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diff --git a/old/55838-0.txt b/old/55838-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f8ba61b..0000000 --- a/old/55838-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14049 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Signers of the Declaration - Historic Places Commemorating the Signing of the Declaration - of Independence - -Author: Various - -Editor: Robert G. Ferris - -Release Date: October 28, 2017 [EBook #55838] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note: Italics is indicated by _underscores_, boldface by -=equals signs=. - - - - -[Illustration: Independence Hall in 1776. Here the Continental Congress -adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence.] - - - - -_Signers of the Declaration_ - -[Illustration: John Trumbull’s “The Declaration of Independence” hangs -in the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol. Depicting the drafting committee -presenting the document to the Continental Congress, the painting -commemorates the signers.] - - - - - THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF HISTORIC SITES AND BUILDINGS • VOLUME XVIII - - - _Signers_ - OF THE DECLARATION - - Historic Places Commemorating the Signing - of the Declaration of Independence - - ROBERT G. FERRIS - Series Editor - - - [Illustration] - - UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - NATIONAL PARK SERVICE - - Washington, D.C. 1973 - - - - - ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR FOR PROFESSIONAL SERVICES - Ernest A. Connally - - OFFICE OF ARCHEOLOGY AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION - Robert M. Utley, _Director_ - - DIVISION OF HISTORY - A. Russell Mortensen, _Chief_ - - HISTORIC SITES SURVEY - Horace J. Sheely, Jr., _Chief_ - - -This volume incorporates a comprehensive survey of sites and buildings -associated with the signers accomplished by Charles W. Snell and the -late John O. Littleton. Also utilized were survey and evaluation -reports authored by the following individuals: S. Sydney Bradford, -Charles E. Hatch, Jr., W. Brown Morton III, Denys Peter Myers, John -D. R. Platt, Frank B. Sarles, Jr., Charles E. Shedd, Jr., Horace J. -Sheely, Jr., and Martin I. Yoelson. These surveys and reports were -reviewed by the Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, -Buildings, and Monuments. Members of this group are listed in the -Acknowledgments. Directly involved in all aspects of the preparation -of this book were Assistant Editor Richard E. Morris and Editorial -Assistant James H. Charleton. It was designed by Gary Gore. - - -THIS BOOK IS ISSUED AS PART OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE OBSERVANCE OF -OUR NATION’S BICENTENNIAL. - - -As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of -the Interior has basic responsibilities for water, fish, wildlife, -mineral, land, park, and recreational resources. Indian and Territorial -affairs are other major concerns of America’s “Department of Natural -Resources.” The Department works to assure the wisest choice in -managing all our resources so each will make its full contribution to a -better United States—now and in the future. - - -LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-600028 - - For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing - Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 · Price $5.65 - Stock Number 2405-00496 - - - - -_Foreword_ - - -As we approach the two hundredth anniversary of the signing of the -Declaration of Independence, each of us is stirred by the memory of -those who framed the future of our country. - -In the coming years we will have many opportunities to refresh our -understanding of what America means, but none can mean more than -personal visits to the sites where freedom was forged and our founding -fathers actually made the decisions which have stood the severest tests -of time. - -I remember my reactions, for example, when I visited Independence Hall -in Philadelphia in 1972 to sign the new revenue sharing legislation. -Walking into the building where that small group of patriots gathered -some two centuries ago, I thought back to what it must have been -like when the giants of our American heritage solemnly committed -themselves and their children to liberty. The dilemmas they faced, the -uncertainties they felt, the ideals they cherished—all seemed more -alive to me than ever before, and I came away with an even stronger -appreciation for their courage and their vision. - -As people from all over the world visit the places described in this -valuable book, they, too, will feel the excitement of history and -relive in their minds the beginnings of a great Nation. - -I commend this book to your attention and encourage all people, -Americans and foreigners alike, to make a special effort to visit our -historic sites during these Bicentennial years. - - _The White House_ - _Washington, D.C._ - -[Illustration: Richard Nixon (signature)] - - - - -_Preface_ - - -Nearly two hundred years have passed since America proclaimed her -independence. Yet this action and the beliefs and hopes motivating -those responsible for it are as central to us as a people today as -they were to Abraham Lincoln, whose words still remind us that “... -our fathers brought forth upon this continent, a new nation, conceived -in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created -equal....” - -To understand what we have become, we must know what we have been. -This volume illuminates the role of those who framed the Declaration -of Independence and took the bold risk of putting their signatures to -it, thus bringing into being a new Nation on a new model of stated -principle. It will stimulate our visual memory of the persons and -events that cast this Nation upon its course, and I commend it to all -who would more fully appreciate that heritage. - - ROGERS C. B. MORTON - _Secretary of the Interior_ - - -It is my hope that this volume will not only increase popular knowledge -of the Declaration of Independence and its signers, but that it will -also undergird the efforts of historic preservationists to protect -sites and buildings associated with them. Written records alone cannot -convey the appreciation and understanding that come from personal -acquaintance with historic places. Thus, while we preserve and study -the documents of the American Revolution, we must also save and -experience what physical evidences remain to illustrate the lives of -those who so boldly brought it about. With the assistance of this -book, many more Americans may come to know the sites and structures -frequented by the signers of the Declaration, to visit them personally, -and to appreciate more deeply the importance of their preservation. - -Credit for the preparation of this volume is shared widely by persons -both in and out of the National Park Service. The historic preservation -activities of the Service have particularly benefited from the -assistance of the National Trust for Historic Preservation in the -United States, cosponsor of the National Survey of Historic Sites and -Buildings. The Survey is authorized by the Historic Sites Act of 1935. - - RONALD H. WALKER - _Director_ - _National Park Service_ - - - - -Contents - - - Part I - - Signers of the Declaration: - Historical Background 1 - - - Part II - - Signers of the Declaration: - Biographical Sketches 25 - - John Adams • _Massachusetts_ 33 - Samuel Adams • _Massachusetts_ 36 - Josiah Bartlett • _New Hampshire_ 39 - Carter Braxton • _Virginia_ 41 - Charles Carroll • _Maryland_ 43 - Samuel Chase • _Maryland_ 45 - Abraham Clark • _New Jersey_ 47 - George Clymer • _Pennsylvania_ 49 - William Ellery • _Rhode Island_ 51 - William Floyd • _New York_ 53 - Benjamin Franklin • _Pennsylvania_ 55 - Elbridge Gerry • _Massachusetts_ 59 - Button Gwinnett • _Georgia_ 62 - Lyman Hall • _Georgia_ 65 - John Hancock • _Massachusetts_ 67 - Benjamin Harrison • _Virginia_ 70 - John Hart • _New Jersey_ 71 - Joseph Hewes • _North Carolina_ 73 - Thomas Heyward, Jr. • _South Carolina_ 75 - William Hooper • _North Carolina_ 77 - Stephen Hopkins • _Rhode Island_ 79 - Francis Hopkinson • _New Jersey_ 81 - Samuel Huntington • _Connecticut_ 83 - Thomas Jefferson • _Virginia_ 85 - Francis Lightfoot Lee • _Virginia_ 90 - Richard Henry Lee • _Virginia_ 92 - Francis Lewis • _New York_ 94 - Philip Livingston • _New York_ 96 - Thomas Lynch, Jr. • _South Carolina_ 99 - Thomas McKean • _Delaware_ 100 - Arthur Middleton • _South Carolina_ 103 - Lewis Morris • _New York_ 104 - Robert Morris • _Pennsylvania_ 106 - John Morton • _Pennsylvania_ 109 - Thomas Nelson, Jr. • _Virginia_ 110 - William Paca • _Maryland_ 113 - Robert Treat Paine • _Massachusetts_ 115 - John Penn • _North Carolina_ 116 - George Read • _Delaware_ 118 - Caesar Rodney • _Delaware_ 120 - George Ross • _Pennsylvania_ 122 - Benjamin Rush • _Pennsylvania_ 123 - Edward Rutledge • _South Carolina_ 127 - Roger Sherman • _Connecticut_ 129 - James Smith • _Pennsylvania_ 132 - Richard Stockton • _New Jersey_ 133 - Thomas Stone • _Maryland_ 135 - George Taylor • _Pennsylvania_ 137 - Matthew Thornton • _New Hampshire_ 139 - George Walton • _Georgia_ 140 - William Whipple • _New Hampshire_ 142 - William Williams • _Connecticut_ 144 - James Wilson • _Pennsylvania_ 145 - John Witherspoon • _New Jersey_ 149 - Oliver Wolcott • _Connecticut_ 152 - George Wythe • _Virginia_ 154 - - - Part III - - Signers of the Declaration: - Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings 157 - - Huntington Birthplace, Conn. 164 - Huntington House, Conn. 165 - Williams Birthplace, Conn. 166 - Williams House, Conn. 168 - Wolcott House, Conn. 169 - - The White House, D.C. 170 - - College Hill, Ga. 173 - Meadow Garden, Ga. 175 - Tabby Cottage, Ga. 176 - - Whipple Birthplace, Maine 177 - - Carroll Mansion, Md. 179 - Carrollton Manor, Md. 180 - Chase-Lloyd House, Md. 181 - Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md. 183 - Doughoregan Manor, Md. 185 - Habre-de-Venture, Md. 186 - Paca House, Md. 188 - Peggy Stewart House, Md. 189 - - Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass. 191 - Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass. 192 - Adams National Historic Site, Mass. 193 - Elmwood, Mass. 195 - Gerry Birthplace, Mass. 197 - Hancock-Clarke House, Mass. 198 - - Bartlett House, N.H. 199 - Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H. 201 - Thornton House, N.H. 203 - - Hopkinson House, N.J. 204 - Maybury Hill, N.J. 206 - Morven, N.J. 207 - President’s House, N.J. 208 - Tusculum, N.J. 209 - - Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y. 210 - General Floyd House, N.Y. 212 - - Iredell House, N.C. 213 - Nash-Hooper House, N.C. 214 - - Independence National Historical Park, Pa. 216 - Parsons-Taylor House, Pa. 226 - Shippen-Wistar House, Pa. 228 - Summerseat, Pa. 229 - Taylor House, Pa. 230 - - Governor Hopkins House, R.I. 231 - - Heyward-Washington House, S.C. 233 - Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, S.C. 234 - Middleton Place, S.C. 236 - Rutledge House, S.C. 237 - - Berkeley, Va. 239 - Elsing Green, Va. 240 - Menokin, Va. 242 - Monticello, Va. 243 - Mount Airy, Va. 246 - Nelson House (Colonial National - Historical Park), Va. 247 - Poplar Forest, Va. 249 - Stratford Hall, Va. 251 - Tuckahoe, Va. 253 - Wythe House, Va. 255 - - - Appendix - - The Declaration and Its History 257 - - Text of the Declaration 259 - History of the Document 262 - - - Suggested Reading 268 - - Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance 270 - - Acknowledgments 272 - - Art and Picture Credits 274 - - Index 281 - - - Map: Signers of the Declaration—Historic Sites of National - Significance 162–163 - - - _All photographs are indexed._ - - - - -Part One - -Signers of the Declaration: - -Historical Background - - -At Philadelphia in the summer of 1776, the Delegates to the Continental -Congress courageously signed a document declaring the independence of -the Thirteen American Colonies from Great Britain. Not only did the -Declaration of Independence create a Nation, but it also pronounced -timeless democratic principles. Enshrined today in the National -Archives Building at Washington, D.C., it memorializes the founding of -the United States and symbolizes the eternal freedom and dignity of Man. - - * * * * * - -By the time the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration in July -1776, the War for Independence had been underway for more than a year. -Failing to obtain satisfactory redress from the mother country for -their economic and political grievances during the previous decade, the -colonists had finally resorted to armed conflict. These grievances had -come to a head shortly after the French and Indian War (1754–63). Long -and costly, the war depleted the royal treasury and added the financial -burden of administering the vast territory acquired from France. -Britain levied new, direct taxes in the Colonies and tightened customs -controls. - -The colonists, accustomed to considerable economic freedom, resented -these measures. A number of Americans also felt that some sort -of conspiracy existed in England to destroy their liberties and -self-government. They believed that the mission of the large force of -redcoats assigned to the Colonies actually was internal suppression -rather than protection from a nonexistent external threat, especially -since the French had been expelled. Particularly aggravating was the -realization that the new tax levies supported the force. Some of the -discontent was regional in nature. Indebtedness to British creditors -irritated Southern planters. Commercial interests in the Middle -Colonies disliked the prohibition on manufacturing certain products. -Frontier settlers and speculators were irked at restrictions on -westward expansion and the Indian trade. - -[Illustration: George III, King of England during the War for -Independence, was the focus of colonial hatred.] - -[Illustration: The Revolutionaries utilized this exaggerated version -of the Boston Massacre (1770) by Paul Revere to nourish resentment of -British troops.] - -[Illustration: “The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring & -Feathering,” a British cartoon satirizing colonial methods of protest.] - -In various places, peaceful protest and harassment of tax and customs -collectors gave way to rioting and mob violence. In New York and -Massachusetts, clashes with British troops culminated in bloodshed. -Realizing that some of these disturbances stemmed from agitation in -the colonial assemblies, which had enjoyed wide autonomy, the Crown -tightened its control over them. Disputes between legislators and -the King’s officials, once spasmodic, became commonplace. In some -instances, notably in Virginia and Massachusetts, the Royal Governors -dissolved the assemblies. In these and a few other provinces the Whigs -separated from their Tory, or Loyalist, colleagues, met extralegally, -and adopted retaliatory measures. Nearly all the Colonies formed -special “committees of correspondence” to communicate with each -other—the first step toward unified action. - -[Illustration: In retaliation for the Boston Tea Party (1773), the -Crown imposed rigid limitations on the freedom of Massachusetts -citizens.] - -In May 1774, in retaliation for the “Boston Tea Party,” Parliament -closed the port of Boston and virtually abolished provincial -self-government in Massachusetts. These actions stimulated resistance -across the land. That summer, the Massachusetts lower house, through -the committees of correspondence, secretly invited all 13 Colonies -to attend a convention. In response, on the fifth of September, 55 -Delegates representing 12 Colonies, Georgia excepted, assembled at -Philadelphia. They convened at Carpenters’ Hall and organized the First -Continental Congress. - -[Illustration: A rare contemporary engraving of the British-American -clash in 1775 at North Bridge, near Concord, Mass.] - -Sharing though they did common complaints against the Crown, the -Delegates propounded a wide variety of political opinions. Most of them -agreed that Parliament had no right to control the internal affairs -of the Colonies. Moderates, stressing trade benefits with the mother -country, believed Parliament should continue to regulate commerce. -Others questioned the extent of its authority. A handful of Delegates -felt the answer to the problem lay in parliamentary representation. -Most suggested legislative autonomy for the Colonies. Reluctant to -sever ties of blood, language, trade, and cultural heritage, none yet -openly entertained the idea of complete independence from Great Britain. - -After weeks of debate and compromise, Congress adopted two significant -measures. The first declared that the American colonists were -entitled to the same rights as Englishmen everywhere and denounced any -infringement of those rights. The second, the Continental Association, -provided for an embargo on all trade with Britain. To enforce the -embargo and punish violators, at the behest of Congress counties, -cities, and towns formed councils, or committees, of safety—many of -which later became wartime governing or administrative bodies. When -Congress adjourned in late October, the Delegates resolved to reconvene -in May 1775 if the Crown had not responded by then. - -[Illustration: Headlines of a broadside showing American alarm over the -Battle of Concord. The two rows of coffins at the top represent slain -militiamen.] - -In a sense the Continental Congress acted with restraint, for while -it was in session the situation in Massachusetts verged on war. In -September, just before Congress met, British troops from Boston had -seized ordnance supplies at Charlestown and Cambridge and almost -clashed with the local militia. The next month, Massachusetts patriots, -openly defying royal authority, organized a Revolutionary provincial -assembly as well as a military defense committee. Whigs in three other -colonies—Maryland, Virginia, and New Hampshire—had earlier that year -formed governments. By the end of the year, all the Colonies except -Georgia and New York had either set up new ones or taken control -of those already in existence. During the winter of 1774–75, while -Parliament mulled over conciliatory measures, colonial militia units -prepared for war. - -[Illustration: Continental Army recruiting poster.] - -The crisis came in the spring of 1775, predictably in Massachusetts. -Late on the night of April 18 the Royal Governor, Gen. Thomas Gage, -alarmed at the militancy of the rebels, dispatched 600 troops from -Boston to seize a major supply depot at Concord. Almost simultaneously -the Boston council of safety, aware of Gage’s intentions, directed -Paul Revere and William Dawes to ride ahead to warn militia units and -citizens along the way of the British approach, as well as John Hancock -and Samuel Adams, who were staying at nearby Lexington. Forewarned, the -two men went into hiding. - -[Illustration: Title page of _Common Sense_, the anonymously written -and widely distributed pamphlet that converted thousands of colonists -to the Revolutionary cause.] - -About 77 militiamen confronted the redcoats when they plodded into -Lexington at dawn. After some tense moments, as the sorely outnumbered -colonials were dispersing, blood was shed. More flowed at Concord and -much more along the route of the British as they retreated to Boston, -harassed most of the way by an aroused citizenry. What had once been -merely protest had evolved into open warfare; the War for Independence -had begun. - -[Illustration: Thomas Paine, author of _Common Sense_, did not emigrate -to America from England until 1774, but he became an ardent patriot.] - -[Illustration: Sir William Howe, British commander in chief in America -from 1776 until 1778.] - -The Second Continental Congress convened in the Pennsylvania State -House at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Burdened by wartime realities -and the need to prepare a unified defense, it created a Continental -Army, unanimously elected George Washington as commander in chief, -appointed other generals, and tackled problems of military finance and -supply. Yet, despite these warlike actions, many Delegates still hoped -for a peaceful reconciliation. - -[Illustration: Robert R. Livingston of New York, the most conservative -member of the drafting committee, neither voted on independence nor -signed the Declaration.] - -In July Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition, a final attempt -to achieve an understanding with the Crown. The petition appealed -directly to King George III to cease hostilities and restore harmony. -But, unwilling to challenge the supremacy of Parliament, he refused to -acknowledge the plea and proclaimed the Colonies to be in a state of -rebellion. - -During the winter of 1775–76, as the war intensified, all chance for -accommodation vanished. Congress, for the first time representing all -Thirteen Colonies because Georgia had sent Delegates in the fall, -disclaimed allegiance to Parliament, created a navy, and appointed a -committee of foreign affairs. Nevertheless the patriots, despite their -mounting influence in the provincial assemblies, felt they needed more -public support and hesitated to urge a final break with the Crown. - -The turning point came in January 1776 with publication in Philadelphia -of the pamphlet _Common Sense_, authored anonymously by the recent -English immigrant Thomas Paine. Attacking the “myth” of an evil -Parliament and a benevolent King, he denounced George III for creating -the Colonies’ miseries, condemned the British constitution as well -as monarchy in general, and exhorted his fellow Americans to declare -independence immediately. The pamphlet, widely reprinted, was purchased -by many thousands of people and read by thousands more. It created a -furor. From Georgia to New Hampshire, independence became the major -topic of discussion and debate. The Revolutionaries won thousands of -converts. - -In May Congress took a bold step toward political freedom by -authorizing the Colonies to form permanent governments. Those that had -not done so began to oust Crown officials and draft constitutions. -Independence, though not yet officially declared, was for all practical -purposes a reality. - - * * * * * - -The official movement for independence took root in the provincial -assemblies. The North Carolina assembly in April 1776 instructed its -congressional Delegates to vote for the issue should it be proposed. -The next month, on May 4, Rhode Island announced its independence -publicly—the first colony to do so. But it was Virginia that prodded -Congress to action. On May 15 a Williamsburg convention declared -Virginia independent and authorized its delegation at Philadelphia to -propose a similar course for the Colonies. On June 7 the delegation’s -leader, Richard Henry Lee, introduced the following resolution: - - That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and - independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance - to the British Crown, and that all political connection between - them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally - dissolved. - -The resolution also incorporated proposals to form foreign alliances; -and to devise a plan for confederation, which would be submitted to the -Colonies for their approval. - -Despite the enthusiastic response of many Delegates, some of them, -though they foresaw the inevitability of independence, objected to the -timing. They believed the decision should reflect the desires of the -people as expressed through the provincial assemblies and pointed out -that the Middle Colonies, not yet ripe for freedom, needed more time -for deliberation. On June 10 the moderates obtained a postponement of -consideration of the Lee resolution until July 1. - -On June 11 the Revolutionaries, undaunted by the delay and convinced of -their ultimate victory, persuaded Congress to appoint a committee to -draft a declaration of independence. Three of its five members, John -Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson, were Revolutionaries. -Roger Sherman disliked extremism but had recently backed the -independence movement. The most unlikely member, Robert R. Livingston, -had stood in the front ranks of opposition to Lee’s resolution. -Possibly he was appointed to exert a moderating effect on its -supporters or, conversely, in the hope that his membership would help -swing over the conservative New York delegation. - -At the time Lee had introduced his resolution, seven of the -Colonies—New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, -Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia—favored independence. New York, -New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, and Maryland were -either opposed or undecided. Throughout the month, Revolutionaries in -those provinces labored to gain control of the assemblies. Delaware -and Pennsylvania, unable to reach a decision, instructed their -representatives to vote in their colonies’ “best interests.” New -Jersey issued similar directions, but also elected an entirely new -and Whig-oriented slate of Delegates. The Maryland assembly, largely -through the persuasion of Samuel Chase, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, -and William Paca, voted unanimously for independence and so charged -its Delegates. The South Carolinians, though they had been authorized -months before to cast their lot with the majority, vacillated. The New -Yorkers impatiently awaited instructions. - -[Illustration: First page of Jefferson’s rough draft of the -Declaration.] - -July 1 was the day of decision. The Revolutionaries, overconfident from -their progress of the preceding month, anticipated an almost unanimous -vote for independence. They were disappointed. Following congressional -procedure, each colony balloted as a unit, determined by the majority -of Delegate opinion. Only nine of the Colonies voted affirmatively; -Pennsylvania and South Carolina, negatively; New York abstained; and -the two Delegates present from Delaware deadlocked. Technically the -resolution had carried, but the solidarity desirable for such a vital -decision was missing. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, hinting his -colony might change sides, moved that the vote be retaken the next day. - -That day proved to be one of the most dramatic in the history of -the Continental Congress. John Adams of Massachusetts exerted an -overwhelming influence. South Carolina, its Delegates swayed by -Rutledge, reversed its position. Two conservatives among the seven -Pennsylvanians, Robert Morris and John Dickinson, though unwilling to -make a personal commitment to independence, cooperated by purposely -absenting themselves; the remaining Delegates voted three to two -in favor. The most exciting moment of the day occurred when Caesar -Rodney, Delaware’s third Delegate, galloped up to the statehouse after -a harrowing 80-mile night ride from Dover through a thunderstorm and -broke the Delaware tie. Home on a military assignment, the evening -before he had received an urgent plea from Thomas McKean, the -Delawarean who had voted for independence, to rush to Philadelphia. In -the final vote, 12 Colonies approved Lee’s resolution, New York again -abstaining. Congress declared the resolution to be in effect. - - * * * * * - -For the remainder of July 2 and continuing until the 4th, Congress -weighed and debated the content of the Declaration of Independence, -which the drafting committee had submitted on June 28. Its author was -young Thomas Jefferson, who had been in Congress about a year. The -committee had chosen him for the task because he was from Virginia, the -colony responsible for the independence resolution, and because of his -reputation as an excellent writer and man of talent and action. - -[Illustration: Facsimile of the Declaration of Independence, engraved -in 1823 while the document was still in relatively good condition.] - -Laboring in his rented rooms on the second floor of a private home at -the corner of Seventh and Market Streets, Jefferson had completed a -rough draft in about 2 weeks. Apparently Franklin and Adams made some -minor changes, and Livingston and Sherman expressed no reservations -so far as is known. To Jefferson’s irritation, however, Congress -altered the final draft considerably. Most of the changes consisted of -refinements in phraseology. Two major passages, however, were deleted. -The first, a censure of the people of Great Britain, seemed harsh -and needless to most of the Delegates. The second, an impassioned -condemnation of the slave trade, offended Southern planters as well as -New England shippers, many of whom were as culpable as the British in -the trade. - - * * * * * - -The first official document of the American Republic and one of the -most influential in human history, the Declaration expressed the spirit -of human freedom and affirmed Man’s universal rights. Jefferson’s goal -in drafting it was not, he said, to invent “new ideas” but to compose -“an expression of the American mind” in a tone and spirit suitable -for the momentous occasion. Stylistically, the Declaration resembled -his own preamble to the Virginia constitution and contained an almost -identical list of grievances. Its political philosophy, reflecting -the Lockean concepts espoused by many intellectuals of the day, was -certainly not new. Jefferson himself had touched on the basic points in -previous writings, and in essence he echoed George Mason’s “Declaration -of Rights,” which some of the Philadelphia newspapers had published -early in June. In other words, the Declaration assimilated existing -concepts into a concise statement of national doctrine. - -Jefferson began the preamble with the oft-quoted and stirring words, -“When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one -people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with -another....” He then listed a series of “self-evident” truths—that “all -men are created equal” and that they are “endowed by their creator -with certain unalienable rights,” particularly “life, liberty, and -the pursuit of happiness.” Governments, “deriving their just powers -from the consent of the governed,” are instituted by men to insure -these rights. When they fail to do so, it is the “right of the people -to alter or to abolish” them and to institute new governments. Men -should not carelessly change governments, but should only take such -action after a long series of abuses and usurpations lead to “absolute -despotism.” Then it becomes their duty to do so. The longest portion -of the Declaration is a list of colonial grievances and examples of -the King’s tyranny. The final section includes a restatement of Lee’s -resolution and a pledge by the signers of their lives, their fortunes, -and their sacred honor to the cause of independence. - -[Illustration: The Declaration first appeared in newspapers on July 9, -the day after the official announcement in Philadelphia.] - -[Illustration: The New York City Sons of Liberty celebrated -independence by pulling down a statue of George III, which they later -melted and molded into bullets.] - - * * * * * - -On July 4 all the Colonies except New York voted to adopt the -Declaration. Congress ordered it printed and distributed to colonial -officials, military units, and the press. John Hancock and Charles -Thomson, President and Secretary of Congress respectively, were -the only signers of this broadside copy. On July 8, outside the -Pennsylvania State House, the document was first read to the public. -During the ensuing celebration, people cheered, bells rang out, and -soldiers paraded. At other cities, similar celebrations soon took -place. Yet many citizens—the Loyalists, or Tories—could not accept -independence now that it had been declared any more than previously -when it had been merely a concept. Some of them would continue to -dream of reconciliation. Others would flee from or be driven out of -the country. In addition, another sizable group of citizens remained -noncommittal, neither supporting nor opposing independence. - -[Illustration: Artist’s rendition of the Battle of Germantown (October -1777).] - -Four days after obtaining New York’s approval of the Declaration on -July 15, Congress ordered it engrossed on parchment for signature. -At this time, indicative of unanimity, the title was changed from “A -Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America -in General Congress Assembled” to “The Unanimous Declaration of the -Thirteen United States of America.” - - * * * * * - -Contrary to a widespread misconception, the 56 signers did not sign -as a group and did not do so on July 4, 1776. The official event -occurred on August 2, 1776, when 50 men probably took part. Later -that year, five more apparently signed separately and one added his -name in a subsequent year. Not until January 18, 1777, in the wake of -Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton, did Congress, which -had sought to protect the signers from British retaliation for as long -as possible, authorize printing of the Declaration with all their names -listed. At this time, Thomas McKean had not yet penned his name. - -The most impressive signature is that of John Hancock, President of -Congress, centered over the others. According to tradition, Hancock -wrote boldly and defiantly so that King George III would not need -spectacles to identify him as a “traitor” and double the reward for -his head. The other Delegates signed in six columns, which ran from -right to left. They utilized the standard congressional voting order, -by colony generally from north to south: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, -Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, -Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and -Georgia. - -Those who signed on August 2 undoubtedly did not realize that -others would follow them and thus allowed no room to accommodate -the signatures of the later six men. Two