohnQuincyIiGreatGrandsonOfSigner">Adams, John Quincy II, great-grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsMrsJohn">Adams, Mrs. John (Abigail Smith), wife of signer, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191–192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsMrsSamuelFirstWifeOfSigner">Adams, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsMrsSamuelSecondWifeOfSigner">Adams, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsSamuelSignerFirebrandOfTheRevolutionCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Adams, Samuel (signer) (“Firebrand of the Revolution”), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_36">36–39</a></i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsJohnBirthplace">Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass., <i><a href="#Page_191">191–192</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsJohnQuincyBirthplace">Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <i><a href="#Page_192">192–193</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsChapterDaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsJohnFamilyAndDescendants">Adams (John) family and descendants, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191–195</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsMansion">Adams Mansion, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsNationalHistoricSite">Adams National Historic Site</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsMemorialSociety">Adams Memorial Society, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdamsNationalHistoricSite">Adams National Historic Site (Adams Mansion; “Old House”; “Peacefield”; Vassall-Adams House), Mass., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <i><a href="#Page_193">193–195</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdmiraltyBoardsCourtsAndJudges">Admiralty boards, courts, and judges:</li>
-<li class="isub1">civil, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">naval, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AdvisoryBoardOnNationalParksHistoricSitesBuildingsAndMonuments">Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AgeOfSigners">Age of signers: at time of death, compared, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">at time of signing, compared, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific signers.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AgenciesOfUsGovernment">Agencies of U.S. Government, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStates">United States</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AgriculturalSocietyOfSc">Agricultural Society of S.C., <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Agriculture">Agriculture, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_FarmsAndFarming">Farms and farming</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlamanceBattleOfNc">Alamance, Battle of, N.C., <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlbanyNy">Albany, N.Y., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlbanyCongress1754AndAlbanyPlanOfUnion">Albany Congress (1754) and Albany Plan of Union, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlbemarleCountyVa">Albemarle County, Va., <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlcoholicBeverages">Alcoholic beverages, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlexandriaVa">Alexandria, Va., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AlisonRevFrancisEducator">Alison, Rev. Francis, educator, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AllenMd">Allen, Md., <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AllentownPa">Allentown, Pa., <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Almanacs">Almanacs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericaAndAmericans">America and Americans, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStates">United States</a>; <span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span></li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericanAcademyOfArtsAndSciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericanPhilosophicalSociety">American Philosophical Society, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericanPhilosophicalSocietyHall">American Philosophical Society Hall (Philosophical Hall), Pa., <a href="#Page_218">218–226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericanRevolution">American Revolution, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericanRevolutionDaughtersOfThe">American Revolution, Daughters of the, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Daughters of the American Revolution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmericanRevolutionSonsOfThe">American Revolution, Sons of the, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_SonsOfTheAmericanRevolution">Sons of the American Revolution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AmesburyMass">Amesbury, Mass., <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Ammunition">Ammunition, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArmsAmmunitionAndOrdnance">Arms, ammunition, and ordnance</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AncestryOfSignersCompared">Ancestry of signers, compared, <a href="#Page_27">27–28</a> (<i>and see particular signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AnglicanChurch">Anglican Church, <a href="#Page_43">43–44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AngloSaxonOriginOfSigners">Anglo-Saxon origin of signers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AnnapolisAndColonialAnnapolisHistoricDistrict">Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170–191</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AnnapolisConvention">Annapolis Convention (<i>1786</i>), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AntifederalistsAndAntifederalism">Antifederalists and Antifederalism, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AntislaveryMovement">Antislavery movement, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AquiaCreekQuarriesVa">Aquia Creek Quarries, Va., <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArcheologistsAndArcheologicalExcavation">Archeologists and archeological excavation, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArchitectsArchitecturalStylesAndArchitecturalFeatures">Architects, architectural styles, and architectural features, <i>see specific architects, architectural styles, and buildings and residences</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArchivesFederal">Archives: Federal, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalArchivesAndRecordsService">National Archives and Records Service</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">non-Federal, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArissJohnArchitectBuilder">Ariss, John, architect-builder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AristocratsAndAristocracy">Aristocrats and aristocracy, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArlingtonMass">Arlington, Mass., <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArmiesStanding">Armies, standing, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also especially</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalArmy">Continental Army</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and various wars, battles, and nations</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArmsAmmunitionAndOrdnance">Arms, ammunition, and ordnance, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArmyNavyMuseumPa">Army-Navy Museum, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArmyOfThePotomacCivilWar">Army of the Potomac (Civil War), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArnoldGenBenedictBritishOfficer">Arnold, Gen. Benedict, British officer, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArsonAndHistoricSites">Arson, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArtAndArtists">Art and artists, <a href="#Page_81">81–83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> (<i>and see</i> <a href="#g_Museums">Museums</a> <i>and illustrations throughout this volume</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArticlesOfAssociation">Articles of Association (<i>1774</i>), <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ArticlesOfConfederationAndPerpetualUnion">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union: debated, drafted, adopted, and signed, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93–94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">document exhibited, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers of Declaration who also signed, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93–94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AshleyRiver">Ashley River, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AssembliesColonialProvincialAndState">Assemblies, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence movement, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers serve in, <i>see specific signers</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also individual colonies/States.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AssemblyRoomIndependenceHallPa">Assembly Room (Independence Hall, Pa.), <i><a href="#Page_219">219–221</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AthensGa">Athens, Ga., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AttorneysAndAttorneysGeneral">Attorneys and attorneys-general, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AugustaGa">Augusta, Ga., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_AugustaGaChapterDaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Augusta (Ga.) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Authors">Authors, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_Literature">Literature and literary figures</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and particular authors</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Autobiography"><cite>Autobiography</cite>, of Benjamin Franklin, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst" id="g_BachelorSigners">Bachelor signers, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BackRiver">Back River, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BaltimoreMd">Baltimore, Md., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BaltimoreAndOhioRailroad">Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BaltimoreCountyMd">Baltimore County, Md., <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BaltimoreMunicipalMuseum">Baltimore Municipal Museum, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BaltimoreMuseumOfArt">Baltimore Museum of Art, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BankOfEngland">Bank of England, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BankOfNorthAmerica">Bank of North America, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BankOfTheUnitedStates">Bank of the United States, First and Second, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BanksAndBanking">Banks and banking, governmental and private, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a>; <span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span></li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_CurrencyAndMoney">Currency and money</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_SpeculatorsAndSpeculation">Speculators and speculation</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Barbados">Barbados, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BarclayThomasMerchant">Barclay, Thomas, merchant, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BartlettJosiahSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Bartlett, Josiah (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_39">39–41</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_199">199–201</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BartlettMrsJosiahWifeOfSigner">Bartlett, Mrs. Josiah, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BartlettDescendants">Bartlett descendants, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BartlettHouseNh">Bartlett House, N.H., <i><a href="#Page_199">199–201</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Battles">Battles, <i>see under name of battle</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BedfordCountyVa">Bedford County, Va., <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BeithTownScotland">Beith (town), Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BenezetJohnMerchant">Benezet, John, merchant, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BenningtonBattleOfNy">Bennington, Battle of, N.Y., <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Berkeley">Berkeley (Harrison’s Landing) (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <i><a href="#Page_239">239–240</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Bible">Bible, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BicentennialUs">Bicentennial, U.S., <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BillOfRightsUs">Bill of Rights, U.S., <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BirthplacesOfSigners">Birthplaces of signers, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BishopWhiteHousePa">Bishop White House, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Blacks">Blacks, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BonaparteJosephNapoleonsBrother">Bonaparte, Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BonaparteNapoleonFrenchRuler">Bonaparte, Napoleon, French ruler, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts:</li>
-<li class="isub1">favor or oppose U.S. Constitution, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on astronomy, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on monetary theory, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on religion, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers write, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">support Revolutionary cause, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Libraries">Libraries</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_Literature">Literature and literary figures</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and particular works</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BordenJosephFatherInLawOfSigner">Borden, Joseph, father-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BordentownNj">Bordentown, N.J., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BordentownNjChamberOfCommerce">Bordentown (N.J.) Chamber of Commerce, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BorlandLeonardVassallAndAdamsNationalHistoricSite">Borland, Leonard Vassall, and Adams National Historic Site, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BostonAndBostonHarborMass">Boston and Boston Harbor, Mass., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–39</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59–60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately following.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BostonMassLatinSchool">Boston (Mass.) Latin School, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BostonMassacre">Boston Massacre, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BostonPortAct">Boston Port Act, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BostonTeaParty">“Boston Tea Party,” <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BostoniansPayingTheExciseManOrTarringAndFeathering">“Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering,” (The) (cartoon), reproduced, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BoudinotAnnisMarriesSigner">Boudinot, Annis, marries signer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BoudinotEliasBrotherInLawOfSigner">Boudinot, Elias, brother-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BoyhoodHomesOfSigners">Boyhood homes of signers, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BraintreeMass">Braintree, Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Quincy">Quincy</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BrandywineBattleOfPa">Brandywine, Battle of, Pa., <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BraxtonCarterSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Braxton, Carter (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <i><a href="#Page_41">41–42</a></i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <i><a href="#Page_240">240–242</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BraxtonGeorgeBrotherOfSigner">Braxton, George, brother of signer, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BraxtonMrsCarterFirstWifeOfSigner">Braxton, Mrs. Carter, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BraxtonMrsCarterSecondWifeOfSigner">Braxton, Mrs. Carter, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BridgeportConn">Bridgeport, Conn., <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BristolEngland">Bristol, England, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BritainBritishBritishIslesBritishEmpireAndBritishCommonwealthOfNations">Britain, British, British Isles, British Empire, and British Commonwealth of Nations, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GreatBritain">Great Britain</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BroadsideCopiesOfDeclaration">Broadside copies of Declaration, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Bronx">Bronx, N.Y., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NewYorkCityAndNewYorkHarbor">New York City and New York Harbor</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BrookhavenAndBrookhavenTownshipNy">Brookhaven and Brookhaven Township, N.Y., <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BrooklynAndBrooklynHeights">Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NewYorkCityAndNewYorkHarbor">New York City and New York Harbor</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BrothersAmongSigners">Brothers, among signers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BrownUniversityRi">Brown University, R.I., <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BrutonParishVa">Bruton Parish, Va., <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BucklandWilliamArchitect">Buckland, William, architect, <a href="#Page_181">181–182</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BucksCountyPa">Bucks County, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BuildersBuildingsAndBuildingMaterials">Builders, buildings, and building materials, <i>see specific builder-architects, buildings, and residences</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BurgessesHouseOf">Burgesses, House of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_VirginiaHouseOfBurgesses">Virginia House of Burgesses</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BurgoyneGenJohnBritishOfficer">Burgoyne, Gen. John, British officer, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BurialPlacesAndBurialGrounds">Burial places and burial grounds, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CemeteriesAndBurialPlaces">Cemeteries and burial places</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BurkeCountyGa">Burke County, Ga., <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BurlingtonMass">Burlington, Mass., <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BurlingtonAndBurlingtonCountyNj">Burlington and Burlington County, N.J., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_BusinessAndBusinessmen">Business and businessmen, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ButterfieldGenDanielAndTaps">Butterfield, Gen. Daniel, and “Taps,” <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Byberry">Byberry (“The Homestead”), Pa., <a href="#Page_124">124</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ByfieldPlantationDel">Byfield (plantation), Del., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Cadwalader House, Pa., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CalvinistsAndCalvinism">Calvinists and Calvinism, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_PresbyteriansAndPresbyterianChurch">Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CambridgeMass">Cambridge, Mass., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CambridgeUniversityEngland">Cambridge University (England), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Canada">Canada, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Canals">Canals, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CapeFearRegionOfNc">Cape Fear region of N.C., <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CapitalCitiesNational">Capital cities: national, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesCapitals">United States Capitals</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">State, <i>see particular cities</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CapitalPunishment">Capital punishment, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CapitolUs">Capitol (U.S.), <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesCapitol">United States Capitol</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarlislePa">Carlisle, Pa., <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Carolinas">Carolinas, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NorthCarolina">North Carolina</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_SouthCarolina">South Carolina</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarolineCountyVa">Caroline County, Va., <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Carpenters">Carpenters, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarpentersCompanyOfPhiladelphia">Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarpentersHallPa">Carpenters’ Hall, Pa., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollCharlesIGrandfatherOfSigner">Carroll, Charles I, grandfather of signer, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollCharlesIiFatherOfSigner">Carroll, Charles II, father of signer, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollCharlesIiiOfCarrolltonSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Carroll, Charles III, of Carrollton (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <i><a href="#Page_43">43–45</a></i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <i><a href="#Page_179">179–181</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_183">183–186</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollCharlesVGrandsonOfSigner">Carroll, Charles V, grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollFatherJohnCousinOfSigner">Carroll, Father John, cousin of signer, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollMaryDaughterOfSigner">Carroll, Mary, daughter of signer, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollCharlesAmericanHeritageAssociationInc">Carroll (Charles) American Heritage Association, Inc., <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollFamilyAndDescendants">Carroll family and descendants, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollMansionMd">Carroll Mansion, Md., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <i><a href="#Page_179">179–180</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrollVocationalSchoolMd">“Carroll Vocational School,” Md., <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarrolltonManorMd">Carrollton Manor, Md., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <i><a href="#Page_180">180–181</a></i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarskerdoScotland">Carskerdo, Scotland, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarterRobertKingGrandfatherOfSigner">Carter, Robert “King,” grandfather of signer, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarterMayHouseSc">Carter-May House, S.C., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_RutledgeCarterMayHouse">Rutledge House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CarvelHallHotelMd">Carvel Hall Hotel, Md., <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CatasauquaPa">Catasauqua, Pa., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CatholicChurch">Catholic Church, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_RomanCatholicChurch">Roman Catholic Church</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CatonMaryCarrollDaughterOfSigner">Caton, Mary Carroll, daughter of signer, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CatonRichardSonInLawOfSigner">Caton, Richard, son-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CatonFamily">Caton family, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CecilCountyMd">Cecil County, Md., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CemeteriesAndBurialPlaces">Cemeteries and burial places, of signers, marked, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> (<i>and see specific signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CentennialUsExposition">Centennial (U.S.) Exposition, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChainBridge">Chain Bridge, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChanceryCourts">Chancery courts, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChanningWilliamElleryDescendantOfSigner">Channing, William Ellery, descendant of signer, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChantillyEstateVa">Chantilly (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChapelsAndChaplains">Chapels and chaplains, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharitableOrganizations">Charitable organizations, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlesCarrollAmericanHeritageAssociationInc">Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc., <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlesCityAndCharlesCityCountyVa">Charles City and Charles City County, Va., <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlesCountyMd">Charles County, Md., <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlestonAndCharlestonHarborSc">Charleston and Charleston Harbor, S.C., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlestonCountySc">Charleston County, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlestonDoubleHouse">Charleston “double house,” <a href="#Page_233">233–234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlestonScMuseum">Charleston (S.C.) Museum, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlestownMass">Charlestown, Mass., <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharlottesvilleVa">Charlottesville, Va., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CharterOfPrivileges">Charter of Privileges (<i>1701</i>), <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChaseMrsSamuelFirstWifeOfSigner">Chase, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChaseMrsSamuelSecondWifeOfSigner">Chase, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChaseSamuelSignerDemosthenesOfMarylandCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Chase, Samuel (signer) (“Demosthenes of Maryland”), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <i><a href="#Page_45">45–46</a></i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <i><a href="#Page_181">181–182</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChaseFamilyAndDescendants">Chase family and descendants, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChaseLloydHouseMd">Chase-Lloyd House, Md., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <i><a href="#Page_181">181–183</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChathamCountyGa">Chatham County, Ga., <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChawtonManorPa">“Chawton Manor,” Pa., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChemistryEducation">Chemistry education, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChericokeEstateVa">Chericoke (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChesapeakeAndOhioCanalCompany">Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChesterAndChesterCountyPa">Chester and Chester County, Pa., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChestertownMd">Chestertown, Md., <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChewBenjaminLawyerJurist">Chew, Benjamin, lawyer-jurist, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChilburyHallMd">Chilbury Hall, Md., <a href="#Page_113">113</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChildrenOfSignersNumberAndCareersOfCompared">Children of signers, number and careers of, compared, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> (<i>and see individual signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChristChurchChristChurchyardAndChristChurchBurialGroundPa">Christ Church, Christ Churchyard, and Christ Church Burial Ground, Pa., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChristEpiscopalChurchDel">Christ Episcopal Church, Del., <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–150</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">freedom in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Colonies, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in public education, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149–150</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Va., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">theologian prominent in, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific denominations and churches.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ChurchesAndChurchAffairs">Churches and church affairs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CircuitCourtsAndJudgesUs">Circuit courts and judges, U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CitiesTownsAndVillages">Cities, towns, and villages: and committees/councils of correspondence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfCorrespondence">Committees of correspondence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and committees/councils of safety, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfSafety">Committees of safety</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <i>see particular signers</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also individual cities, towns, and villages.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CityHallOldNewYorkCity">City Hall, old, New York City, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_FederalHall">Federal Hall</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CityHallPhiladelphia">City Hall (Philadelphia), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CityTavernPhiladelphia">City Tavern (Philadelphia), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CivicAffairsAndPoliticsRoleOfSignersIn">Civic affairs and politics, role of signers in, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CivicOrganizationsAndHistoricPreservation">Civic organizations, and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CivilWar">Civil War (U.S.), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClarkAbrahamSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Clark, Abraham (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_47">47–48</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClarkeRevJonasRelativeOfSigner">Clarke, Rev. Jonas, relative of signer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClarkeHallPhiladelphia">Clarke Hall (Philadelphia), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClassicalAndClassicRevivalArchitecturalStyle">Classical and Classic Revival architectural style, <a href="#Page_183">183–184</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_GreekRevivalArchitecturalStyle">Greek Revival architectural style</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClassicsStudied">Classics, studied, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClayHenryLawStudent">Clay, Henry, law student, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Clergymen">Clergymen, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ClymerGeorgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Clymer, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <i><a href="#Page_49">49–51</a></i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <i><a href="#Page_229">229</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Cobblers">Cobblers, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CodesLegal">Codes, legal, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Codfish">Codfish, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CollegeHill">College Hill (Walton-Harper House), Ga., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <i><a href="#Page_173">173–175</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CollegeOfCharlestonSc">College of Charleston, S.C., <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CollegeOfNewJersey">College of New Jersey, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PrincetonUniversity">Princeton University</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CollegeOfPhiladelphia">College of Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CollegeOfWilliamAndMary">College of William and Mary, Va., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CollegesAndUniversities">Colleges and universities, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">chemistry education in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">classical education in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">legal education in, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">medical education in, <a href="#Page_123">123–126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers aid, head, and serve, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123–126</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150–151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers attend, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> (<i>and see particular signers</i>).</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">and <i>specific colleges and universities</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColonialAndColonialPhiladelphiaArchitecturalStyle">Colonial and colonial Philadelphia architectural style, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColonialAnnapolisHistoricDistrictMd">Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AnnapolisAndColonialAnnapolisHistoricDistrict">Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColonialDamesOfAmerica">Colonial Dames of America, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColonialNationalHistoricalParkVa">Colonial National Historical Park, Va., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247–249</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColonialParkCemeteryGa">Colonial Park Cemetery, Ga., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColonialWilliamsburgVa">Colonial Williamsburg, Va., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WilliamsburgWilliamsburgHistoricDistrictAndColonialWilliamsburg">Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic District, and Colonial Williamsburg</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Colonies">Colonies, Thirteen (British-American): and British Empire, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_SignersOfTheDeclaration">Signers of the Declaration</a> <i>and individual signers</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">architecture in, <i>see particular styles</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">confederations of, actual and proposed, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> (<i>and see</i> <a href="#g_ArticlesOfConfederationAndPerpetualUnion">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union</a>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">constitutions, legislatures, and governments of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> (<i>and see specific colonies/States</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">cultural heritage of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">foreign nations recognize independence of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">government and diplomacy of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">heroes and prominent men in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">independence movement in, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>, <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>, <i>and</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceResolution">Independence resolution</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">meetings and congresses of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">proprietary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56–57</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">publications popular in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">regions and trade of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">status of Ga. in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">territory added to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span></li>
-<li class="isub1">wars in, <i>see specific wars</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">States;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>individual colonies/States and regions</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ColumbiaUniversity">Columbia University (King’s College), N.Y., <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing: and colonial protest, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (<i>and see specific signers</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">Britain-Colonies, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Continental Congress regulates, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">embargoes and restrictions on, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">France-Colonies, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in slaves, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in various colonies, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Indian-Colonies, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">individuals other than signers in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">treaties deal with, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_BanksAndBanking">Banks and banking</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_TaxesAndTaxation">Taxes and taxation</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommissionsAndCommissioners">Commissions and commissioners, <i>see individual commissions, governmental bodies, and topics</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommitteeOfFiftyOne">Committee of fifty-one, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommitteeOfOneHundred">Committee of one hundred, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommitteeOfSixty">Committee of sixty, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Committees">Committees, <i>see particular agencies, governmental bodies, topics, and entries immediately preceding and following</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommitteesOfCorrespondence">Committees of correspondence, <a href="#Page_7">7–8</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommitteesOfSafety">Committees of safety, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommonGroundCemeteryRi">Common Ground Cemetery, R.I., <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommonSchools">Common schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommonSense"><cite>Common Sense</cite> (pamphlet), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CommunityAffairsAndPoliticsRoleOfSignersIn">Community affairs and politics, role of signers in, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Companies">Companies, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ComposersMusical">Composers, musical, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MusicAndMusicians">Music and musicians</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConcordAndBattleOfConcordMass">Concord and Battle of Concord, Mass., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConfederacyCivilWar">Confederacy (Civil War), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConfederationsOfColoniesActualAndProposed">Confederations: of Colonies, actual and proposed, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Thirteen States, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArticlesOfConfederationAndPerpetualUnion">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Continental Congress</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Conferences">Conferences, <i>see particular agencies, governmental bodies, and topics</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConfiscationOfLands">Confiscation of lands, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Land">Land</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CongregationalistsAndCongregationalChurch">Congregationalists and Congregational Church, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Congresses">Congresses, colonies/States, <i>see individual colonies/States</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Continental, see Continental Congress;</li>
-<li class="isub1">intercolonial, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesCongress">United States Congress</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CongressHall">Congress Hall (County Court House), Pa., <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CongressionalCemeteryDc">Congressional Cemetery, D.C., <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConnecticutColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">Connecticut (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129–131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144–145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152–153</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164–170</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConnecticutGreatCompromiseInUsConstitutionalConvention">Connecticut (Great) Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConservativesAndConservatism">Conservatives and conservatism, political, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22–23</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45–46</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141–142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">religious, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConsiderationsOnTheNatureAndExtentOfTheLegislativeAuthorityOfTheBritishParliament"><cite>Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament</cite> (tract), <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConstitutionalConventionsAndConstitutionsBritish">Constitutional conventions and constitutions: British, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_GreatBritain">Great Britain</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">colonies/States, <i>see specific colonies/States</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitutionalConvention">United States Constitutional Convention</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalArmy">Continental Army, and signers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99–100</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">battles and campaigns of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Continental Congress regulates, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">created, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Declaration distributed to, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">financed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">inspected, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">leadership of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74–75</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">medical service and conditions in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">recruiting poster of, reproduced, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">recruitment-enlistment for, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">supplied, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–108</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">veterans of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Militia">Militia</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalAssociation">Continental Association, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span></li>
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress (First and Second), adjourns and convenes, <a href="#Page_7">7–8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Adams (John), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Articles of Confederation, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArticlesOfConfederationAndPerpetualUnion">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Bank of North America, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BankOfNorthAmerica">Bank of North America</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Colonies, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and committees of correspondence and safety, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfCorrespondence">Committees of correspondence</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfSafety">Committees of safety</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Cornwallis’ surrender, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Declaration of Independence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Halifax Resolves, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Hancock, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and independence from Britain, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceResolution">Independence resolution</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Indians, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndiansAndIndianAffairs">Indians and Indian affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and maritime matters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Olive Branch Petition, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <i>see particular signers</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and U.S. Constitution, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">book on, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Delegates and delegations to, <i>see individual Delegates and colonies/States and under</i> Counties and parishes;</li>
-<li class="isub1">diplomatic program of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">father-son team in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1" id="g_ContinentalCongressFiscalProblemsAndPoliciesOf">fiscal problems and policies of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49–50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">gathering place for members of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">key days in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">meetingplaces of, <i>front endpaper</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219–221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">memorialized, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">officials of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262–263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">organization and committees/commissions of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49–50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">profiteering in, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–107</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">prominent men not Delegates to, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">regulates commerce, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">representation and voting procedures in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> (<i>and see individual colonies/States</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">sectional rivalries in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">temper and range of political opinion in, <a href="#Page_8">8–9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14–15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately preceding and following, specific colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout this index.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalCurrency">Continental currency, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalLoanOffice">Continental Loan Office, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74–75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ContinentalNavyBoard">Continental Navy Board, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConventionOfSaratoga">Convention of Saratoga, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Saratoga">Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Conventions">Conventions, <i>see individual conventions, colonies/States, and appropriate topics</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ConwayThomasAndConwayCabal">Conway, Thomas, and Conway Cabal, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Coopers">Coopers, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CorbinRichardFatherInLawOfSigner">Corbin, Richard, father-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CornwallisGenCharlesBritishOfficer">Cornwallis, Gen. Charles, British officer, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Corporations">Corporations, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CorrespondenceCommittees">Correspondence, committees/councils of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfCorrespondence">Committees of correspondence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CotonEstateVa">Coton (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CottonPlanters">Cotton planters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Councils">Councils, <i>see particular councils, cities, towns, colonies/States, and appropriate topics</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CouncilsOfCorrespondence">Councils of correspondence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfCorrespondence">Committees of correspondence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CouncilsOfSafety">Councils of safety, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfSafety">Committees of safety</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CountiesAndParishes">Counties and parishes, and committees/councils of correspondence and safety, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfCorrespondence">Committees of correspondence</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfSafety">Committees of safety</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">militia of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Militia">Militia</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">offices in and affairs of, role of signers in, <i>see specific signers</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">send Delegates to Continental Congress, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also individual colonies/States and counties/parishes.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CountingRoomsAndHouses">Counting rooms and houses, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CountyCourtHousePa">County Court House, Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CongressHall">Congress Hall</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Courts">Courts, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CoventryForgePa">Coventry Forge, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CriteriaOfEligibilityOfSitesAndBuildingsForNationalHistoricLandmarkStatus">Criteria of eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark status, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270–271</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CrownBritish">Crown, British, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Great Britain</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CrownPointNy">Crown Point, N.Y., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CumberlandCountyPa">Cumberland County, Pa., <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CurrencyAndMoney">Currency and money, and Continental Congress, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span></li>
-<li class="isub1">British problems with, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Continental, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers raise to further Revolutionary cause, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">speculation in, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_SpeculatorsAndSpeculation">Speculators and speculation</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">status of signers regarding, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WealthAndFinancialStatusOfSigners">Wealth and financial status of signers</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">theory on, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#g_BanksAndBanking">Banks and banking</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_CustomsLawsCollectionAndOfficials">Customs laws, collection, and officials, British and American, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Dana, Richard Henry, Sr., grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DartmouthCollegeNh">Dartmouth College, N.H., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DaughtersOfSigners">Daughters of signers, <i>see particular signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Daughters of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DaughtersOfTheRevolution">Daughters of the Revolution, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DawesWilliamPatriot">Dawes, William, patriot, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeansHouseNj">“Dean’s House,” N.J., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PresidentsHouse">President’s House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeathsOfSignersAgeAtCompared">Deaths of signers: age at, compared, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">earliest, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">latest, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on anniversary of adoption of Declaration, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific signers.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DebtsAndEconomicReversalsOfSigners">Debts and economic reversals of signers, <a href="#Page_36">36–37</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63–64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeclarationByTheRepresentativesOfTheUnitedStatesOfAmericaInGeneralCongressAssembledA">“Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress Assembled” (A), <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence, and Adams (John), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Va. constitution, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">anniversary of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">author of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_JeffersonThomas">Jefferson, Thomas</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">books on, <a href="#Page_268">268–269</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">broadside copies of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">building, residence, and rooms involved in creation of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <i>rear endpaper</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">celebrated and read publicly, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">contents and style of, analyzed, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">debated, altered, adopted, and signed, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219–220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> (<i>and see individual signers</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">desk written on, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">displayed, in various places, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262–267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">displayed, photo of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">drafted, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57–58</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">drafting committee of, illus. of, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historical background and origins of, <a href="#Page_3">3–24</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">history of document, <a href="#Page_262">262–267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Jefferson presents to Hancock, in mural, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">misconceptions concerning, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">newspapers describe and publish, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">parchment copy of, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262–267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">parchment copy of, facsimile of, reproduced, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">political philosophy of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">preamble of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">predicted, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">presented to Continental Congress, illus. of, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">printed and distributed, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">reflects unanimity, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">revised draft of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">rough draft of, illus. of first page of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">rough drafts of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signatures on, order and nature of, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_SignersOfTheDeclaration">Signers of the Declaration</a> <i>and specific signers</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">significance and influence of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">text of, reprinted, <a href="#Page_259">259–262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">titles of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">traditions concerning, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_IndependenceResolution">Independence resolution</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeclarationOfIndependenceThePaintingReproduced">“Declaration of Independence” (The) (painting), reproduced, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeclarationOfRights">“Declaration of Rights,” <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Rights">Rights</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DegreesAcademicAndHonorarySignersEarn">Degrees, academic and honorary, signers earn, <i>see individual signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Deists">Deists, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Delaware">Delaware (Three Lower Counties) (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100–102</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118–121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DelawareCountyPa">Delaware County, Pa., <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Delegates">Delegates, <i>see particular legislative bodies and appropriate topics</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Democracy">Democracy, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also appropriate related topics throughout this index.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DemocraticRepublicansAndDemocraticRepublicanParty">Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61–62</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Jeffersonians">Jeffersonians</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DepartmentsOfUsGovernment">Departments of U.S. Government, <i>see appropriate departments following</i> United States</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DerryVillageNh">Derry Village, N.H., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DescendantsOfSignersAchieveDistinction">Descendants of signers, achieve distinction, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific signers and   individuals</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DescendantsOfTheSignersOfTheDeclarationOfIndependenceInc">Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Inc., <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeshlerMorrisHousePa">Deshler-Morris House, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeshonChristopherMerchant">Deshon, Christopher, merchant, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DeshonCatonCarrollHouseMd">Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <i><a href="#Page_183">183–185</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DickinsonJohnLawyerLegislator">Dickinson, John, lawyer-legislator, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DickinsonCollegePa">Dickinson College, Pa., <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DinwiddieRobertBritishOfficial">Dinwiddie, Robert, British official, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193–196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DiseaseSicknessAndPhysicalAfflictionsOfSigners">Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers, <i>see particular signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DistrictCourtsUs">District courts, U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DistrictOfColumbia">District of Columbia, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WashingtonDc">Washington, D.C.</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DoctorsMedicalEducationMedicalPracticeAndHospitals">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39–40</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123–127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1">On the health of individual signers, <i>see specific signers.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DorchesterMass">Dorchester, Mass., <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DorchesterSc">Dorchester, S.C., <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DoricArchitecturalStyle">Doric architectural style, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DoubleHouse">“Double house,” <a href="#Page_233">233–234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DoughoreganManorMd">Doughoregan Manor, Md., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <i><a href="#Page_185">185–186</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DoverDel">Dover, Del., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DownHatherlyVillageEngland">Down Hatherly (village), England, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DraftingOfArticlesOfConfederation">Drafting, of Articles of Confederation, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArticlesOfConfederationAndPerpetualUnion">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Declaration, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of key State documents, <i>see individual States</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of U.S. Constitution, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DraftsVariousOfDeclaration">Drafts, various, of Declaration, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DublinIreland">Dublin, Ireland, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Duels">Duels, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DukeOfLeinster">Duke of Leinster, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DunmoreLordJohnMBritishOfficial">Dunmore, Lord John M., British official, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_DurhamFurnacePa">Durham Furnace, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Dutch">Dutch, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Holland">Holland</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Duties">Duties, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CustomsLawsCollectionAndOfficials">Customs laws, collection, and officials</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">East Cemetery, Conn., <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EastRiver">East River, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EastWindsorConn">East Windsor, Conn., <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EasternShore">Eastern Shore, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Maryland">Maryland</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EastonPa">Easton, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EastonCemeteryPa">Easton Cemetery, Pa., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EconomicMatters">Economic matters, <i>see mainly</i> <a href="#g_BanksAndBanking">Banks and banking</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EconomicStatusOfSigners">Economic status of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WealthAndFinancialStatusOfSigners">Wealth and financial status of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EdentonNc">Edenton, N.C., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EdgeGovNjAndMrsWalterEAndMorven">Edge, Gov. (N.J.) and Mrs. Walter E., and Morven, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EdinburghScotland">Edinburgh, Scotland, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Education">Education, and Jefferson, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Lowell, <a href="#Page_195">195–196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">classical, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in chemistry, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in various colonies/States, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">legal, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">medical, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DoctorsMedicalEducationMedicalPracticeAndHospitals">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of signers, compared, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> (<i>and see specific signers</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">reform of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">religious, in public schools, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> (<i>and see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers further as teachers, professors, and administrators, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_CollegesAndUniversities">Colleges and universities</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ElectionsAndElectiveOfficials">Elections and elective officials, <i>see particular legislative bodies, offices, individuals, and colonies/States</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ElectorsPresidential">Electors, presidential, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesPresidentsAndPresidency">United States Presidents and Presidency</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ElementarySchools">Elementary schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EligibilityOfSitesAndBuildingsForNationalHistoricLandmarkStatus">Eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark status, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ElizabethCityCountyVa">Elizabeth City County, Va., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ElleryWilliamSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Ellery, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_51">51–52</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Elmwood">Elmwood (Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House), Mass., <i><a href="#Page_195">195–197</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ElsingGreenEstateVa">Elsing Green (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <i><a href="#Page_240">240–242</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EmancipationOfSlaves">Emancipation of slaves, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Embargoes">Embargoes, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EmleyJohn">Emley, John, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Imlay">Imlay, John</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EnglandAndEnglishmen">England and Englishmen, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Great Britain</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EnglishLanguageAndLiterature">English language and literature, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Literature">Literature and literary figures</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Epidemics">Epidemics, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DoctorsMedicalEducationMedicalPracticeAndHospitals">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EsopusNy">Esopus, N.Y., <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EssaysAndEssayists">Essays and essayists, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EssaysLiteraryMoralAndPhilosophical"><cite>Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical</cite> (book), <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EssexCountyNj">Essex County, N.J., <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EtonSchoolEngland">Eton (school), England, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_EuropeAn">Europe, and <cite>Poor Richard’s Almanac</cite>, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">architecture in, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">capital from, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">colonists from, and western lands, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">culture of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">medical students from, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers visit and study in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">U.S. diplomats in, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy.</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific countries.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ExcavationArcheological">Excavation, archeological, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ExceptionalValueSitesAndBuildingsOf">“Exceptional value,” sites and buildings of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ExciseTaxes">Excise taxes, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_TaxesAndTaxation">Taxes and taxation</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ExeterNh">Exeter, N.H., <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ExhibitionHallNationalArchivesBuildingDc">Exhibition Hall (National Archives Building, D.C.), <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Exports">Exports, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Facsimiles of Declaration, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FairfaxCountyVa">Fairfax County, Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FamiliesOfSignersSufferDuringWarForIndependence">Families of signers, suffer during War for Independence, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71–72</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94–95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104–105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific signers and families.