of them, George Wythe and -Richard Henry Lee, found ample room above their fellow Virginians. -One, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, crowded his name into the -space between the Massachusetts and Rhode Island groups. Two of the -others—Thomas McKean and Oliver Wolcott—signed at the bottom of columns -following their State delegations. Only Matthew Thornton of New -Hampshire needed to add his name separately from his colleagues—at the -bottom of the first column on the right at the end of the Connecticut -group. - - * * * * * - -Independence had been declared; it still had to be won on the field of -battle. The War for Independence was already underway, but 5 more years -of struggle and bloody campaigning lay ahead. In 1781 the Colonies -achieved military victory, and 2 years later Britain in the Treaty of -Paris officially recognized the independence they had proclaimed in -1776. The building of the Nation could begin. - - - - -Part Two - -Signers of the Declaration: - -Biographical Sketches - - - - -Liberally endowed as a whole with courage and sense of purpose, -the signers consisted of a distinguished group of individuals. -Although heterogeneous in background, education, experience, and -accomplishments, at the time of the signing they were practically all -men of means and represented an elite cross section of 18th-century -American leadership. Every one of them had achieved prominence in his -colony, but only a few enjoyed a national reputation. - -The signers were those individuals who happened to be Delegates to -Congress at the time. Such men of stature in the Nation as George -Washington and Patrick Henry were not then even serving in the body. -On the other hand, Jefferson, the two Adamses, Richard Henry Lee, and -Benjamin Rush ranked among the outstanding people in the Colonies; and -Franklin had already acquired international fame. Some of the signers -had not taken a stand for or against independence in the final vote -on July 2. For example, Robert Morris of Pennsylvania had purposely -absented himself. Others had not yet been elected to Congress or -were away on business or military matters. Some were last-minute -replacements for opponents of independence. The only signer who -actually voted negatively on July 2 was George Read of Delaware. - - * * * * * - -The signers possessed many basic similarities. Most were American-born -and of Anglo-Saxon origin. The eight foreign-born—Button Gwinnett, -Francis Lewis, Robert Morris, James Smith, George Taylor, Matthew -Thornton, James Wilson, and John Witherspoon—were all natives of the -British Isles. Except for Charles Carroll, a Roman Catholic, and a -few Deists, every one subscribed to Protestantism. For the most part -basically political nonextremists, many at first had hesitated at -separation let alone rebellion. A few signed only reluctantly. - -[Illustration: Fervid Revolutionary Patrick Henry numbered among those -patriots of national reputation who were not Members of Congress at the -time of the signing of the Declaration.] - -The majority were well educated and prosperous. More than half the -southerners belonged to the planter class and owned slaves, though -Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, and others heartily opposed the -institution of slavery, as did also several of the signers from the -North. On the other hand, William Whipple, as a sea captain early in -his career, had likely sometimes carried slaves on his ship. - -Although the signers ranged in age at the time from 26 (Edward -Rutledge) to 70 (Benjamin Franklin), the bulk of them were in their -thirties or forties. Probably as a result of their favored economic -position, an amazingly large number attained an age that far exceeded -the life expectancy of their time; 38 of the 56 lived into their -sixties or beyond and 14 into the eighties and nineties. - -[Illustration: George Washington inspecting his troops at Valley Forge. -Busy serving as commander in chief of the Continental Army, he did not -sign the Declaration.] - -With few exceptions, those who subscribed to the Declaration continued -in public service under the new Federal and State Governments. John -Adams and Thomas Jefferson became President; they and Elbridge Gerry, -Vice President. Samuel Chase and James Wilson won appointment to the -Supreme Court. Others served as Congressmen, diplomats, Governors, and -judges. Six of the signers—George Clymer, Benjamin Franklin, Robert -Morris, George Read, Roger Sherman, and James Wilson—also signed the -Constitution. Sixteen of them underwrote the Articles of Confederation. -Only two, Roger Sherman and Robert Morris, affixed their signatures to -the Declaration, Constitution, and Articles. - -Caesar Rodney and Joseph Hewes were the only bachelors in the group. -All but five fathered children. Carter Braxton sired no fewer than -18, but 10 others each had at least 10 offspring. The average number -was about six. Some of the sons of the signers attained national -distinction. John Adams’ son John Quincy became President; the son of -Benjamin Harrison, William Henry, won the same office, as did also -Benjamin’s great-grandson with the same name. Other male progeny of the -signers served as U.S. Congressmen, Governors, and State legislators. - - * * * * * - -Yet the group manifested diversity. Each man tended to reflect the -particular attitudes and interests of his own region and colony. -Fourteen represented New England; 21, the Middle Colonies; and 21, the -South. The largest number, nine, came from Pennsylvania; the least, -two, from Rhode Island. All those from three Colonies (Georgia, New -Hampshire, and North Carolina) were born elsewhere. About half of the -men received their higher education in colonial colleges or abroad; -most of the others studied at home, in local schools or private -academies, or with tutors. A few were almost entirely self-taught. - -[Illustration: Harvard College, about 1725. Indicative of the favored -economic circumstances of the signers, about half of them enjoyed -a higher education. Eight, including all five from Massachusetts, -attended Harvard.] - -In wealth, the signers ranged from Charles Carroll, one of the -wealthiest men in the Colonies, to Samuel Adams, whose friends supplied -money and clothes so he could attend Congress. About one-third were -born into wealth; most of the others acquired it on their own. Some -were self-made men. A few were of humble origin; one, George Taylor, -had come to America as an indentured servant. - -Many pursued more than one vocation. More than half were trained in -the law, but not all of them practiced it. Some won a livelihood as -merchants and shippers. Roughly a quarter of the group earned their -living from agriculture, usually as wealthy planters or landed gentry, -but just a few could be called farmers. Four—Josiah Bartlett, Benjamin -Rush, Lyman Hall, and Matthew Thornton—were doctors. Oliver Wolcott -also studied medicine for awhile, but never entered the profession. -George Taylor’s occupation was ironmaster. Of the four trained as -ministers—Lyman Hall, William Hooper, Robert Treat Paine, and John -Witherspoon—only the latter made it his lifetime vocation. William -Williams received some theological training. Samuel Adams followed no -real occupation other than politics. - - * * * * * - -For their dedication to the cause of independence, the signers risked -loss of fortune, imprisonment, and death for treason. Although none -died directly at the hands of the British, the wife of one, Mrs. -Francis Lewis, succumbed as a result of harsh prison treatment. About -one-third of the group served as militia officers, most seeing wartime -action. Four of these men (Thomas Heyward, Jr., Arthur Middleton, -Edward Rutledge, and George Walton), as well as Richard Stockton, -were taken captive. The homes of nearly one-third of the signers were -destroyed or damaged, and the families of a few were scattered when the -British pillaged or confiscated their estates. - -Nearly all of the group emerged poorer for their years of public -service and neglect of personal affairs. Although a couple of the -merchants and shippers among them profited from the war, the businesses -of most of them deteriorated as a result of embargoes on trade with -Britain and heavy financial losses when their ships were confiscated or -destroyed at sea. Several forfeited to the Government precious specie -for virtually worthless Continental currency or made donations or -loans, usually unrepaid, to their colonies or the Government. Some even -sold their personal property to help finance the war. - -Certainly most of the signers had little or nothing to gain materially -and practically all to lose when they subscribed to the Declaration of -Independence. By doing so, they earned a niche of honor in the annals -of the United States. Whatever other heights they reached or whatever -else they contributed to history, the act of signing insured them -immortality. - - * * * * * - -_The following biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically by -last name. Readers interested in signers for a certain State should -consult the Index under the appropriate State._ - - - - -John Adams - -MASSACHUSETTS - -[Illustration] - - Few men contributed more to U.S. Independence than John - Adams, the “Atlas of American Independence” in the eyes of - fellow signer Richard Stockton. A giant among the Founding - Fathers, Adams was one of the coterie of leaders who - generated the American Revolution, for which his prolific - writings provided many of the politico-philosophical - foundations. Not only did he help draft the Declaration, - but he also steered it through the Continental Congress. - - -The subsequent career of Adams—as a diplomat and first Vice President -and second President of the United States—overshadows those of all the -other signers except Jefferson. Adams was also the progenitor of a -distinguished family. His son John Quincy gained renown as diplomat, -Congressman, Secretary of State, and President. John’s grandson -Charles Francis and great-grandsons John Quincy II, Charles Francis, -Jr., Henry, and Brooks excelled in politics, diplomacy, literature, -historiography, and public service. - -Adams, descended from a long line of yeomen farmers, was born in 1735 -at Braintree (later Quincy), Mass. He graduated from Harvard College -in 1755, and for a short time taught school at Worcester, Mass. At -that time, he considered entering the ministry, but decided instead -to follow the law and began its study with a local lawyer. Adams was -admitted to the bar at Boston in 1758 and began to practice in his -hometown. Six years later, he married Abigail Smith, who was to bear -three sons and a daughter. She was also the first mistress of the -White House and the only woman in U.S. history to be the wife of one -President and the mother of another. - -Adams, like many others, was propelled into the Revolutionary camp by -the Stamp Act. In 1765 he wrote a protest for Braintree that scores of -other Massachusetts towns adopted. Three years later, he temporarily -left his family behind and moved to Boston. He advanced in the law, -but devoted more and more of his time to the patriot cause. In 1768 he -achieved recognition throughout the Colonies for his defense of John -Hancock, whom British customs officials had charged with smuggling. -Adams later yielded to a stern sense of legal duty but incurred some -public hostility by representing the British soldiers charged with -murder in the Boston Massacre (1770). Ill health forced him to return -to Braintree following a term in the colonial legislature (1770–71), -and for the next few years he divided his time between there and Boston. - -A 3-year stint in the Continental Congress (1774–77), punctuated by -short recuperative leaves and service in the colonial legislature in -1774–75, brought Adams national fame. Because he was sharply attuned -to the temper of Congress and aware that many Members resented -Massachusetts extremism, he at first acceded to conciliatory efforts -with Britain and restrained himself publicly. When Congress opted for -independence, he became its foremost advocate, eschewing conciliation -and urging a colonial confederation. - -Adams was a master of workable compromise and meaningful debate, -though he was sometimes impatient. He chaired 25 of the more than 90 -committees on which he sat, the most important of which dealt with -military and naval affairs. He played an instrumental part in obtaining -Washington’s appointment as commander in chief of the Continental Army. -Adams was a member of the five-man committee charged with drafting the -Declaration in June of 1776, though he probably made no major changes -in Jefferson’s draft. But, more directly involved, he defended it from -its congressional detractors, advocated it to the wavering, and guided -it to passage. - -The independence battle won, exhausted by the incessant toil and strain -and worried about his finances and family, Adams in November 1777 -retired from Congress—never to return. He headed back to Braintree -intending to resume his law practice. But, before the month expired, -Congress appointed him to a diplomatic post in Europe—a phase of his -career that consumed more than a decade (1777–88). - -Adams served in France during the period 1778–85, interrupted only -by a visit to the United States in the summer of 1779, during -which he attended the Massachusetts constitutional convention. -Independent-minded and forthright, as well as somewhat jealous of the -fame and accomplishments of others, he frequently found himself at -odds with fellow diplomats Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee, as well -as French officials, whose policies toward the Colonies he mistrusted. -He joined Franklin and John Jay, however, in negotiating the Treaty -of Paris (1783), by which Britain recognized the independence of the -United States. - -Meanwhile, during the preceding 3 years, Adams had persuaded the Dutch -to recognize the Colonies as an independent Nation, grant a series of -loans, and negotiate a treaty of alliance. As the first American Envoy -to Great Britain (1785–88), he strove to resolve questions arising from -the Treaty of Paris and to calm the harsh feelings between the two -countries. - -Back in the United States, Adams was soon elected as the first Vice -President (1789–97), an office he considered insignificant but in which -he emerged as a leader of the Federalist Party. During his stormy but -statesmanlike Presidency (1797–1801), he inherited the deep political -discord between the Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians that had taken root -during Washington’s administration. Adams pursued a neutral course -without abandoning his principles. He kept the United States out of a -declared war with France and achieved an amicable peace. But he proved -unable to unite his party, divided by Hamilton’s machinations and the -ramifications of the French Revolution. - -The Jeffersonians drove the Federalists out of office in 1800, and -Adams retired to Quincy, where he spent his later years quietly. The -death of his wife in 1818 saddened him, but he never lost interest in -public affairs and lived to see his son John Quincy become President. -John died at the age of 90 just a few hours after Jefferson, on July 4, -1826—dramatically enough the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the -Declaration. Except for Charles Carroll, who was to live until 1832, -Adams and Jefferson were the last two surviving signers. The remains of -John and Abigail Adams are interred in a basement crypt at the United -First Parish Church in Quincy. - - - - -Samuel Adams - -MASSACHUSETTS - -[Illustration] - - “Firebrand of the Revolution,” Samuel Adams probably more - than almost any other individual instigated and organized - colonial resistance to the Crown. A talented polemicist and - agitator-propagandist who relied more on his facile pen - than the podium in behind-the-scenes manipulation of men - and events, he religiously believed in the righteousness - of his political causes, to which he persistently tried - to convert others. He failed in business, neglected - his family, gained a reputation as an eccentric, and - demonstrated as much indifference to his own welfare as - he did solicitousness for that of the public. His second - cousin John Adams, more of a statesman, eclipsed him in - the Continental Congress, though Samuel signed both the - Declaration and the Articles of Confederation. In his later - years, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts bestowed on him - many high offices, capped by the governorship. - - -Adams was one of 12 offspring of a prosperous and politically active -brewer and landowner. He was born at Boston in 1722 and enjoyed an -excellent education at the Boston Latin School and Harvard College. -Upon his graduation in 1740, he first demonstrated his lifelong -aversion to normal employment. He studied law for awhile and then -skipped from job to job, working for a time in his father’s brewery -as well as in a counting house and dissipating a paternal loan in an -unsuccessful business venture. - -When his father died in 1748 and his mother soon afterwards, Adams -inherited a sizable estate, including the family home and brewery. -By 1764, when the colonial quarrel with Britain began, he had long -since lost the latter. And, during the previous 8 years as city tax -collector, he had fallen in arrears about £8,000 in his collections. -At the age of 42, unable to support a new wife and two children from -his first marriage and residing in his rundown birthplace, he was -destitute and besieged by creditors. He subsisted mainly on gifts and -donations from loyal friends and neighbors. - -Adams was a failure by most standards, but he had long before found the -only meaningful “occupation” he ever pursued. For almost two decades he -had been active in local political clubs, where he earned a reputation -as a writer and emerged as leader of the “popular” party that opposed -the powerful conservative aristocracy controlling the Massachusetts -government. As clerk in the colonial legislature (1765–74), he drafted -most of the body’s official papers and quickly seized the tools of -power. He pounced on the taxation issue raised by the Sugar and Stamp -Acts (1764–65), and within a year he and his party fanned popular -hatred of the conservatives and gained control of the legislature. -He also spurred organization of the militant Boston Sons of Liberty, -a secret society. As time went on, the stridency of his anti-British -harangues escalated and sometimes became shrill enough to distress John -Hancock and John Adams. - -The Townshend Acts (1767), imposing a series of taxes on imports, -provided Adams with a new cause for dissent. He urged merchants not -to purchase goods from Britain, fomented opposition toward customs -officials, inflamed the resentment toward British troops stationed -in the colony that led to the Boston Massacre (1770), and humiliated -the Royal Governor so much that he was recalled. Adams also authored -a circular letter protesting British taxation and advocating united -opposition. When, in 1768, the Massachusetts legislature sent it to -the 12 other colonial assemblies, the Royal Governor dissolved the -legislature, soon a common British practice in America. All these -activities, coupled with authorship of scores of newspaper articles and -extensive correspondence with prominent persons in the Colonies and -England, brought Adams fame. - -The conservative reaction on the part of merchants, the legislature, -and the populace that surfaced after the repeal of practically all the -Townshend Acts in 1770 failed to stifle Adams, though his popularity -and influence declined. Relentlessly, in perhaps his chief contribution -to the Revolution, he kept the controversy alive by filling the columns -of the Boston newspapers with reports of British transgressions and -warnings of more to come. Furthermore, in 1772 he began constructing -the framework of a Revolutionary organization in Massachusetts. -Drawing on a similar scheme he had proposed for all the Colonies 2 -years earlier but which had come to naught, he convinced Boston and -other towns to create committees of correspondence. The next year, he -was appointed to the Massachusetts committee, formed in response to a -call from the Virginia House of Burgesses. - -Passage of the Tea Act (1773) provided the spark Adams was seeking -to rekindle the flame of rebellion. He helped to incite and probably -participated in the “Boston Tea Party,” which engendered a series of -rebellious incidents throughout the Colonies and pushed them closer to -war. Parliament retaliated the next spring by passing a series of acts -designed to punish Massachusetts. - -Adams, recognizing that the other Colonies would only adopt -non-intercourse measures in concert, urged an intercolonial congress -to discuss mutual grievances and plan a united course of action. -Subsequently, in June, the Massachusetts house of representatives, -meeting behind locked doors to prevent interference by the Royal -Governor, resolved to invite the other 12 Colonies to send -representatives to Philadelphia in September and also appointed five -Delegates, including Adams. That same day, the Royal Governor disbanded -the legislature for the last time. Before heading for Philadelphia, -outfitted in new clothes supplied by friends, Adams helped organize the -convention that adopted the Suffolk Resolves, which in effect declared -Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion. - -Adams served in the Continental Congress until 1781, longer than most -other Delegates, but his role was less conspicuous than his preceding -career augured. In the early sessions, most of the time he shrewdly -stayed in the background with his fellow Massachusetts Delegates, -whose radicalism offended most of their colleagues. And, throughout -the Congress, he walked in the shadow of John Adams, who dominated the -proceedings. - -But nothing in the latter’s career could match the drama of an -episode involving Samuel in the interim between the First and Second -Continental Congresses. Back at Lexington, Mass., one night in April -1775, he and Hancock had barely escaped the British force seeking to -capture the colonial supply depot at Concord. The outbreak of armed -conflict the next dawn—a “glorious morning” for Adams—marked the -beginning of the War for Independence. - -While still in Congress, in 1779–80 Adams participated in the -Massachusetts constitutional convention. He returned to Boston for -good the next year and entered the State senate (1781–88), over which -he presided. He refused to attend the Constitutional Convention of -1787 because of his objection to a stronger National Government, and -the following year unenthusiastically took part in the Massachusetts -ratifying convention. A lifetime of public service culminated in his -election as Lieutenant Governor (1789–93), interim Governor in the -latter year upon Hancock’s death, and Governor (1794–97). Still living -in “honest poverty,” he died at Boston in 1803 at the age of 81 and was -buried in the Old Granary Burying Ground. - - - - -Josiah Bartlett - -NEW HAMPSHIRE - -[Illustration] - - Thanks to the voting order in the Continental Congress, - Josiah Bartlett of New Hampshire was probably the first - Delegate to vote for independence, the second to sign - the Declaration (after President John Hancock), and the - first to ballot for and pen his name to the Articles of - Confederation. He also has the distinction of being one - of several physician signers. His State service, more - extensive than the National, included the governorship. - - -Bartlett was born in 1729 at Amesbury, Mass. At the age of 16, equipped -with a common school education and some knowledge of Latin and Greek, -he began to study medicine in the office of a relative. Five years -later, in 1750, he hung out his shingle at nearby Kingston, N.H. He -quickly won a name not only as a general practitioner but also as an -experimenter and innovator in diagnosis and treatment. Marrying in -1754, he fathered 12 children. - -During the decade or so preceding the outbreak of the War for -Independence, Bartlett held the offices of justice of the peace, -militia colonel, and legislator. In 1774 he cast his lot with the -Revolutionaries. He became a member of the New Hampshire committee -of correspondence and the first provincial congress, which came into -being when the Royal Governor disbanded the colonial assembly. Bartlett -was elected that same year to the Continental Congress, but tragedy -intervened and kept him at home. Arsonists, possibly Loyalists, burned -his house to the ground. Discouraged but undeterred, he immediately -constructed a new one on the very same site. - -While in Congress (1775–76), Bartlett also served on the New Hampshire -council of safety. Although he rarely participated in congressional -debates, whose seeming futility vexed him, he sat on various -committees. He was reelected in 1777, but was too exhausted to attend. -He nevertheless managed in August to lend his medical skills to Gen. -John Stark’s force of New Hampshire militia and Continental troops. -They defeated a predominantly German element of Gen. John Burgoyne’s -command in the Battle of Bennington, N.Y.—one of the reverses that -helped force him to surrender 2 months later at Saratoga, N.Y. -Bartlett’s last tour in Congress was in 1778–79, after which he refused -reelection because of fatigue. - -Bartlett spent the remainder of his life on the State scene. Despite -his lack of legal training, he sat first as chief justice of the -court of common pleas (1779–82), then as associate (1782–88) and -chief (1788–90) justice of the Superior Court. Meantime, in 1788, -he had taken part in the State convention that ratified the Federal -Constitution, which he strongly favored. The next year, probably on -account of his age and the weight of his judicial duties, he declined -election to the U.S. Senate. The following year, he became chief -executive, or president, of the State. He held that title for 2 years, -in 1793–94 being named the first Governor, as the newly amended -constitution redesignated the position. - -Despite all his political activities, Bartlett had never lost interest -in the field of medicine. In 1790 Dartmouth College conferred on him an -honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine. The next year, he founded the -New Hampshire Medical Society and became its first president. In 1794, -the year before he died in Kingston at the age of 65, ill health forced -his retirement from public life. His remains lie in the yard of the -Universalist Church in Kingston. - - - - -Carter Braxton - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - Carter Braxton, an aristocratic planter and probably the - most conservative of the seven Virginia signers, originally - opposed independence but later changed his mind and signed - the Declaration. His tour in the Continental Congress - lasted less than a year, but he held State office for most - of his life. His two wives bore him 18 children, more than - any other signer fathered. - - -Braxton was born in 1736 at Newington Plantation, on the Mattaponi -River, in King and Queen County, Va. His father was a wealthy and -politically influential planter. His mother, who died at his birth, -was the daughter of Robert “King” Carter, a prominent landowner and -politician. - -In 1755, the same year Braxton graduated from the College of William -and Mary, he married. His bride died in childbirth 2 years later. The -following year, he left for an extended visit to England. He returned -to Virginia in 1760 and moved into Elsing Green, an estate overlooking -the Pamunkey River, in King William County, that his brother George had -apparently built for him in 1758 during his absence. At the age of 25, -in 1761, Carter remarried and entered the House of Burgesses. He served -there, except for a term as county sheriff in 1772–73, until 1775. -Meantime, in 1767, he had erected a new home, Chericoke, a couple of -miles northwest of Elsing Green. - -When the trouble with Great Britain erupted, Braxton, like many -other conservatives, sided with the patriots, though he did not -condone violence. In 1769 he signed the Virginia Resolves, a document -protesting parliamentary regulation of the colony’s affairs, and the -Virginia Association, a nonimportation agreement. During the period -1774–76, he attended various Revolutionary conventions. In 1775, upon -dissolution of the royal government, he accepted a position on the -council of safety, the temporary governing body. - -In the spring of that year, Braxton was instrumental in preventing the -outbreak of war in Virginia. On April 20, the day after the clashes -at Lexington and Concord, Royal Governor Lord John M. Dunmore seized -the gunpowder in the Williamsburg magazine. Several colonial militia -units prepared to retaliate, but moderate leaders such as George -Washington and Peyton Randolph restrained them. Patrick Henry, however, -refusing to be pacified, led a group of the Hanover County militia -into Williamsburg and demanded the return of the gunpowder or payment -for it. Before any hostilities occurred, Braxton, as spokesman for -Henry, met with crown official Richard Corbin, his father-in-law, and -convinced him to pay for the powder. - -In the fall of 1775 Braxton was selected to fill a vacancy in Congress -caused by the death of Peyton Randolph. Arriving at Philadelphia early -in 1776, he at first sharply criticized the independence movement, -but eventually yielded to the majority and backed the Declaration. -That same year, apparently both in writing and in a speech at a -Virginia convention, he urged adoption of a conservative form of State -government and expressed such a mistrust of popular government that he -lost his congressional appointment. The conservatives, however, elected -him to the new State legislature, in which he sat for the rest of his -life. For many years, he was also a member of the Governor’s executive -council. - -The War for Independence brought financial hardships to Braxton. At -its beginning, he had invested heavily in shipping, but the British -captured most of his vessels and ravaged some of his plantations and -extensive landholdings. Commercial setbacks in later years ruined him. -In 1786, though he retained Chericoke, he moved to Richmond, where he -died in 1797 at the age of 61. He was buried in the family cemetery -adjacent to Chericoke. - - - - -Charles Carroll - -MARYLAND - -[Illustration] - - As one of the wealthiest men in America, Charles Carroll - III of Carrollton risked his fortune as well as his life - when he joined the Revolutionaries. Possessing one of the - most cultivated minds of any of the signers, he achieved - remarkable success as planter, businessman, and politician. - He was the only Roman Catholic signer, the last to survive, - and the longest lived. - - -Of Irish descent, Carroll was born in 1737 at his father’s townhouse, -Carroll Mansion in Annapolis. Jesuits educated him until he reached -about 11 years of age. He then voyaged to Europe and studied the -liberal arts and civil law at various schools and universities in -Paris, elsewhere in France, and in London. - -Carroll sailed home in 1765 at the age of 28, and built a home at -Carrollton Manor, a 10,000-acre estate in Frederick County newly deeded -to him by his father. At that time, he added “of Carrollton” to his -name to distinguish himself from relatives of the same name. For most -of his life, however, he preferred for his country residence the family -ancestral home, Doughoregan Manor, in Howard County; when in Annapolis, -he usually resided at his birthplace. For almost a decade after his -return from Europe, barred from public life by his religion, he lived -quietly. During that time, in 1768, he married. His offspring numbered -seven, three of whom lived to maturity. - -In 1773 Carroll became a champion of the patriots through his newspaper -attacks on the Proprietary Governor. The latter was opposing -reforms in officers’ fees and stipends for Anglican clergy that the -lower house of the legislature had proposed. From then on, Carroll -took a prominent part in provincial affairs. In the years 1774–76 -he supported nonimportation measures, attended the first Maryland -Revolutionary convention, and served on local and provincial committees -of correspondence and the council of safety. In 1776 he and his cousin -John, a priest—chosen because of their religion and knowledge of -French—traveled to Canada with Benjamin Franklin and Samuel Chase on a -congressionally appointed committee that sought but failed to obtain a -union of Canada with the Colonies. - -Carroll and Chase arrived back in Philadelphia on June 11 that same -year, the day after Congress had postponed the vote on Richard Henry -Lee’s independence resolution (June 7) until July 1. Maryland had -refused to commit herself. Carroll and Chase rushed to Annapolis, -recruited William Paca’s aid, and conducted a whirlwind campaign that -persuaded the provincial convention to pass a unanimous independence -resolution. It reached Congress just in time to put the colony in -the affirmative column on July 1, the day of the first vote. Three -days later, Carroll himself became a Delegate and functioned in that -capacity until 1778. - -Two years before, Carroll had also been elected to the State senate, a -seat he retained until just after the turn of the century. Along with -fellow signers Chase and Paca, he was a member of the committee that in -1776 drafted Maryland’s constitution. Elected to but not attending the -Constitutional Convention of 1787, he nevertheless allied himself with -the Federalists and helped bring about his State’s ratification of the -Constitution. In the years 1789–92, while also in the State senate, he -served as a U.S. Senator, one of Maryland’s first two. - -Not reelected to the