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FarmsAndFarming">Farms and farming: and signers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210–211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212–213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in various areas, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FarmvilleVa">Farmville, Va., <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Federal">Federal, <i>see United States entries and those immediately following</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FederalCity">Federal City, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WashingtonDc">Washington, D.C.</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FederalHall">Federal Hall (old City Hall), New York City, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FederalPeriodArchitectureAndLiterature">Federal period architecture and literature, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FederalistsAndFederalistParty">Federalists and Federalist Party, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_HamiltonAlexanderAndHamiltonians">Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Ferries">Ferries, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FinancialMatters">Financial matters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CurrencyAndMoney">Currency and money</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_WealthAndFinancialStatusOfSigners">Wealth and financial status of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FinianEstateNc">Finian (estate), N.C., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FinnsAndFinland">Finns and Finland, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FireIslandNationalSeashoreNy">Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210–212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FiresAndHistoricSites">Fires, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FirstBankOfTheUnitedStates">First Bank of the United States, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BankOfTheUnitedStates">Bank of the United States</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FirstBankOfTheUnitedStatesBuildingPa">First Bank of the United States Building, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FirstBaptistChurchNj">First Baptist Church, N.J., <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FirstContinentalCongress">First Continental Congress, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FirstPresbyterianChurchCemeteryPa">First Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Pa., <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FirstSouthCarolinaRegimentOfContinentals">First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FiscalMatters">Fiscal matters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CurrencyAndMoney">Currency and money</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloorPlans">Floor plans, <i>see specific houses</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloridaRegionAndState">Florida (region and State), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydMrsWilliamFirstWifeOfSigner">Floyd, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydMrsWilliamSecondWifeOfSigner">Floyd, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydNicollSonOfSigner">Floyd, Nicoll, son of signer, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydWilliamSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Floyd, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_53">53–54</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_210">210–213</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydBirthplaceFireIslandNationalSeashoreNy">Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <i><a href="#Page_210">210–212</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydFamilyAndDescendants">Floyd family and descendants, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210–213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FloydGeneralHouseNy">Floyd (General) House, N.Y., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GeneralFloydHouse">General Floyd House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FlushingNy">Flushing, N.Y., <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FoodShortages">Food shortages, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ForeignAffairs">Foreign affairs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ForeignBornSigners">Foreign born signers, <a href="#Page_27">27–28</a> (<i>and see particular signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FormationOfTheUnionExhibit">“Formation of the Union” exhibit, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FortKnoxKy">Fort Knox, Ky., <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FortOswegoNy">Fort Oswego, N.Y., <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FortStanwixNySecondTreatyOf">Fort Stanwix, N.Y., Second Treaty of (<i>1784</i>), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FortWilsonResidencePa">“Fort Wilson” (residence), Pa., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FoundationsHistoricAndHistoricSites">Foundations, historic, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FoundersMonumentGa">Founders’ Monument, Ga., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_SignersMonument">Signers’ Monument</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FranceAndDemocraticRepublicans">France, and Democratic-Republicans, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span></li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and War for Independence, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">artist-engineer from, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">cedes land to Britain, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">commerce of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">fortress of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">loans money to Continental Congress, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">revolution in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">undeclared war of, with U.S., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wallpaper from, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wars of, <i>see specific wars</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NewFrance">New France</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FranklinBenjaminSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Franklin, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <i><a href="#Page_55">55–58</a></i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FranklinJamesHalfBrotherOfSigner">Franklin, James, half-brother of signer, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FranklinCollegeGa">Franklin College, Ga., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FranklinStoves">Franklin stoves, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FrederickAndFrederickCountyMd">Frederick and Frederick County, Md., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FrenchAndIndianWar">French and Indian War, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FrenchLanguage">French language, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FrenchRevolution">French Revolution, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FriendsMeetingHouseCemeteryNj">Friends Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FrontierAndFrontiersmen">Frontier and frontiersmen, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FullingMills">Fulling mills, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_FurnitureAndFurnishingsAssociatedWithSignersCollectively">Furniture and furnishings, associated with signers, collectively, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also individual sites.</i></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Gadsden, Christopher, legislator, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GageGenThomasBritishOfficerOfficial">Gage, Gen. Thomas, British officer-official, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GallowayJohnLoyalist">Galloway, John, Loyalist, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GardensFamous">Gardens, famous, <a href="#Page_236">236–237</a>. <i>See also specific sites.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GarrisonHouse">Garrison house, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeneralFloydHouse">General Floyd House, N.Y., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <i><a href="#Page_212">212–213</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeneralServicesAdministrationUs">General Services Administration (U.S.), <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesGeneralServicesAdministration">United States General Services Administration</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgeIiKingOfEngland">George II, King of England, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgeIiiKingOfEngland">George III, King of England, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgeTaylorChapterDaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgetownAndGeorgetownCountySc">Georgetown and Georgetown County, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgiaColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">Georgia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62–67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140–142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173–177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgiaStateSocietyDaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Georgia State Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GeorgianArchitecturalStyle">Georgian architectural style, <a href="#Page_176">176–178</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181–183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185–191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194–198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206–213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218–219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226–227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229–234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239–249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251–256</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GermanEvangelicalLutheranChurchPa">German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Pa., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GermansAndGermany">Germans and Germany, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GermantownAndBattleOfGermantownPa">Germantown and Battle of Germantown, Pa., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GermantownPaHistoricalSociety">Germantown (Pa.) Historical Society, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GerryElbridgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Gerry, Elbridge (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <i><a href="#Page_59">59–62</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_195">195–198</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GerryMrsElbridgeWifeOfSigner">Gerry, Mrs. Elbridge, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_61">61–62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GerryThomasFatherOfSigner">Gerry, Thomas, father of signer, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GerryBirthplaceMass">Gerry Birthplace, Mass., <i><a href="#Page_197">197–198</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GerryFamily">Gerry family, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Gerrymander">“Gerrymander,” <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GiffordVillageScotland">Gifford (village), Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GlamorganshireWales">Glamorganshire, Wales, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GlasgowScotland">Glasgow, Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GloriaDei">Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church National Historic Site, Pa., <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GloucestershireEngland">Gloucestershire, England, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GodSaveTheKingBritishNationalAnthem">“God save the King” (British national anthem), <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GodSaveTheThirteenStatesSong">“God save the thirteen States” (song), <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GoochlandCountyVa">Goochland County, Va., <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GovernorHopkinsHouse">Governor Hopkins House, R.I., <i><a href="#Page_231">231–232</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GovernorHuntingtonHouseConn">Governor Huntington House, Conn., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_HuntingtonHouse">Huntington House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Governors">Governors, <i>see specific colonies/States and individuals</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GraceEpiscopalChurchVa">Grace Episcopal Church, Va., <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GraffJacobJrHouse">Graff, Jacob, Jr., House, Pa.: and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">illus. of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <i>rear endpaper</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GrahamGovNcWilliamAAndNashHooperHouse">Graham, Gov. (N.C.) William A., and Nash-Hooper House, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GrammarSchools">Grammar schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GranvilleCountyNc">Granville County, N.C., <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GravesGraveyardsAndGravestones">Graves, graveyards, and gravestones, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CemeteriesAndBurialPlaces">Cemeteries and burial places</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GreatBritain">Great Britain, agents of various American colonies in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Federalists, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Ga., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Liberty Bell, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and slave trade, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span></li>
-<li class="isub1">Army of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a> <i>and specific wars</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Bank of England in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">clashes with American Colonies, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">colonies of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Commonwealth of Nations of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">“conspiracy” in, <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">constitution of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">creditors in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">debtors in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Empire of, and Colonies, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">financial problems of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">France cedes lands to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">grants lands, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">kings of, <i>see specific kings</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">national anthem of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">navy of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Parliament of, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">people of, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">recognizes U.S. independence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_TreatyOfParis">Treaty of Paris</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">reorganization of imperial structure of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Revolutionary tracts circulate in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">rights of citizens of, <a href="#Page_8">8–9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ties of, to American Colonies, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">trade of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">treasury of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wars of, <i>see specific wars</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_IrishIrelandAndScotchIrish">Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_ScotsScotlandAndScotchIrish">Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_WalesAndWelshmen">Wales and Welshmen</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and other appropriate topics throughout this index</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GreatCompromiseInUsConstitutionalConvention">Great Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GreekLanguage">Greek language, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GreekRevivalArchitecturalStyle">Greek Revival architectural style, <a href="#Page_164">164–165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199–201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203–204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207–208</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Greenland">Greenland, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GreensboroNc">Greensboro, N.C., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GreenwichForgeAndGreenwichTownshipNj">Greenwich Forge and Greenwich Township, N.J., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GrievancesColonial">Grievances, colonial, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GristMills">Grist mills, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GroveStreetCemeteryConn">Grove Street Cemetery, Conn., <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GuilfordCourthouseNationalMilitaryParkNc">Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GunsAndGunpowder">Guns and gunpowder, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArmsAmmunitionAndOrdnance">Arms, ammunition, and ordnance</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GwinnettButtonSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Gwinnett, Button (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_27">27–28</a>, <i><a href="#Page_62">62–64</a></i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <i><a href="#Page_176">176–177</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_GwinnettMrsButtonWifeOfSigner">Gwinnett, Mrs. Button, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">H-shaped buildings, <a href="#Page_251">251–253</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253–255</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HabreDeVentureEstateMd">Habre-de-Venture (estate), Md., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <i><a href="#Page_186">186–188</a></i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HackneySchoolEngland">Hackney School, England, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HaddingtonTownAndHaddingtonPresbyteryScotland">Haddington (town) and Haddington Presbytery, Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HagueTownVa">Hague (town), Va., <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HailColumbiaSong">“Hail Columbia” (song), <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HalifaxResolves">Halifax Resolves, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HallLymanSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Hall, Lyman (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <i><a href="#Page_65">65–67</a></i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HallMrsLymanFirstWifeOfSigner">Hall, Mrs. Lyman, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HallMrsLymanSecondWifeOfSigner">Hall, Mrs. Lyman, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HallRevSamuelUncleOfSigner">Hall, Rev. Samuel, uncle of signer, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HallFamily">Hall family, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HallsKnollEstateGa">Hall’s Knoll (estate), Ga., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HamiltonAlexanderAndHamiltonians">Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_FederalistsAndFederalistParty">Federalists and Federalist Party</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HamiltonAndrewLawyerArchitect">Hamilton, Andrew, lawyer-architect, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HamptonVa">Hampton, Va., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HancockJohnSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Hancock, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <i><a href="#Page_67">67–69</a></i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <i><a href="#Page_198">198–199</a></i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HancockJohnGeorgeWashingtonSonOfSigner">Hancock, John George Washington, son of signer, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HancockRevJohnGrandfatherOfSigner">Hancock, Rev. John, grandfather of signer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HancockThomasUncleOfSigner">Hancock, Thomas, uncle of signer, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HancockClarkeHouseMass">Hancock-Clarke House, Mass., <i><a href="#Page_198">198–199</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HancockFamily">Hancock family, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HanoverCountyVa">Hanover County, Va., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarfordCountyMd">Harford County, Md., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarperFamily">Harper family, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonBenjaminIvFatherOfSigner">Harrison, Benjamin IV, father of signer, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonBenjaminV">Harrison, Benjamin V (signer) (“Falstaff of Congress”), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <i><a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_239">239–240</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonBenjaminViSonOfSigner">Harrison, Benjamin VI, son of signer, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonBenjaminGreatGrandsonOfSignerAndPresident">Harrison, Benjamin, great-grandson of signer and President, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonJosephHLegislator">Harrison, Joseph H., legislator, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonMrsBenjaminVWifeOfSigner">Harrison, Mrs. Benjamin V, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonWilliamHenrySonOfSignerAndPresident">Harrison, William Henry, son of signer and President, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonFamily">Harrison family, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarrisonsLandingVa">Harrison’s Landing, Va., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HartJohn">Hart, John (signer) (“Honest John”), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_71">71–72</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HartMrsJohnWifeOfSigner">Hart, Mrs. John, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HarvardCollegeAndUniversityMass">Harvard College and University, Mass., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HayesPlantationNc">Hayes Plantation, N.C., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HealthOfSigners">Health of signers, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HenryPatrickCareerOf">Henry, Patrick, career of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeraldicEmblems">Heraldic emblems, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Hessians">Hessians, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GermansAndGermany">Germans and Germany</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HewesJosephSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Hewes, Joseph (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <i><a href="#Page_73">73–75</a></i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <i><a href="#Page_206">206</a></i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeywardDanielFatherOfSigner">Heyward, Daniel, father of signer, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeywardMrsThomasJrFirstWifeOfSigner">Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeywardMrsThomasJrSecondWifeOfSigner">Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeywardThomasJrSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Heyward, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_75">75–76</a></i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <i><a href="#Page_233">233–234</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeywardFamily">Heyward family, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HeywardWashingtonHouseSc">Heyward-Washington House, S.C., <i><a href="#Page_233">233–234</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HigherEducation">Higher education, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CollegesAndUniversities">Colleges and universities</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HillsTheEstatePa">Hills, The (estate), Pa., <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HillsboroughNc">Hillsborough, N.C., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoriansAndHistoriography">Historians and historiography, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately following</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricAnnapolisInc">Historic Annapolis, Inc., <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricDistricts">Historic Districts, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricFoundationsAndHistoricSites">Historic foundations, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterOf">Historic Places, National Register of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalRegisterOfHistoricPlaces">National Register of Historic Places</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricPreservationActivitiesAndProblems">Historic preservation activities and problems, <a href="#Page_159">159–162</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately preceding and following</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricSitesAndBuildingsOfNationalSignificance">Historic sites and buildings of national significance, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HistoricalSocietiesStateAndLocalAndHistoricPreservation">Historical societies, State and local: and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Historiography">Historiography, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_HistoriansAndHistoriography">Historians and historiography</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HobanJamesArchitect">Hoban, James, architect, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Holland">Holland (Dutch Republic; Netherlands), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HomesOfSigners">Homes of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ResidencesOfSigners">Residences of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HomesteadThePa">“Homestead” (The), Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Byberry">Byberry</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HoneymoonCottageVa">“Honeymoon Cottage,” Va., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HooperMrsWilliamWifeOfSigner">Hooper, Mrs. William, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HooperRevWilliamFatherOfSigner">Hooper, Rev. William, father of signer, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HooperWilliamSignerProphetOfIndependenceCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Hooper, William (signer) (“Prophet of Independence”), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_77">77–79</a></i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <i><a href="#Page_214">214–216</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopewellNj">Hopewell, N.J., <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsAldenDescendantOfSigner">Hopkins, Alden, descendant of signer, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsEsekBrotherOfSigner">Hopkins, Esek, brother of signer, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsMrsStephenFirstWifeOfSigner">Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsMrsStephenSecondWifeOfSigner">Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsStephenSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Hopkins, Stephen (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <i><a href="#Page_79">79–81</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_231">231–232</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsGovernorHouseRi">Hopkins (Governor) House, R.I., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GovernorHopkinsHouse">Governor Hopkins House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsonFrancisSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Hopkinson, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_81">81–83</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_204">204–205</a></i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsonJosephSonOfSigner">Hopkinson, Joseph, son of signer, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsonMrsFrancisWifeOfSigner">Hopkinson, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsonFamily">Hopkinson family, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopkinsonHouseNj">Hopkinson House, N.J., <i><a href="#Page_204">204–205</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HopseweeOnTheSanteePlantationSc">Hopsewee-on-the-Santee (plantation), S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <i><a href="#Page_234">234–236</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Horses">Horses, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Hospitals">Hospitals, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DoctorsMedicalEducationMedicalPracticeAndHospitals">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HouseOfBurgesses">House of Burgesses, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_VirginiaHouseOfBurgesses">Virginia House of Burgesses</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HowardCountyMd">Howard County, Md., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HoweLordRichardBritishAdmiral">Howe, Lord Richard, British admiral, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HoweSirWilliamBritishOfficer">Howe, Sir William, British officer, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HumanitariansAndReformers">Humanitarians and reformers, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123–126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HumphreysCharlesLegislator">Humphreys, Charles, legislator, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HunterdonCountyNj">Hunterdon County, N.J., <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HuntingtonMrsSamuelWifeOfSigner">Huntington, Mrs. Samuel, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HuntingtonSamuelSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Huntington, Samuel (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_83">83–84</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_164">164–166</a></i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HuntingtonBirthplaceConn">Huntington Birthplace, Conn., <i><a href="#Page_164">164–165</a></i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_HuntingtonHouse">Huntington House (Governor Huntington House), Conn., <i><a href="#Page_165">165–166</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Illnesses of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiseaseSicknessAndPhysicalAfflictionsOfSigners">Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Imlay">Imlay (Emley), John, merchant, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ImmanuelEpiscopalChurchyardDel">Immanuel Episcopal Churchyard, Del., <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Impeachment">Impeachment, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Imports">Imports, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Imprisonment">Imprisonment, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PrisonsPrisonersAndPrisonersOfWar">Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_InaugurationsAndInauguralAddressesOfUsPresidents">Inaugurations and inaugural addresses of U.S. Presidents, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesPresidentsAndPresidency">United States Presidents and Presidency</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndenturedServants">Indentured servants, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceDayUs">Independence Day (U.S.), <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceHall">Independence Hall (State House for the Province of Pennsylvania), Pa., <i>front endpaper</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <i><a href="#Page_217">217–226</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceMallPa">Independence Mall, Pa., <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement (U.S.) and British-colonial clash: and Adams (John), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Adams (Samuel), <a href="#Page_36">36–38</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and British Parliament, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Continental Congress, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and R.I., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Va., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">British actions and postures during, <a href="#Page_3">3–156</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">colonial grievances, protests, and actions during, <a href="#Page_3">3–156</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189–190</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259–262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">fathers of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">fruition and celebration of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">outcome of, predicted, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">public attitudes toward, <a href="#Page_22">22–23</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">range of reaction to, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ConservativesAndConservatism">Conservatives and conservatism</a>, <a href="#g_LoyalistsAndTories">Loyalists and Tories</a>, <a href="#g_Moderates">Moderates</a>, <i>and</i> <a href="#g_RadicalsAndRadicalism">Radicals and radicalism</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">results in war, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers’ role in, <i>see individual signers</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">timing of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_IndependenceResolution">Independence resolution</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>specific