State senate in 1804, the 67-year-old Carroll -retired from public life and concentrated on managing his landholdings, -consisting of about 80,000 acres in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New -York, and his business interests. The latter included investments in -the Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, which established a canal system in -the Potomac and Shenandoah Valleys, and its successor the Chesapeake -and Ohio Canal Company. Carroll was also a member of the first board of -directors of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. - -In his final years, revered by the Nation as the last surviving signer -of the Declaration, Carroll spent most of his time at Doughoregan -Manor. But he passed the winters in the home of his youngest daughter -and her husband in Baltimore. There, in 1832, he died at the age of 95. -His body was interred in the family chapel at Doughoregan Manor. - - - - -Samuel Chase - -MARYLAND - -[Illustration] - - Fervid Revolutionary Samuel Chase led the campaign that - crushed conservative opposition and alined his colony - with the others in the independence struggle. Labeled - the “Demosthenes of Maryland” for his fancy albeit - effective oratory, he also demonstrated skill as a writer. - But his independent attitude, stormy disposition, and - outspokenness diluted his political effectiveness. As an - Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, he became a - controversial figure. - - -Chase was the son of an Anglican clergyman. He was born in 1741 at the -farmhouse of his mother’s parents on Maryland’s Eastern Shore near -the city of Princess Anne. His mother had come there from her home -at nearby Allen for a visit. She died at or soon after the birth. -Likely Chase’s grandparents cared for him at least a few years, until -about the time his father took over a parish in Baltimore. The latter -provided the youth with his initial education, mainly in the classics. - -Between the ages of 18 and 20, Chase read law with an Annapolis firm -and joined the bar in 1761. The next year, he married; his wife bore -at least two sons and two daughters. Two years after his marriage, he -entered the colonial/State legislature and retained membership for two -decades. From the beginning, he opposed the royal government. Annapolis -officials denounced him for his participation in the violent protests -of the Sons of Liberty in 1765 against the Stamp Act. In 1774–75 he -took part in the Maryland committee of correspondence, council of -safety, and the provincial convention. - -In the former year, Chase had joined the Continental Congress. He -advocated an embargo on trade with Britain, showed special interest -in diplomatic matters, early urged a confederation of the Colonies, -defended George Washington from his congressional detractors, and in -1776 journeyed to Montreal with a commission that tried but failed to -achieve a union with Canada. When he returned to Philadelphia around -the middle of June, Congress had just postponed the vote on the Lee -independence resolution. Realizing that Maryland was straddling the -fence on the issue, Chase rushed home. Along with Charles Carroll -of Carrollton and William Paca, he labored for 2 weeks to overcome -opposition and won a committal to independence from the convention. The -Maryland Delegates registered it in time for the first congressional -vote, on July 1. In 1778 Chase lost his office because of adverse -publicity generated by the advantage he had taken of knowledge gained -in Congress to engage in a profiteering scheme. - -In 1783–84 Chase traveled to London as a State emissary on an -unfruitful mission to recover Maryland stock in the Bank of England -from two fugitive Loyalists. Upon his return apparently, his first -wife having died, he remarried; resumed his law practice; and engaged -in various unsuccessful business enterprises that led to bankruptcy in -1789. Meantime, he had reentered politics. In 1785 he had represented -Maryland at the Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference, forerunner of the -Annapolis Convention. The next year, he moved his family from Annapolis -to Baltimore, where he soon became chief judge of the Baltimore County -criminal court (1788–95). As a delegate to the Maryland ratifying -convention in 1788, he strongly opposed the Constitution, though he -later became a staunch Federalist. From 1791 until 1794, while still -a county judge, he also held the position of chief justice of the -Maryland Superior Court. - -Chase achieved his greatest fame as an Associate Justice of the -U.S. Supreme Court (1796–1811). He was one of the ablest jurists -in the body prior to Chief Justice John Marshall (1801–35), and -delivered many influential opinions. His inability to control his -political partisanship while on the bench—a trait he shared with some -other judges of his time—led to various judicial improprieties and -impeachment proceedings against him in 1805. But Congress acquitted him. - -Still a Justice, Chase died in Baltimore 2 months after he celebrated -his 70th birthday. His grave is in St. Paul’s Cemetery. - - - - -Abraham Clark - -NEW JERSEY - -[Illustration] - - Abraham Clark—farmer, surveyor, self-taught lawyer, and - politician—typifies those signers who dedicated most of - their lives to public service but never gained national - renown. - - -An only child, Clark was born in 1726 at his father’s farm in what is -now Roselle, N.J. In his boyhood, he was too frail for farmwork. He -received only a minimum of formal education, but in his independent -study demonstrated a bent for mathematics. When he reached manhood, -besides farming his father’s land, he took up surveying and informally -read law to aid in mediating land disputes. Although probably never -admitted to the bar, he gained a reputation as the “poor man’s -counselor” for his willingness to dispense free legal advice or accept -produce or merchandise in lieu of a fee. He married in 1749, and -fathered 10 children. - -Clark followed his father’s example by taking an active part in civic -affairs. For many years, he served the Crown as high sheriff of Essex -County and as clerk in the colonial legislature. The exact date of his -entry into the patriot ranks is not known, but in the period 1774–76 -he became a member and secretary of the New Jersey council of safety, -attended several Revolutionary conventions, and won election to the -provincial assembly. In June of the latter year, he and four other -men replaced the existing congressional Delegates, who were opposing -independence. - -Despite poor health and deep concern for the welfare of his family -and the safety of his home, located not far from an area of British -occupation, Clark stayed in Congress throughout the War for -Independence and sometimes sat concurrently in the State legislature. -He suffered additional anxiety when the British captured his two -soldier sons and incarcerated them for a time on the prison ship -_Jersey_, where hundreds of captives perished. - -[Illustration: Thousands of American soldiers, including two of Abraham -Clark’s sons, endured the agonies of captivity on the British prison -ship _Jersey_.] - -At the end of the war in 1783, Clark resumed his life back in -New Jersey. The next year he began a 3-year tour in the State -legislature, which he represented at the Annapolis Convention (1786). -The following year, ill health prevented his attendance at the -Constitutional Convention. He subsequently opposed the Constitution -until it incorporated the Bill of Rights. In 1787–89 he returned -to the Continental Congress, but in 1789–90 remained in New Jersey -as commissioner to settle his State’s accounts with the Federal -Government. In 1791–94 he climaxed a long career of alternating -State-National service as a Representative in the Second and Third -Congresses. - -Clark was stricken with a sunstroke in 1794 at his birthplace in -Roselle, where he had lived all his life except when political duty -called him away. He died a few hours later, at the age of 68, in -the nearby town of Rahway and was buried there in the Presbyterian -Cemetery. - - - - -George Clymer - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - George Clymer, a leading Philadelphia merchant, rendered - long years of service to his city, State, and Nation. He - signed the Constitution as well as the Declaration, and - applied his commercial acumen to the financial problems of - the Colonies and the Confederation. - - -Clymer was orphaned in 1740, only a year after his birth in -Philadelphia. A wealthy uncle reared and informally educated him and -advanced him from clerk to a full-fledged partner in his mercantile -firm, which on his death he bequeathed to his ward. Later, Clymer -merged operations with the Merediths, prominent businessmen, and -cemented the relationship by marrying his senior partner’s daughter. - -Motivated at least partly by the impact of British economic -restrictions on his business, Clymer early adopted the Revolutionary -cause and was one of the first to recommend independence. He attended -patriotic meetings, served on the Pennsylvania council of safety, and -in 1773 headed a committee that forced the resignation of Philadelphia -tea consignees appointed by Britain under the Tea Act. Inevitably, -in light of his economic background, he channeled his energies into -financial matters. In 1775–76 he acted as one of the first two -Continental treasurers, even personally underwriting the war by -exchanging all his own specie for Continental currency. - -In the Continental Congress (1776–77 and 1780–82) the quiet and -unassuming Clymer rarely spoke in debate but made his mark in committee -efforts, especially those pertaining to commerce, finance, and -military affairs. During and between his two congressional tours, he -also served on a series of commissions that conducted important field -investigations. In December 1776, when Congress fled from Philadelphia -to Baltimore, he and fellow signers George Walton and Robert Morris -remained behind to carry on congressional business. Within a year, -after their victory at the Battle of Brandywine, Pa. (Sept. 11, 1777), -British troops advancing on Philadelphia detoured for the purpose of -vandalizing Clymer’s home in Chester County, about 25 miles outside the -city, while his wife and children hid nearby in the woods. - -[Illustration: George Clymer lived in this Philadelphia townhouse -during the Revolutionary period.] - -After a brief retirement following his last tour in the Continental -Congress, Clymer was reelected in the years 1784–88 to the Pennsylvania -legislature, where he had also served part time in 1780–82 while still -in Congress. As a State legislator, he advocated reform of the penal -code, opposed capital punishment, and represented Pennsylvania in -the Constitutional Convention (1787). The next phase of his career -consisted of service as a U.S. Representative in the First Congress -(1789–91), followed by appointment as collector of excise taxes on -alcoholic beverages in Pennsylvania (1791–94). In 1795–96 he sat on a -Presidential commission that negotiated a treaty with the Indians in -Georgia. - -During his retirement, Clymer advanced various community projects, -including the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, the Philadelphia -Academy of Fine Arts, and the Philadelphia Bank. At the age of 73, in -1813, he died at Summerseat, an estate a few miles outside Philadelphia -at Morrisville that he had purchased and moved to in 1806. His grave is -in the Friends Meeting House Cemetery at Trenton, N.J. - - - - -William Ellery - -RHODE ISLAND - -[Illustration] - - One of a small group of lesser known signers whose - achievements were comparatively modest, William Ellery - gained little fame beyond his hometown—in sharp contrast - to fellow Rhode Island signer Stephen Hopkins. The office - of Delegate to the Continental Congress was the only - significant position, State or National, to which Ellery - ever won election, but he occupied it for a far longer - period than most other Members. - - -The second son in a family of four, Ellery was born in 1727 at Newport, -his lifelong residence. He followed in the footsteps of his father, -a rich merchant and political leader, by attending Harvard. On his -graduation in 1747, he returned home. During the following two decades -or so, he tried his hand at several occupations, eventually taking up -the study of law, which he began practicing in 1770. Meantime, he had -married twice and was to rear two sons and three daughters. Among his -grandchildren were William Ellery Channing, influential theologian and -apostle of Unitarianism, and Richard Henry Dana, Sr., noted poet and -essayist. - -By May 1776, when the colonial legislature sent Ellery to the -Continental Congress, he had already earned a reputation for his work -on local patriotic committees. Tradition records that, at the formal -signing of the Declaration on August 2, he placed himself beside the -Secretary and observed “undaunted resolution” on every face as the -Delegates subscribed to their “death warrant.” The next year, Rhode -Island initiated popular election of congressional Delegates, and -Ellery’s Newport constituency maintained him in office until 1786 -except for the years 1780 and 1782. In 1780 he remained in Philadelphia -as an ex officio member of the board of admiralty, on which he had -been sitting. His other committee assignments included those dealing -with commercial and naval affairs. On occasion, to entertain himself -and others, he wrote witty epigrams about various speakers. In 1785 he -turned down the chief justiceship of the Rhode Island Superior Court to -remain in Congress, where he had attained commanding seniority. - -The very next year, Ellery terminated his congressional career -to accept an appointment as commissioner of the Continental Loan -Office for Rhode Island (1786–90). Probably the need to straighten -out his finances compelled him to accept. British troops in 1778, -during their 3-year occupation of Newport, had destroyed his home -and property, and he had been too busy to rebuild his fortune. In -1790 President Washington appointed Ellery as customs collector -for the district of Newport, a position he held for three decades. -Although he was a Federalist, he managed to retain office during -the Democratic-Republican administrations, probably because of his -Revolutionary record and competence. - -In his later years, Ellery prospered. He kept active in public affairs -and spent many hours in scholarly pursuits and correspondence. Living -to 92, a more advanced age than all the signers except Charles Carroll, -he died in 1820 at Newport. His remains rest there in the Common Ground -Cemetery. - - - - -William Floyd - -NEW YORK - -[Illustration] - - William Floyd, a wealthy landowner-farmer, belongs to the - category of signers who played only a peripheral part in - the Revolution. Nevertheless, he suffered anguish when - British troops and Loyalists ravaged his estate during - the war and drove his family into a 7-year exile in - Connecticut. He also climbed to the rank of major general - in the State militia, and served in the U.S. First Congress. - - -Floyd was born in 1734 at present Mastic, Long Island, N.Y., in -Brookhaven Township. He was the second child and eldest of two sons in -a family of nine. His father, a prosperous farmer of Welsh ancestry, -kept the youth busy with chores. As a result, his education consisted -only of informal instruction at home. When Floyd reached his 20th -year, his father and mother died within 2 months of each other, and he -inherited a large estate along with the responsibility of caring for -his brothers and sisters. Six years later, he married. His bride helped -care for the family and assisted in managing the farm, for which slaves -supplied most of the labor. A community stalwart, Floyd also devoted -considerable time to the affairs of the Brookhaven church, occupied the -position of town trustee (1769–71), and moved up in the ranks of the -Suffolk County militia to a colonelcy in 1775. - -The Revolutionary movement in New York was much less fervent -and started later than that in the other Colonies. The spirited -Massachusetts opposition to the Tea Act in the later half of 1773 -and in 1774 created the first major ferment in New York. One of the -scattered focal points was eastern Long Island, where Floyd lived. He -and many of his neighbors attended meetings that extended sympathy and -aid to Massachusetts and protested the closing of the port of Boston -by the British. Despite such local outbursts, by the end of 1774 New -York was one of only two Colonies, Georgia being the other, in which -the patriots did not control the government. For this reason, the -Revolutionaries operated mainly on a county basis. - -In 1774 Suffolk County sent Floyd to the Continental Congress. He -remained there until 1777, returned in the period 1779–83, and in -the interim served in the State senate and on the council of safety. -Yielding the floor of Congress to the other New York Delegates, he -labored without special distinction on a few committees. But worry -about the welfare of his family presented a major distraction. In -1776, when British forces occupied Long Island, his wife, son, and -two daughters fled northward across the sound and took refuge in -Middletown, Conn. His wife died there in 1781. To make matters worse, -the redcoats used his home at Mastic for a barracks, and Loyalists -plundered his lands and belongings. When he brought his children back -in 1783, he found the fields and timber stripped, the fences destroyed, -and the house damaged. - -After the war, Floyd sat for several terms in the State senate, -attended the constitutional convention of 1801, supported the Federal -Constitution, won election in the years 1789–91 as a Representative in -the First Congress, served as presidential elector on four occasions, -and became a major general in the New York militia. His second wife, -whom he had married in 1784, bore him two daughters. - -About this time, Floyd acquired an interest in western lands. The -year of his marriage, he purchased a tract in central New York at the -headwaters of the Mohawk River in the environs of present Rome; he -supplemented this 3 years later by obtaining a State grant of more than -10,000 acres in the area. He spent most of his summers visiting and -developing the acreage. - -In 1803, in his late sixties, at a time when most men possess lesser -ambitions, Floyd deeded his Long Island home and farm to his son -Nicoll, and set out with the rest of his family to make a new life -on the frontier. During the first year, he built a home at present -Westernville, N.Y. There he succumbed, at the age of 86 in 1821, and -was buried in the Presbyterian Cemetery. - - - - -Benjamin Franklin - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - Benjamin Franklin, elder statesman of the Revolution - and oldest signer of both the Declaration and the - Constitution, sat on the committee that drafted the - Declaration, attended the Constitutional Convention, and - distinguished himself as a diplomat. But he was a self-made - and self-educated intellectual colossus whose interests - far transcended politics. He won international renown - as a printer-publisher, author, philosopher, scientist, - inventor, and philanthropist. On both sides of the Atlantic - he mingled with the social elite, whom he impressed with - his sagacity, wit, and zest for life. - - -Franklin was born in 1706 at Boston. He was the tenth son of a soap- -and candle-maker. He received some formal education but was principally -self-taught. After serving an apprenticeship to his father between -the ages of 10 and 12, he went to work for his half-brother James, a -printer. In 1721 the latter founded the _New England Courant_, the -fourth newspaper in the Colonies. Benjamin secretly contributed to it -14 essays, his first published writings. - -In 1723, because of dissension with his half-brother, Franklin moved to -Philadelphia. He spent only a year there, and then sailed to London for -two more years. Back in Philadelphia, he rose rapidly in the printing -industry. He published _The Pennsylvania Gazette_ (1730–48), which had -been founded by another man in 1728, but his most successful venture -was annual _Poor Richard’s Almanac_ (1733–58). It won a popularity in -the Colonies second only to the Bible, and its fame eventually spread -to Europe. - -Meantime, in 1730 Franklin had taken a common-law wife, who was to -bear him a son and a daughter, as was another woman out of wedlock. -By 1748 he had achieved financial independence and gained recognition -for his philanthropy and the stimulus he provided to such worthwhile -civic causes as libraries, educational institutions, and hospitals. -Energetic and tireless, he also found time to pursue his deep interest -in science, as well as enter politics. - -Franklin served as clerk (1736–51) and member (1751–64) of the colonial -legislature, and as deputy postmaster of Philadelphia (1737–53) and -deputy postmaster general of the Colonies (1753–74). In addition, he -represented Pennsylvania at the Albany Congress (1754), called to unite -the Colonies during the French and Indian War. The congress adopted his -“Plan of Union,” but the colonial assemblies rejected it because it -encroached on their powers. - -During the years 1757–62 and 1764–75, Franklin resided in England, -originally in the capacity of agent for Pennsylvania and later for -Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. During the latter period, which -coincided with the growth of colonial unrest, he underwent a political -metamorphosis. Until then a contented Englishman in outlook, primarily -concerned with Pennsylvania provincial politics, he distrusted popular -movements and saw little purpose to be served in carrying principle to -extremes. Until the issue of parliamentary taxation undermined the old -alliances, he led the conservative Quaker party in its attack on the -Anglican proprietary party and its Presbyterian frontier cohorts. His -purpose throughout the years at London in fact had been displacement of -the Penn family administration by royal authority—the conversion of the -province from a proprietary to a royal colony. - -It was during the Stamp Act crisis that Franklin evolved from leader -of a shattered provincial party’s faction to celebrated spokesman at -London for American rights. Although as agent for Pennsylvania he -opposed by every conceivable persuasive means enactment of the bill -in 1765, he did not at first realize the depth of colonial hostility. -He regarded passage as unavoidable and preferred to submit to it -while actually working for its repeal. His nomination of a friend and -political ally as stamp distributor in Pennsylvania, coupled with -his apparent acceptance of the legislation, armed his proprietary -opponents with explosive issues. Their energetic exploitation of -them endangered his reputation at home until reliable information -was published demonstrating his unabated opposition. For a time, mob -resentment threatened his family and new home in Philadelphia until his -tradesmen supporters rallied. Subsequently, Franklin’s defense of the -American position in the House of Commons during the debates over the -Stamp Act’s repeal restored his prestige at home. - -[Illustration: Benjamin Franklin being arraigned in 1774 by a committee -of Lords of Parliament for disloyalty to the Crown. The following day, -he was dismissed as deputy postmaster general of the Colonies.] - -Franklin returned to Philadelphia in May 1775, and immediately -became a Member of the Continental Congress. Thirteen months later, -he served on the committee that drafted the Declaration. According -to a traditional anecdote, when he finished signing he declared, -“Gentlemen, we must now all hang together, or we shall most assuredly -all hang separately,” He subsequently contributed to the Government -in other important ways, and took over the duties of president of the -Pennsylvania constitutional convention. - -But, within less than a year and a half after his return, the aged -statesman set sail once again for Europe, beginning a career as -diplomat that would occupy him for most of the rest of his life. In -1776–79, one of three commissioners, he directed the negotiations that -led to treaties of commerce and alliance with France, where the people -adulated him, but he and the other commissioners squabbled constantly. -While he was sole commissioner to France (1779–85), he and John Jay and -John Adams negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the War -for Independence. - -Back in the United States, in 1785–87 Franklin became president of -the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. At the Constitutional -Convention (May 1787), though he did not approve of many aspects -of the finished document, he lent his prestige, soothed passions, -and compromised disputes. In his twilight years, working on his -_Autobiography_, he could look back on a fruitful life as the toast of -two continents. Active nearly to the last, in 1787 he was elected as -first president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition -of Slavery—a cause to which he had committed himself as early as -the 1730’s. His final public act was signing a memorial to Congress -recommending dissolution of the slavery system. Shortly thereafter, in -1790 at the age of 84, Franklin passed away in Philadelphia and was -buried in Christ Church Burial Ground. - - - - -Elbridge Gerry - -MASSACHUSETTS - -[Illustration] - - During an extended and controversial career, Elbridge Gerry - experienced many triumphs and disappointments. A prosperous - merchant who worked alongside the two Adamses and John - Hancock in the cause of independence, he integrated - personal interests with public service and translated them - into wartime profits. In the course of his long tenure in - the Continental Congress, he signed both the Declaration - and Articles of Confederation. But throughout his years - in office, which crested in the U.S. Vice-Presidency, his - inconsistencies, ambivalence, and truculence stirred up - animosity among his colleagues—though he usually managed to - muster enough party and popular support to win reelection. - - -Gerry was born in 1744 at Marblehead, Mass., the third of 12 children. -His mother was the daughter of a Boston merchant; his father, a -wealthy and politically active merchant-shipper who had once been a -sea captain. Upon graduating from Harvard in 1762, Gerry joined his -father and two brothers in the family business, which consisted of -exporting dried codfish to Barbados and Spain. In 1772–74 he entered -the colonial legislature, where he came under the influence of Samuel -Adams, and took part in the Marblehead and Massachusetts committees -of correspondence. In June of the latter year, when Parliament closed -Boston Harbor and Marblehead became a major port of entry for supplies -donated by patriots throughout the Colonies to relieve the Bostonians, -he aided in the transshipment. - -Between 1774 and 1776, Gerry attended the first and second provincial -congresses; served with Samuel Adams and John Hancock on the council -of safety, which prepared the colony for war; and, as chairman of the -committee of supply, a job for which his merchant background ideally -suited him, raised troops and dealt with military logistics. During the -night of April 18, 1775, he barely eluded capture by the British troops -marching on Lexington and Concord. Following the adjournment of a -meeting of the council of safety at an inn in Menotomy (Arlington), on -the road from Cambridge to Lexington, he had retired for the night but -responded to the alarm and fled. - -Gerry entered the Continental Congress in 1776 and voted for -independence in July, but his absence at the formal ceremonies on -August 2 necessitated his signing the Declaration later in the year. -His congressional specialties were military and financial matters, in -both of which he demonstrated a duality of attitude that was to become -his political trademark. He earned the nickname “soldiers’ friend” -for his advocacy of better pay and equipment, yet he vacillated on -the issue of pensions. Despite his disapproval of standing armies, he -recommended long-term enlistments. Although mistrustful of military -officials, he befriended both George Washington and Thomas Conway, two -generals who were implacable enemies. - -Until 1779 Gerry sat on and sometimes presided over the congressional -treasury board, which regulated Continental finances. An Army -procurement agent as well as a merchant-supplier, he utilized -information he obtained in Congress to benefit his lucrative business. -On the other hand, he denounced profiteering and personally adhered to -a fair-price schedule. In 1780, as wartime financial problems mounted, -however, the Delegates resolved to revise the schedule. Gerry’s -vehement objections led to a quarrel, and he stormed out of Congress. -Although nominally a Member, he did not reappear for 3 years. During -the interim, he engaged in trade and privateering and saw duty in the -lower house of the State legislature. - -Back in Congress in 1783–85, Gerry numbered among those Representatives -who had possessed talent as Revolutionary agitators and wartime -leaders but who could not effectually cope with the painstaking -task of stabilizing the National Government. He was experienced and -conscientious, but created many enemies with his lack of humor, -suspicion of the motives of others, and obsessive fear of political and -military tyranny. In 1786, the year after leaving Congress, his fortune -well established, he retired from business, married, and took a seat -in the State legislature. The next year, he moved from Marblehead to -Cambridge and purchased a confiscated Loyalist estate, where he was to -reside for the rest of his life. - -Gerry was one of the most vocal of the delegates at the Constitutional -Convention of 1787. He antagonized practically everyone by his -inconsistency and, according to a colleague, “objected to everything he -did not propose.” At first he advocated a strong Central Government, -but ultimately rejected and refused to sign the Constitution, -especially because it lacked a bill of rights and because he deemed -it a threat to republicanism. He led the drive against ratification -in Massachusetts. In 1789, when he changed his mind and announced his -intention to support the Constitution, he was elected to the First -Congress, where to the chagrin of the Antifederalists he championed -Federalist policies. - -Gerry left Congress for the last time in 1793 and retired for 4 years. -During this time, he came to mistrust the aims of the Federalists, -particularly their attempts to nurture an alliance with Britain, and -sided with the pro-French Democratic-Republicans. In 1797 President -John Adams appointed him as the only non-Federalist member of a -three-man commission charged with negotiating a reconciliation with -France, on the brink of war with the United States. During the ensuing -XYZ affair (1797–98), Gerry tarnished his reputation. The French -foreign minister duped him into believing that his presence in France -would prevent war, and he lingered on long after the departure of the -other disgusted commissioners. Finally, the embarrassed Adams recalled -him, amid Federalist vituperation. - -In 1800–03 Gerry, never very popular among the Massachusetts electorate -because of his aristocratic haughtiness, met defeat in four bids for -the Massachusetts governorship, but finally triumphed in 1810–12. -Near the end of his two terms, scarred by partisan controversy, the -Democratic-Republicans passed a devious redistricting measure to insure -their domination of the State senate. In response, the Federalists -heaped ridicule on Gerry and punningly coined the term “gerrymander” to -describe the salamander-like shape of one of the redistricted areas. - -Despite his advanced age, frail health, and the threat of poverty -brought on by neglect of personal affairs, in 1813 Gerry accepted -the Vice-Presidency in James Madison’s Democratic-Republican -administration. In the fall of 1814, the 70-year-old politician was -stricken fatally while on the way to the Senate. He left his wife, who -was to live until 1849, the last surviving widow of a signer, as well -as three sons and four daughters. Gerry is buried in Congressional -Cemetery at Washington, D.C. - - - - -Button Gwinnett - -GEORGIA - -[Illustration] - - Tempestuousness and ill-fortune marked the destiny of - uniquely named Button Gwinnett, whose forename is that - of a branch of his mother’s family. The second signer - to die, he met a tragic end in a duel while only in his - forties. The only highlight of his brief tour in the - Continental Congress was signing the Declaration. Even - in Georgia, where he rose to the acting governorship, - controversy and failure usually dogged him. Financial - misfortunes were continual distractions, and he found that - his paltry rewards as a merchant and planter matched his - disappointments in politics. - - -Gwinnett was likely born in 1735, at the village of Down Hatherly, -Gloucestershire, England. The second male in a family numbering at -least seven, he was the son of an Anglican vicar of Welsh ancestry -and a mother with English ties. He probably learned trade and finance -from an uncle, a Bristol merchant, and in 1757 moved to Wolverhampton, -Staffordshire. He married a grocer’s daughter, who was to bear three -girls, and for a time he joined her father in a partnership. In 1759, -however, Gwinnett entered the export shipping business and built up an -extensive trade with the American Colonies, possibly sometimes visiting -them himself. - -The date of Gwinnett’s emigration to Savannah, Ga., is not known but -in 1765 he purchased a store there. Later that same year, for some -reason, he sold it and abruptly switched vocation. Apparently dazzled -by visions of a planter’s life on a great estate but undeterred by -his lack of capital, experience, and training, he borrowed £3,000 -and purchased large St. Catherine’s Island. It was located off the -Georgia coast not far from the busy mainland port of Sunbury, a rival -of Savannah. At this time, he probably erected a home on the island. -Before long, though already deep in debt, he also purchased some -coastal lands on credit and received grants of others from the colony; -and bought large numbers of slaves to work his holdings. Poachers -aggravated his problems by raiding the island’s livestock. - -[Illustration: Fanciful depiction of Button Gwinnett’s duel with Gen. -Lachlan McIntosh in 1777 that resulted in the former’s death.] - -Gwinnett’s land, slaves, and other possessions were soon gobbled up by -creditors. Finally, in 1773, they took over the island, but allowed -Gwinnett to maintain his home there. He did so for the rest of his -life. During the war, however, the approach of British vessels, who -replenished their food supplies from the livestock on the exposed -island, sometimes forced him and his family to scurry over in their -boat to Sunbury for temporary refuge. - -Meantime, Gwinnett had long since entered politics. In 1768–69 he had -been designated as one of His Majesty’s justices of the peace and as -a local pilotage commissioner. In the years 1769–71 the voters of St. -John’s Parish elected him to the colonial assembly at Savannah, but he -attended only spasmodically because of his financial woes. When they -worsened, he left public office for 5 years. - -Gwinnett returned on the national level. Unlike the other two Georgia -signers, Lyman Hall and George Walton, he belatedly joined the patriot -side—apparently held back for some time by his English birth and close -family connections in England. His friend Hall, a Sunbury resident and -fellow member of the Midway Congregational Church, swung him over, -probably beginning in the summer of 1775. The next February, the -provincial congress named Gwinnett to the Continental Congress, though -he did not arrive in Philadelphia until May. He attended for only about -10 weeks. Right after he signed the Declaration on August 2, he trekked -back to Georgia, where he hoped but failed to win at least an Army -colonelcy in one of the units the State was forming. - -In October Gwinnett was reelected to the Continental Congress, but -chose not to attend. Instead, during the next 5 months, he played a -key role in drafting the State’s first constitution, in the course of -which he helped thwart a proposed union of South Carolina and Georgia. -Upon the death of the Governor, or president of the Executive Council, -in March 1777 the council commissioned Gwinnett as Acting Governor for -2 months, but he failed to achieve reelection. Before leaving office, -he had clashed with controversial Gen. Lachlan McIntosh, an old rival. -The result was a pistol duel in May just outside Savannah. Both men -suffered wounds, but Gwinnett died a few days later of a gangrenous -infection in his leg. Colonial Park Cemetery in Savannah contains a -grave reputed to be his. - - - - -Lyman Hall - -GEORGIA - -[Illustration] - - Lyman Hall was one of the four signers originally trained - as ministers. He eventually found his pulpit in politics, - though he had to preach vigorously to inspire the - “congregation” of Georgia. He enthusiastically sparked the - slow-developing independence movement there with George - Walton and recruited Button Gwinnett, the third Georgia - signer. Somehow Hall also managed to pursue careers as - doctor, planter, and Governor. - - -A native of Wallingford, Conn., Hall was born in 1724. He graduated -from Yale College in 1747 at the age of 23, returned home, and heeded a -family call to the Congregational ministry. An uncle, Rev. Samuel Hall, -trained him in theology. In 1749 he began preaching in Bridgeport and -adjacent towns. Young and immature, he probably entrapped himself in -the middle of a liberal-conservative schism and in some way alienated -his congregation, but repentance brought quick reinstatement from -dismissal in 1751, and for a couple of years he temporarily filled -vacant pulpits. - -During this period, in 1752, Hall married, but his wife lived only -a year; about 2 years later he remarried, a union that was to -bring forth a son. Meantime, Hall had become disillusioned by his -ministerial experiences. He studied medicine with a local doctor, -partially supporting himself by teaching. When his medical training was -completed, he moved back to Wallingford and hung out his shingle. - -In 1757 the 33-year-old Hall, seeking brighter fields, emigrated to -Dorchester, S.C., a settlement of New England Puritans not far from -Charleston. Within a few months, he joined some of the residents in -a relocation that had been underway since 1752. They were pushing -southward to Georgia’s coastal Midway District, in St. John’s Parish -(present Liberty County). This area provided more land and a healthier -climate. - -In 1758 the colonists finished their emigration and founded Sunbury. It -evolved into the thriving seaport-hub of the surrounding slave-based, -rice-indigo economy. Like many other planters, Hall maintained a home -there, where it was healthier than inland, as well as at Hall’s Knoll, -the plantation just north of the present town of Midway that he had -purchased shortly after arriving in the area. Because its plantations -skirted malarial swamps, Hall kept busy providing medical treatment, as -well as managing his estate. - -St. John’s Parish became the wealthiest in Georgia. This was not its -only uniqueness, for the populace was steeped in the New England -tradition of independence. When the trouble with Britain erupted in the -mid-1760’s the parish, guided by Hall, stood apart in its opposition -from virtually all the rest of the colony except for another cluster of -Revolutionaries at Savannah led by George Walton and others. Georgia, -which was to be the last of the Colonies to join the Continental -Association, was the youngest, most remote, and most sparsely settled. -Also the poorest, it felt less the impact of British economic -restrictions. The Loyalist ruling aristocracy of Georgia, regarding the -tiny band of Revolutionaries with contempt, resisted their every move. - -Hall was appalled by the poor representation of the parishes as a -whole and the indecisiveness of Revolutionary conventions he attended -at Savannah in the summer of 1774 and the next January, especially -by their failure to send Delegates to the Continental Congress. He -dejectedly returned to St. John’s Parish. It was ready to secede from -the colony, and proposed an alliance to South Carolina, which refused. -Not to be denied, in March 1775 the parish held its own convention and -sent Hall as its own “delegate” to the Continental Congress. - -Two months later, Congress admitted Hall as a nonvoting member. In -July, Georgia, finally coming into the fold, sanctioned Hall’s presence -in Congress and appointed four other Delegates. Hall served until 1780. -Two years earlier, he had moved his family somewhere to the north just -before British troops ravaged and conquered the Georgia coast. In the -process, they destroyed Hall’s Knoll and Hall’s Sunbury residence and -confiscated his property. - -When the British evacuated Savannah in 1782, Hall settled there and -resumed his medical practice to mend his fortune. The next January, -St. John’s Parish, where he had maintained ties, elected him to the -State legislature. That body, in turn, awarded him the governorship -(1783–84). His reconstruction-oriented administration, though marred by -his purchase of and speculation in lands confiscated from Loyalists, -rehabilitated the wartorn State and laid foundations for future growth. - -In Hall’s final years he acted for a time as a judge of the inferior -court of Chatham County and as a trustee of a proposed State university -(to be called first Franklin College and later the University of -Georgia). But his duties as executor of Button Gwinnett’s tangled -estate required years of legal wrangling. In 1785 he sold his Hall’s -Knoll land. Five years later, he moved from Savannah to Burke County -and purchased Shell Bluff Plantation, on the Savannah River about 25 -miles below Augusta. A few months hence he died and was buried there. -His remains are now interred at the Signers’ Monument in Augusta. - - - - -John Hancock - -MASSACHUSETTS - -[Illustration] - - One of the fathers of U.S. independence, John Hancock - helped spearhead the pivotal revolt in Massachusetts, - presided as President of Congress during the voting for - independence and adoption of the Declaration, and boldly - penned the first signature on the document. Subsequently - he served as the first and longtime Governor of his - Commonwealth. Despite all these achievements and the - persistent loyalty of his constituents, whom he wooed - with lavish expenditures for public projects, his vanity, - ostentation, and regal way of life irked many of his - professional associates. - - -Hancock, born in 1737 at Braintree (present Quincy), Mass., lost -his father, a Congregational pastor, at the age of 7. He spent the -next 6 years with his grandparents at Lexington before joining his -guardian, Thomas Hancock, a childless uncle who was one of the richest -merchant-shippers in Boston. After studying at Boston Latin School -and graduating from Harvard College in 1754, John began working as -a clerk in his uncle’s business and learned it rapidly. In 1760–61, -while visiting London to observe the English side of the business, he -attended the funeral of George II and the coronation of George III, -who apparently granted him an audience. In 1763 he became a partner of -his uncle, who died the next year and willed him the firm, a fortune -that was probably the greatest in New England, and a luxurious house on -Beacon Street. - -Hancock allied with other merchants in protesting the Stamp Act (1765), -and the next year inaugurated a long legislative career. But he did not -strongly identify with the patriots until 2 years later. At that time, -British customs officials, their courage bolstered by the arrival of a -warship in Boston Harbor, charged him with smuggling and seized one of -his ships. During the ensuing riots, the terrified customs officials -fled to an island in the harbor. A few months later, the first major -contingent of British troops sailed into port and created a tense -situation that resulted in the Boston Massacre (1770). John Adams ably -defended Hancock in court until the British dropped the smuggling -charge, but the episode made him a hero throughout the Colonies. - -Other factors tied Hancock to the patriots. Samuel and John Adams, -shrewdly perceiving the advantages of such a rich and well-known -affiliate, welcomed him into their ranks, encouraged his idolatry by -the populace, and pushed him upward in the Revolutionary hierarchy. -When the first provincial congress met at Salem and Concord in 1774, -he acted as its president as well as chairman of the vital council of -safety. The second provincial congress, convening the next year at -Cambridge and Concord, elected him to the Continental Congress. - -On April 18, only 3 days after the provincial congress adjourned, -British troops marched from Boston to seize rebel stores at Concord. -Warned of their approach during the night by Paul Revere, Hancock and -Samuel Adams, who were visiting at nearby Lexington, escaped. But the -British-American clashes at Lexington and Concord marked the outbreak -of war. The two men avoided Boston and hid at various places for 2 -weeks before proceeding to Philadelphia. Later that summer, Hancock -married, siring a daughter who died in infancy and a son, John George -Washington Hancock, who lived but 9 years. - -From 1775 until 1777 Hancock presided over the Continental Congress. -The very first year, his egotism, which regularly aroused the antipathy -of many Members, created personal embitterment as well. Blind to his -own limitations, particularly his lack of military experience, he -unrealistically entertained the hope that he, instead of Washington, -would be appointed as commander in chief of the Continental Army. -Hancock also provoked ill will among his fellow New Englanders, -especially Samuel Adams, by courting moderates such as John Dickinson -and Benjamin Harrison. Hancock believed that Samuel Adams was -responsible in 1777 for blocking a congressional vote of thanks for his -services and never forgave him. - -Only Hancock and Charles Thomson, the President and Secretary of -Congress, signed the broadside copy of the Declaration, printed the -night of its adoption, July 4, 1776, and disseminated to the public the -following day. At the formal signing of the parchment copy on August 2, -tradition holds that Hancock wrote his name in large letters so that -the King would not need spectacles to recognize him as a “traitor.” -After resigning as presiding officer in 1777, he remained a Member -of Congress until 1780, though he spent much of his time in Boston -and for the rest of his life solidified his political position in -Massachusetts. In 1778, as a major general in the militia, he commanded -an expedition that failed to recapture Newport, R.I., from the -British. He made a more tangible contribution to the war by accepting -Continental currency from his debtors, even though his fortune had -already been dented by wartime-induced reverses. - -In 1780, the same year Hancock gave up his seat in Congress and -attended his Commonwealth’s constitutional convention, he was -overwhelmingly elected as first Governor (1780–85). He won reelection -in 1787–93. In the interim (1785–86), he once again sat in Congress. -In 1788 he chaired the Massachusetts convention that ratified the U.S. -Constitution, which he favored. - -While still Governor, in 1793 at the age of 56, Hancock died at Boston. -His funeral, one of the most impressive ever held in New England, -culminated in burial at Old Granary Burying Ground. - - - - -Benjamin Harrison - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - Benjamin Harrison, the most conservative of the Virginia - signers except for Carter Braxton, was a member of one of - the most prominent planter families in the South and was - the fifth in a line of active politicians bearing the same - name. Because of his rotundity, joviality, love of good - foods and wines, and fondness for luxury, he acquired the - nickname “Falstaff of Congress.” His son, William Henry, - and his great-grandson, Benjamin, served as the ninth and - 23d Presidents of the United States. - - -Harrison was born in 1726 at his father’s estate, Berkeley, in Charles -City County, Va. He matriculated at the College of William and Mary, -but left before graduating in 1745 upon the death of his father in -order to assume management of the family plantation. Shortly thereafter -he married; seven of his children were to survive infancy. In time, his -landholdings grew to include eight plantations and other properties, -and he also expanded into shipping and shipbuilding. Following the -precedent set by his forebears, about 1749 he gained admission to the -House of Burgesses. He sat there, frequently as speaker, until 1774, -when the Royal Governor disbanded the body. - -Harrison’s conservatism manifested itself early in the Revolutionary -movement. In 1764 the burgesses, learning about the Stamp Act, -impending in Parliament, named a committee to draw up a protest. As -one of the committeemen, Harrison helped pen the document. The very -next year, however, when the act went into effect, he refused to -endorse Patrick Henry’s resolutions urging civil disobedience as a -countermeasure. Forced to take a stand as the rift with the Crown -widened, Harrison cast his lot with the patriots. Between 1773 and -1776, he shared in the tasks of the Revolutionary conventions, the -committee of correspondence, and the provincial congresses. - -Meantime, in 1774, Harrison had been appointed to the First -Continental Congress. Although usually silent on the floor, he made -valuable contributions on the foreign affairs, marine, military, -and financial committees. As chairman of the committee of the whole -(1776–77), he chaired the deliberations leading up to the adoption -of the Declaration and the early debates on the proposed Articles of -Confederation. - -In 1777, the same year Harrison withdrew from Congress, he entered -the lower house of the Virginia legislature, where he presided as -speaker in the years 1778–81. His three terms as Governor (1781–84) -reflected the ascendancy in Virginia of the conservatives, who included -in addition to Harrison and Braxton such former extremists as Patrick -Henry and Richard Henry Lee. Succeeded by Henry, Harrison rejoined the -legislature (1784–91), holding the speakership part of the time. In -1788 at the Virginia ratifying convention he objected to the Federal -Constitution because it lacked a bill of rights. Once ratification had -occurred, however, he supported the new Government. Three years later, -Harrison died in his mid-sixties at Berkeley and was buried there in -the family cemetery. - - - - -John Hart - -NEW JERSEY - -[Illustration] - - Signing the Declaration represented John Hart’s one - significant act during an ephemeral tour in the Continental - Congress, his only role in national politics. Yet, like - most of the signers, he was dominant in community and - State affairs. And he and his family directly experienced - the tragedy of the war. Unfortunately, he died before the - attainment of victory. - -The year after Hart’s birth in 1711 at Stonington, Conn., his parents -emigrated to New Jersey and settled on a farm in the Hopewell vicinity. -Hart was to live there and till the soil all his life. In 1740 he -married and began raising a family of 13. In time, while gaining the -sobriquet “Honest John,” he acquired considerable property, including -grist, saw, and fulling mills, and emerged as a civic leader. From the -1750’s until the outbreak of the War for Independence in 1775, despite -a paucity of education, he worked his way up the political ladder in -Hunterdon County and the State. He held the offices of justice of the -peace, county judge, colonial legislator (1761–71), and judge of the -New Jersey court of common pleas. - -In the legislature’s dispute with the Royal Governor, Hart opposed -parliamentary taxation and the stationing of British troops in the -colony. During the years 1774–76, he attended the New Jersey provincial -congresses, where he achieved the vice-presidency, and won appointment -to the council of safety and the committee of correspondence. In June -1776 he and four other Delegates were chosen to replace the incumbent -conservatives in the Continental Congress. The new delegation arrived -at Philadelphia just a few days before the votes for independence on -July 1 and 2 and cast affirmative ballots. - -In August 1776, just after Hart signed the Declaration, he departed -to accept the speakership in the lower house of the New Jersey -legislature. That winter, during the British invasion of the province, -the redcoats wreaked havoc on his farm and mills and drove him into -hiding among the hills surrounding the Sourland Mountains. When he -ended his exile in the wake of the American victories at Princeton and -Trenton, he discovered that his wife, ill at the time of the attack, -had died and his family scattered. In 1777–78 he sat again on the -council of safety, but failing health forced his retirement. He died -the next year, at the age of 69, on his Hopewell farm. He is buried in -the yard of the First Baptist Church at Hopewell. - - - - -Joseph Hewes - -NORTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - Even in an age and land of such unlimited opportunities - as 18th-century America, few men attained such success - as merchant Joseph Hewes. He was rarely thwarted in his - ambitions and enjoyed wealth and social prestige, reflected - in political conservatism. - - -Born in 1730 at Maybury Hill, an estate on the outskirts of Princeton, -N.J., Hewes was the son of a pious and well-to-do Quaker farmer. He -received a strict religious upbringing, and studied at a local school. -After learning trade from a Philadelphia merchant, he entered business -for himself. About 1760, anxious to expand his modest fortune, he moved -to the thriving seaport town of Edenton, N.C. There, where he was to -reside for the rest of his life, he founded a profitable mercantile and -shipping firm and gained prominence. Only one fateful event marred his -life. A few days before his intended wedding date, his fiancée suddenly -died. Hewes remained a bachelor for the rest of his life. - -As a member of the North Carolina assembly (1766–75), the committee -of correspondence (1773), and the provincial assemblies (1774–75), -Hewes helped the Whigs overthrow the royal government. Elected -to the Continental Congress in 1774, he vigorously supported -nonimportation measures even though it meant personal financial -loss. By the time of the outbreak of the War for Independence, the -next year, anathema to the pacifistic Quakers, he had rejected the -faith altogether—culminating a trend that had been evolving because -of his love of dancing and other social pleasures, as well as his -Revolutionary activities. - -[Illustration: Joseph Hewes sponsored the American career of his friend -John Paul Jones, who became the most famous naval officer of the -Revolution.] - -Hewes was one of those who originally opposed separation from Great -Britain. Thus it was a disagreeable task for him, in May 1776, to -present the Halifax Resolves to the Continental Congress. Enacted the -month before by the provincial assembly, they instructed the North -Carolina Delegates to vote for independence should it be proposed. -Hewes, who considered the resolves premature, ignored his State’s -commitment and at first opposed Richard Henry Lee’s June 7 independence -resolution. According to John Adams, however, at one point during -debate a transformation came over Hewes. “He started suddenly upright,” -reported Adams, “and lifting up both his hands to Heaven, as if he had -been in a trance, cried out, ‘It is done! and I will abide by it.’” - -One episode involving Hewes illustrates the recurring problem of -sectional rivalries among the Delegates. As key members of the marine -committee, Hewes and John Adams were instrumental in establishing the -Continental Navy. When the time came to appoint the Nation’s first -naval captains, the two men clashed. For one of the positions, Hewes -nominated his friend John Paul Jones, an experienced seaman who had -recently emigrated to Virginia from Scotland. Adams, maintaining that -all the captaincies should be filled by New Englanders, stubbornly -protested. New England had yielded to the South in the selection of a -commander in chief of the Continental Army and Adams had fostered the -selection of the able Virginian George Washington, so he was not now -about to make a concession on the Navy. Hewes, sensing the futility -of argument, reluctantly submitted. Jones, who was to become the most -honored naval hero of the Revolution, received only a lieutenant’s -commission. - -In 1777 Hewes lost his bid for reelection to Congress, one of the few -failures in his life, and in 1778–79 he found solace in the State -legislature. In the latter year, despite health problems, he accepted -reelection to the Continental Congress. A few months after arriving -back in Philadelphia and not long before his 50th birthday, overworked -and fatigued, he died. His grave is in Christ Church Burial Ground -there. - - - - -Thomas Heyward, Jr. - -SOUTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - An aristocratic planter, lawyer, and jurist, Thomas - Heyward, Jr., sat in the State legislature and the - Continental Congress and commanded a militia battalion. - He was one of three South Carolina signers captured and - imprisoned by the British. - - -The eldest son of one of the wealthiest planters in South Carolina, -Heyward was born in 1746 at Old House Plantation, in St. Helena’s -Parish (later St. Luke’s Parish and present Jasper County) near the -Georgia border about 25 miles northeast of Savannah. In 1771, following -5 years of study in London, he began practicing law. The next year, -his parish sent him to the colonial legislature (1772–75), which was -feuding with the Royal Governor over parliamentary taxation. During -that period, in 1773, he married and settled down at White Hall -Plantation, only a couple of miles from the residence of his father. - -While a legislator, Heyward apparently joined the Revolutionaries, for -in the summer of 1774 he attended a provincial convention that chose -Delegates to the Continental Congress. During 1775–76 he was active in -the first and second provincial congresses and on the council of safety -and the committee that drafted a State constitution. In the Continental -Congress (1776–78), he signed the Articles of Confederation as well as -the Declaration. At the end of his tour, he journeyed to Charleston and -took up residence in the townhouse he had inherited from his father the -year before. He became a circuit court judge; represented Charleston in -the State legislature, which convened in the city; and held a militia -captaincy. - -In 1779 Heyward was wounded during Brig. Gen. William Moultrie’s -repulse of a British attack on Port Royal Island, along the South -Carolina coast near Heyward’s home. The following year, the British -plundered White Hall and carried off all the slaves. When they took -Charleston, they captured Heyward, who was helping defend the city. He -was imprisoned at St. Augustine, Fla., until July 1781. Shortly before -his release, he celebrated Independence Day by setting patriotic verses -to the British national anthem. “God save the King” became “God save -the thirteen States,” a rendition that soon echoed from New Hampshire -to Georgia. - -From 1782 until 1789 Heyward resumed his position of circuit court -judge, concurrently serving two terms in the State legislature -(1782–84). In 1785 he helped found and became the first president of -the Agricultural Society of South Carolina. The following year, his -wife passed away and he remarried; apparently only one child from his -two marriages reached maturity. He devoted most of his remaining days, -except for attendance in 1790 at the State constitutional convention, -to managing his plantation; he sold his Charleston townhouse in 1794. -The last to survive among the South Carolina signers, he died in 1809 -at the age of 62 and was interred in the family cemetery at Old House -Plantation. - - - - -William Hooper - -NORTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - The ambivalence of William Hooper’s convictions prevented - him from ever carving a solid niche in the field of - politics. His youthful choice of occupation and political - affiliation brought estrangement from his family and - emigration from Massachusetts to far-off North Carolina. - Motivated sometimes by self-interest and sometimes by - intense patriotism, he flourished in law and politics. - He originally supported the royal government, but became - a Whig leader during the Revolution. After the war, his - aristocratic leanings caused him to lose favor among the - electorate. - - -Hooper was born in Boston, Mass., in 1742, the first child of William -Hooper, a Scotch immigrant and Congregationalist clergyman who 5 years -later was to transfer to the Anglican Church. Groomed for the ministry -in his youth, Hooper undertook 7 years of preparatory education at -Boston Latin School. This qualified him in 1757 to enter Harvard -College in the sophomore class. He graduated 3 years later, but much -to the chagrin of his father rejected the ministry as a profession. -The next year, he further alienated his Loyalist father and isolated -himself from his family by taking up the study of law under James Otis, -a brilliant but radical lawyer. - -Partly to ameliorate family strife and partly to better his legal -opportunities, about 1764 Hooper sought his fortune at Wilmington, N.C. -Three years later, he married the daughter of an early settler, by whom -he was to have two sons and a daughter. He resided either in Wilmington -or at his nearby estate, Finian, about 8 miles away on Masonboro Sound, -rode the circuit from court to court, and built up a clientele among -the wealthy planters of the lower Cape Fear region. Ambitious, he -harbored political aspirations and by 1770–71 had obtained the position -of deputy attorney general of North Carolina. - -In this capacity, protecting his own economic interests and political -goals, Hooper sided with Royal Governor William Tryon in a conflict -between the government and a group of North Carolina frontiersmen -known as the Regulators. They were rebelling against governmental -corruption and oppression and high legal and other fees. Hooper urged -the use of force to quell the rebellion, and in 1771 accompanied the -government forces that defeated the rebels in the Battle of Alamance. - -Within a few years, Hooper’s allegiance to the royal government waned. -At the time of his election to the colonial assembly (1773–75), the -act providing for the colony’s court system was about to expire. The -assembly attempted to attach to the new court act a clause by which the -colony could confiscate American property owned by foreign debtors, -including inhabitants of Great Britain. When the Royal Governor blocked -the bill, a 4-year struggle for control of the colony ensued. Hooper, -though deprived of a source of income as a lawyer and dependent upon -his wife’s small fortune for subsistence, championed the cause of the -assembly. - -Hooper rose to a position of leadership among the Whigs, though -he disapproved of extremism. In a letter dated April 1774 to his -friend James Iredell, he prophesized the Colonies’ break with Great -Britain—the earliest known prediction of independence, which won for -Hooper the epithet “Prophet of Independence.” In the summer, after -the Royal Governor had dissolved the colonial assembly, he helped -organize and presided over an extralegal conference at Wilmington. It -voted to convene a provincial assembly, which met in August at New -Bern and elected Delegates, one of whom was Hooper, to the Continental -Congress. Later that same year, he became a member of the committee of -correspondence. - -During the period 1774–77, Hooper divided his time between Congress, -where he gained a reputation as an orator, and the North Carolina -provincial assembly, in which he labored to set up a State government. -In 1777, however, the financial difficulties with his law practice and -a desire to be near his family prompted him to resign from Congress -and return to Wilmington. He was immediately elected to the State -legislature and served there almost continuously until 1786. - -In 1780 the British invaded North Carolina. Hooper moved his family -from Finian into Wilmington for safety, but in January 1781, while he -was away on business, the city fell to the enemy. Separated from his -loved ones for more than 10 months and often destitute, he depended -upon friends in Edenton and vicinity for shelter and food. On one -occasion, taken violently ill with malaria, he was nursed back to -health by Iredell’s wife. Upon the British evacuation of the Wilmington -area, in November, Hooper returned to find most of his property, -including Finian, in ruins. Shortly thereafter he rejoined his wife and -children, who had fled to Hillsborough, which he made his home for the -rest of his life. - -During the aftermath of the Revolution, Hooper, despite continuing -political aspirations, lost favor with the public. Unable to adjust -to the rise of republicanism in the State, he adopted a conservative -stance. His aristocratic pretensions, forgiving attitude toward -Loyalists, and lack of faith in the common people undermined his -popularity. In 1788 he strenuously campaigned for State ratification of -the Federal Constitution, which occurred early the next year. By this -time, he was in ill health and despondent, but lingered on for nearly 2 -years. He died in 1790 in his late forties. His remains, moved from the -Hillsborough town cemetery in 1894, rest today at Guilford Courthouse -National Military Park near Greensboro. - - - - -Stephen Hopkins - -RHODE ISLAND - -[Illustration] - - This signer, the second oldest next to Benjamin Franklin, - is noted for his tremulous signature. Aged 69 and afflicted - with palsy, according to tradition he declared, “My hand - trembles, but my heart does not!” Before, during, and after - a comparatively brief stretch of congressional service, he - occupied Rhode Island’s highest offices and fostered the - cultural and economic growth of Providence. - - -Hopkins attained success purely by his own efforts. Born in 1707 at -Providence and equipped with but a modicum of basic education, he grew -up in the adjacent agricultural community of Scituate, earned his -living as a farmer and surveyor, and married at the age of 19. Five -years later, in 1731, when Scituate Township separated from Providence, -he plunged into politics. During the next decade, he held the following -elective or appointive offices: moderator of the first town meeting, -town clerk, president of the town council, justice of the peace, -justice and clerk of the Providence County court of common pleas, -legislator, and speaker of the house. - -In 1742, about 2 years after he and his brother Esek founded a -mercantile-shipping firm, Stephen moved back to Providence. For the -next three decades, he built up his business and would probably have -acquired a fortune had he not at the same time supported a variety of -civic enterprises and broadened his political activities. He continued -in the legislature, served as assistant and chief justice of the -Superior Court and ten-time Governor, and represented Rhode Island -at various intercolonial