colonies/States</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceNationalHistoricalParkPa">Independence National Historical Park, Pa., <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <i><a href="#Page_216">216–226</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceResolution">Independence resolution (U.S.), background, introduction, and adoption of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15–18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120–121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndependenceSquarePa">Independence Square, Pa., <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndiansAndIndianAffairs">Indians and Indian affairs, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152–153</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Indigo">Indigo, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndigoSocietySchoolSc">Indigo Society School, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IndividualsAndHistoricPreservation">Individuals, and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> (<i>and see particular sites</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">rights of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Rights">Rights</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Inflation">Inflation, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_InsaneAndInsanity">Insane and insanity, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IntellectualsAndIntellectualLife">Intellectuals and intellectual life, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IntercolonialAffairs">Intercolonial affairs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_InterstateDisputes">Interstate disputes, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_States">States</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_InventorsAndInvention">Inventors and invention, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IonicArchitecturalStyle">Ionic architectural style, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IredellJamesUsSupremeCourtJustice">Iredell, James, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IredellMrsJamesAndCertainSigners">Iredell, Mrs. James, and certain signers, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IredellHouseNc">Iredell House, N.C., <i><a href="#Page_213">213–214</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IrishIrelandAndScotchIrish">Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_IronAndIronManufacturing">Iron and iron manufacturing, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Iroquois">Iroquois (Six Indian Nations) Indians, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ItalyAndItalians">Italy and Italians, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Jacob Graff, Jr., House, Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GraffJacobJrHouse">Graff, Jacob, Jr., House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Jails">Jails, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PrisonsPrisonersAndPrisonersOfWar">Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JamesRiver">James River, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JasperCountySc">Jasper County, S.C., <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JayJohnDiplomat">Jay, John, diplomat, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonMarthaDaughterOfSigner">Jefferson, Martha, daughter of signer, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonMrsThomasWifeOfSigner">Jefferson, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonPeterFatherOfSigner">Jefferson, Peter, father of signer, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonThomas">Jefferson, Thomas (signer and author of Declaration), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <i><a href="#Page_85">85–90</a></i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <i><a href="#Page_170">170–173</a></i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <i><a href="#Page_243">243–245</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_249">249–251</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_253">253–255</a></i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <i>rear endpaper</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Jeffersonians">Jeffersonians</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonFamily">Jefferson family, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonThomasMemorialDc">Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial, D.C., <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonThomasMemorialFoundation">Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial Foundation, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JeffersonPapers">Jefferson Papers, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Jeffersonians">Jeffersonians, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#g_DemocraticRepublicansAndDemocraticRepublicanParty">Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Jersey"><i>Jersey</i> (ship), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Jesuits">Jesuits, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_RomanCatholicChurch">Roman Catholic Church</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JohnAdamsBirthplaceMass">John Adams Birthplace, Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsJohnBirthplace">Adams (John) Birthplace</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JohnQuincyAdamsBirthplaceMass">John Quincy Adams Birthplace, Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsJohnQuincyBirthplace">Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JohnsonThomasLawyer">Johnson, Thomas, lawyer, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JonesJohnPaulNavalOfficer">Jones, John Paul, naval officer, <a href="#Page_74">74–75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_JudgesJudicialMattersAndJurisprudence">Judges, judicial matters, and jurisprudence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Kent County, Del., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingAndQueenCountyVa">King and Queen County, Va., <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingGeorgesWar">King George’s War, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingWilliamCountyAndKingWilliamCourthouseVa">King William County and King William Courthouse, Va., <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Kings">Kings, denounced, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> (<i>and see specific kings</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingsAttorneys">King’s Attorneys, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingsCollegeNy">King’s College, N.Y., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ColumbiaUniversity">Columbia University</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingstonNh">Kingston, N.H., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KingstonNy">Kingston, N.Y., <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_KitteryMaine">Kittery, Maine, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Ladd family, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LafayetteMarquisDeVisitsUs">Lafayette, Marquis de, visits U.S., <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LakeGeorge">Lake George, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LancasterPa">Lancaster, Pa., <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Land">Land, and signers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">interstate disputes over, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Loyalist, confiscated, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">major grants of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">speculation in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LandmarksNationalHistoric">Landmarks, National Historic, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Languages">Languages, <i>see specific languages</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LatinLanguage">Latin language, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LatrobeBenjaminHArchitect">Latrobe, Benjamin H., architect, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LaurelHillCemeteryPa">Laurel Hill Cemetery, Pa., <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LaurensHenryLegislator">Laurens, Henry, legislator, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LawsAndLawyers">Laws and lawyers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LearnedSocieties">Learned societies, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218–226</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LebanonConn">Lebanon, Conn., <a href="#Page_144">144–145</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeArthurBrotherOfSigners">Lee, Arthur, brother of signers, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeFrancisLightfootSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Lee, Francis Lightfoot (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_90">90–91</a></i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <i><a href="#Page_242">242–243</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_246">246–247</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_251">251–253</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeHenryColLighthorseHarryRelativeOfSigners">Lee, Henry (Col. “Lighthorse Harry”), relative of signers, <a href="#Page_251">251–252</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeMatildaNieceOfSigners">Lee, Matilda, niece of signers, <a href="#Page_251">251–252</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeMrsFrancisLightfootWifeOfSigner">Lee, Mrs. Francis Lightfoot, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeMrsRichardHenryFirstWifeOfSigner">Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeMrsRichardHenrySecondWifeOfSigner">Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeePhilipLudwellBrotherOfSigners">Lee, Philip Ludwell, brother of signers, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeRichardHenrySignerAndSponsorOfIndependenceResolutionCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Lee, Richard Henry (signer and sponsor of independence resolution), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_15">15–16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <i><a href="#Page_92">92–94</a></i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <i><a href="#Page_251">251–253</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeRichardHenryGrandsonOfSigner">Lee, Richard Henry, grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeRobertEConfederateOfficer">Lee, Robert E., Confederate officer, <a href="#Page_251">251–253</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeThomasFatherOfSigners">Lee, Thomas, father of signers, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeThomasLudwellBrotherOfSigners">Lee, Thomas Ludwell, brother of signers, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeWilliamBrotherOfSigners">Lee, William, brother of signers, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeFamily">Lee family, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251–253</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeeRobertEMemorialFoundationInc">Lee (Robert E.) Memorial Foundation, Inc., <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeesburgVa">Leesburg, Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence: admiralty, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and colonial protests, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and slaves, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">codes for, State, compiled and revised, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">famous trials in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Federal, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">impeachment in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">individuals other than signers practice, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">political partisanship in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></li>
-<li class="isub1">schools teach, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers study and practice, <i>see specific signers</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also particular laws.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LegislaturesColonialProvincialAndStateRoleOfInIndependenceMovement">Legislatures, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence movement, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers serve in, <i>see individual signers</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific colonies/States.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LehighCountyPaHistoricalSociety">Lehigh County (Pa.) Historical Society, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LehighRiver">Lehigh River, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LeinsterDukeOf">Leinster, Duke of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LenfantMajPierreCharlesArtistEngineerArchitect">L’Enfant, Maj. Pierre Charles, artist-engineer-architect, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LettersOfTheFederalFarmerToTheRepublican">“Letters of the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LewisFrancisSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Lewis, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <i><a href="#Page_94">94–96</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LewisMrsFrancisWifeOfSigner">Lewis, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LexingtonAndBattleOfLexingtonMass">Lexington and Battle of Lexington, Mass., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LexingtonMassHistoricalSociety">Lexington (Mass.) Historical Society, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LibertyBell">Liberty Bell, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LibertyCountyGa">Liberty County, Ga., <a href="#Page_65">65–66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Libraries">Libraries, public and private, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–265</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LibraryCompanyOfPhiladelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LibraryHallPa">Library Hall, Pa., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LibraryOfCongress">Library of Congress, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–265</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LinlithgoNy">Linlithgo, N.Y., <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LitchfieldLitchfieldHistoricDistrictAndLitchfieldCountyConn">Litchfield, Litchfield Historic District, and Litchfield County, Conn., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Literature">Literature (English and American) and literary figures, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36–37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81–83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123–126</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195–196</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LiverpoolEngland">Liverpool, England, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LivingstonMrsPhilipMotherOfSigner">Livingston, Mrs. Philip, mother of signer, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LivingstonMrsPhilipWifeOfSigner">Livingston, Mrs. Philip, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_96">96–97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LivingstonPhilipFatherOfSigner">Livingston, Philip, father of signer, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LivingstonPhilipSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Livingston, Philip (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_96">96–98</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LivingstonRobertRHelpsDraftDeclaration">Livingston, Robert R., helps draft Declaration, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LivingstonManorNy">Livingston Manor, N.Y., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LlandaffCityWales">Llandaff (city), Wales, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LloydEdwardIvPlanterPolitician">Lloyd, Edward IV, planter-politician, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LloydFamily">Lloyd family, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LocalAffairsAndPoliticsRoleOfSignersIn">Local affairs and politics, role of signers in, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LocalGroupsAndHistoricalSocietiesAndHistoricPreservation">Local groups and historical societies, and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LockeJohnBritishPoliticalPhilosopher">Locke, John, British political philosopher, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LondonEngland">London, England, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LondonderryNh">Londonderry, N.H., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LongIslandLongIslandSoundAndBattleOfLongIslandNy">Long Island, Long Island Sound, and Battle of Long Island, N.Y., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LongevityOfSigners">Longevity of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AgeOfSigners">Age of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LordNorthBritishOfficial">Lord North, British official, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LoudounCountyVa">Loudoun County, Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LouisbourgFortressNovaScotia">Louisbourg (fortress), Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LowellJamesRussellCareerOf">Lowell, James Russell, career of, <a href="#Page_195">195–196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LowerCountiesThree">Lower Counties, Three, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Delaware">Delaware</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LoyalistsAndTories">Loyalists and Tories: activities of, in various colonies/States, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22–23</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–54</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">criticized, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">forgiven, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">lands and property of, confiscated, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">legally defended, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">punishment of, recommended, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ridiculed, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LudowiciTile">Ludowici tile, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LutwychesFerryNh">Lutwyche’s Ferry, N.H., <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LynchMrsThomasJrWifeOfSigner">Lynch, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LynchThomasSrFatherOfSigner">Lynch, Thomas, Sr., father of signer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LynchThomasJrSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Lynch, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_99">99–100</a></i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <i><a href="#Page_234">234–236</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_LynchburgVa">Lynchburg, Va., <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Maclean House, N.J., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PresidentsHouse">President’s House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_McclellanGenGeorgeBUnionOfficer">McClellan, Gen. George B., Union officer, <a href="#Page_239">239–240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_McintoshGenLachlanAndSignerGwinnett">McIntosh, Gen. Lachlan, and signer Gwinnett, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MckeanMrsThomasFirstWifeOfSigner">McKean, Mrs. Thomas, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MckeanMrsThomasSecondWifeOfSigner">McKean, Mrs. Thomas, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MckeanThomas">McKean, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <i><a href="#Page_100">100–102</a></i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MadisonJamesPresident">Madison, James, President, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Magistrates">Magistrates, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MailService">Mail service, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Maine">Maine (region and State), history of and historic site in, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177–178</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MalvernHillVaBattleOf">Malvern Hill, Va., Battle of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Manhattan">Manhattan, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NewYorkCityAndNewYorkHarbor">New York City and New York Harbor</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ManorHouses">Manor houses, <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ManorOfChawton">“Manor of Chawton,” <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Manufacturing">Manufacturing, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MarbleheadMass">Marblehead, Mass., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MarineAndMaritimeMatters">Marine and maritime matters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_UnitedStatesNavy">United States Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and foreign navies</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MarineCorpsMuseumPa">Marine Corps Museum, Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NewHall">New Hall</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MaritalStatusOfSignersCompared">Marital status of signers, compared, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> (<i>and see</i> <a href="#g_BachelorSigners">Bachelor signers</a> <i>and individual signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MarshallJohnSupremeCourtJusticeAndSecretaryOfState">Marshall, John, Supreme Court Justice and Secretary of State, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Maryland">Maryland (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43–46</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113–114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179–191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MarylandHistoricalTrust">Maryland Historical Trust, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MasonGeorgeAndDeclarationOfIndependence">Mason, George, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MasonboroSoundNc">Masonboro Sound, N.C., <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Massachusetts">Massachusetts (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–39</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59–62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67–69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115–116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191–199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Maine">Maine</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MasticNy">Mastic, N.Y., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Mathematics">Mathematics, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MatlackTimothyAndDeclarationOfIndependence">Matlack, Timothy, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MattaponiRiver">Mattaponi River, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MayburyHillEstateNj">Maybury Hill (estate), N.J., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MeadowGardenCottageGa">Meadow Garden (cottage), Ga., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <i><a href="#Page_175">175–176</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MedicalInquiriesAndObservationsUponTheDiseasesOfTheMind"><cite>Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind</cite> (book), <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MedicineMedicalPracticeAndMedicalSocieties">Medicine, medical practice, and medical societies, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DoctorsMedicalEducationMedicalPracticeAndHospitals">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MemorialsAndMonumentsToSigners">Memorials and monuments to signers, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific signers.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MenokinEstateVa">Menokin (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <i><a href="#Page_242">242–243</a></i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MenotomyMass">Menotomy, Mass., <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MerchantsAndMercantileFirms">Merchants and mercantile firms, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MerchantsExchangePa">Merchants’ Exchange, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MeredithFamily">Meredith family, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MerricksBrookConn">Merrick’s Brook, Conn., <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MerrimackNh">Merrimack, N.H., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MerrimackRiver">Merrimack River, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddleColonies">Middle Colonies, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonArthurSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Middleton, Arthur (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <i><a href="#Page_103">103–104</a></i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <i><a href="#Page_236">236–237</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonHenriettaSisterOfOneSignerAndWifeOfAnother">Middleton, Henrietta, sister of one signer and wife of another, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonHenryFatherOfOneSignerAndFatherInLawOfAnother">Middleton, Henry, father of one signer and father-in-law of another, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonMrsArthurWifeOfSigner">Middleton, Mrs. Arthur, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonWilliamAndMiddletonPlace">Middleton, William, and Middleton Place, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonFamilyAndDescendants">Middleton family and descendants, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonPlaceEstateSc">Middleton Place (estate), S.C., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <i><a href="#Page_236">236–237</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletonPlaceGardensSc">Middleton Place Gardens, S.C., <a href="#Page_236">236–237</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MiddletownConn">Middletown, Conn., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MidwayTownAndMidwayDistrictGa">Midway (town) and Midway District, Ga., <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MidwayCongregationalChurchGa">Midway Congregational Church, Ga., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MikvehIsraelCemeteryPa">Mikveh Israel Cemetery, Pa., <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MilitaryAffairs">Military affairs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalArmy">Continental Army</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_Militia">Militia</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>specific nations and individuals</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and other appropriate topics throughout this index</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Militia">Militia, of various colonies/States and counties: activities of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers aid and serve in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110–112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120–121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152–153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Mills">Mills, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MinistersDiplomatic">Ministers, diplomatic, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">religious, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MintUs">Mint, U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesMint">United States Mint</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MissionOfSantaCatalinaGa">Mission of Santa Catalina, Ga., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Moderates">Moderates, political, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoffattCatherineMarriesSigner">Moffatt, Catherine, marries signer, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoffattJohnFatherInLawOfSigner">Moffatt, John, father-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoffattSamuelMerchantShipowner">Moffatt, Samuel, merchant-shipowner, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoffattFamily">Moffatt family, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoffattLaddHouseNh">Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H., <i><a href="#Page_201">201–202</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MohawkRiver">Mohawk River, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MonarchsAndMonarchy">Monarchs and monarchy, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Kings">Kings</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MonetaryTheoryAndMoney">Monetary theory and money, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CurrencyAndMoney">Currency and money</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MonmouthCountyNj">Monmouth County, N.J., <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MonocacyRiver">Monocacy River, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MonroeJamesPresident">Monroe, James, President, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Monticello">Monticello (“Little Mountain”) (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <i><a href="#Page_243">243–245</a></i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MontrealCanada">Montreal, Canada, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MonumentsToSigners">Monuments to signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MemorialsAndMonumentsToSigners">Memorials and monuments to signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MooreThomasIrishPoet">Moore, Thomas, Irish poet, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoralityInScotland">Morality, in Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisGouverneurAndMrsRobertMorris">Morris, Gouverneur, and Mrs. Robert Morris, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisLewisSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Morris, Lewis (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_104">104–105</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisMrsLewisWifeOfSigner">Morris, Mrs. Lewis, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisMrsRobertWifeOfSigner">Morris, Mrs. Robert, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisRobert">Morris, Robert (signer) (“Financier of the Revolution”), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <i><a href="#Page_106">106–108</a></i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisLewisFamily">Morris (Lewis) family, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisFolly">“Morris’ Folly” (house), Pa., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisaniaEstateNy">Morrisania (estate), N.Y., <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorrisvilleAndMorrisvilleSchoolDistrictPa">Morrisville and Morrisville School District, Pa., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MortonJohnSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Morton, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <i><a href="#Page_109">109–110</a></i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MortonMrsJohnWifeOfSigner">Morton, Mrs. John, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MortonSketchleySonOfSigner">Morton, Sketchley, son of signer, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MorvenEstateNj">Morven (estate), N.J., <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <i><a href="#Page_207">207–208</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MoultrieGenWilliamArmyOfficer">Moultrie, Gen. William, Army officer, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MountAiryEstateVa">Mount Airy (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <i><a href="#Page_246">246–247</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MountVernonVaConference">Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference (<i>1785</i>), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MunicipalAffairsAndMunicipalities">Municipal affairs and municipalities, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CitiesTownsAndVillages">Cities, towns, and villages</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Museums">Museums, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific historic house museums.