meetings. At the Albany Congress (1754), he -cultivated a friendship with Franklin and assisted him in framing -a plan of colonial union that the congress passed but the Colonies -rejected. The next year, 2 years after the demise of his first wife, -who had given birth to five sons and two daughters, he remarried. - -About this time, Hopkins took over leadership of the colony’s radical -faction, supported by Providence merchants. For more than a decade, -it bitterly fought for political supremacy in Rhode Island with a -conservative group in Newport, led by Samuel Ward, a political enemy of -Hopkins. - -Hopkins was a man of broad interests, including humanitarianism, -education, and science, and exerted his talents in many fields. About -1754 he helped set up a public subscription library in Providence. -He acted as first chancellor of Rhode Island College (later Brown -University), founded in 1764 at Warren, and 6 years later was -instrumental in relocating it to Providence. He also held membership -in the Philosophical Society of Newport. Strongly opposing slavery, -in 1774 he authored a bill enacted by the Rhode Island legislature -that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony—one of the -earliest antislavery laws in the United States. - -Long before, Hopkins had sided with the Revolutionaries. In 1762 he -helped found the influential _Providence Gazette and Country Journal_. -Two years later, he contributed to it an article entitled “The Rights -of the Colonies Examined,” which criticized parliamentary taxation and -recommended colonial home rule. Issued as a pamphlet the next year, -it circulated widely throughout the Colonies and Great Britain and -established Hopkins as one of the earliest of the patriot leaders. He -also sat on the Rhode Island committee of correspondence and carried on -with his duties in the legislature and Superior Court while a Member of -the Continental Congress (1774–76). He served on the committees that -prepared the Articles of Confederation and that created the Continental -Navy and appointed Esek Hopkins as its commander in chief. Ill health -compelled Stephen to retire in September 1776, a month after he signed -the Declaration. - -Hopkins declined subsequent reelections to Congress, but sat in the -State legislature for a time and took part in several New England -political conventions. He withdrew from public service about 1780 and -died 5 years later in Providence at the age of 78. He was interred in -the North Burial Ground. - - - - -Francis Hopkinson - -NEW JERSEY - -[Illustration] - - The literary and artistic talents of this versatile signer - brought him more acclaim than his political and legal - activities. Although a lawyer and judge by profession, he - achieved more eminence as an essayist, poet, artist, and - musician. His verse and satirical essays rank among the - better literary efforts of the Revolutionary and early - Federal periods, and he was one of America’s first native - composers. His eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842), wrote “Hail - Columbia” and won distinction as a lawyer, jurist, U.S. - Congressman, and patron of the arts. - -Hopkinson was born at Philadelphia in 1737, the eldest of eight -children. His father, who died when he was 14, was a prominent -lawyer-jurist, politician, and civic leader. Upon graduation from the -College of Philadelphia (later part of the University of Pennsylvania) -in 1757, young Hopkinson studied law under Benjamin Chew, attorney -general of the province, and 4 years later joined the bar. In 1763 -he obtained the position of customs collector at Salem, N.J. Three -years hence, after failing in business, he sailed to England to seek -an appointment as colonial customs collector through the influence of -friends and relatives. During his yearlong stay, though unsuccessful -in his vocational quest, he visited Benjamin Franklin, Lord North, and -other prominent people, and may have studied under artist Benjamin West. - -Back in Philadelphia, Hopkinson operated a store and married in 1768. -Four years later he became the customs collector at New Castle, Del. -About 1774 he took up residence at the home of his father-in-law -in Bordentown, N.J., practiced law, and began a 2-year tour in the -legislature. As a Member of the Continental Congress for only a few -months in 1776, he relieved his ennui by drawing caricatures of -his colleagues. His later offices included: chairman (1777–78) of -Philadelphia’s Continental Navy Board, treasurer of loans (1778–81), -judge of the admiralty court of Pennsylvania (1779), and Federal -circuit judge for the eastern district of the State (1789–91). - -During his busy public career, the ambitious Hopkinson managed to -leave his stamp on the fields of music, art, and literature. His “My -Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (1759) probably represents the first -American composition of secular music; his “Temple of Minerva” (1781), -the first American attempt at opera. In art, he was noted particularly -for his crayon portraits and his work on heraldic emblems. But his -literary attainments surpassed all his others. - -Between 1757 and 1773, Hopkinson contributed numerous poems and essays, -many of them in a humorous and satirical vein, to various periodicals. -The following year, he began advancing the patriot cause. A profusion -of widely read and influential pamphlets, essays, and letters, often -presented in an allegorical style, derided and ridiculed the British -and the Loyalists, outlined colonial grievances, and encouraged the -colonists. _The Prophecy_, written in 1776 before the adoption of the -Declaration of Independence, predicted that event. After the war, -Hopkinson continued to treat political and social themes, and became -one of the best known writers in the United States. - -While a Federal circuit judge, Hopkinson died in Philadelphia at -the age of 53. He was laid to rest in Christ Church Burial Ground. -Surviving him were his widow and five children. - - - - -Samuel Huntington - -CONNECTICUT - -[Illustration] - - Several of the signers were self-made men. One of the most - successful of them was Samuel Huntington. Reared amid - humble surroundings, he educated himself in the law and, - despite recurring health problems, climbed to the pinnacles - of the State and National Governments. - - -Born into a large family in 1731 at Windham (present Scotland), Conn., -Huntington grew up on a farm, received a limited education, and at the -age of 16 began work as a cooper. But his ambition soon pushed him -onward. He independently studied borrowed legal tomes, won admittance -to the bar about 1758, and set up practice. Two years later, he moved -to nearby Norwich. The next year, he married; he and his wife, who were -to be childless, later adopted three children. As time went on, he -prospered in the law and became a community leader. - -In 1764 Huntington began his public career, in the Connecticut -legislature. The next year, he was appointed as King’s Attorney of the -colony and won election as justice of the peace for New London County. -He occupied these positions for practically the entire decade or so -prior to the outbreak of the War for Independence, in 1775. Meantime, -2 years earlier, the colonial legislature had named him as a judge of -the Connecticut Superior Court, an appointment renewed annually for a -decade. - -In 1774 Huntington, registering his growing sympathy for the Colonies -in their struggle against the Crown, resigned as King’s Attorney and -joined the front ranks of the Revolutionaries. The next year, he -became a member of the upper house of the legislature (1775–84), and -entered national politics when he became a Delegate to the Continental -Congress. His committee assignments included those dealing with -Indian affairs, ordnance supply, and marine matters. In the fall of -1776, fatigue and health worries caused him to return to Connecticut. -Between then and 1783, plagued with spells of illness, he attended -congressional sessions intermittently (1778, 1779–81, 1783), often -returning home to recuperate. Despite this burden, he assumed the heavy -responsibilities of President of Congress (1779–81), presiding on March -1, 1781, when the Articles of Confederation were adopted. - -Huntington’s well-earned “retirement” when he returned to Connecticut -in 1783, after 8 years of service to the Nation, turned out to involve -12 years of vigorous activity—despite his waning health. Even while he -had been in Congress, he had served his State in various other ways, -and all his legislative and other positions had been held open for him. -A succession of appointive and elective offices followed: chief justice -of the Superior Court (1784), Lieutenant Governor (1785), and Governor -(1786–96). In the latter capacity, he led the battle for Connecticut’s -ratification of the Federal Constitution and improved the educational -system. As one of Connecticut’s seven first presidential electors, in -1789 he won two “favorite son” votes for the Presidency. - -Ever interested in education, despite his own lack of a college degree, -in the 1780’s Huntington received honorary degrees from Princeton, -Yale, and Dartmouth; and was appointed one of the original trustees of -Plainfield (Conn.) Academy. Before that time, he had acted as adviser -to the president of Yale. - -In 1796 at the age of 65, still Governor, he died at his home in -Norwich and was interred in the Old Burial Ground. - - - - -Thomas Jefferson - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - An intellectual and political titan who ranked among - the most brilliant men of his time, Thomas Jefferson - richly contributed to his State and Nation—as statesman, - diplomat, scientist, architect, author, and educator. - Graced with a wide-ranging and probing mind, he also delved - into linguistics, law, art, geography, ethnology, music, - agriculture, paleontology, botany, meteorology, geology, - parliamentary practice, and invention. - - -As author of the Declaration of Independence, influential political -theorist, cofounder of the Democratic-Republican Party, Virginia -legislator and Governor, first U.S. Secretary of State, second Vice -President, and third President, Jefferson has left an indelible -impression on our political system and philosophy. Beyond that, he laid -the basis for the westward expansion of the Nation; and two of his -disciples, Madison and Monroe, followed him into the White House. - -Like most successful politicians, however, Jefferson created his -share of enemies and felt the sting of failure. Inability to -reconcile his contradictory traits of idealism and pragmatism -resulted in inconsistencies that rendered him vulnerable. He lacked -the aggressiveness and charisma of many leaders. To compensate for -his basic shyness and his deficiencies as a speaker, he mastered -written expression and learned to exercise administrative power. His -governorship ended ignominiously. And his vision of an agricultural -America, peopled by well-educated and politically astute yeomen -farmers was never to be realized. Yet none of these factors diminishes -his stature or undermines his achievements. - -The eldest of two sons in a family of ten, Jefferson was born in 1743 -at Shadwell, a frontier plantation in Goochland (present Albemarle) -County, Va. But 2 years later his father, Peter, a self-made -surveyor-magistrate-planter who had married into the distinguished -Randolphs, moved his family eastward to Tuckahoe Plantation, near -Richmond. His reason for doing so was a promise he had made to his -wife’s newly deceased first cousin, William Randolph, to act as -guardian of his son, Thomas Mann Randolph. Young Jefferson passed most -of his boyhood in the Randolph home, beginning his elementary education -with private tutors. In 1752, when he was about 9 years old, the family -returned to Shadwell. His father died 5 years later and bequeathed him -almost 3,000 acres. - -In 1760, at the age of 17, Jefferson matriculated at the College of -William and Mary, in Williamsburg. An incidental benefit was the chance -to observe the operation of practical politics in the colonial capital. -Jefferson graduated in 1762, studied law locally under the noted -teacher George Wythe, and in 1767 was admitted to the bar. - -At Shadwell, Jefferson assumed the civic responsibilities and -prominence his father had enjoyed. In 1770, when fire consumed the -structure, he moved to his nearby estate Monticello, where he had -already begun building a home. In 1772 he married Martha Wayles -Skelton, a widow. During their decade of life together, she was to bear -six children, but only two daughters reached maturity. - -Meanwhile, in 1769 at the age of 26, Jefferson had been elected to -the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg. He was a member continuously -until 1775, and alined himself with the anti-British group. Unlike his -smooth-tongued confreres Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, Jefferson -concentrated his efforts in committee work rather than in debate. -A literary stylist, he drafted many of the Revolutionary documents -adopted by the House of Burgesses. His _A Summary View of the Rights of -British America_ (1774), one of the most influential essays of the era, -disavowed parliamentary control of the Colonies and contended that they -were tied to the King only by their own volition and recognition of -mutual benefits. - -[Illustration: First page of Thomas Jefferson’s pamphlet _A Summary -View_ (1774), one of the earliest and most influential Revolutionary -tracts.] - -Jefferson utilized the same working methods in the Continental Congress -(1775–76), where his decisiveness in committee contrasted markedly -with his silence on the floor. His colleagues, however, rejected -several of the documents he drafted his first year because of their -extreme anti-British tone. But, by the time he returned the following -May, after spending the winter in Virginia, the temper of Congress had -changed drastically. The very next month, though only 33 years old, he -was assigned to the five-man committee chosen to draft the Declaration -of Independence, a task his colleagues assigned to him. In September, -not long after Congress had adopted the draft with modifications and -most of the Delegates signed it, Jefferson returned to Virginia—anxious -to be nearer home and feeling he could make a deeper political mark -there. - -A notable career in the House of Delegates (1776–79), the lower house -of the legislature, followed. There Jefferson took over leadership of -the “progressive” party from Patrick Henry, who relinquished it to -become Governor. Highlights of this service included revision of the -State laws (1776–79), in which Jefferson collaborated with George Wythe -and Edmund Pendleton; and authorship of a bill for the establishment of -religious freedom in Virginia, introduced in 1779 but not passed until -7 years later. - -Although hampered as Governor (1779–81) by wartime conditions and -constitutional limitations, Jefferson proved to be a weak executive, -even in emergencies hesitating to wield his authority. When the British -invaded the State in the spring of 1781, the situation became chaotic. -On June 3, while the legislature was meeting in Charlottesville -because the redcoats held Richmond, Jefferson recommended the -combining of civil and military agencies under Gen. Thomas Nelson, -Jr., and virtually abdicated office. The next day, British raiders -almost captured him and a group of legislators he was entertaining at -Monticello. Although later formally vindicated for his abandonment of -the governorship, the action fostered a conservative takeover of the -government and his reputation remained clouded for some time. - -Jefferson stayed out of the limelight for 2 years, during which time -his wife died. In 1783 he reentered Congress, which the next year -sent him to Paris to aid Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in their -attempts to negotiate commercial treaties with European nations. During -his 5-year stay, Jefferson succeeded Franklin as Minister to France -(1785–89), gained various commercial concessions from and strengthened -relations with the French, visited England and Italy, absorbed -European culture, and observed the beginnings of the French Revolution. - -[Illustration: The University of Virginia in 1826, the year of the -death of founder Jefferson.] - -In the years that followed, interspersed with pleasant interludes -at Monticello, Jefferson filled the highest offices in the land: -Secretary of State (1790–93), Vice President (1797–1801), and two-term -President (1801–9). Ever averse to political strife, he occupied these -positions as much out of a sense of civic and party duty as personal -ambition. Aggravating normal burdens and pressures were his bitter -feuds with Alexander Hamilton on most aspects of national policy, and -the vindictiveness of Federalist attacks. Jefferson took considerable -satisfaction, however, from his many accomplishments. Among these was -the cofounding with James Madison of the Democratic-Republican Party, -which in time drove the Federalists out of power. - -Physically and mentally exhausted, in 1809 Jefferson retired for the -final time to Monticello. He retained his health and varied interests -and corresponded with and entertained statesmen, politicians, -scientists, explorers, scholars, and Indian chiefs. When the pace of -life grew too hectic, he found haven at Poplar Forest, a retreat near -Lynchburg he had designed and built in 1806–19. His pet project during -most of his last decade was founding the University of Virginia (1819), -in Charlottesville. - -Painfully distressing to Jefferson, however, was the woeful state of -his finances. His small salary in public office, the attendant neglect -of his fortune and estate, general economic conditions, and debts he -inherited from his wife had taken a heavy toll. He lived more frugally -than was his custom in an attempt to stave off disaster and sold off as -many of his lands and slaves as he could. But when a friend defaulted -on a note for a large sum, Jefferson fell hopelessly into debt and was -forced to sell his library to the Government. It became the nucleus of -the Library of Congress. - -Jefferson died only a few hours before John Adams at the age of 83 -on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the -Declaration of Independence. For his tombstone at Monticello, ignoring -his many high offices and multitudes of other achievements, he chose -three accomplishments that he wanted to be remembered for: authorship -of the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia Statute for -Religious Freedom and the founding of the University of Virginia. - - - - -Francis Lightfoot Lee - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - No less a patriot than his dynamic elder brother Richard - Henry and his gifted younger brothers Arthur and William, - Francis Lightfoot Lee preferred the uneventful life of a - country squire to the public spotlight and chose to follow - rather than to lead. Despite his shyness and weakness as - a speaker, he exercised extensive political influence, - took an active part in the Revolution, and signed both the - Declaration and the Articles of Confederation. - - -Lee, a member of one of the most famous families in Virginia and U.S. -history and the sixth son and eighth child of planter Thomas Lee, was -born in 1734 at the family estate, Stratford Hall, in Westmoreland -County, Va. He was educated by a private tutor and never attended -college. In 1750, upon the death of his father, he inherited Coton, -an estate in Fairfax County. Seven years later, newly created Loudoun -County absorbed Coton. At that time, the colonial legislature nominated -him as Loudoun lieutenant. The next year, he moved to Coton and became -trustee of the newly incorporated village of Leesburg, named after -him or his brother Philip Ludwell, both local landowners. For the -next decade, Francis Lightfoot represented the county in the House of -Burgesses. - -In 1769 Lee married socialite Rebecca Tayloe of Richmond County. The -newlyweds resided at Mount Airy estate with Rebecca’s parents for a -few months until Menokin, a new home that Colonel Tayloe was building -nearby for them, was completed. From then until 1774, Lee sat again -with the burgesses. - -Lee had joined the Revolutionary movement at an early date. From the -time of the Stamp Act (1765) until the outbreak of war a decade later, -he participated in most of the Virginia protests and assemblies. He -rarely debated on the floor in Congress (1775–79), but often opposed -the position of his brother Richard Henry, and served on the military -and marine committees as well as that charged with drafting the -Articles of Confederation. - -In 1779, weary of office and longing for the peace and quiet of -Menokin, Lee left Congress. Except for a few years in the State -legislature, he abandoned public service altogether and lived quietly. -In 1797, only a few months after the death of his childless wife, at -the age of 62 he succumbed. Burial took place in the Tayloe family -graveyard at Mount Airy. - - - - -Richard Henry Lee - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - Richard Henry Lee, brilliant orator and fiery Revolutionary - leader, introduced the independence resolution in - the Continental Congress, served for awhile as its - President, and later became a U.S. Senator. Fearing undue - centralization of power, he fought against the Constitution - and led the campaign that brought inclusion of the Bill of - Rights. Throughout his life, he strenuously opposed the - institution of slavery. He and Francis Lightfoot Lee were - the only brothers among the signers. - - -Fifth son and seventh of 11 children, Lee was born in 1732 along the -Potomac shore at Stratford Hall. His initial tutorial education was -supplemented by extensive study at Wakefield Academy, in Yorkshire, -England, and a tour of northern Europe. He sailed home about 1751 at -the age of 19, the year after his father’s death, and resided with -his eldest brother Philip Ludwell at Stratford Hall. In 1757 Richard -Henry married. About this time, he began building and soon occupied -Chantilly, about 3 miles to the east on land leased from his brother. -In 1768 Richard Henry’s wife died, leaving four children; the next -year, he remarried, a union that yielded five more offspring. - -Lee meantime, following family tradition, had committed himself to -politics. In 1757, at the age of 25, he became justice of the peace -for Westmoreland County. The following year, he moved up to the House -of Burgesses and sat there until 1775. One of the first to oppose -Britain, he early allied with Patrick Henry. As a protest against the -Stamp Act (1765), Lee drew up the Westmoreland Association (1766), a -nonimportation agreement signed by some of the citizens of his county. -The next year, he denounced the Townshend Acts. And a year later -he proposed in a letter to John Dickinson of Pennsylvania that the -individual colonies set up committees to correspond with each other—an -idea that did not come to fruition for 5 years. - -In 1769, when Lee and Henry penned an address to the King protesting -several actions of Parliament, the Royal Governor disbanded the House -of Burgesses. Lee thereupon met with other patriots at Raleigh’s Tavern -and helped frame the Virginia Association, a nonimportation agreement. -Many other colonies formed similar associations, but in 1770 Parliament -repealed most of the duties and the protest spirit subsided. - -In March 1773, when anti-British feeling flared once again, Lee, -Henry, and Jefferson, who had entered the House of Burgesses in 1769, -organized a Virginia committee of correspondence and invited the other -colonies to do likewise. Learning of the British closing of Boston -Harbor in May 1774, they persuaded their colleagues to declare, as -a protest, a day of fasting and prayer. The Royal Governor again -dissolved the burgesses. The Revolutionaries reconvened at Raleigh’s -Tavern, drew up a new nonimportation agreement, and resolved to appeal -to the other colonies for an intercolonial congress. But, before -such action could be taken, Virginia received an invitation from -Massachusetts to send representatives to a congress to be held in -September at Philadelphia—the First Continental Congress. Virginia’s -first provincial assembly met in August and designated seven Delegates, -including Lee and Henry. - -Lee’s outstanding congressional act was the introduction on June 7, -1776, of the resolution for independence from Britain, seconded by -John Adams. This document, Lee’s condensed redraft of one forwarded -him by a convention that had met in Williamsburg on May 15, proposed -severing relations with Britain, the forming of foreign alliances, and -preparation of a plan for confederation. On June 13, or 2 days after a -committee was appointed to draft the Declaration, Lee journeyed back -to Virginia, apparently because of illness in the family. He did not -return and sign the Declaration until sometime subsequent to the formal -ceremony on August 2. Like his brother Francis Lightfoot, in 1777 he -also subscribed to the Articles of Confederation. After 1776, however, -his influence in Congress waned, and 3 years later ill health forced -his resignation. - -As a State legislator (1780–84) Lee joined the conservative faction, -which represented the interests of the large planters. A Member of -Congress again in the period 1784–89, he served in 1784–85 as its -President. In 1787, though elected to the Constitutional Convention, he -refused to attend and led congressional opposition to the Constitution, -especially because of the absence of a bill of rights. Although he -was well aware of the deficiencies of the Articles of Confederation, -he and others feared a stronger Central Government. Lee’s “Letters of -the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” the collective title for two -pamphlets outlining his objections to the Constitution, epitomized -antifederalist sentiment. - -In 1789 Lee entered the U.S. Senate, but because of failing health -resigned in 1792, the year after the Bill of Rights was incorporated -into the Constitution. He died in 1794, aged 62, at Chantilly. His -grave is in the Lee family cemetery near Hague, Virginia. - - - - -Francis Lewis - -NEW YORK - -[Illustration] - - Few other signers felt the tragedy of the War for - Independence more directly than Francis Lewis, whose wife - died as a result of British imprisonment. To further the - cause, he also expended a considerable portion of the - fortune he had acquired as a merchant. - - -Lewis was the only child of a minister. He was born in 1713 at -Llandaff, Glamorganshire, Wales. Orphaned at an early age and raised -by relatives, he studied at Westminster School in London and then took -employment with a local firm. In 1738, deciding to go into business for -himself, he set up branches in New York and Philadelphia and for a few -years shuttled between those cities and northern European ports. In -1745 he married a New York girl, his partner’s sister. - -During the French and Indian War, in 1756, while functioning as a -clothing contractor for British troops at Fort Oswego, in present New -York, Lewis was taken captive and sent to France for imprisonment. Upon -his release, apparently in 1763, as a recompense the British Government -awarded him a large land grant in America. He returned to New York -City, reentered business, and quickly earned a fortune. In 1765 he -retired to the village of Whitestone (now part of Flushing), on Long -Island, but in 1771 he temporarily returned to New York City to help -his son enter the business world, even probably making a voyage to -England with him. - -Back home, Lewis devoted most of his energies to the Revolutionary -movement, which he had joined in 1765 by attending the Stamp Act -Congress. He was also likely one of the leaders of the New York Sons -of Liberty. In 1774 he became a member of the New York Revolutionary -committees of fifty-one and sixty, the next year attended the -provincial convention, and subsequently helped set up the State -government. - -In the Continental Congress (1775–79), Lewis rarely took the floor but -served on the marine, foreign affairs, and commerce committees, as -well as sitting on the Board of Admiralty and engaging in troop supply -matters. He defended Gen. George Washington from the attacks of the -Conway Cabal. Because of Tory dominance in New York, Lewis and the -other Delegates were instructed not to vote for independence on July 1 -and 2, 1776, but Lewis signed the Declaration on August 2. - -That same year, when the British invaded Long Island, they destroyed -Lewis’ home in Whitestone and took his wife into custody. She was -eventually released in an exchange for wives of British officials, but -the hardships she had endured ruined her health and brought about her -death in 1779. The grief-stricken Lewis immediately left Congress, -but remained on the Board of Admiralty until 1781, at which time he -abandoned politics altogether. He lived in retirement with his sons, -and died in 1802 at the age of 89 in New York City. He was buried there -in an unmarked grave in the yard of Trinity Church. - - - - -Philip Livingston - -NEW YORK - -[Illustration] - - A member of the landed gentry, merchant Philip - Livingston lived a princely life and devoted much energy - to civic affairs and philanthropic enterprises. He - was a conservative in politics, and at first opposed - independence. On the other hand, despite wartime business - reverses, he contributed generously to the Revolutionary - effort and continued in public service until the day he - died. - - -Livingston was the fifth son of Philip Livingston, second lord of -Livingston Manor, of Scotch descent, and Catherine Van Brugh, of Dutch -lineage. Young Livingston was born in 1716 at his father’s townhouse in -Albany and spent most of his childhood there or at the family manor at -Linlithgo, about 30 miles to the south. - -Upon receiving a degree from Yale in 1737, Livingston entered the -import business in New York City. Three years later, he married and -moved into a townhouse on Duke Street in Manhattan; he was to sire -five sons and four daughters. As time went on, he built up a fortune, -particularly as a trader-privateer during the French and Indian War -(1754–63). In 1764, though retaining his Duke Street home, he acquired -a 40-acre estate on Brooklyn Heights overlooking the East River and New -York Harbor. - -While prospering as a merchant, Livingston devoted many of his energies -to humanitarian and philanthropic endeavors. Among the organizations he -fostered, financially aided, or helped administer were King’s College -(later Columbia University), the New York Society Library, St. Andrew’s -Society, the New York Chamber of Commerce, and New York Hospital. - -Livingston was also a proponent of political and religious freedom. -As a New York City alderman (1754–63), he identified with the popular -party that opposed the aristocratic ruling class of the colony. In -a decade of service (1759–69) in the colonial legislature, he stood -behind the Whigs in their quarrel with the Royal Governor and attended -the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. But, a believer in the sort of -dignified protests mounted by lawyers and merchants, he resented the -riotous behavior of such groups as the Sons of Liberty. - -[Illustration: The Brooklyn home of Philip Livingston from 1764 until -his death in 1778. When the British occupied New York, they used it as -a hospital. In 1811 fire destroyed it.] - -In the 1769 elections the Tories gained control of the legislature. In -his bid for reelection, Livingston, fearful of the rise of extremism -among the populace, attempted to unite the moderate factions. Defeated -in New York City, which from then on was Tory-dominated, he managed to -obtain reelection from the Livingston Manor district. The new assembly, -claiming he could not represent an area in which he did not reside, -unseated him. - -In 1774 Livingston became a member of the committee of fifty-one, -an extralegal group that selected New York City Delegates to the -Continental Congress, one of whom was Livingston. He also served on -the committee of sixty, formed to enforce congressional enactments. -The next year, he won election to the committee of one hundred, which -governed New York City temporarily until the first provincial congress -of the colony met later that year. - -Between 1774 and 1778 Livingston divided his time between the -Continental Congress and the New York provincial assembly/legislature. -In Congress he sat on committees dealing with marine, commerce, -finance, military, and Indian matters. He was absent on July 1–2, -1776, perhaps on purpose even though the New York Delegates abstained -from voting on the independence issue, but on August 2 he signed the -Declaration. - -After their defeat in the Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776), -Washington and his officers met at Livingston’s residence in Brooklyn -Heights and decided to evacuate the island. Subsequent to the ill-fated -peace negotiations at Staten Island in September between Admiral Lord -Richard Howe and three representatives of the Continental Congress, the -British occupied New York City. They utilized Livingston’s Duke Street -home as a barracks and his Brooklyn Heights residence as a Royal Navy -hospital, as well as confiscating his business interests. He later -sold some of his remaining property to sustain public credit. With the -advance of the British, Livingston and his family had fled to Esopus -(later Kingston), N.Y., where the State capital was temporarily located -before moving to nearby Poughkeepsie. - -Livingston passed away at the age of 62 in 1778, the third earliest -signer to die (after John Morton and Button Gwinnett). At the time, -though in poor health, he was still in Congress, then meeting