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MusicAndMusicians">Music and musicians, <a href="#Page_81">81–83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_MyDaysHaveBeenSoWondrousFreeSong">“My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (song), <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Nash, Francis, and Nash-Hooper House, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NashHooperHouseNc">Nash-Hooper House, N.C., <i><a href="#Page_214">214–216</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NassauHallPrincetonUniversity">Nassau Hall (Princeton University), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalAffairsSignersLackReputationIn">National affairs, signers lack reputation in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116–117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers later take major part in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalArchivesAndRecordsService">National Archives and Records Service, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalArchivesBuildingDc">National Archives Building, D.C., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265–266</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks, described individually, <a href="#Page_164">164–165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168–175</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181–183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185–189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191–193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195–209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212–216</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249–256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">mapped, <i>facing page</i> <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">nature, eligibility, and designation of, <a href="#Page_161">161–163</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270–271</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NationalSurveyOfHistoricSitesAndBuildings">National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalOriginsOfSigners">National origins of signers, compared, <a href="#Page_27">27–28</a> (<i>and see individual signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalParksNationalParkServiceAndNationalParkSystem">National parks, National Park Service, and National Park System: and historic-archeological preservation, <a href="#Page_159">159–162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sites considered for inclusion in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sites in, described individually, <a href="#Page_193">193–195</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210–212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–227</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247–249</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sites in, in National Register, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sites in, mapped, <i>facing page</i> <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NationalRegisterOfHistoricPlaces">National Register of Historic Places</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_NationalSurveyOfHistoricSitesAndBuildings">National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_OfficeOfArcheologyAndHistoricPreservation">Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalRegisterOfHistoricPlaces">National Register of Historic Places, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalRegisterOfHistoricPlaces1972"><cite>National Register of Historic Places, 1972</cite>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalSignificanceOfHistoricSitesAndBuildings">National significance of historic sites and buildings, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalSurveyOfHistoricSitesAndBuildings">National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalSocietyOfColonialDamesOfAmerica">National Society of Colonial Dames of America, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalSocietyOfTheDaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Daughters of the American Revolution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NationalSurveyOfHistoricSitesAndBuildings">National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, purpose and procedures of, <a href="#Page_161">161–162</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NationalHistoricLandmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a>; <a href="#g_OtherSitesConsidered">Other Sites Considered</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NativityOfSigners">Nativity of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NationalOriginsOfSigners">National origins of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Navies">Navies, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_UnitedStatesNavy">United States Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and specific nations</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Negroes">Negroes, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NelsonMrsThomasJrWifeOfSigner">Nelson, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NelsonThomasScotchTomSr">Nelson, Thomas (“Scotch Tom”), Sr., grandfather of signer, <a href="#Page_247">247–248</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NelsonThomasJrSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Nelson, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <i><a href="#Page_110">110–112</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_247">247–249</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NelsonWilliamFatherOfSigner">Nelson, William, father of signer, <a href="#Page_247">247–248</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NelsonFamily">Nelson family, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NelsonHouse">Nelson House (York Hall), Va., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <i><a href="#Page_247">247–249</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Netherlands">Netherlands, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Holland">Holland</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewBernNc">New Bern, N.C., <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewCastleAndNewCastleCountyDel">New Castle and New Castle County, Del., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewEnglandAndNewEnglandArchitecturalStyle">New England and New England architectural style, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific colonies/States.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewEnglandCourant"><cite>New England Courant</cite> (newspaper), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewFrance">New France, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewHall">New Hall (Marine Corps Museum), Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewHampshireColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">New Hampshire (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39–41</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199–204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewHampshireMedicalSociety">New Hampshire Medical Society, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewHavenConn">New Haven, Conn., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewJerseyColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">New Jersey (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47–48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71–72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81–83</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133–135</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–151</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204–210</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewJerseyCollegeOf">New Jersey, College of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PrincetonUniversity">Princeton University</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewLondonAndNewLondonTownshipPa">New London and New London Township, Pa., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewLondonCountyConn">New London County, Conn., <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewMilfordConn">New Milford, Conn., <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewYorkColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">New York (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–54</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94–98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104–105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134–135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210–213</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately following.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewYorkChamberOfCommerce">New York Chamber of Commerce, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewYorkCityAndNewYorkHarbor">New York City and New York Harbor, N.Y., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95–98</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Bronx">Bronx</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_BrooklynAndBrooklynHeights">Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_StatenIsland">Staten Island</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewYorkHospital">New York Hospital, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewYorkSocietyLibraryNy">New York Society Library, N.Y., <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewarkNj">Newark, N.J., <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewburyportMass">Newburyport, Mass., <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewingtonPlantationVa">Newington Plantation, Va., <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewportRi">Newport, R.I., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Newspapers">Newspapers, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NewtonMass">Newton, Mass., <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NokeWilliamArchitect">Noke, William, architect, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NonimportationAgreementsAndMeasures">Nonimportation agreements and measures, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthLordBritishOfficial">North, Lord, British official, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthAmericaBankOf">North America, Bank of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BankOfNorthAmerica">Bank of North America</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthBridgeMass">North Bridge, Mass., <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthBurialGroundRi">North Burial Ground, R.I., <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthCarolina">North Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73–75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116–118</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213–216</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Carolinas">Carolinas</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthEastTownMd">North East (town), Md., <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthSanteeRiver">North Santee River, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthamptonCountyPa">Northampton County, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorthernUnitedStates">Northern United States, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific colonies/States.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NorwichConn">Norwich, Conn., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NotesOnTheStateOfVirginia"><cite>Notes on the State of Virginia</cite> (book), <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_NovaScotiaCanada">Nova Scotia, Canada, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Occupations of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_VocationsOfSigners">Vocations of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OctagonalHousesAndRooms">Octagonal houses and rooms, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249–251</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OfficeOfArcheologyAndHistoricPreservation">Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, programs and activities of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OfficesPoliticalVariousLocalStateAndNationalHeldBySigners">Offices, political, various local, State, and National, held by signers, <i>see individual signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OffleyHooEstateVa">Offley Hoo (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OhioState">Ohio (State), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldBurialGroundConn">Old Burial Ground, Conn., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldCustomHousePa">Old Custom House, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldGranaryBuryingGroundMass">Old Granary Burying Ground, Mass., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldHouseMass">“Old House,” Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsNationalHistoricSite">Adams National Historic Site</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldHousePlantationSc">Old House Plantation, S.C., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldStPaulsCemeteryPa">Old St. Paul’s Cemetery, Pa., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OldSwedesChurchPa">Old Swedes’ Church, Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GloriaDei">Gloria Dei</a> Church National Historic Site</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OliveBranchPetition">Olive Branch Petition, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OliverAndrewBritishOfficial">Oliver, Andrew, British official, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OliverGerryLowellHouseMass">Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Elmwood">Elmwood</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OratorsAndOrations">Orators and orations, and signers, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Ordnance">Ordnance, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArmsAmmunitionAndOrdnance">Arms, ammunition, and ordnance</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Orphans">Orphans, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OtherSitesConsidered">Other Sites Considered, described individually, <a href="#Page_165">165–167</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175–181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183–185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189–191</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197–198</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209–210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213–214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220–228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">nature of, <a href="#Page_161">161–162</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OtisJamesLawyerRadicalLeader">Otis, James, lawyer-radical leader, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_OxfordMd">Oxford, Md., <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Paca, John, son of signer, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PacaMrsWilliamFirstWifeOfSigner">Paca, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PacaMrsWilliamSecondWifeOfSigner">Paca, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PacaWilliamSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Paca, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <i><a href="#Page_113">113–114</a></i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <i><a href="#Page_188">188–189</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PacaFamily">Paca family, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PacaHouseMd">Paca House, Md., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <i><a href="#Page_188">188–189</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaineMrsRobertTreatWifeOfSigner">Paine, Mrs. Robert Treat, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaineRobertTreatSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Paine, Robert Treat (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_115">115–116</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaineRobertTreatSonOfSigner">Paine, Robert Treat, son of signer, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaineRobertTreatGreatGrandsonOfSigner">Paine, Robert Treat, great-grandson of signer, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaineThomasAuthorPatriot">Paine, Thomas, author-patriot, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaintersAndPainting">Painters and painting, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArtAndArtists">Art and artists</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PaisleyTownScotland">Paisley (town), Scotland, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PalladianArchitecturalStyle">Palladian architectural style, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Pamphlets">Pamphlets, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PamunkeyRiver">Pamunkey River, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParchmentCopyOfDeclaration">Parchment copy of Declaration, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParentsOfSigners">Parents of signers, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParisFrance">Paris, France, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_TreatyOfParis">Treaty of Paris</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParishesPolitical">Parishes, political, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CountiesAndParishes">Counties and parishes</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">religious, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParliamentBritishAndColonies">Parliament, British: and Colonies, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParsonsWilliamAndParsonsTaylorHouse">Parsons, William, and Parsons-Taylor House, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ParsonsTaylorHousePa">Parsons-Taylor House, Pa., <i><a href="#Page_226">226–227</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PartiesPolitical">Parties, political, <i>see particular political parties and individuals</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PatentOfficeDc">Patent Office, D.C., <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Patowmack">Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PatrioticCivicOrganizationsAndHistoricSites">Patriotic-civic organizations, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PatriotsAndPatrioticMovement">Patriots and patriotic movement, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PeaceNegotiationsAndTreaties">Peace negotiations and treaties, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Indians and Indian affairs;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and specific treaties</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PeacefieldMass">“Peacefield,” Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsNationalHistoricSite">Adams National Historic Site</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PeachTreePlantationSc">Peach Tree Plantation, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PealeCharlesWillsonArtist">Peale, Charles Willson, artist, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PeggyStewart"><i>Peggy Stewart</i> (ship), <a href="#Page_189">189–190</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PeggyStewartHouse">Peggy Stewart House (Rutland-Peggy Stewart House; Rutland-Stewart-Stone House), Md., <i><a href="#Page_189">189–191</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PembertonHouseArmyNavyMuseumPa">Pemberton House (Army-Navy Museum), Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PenalMatters">Penal matters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PrisonsPrisonersAndPrisonersOfWar">Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PendletonEdmundLawyerPatriot">Pendleton, Edmund, lawyer-patriot, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PeninsularCampaignCivilWar">Peninsular Campaign (Civil War), <a href="#Page_239">239–240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennJohnSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Penn, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_116">116–118</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennMrsJohnWifeOfSigner">Penn, Mrs. John, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennWilliamAndCharterOfPrivileges">Penn, William, and Charter of Privileges, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennJohnFamily">Penn (John) family, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennWilliamFamily">Penn (William) family, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_8">8–9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49–51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55–58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100–102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122–126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132–133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137–138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145–148</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–231</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Delaware">Delaware</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennsylvaniaGazetteThe"><cite>Pennsylvania Gazette (The)</cite> (newspaper), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennsylvaniaHospital">Pennsylvania Hospital, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennsylvaniaSocietyForPromotingTheAbolitionOfSlavery">Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PennsylvaniaStateHouse">Pennsylvania State House, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceHall">Independence Hall</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PersimmonPointGa">Persimmon Point, Ga., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PerthAmboyNj">Perth Amboy, N.J., <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaPa">Philadelphia, Pa., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14–24</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49–50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100–133</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146–148</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–264</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately following.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaAcademyOfFineArts">Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaAgriculturalSociety">Philadelphia Agricultural Society, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaArchitecturalStyle">Philadelphia architectural style, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaBank">Philadelphia Bank, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaBibleSociety">Philadelphia Bible Society, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaCollegeOfPhysicians">Philadelphia College of Physicians, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaDispensary">Philadelphia Dispensary, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaMerchantsExchange">Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaMedicalSociety">Philadelphia Medical Society, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhiladelphiaNationalShrinesParkCommission">Philadelphia National Shrines Park Commission, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhilanthropistsAndPhilanthropy">Philanthropists and philanthropy, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhilosophicalHallPa">Philosophical Hall, Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AmericanPhilosophicalSocietyHall">American Philosophical Society Hall</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PhilosophicalSocietyOfNewportRi">Philosophical Society of Newport, R.I., <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Physicians">Physicians, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiseaseSicknessAndPhysicalAfflictionsOfSigners">Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PiscataquaRiver">Piscataqua River, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PlainfieldAcademyConn">Plainfield Academy, Conn., <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63–64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75–76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236–237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239–256</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and specific plantations.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PoetsAndPoetry">Poets and poetry, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Literature">Literature and literary figures</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PoliticsPoliticiansPoliticalPartiesAndPoliticalTheory">Politics, politicians, political parties, and political theory, <i>see particular political parties, colonies/States, signers, other individuals, and appropriate topics throughout this index</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PollTaxes">Poll taxes, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_TaxesAndTaxation">Taxes and taxation</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PoorRichardsAlmanac"><cite>Poor Richard’s Almanac</cite>, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PoplarForestRetreatVa">Poplar Forest (retreat), Va., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <i><a href="#Page_249">249–251</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PortRoyalIslandSc">Port Royal Island, S.C., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PortTobaccoTownMd">Port Tobacco (town), Md., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PortlandMass">Portland, Mass., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PortraitsOfSigners">Portraits of signers: collection of, discussed, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">collective, reproduced, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">individual, reproduced, <i>see specific signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PortsmouthAndPortsmouthHarborNh">Portsmouth and Portsmouth Harbor, N.H., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PostOfficesAndPostalOfficials">Post offices and postal officials, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MailService">Mail service</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PotomacArmyOfTheCivilWar">Potomac, Army of the (Civil War), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PotomacRiverAndPotomacRiverValley">Potomac River and Potomac River Valley, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PotowmackCompany">Potowmack Company, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Patowmack">Patowmack Company</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PoughkeepsieNy">Poughkeepsie, N.Y., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PowellThomasNewspaperPublisher">Powell, Thomas, newspaper publisher, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PoyntonManorMd">Poynton Manor, Md., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrehistoryAndPrehistoricSites">Prehistory and prehistoric sites, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresbyterianCemeteryNj">Presbyterian Cemetery, N.J., <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresbyterianCemeteryNy">Presbyterian Cemetery, N.Y., <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresbyterianChurchNc">Presbyterian Church, N.C., <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresbyteriansAndPresbyterianChurch">Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–151</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_CalvinistsAndCalvinism">Calvinists and Calvinism</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresidentialElectors">Presidential electors, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesPresidentsAndPresidency">United States Presidents and Presidency</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresidentsOfContinentalCongress">Presidents, of Continental Congress, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesPresidentsAndPresidency">United States Presidents and Presidency</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresidentsHouseDc">“President’s House,” D.C., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WhiteHouse">White House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresidentsHouse">President’s House (Dean’s House; Maclean House) (Princeton University), N.J., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <i><a href="#Page_208">208–209</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresidentsLot">President’s Lot, Princeton (N.J.) Cemetery, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PresidentsPalaceDc">“President’s Palace,” D.C., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WhiteHouse">White House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Press">Press, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Newspapers">Newspapers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Primogeniture">Primogeniture, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrinceGeorgeCountyVa">Prince George County, Va., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrinceGeorgesParishSc">Prince George’s Parish, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrincessAnneTownMd">Princess Anne (town), Md., <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrincetonAlumniCouncil">Princeton Alumni Council, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrincetonAndBattleOfPrincetonNj">Princeton and Battle of Princeton, N.J., <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span></li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_PrincetonUniversity">Princeton University</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrincetonCemeteryNj">Princeton Cemetery, N.J., <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrincetonUniversity">Princeton University (College of New Jersey), <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150–151</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208–209</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrintingAndPublishingIndustry">Printing and publishing industry, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_Newspapers">Newspapers</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrintingOfDeclaration">Printing of Declaration, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrisonsPrisonersAndPrisonersOfWar">Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134–135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrivateIndividualsGroupsAndAgencies">Private individuals, groups, and agencies: and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrivateSchools">Private schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PrivateersAndPrivateering">Privateers and privateering, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProfessionsOfSigners">Professions of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_VocationsOfSigners">Vocations of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProfiteeringAmongSigners">Profiteering among signers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106–107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProgressivePartyInVa">“Progressive” party, in Va., <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProphecyThe"><cite>Prophecy (The)</cite> (essay), <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProprietaryColonies">Proprietary colonies, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProspectHillCemeteryPa">Prospect Hill Cemetery, Pa., <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProtestantEpiscopalChurch">Protestant Episcopal Church, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProtestantsAndProtestantChurch">Protestants and Protestant Church, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProtestsColonial">Protests, colonial, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProvidenceAndProvidenceCountyRi">Providence and Providence County, R.I., <a href="#Page_79">79–81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ProvidenceGazetteAndCountryJournal"><cite>Providence Gazette and Country Journal</cite> (newspaper), <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Psychiatry">Psychiatry, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_InsaneAndInsanity">Insane and insanity</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PublicLibraries">Public libraries, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Libraries">Libraries</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PublicSchools">Public schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PublicServiceRoleOfSignersIn">Public service, role of signers in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (<i>and see specific signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PublicSpeaking">Public speaking, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_OratorsAndOrations">Orators and orations</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PublishersAndPublishing">Publishers and publishing, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PrintingAndPublishingIndustry">Printing and publishing industry</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Puritans">Puritans, <a href="#Page_65">65–66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_PutnamHerbertAndDeclarationOfIndependence">Putnam, Herbert, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Quakers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_QueenAnnesCountyMd">Queen Annes County, Md., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Quincy">Quincy (Braintree), Mass., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34–35</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_QuincyMassHistoricalSociety">Quincy (Mass.) Historical Society, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst" id="g_RadicalsAndRadicalism">Radicals and radicalism, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RahwayNj">Rahway, N.J., <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RaleighsTavernVa">Raleigh’s Tavern, Va., <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RandolphPeytonLegislator">Randolph, Peyton, legislator, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RandolphThomasRelativeOfSigner">Randolph, Thomas, relative of signer, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RandolphThomasMannRelativeOfSigner">Randolph, Thomas Mann, relative of signer, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RandolphWilliamRelativeOfSigner">Randolph, William, relative of signer, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RandolphWilliamIiRelativeOfSigner">Randolph, William II, relative of signer, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RandolphFamily">Randolph family, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RappahannockValley">Rappahannock Valley, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ReadGeorgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Read, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <i><a href="#Page_118">118–119</a></i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ReadMrsGeorgeWifeOfSigner">Read, Mrs. George, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ReadingPa">Reading, Pa., <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RedemptionistFathers">Redemptionist Fathers, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ReformAndReformers">Reform and reformers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_HumanitariansAndReformers">Humanitarians and reformers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RegulatorsOfNorthCarolina">Regulators, of North Carolina, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RelativesOfSigners">Relatives of signers, <i>see individual signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Religion">Religion, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RepresentationPoliticalAndRepresentativeGovernment">Representation, political, and representative government, <i>see specific governmental bodies, colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout this index</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RepublicansAndRepublicanism">Republicans and republicanism, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ResidencesOfSigners">Residences of signers, condition and status of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (<i>and see particular residences</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RetirementOfSigners">Retirement of signers, <i>see individual signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ReverePaulPatriotAndArtist">Revere, Paul, patriot and artist, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RevolutionDaughtersOfThe">Revolution, Daughters of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RevolutionDaughtersOfTheAmerican">Revolution, Daughters of the American, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Daughters of the American Revolution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RevolutionRevolutionariesAndRevolutionaryMovement">Revolution, Revolutionaries, and Revolutionary movement, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>specific Revolutionaries</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RevolutionSonsOfThe">Revolution, Sons of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RevolutionSonsOfTheAmerican">Revolution, Sons of the American, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RevolutionaryWarUs">Revolutionary War (U.S.), <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RhodeIslandColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">Rhode Island (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79–81</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231–232</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RhodeIslandCollege">Rhode Island College, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RicePlanters">Rice planters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RichmondVa">Richmond, Va., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RichmondAcademyGa">Richmond