at York, -Pa. He is buried in Prospect Hill Cemetery in that city. - - - - -Thomas Lynch, Jr. - -SOUTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - Like two of the three other South Carolina signers, Heyward - and Middleton, Thomas Lynch, Jr., was an aristocratic - planter. But, despite his wealth and social position, - he experienced one of the most tragic lives of all the - signers. He was stricken by illness in the midst of his - political and military labors for his State, never fully - recovered his health, and perished at sea in his 30th year. - He died at a younger age than any other signer, though a - couple succumbed at an earlier date. He was also the second - youngest in the group, next to fellow South Carolinian - Edward Rutledge. - - -The only son of Thomas Lynch, Sr., a rich rice planter, Lynch was born -in 1749 at Hopsewee Plantation, located at Winyaw on the North Santee -River in Prince George’s Parish (present Georgetown County), S.C. -After attending the Indigo Society School at nearby Georgetown, from -1764 until 1772 he studied abroad at Eton and Cambridge and read law -in London. Upon his return home, deciding not to engage in the law, he -married and settled at Peach Tree Plantation. A gift from his father, -it was situated in St. James Parish (present Charleston County) on the -South Santee River about 4 miles south of Hopsewee. - -As the heir of one of the most fervent Revolutionaries and influential -men in the colony, Lynch naturally took a deep interest in politics and -enjoyed strong support from the electorate. During the years 1774–76, -while his father served in the Continental Congress, he labored on -the home front, attending the first and second provincial congresses -as well as the first State legislature and sitting on the State -constitutional committee. - -In 1775, however, fate dealt Lynch a cruel blow. He accepted a -captaincy in the First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals—to the -dismay of his father who had hoped to use his position to obtain a -higher rank for him. On a recruiting trip to North Carolina, young -Lynch contracted bilious fever. This ended his military days and -rendered him a partial invalid for his few remaining years. - -Early in 1776 at Philadelphia the elder Lynch suffered a stroke that -virtually incapacitated him for further public service. In the spring, -his concerned colleagues in South Carolina elected his son to the -Continental Congress, probably so that he could care for his father -and act officially on his behalf. Although ill himself, Lynch made the -onerous trip to Philadelphia. He stayed there throughout the summer, -long enough to vote for and sign, at the age of 27, the Declaration -of Independence. His father was unable to take part in the ceremony. -The two were the only father-son team that served concurrently in the -Continental Congress. - -By the end of the year, the failing health of both men compelled them -to start homeward. En route, at Annapolis, Md., a second stroke took -the life of the senior Lynch. His son, broken in spirit and physically -unable to continue in politics, retired to Peach Tree. Late in 1779 he -and his wife, heading for southern France in an attempt to regain his -health, boarded a ship bound for the West Indies that foundered. The -couple died childless. - - - - -Thomas McKean - -DELAWARE - -[Illustration] - - Lawyer-jurist Thomas McKean stands out from the other - signers in a variety of ways. He was the last to pen his - signature to the Declaration, sometime after January 18, - 1777. Although many Delegates simultaneously took part in - State affairs, none did so as extensively as McKean—and he - figured prominently in not one but two States, Delaware and - Pennsylvania. He was also the only signer to be the chief - executive of and concurrent officeholder in two States. - Furthermore, he numbered among those who also subscribed to - the Articles of Confederation, and he served a long tour in - Congress. - - -Of Scotch-Irish ancestry, McKean was born in 1734. He was the second -son of a farmer-tavernkeeper who lived in New London Township, in -Chester County, Pa., near the New Jersey and Delaware boundaries. After -studying for 7 years at Rev. Francis Alison’s academy at nearby New -London, McKean read law with a cousin at New Castle, Del. In 1754, at -the age of 20, he was admitted to the Delaware bar and soon expanded -his practice into Pennsylvania and New Jersey. - -During the next two and a half decades, McKean occupied an array of -appointive and elective offices in Delaware, some simultaneously: high -sheriff of Kent County; militia captain; trustee of the loan office -of New Castle County; customs collector and judge at New Castle; -deputy attorney general of Sussex County; chief notary officer for the -province; and clerk (1757–59) and member (1762–79) of the legislature, -including the speakership of the lower house (1772–73). In 1762, he had -also helped compile the colony’s laws. - -McKean’s Revolutionary tendencies had first revealed themselves -during the Stamp Act (1765) controversy. He was one of the most -vociferous of the delegates at the Stamp Act Congress. In 1774, a year -after the death of his wife, whom he had wed in 1763, he remarried -and established his home in Philadelphia. He nevertheless retained -membership in the Delaware legislature, which that same year elected -him to the Continental Congress. Except for the period December -1776-January 1778, when conservative opposition unseated him, he stayed -there until 1783 and served as President for a few months in 1781. -He played a key role in the Revolutionary program, at the same time -fostering the establishment of governments in Delaware and Pennsylvania. - -Furthermore, it was McKean who was responsible for breaking the -Delaware tie in the congressional vote for independence. On July -1, 1776, date of the first vote, the two Delaware representatives -present, McKean and George Read, deadlocked. McKean, who had balloted -affirmatively, dispatched an urgent message to the third Delegate, -Caesar Rodney, who was at his home near Dover, Del., on military -matters, to rush to Philadelphia. Rodney, making an 80-mile horseback -ride through a storm, arrived just in time to swing Delaware over to -independence on July 2. - -During the hiatus in his congressional career, from late 1776 until -early in 1778, McKean had remained in the lower house of the Delaware -legislature, of which he became speaker once again. In that capacity, -in September-November 1777, he temporarily replaced the president of -Delaware, whom the British had captured. In vain they also pursued -McKean, who was forced to move his family several times. Meantime, in -July, he had been appointed chief justice of the Pennsylvania Superior -Court, a position he was to hold for 22 years. - -After 1783, when his congressional service ended, McKean focused his -political activities in Pennsylvania. As a Federalist, in 1787 he was -instrumental in that State’s ratification of the U.S. Constitution. In -the State constitutional convention of 1789–90 he demonstrated mistrust -of popular government. During the 1790’s, disenchanted with Federalist -foreign policy, he switched to the Democratic-Republicans. - -While Governor for three terms (1799–1808), McKean was the storm -center of violent partisan warfare. Although he exercised strong -leadership and advanced education and internal improvements, his -imperiousness infuriated the Federalists, alienated many members of -his own party, and resulted in an attempt to impeach him. Especially -controversial were his rigid employment of the spoils system, including -the appointment of friends and relatives, and his refusal to call a -convention to revise the constitution. As a result, he won reelection -only with the support of members of both parties who opposed the -revision. - -McKean lived out his life quietly in Philadelphia. He died in 1817 at -the age of 83, survived by his second wife and four of the 11 children -from his two marriages. He was buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery. His -substantial estate consisted of stocks, bonds, and huge tracts of land -in Pennsylvania. - - - - -Arthur Middleton - -SOUTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - Despite long years of study in England, exceptional wealth, - and social eminence, Arthur Middleton evolved into an avid - Revolutionary. Because of preoccupation with State matters, - particularly military defense, his attendance in Congress - was spasmodic. The British captured him during their attack - on Charleston and ravished his estate. - - -Middleton was born in 1742 at Middleton Place, the family estate on -the Ashley River near Charleston. His father, who owned a score of -plantations comprising 50,000 acres and employing some 800 slaves, -ranked among the wealthiest and most politically active men in the -province. While still a young boy, Arthur sailed to England for an -education. He attended Hackney School, graduated from Cambridge -University, and studied law in London. In 1764, the year after his -return, he wed the woman who was to bear him nine children, and -embarked on a career as justice of the peace and colonial legislator. -In the years 1768–71, however, he and his wife made an extended tour of -Europe. - -Reelected the next year to the legislature, Middleton joined the -Revolutionaries in their campaign against the Royal Governor. While -sitting in the first and second provincial assemblies (1775–76), -Middleton aided in organizing a night raid on public arms stores at -Charleston before the Governor could seize them, raised money for -armed resistance, recommended defense measures for Charleston Harbor, -served on the council of safety, and urged tight enforcement of the -Continental Association. An extremist, he advocated the tarring and -feathering of Loyalists and confiscation of the estates of those who -had fled the country. - -In 1776, while engaged in helping draft a State constitution, Middleton -was chosen to replace his more conservative father in the Continental -Congress. Two years later, when young Middleton declined reelection, -he also rejected an offer of the governorship of South Carolina by the -legislature, which had enacted a new constitution that he opposed. In -1779 and 1780, though reelected to the Continental Congress, Middleton -failed to attend, probably because of concern over the British threat -to his State. While serving in the militia during the siege of -Charleston in 1780, along with fellow signers Heyward and Rutledge he -was captured by the British and imprisoned at St. Augustine, Fla., -until July 1781. - -Two months later, Middleton returned to Congress and served throughout -1782. He then retired to Middleton Place, which had been ravaged by -the British. He rehabilitated it, resumed his life as a planter, sat -intermittently in the State legislature, and accepted assignment as one -of the original trustees of the College of Charleston. He died in 1787 -at the age of 44. His remains rest at Middleton Place. - - - - -Lewis Morris - -NEW YORK - -[Illustration] - - Although Lewis Morris was a wealthy landowner who enjoyed - the prestige of the social elite, he represented the - patriot element in Tory-dominated New York. The British - sacked his estate during the war, and his three eldest sons - fought under Washington. - - -Born in 1726, Morris was the eldest son of the second lord of the vast -manor of Morrisania, in Westchester (present Bronx) County, N.Y. Upon -graduating from Yale College in 1746, he helped manage the estate. -Three years later, he married, siring 10 children. In 1762, when his -father died, he inherited Morrisania and became its third lord. About -this time, he gained an interest in local politics, and in 1769 served -a term in the colonial legislature. - -As time went on, though residing in a pro-Loyalist county, Morris -became increasingly critical of British policy. In 1775 he helped -organize a meeting at White Plains that overcame strong opposition and -chose county delegates, including Morris as chairman, to New York’s -first provincial convention. It elected him to the Continental Congress -(1775–77), where he specialized in military and Indian affairs. For -most of 1776, he was absent from Philadelphia, serving as a brigadier -general in the Westchester County militia. During the British invasion -of New York that year, the redcoats ravaged Morrisania, and forced -Morris’ family to flee. - -When his career in Congress ended, Morris rose to the rank of major -general in the militia and became a county judge (1777–78) and State -senator (1777–81 and 1784–88). After war’s end in 1783, when he -was able to return to Morrisania, he devoted much of his time to -rehabilitating it. In 1784 he sat on the first board of regents of -the University of New York. And 4 years later, at the State ratifying -convention in Poughkeepsie, he strongly supported Alexander Hamilton’s -successful drive for approval of the U.S. Constitution. - -Morris died in 1798 at Morrisania at the age of 71. His grave is in the -family vault in the yard of St. Ann’s Church in the Bronx. - - - - -Robbert Morris - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - Merchant Robert Morris was a man of many distinctions. - One of the wealthiest individuals in the Colonies and an - economic wizard, he won the accolade “Financier of the - Revolution,” yet died penniless and forgotten. He and Roger - Sherman were the only signers of all three of the Nation’s - basic documents: the Declaration of Independence, Articles - of Confederation, and Constitution. Morris, who turned down - appointment as the first Secretary of the Treasury, also - served as a Senator in the First Congress. - - -Morris was born in or near Liverpool, England, in 1734. At the age of -13, he emigrated to Maryland to join his father, a tobacco exporter at -Oxford, Md. After brief schooling at Philadelphia, the youth obtained -employment with Thomas and Charles Willing’s well-known shipping firm. -In 1754 he became a partner, and for almost four decades was one of the -company’s directors as well as one of Philadelphia’s most influential -citizens. Marrying in 1769 at the age of 35, he fathered five sons and -two daughters. - -During the Stamp Act turmoil in 1765, Morris had joined other merchants -in protest, but not until the outbreak of hostilities a decade hence -did he fully commit himself to the Revolution. In 1775 the Continental -Congress contracted with his firm to import arms and ammunition; and -he was elected to the Pennsylvania council of safety (1775–76), the -committee of correspondence, the provincial assembly (1775–76), the -State legislature (1776–78), and the Continental Congress (1775–78). In -the latter body, on July 1, 1776, he voted against independence, which -he personally considered premature, but the next day purposely absented -himself to facilitate an affirmative ballot by his State. - -Morris, a key Member of Congress, specialized in financial affairs and -military procurement. Although he and his firm profited handsomely, -had it not been for his assiduous labors the Continental Army would -probably have needed to demobilize. He worked closely with General -Washington, wheedled money and supplies from the States, borrowed -money in the face of overwhelming difficulties, and on occasion -even obtained personal loans to further the war cause. Immediately -following his congressional service, Morris sat for two more terms in -the Pennsylvania legislature in the period 1778–81. During this time, -Thomas Paine and others attacked him for profiteering in Congress, -which investigated his accounts and vindicated him. Nevertheless, his -reputation slipped. - -[Illustration: In 1794 Robert Morris began building this palatial -townhouse in Philadelphia. After his imprisonment for debt in 1798, the -unfinished house came to be known as “Morris’ Folly.” It stood until -1800.] - -Morris embarked on the most dramatic phase of his career by accepting -the office of Superintendent of Finance (1781–84) under the Articles of -Confederation. Congress, recognizing the perilous state of the Nation’s -finances and its impotence to remedy it, granted him dictatorial -powers and acquiesced to his condition that he be allowed to continue -his private commercial enterprises. He slashed all governmental and -military expenditures, personally purchased Army and Navy supplies, -tightened accounting procedures, prodded the States to fulfill quotas -of money and supplies, and when necessary strained his personal credit -by issuing notes over his own signature or borrowing from friends. - -To finance Washington’s Yorktown campaign in 1781, in addition to -the above techniques Morris obtained a sizable loan from France. He -used part of it, along with some of his own fortune, to organize -the Bank of North America, chartered that December. The first -Government-incorporated bank in the United States, it aided war -financing. - -Although Morris was reelected to the Pennsylvania legislature in -1785–86, his private commercial ventures consumed most of his time. -In the latter year, he attended the Annapolis Convention, and the -following year the Constitutional Convention, where he sympathized with -the Federalists. In 1789, declining Washington’s offer of appointment -as the first Secretary of the Treasury, he took instead a senatorial -seat in Congress (1789–95). - -During the later years of his public life, Morris speculated wildly, -often on overextended credit, in lands in the West and at the site -of Washington, D.C. To compound his difficulties, in 1794 he began -constructing on Philadelphia’s Chestnut Street a palatial townhouse -designed by Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant. Not long thereafter, Morris -attempted to escape creditors by retreating to The Hills, the country -estate along the Schuylkill River on the edge of Philadelphia that he -had acquired in 1770. - -Arrested at the behest of creditors in 1798 and forced to abandon -completion of the townhouse, henceforth known in its unfinished state -as “Morris’ Folly,” Morris was thrown into the Philadelphia debtors’ -prison, where he was well treated. Nevertheless, by the time he was -released in 1801, under a Federal bankruptcy law, his property and -fortune had vanished, his health deteriorated, and his spirit been -broken. He lingered on amid poverty and obscurity, living in a simple -Philadelphia home on an annuity Gouverneur Morris had obtained for his -wife. He died in 1806 in his 72d year. He was buried in the yard of -Christ Church. - - - - -John Morton - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - John Morton, one of the nine signers from Pennsylvania, - is better known there than in the Nation, but he rendered - meritorious service to both. He cast the decisive ballot - that swung his State over to an affirmative vote for - independence in the Continental Congress. He was the first - signer to die. - - -Morton was born of Finnish-Swedish descent in 1725, shortly after the -death of his father, on a farm in Ridley Township, Chester (present -Delaware) County. John Sketchley, an Englishman who subsequently -married the widowed mother of the youth, reared and educated him. Their -relationship was apparently close, for Morton later named his eldest -son Sketchley. The stepfather, learned in mathematics, taught the boy -the three R’s as well as surveying. He practiced that profession on and -off all his life, as well as farming, politics, and jurisprudence. He -married in his early 20’s, in 1748 or 1749, and fathered five daughters -and four sons. - -At the age of 30, Morton entered politics, which from then on absorbed -most of his energies. From 1756 until a few months before he died in -1777, he served 18 terms in the colonial/State legislature (1756–66 -and 1769–76), which he presided over during the last year and a half. -In 1774 he won appointment as an associate justice of the Pennsylvania -Supreme Court. - -Meantime, despite his rise in State circles, Morton had always -maintained strong ties with his own county. He resided there all his -life, remained active in civic and church affairs, and stayed close -to the people. Between terms of office as county justice of the peace -(1757–64 and 1770–74), he worked in a tour as sheriff (1766–69). - -Morton’s service to the Nation began in 1765, while he was a member of -the Pennsylvania legislature. He and two colleagues represented the -colony at the Stamp Act Congress in New York. His most dramatic act as -Delegate to the Continental Congress (1774–77), in which he numbered -among the moderates, was his sudden and crucial switch on July 1, 1776, -to the side of his friend Benjamin Franklin and James Wilson in the -vote for national independence. On the final vote the next day, these -three ballots outweighed those of Thomas Willing and Charles Humphreys. -Robert Morris and John Dickinson being purposely absent, Pennsylvania -registered a “yea.” Less glamorously, Morton was a member of many -committees, in 1777 chairing the committee of the whole on the adoption -of the Articles of Confederation, finally ratified after his death. - -Within a year of signing the Declaration, in the spring of 1777, Morton -fell ill and died on his farm at the age of 51. A few months earlier, -he had bequeathed his land and property, including a few slaves, to -his wife and five daughters and three surviving sons. But he could not -will them security; shortly after his demise they had to flee from -their home in the face of an imminent British attack. Morton’s grave is -located in Old St. Paul’s Cemetery in Chester, Pa. - - - - -Thomas Nelson, Jr. - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - Thomas Nelson, Jr., a rich planter-merchant who at one - time owned more than 400 slaves, was one of the most - active of the Virginia patriots. Mainly because of health - problems, however, his career in Congress was brief and - undistinguished, though he made great financial sacrifices - during the war and won fame as a militia commander and - State politician. - - -The eldest of five sons, Nelson was born at Yorktown, Va., in 1738. -At the age of 14, he sailed to England to supplement his initial -tutorial education. In 1761, after graduating from Hackney School and -Cambridge University, he returned to Virginia to help his father manage -his plantation and mercantile business. The next year, young Nelson -married; he and his wife were to have 11 children. - -In 1764 Nelson became a justice of the peace for York County and -entered the House of Burgesses. He served in the house until May 1774, -when Royal Governor Lord Dunmore, provoked at its protests over the -Boston Port Act, dissolved it. That year and the next, Nelson attended -three of the Virginia provincial assemblies, where he worked closely -with Patrick Henry. The last assembly elected Nelson to the Continental -Congress, at which time he resigned his colonelcy in the Virginia -militia. - -In Congress, Nelson was outspoken in his desire to sever the bonds -with England. He journeyed to Virginia in the spring of 1776. At a -convention held in Williamsburg in May, he introduced and won approval -for a resolution recommending national independence, drafted by -Edmund Pendleton. Nelson carried it to Philadelphia and presented it -to Richard Henry Lee, who redrafted and condensed it into his June -7 resolution. Not long afterward, Nelson’s health began to decline. -Subsequently, he divided his time between Philadelphia and Virginia, -and in the spring of 1777 resigned from Congress. - -Back in Virginia, Nelson was awarded the rank of brigadier general in -the militia and was elected to the lower house of the legislature. In -the spring of 1778 Congress appealed to men of means in the Colonies -to form troops of light cavalry. Nelson, partially at his own expense, -raised, outfitted, and trained such a unit. In July he marched it -northward to Philadelphia. The next month, Congress decided it was not -needed and it returned home. - -Nelson served in Congress again for a short time in 1779, but poor -health forced him to retire once more. Nevertheless, the next year he -obtained munitions and supplies for the militia, commanded troops, -attended the legislature, and raised money to help subsidize the -war. He was particularly effective in soliciting funds from wealthy -plantation owners, to whom he pledged to repay the loans personally if -the State should fail to do so. - -When the British invaded Virginia in 1780–81, civilian control -seriously hampered Nelson’s effectiveness as a militia commander. -Consequently, in the latter year the legislature elected him as -Governor and granted him powers approaching those of a military -dictator. Although still bothered by bad health, he kept the government -intact and strengthened defenses. In September-October 1781, while -taking part in the Yorktown siege, according to family tradition he -ordered troops to shell his own mansion when he learned it was a -British headquarters. Soon after the victory at Yorktown, overwhelmed -by the burdens of office and still in poor physical condition, he -resigned the governorship. - -[Illustration: This painting commemorates one of the highlights of -the siege of Yorktown (1781). Thomas Nelson, Jr., commander in chief -of Virginia troops, took an active part.] - -That same year, Nelson partially retired to Offley Hoo, a modest estate -in Hanover County that his father had willed to him on his death in -1772. In financial distress from his wartime sacrifices, the younger -Nelson lacked money to renovate his Yorktown home, where he had lived -since 1767. Except for occasional tours in the legislature and visits -to Yorktown, he devoted the rest of his life to his business affairs. -He died at Offley Hoo in 1789 at the age of 50. His grave is at -Yorktown in the yard of Grace Episcopal Church. - - - - -William Paca - -MARYLAND - -[Illustration] - - William Paca was one of the earliest Revolutionaries in a - conservative colony. A wealthy planter and eminent lawyer - and judge, he held numerous State offices, including the - governorship, but his role in national affairs was limited. - - -The second son of a prominent planter-landowner, Paca was born, -probably of Italian descent, in 1740 at Chilbury Hall, near Abingdon in -Harford County, Md. He received his early education from private tutors -and at the age of 15 matriculated at the College of Philadelphia (later -part of the University of Pennsylvania). Upon graduating, he studied -with an attorney in Annapolis and read law in London. In 1763, the year -before initiating his practice in the former city, he married a local -girl from a wealthy family and began building a home, completed 2 years -later. When in the country, he resided at Wye Plantation, in Queen -Annes County, which he had purchased about 1760. - -In 1768 Paca won a seat in the colonial legislature, where he soon -alined himself with Samuel Chase and other Whigs in protesting the -powers of the Proprietary Governor. In the early 1770’s Paca joined -other Maryland patriots in urging governmental regulation of fees -paid to civil officers and in opposing the poll tax, used to pay the -salaries of Anglican clergy, representing the established church. In -1773 he became a member of the Maryland committee of correspondence. -The following year, along with Samuel Chase and Thomas Johnson, he -acted as counsel for fellow legislator Joseph H. Harrison, who had -been jailed for refusing to pay the poll tax. All three men also -attended the first provincial convention that same year and received -appointments to the First Continental Congress. About this time, Paca’s -wife died. - -Although he sat in Congress until 1779, Paca’s most noteworthy efforts -were on the State level. In the spring and early summer of 1776, the -provincial convention, a relatively conservative body, refused to -authorize its congressional Delegates to vote for independence. Paca, -aiding Chase and Carroll, drummed up enough support on the home front -to persuade the convention to change its mind and bring Maryland into -the affirmative column in the congressional voting on July 1–2, 1776. A -few months later, he helped draft a State constitution. The next year, -he began a 2-year term in the Maryland senate and saw militia duty. In -addition, he sat on the council of safety and spent large amounts of -his own money outfitting troops. - -Between the years 1778 and 1782, Paca distinguished himself first as -chief justice of the State Superior Court and then as chief judge of -the circuit court of appeals in admiralty and prize cases. During that -time, in 1780, a few months after the demise of his second wife, whom -he had married 3 years earlier, he sold his home in Annapolis and moved -permanently to Wye Plantation. In 1782 he raised funds for Washington -College, founded that same year in Chestertown as the first institution -of higher learning in Maryland, and served on its board of visitors. As -Governor of Maryland (1782–85), he concerned himself with the welfare -of war veterans and other postwar problems. - -A delegate to the State convention to ratify the Federal Constitution -in 1788, Paca urged its adoption if amended and helped draw up a list -of proposed amendments. In 1789 President Washington appointed him as -Federal district judge. He held this position until 1799, the year -of his death at the age of 58, at Wye Hall, on Wye Island across the -narrows from his own home, Wye Plantation. The former was the home of -his son John, probably the only one of his five children from his two -or possibly three marriages who reached maturity. At first interred at -Wye Hall, Paca’s remains now rest in the family burial ground near Wye -Plantation. - - - - -Robert Treat Paine - -MASSACHUSETTS - -[Illustration] - - A clergyman turned lawyer-jurist, Robert Treat Paine spent - only a short time in Congress but enjoyed considerable - political prestige in Massachusetts. His second son - (1773–1811) and great-grandson (1835–1910), both bearing - exactly the same names as he, gained fame respectively as - poet and businessman-philanthropist. - - -Among the ancestors of Paine, who was born at Boston in 1731, were -many New England religious and political leaders. His father was a -merchant who had once been a clergyman. Young Paine led his class at -Boston Latin School and graduated from Harvard in 1749. He then taught -school for a time before yielding to family tradition and entering the -ministry. - -In 1755, during the French and Indian War, he served as chaplain on -a military expedition to Crown Point, N.Y. To improve his health, he -made a voyage to the Carolinas, England, Spain, and Greenland. About -this time, he decided to forsake the ministry for the law, in which he -had become interested during his theological studies. Admitted to the -Massachusetts bar in 1757, he opened an office in Portland but in 1761 -moved to Taunton. - -Paine, a friend of John Adams and John Hancock, early became involved -in the patriot movement. As a result, he was chosen in 1770 as one of -the prosecuting attorneys in the Boston Massacre trial and thus gained -recognition throughout the Colonies. That same year, he married, siring -eight children. Between 1773 and 1778, except in 1776, he served in the -Massachusetts legislature, in 1777 being speaker of the lower house. -He was one of the first five Delegates sent by Massachusetts to the -Continental Congress (1774–76), where he specialized in military and -Indian affairs. He gained the nickname “Objection Maker” because he -argued against so many proposals. - -Although reelected to Congress in 1777, Paine chose to stay in -Massachusetts. In addition to his legislative speakership, he was -elected as the first attorney general, a position he held until 1790. -Between 1778 and 1780 he played a prominent role in drafting the -Massachusetts constitution. From 1790 until 1804, appointed by his old -friend Hancock, he sat as an associate justice of the Superior Court. - -Meantime, in 1780, Paine had moved from Taunton to Boston and become -active in civic affairs. Indicative of his lifelong interest in -science, that same year he was one of the founders of the American -Academy of Arts and Sciences. In religion, he broke away from Calvinism -and embraced Unitarianism. Politically, he alined himself with the -Federalists. In 1804 increasing deafness brought about his retirement -from the Superior Court, and he died a decade later at the age of 83 in -Boston. He was buried in the Old Granary Burying Ground. - - - - -John Penn - -NORTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - Like fellow signers Joseph Hewes and William Hooper, John - Penn adopted North Carolina as his home. Except for a - 5-year stint in the Continental Congress and a brief career - in State service, he passed the years peacefully as a - country lawyer far from the clamor of the public forum. - - -Penn was born in 1740 or 1741 in Caroline County, Va. His father was a -well-to-do farmer, and his mother the daughter of a prominent county -judge. Despite the family’s social position, Penn received only a few -years of formal schooling. At the age of 18, when his father died, he -inherited a sizable estate. But he was dissatisfied with the prospects -it offered, and decided to continue his education. Encouraged by a -relative, Edmund Pendleton, a well-known lawyer who made available his -personal library, Penn studied law on his own and within 3 years gained -admittance to the bar. Soon thereafter he married; he and his wife -reared three children. - -In 1774, at the end of more than a decade of successful law practice in -Virginia, Penn journeyed to Granville County, N.C., and made his home -near Stovall. The next year, he was elected to the provincial assembly -and only a few weeks later to the Continental Congress (1775–80). -In 1777, upon the retirement of Hewes and Hooper, he inherited the -leadership of his State’s delegation. He was one of the 16 signers of -the Declaration who also signed the Articles of Confederation. - -Unobtrusive and unassuming but remarkably efficient, likeable, and -discreet, Penn quickly won the respect of his congressional colleagues. -He rarely disputed with others, but when he did his good humor and -peaceful manner saved the day. On one occasion, he feuded with -President of Congress Henry Laurens of South Carolina over a personal -matter. He accepted Laurens’ challenge to a duel, but en route to the -proposed site convinced Laurens that they should bury their differences -and drop the matter. - -Late in 1780 the Governor of North Carolina recalled Penn from Congress -to sit on the emergency Board of War, created by the legislature in -September to share with the Governor responsibility for military -affairs. The three-man board, of which Penn became the leading -member, in effect soon assumed control of all military matters. The -Governor and military officials, resenting the infringement upon their -prerogatives and their loss of authority, persuaded the legislature to -abolish the board in January 1781. - -His health declining, the following July Penn declined an appointment -to the Governor’s Council. With the exception of a short tour in 1784 -as State tax receiver for the Confederation, he apparently devoted his -last years to his law practice. In 1788, only in his late forties, -he died at his home near Stovall. Originally buried in the family -graveyard adjacent to his home, his remains now rest in Guilford -Courthouse National Military Park near Greensboro. - - - - -George Read - -DELAWARE - -[Illustration] - - Conservative lawyer George Read was the only signer who - voted against independence in the final congressional vote - on July 2, 1776. In addition to attaining many prominent - State offices, he attended the Constitutional Convention, - where he defended the rights of the smaller States, and - subsequently served as a Senator in the First Congress. - - -Read’s mother was the daughter of a Welsh planter, and his Dublin-born -father a landholder of means. Soon after George’s birth in 1733 near -North East in Cecil County, Md., his family moved to New Castle, Del., -where the youth grew up. He attended school at Chester, Pa., and Rev. -Francis Alison’s academy at New London, Pa., and about the age of 15 -began reading law with a Philadelphia lawyer. In 1753 he was admitted -to the bar and began to practice. The next year, he journeyed back to -New Castle, hung out his shingle, and before long enlisted a clientele -that extended into Maryland. In 1763 he wed the widowed sister of -future fellow signer George Ross, and she bore him four sons and a -daughter. - -While crown attorney general (1763–74) for the Three Lower Counties -(present Delaware), Read protested against the Stamp Act. In 1765 he -began a career in the colonial legislature that extended for more than -a decade. A moderate Whig, he supported nonimportation measures and -dignified protests. His attendance in Congress (1774–77) was irregular. -Like his friend John Dickinson, he was willing to protect colonial -rights but was wary of extremism. He balloted against independence on -July 2, 1776, apparently either bowing to the strong Tory sentiment in -Delaware or believing reconciliation with Britain was still possible. - -That same year, Read gave priority to State responsibilities. He -presided over the Delaware constitutional convention, in which he -chaired the drafting committee, and began a term as speaker of the -legislative council, which in effect made him vice president of the -State. When the British captured Wilmington the next fall, they -captured the president, a resident of the city. At first, because -Read was away in Congress, Thomas McKean, speaker of the lower house, -took over as acting president. But in November, after almost being -captured himself while he and his family were en route to Dover from -Philadelphia, newly captured by the British, Read assumed the office -and held it until the spring of 1778. - -During 1779, in poor health, Read resigned from the legislative -council, refused reelection to Congress, and began a period of -inactivity. In the years 1782–88, he again sat on the council, and -concurrently held the position of judge of the court of appeals in -admiralty cases. Meantime, in 1784, he had served on a commission -that adjusted New York-Massachusetts land claims. In 1786 he attended -the Annapolis Convention. The next year, he participated in the -Constitutional Convention. He later led the ratification movement in -Delaware, the first State to ratify. - -In the U.S. Senate (1789–93), Read’s attendance was again spasmodic, -but when present he allied with the Federalists. He resigned to accept -the post of chief justice of Delaware. He held this office until his -death at New Castle 5 years later, just 3 days after he celebrated his -65th birthday. His grave is located there in the Immanuel Episcopal -Churchyard. - - - - -Caesar Rodney - -DELAWARE - -[Illustration] - - Self-educated Caesar Rodney climbed to high State and - National offices, but his military-political duties - in Delaware spared him little time for the affairs of - Congress. He is noted mainly for his emergency ride to - Philadelphia that broke his State’s deadlock in the vote - for independence, but he was also one of two bachelor - signers and the only native of the three from Delaware. - - -Rodney was born in 1728 on his father’s 800-acre plantation, Byfield, -near Dover in Kent County. In 1745, as the eldest child, he inherited -the plantation. Despite a lack of formal and legal education, a decade -later he accepted the first of a series of county offices: high -sheriff, register of wills, recorder of deeds, clerk of the orphans’ -court, justice of the peace, militia captain, and cotrustee of the loan -office. - -On the provincial level, for most of the period 1758–76 Rodney -functioned as a justice of the Superior Court for the Three Lower -Counties (present Delaware) and as a legislator in the lower house, -including many tours as speaker. Between 1765 and 1774, he owned and -occupied a townhouse that he used while in Dover. He and Thomas McKean -compiled the colony’s laws, and they both attended the Stamp Act -Congress (1765). Three years later, the two of them and George Read, -all three later to sign the Declaration, drafted a protest to the King -concerning the Townshend Acts. In 1774, after Parliament closed Boston -Harbor, Rodney usurped the prerogative of the Proprietary Governor by -calling a special meeting of the legislature at New Castle, the first -Revolutionary convention in the State. Rodney, McKean, and Read were -sent to the First Continental Congress. - -Although a congressional Member for 2 years, Rodney was often absent -in Delaware, sometimes presiding over the legislature and sometimes -meeting military responsibilities. In May 1775 he was elected a colonel -in the militia, and in September moved up to brigadier general. Late -the next June, while the independence resolution was pending in -Congress, he was investigating Loyalist agitations in Sussex County. -On the evening of July 1, after his return to Byfield, he received -McKean’s dispatch pointing out that Read had voted against independence -that day and pleading with Rodney to hurry to Philadelphia to break -the tie. Riding all night through a thunderstorm and stopping only -to change horses, he completed the 80-mile trip just in time to make -possible an affirmative vote for Delaware. - -This brought down the wrath of the Kent County conservatives on -Rodney, who was not reelected to Congress nor to the legislature and -not appointed to the State constitutional convention. Out of office, -that fall and the next year he turned to military affairs, recruiting -troops and taking part in minor actions in Delaware and New Jersey. -In September 1777 acting State president McKean commissioned him as a -major general. - -That spring, the legislature had designated Rodney as an admiralty -judge. In December it reelected him to the Continental Congress. The -next year, it nominated him as State president (1778–81), in which -capacity he stimulated the Delaware war effort. When he left office, -he belatedly sought medical treatment in Philadelphia for a cancerous -growth on his face, which had been bothering him for a decade and which -he had covered with a green silk veil. In 1783, though a dying man, -he entered the State senate and accepted the speakership, but passed -away the next year at the age of 55. Interred originally at Byfield -Plantation, his remains are now buried in the yard of Christ Episcopal -Church in Dover. - - - - -George Ross - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - A few of the signers, such as George Ross, were latecomers - to the Revolutionary cause. Like many others, he exerted - more influence in State than national affairs. - - -The oldest son of an Anglican clergyman who had immigrated from -Scotland, Ross was born in 1730 at New Castle, Del. After a preliminary -classical education, he read law with his stepbrother John at -Philadelphia and in 1750 entered the bar. Settling the next year at -Lancaster, Pa., where he married and fathered two sons and a daughter, -he built up a successful law practice and served as crown prosecutor -for Cumberland County (1751–63). A member of the colonial legislature -from 1768 until 1775, he sometimes joined in its disputes with the -Proprietary Governor and demonstrated an interest in Indian affairs. - -Meantime, in 1774, despite his Loyalist leanings, a provincial -convention to which Ross had been elected sent him to the Continental -Congress. The next year, by which time he had for some reason -decided to affiliate with the Revolutionaries, he also served on the -Pennsylvania council of safety and held a militia colonelcy. In 1776 he -assisted in negotiating a peace treaty with the Indians in northwestern -Pennsylvania, and acted as vice president of the State constitutional -convention, for which he helped draft a declaration of rights. Not a -Member of Congress during the voting for independence on July 1–2, -1776, he received his appointment soon enough to sign the Declaration -on August 2. He won a reputation among his colleagues for his -eloquence, wit, and conviviality, but made no noteworthy contributions -to congressional proceedings. Illness brought about his resignation in -January 1777. - -In 1778, while Ross was acting as admiralty judge in Pennsylvania, -a congressional court of appeals overruled his decision in a case -involving a dispute between a citizen of Connecticut and the State -of Pennsylvania. Ross, refusing to acknowledge the authority of the -higher court to counter State decisions, initiated a dispute between -Pennsylvania and the Central Government that represented an early -manifestation of the States rights controversy and did not subside -until 1809. But Ross did not live to see the outcome, for he died in -Philadelphia in 1779 at the age of 49. He was buried in Christ Church -Burial Ground. - - - - -Benjamin Rush - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - Doctor, medical educator, chemist, humanitarian, - politician, author, reformer-moralist, soldier, temperance - advocate, abolitionist—Benjamin Rush was all of these. One - of the younger signers, only 30 years of age at the time, - he was already a physician of note. - - -Rush, the fourth of seven children, was born in 1745 at Byberry (“The -Homestead”), near Philadelphia. At the age of 5, his farmer-gunsmith -father died. The youth obtained a sound education at West Nottingham -Academy, in Rising Sun, Md., operated by an uncle, and graduated from -the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). Returning to -Philadelphia in 1760, he apparently first considered studying law -but chose medicine. In 1766, at the end of a 5-year apprenticeship -to a local physician, he sailed to Scotland, where 2 years later the -University of Edinburgh awarded him a medical degree. - -While there, assisted by a fellow college alumnus and one-day fellow -signer, Richard Stockton, Rush helped overcome the objections of John -Witherspoon’s wife and persuaded Witherspoon to accept the presidency -of the College of New Jersey. In 1769, after further training in -London, where Rush made the acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin, and a -short visit to Paris, he came back to Philadelphia and set up practice. -Before the year was out, he obtained the first professorship of -chemistry in the country at the College of Philadelphia, and wrote the -first American textbook on the subject. - -While prospering as a physician, Rush cultivated the friendship of such -men as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine. In fact, Rush -suggested to the latter that he write his famous tract _Common Sense_ -(1776), supplied the title, and aided in its publication. He also -contributed political articles to the press. That same year, he married -Stockton’s eldest daughter, Julia. - -Rush’s tour in the Continental Congress was brief. In June 1776 he -attended a Pennsylvania conference of patriots and helped draft a -declaration of the colony’s support for national independence. In -recognition of these services, the following month the provincial -convention sent him to Congress—after the adoption of the Declaration. -In December, Philadelphia threatened by British invasion, the -Government fled to Baltimore. Rush apparently, however, did not spend -much time there. That same month, he relocated his wife at the home of -a relative in Cecil County, Md., and took part in General Washington’s -New Jersey campaign as a surgeon in the Philadelphia militia. - -In April 1777, not reelected to Congress because of his opposition to -the Pennsylvania constitution of the previous year, Rush accepted the -position of surgeon general in the Middle Department of the Continental -Army. Abhorring the deplorable conditions prevailing in the medical -service, in a complaint to Washington he accused his superior, Dr. -William Shippen, of maladministration. Washington referred the matter -to Congress, which vindicated Shippen. In January 1778 Rush angrily -resigned. His subsequent criticisms of Washington and his participation -in the Conway Cabal, a movement to replace General Washington, ended -his military and, for a time, his political career. He resumed his -medical practice in Philadelphia. - -[Illustration: Benjamin Rush long served on the staff of Philadelphia’s -Pennsylvania Hospital, shown here in 1799. Founded in 1751 and still in -use today, it is the oldest hospital in the United States.] - -In 1787 Rush wrote tracts in the newspapers endorsing the U.S. -Constitution. In the Commonwealth ratifying convention that same year, -he aided James Wilson in the struggle for its adoption. In 1789–90 Rush -attended the Pennsylvania constitutional convention. From 1797 until -1813 he served as Treasurer of the U.S. Mint. - -Meantime Rush, through his writings and lectures, had become probably -the best known physician and medical teacher in the land, and he -fostered Philadelphia’s ascendancy as the early medical center of -the Nation. His students, who idolized him, came from as far away -as Europe to attend his classes at the College of Philadelphia, and -its successors the University of the State of Pennsylvania and the -University of Pennsylvania (1791). He also served on the staff of the -Pennsylvania Hospital from 1783 until the end of his life, helped found -the Philadelphia College of Physicians (1787), and held office as first -president of the Philadelphia Medical Society. In 1786 he founded the -Philadelphia Dispensary, the first free medical clinic in the country. -His work among the insane at the Pennsylvania Hospital resulted in -_Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind_ -(1812), which to some degree foreshadowed modern psychiatric techniques. - -Rush won much less favor from his professional peers than he did from -his students. His critics particularly attacked his theory of bleeding -and purging for the treatment of disease. Although he was one of the -few doctors who remained in Philadelphia during the devastating yellow -fever epidemics of 1793 and 1798, his opponents criticized his methods -of treatment. - -Aroused by the idealism of the Revolution as well as the plight -of the poor and sick he encountered in his medical practice, Rush -helped pioneer various humanitarian and social movements that were to -restructure U.S. life in the 19th century. These included abolition of -slavery and educational and prison reform. Rush also condemned public -and capital punishment and advocated temperance. Many of his reform -articles appeared in Essays: _Literary, Moral, and Philosophical_ -(1798). - -Finally, Rush helped organize and sat as a trustee of Dickinson College -(1783); aided in founding the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the -Abolition of Slavery (1787) and later served as its president; enjoyed -membership in the American Philosophical Society; and was a cofounder -and vice president of the Philadelphia Bible Society, which advocated -the use of scripture in the public schools. - -A typhus epidemic claimed Rush’s life at the age of 67 in 1813. -Surviving him were six sons and three daughters of the 13 children -he had fathered. His grave is in Christ Church Burial Ground at -Philadelphia. - - - - -Edward Rutledge - -SOUTH CAROLINA - -[Illustration] - - Edward Rutledge, at the age of 26, was the youngest of the - signers. Despite his youth, he had already made a name - for himself in South Carolina as a lawyer-politician and - had assumed leadership of his congressional delegation. - A moderate, he at first fought against the independence - resolution but finally submitted to the majority and voted - for it. His later State career, which included combat - action in the militia, culminated in the governorship. - - -The fifth son and youngest child of an Irish immigrant and physician, -Rutledge was born in 1749 at or near Charleston, S.C. Like Middleton, -Lynch, and Heyward, the other South Carolina signers, as a young man he -studied law in England. In 1773, during his first year of practice on -his return to Charleston, he won Whig acclaim by obtaining the release -of newspaper publisher Thomas Powell, who had been imprisoned by the -Crown for printing an article critical of the Loyalist upper house -of the colonial legislature. The next year, the grateful Whigs named -Rutledge as one of five Delegates to the First Continental Congress; -and he married Henrietta Middleton, his colleague’s sister. The -Rutledges were to have three children. - -Rutledge spent his first congressional term in the shadow of the more -experienced South Carolina Delegates, among them his older brother, -John, and his father-in-law, Henry Middleton. During 1775–76, however, -both in Congress and in two South Carolina provincial assemblies, his -increasing self-confidence and maturation of judgment brought him the -esteem of his associates. In the latter year, two of the senior South -Carolina Delegates, Christopher Gadsden and Henry Middleton, retired -from Congress and Thomas Lynch, Sr., suffered an incapacitating stroke. -Rutledge, his brother absent on State business, found himself the -delegation leader. - -On June 7, 1776, when Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed national -independence, Rutledge led the moderates in securing a delay in -the voting. He knew that independence was inevitable. In March his -colony, preceded only by New Hampshire, had adopted a constitution. -Moreover, that same month the provincial assembly had empowered its -Delegates to vote for independence if they so desired. Yet Rutledge -firmly believed that the Colonies should first confederate and nurture -foreign alliances to strengthen themselves for the perilous step they -were about to take. When the vote on independence came up on July -1, he refused to yield and South Carolina balloted negatively. But -nine of the Colonies voted affirmatively. Rutledge, realizing that -the resolution would probably carry anyway, proposed that the vote -be recast the following day. He persuaded the other South Carolina -Delegates to submit to the will of the majority for the sake of -unanimity, and South Carolina reversed its position. - -Rutledge’s last important assignment occurred in September, when he -accompanied John Adams and Benjamin Franklin on a vain peace mission -to Staten Island to negotiate with British Admiral Lord Richard Howe, -who in union with his brother, Gen. William Howe, was belatedly and -idealistically trying to resolve the differences between the Colonies -and the mother country. Two months later, Rutledge departed from -Congress in order to resume his law practice in Charleston. - -In 1778 Rutledge accepted a seat in the State legislature and the next -year won reelection to Congress, though military duties prevented his -attendance. As a militia captain, in February 1779 he took part in Gen. -William Moultrie’s defeat of the British at Port Royal Island, S.C. But -in May, 1780, during the siege of Charleston, the redcoats captured -Rutledge, as well as Heyward and Middleton, and imprisoned them at St. -Augustine, Fla., until July 1781. - -From 1782 until 1798 Rutledge sat in the State legislature, which -on three occasions designated him as a presidential elector. During -this period, his mistrust of unbridled republicanism reinforced his -conservatism and brought him into the Federalist Party. In private -life he flourished, his wealth increasing through his law practice -and investments in plantations. In 1792 his first wife died and he -remarried. To crown his achievements, 6 years later the people of -South Carolina chose him as Governor. But, his health poor, he died at -Charleston early in 1800 at the age of 50, nearly a year before the end -of his term. The yard of St. Philip’s Episcopal Church is the site of -his grave. - - - - -Roger Sherman - -CONNECTICUT - -[Illustration] - - By dint of self-education, hard work, and business acumen, - Roger Sherman soared above his humble origins to prominence - in local, State, and National political affairs. He was - a member of the committee that drafted the Declaration - of Independence. He and Robert Morris were the only men - to sign the three bulwark documents of the Republic: the - Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and - Constitution. Twice married, Sherman fathered 15 children. - - -In 1723, when Sherman was 2 years of age, his family relocated from his -Newton, Mass., birthplace to Dorchester (present Stoughton). As a boy, -he was spurred by a desire to learn, and read widely in his spare time -to supplement his minimal education at a common school. But he spent -most of his waking hours helping his father with farming chores and -learning the cobbler’s trade from him. In 1743, or 2 years after his -father’s death, Sherman joined an elder brother who had settled at New -Milford, Conn. - -Purchasing a store, becoming county surveyor, and winning a variety -of town offices, Sherman prospered and assumed leadership in the -community. Without benefit of a legal education, he was admitted to the -bar in 1754 and embarked upon a distinguished judicial and political -career. In the period 1755–61, except for a brief interval, he served -as a representative in the colonial legislature and held the offices -of justice of the peace and county judge. Somehow he also eked out -time to publish an essay on monetary theory and a series of almanacs -incorporating his own astronomical observations and verse. - -In 1761, abandoning his law practice, Sherman moved to New Haven, Conn. -There he managed a store that catered to Yale students and another one -in nearby Wallingford. He also became a friend and benefactor of Yale -College, functioning for many years as its treasurer. - -[Illustration: Residence of Roger Sherman, in New Haven, Conn., from -1768 until his death in 1793.] - -Meanwhile, Sherman’s political career had blossomed. He rose from -justice of the peace and county judge to an associate judge of the -Connecticut Superior Court and to representative in both houses of the -colonial assembly. Although opposed to extremism, he early joined the -fight against Britain. He supported nonimportation measures and headed -the New Haven committee of correspondence. - -Sherman was a longtime and influential Member of the Continental -Congress (1774–81 and 1783–84). He won membership on the committees -that drafted the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of -Confederation, as well as those concerned with Indian affairs, -national finance, and military matters. To solve economic problems, -at both the National and State levels, he advocated high taxes rather -than excessive borrowing or the issuance of paper currency. While -in Congress, Sherman remained active in State and local politics, -continuing to hold the office of judge of the Connecticut Superior -Court, as well as membership on the council of safety. In 1783 he -helped codify Connecticut’s statutory laws. The next year, he was -elected mayor of New Haven (1784–86). - -Sherman could not resist the lure of national service. In 1787 he -represented his State at the Constitutional Convention, in which he -played a major role. He conceived and introduced the Connecticut, -or so-called Great, Compromise, which broke a deadlock between -the large and small States by providing for a dual legislative -system—representation by proportion of population in the lower house -and equal representation in the upper house. He was also instrumental -in Connecticut’s ratification of the Constitution. - -Sherman capped his career by serving as U.S. Representative (1789–91) -and Senator (1791–93), espousing the Federalist cause. He died at -New Haven in 1793 at the age of 72 and is buried in the Grove Street -Cemetery. - - - - -James Smith - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - James Smith, a lawyer who had emigrated from Ireland to - the Colonies, represented the Pennsylvania back-country in - Revolutionary conventions and the Continental Congress. He - also helped draft the Pennsylvania constitution. - - -Smith, the second son in a large family, was born in northern Ireland -about 1719. When he was around 10 years old, his father emigrated to -America and settled on acreage west of the Susquehanna River in York -County, Pa. James studied surveying and classical languages at Rev. -Francis Alison’s academy in New London, Pa., and then read law in the -office of his elder brother at Lancaster. He was admitted to the bar -in 1745 and moved westward to the Shippensburg vicinity in Cumberland -County. A lack of clients and surveying work caused him about 1750 to -relocate eastward to York, where he married a decade later. Although he -was the only lawyer in town until 1769, he experienced difficulty in -recruiting clients. Probably for this reason, during the years 1771–78 -he undertook iron manufacturing, but the venture failed and he lost -£5,000. - -Smith early emerged as a local Whig leader. In 1774, at a provincial -convention in Philadelphia, he supported nonimportation measures -and advocated an intercolonial congress. That same year, at York -he raised a militia company, in which he served as captain and -later honorary colonel. At two provincial meetings in 1775–76, he -championed the interests of the western counties and helped formulate -resolutions calling for independence, the strengthening of defenses, -and establishment of a new provincial government. During the latter -year, he sat on the drafting committee in the State constitutional -convention. Elected to Congress (1776–78) on July 20, 1776, after the -vote on independence had been taken, he arrived in Philadelphia in time -to sign the Declaration. Among his colleagues he gained a reputation as -a wit, conversationalist, and eccentric. - -During the period 1779–82 Smith held various State offices: one-term -legislator, judge of the Pennsylvania high court of errors and appeals, -brigadier general in the militia, and State counselor during the -Wyoming Valley land dispute between Pennsylvania and Connecticut. In -1785 he turned down reelection to Congress because of his age. His -major activity prior to his retirement in 1801 was the practice of law. -Smith died at about the age of 87 in 1806 at York, survived by two -of his five children. His grave is in the First Presbyterian Church -Cemetery. - - - - -Richard Stockton - -NEW JERSEY - -[Illustration] - - Circumstances of the times draw some men into public life - who otherwise might avoid its burdens—and sorrows. One of - these was Richard Stockton, whose wartime detention by the - British contributed to his untimely death. - - -Stockton, son of a wealthy landowner and judge, was born in 1730 at -Morven, the family estate and his lifelong home, at Princeton, N.J. -After a preparatory education at West Nottingham Academy, in Rising -Sun, Md., he graduated in 1748 from the College of New Jersey (later -Princeton University), then in Newark but relocated 8 years hence at -Princeton. In 1754 he completed an apprenticeship with a Newark lawyer -and joined the bar. The next year, he wed poetess Annis Boudinot, by -whom he had two sons and four daughters. By the mid-1760’s he was -recognized as one of the ablest lawyers in the Middle Colonies. - -Like his father a patron of the College of New Jersey, in 1766 Stockton -sailed on its behalf to Scotland to recruit Rev. John Witherspoon -for the presidency. Aiding in this endeavor, complicated by the -opposition of Witherspoon’s wife, was Benjamin Rush, a fellow alumnus -then enrolled at the University of Edinburgh. In 1768, the year after -Stockton’s departure, Witherspoon finally accepted. - -Stockton resumed his law practice, spending his spare hours at Morven -breeding choice cattle and horses, collecting art objects, and -expanding his library. Yet, though he had some time before expressed -disinterest in public life, in 1768 he began a 6-year term on the -executive council of New Jersey and then sat on the provincial Supreme -Court (1774–76). - -Stockton became associated with the Revolutionary movement during -its initial stages. In 1764 he advocated American representation in -Parliament, but during the Stamp Act crisis the next year questioned -its right to control the Colonies at all. By 1774, though dreading -the possibility of war, he was espousing colonial self-rule under the -Crown. Elected to Congress 2 years later, he voted for independence and -signed the Declaration. That same year, he met defeat in a bid for the -New Jersey governorship, but rejected the chance to become first chief -justice of the State Supreme Court to remain in Congress. - -Late in 1776 fate turned against Stockton. In November, while -inspecting the northern Continental Army in upper New York State -with fellow Congressman George Clymer, Stockton hurried home when he -learned of the British invasion of New Jersey and removed his family -to a friend’s home in Monmouth County. While he was there, Loyalists -informed the British, who captured and imprisoned him under harsh -conditions at Perth Amboy, N.J., and later in New York. A formal -remonstrance from Congress and other efforts to obtain his exchange -resulted in his release, in poor physical condition, sometime in -1777. To add to his woes, he found that the British had pillaged and -partially burned Morven. Still an invalid, he died at Princeton in 1781 -at the age of 50. He is buried at the Stony Brook Quaker Meeting House -Cemetery. - - - - -Thomas Stone - -MARYLAND - -[Illustration] - - By the time the Continental Congress voted for independence - from Great Britain on July 2, 1776, only a handful of - conservatives remained in the body. Included in this - group were Thomas Stone of Maryland, Carter Braxton of - Virginia, George Read of Delaware, and Edward Rutledge of - South Carolina—erstwhile opponents of independence who, - except for Read, submitted to the will of the majority and - balloted for it. Stone, a rich planter-lawyer of retiring - disposition, preferred to stay in the background during his - long but limited political career. - - -Stone was born in 1743 at Poynton Manor, his father’s plantation -near the village of Welcome in Charles County, Md. He enjoyed all -the advantages that accrued to the eldest son. Following tutorial -instruction in the classics as a youth, he apprenticed himself to an -Annapolis lawyer and in 1764 joined the bar. For the first 2 years he -practiced at Frederick, Md., and then settled in his home county. He -married 2 years later. Apparently with part of his wife’s dowry, he -purchased land a few miles to the northeast of his birthplace. There, -near Port Tobacco, in 1771 he built Habre-de-Venture, his home and -principal residence for the rest of his life. - -Stone entered politics in 1773 as a member of the Charles County -committee of correspondence. The next year, on behalf of the -Proprietary Governor, he helped prosecute Joseph H. Harrison, a -Maryland legislator who had refused to pay the poll tax for the support -of the Anglican clergy. This action, despite its legal ethicality, -did not endear Stone to the patriots. His opponents, counsel for -the defense, consisted of Thomas Johnson, Samuel Chase, and William -Paca—all three of whom later became his congressional colleagues. - -That same year, 1774, Stone won appointment to the provincial -convention, which the following year sent him to Congress. A far less -enthusiastic Revolutionary than most Congressmen, he heartily favored -reconciliation almost up to the time of the vote on independence and -was one of the few Delegates who favored peace negotiations with -Britisher Lord Richard Howe in September 1776, some 2 months after the -adoption of the Declaration. A poor speaker, Stone rarely participated -in debates but sat on the committee that drafted the Articles of -Confederation, though he did not sign the