Academy, Ga., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RichmondCountyVa">Richmond County, Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RidleyTownshipPa">Ridley Township, Pa., <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Rights">Rights: Bill of, U.S., <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">declarations of, by colonies/States, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Englishmen, and Colonies, <a href="#Page_8">8–9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of man, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of States, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RightsOfTheColoniesExaminedTheArticlePamphlet">“Rights of the Colonies Examined” (The) (article-pamphlet), <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RisingSunTownMd">Rising Sun (town), Md., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RisingSunChair">“Rising Sun” chair, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RisksAndSacrificesOfSigners">Risks and sacrifices of signers, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31–32</a> (<i>and see individual signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RobertELeeMemorialFoundationInc">Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RodneyCaesarSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Rodney, Caesar (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <i><a href="#Page_120">120–121</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RomanCatholicChurch">Roman Catholic Church, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RomanDoricAndRomanRevivalArchitecturalStyle">Roman Doric and Roman Revival architectural style, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RomeNy">Rome, N.Y., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RoselleNj">Roselle, N.J., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RosneyCemeteryGa">Rosney Cemetery, Ga., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RossGeorgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Ross, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <i><a href="#Page_122">122–123</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RossJohnStepbrotherOfSigner">Ross, John, stepbrother of signer, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RossMrsGeorgeWifeOfSigner">Ross, Mrs. George, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RoughDraftOfDeclaration">Rough draft of Declaration, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Royalists">Royalists, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LoyalistsAndTories">Loyalists and Tories</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Royalty">Royalty, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Kings">Kings</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RushBenjaminSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Rush, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_123">123–126</a></i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutlandThomasAndPeggyStewartHouse">Rutland, Thomas, and Peggy Stewart House, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutlandPeggyStewartHouseMd">Rutland-Peggy Stewart House, Md., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PeggyStewartHouse">Peggy Stewart House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutlandStewartStoneHouseMd">Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, Md., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PeggyStewartHouse">Peggy Stewart House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutledgeEdwardSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Rutledge, Edward (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <i><a href="#Page_127">127–129</a></i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <i><a href="#Page_237">237–238</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutledgeJohnBrotherOfSigner">Rutledge, John, brother of signer, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutledgeMrsEdwardFirstWifeOfSigner">Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutledgeMrsEdwardSecondWifeOfSigner">Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_RutledgeCarterMayHouse">Rutledge (Carter-May) House, S.C., <i><a href="#Page_237">237–238</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Sacrifices of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_RisksAndSacrificesOfSigners">Risks and sacrifices of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SafetyCommittees">Safety, committees/councils of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommitteesOfSafety">Committees of safety</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StAndrewsCityScotland">St. Andrews (city), Scotland, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StAndrewsSociety">St. Andrew’s Society, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StAnnsChurchNy">St. Ann’s Church, N.Y., <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StAugustineFla">St. Augustine, Fla., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StCatherinesIslandGa">St. Catherines Island, Ga., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176–177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StGeorgesChurchPa">St. George’s Church, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StHelenasParishSc">St. Helena’s Parish, S.C., <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StJamesParishSc">St. James Parish, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StJohnsEpiscopalChurchVa">St. John’s Episcopal Church, Va., <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StJohnsParishGa">St. John’s Parish, Ga., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65–66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StJosephsChurchPa">St. Joseph’s Church, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224–226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StLukesParishSc">St. Luke’s Parish, S.C., <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StMarysCatholicChurchMd">St. Mary’s Catholic Church, Md., <a href="#Page_179">179–180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StMarysChurchPa">St. Mary’s Church, Pa., <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StPaulsCemeteryMd">St. Paul’s Cemetery, Md., <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StPaulsCemeteryOldPa">St. Paul’s Cemetery, Old, Pa., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StPhilipsEpiscopalChurchSc">St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, S.C., <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SalemMass">Salem, Mass., <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SalemNj">Salem, N.J., <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SaltboxArchitecturalStyle">Saltbox architectural style, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SantaCatalinaMissionGa">Santa Catalina Mission, Ga., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SanteeRiverNorth">Santee River, North, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SanteeRiverSouth">Santee River, South, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Saratoga">Saratoga (Schuylerville) and Battle of Saratoga, N.Y., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SavannahGa">Savannah, Ga., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140–142</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SavannahRiver">Savannah River, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Sawmills">Sawmills, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Schools">Schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SchuylervilleNy">Schuylerville, N.Y., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Saratoga">Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SchuylkillRiver">Schuylkill River, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ScienceAndScientists">Science and scientists, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ScituateCityAndScituateTownshipRi">Scituate (city) and Scituate Township, R.I., <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ScotsScotlandAndScotchIrish">Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–150</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_GreatBritain">Great Britain</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ScotlandCityConn">Scotland (city), Conn., <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Seamen">Seamen, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_MerchantMarineAndMaritimeAffairs">Merchant marine and maritime affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_UnitedStatesNavy">United States Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and various nations</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SecondBankOfTheUnitedStates">Second Bank of the United States, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BankOfTheUnitedStates">Bank of the United States</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SecondBankOfTheUnitedStatesBuildingPa">Second Bank of the United States Building, Pa., <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SecondContinentalCongress">Second Continental Congress, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SecondTreatyOfFortStanwixNy">Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SecondaryEducation">Secondary education, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SecretariesOfContinentalCongress">Secretaries, of Continental Congress, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of U.S. Government Departments, <i>see following</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStates">United States</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of various other bodies, signers as, <i>see individual signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SenateUs">Senate, U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesSenate">United States Senate</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Servants">Servants, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Slaves">Slaves</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SevenBuildingsDc">Seven Buildings, D.C., <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShadwellPlantationVa">Shadwell (plantation), Va., <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShellBluffPlantationGa">Shell Bluff Plantation, Ga., <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShenandoahRiverValley">Shenandoah River Valley, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShermanRogerSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Sherman, Roger (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <i><a href="#Page_129">129–131</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShipCarpenters">Ship carpenters, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShippenDrWilliamSrAndPhiladelphia">Shippen, Dr. William, Sr., and Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShippenDrWilliamJrBrotherInLawOfSigners">Shippen, Dr. William, Jr., brother-in-law of signers, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShippenWistarHousePa">Shippen-Wistar House, Pa., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShippensburgPa">Shippensburg, Pa., <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ShipsShippersAndShipping">Ships, shippers, and shipping, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Merchant marine and maritime affairs;</li>
-<li class="isub1">United States Navy;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and various nations</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SicknessOfSigners">Sickness of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiseaseSicknessAndPhysicalAfflictionsOfSigners">Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SignersOfTheConstitutionUs">Signers of the Constitution (U.S.), <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SignersOfTheDeclaration">Signers of the Declaration: age of, at time of signing and death, compared, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AgeOfSigners">Age of signers</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">biographical analysis and comparison of, collective, <a href="#Page_27">27–32</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">biographical sketches of, individual, <a href="#Page_33">33–156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">books on, <a href="#Page_268">268–269</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early (formal signing), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">furniture and items associated with, collectively, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">honored and commemorated, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">interest in, increases, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">largest number of, from one State, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">late, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">nationally famous, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">one of, prominent in affairs of two States, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MckeanThomas">McKean, Thomas</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">one of, votes against independence, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">painted, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <i>and see individual portraits</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33–156</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">prominent patriots who were not, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">reflect regional and colonial attitudes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">remarks of, on signing, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">replace opponents of independence, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">residences and sites associated with, collective, status of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–163</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> (<i>and see particular residences and sites</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">subsequent careers of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (<i>and see individual signers</i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">traditions regarding, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">tragic life among, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">way of life of, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">who also signed Articles of Confederation, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93–94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">who also signed Articles of Confederation and Constitution (U.S.), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">who also signed Constitution (U.S.), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">who did not vote for or take a stand on independence, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118–119</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">who were non-natives of States they signed for, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>specific signers</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SignersMonument">Signers’ Monument, Ga., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SixIndianNations">Six Indian Nations, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Iroquois">Iroquois Indians</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SkeltonMarthaWaylesMarriesSigner">Skelton, Martha Wayles, marries signer, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SketchleyJohnStepfatherOfSigner">Sketchley, John, stepfather of signer, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Slaves">Slaves, and Congress, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Ga. economy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and New England shippers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">British capture, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></li>
-<li class="isub1">burn estate, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">emancipated, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in N.Y., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">institution of, opposed and condemned, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">labor in gardens, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">laws on, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">quarters for, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers own and trade, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Servants">Servants</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SmithAbigail">Smith, Abigail, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsMrsJohn">Adams, Mrs. John</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SmithJamesSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Smith, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <i><a href="#Page_132">132–133</a></i>, <a href="#Page_160">160–161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SmithRevSamuelSSonInLawOfSigner">Smith, Rev. Samuel S., son-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SmithRobertCarpenter">Smith, Robert, carpenter, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SmugglersAndSmuggling">Smugglers and smuggling, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SocialStatusOfSigners">Social status of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AristocratsAndAristocracy">Aristocrats and aristocracy</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and individual signers</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SocietyOfColonialDamesInTheStateOfRhodeIsland">Society of Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Songs">Songs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MusicAndMusicians">Music and musicians</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SonsOfLiberty">Sons of Liberty, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SonsOfSignersCareersOf">Sons of signers, careers of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> (<i>and see particular signers</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SonsOfTheAmericanRevolution">Sons of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SonsOfTheRevolution">Sons of the Revolution, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SourlandMountains">Sourland Mountains, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SouthCarolina">South Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75–76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99–100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103–104</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127–129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233–238</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Carolinas">Carolinas</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SouthSanteeRiver">South Santee River, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SouthWindsorConn">South Windsor, Conn., <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SouthernUnitedStates">Southern United States, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74–75</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and specific colonies/States.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SpainAndSpaniards">Spain and Spaniards, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SpeakingPublic">Speaking, public, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_OratorsAndOrations">Orators and orations</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SpeculatorsAndSpeculation">Speculators and speculation, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SpoilsSystem">Spoils system, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SpotsylvaniaCountyVa">Spotsylvania County, Va., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StaffordshireEngland">Staffordshire, England, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StampActStampTaxStampActCongressAndStampActAgitation">Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp Act agitation, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56–57</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StarkGenJohnArmyOfficer">Stark, Gen. John, Army officer, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StateDepartment">State Department, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesDepartmentOfState">United States Department of State</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StateHouseForTheProvinceOfPennsylvania">State House for the Province of Pennsylvania, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceHall">Independence Hall</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StatenIsland">Staten Island, N.Y., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NewYorkCityAndNewYorkHarbor">New York City and New York Harbor</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_States">States (U.S.), and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and National Register of Historic Places, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">economic and financial problems of, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">governmental bodies and other agencies of, <i>see individual colonies/States</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">honor and maintain homes of signers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">land disputes among, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">large and small, and U.S. Constitution, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">militia of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Militia">Militia</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">receive taxes, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">rights of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_StatesRights">States’ rights</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">role of, in Revolution, <i>see particular States and appropriate topics</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">seals of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signer prominent in affairs of two, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_MckeanThomas">McKean, Thomas</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers non-natives of those they signed for, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72–73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers’ role in affairs of, <i>see specific States and signers</i>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and individual States.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StatesRights">States’ rights, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StatuesOfSigners">Statues of signers, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StewartAnthonyMerchant">Stewart, Anthony, merchant, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StewartPeggyHouseMd">Stewart (Peggy) House, Md., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PeggyStewartHouse">Peggy Stewart House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StocktonJuliaWifeOfOneSignerAndDaughterOfAnother">Stockton, Julia, wife of one signer and daughter of another, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StocktonMrsRichardWifeOfSigner">Stockton, Mrs. Richard, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StocktonRichardGrandfatherOfSigner">Stockton, Richard, grandfather of signer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StocktonRichardSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Stockton, Richard (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <i><a href="#Page_133">133–135</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_207">207–208</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StocktonFamily">Stockton family, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StoneMrsThomasWifeOfSigner">Stone, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StoneThomasSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Stone, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, <i><a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_186">186–188</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_189">189–191</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StoningtonConn">Stonington, Conn., <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StonyBrookQuakerMeetingHouseCemeteryNj">Stony Brook Quaker Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Stores">Stores, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StoughtonMass">Stoughton, Mass., <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StovallTownNc">Stovall (town), N.C., <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StratfordHallEstateVa">Stratford Hall (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_91">91–92</a>, <i><a href="#Page_251">251–253</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_StricklandWilliamArchitect">Strickland, William, architect, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Students">Students, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SuffolkCountyNy">Suffolk County, N.Y., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SuffolkResolves">Suffolk Resolves, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SugarAct">Sugar Act, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SugarPlanters">Sugar planters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SummaryViewOfTheRightsOfBritishAmericaA"><i>Summary View of the Rights of British America (A)</i> (tract), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SummerseatEstatePa">Summerseat (estate), Pa., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <i><a href="#Page_229">229</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SunburyGa">Sunbury, Ga., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SuperiorCourtsState">Superior Courts, State, <i>see individual States</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SupremeCourtsOfColoniesAndStates">Supreme courts, of colonies and States, <i>see specific colonies/States</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of United States, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Surgeons">Surgeons, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DoctorsMedicalEducationMedicalPracticeAndHospitals">Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SurveyorsAndSurveying">Surveyors and surveying, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SusquehannaRiver">Susquehanna River, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SussexCountyDel">Sussex County, Del., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_SwedesAndSweden">Swedes and Sweden, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Tabby construction material, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TabbyCottageGa">Tabby Cottage, Ga., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <i><a href="#Page_176">176–177</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TaliaferroRichardFatherInLawOfSigner">Taliaferro, Richard, father-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TapsBugleCall">“Taps” (bugle call), <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Tariffs">Tariffs, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TauntonMass">Taunton, Mass., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Taverns">Taverns, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TaxesAndTaxation">Taxes and taxation, and British-colonial conflict, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">excise, on alcoholic beverages, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Boston, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on stamps, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_StampActStampTaxStampActCongressAndStampActAgitation">Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp Act agitation</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on sugar, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_SugarAct">Sugar Act</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on tea, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_TeaAndTeaAct">Tea and Tea Act</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">poll, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">States receive, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_CustomsLawsCollectionAndOfficials">Customs laws, collection, and officials</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TayloeColJohnFatherInLawOfSigner">Tayloe, Col. John, father-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TayloeMrsJohnMotherInLawOfSigner">Tayloe, Mrs. John, mother-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TayloeRebeccaMarriesSigner">Tayloe, Rebecca, marries signer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TayloeFamilyAndDescendants">Tayloe family and descendants, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TaylorGeorgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Taylor, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_137">137–138</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_226">226–227</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_230">230–231</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TaylorMrsGeorgeWifeOfSigner">Taylor, Mrs. George, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TaylorGeorgeChapterDaughtersOfTheAmericanRevolution">Taylor (George) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TaylorHousePa">Taylor House, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137–138</a>, <i><a href="#Page_230">230–231</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TeaAndTeaAct">Tea and Tea Act, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–54</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189–190</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TeachersAndTeaching">Teachers and teaching, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Temperance">Temperance, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TempleOfMinervaOpera">“Temple of Minerva” (opera), <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheBostoniansPayingTheExciseManOrTarringAndFeathering">“The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering” (cartoon), reproduced, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheDeclarationOfIndependencePainting">“The Declaration of Independence” (painting), reproduced, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheHillsEstatePa">The Hills (estate), Pa., <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheHomesteadPa">“The Homestead,” Pa., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Byberry">Byberry</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThePennsylvaniaGazette"><cite>The Pennsylvania Gazette</cite> (newspaper), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheProphecy"><cite>The Prophecy</cite> (essay), <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheRightsOfTheColoniesExaminedArticlePamphlet">“The Rights of the Colonies Examined” (article-pamphlet), <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TheUnanimousDeclarationOfTheThirteenUnitedStatesOfAmerica">“The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America,” <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Theology">Theology, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThirteenColonies">Thirteen Colonies, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThomasJeffersonMemorialDc">Thomas Jefferson Memorial, D.C., <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThomasJeffersonMemorialFoundation">Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThomsonCharlesAndDeclarationOfIndependence">Thomson, Charles, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThorntonMatthewSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Thornton, Matthew (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_139">139–140</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_203">203–204</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThorntonHouseNh">Thornton House, N.H., <i><a href="#Page_203">203–204</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThorntonsFerryAndThorntonsFerryCemeteryNh">Thornton’s Ferry and Thornton’s Ferry Cemetery, N.H., <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ThreeLowerCounties">Three Lower Counties, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Delaware">Delaware</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TobaccoPlanters">Tobacco planters, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_PlantersAndPlantations">Planters and plantations</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_ToddHousePa">Todd House, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TombsAndTombstones">Tombs and tombstones, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CemeteriesAndBurialPlaces">Cemeteries and burial places</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Tories">Tories, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LoyalistsAndTories">Loyalists and Tories</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Townhouses">Townhouses, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Towns">Towns, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CitiesTownsAndVillages">Cities, towns, and villages</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TownshendActs">Townshend Acts (<i>1767</i>), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Tracts">Tracts, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BooksPamphletsEssaysAndTracts">Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TradeAndTraders">Trade and traders, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CommerceTradeAndManufacturing">Commerce, trade, and manufacturing</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TraditionsRegardingSigningOfDeclaration">Traditions regarding signing of Declaration, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TreasuryBritish">Treasury, British, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_GreatBritain">Great Britain</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesTreasuryDepartment">United States Treasury Department</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TreasuryBuildingOldDc">Treasury Building (old), D.C., <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Treaties">Treaties, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DiplomatsAndDiplomacy">Diplomats and diplomacy</a>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></li>
-<li class="isub1"><a href="#g_IndiansAndIndianAffairs">Indians and Indian affairs</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>and specific nations and treaties</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TreatyOfFortStanwixSecond">Treaty of Fort Stanwix, Second, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TreatyOfParis">Treaty of Paris (<i>1783</i>), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TrentonAndBattleOfTrentonNj">Trenton and Battle of Trenton, N.J., <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Trials">Trials, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LegalPracticeLegalEducationAndJurisprudence">Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TrinityChurchNy">Trinity Church, N.Y., <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TrumbullJohnArtistPaintingByReproduced">Trumbull, John, artist, painting by, reproduced, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TrumbullJonathanFatherInLawOfSigner">Trumbull, Jonathan, father-in-law of signer, <a href="#Page_144">144–145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TrumbullCemeteryConn">Trumbull Cemetery, Conn., <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TryonWilliamBritishOfficial">Tryon, William, British official, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TuckahoeEstateVa">Tuckahoe (estate), Va., <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <i><a href="#Page_253">253–255</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TuscanArchitecturalFeatures">Tuscan architectural features, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TuscaroraCreekMd">Tuscarora Creek, Md., <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TusculumHomeNj">Tusculum (home), N.J., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <i><a href="#Page_209">209–210</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_TutorsAndTutorialSystem">Tutors and tutorial system, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Education">Education</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">U-shaped buildings, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnanimousDeclarationOfTheThirteenUnitedStatesOfAmericaThe">“Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America” (The), <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnionArmy">Union Army, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CivilWar">Civil War</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnionCemeteryNh">Union Cemetery, N.H., <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitariansAndUnitarianism">Unitarians and Unitarianism, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ChristianityAndReligion">Christianity and religion</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedFirstParishChurchMass">United First Parish Church, Mass., <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedKingdom">United Kingdom, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_GreatBritain">Great Britain</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStates">United States, and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">architectural and historical heritage of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early antislavery law in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early chapel in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early chemistry education in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early legal education in, <a href="#Page_155">155–156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early libraries in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early medical practice and hospitals in, <a href="#Page_123">123–126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early music in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">famous families in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">famous writer in, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">first banks in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">founding and early growth of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">major literary and political figures of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">oldest learned society in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also various colonies/States, regions, entries immediately following, and appropriate topics throughout this index.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesBankOfThe">United States, Bank of the, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_BankOfTheUnitedStates">Bank of the United States</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesBicentennial">United States Bicentennial, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesBillOfRights">United States Bill of Rights, <i>see under</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesCapitals">United States Capitals, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesCapitol">United States Capitol, D.C., <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesCentennialExposition">United States Centennial Exposition, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesCircuitCourtsAndJudges">United States circuit courts and judges, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesCongress">United States Congress, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_UnitedStatesGovernment">United States Government</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_UnitedStatesHouseOfRepresentatives">United States House of Representatives</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_UnitedStatesSenate">United States Senate</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and specific Congressmen</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution, and Connecticut (Great) Compromise, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Pa. constitution, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers of Declaration, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145–148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Bill of Rights of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Bill of Rights of, displayed, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Bill of Rights of, displayed, photo of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">debated, drafted, adopted, and signed, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145–148</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218–221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">displayed, <a href="#Page_264">264–265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">displayed, photo of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">favored and advocated, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">history and protection of document, <a href="#Page_264">264–267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Madison presents to Washington, mural of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">opposed, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">room adopted and signed in, <a href="#Page_218">218–221</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">signers of, who also signed Declaration, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">significance of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">takes effect, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitutionalConvention">United States Constitutional Convention</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesConstitutionalConvention">United States Constitutional Convention, and signers of Declaration, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145–148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">compromise at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">leader in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">membership, deliberations, and actions of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145–148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">room held in, <a href="#Page_218">218–221</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesConstitution">United States Constitution</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesCourts">United States courts, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesDeclarationOfIndependence">United States Declaration of Independence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesDepartmentOfState">United States Department of State, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–264</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesDepartmentOfTheInterior">United States Department of the Interior, and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_NationalParksNationalParkServiceAndNationalParkSystem">National parks, National Park Service, and National Park System</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesDepartmentOfWar">United States Department of War, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesGeneralServicesAdministration">United States General Services Administration, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesGovernment">United States Government, and Declaration, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and historic sites and buildings, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">buildings of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">capitals of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesCapitals">United States Capitals</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">first official document of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_DeclarationOfIndependence">Declaration of Independence</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">formation of, exhibit on, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Jefferson sells library to, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">permanent records of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">role of signers in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> (<i>and see specific signers</i>).</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_Colonies">Colonies</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><a href="#g_ContinentalCongress">Continental Congress</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>entries immediately preceding and following</i>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and appropriate topics throughout this index</i>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesHouseOfRepresentatives">United States House of Representatives, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesCongress">United States Congress</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesMint">United States Mint, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesNavy">United States Navy, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalNavy">Continental Navy</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesPresidentsAndPresidency">United States Presidents and Presidency, and John and John Quincy Adams, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Mrs. John Adams, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and signers, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">dignity of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">electors for, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">inaugurations and inaugural addresses of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">official residence of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WhiteHouse">White House</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">unofficial residence of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also specific Presidents.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesSecretaryOfState">United States Secretary of State, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesDepartmentOfState">United States Department of State</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesSecretaryOfTheInterior">United States Secretary of the Interior, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesDepartmentOfTheInterior">United States Department of the Interior</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesSecretaryOfTheTreasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesTreasuryDepartment">United States Treasury Department</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesSenate">United States Senate, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesCongress">United States Congress</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesSupremeCourt">United States Supreme Court, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesJudiciary">United States Judiciary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesTreasuryDepartment">United States Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesVicePresidents">United States Vice Presidents, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesWarDepartment">United States War Department, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UnitedStatesWarForIndependence">United States War for Independence, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversalistChurchNh">Universalist Church, N.H., <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Universities">Universities, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CollegesAndUniversities">Colleges and universities</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfEdinburghScotland">University of Edinburgh, Scotland, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfGeorgia">University of Georgia, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfGlasgowScotland">University of Glasgow, Scotland, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfNewYork">University of New York, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfPennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfPennsylvaniaMedicalSchool">University of Pennsylvania Medical School, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfStAndrewsScotland">University of St. Andrews, Scotland, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfTheStateOfPennsylvania">University of the State of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UniversityOfVirginia">University of Virginia, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_UrbanizationAndHistoricPreservation">Urbanization, and historic preservation, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Valley Forge, Pa., <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VanBrughCatherineAndSigner">Van Brugh, Catherine, and signer, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VanDorenCarlHistorianQuoted">Van Doren, Carl, historian, quoted, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VandalismAndHistoricSites">Vandalism, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VassallMajLeonardAndAdamsNationalHistoricSite">Vassall, Maj. Leonard, and Adams National Historic Site, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VassallAdamsHouseMass">Vassall-Adams House, Mass., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_AdamsNationalHistoricSite">Adams National Historic Site</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VermontColonyAndState">Vermont (colony and State), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Verse">Verse, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Literature">Literature and literary figures</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VicePresidentsUs">Vice Presidents, U.S., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_UnitedStatesVicePresidents">United States Vice Presidents</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VillaArchitecturalPlan">Villa architectural plan, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Villages">Villages, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CitiesTownsAndVillages">Cities, towns, and villages</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VirginiaColonyAndStateHistoryOfAndHistoricSitesIn">Virginia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41–42</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85–94</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110–112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239–256</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also entries immediately following.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VirginiaAssociation">Virginia Association, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VirginiaHouseOfBurgesses">Virginia House of Burgesses, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41–42</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VirginiaResolves">Virginia Resolves, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VirginiaStatuteForReligiousFreedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_VocationsOfSigners">Vocations of signers, compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span></li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also individual signers.</i></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Wakefield Academy, England, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WalesAndWelshmen">Wales and Welshmen, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WallingfordConn">Wallingford, Conn., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WaltonGeorgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Walton, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <i><a href="#Page_140">140–142</a></i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <i><a href="#Page_173">173–176</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WaltonGeorgeJrSonOfSigner">Walton, George, Jr., son of signer, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WaltonMrsGeorgeWifeOfSigner">Walton, Mrs. George, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WaltonDescendants">Walton descendants, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WaltonHarperHouseGa">Walton-Harper House, Ga., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CollegeHill">College Hill</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WamasseeHeadGa">Wamassee Head, Ga., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WarForIndependence">War for Independence (U.S.), and Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">and Loyalists, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_LoyalistsAndTories">Loyalists and Tories</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">battles and campaigns, land and naval, and course of, <a href="#Page_3">3–156</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207–218</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">begins, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ends, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_TreatyOfParis">Treaty of Paris</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">feared, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">financed, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ContinentalCongressFiscalProblemsAndPoliciesOf">Continental Congress, fiscal problems and policies of</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">generated, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">heroes of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">heroes of, painted, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">impact of, on signers and their families, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_RisksAndSacrificesOfSigners">Risks and sacrifices of signers</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Iroquois Indians neutral during, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">peace negotiations during, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">verge of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">won, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also appropriate topics throughout this index.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WarO">War of <i>1812</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WarOfficeBuildingDc">War Office Building, D.C., <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WardSamuelPolitician">Ward, Samuel, politician, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WarrenTownRi">Warren (town), R.I., <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WarsAndHistoricSites">Wars, and historic sites, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. <i>See also specific wars.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WarwickFurnacePa">Warwick Furnace, Pa., <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WashingtonPresidentGeorgeCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Washington, President George, career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WashingtonDc">Washington, D.C., history of and historic sites in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170–173</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–266</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WashingtonCollegeMd">Washington College, Md., <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WatkinsThomasAndMeadowGarden">Watkins, Thomas, and Meadow Garden, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WealthAndFinancialStatusOfSigners">Wealth and financial status of signers, compared, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#g_DebtsAndEconomicReversalsOfSigners">Debts and economic reversals of signers</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>and individual signers.</i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Weapons">Weapons, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_ArmsAmmunitionAndOrdnance">Arms, ammunition, and ordnance</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WebsterDanielSecretaryOfState">Webster, Daniel, Secretary of State, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WelcomeVillageMd">Welcome (village), Md., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WellesRevSamuelAndWilliamsBirthplace">Welles, Rev. Samuel, and Williams Birthplace, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WellesWilliamsHouseConn">Welles-Williams House, Conn., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WilliamsBirthplace">Williams Birthplace</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WellsFamily">Wells family, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestBenjaminArtist">West, Benjamin, artist, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestIndies">West Indies, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestNottinghamAcademyMd">West Nottingham Academy, Md., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestchesterCountyNy">Westchester County, N.Y., <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WesternReserveInPresentOhio">Western Reserve (in present Ohio), <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WesternUnitedStates">Western United States, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_FrontierAndFrontiersmen">Frontier and frontiersmen</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WesternvilleNy">Westernville, N.Y., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestminsterSchoolEngland">Westminster School, England, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestmorelandAssociation">Westmoreland Association (<i>1766</i>), <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestmorelandCountyVa">Westmoreland County, Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WestwardExpansion">Westward expansion, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_FrontierAndFrontiersmen">Frontier and frontiersmen</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhedbeeJosephBuilder">Whedbee, Joseph, builder, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhigsPatriotsAndWhigParty">Whigs (patriots) and Whig Party, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_IndependenceMovementUsAndBritishColonialClash">Independence movement and British-colonial clash</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhippleJosephBrotherOfSigner">Whipple, Joseph, brother of signer, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhippleMrsWilliamWifeOfSigner">Whipple, Mrs. William, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhippleWilliamSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Whipple, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <i><a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_177">177–178</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_201">201–202</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhippleBirthplaceMaine">Whipple Birthplace, Maine, <i><a href="#Page_177">177–178</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhiteHallPlantationSc">White Hall Plantation, S.C., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhiteBishopHousePa">White (Bishop) House, Pa., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhiteHouse">White House (“President’s House”;</li>
-<li class="isub1">“President’s Palace”), D.C., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <i><a href="#Page_170">170–173</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhitePlainsNy">White Plains, N.Y., <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WhitestoneNy">Whitestone, N.Y., <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WidowersSignersAs">Widowers, signers as, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WidowsOfSigners">Widows of signers, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_WivesAndWidowsOfSigners">Wives and widows of signers</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilkinsJohnBuilder">Wilkins, John, builder, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamAndMaryCollegeOf">William and Mary, College of, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_CollegeOfWilliamAndMary">College of William and Mary</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamAndMaryArchitecturalStyle">William and Mary architectural style, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamsMrsWilliamWifeOfSigner">Williams, Mrs. William, wife of signer, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamsRevSolomonFatherOfSigner">Williams, Rev. Solomon, father of signer, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamsWilliamSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Williams, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_144">144–145</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_166">166–169</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamsBirthplace">Williams Birthplace (Welles-Williams House), Conn., <i><a href="#Page_166">166–167</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamsHouseConn">Williams House, Conn., <i><a href="#Page_168">168–169</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilliamsburgWilliamsburgHistoricDistrictAndColonialWilliamsburg">Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic District, and Colonial Williamsburg, Va., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255–256</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WillingCharlesShipper">Willing, Charles, shipper, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WillingThomasShipperLegislator">Willing, Thomas, shipper-legislator, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_Wills">Wills, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilmingtonDel">Wilmington, Del., <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilmingtonNc">Wilmington, N.C., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilsonJamesSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Wilson, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <i><a href="#Page_145">145–148</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_213">213–214</a></i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilsonMrsJamesFirstWifeOfSigner">Wilson, Mrs. James, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WilsonMrsJamesSecondWifeOfSigner">Wilson, Mrs. James, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WindhamWindhamCountyAndWindhamDistrictConn">Windham, Windham County, and Windham district, Conn., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WindsorConn">Windsor, Conn., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WinyawSc">Winyaw, S.C., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WiscassetMaine">Wiscasset, Maine, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WistarDrCasparAndPhiladelphia">Wistar, Dr. Caspar, and Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WitherspoonJamesSonOfSigner">Witherspoon, James, son of signer, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WitherspoonJohnSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Witherspoon, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <i><a href="#Page_149">149–151</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_208">208–210</a></i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WitherspoonMrsJohnFirstWifeOfSigner">Witherspoon, Mrs. John, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WitherspoonMrsJohnSecondWifeOfSigner">Witherspoon, Mrs. John, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WivesAndWidowsOfSigners">Wives and widows of signers, last to survive, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> (<i>and see particular signers and individuals</i>)</li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WolcottOliverSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Wolcott, Oliver (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i><a href="#Page_152">152–153</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_169">169–170</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WolcottOliverSonOfSigner">Wolcott, Oliver, son of signer, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WolcottRogerFatherOfSigner">Wolcott, Roger, father of signer, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WolcottDescendants">Wolcott descendants, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WolcottHouseConn">Wolcott House, Conn., <i><a href="#Page_169">169–170</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WolverhamptonEngland">Wolverhampton, England, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WooleyEdmundCarpenter">Wooley, Edmund, carpenter, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WorcesterMass">Worcester, Mass., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WorldWarIi">World War II, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WritersAndWriting">Writers and writing, <i>see</i> <a href="#g_Literature">Literature and literary figures</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WyandotteIndians">Wyandotte Indians, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WyeHallWyeIslandAndWyePlantationMd">Wye Hall, Wye Island, and Wye Plantation, Md., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WyomingValleyLandDispute">Wyoming Valley land dispute, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WytheGeorgeSignerCareerOfAndSitesAssociatedWith">Wythe, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <i><a href="#Page_154">154–156</a></i>, <i><a href="#Page_255">255–256</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WytheMrsGeorgeFirstWifeOfSigner">Wythe, Mrs. George, first wife of signer, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WytheMrsGeorgeSecondWifeOfSigner">Wythe, Mrs. George, second wife of signer, <a href="#Page_154">154–155</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WytheThomasBrotherOfSigner">Wythe, Thomas, brother of signer, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_WytheHouseVa">Wythe House, Va., <i><a href="#Page_255">255–256</a></i></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">XYZ affair, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Yale College, Conn., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_YeomanFarmers">Yeoman farmers, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_YorkAndYorkCountyPa">York and York County, Pa., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_YorkCountyVa">York County, Va., <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_YorkHallVa">York Hall, Va., <i>see</i> <a href="#g_NelsonHouse">Nelson House</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_YorkshireEngland">Yorkshire, England, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx" id="g_YorktownAndBattleSiegeOfYorktownVa">Yorktown and Battle (siege) of Yorktown, Va., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="p2 right l2 small sans">☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 O-477-940</p>
-
-<div id="if_i_124" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
-  <img src="images/i_124.jpg" width="600" height="459" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">Sketch of proposed reconstruction of the Graff House, where
-  Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.</div></div>
-
-<hr />
-<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote">
-<h2 id="Transcribers_Notes" class="center">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
-
-<p>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
-preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p>
-
-<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced
-quotation marks retained.</p>
-
-<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences
-of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed.</p>
-
-<p>Text on the obverse of many illustrations appeared in the
-scans of those pages and could not be removed, resulting in
-mottled dark bands across those images. Also, most of the
-images were slightly distorted (non-rectangular): small,
-non-essential edges of those images have been omitted here.</p>
-
-<p>For compatibility with various display devices,
-the symbols for Site Categories beginning on page 163 are
-slightly different from the ones used in the original book.</p>
-
-<p>Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.</p>
-</div></div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55838-h.htm or 55838-h.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/3/55838/
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the
-Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-</body>
-</html>
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/cover.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 803ae34..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/cover.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_001.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_001.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 291a769..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_001.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_002.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_002.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 86d9b86..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_002.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_002b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_002b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b97ecf..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_002b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_003.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_003.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b3c005..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_003.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_004.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_004.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1a799a0..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_004.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_004b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_004b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 78ba544..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_004b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_005.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_005.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 227050f..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_005.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_005b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_005b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d540097..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_005b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_006.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_006.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e70d13b..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_006.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_006b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_006b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9eba718..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_006b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_007.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_007.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f76caee..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_007.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_007b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_007b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3adbcf5..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_007b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_008.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_008.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 95b5b68..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_008.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_008b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_008b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 22328cd..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_008b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_009.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_009.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9c043ae..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_009.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_010.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_010.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c178cd4..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_010.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_011.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_011.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c92b531..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_011.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_012.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_012.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ec6aeae..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_012.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_012large.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_012large.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 706b0e2..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_012large.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_013.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_013.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f58a9ef..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_013.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_013b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_013b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7f1c4dd..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_013b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_014.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_014.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d67d77f..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_014.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_014b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_014b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0c8ebb5..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_014b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_015.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_015.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a681195..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_015.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_016.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_016.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 67082e9..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_016.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_017.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_017.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f8edd33..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_017.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_018.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_018.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f2d42ef..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_018.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_019.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_019.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 20e6f1a..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_019.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_020.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_020.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 338a1be..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_020.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_021.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_021.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 09948a4..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_021.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_022.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_022.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 94bc0a2..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_022.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_023.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_023.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8a49b1b..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_023.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_023b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_023b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d2530f3..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_023b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_024.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_024.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 15ca9f3..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_024.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_024b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_024b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8709461..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_024b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_025.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_025.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 90f5f80..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_025.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_026.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_026.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0c6406d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_026.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_027.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_027.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d1307bd..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_027.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_028.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_028.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2d5e0b2..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_028.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_029.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_029.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 22ef39d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_029.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_029b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_029b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c417b4d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_029b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_030.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_030.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 58f436d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_030.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_031.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_031.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 12c5160..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_031.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_032.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_032.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5f743b1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_032.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_032b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_032b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2262b23..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_032b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_033.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_033.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 26da0ea..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_033.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_034.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_034.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 031ba96..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_034.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_034b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_034b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cb96107..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_034b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_035.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_035.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3330091..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_035.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_036.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_036.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c440ba5..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_036.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_037.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_037.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 473fb91..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_037.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_038.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_038.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0e83b97..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_038.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_039.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_039.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f9f0dd6..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_039.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_040.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_040.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1d25843..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_040.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_041.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_041.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3c26fb2..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_041.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_042.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_042.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cdc9088..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_042.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_043.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_043.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 750e7cc..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_043.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_044.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_044.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c4171da..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_044.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_045.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_045.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c7cb1db..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_045.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_045b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_045b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index edd34d8..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_045b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_046.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_046.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fb593a6..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_046.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_047.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_047.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 552d5c7..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_047.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_048.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_048.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 188202a..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_048.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_049.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_049.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c21d987..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_049.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_050.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_050.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6963bfe..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_050.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_050b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_050b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1d81532..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_050b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_051.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_051.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3a5b212..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_051.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_052.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_052.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b3ab358..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_052.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_053.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_053.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 36ed65f..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_053.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_053b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_053b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 301e0a1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_053b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_054.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_054.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2d467fa..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_054.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_055.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_055.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5fa0656..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_055.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_056.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_056.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a7b27b4..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_056.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_057.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_057.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8beb252..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_057.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_058.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_058.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e253ce1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_058.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_058b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_058b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5cce93e..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_058b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_059.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_059.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7d29a95..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_059.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_060.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_060.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ebb8ff4..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_060.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_061.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_061.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4334b9d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_061.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_062.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_062.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index be4cf98..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_062.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_063.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_063.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4a65a37..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_063.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_063b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_063b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9656aa1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_063b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_064.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_064.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 41587aa..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_064.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_065.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_065.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f9e605c..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_065.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_066.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_066.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0c2f44d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_066.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_067.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_067.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a71af49..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_067.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_068.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_068.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b2118b2..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_068.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_069.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_069.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6d95318..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_069.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_069b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_069b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b2d5117..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_069b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_070.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_070.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2781059..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_070.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_071.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_071.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 72f4a24..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_071.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_072.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_072.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4ccd1ec..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_072.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_073.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_073.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 50dc6c3..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_073.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_074.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_074.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b5ee669..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_074.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_075.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_075.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0157f40..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_075.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_075large.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_075large.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1e1aef9..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_075large.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_077.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_077.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7da26da..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_077.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_077b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_077b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e564c78..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_077b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_078.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_078.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cad4f6c..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_078.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_079.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_079.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e37e80d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_079.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_079b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_079b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7c37177..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_079b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_080.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_080.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 883748d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_080.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_081.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_081.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0d0f404..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_081.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_082.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_082.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8d54566..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_082.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_082b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_082b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c14fdb1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_082b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_083.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_083.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 79ccc27..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_083.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_083b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_083b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 657f023..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_083b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_084.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_084.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 70d03a8..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_084.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_085.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_085.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c10f20b..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_085.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_086.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_086.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ac95103..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_086.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_086b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_086b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 798ed14..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_086b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_087.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_087.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bb0a84a..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_087.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_088.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_088.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 804e1d1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_088.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_089.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_089.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3977bdf..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_089.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_090.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_090.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0f43e16..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_090.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_091.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_091.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8893217..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_091.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_092.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_092.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 227adc7..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_092.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_092b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_092b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 54c934f..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_092b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_093.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_093.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 91990d6..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_093.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_094.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_094.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 498e2a7..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_094.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_094b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_094b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 91b88a5..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_094b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_095.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_095.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0e25052..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_095.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_096.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_096.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a9c0963..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_096.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_097.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_097.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1bd3761..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_097.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_097b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_097b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1cd6ec8..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_097b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_098.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_098.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index faf6109..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_098.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_099.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_099.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cf75ed3..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_099.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_099b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_099b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index afb70cf..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_099b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_100.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_100.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 44e3840..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_100.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_100b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_100b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 548d2a7..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_100b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_101.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_101.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3906fcd..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_101.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_102.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_102.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index db96b71..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_102.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_103.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_103.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 734ccb1..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_103.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_104.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_104.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 77089c6..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_104.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_105.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_105.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 31e7663..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_105.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_106.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_106.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 561575f..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_106.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_106b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_106b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 82945d5..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_106b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_107.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_107.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 97b8281..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_107.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_108.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_108.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bbe1bea..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_108.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_109.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_109.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0713b28..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_109.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_110.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_110.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 691a6c2..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_110.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_110b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_110b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 21b4427..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_110b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_111.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_111.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6e82993..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_111.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_112.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_112.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b64b4bf..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_112.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_113.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_113.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fe88848..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_113.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_113b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_113b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 424e27e..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_113b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_114.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_114.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d5d7a03..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_114.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_115.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_115.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6ce425a..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_115.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_116.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_116.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 136b7e7..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_116.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_117.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_117.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ac213b6..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_117.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_118.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_118.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 97c8970..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_118.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_119.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_119.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 321a312..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_119.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_119b.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_119b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 30568ba..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_119b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_120.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_120.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7825f9d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_120.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_121.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_121.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5a2ad9d..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_121.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_122.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_122.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a4363b8..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_122.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_123.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_123.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 91dc36f..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_123.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55838-h/images/i_124.jpg b/old/55838-h/images/i_124.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dfa966c..0000000
--- a/old/55838-h/images/i_124.jpg
+++ /dev/null
author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-07 17:50:21 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-07 17:50:21 -0800
commit	89bd9e16acba463429fa1f33e5bf281c53ad94c1 (patch)
tree	c1aa9b61bb0af0724b40e7d6ddf0bdd278ae9307
parent	e790cb7347d94f8f1b1edea7c800f188b0f8c614 (diff)