document. He remained in -Congress until 1778. - -Meantime, a couple of years earlier, Stone had begun a tour in the -State senate that was to last for practically the remainder of his -life. In 1784 he also returned to the Continental Congress, where he -served for a few days as acting President but resigned before the year -expired to resume his law practice. His last act of public service -occurred the following year, when he and two others represented -Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference. - -In 1787 Stone’s wife, whose health had been failing for more than -a decade, passed away at the age of 34. The grief-stricken Stone -abandoned his work, declined to attend the Constitutional Convention to -which he had been elected, and decided to visit England. A few months -later, though only in his mid-forties, he died suddenly while awaiting -a vessel at Alexandria, Va. Three of his children survived him. Stone -is buried in the family graveyard adjacent to Habre-de-Venture. - - - - -George Taylor - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - Surmounting the poverty that forced him to come to the - American Colonies from Ireland as an indentured servant - to an ironmaster, George Taylor climbed to the top of the - industry. In the process, merging politics with commerce, - he gained enough distinction in county and State affairs - to win election to the Continental Congress—his only - service on the national level. Even then, he attended only - a few months, just long enough to sign the Declaration. He - contributed more directly to the cause of liberty as an - ironmaster, producing ordnance for the Continental Army. - - -When Taylor was about 20 years of age, he indentured himself and -emigrated from northern Ireland, where he had been born in 1716, -to Pennsylvania. He began as a laborer and then became a clerk at -Warwick Furnace, in Chester County, and within 3 years rose to -bookkeeper-manager of nearby Coventry Forge, another enterprise of his -employer. In 1742, the year after the latter died, Taylor acquired his -business when he married his widow; she bore him a son and daughter. - -In the mid-1750’s Taylor moved northeastward to Bucks County, where -he and a partner leased Durham Furnace, about 2 miles south of the -Northampton County line and 10 miles south of Easton. Apparently after -1763 Taylor lived much of the time at or near Easton and acquired -property there. In 1768 his wife died; he subsequently sired five -children by his housekeeper out of wedlock. The year of his wife’s -death, he built a home about 15 miles west of the city on a 331-acre -tract he had purchased the year before. In 1771 he leased most of the -land out as a farm, and 5 years later sold the house and land. - -Taylor had begun his public life in 1747, when he took a commission -as a captain in the Chester County militia. In 1761 he was appointed -as justice of the peace for Bucks County, but devoted most of his -energies to Northampton County, which he served as justice of the peace -(1764–75) and representative in the colonial legislature (1764–70). In -1774 Taylor, a political moderate, became a member of the Northampton -County committee of correspondence. The next year, he attended a -provincial Revolutionary convention, was elected to the provincial -assembly, served on the council of safety, and became a colonel in the -Bucks and Northampton County militias. - -In July 1776 the Pennsylvania assembly selected Taylor as one of its -new Delegates to the Continental Congress. His only noteworthy action -there was signing the Declaration. The next January, however, he and -fellow signer George Walton of Georgia negotiated a peace treaty with -the Six Indian Nations (Iroquois) at Easton, Pa., but Congress did not -ratify it. In March the voters of Northampton County elected Taylor to -the new Supreme Executive Assembly of Pennsylvania, but illness and -financial difficulties restricted his participation to only 6 weeks, at -the end of which he retired from public life. - -By this time, Taylor’s Durham Furnace was turning out grapeshot, -cannonballs, bar shot, and cannon for the Revolutionary army—for which -Taylor was ill-compensated. In 1778 the State dispossessed him of his -lease on the Durham Furnace, owned by the Philadelphia Loyalist John -Galloway and confiscated by the State. Taylor then moved to Greenwich -Township, N.J., and leased Greenwich Forge, which he operated until his -death at the age of 65 in 1781. The year before, his health failing, -Taylor had returned to Easton and leased a home. Originally buried in -the yard of the German Evangelical Lutheran Church at Easton, his body -was later moved to the Easton Cemetery. - - - - -Matthew Thornton - -NEW HAMPSHIRE - -[Illustration] - - Probably six of the 56 signers belatedly penned their - signatures, eight of them were foreign-born, and four - were physicians. Matthew Thornton belongs in all three - categories. Less exclusively, he ranks among the - substantial number of signers whose national service was - brief or relatively insignificant. - - -Thornton was born in Ireland about 1714. Approximately 4 years later, -his Scotch-Irish parents emigrated with their family to America, -settling first at Wiscasset, in present Maine, and then near Worcester, -Mass. Young Thornton, after attending common schools, undertook the -study of medicine with a local doctor. In 1740 he began what proved -to be a thriving practice in the Scotch-Irish town of Londonderry -(present Derry Village), N.H. Five years later, as a surgeon in the New -Hampshire militia during King George’s War (1740–48), he participated -in the British expedition from New England that captured Louisbourg, -the French fortress in Nova Scotia. - -By 1758 Thornton was representing Londonderry in the colonial -legislature and stayed there until 1775. During the long interim, -about 1760 he married and began a family of five; and throughout -the period he figured prominently in New Hampshire politics and -Revolutionary activities. In 1775–76 he held the offices of president -of the provincial assembly and constitutional convention, chairman -of the council of safety, and member of the upper and lower houses of -the legislature, as well as speaker of the former. Although he did -not enter Congress until November 1776, or 3 months after the formal -signing of the Declaration, he was granted permission to affix his -signature. - -About a year later, Thornton left Congress to devote his time to his -duties as associate justice of the State Superior Court. Despite a lack -of legal education, he had acquired this position in 1776. He held it -until 1782, some 2 years after he retired from his medical practice -in Londonderry and settled on a farm he purchased near Merrimack, -N.H. Later, in 1784–86, he completed a tour in the State senate. He -spent his last years farming and operating a ferry—Lutwyche’s (later -Thornton’s) Ferry—across the Merrimack River. - -Thornton died in 1803 at about the age of 89 while visiting his -daughter in Newburyport, Mass. His grave is in Thornton’s Ferry -Cemetery, near the site of his Merrimack home. - - - - -George Walton - -GEORGIA - -[Illustration] - - Like signers Button Gwinnett and Lyman Hall a nonnative - of Georgia, George Walton fought hard to win independence - for his adopted State and his Nation—both in the political - arena and on the battlefield. He was wounded in the British - siege of Savannah late in 1778 and endured captivity for - almost a year. He evinced the same kind of tenacity in all - his other endeavors and conquered a string of adversities - in his ascent from humble origins to the highest National - and State offices. - - -Born sometime in the 1740’s near Farmville, Va., Walton was orphaned -early and reared by an uncle, who apprenticed him to a carpenter. -Walton supplemented extensive independent study with some formal -schooling. In 1769 he moved to Savannah, Ga., read law under a local -attorney, and 5 years later joined the bar. - -That same year, Walton plunged into politics. Rallying Revolutionaries -at Savannah as did Lyman Hall in St. John’s Parish—the two Whig hotbeds -in a lukewarm colony—Walton helped organize and played a key part in -meetings at Savannah in July and August 1774 and the first provincial -congress the next January. But these meetings, to which only a few -parishes sent representatives, hardly set the dissent in motion. -The divided delegates, aware of their limited constituency, failed -to send Delegates to the Continental Congress, as had all the other -Colonies, and thus alienated St. John’s Parish. Except for creation -of a committee of correspondence, to which Walton was appointed, the -conferees for the most part substituted patriotic talk for action. -During this period, Walton, blending political activism with romance, -took a bride. She later gave birth to two sons. - -By July 1775, when the second provincial congress convened and -designated Walton as secretary, apathy in the Revolutionary ranks had -given way to aggressiveness. The congress dispatched four Delegates to -the Continental Congress to join Hall, already an unofficial “delegate” -from St. John’s Parish. The next year, the third provincial congress -elected Walton, by this time chairman of the council of safety, as a -Delegate (1776–81). In this capacity, he sat on committees dealing with -western lands, national finance, and Indian affairs. His only lapse in -attendance occurred in 1778–79, when the military defense of his own -State took precedence over his congressional obligations. As a colonel -in the Georgia militia, he was wounded and captured during the siege -of Savannah in November-December 1778—the beginning of the British -invasion of the South. He was imprisoned until the following September, -when he was exchanged for a navy captain. - -Right after his release, at Augusta Walton became involved in a -factional dispute between two groups of Revolutionaries. Walton’s -group, irritated because their conservative opponents had taken -advantage of the confusion generated by the British occupation of -Savannah by putting their own “governor” into office without benefit -of a general election, countered by selecting Walton as its “governor” -(November 1779-January 1780). In January the new legally elected -legislature picked a Governor, another anti-conservative. Walton -returned to the Continental Congress in 1780–81, after which he headed -back to Georgia. - -Walton’s subsequent career suffered no diminution. His offices included -those of chief justice (1783–89) and justice (1790–95 and 1799–1804) -of the State Superior Court; delegate to the State constitutional -convention (1788); presidential elector (1789); Governor (1789–90); and -U.S. Senator (1795–96), filling out an unexpired term. Meantime, he -had been elected as a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention -(1787), but did not attend. An advocate of higher education, he was -also a trustee and founder of Richmond Academy, in Augusta, and -Franklin College (later the University of Georgia), in Athens. - -About 1790 while Governor, changing his residence from Savannah to -the capital of Augusta, Walton built “Meadow Garden” cottage on -the northern edge of the city on confiscated Loyalist lands he had -acquired. He lived in the cottage for 5 years, when he moved to College -Hill, a country estate he erected on the western outskirts. He died -there in 1804. Assigned first to the Rosney Cemetery in Augusta, his -remains now rest at the Signers’ Monument in that city. - - - - -William Whipple - -NEW HAMPSHIRE - -[Illustration] - - William Whipple, a sea captain turned merchant, retired - from business to further the Revolution. In addition to - sitting in Congress, he commanded New Hampshire militia in - two major campaigns and held various State offices. - - -Whipple, the eldest of five children, was born in 1730, at Kittery, in -present Maine. He attended local schools and went to sea while still a -boy. In his early twenties he became a shipmaster, and later probably -sometimes engaged in the slave trade. About 1760 he gave up the sea and -founded a mercantile firm at Portsmouth, N.H., with his brother Joseph. -In 1767 he married the daughter of a wealthy merchant-sea captain; -their only child died in infancy. - -By the outbreak of the Revolution, Whipple had become one of the -leading citizens of Portsmouth. In 1775, his fortune well established, -he left business to devote his time to public affairs. That year, -he represented Portsmouth in the provincial assembly at Exeter, -and served on the New Hampshire council of safety. The following -year, he won seats in the upper house of the State legislature and -in the Continental Congress. His congressional tour, interrupted -intermittently by militia duty, lasted until 1779. He concerned himself -mainly with military, marine, and financial matters. A tough-minded, -independent individual, he recommended military aggressiveness in the -war instead of diplomacy and favored severe punishment of Loyalists and -speculators. - -In the fall of 1777 Whipple, a brigadier general in the New Hampshire -militia, led four regiments to upper New York State and helped encircle -and besiege the British army at Saratoga. He was present on October -17 at the surrender of Gen. John Burgoyne; signed the Convention of -Saratoga, ending the New York campaign; and helped escort the British -troops to a winter encampment near Boston to await embarkation for -England. In 1778 he led another contingent of New Hampshire militia -into Rhode Island on a campaign that sought but failed to recapture -Newport from the British. - -During his last years, Whipple held the offices of State legislator -(1780–84), associate justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court -(1782–85), receiver of finances for Congress in New Hampshire -(1782–84), and in 1782 president of a commission that arbitrated the -Wyoming Valley land dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylvania. Ill -the remaining few years of his life, he passed away in 1785 at the age -of 55 at Portsmouth, where he was buried in Union Cemetery. His wife -survived him. - - - - -William Williams - -CONNECTICUT - -[Illustration] - - Merchant William Williams was prominent in Connecticut - politics, but never won national fame except for signing - the Declaration. - - -A Congregational pastor’s son, Williams was born in 1731 at Lebanon, -Conn., his lifelong home. After graduating from Harvard in 1751, he -began studying for the ministry under his father. Four years later, -during the French and Indian War (1754–63), he accompanied a British -expedition to Lake George, in northeastern New York, that won a -victory. Back home, he became a merchant. In 1771 he married a daughter -of Jonathan Trumbull, Royal Governor of Connecticut; they had three -children. - -During his long political career, Williams held a myriad of local, -provincial, and State offices: town clerk (1752–96) and selectman -(1760–85); member, clerk, and speaker of the lower house of the -colonial legislature (1755–76); State legislator (1781–84); member of -the Governor’s council (1784–1803); judge of the Windham County court -(1776–1805); and probate judge for the Windham district (1775–1809). -He also represented Connecticut at various New England meetings, and -attended the 1788 convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, of -which he approved. - -Upon the outbreak of the Revolution, Williams threw his weight behind -the cause. Besides writing tracts for the press expressing the colonial -viewpoint, he prepared Revolutionary state papers for Governor -Trumbull. Williams also raised money for and personally contributed -to the war effort. Between 1773 and 1776 he held a colonelcy in the -Connecticut militia and served on the provincial council of safety. In -Congress (1776–78 and 1783–84), he sat on the Board of War and helped -frame the Articles of Confederation, though he did not sign them. -During the winter of 1780–81, while a French regiment was stationed in -Lebanon, he moved out of his home and turned it over to the officers. - -Williams died at the age of 80 in 1811. His grave is in the Trumbull -Cemetery, about a mile northeast of town. - - - - -James Wilson - -PENNSYLVANIA - -[Illustration] - - Brilliant yet enigmatic James Wilson possessed one of the - most complex and contradictory personalities of all the - signers. Never able to reconcile his strong personal drive - for wealth and power with his political goals nor to find - a middle road between conservatism and republicanism, he - alternately experienced either popularity or public scorn, - fame or obscurity, wealth or poverty. Yet his mastery of - the law and political theory enabled him to play a leading - role in framing the U.S. Constitution and to rise from - frontier lawyer to Justice of the Supreme Court. - - -Wilson was born in 1741 or 1742 at Carskerdo, near St. Andrews, -Scotland, and educated at the universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, -and Edinburgh. He then emigrated to America, arriving in the midst -of the Stamp Act agitations in 1765. Early the next year, he accepted -a position as Latin tutor at the College of Philadelphia, but almost -immediately abandoned it to study law under John Dickinson. - -[Illustration: From 1778 until 1790 James Wilson resided in this -Philadelphia residence, which became known as “Fort Wilson” in 1779, -when a mob of citizens and militiamen attacked it.] - -In 1768, the year after his admission to the bar, Wilson set up -practice at Reading, Pa. Two years later, he moved westward to the -Scotch-Irish settlement of Carlisle, and the following year took a -bride. He specialized in land law and built up a broad clientele. On -borrowed capital, he also began to speculate in land. In some way he -managed, too, to lecture for many years on English literature at the -College of Philadelphia. - -Wilson also became involved in Revolutionary politics. In 1774 he -took over chairmanship of the Carlisle committee of correspondence, -attended the first provincial assembly, and completed preparation of -_Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority -of the British Parliament_. This tract circulated widely in England -and America and established Wilson as a Whig leader. It denied -Parliament’s authority over the Colonies, though it did not question -their allegiance to the Crown, and recommended a reorganization of the -imperial structure similar to the later British Commonwealth of Nations. - -The next year, Wilson was elected to both the provincial assembly and -the Continental Congress, where he sat mainly on military and Indian -affairs committees. In 1776, reflecting the wishes of his constituents, -he joined the moderates in voting for a 3-week delay in considering -Richard Henry Lee’s resolution of June 7. On July 1, however, Wilson -dissented from the majority of the Pennsylvania delegation and -balloted with John Morton and Benjamin Franklin for independence. On -July 2 the three men, representing a majority of the Commonwealth’s -Delegates present, voted the same. Wilson’s strenuous opposition to -the republican Pennsylvania constitution of 1776, besides indicating -a switch to conservatism on his part, led to his removal from -Congress the following year. To avoid the clamor among his frontier -constituents, he repaired to Annapolis during the winter of 1777–78, -and then took up residence in Philadelphia. - -Wilson affirmed his newly assumed political stance by closely -identifying with the aristocratic and conservative republican groups, -multiplying his business interests, and accelerating his land -speculation. He also took a position as Advocate-General for France in -America (1779–83), dealing with commercial and maritime matters, and -legally defended Loyalists and their sympathizers. - -In the fall of 1779, during a period of inflation and food shortages, a -mob, including many militiamen and led by radical-constitutionalists, -set out to attack the republican leadership. Wilson was a prime target. -He and some 35 of his colleagues barricaded themselves in his home at -Third and Walnut Streets, henceforth known as “Fort Wilson.” During a -brief skirmish, several people on both sides were killed or wounded. -The shock cooled sentiments and pardons were issued all around, though -major political battles over the Commonwealth constitution still lay -ahead. - -During 1781 Congress appointed Wilson as one of the directors of the -Bank of North America, newly founded by Robert Morris with the legal -advice of Wilson. In 1782–83, by which time the conservatives had -regained some of their power, he was reelected to Congress, as well as -in the period 1785–87. - -Wilson reached the apex of his career in the U.S. Constitutional -Convention (1787), in which he was one of the leaders, both in -the floor debates and the drafting committee. That same year, -overcoming powerful opposition, he led the drive for ratification -in Pennsylvania, the second State to ratify. The new Commonwealth -constitution, drafted in 1789–90 along the lines of the U.S. -Constitution, was also primarily Wilson’s work and represented the -climax of his 14-year fight against the constitution of 1776. - -For his services in the formation of the Federal Government, though -Wilson expected to be appointed Chief Justice, in 1789 President -Washington named him as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. He -was chosen that same year as the first law professor at the College of -Philadelphia. Two years hence, he began an official digest of the laws -of Pennsylvania, a project he never completed, though he carried on for -awhile after funds ran out. - -Wilson, who wrote only a few opinions, did not achieve the success -on the Supreme Court that his capabilities and experience promised. -Indeed, during those years he was the object of much criticism and -barely escaped impeachment. For one thing, he tried to influence the -enactment of legislation in Pennsylvania favorable to land speculators. -Between 1792 and 1795 he also made huge but unwise land investments in -western New York and Pennsylvania, as well as in Georgia. This did not -stop him from conceiving a grandiose but ill-fated scheme, involving -vast sums of European capital, for the recruitment of European -colonists and their settlement on western lands. Meantime, in 1793, -a widower with six children, he had remarried; the one son from this -union died in infancy. - -Four years later, to avoid arrest for debt, the distraught Wilson -moved from Philadelphia to Burlington, N.J. The next year, apparently -while on Federal circuit court business, he arrived at Edenton, N.C., -in a state of acute mental stress and was taken into the home of -James Iredell, a fellow Supreme Court Justice. He died there within a -few months. Although first buried at Hayes Plantation near Edenton, -his remains were later reinterred in the yard of Christ Church at -Philadelphia. - - - - -John Witherspoon - -NEW JERSEY - -[Illustration] - - Rev. John Witherspoon, the only active clergyman among - the signers, achieved a greater reputation as a religious - leader and educator than as a politician. Emigrating - from Scotland to America in the midst of the controversy - between the Colonies and the Crown, he took part in the - Revolution, lost a son during the war, and signed the - Articles of Confederation as well as the Declaration. He is - better known, however, for his role in the growth of the - Presbyterian Church and for his distinguished presidency of - the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). - - -The son of a Calvinist minister, Witherspoon was born in 1723 at the -village of Gifford, near Edinburgh. He attended grammar school at -the neighboring town of Haddington and won master of arts (1739) and -divinity (1743) degrees from the University of Edinburgh. In 1743 -the Haddington Presbytery licensed him to preach. He was ordained 2 -years later at Beith, where he occupied a pulpit until 1757. He then -transferred to Paisley, not far from Glasgow. Meantime, in 1748, he had -married; only five of his ten children survived childhood. - -Over the years, Witherspoon attained leadership of a group of -conservative clergymen who were engaged in a prolonged struggle with a -group of their colleagues to maintain the “purity” of orthodox Church -doctrine. Witherspoon penned a stream of sermons and tracts attacking -the opposition and denouncing moral decay in Scotland. He also defended -the traditional prerogative of the people to choose their own -ministers, a right ecclesiastical authorities had taken from them. - -In 1768 Witherspoon channeled his energies in a new direction. He gave -up his post at Paisley and accepted the presidency of the College of -New Jersey, after two representatives of the college had visited him -and finally at the end of 2 years of effort overcome the objections of -his wife. He sailed to America with his family. The college bloomed -under his direction. He increased the endowment, instituted new -methods of instruction, and broadened and revitalized the curriculum. -Continuing also as a minister and church leader, he patched up a major -schism in the Presbyterian Church; stimulated its expansion, especially -in the Middle Colonies; and worked closely with the Congregationalists. - -[Illustration: The College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) -in 1764. Rev. John Witherspoon served as its president from 1768 until -1794. The main building, Nassau Hall, is on the left; the President’s -House, on the right.] - -The Revolution fanned Witherspoon’s hatred of the English, which had -originated in Scotland. By 1770 his students were openly demonstrating -in favor of the patriot cause. In a commencement oration he advocated -resistance to the Crown, which became his favorite theme in sermons -and essays. In 1774–76 he represented his county in the New Jersey -provincial assemblies, and sat on local committees of correspondence. -In the latter year he figured prominently in the agitations that led to -the removal from office and imprisonment of the Royal Governor, and -then received an appointment to the Continental Congress. - -On July 2, 1776, in a congressional speech urging independence, -Witherspoon declared that the Colonies were “not only ripe for the -measure but in danger of rotting for the want of it.” In November, -when the British invaded New Jersey, he closed the College of New -Jersey. The redcoats occupied its major building, Nassau Hall, burned -the library, and committed other acts of destruction. The next year, -Witherspoon’s son James lost his life at the Battle of Germantown, Pa. - -Witherspoon stayed in Congress until 1782. His main committee -assignments dealt with military and foreign affairs. He also -participated in the debates on the Articles of Confederation, aided -in setting up the executive departments, and argued for financial -stability. Meantime, in 1779, he had moved from the President’s House -at Princeton to Tusculum, a country home he had earlier built nearby. -He left the Rev. Samuel S. Smith, his son-in-law and the college vice -president, in charge of the nearly defunct institution. - -Witherspoon devoted most of his effort during the postwar years -to rebuilding the college, which never fully recovered its prewar -prosperity during his lifetime. In addition, during the years 1783–89 -he sat for two terms in the State legislature, attended the New Jersey -(1787) convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, participated -in the reorganization of the Presbyterian Church, and moderated its -first general assembly (1789). In 1791, at the age of 68, Witherspoon -took a second wife, a 24-year-old widow, who bore him two daughters. -Blind his last 2 years, he died in 1794, aged 71, at Tusculum. His -remains rest in the Presidents’ Lot at Princeton Cemetery. - - - - -Oliver Wolcott - -CONNECTICUT - -[Illustration] - - Oliver Wolcott, as much a soldier as a politician, helped - convert the concept of independence into reality on the - battlefield. He also occupied many local, provincial, and - State offices, including the governorship. One of his five - children, Oliver, also held that position and became U.S. - Secretary of the Treasury. - - -Wolcott was the youngest son in a family of 15. Sired by Roger Wolcott, -a leading Connecticut politician, he was born in 1726 at Windsor -(present South Windsor), Conn. In 1747, just graduated from Yale -College at the top of his class, he began his military career. As a -militia captain during King George’s War (1740–48), he accompanied an -unsuccessful British expedition against the French in New France. Back -home, he studied medicine for a time with his brother before deciding -to turn to law. - -In 1751, when Litchfield County was organized, Wolcott moved about 30 -miles westward to the town of Litchfield and immediately took over the -first of a long string of county and State offices: county sheriff -(1751–71); member of the lower house (1764, 1767–68, and 1770) and -upper house (1771–86) of the colonial and State legislatures; and -probate (1772–81) and county (1774–78) judge. By 1774 he had risen to -the rank of colonel in the militia. - -The next spring, the legislature named him as a commissary for -Connecticut troops and in the summer the Continental Congress -designated him as a commissioner of Indian affairs for the northern -department. In that capacity he attended a conference that year with -the Iroquois (Six Nations) at Albany, N.Y., that temporarily gained -their neutrality in the war. Before the year was out, he also aided in -arbitrating land disputes between Pennsylvania and Connecticut and New -York and Vermont. - -Wolcott sat in Congress from 1775 until 1783 except for the year 1779. -In June 1776 illness caused him to return to Connecticut. Absent at -the time of the voting for independence the next month and at the -formal signing of the Declaration in August, he added his signature -sometime after his return to Congress in October. Throughout his tour, -Wolcott devoted portions of each year to militia duty, highlighted -by participation as a brigadier general in the New York campaigns of -1776–77 that culminated in the surrender of Gen. John Burgoyne in -October of the latter year at Saratoga (Schuylerville). During 1779, as -a major general, Wolcott defended the Connecticut seacoast against the -raids of William Tryon, Royal Governor of New York. - -Wolcott’s postwar career was varied. On the national level, he helped -negotiate two Indian treaties: the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix, -N.Y. (1784), in which the Iroquois ceded to the United States some of -their lands in New York and Pennsylvania; and another (1789) with the -Wyandottes, who gave up their tract in the Western Reserve, in present -Ohio. On the State level, Wolcott continued his long period of service -in the upper house of the legislature (ended 1786); enjoyed a lengthy -stint as Lieutenant Governor (1787–96); attended the convention (1788) -that ratified the U.S. Constitution; and, like his father before him -and his son after him, held the office of Governor (1796–97). - -While occupying the latter position, Wolcott died, aged 71, at East -Windsor. His remains rest in the East Cemetery at Litchfield. - - - - -George Wythe - -VIRGINIA - -[Illustration] - - Virginia’s George Wythe spent only about a year in the - Continental Congress, never aspired to any other national - office, and played a minor part in the Constitutional - Convention. But he made a deep impress on legal education - in the Nation and strongly influenced the government and - jurisprudence of his State. A brilliant classical scholar - and the first professor of law in an American college, he - instructed scores of young lawyers. Included among them - were Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, John Marshall, and - Henry Clay. - - -Wythe was born in 1726, the second of three children, on his father’s -plantation on the Back River in Elizabeth City County, Va., within the -confines of present Hampton. He lost his parents at an early age and -grew up under the guardianship of his older brother, Thomas. George -acquired a knowledge of the classics from his well-educated mother -before her death, and he probably attended for a time a grammar school -operated by the College of William and Mary. - -Wythe’s brother later sent him to Prince George County to read law -under an uncle. In 1746, at the age of 20, he joined the bar, moved -to Spotsylvania County, and became associated with a lawyer there. -In December 1747, he married his partner’s sister, but she succumbed -the next year. In 1754 Lt. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie appointed him as -acting colonial attorney general, a position he held for a few months -and which likely required that he spend some time in Williamsburg. -The next year, Wythe’s brother died and he inherited his birthplace. -He chose, however, to live in Williamsburg in the house that his new -father-in-law, an architect, designed and built for him and his -betrothed, whom he married about 1755. Their only child died in infancy. - -At Williamsburg, Wythe immersed himself in further study of the -classics and the law and achieved accreditation by the colonial Supreme -Court. Like his father, he served in the House of Burgesses (mid-1750’s -until 1775), first as delegate and after 1769 as clerk. During this -period, in 1768 he held the mayorship of Williamsburg, and the next -year sat on the board of visitors of the College of William and Mary. -He also had found time during the years 1762–67 to train youthful -Thomas Jefferson in the law. The two men, at first as mentor and pupil -and later as political allies, maintained a lifetime friendship. - -Wythe first exhibited Revolutionary leanings in 1764 when Parliament -hinted to the Colonies that it might impose a Stamp Tax. By then -an experienced legislator, he drafted for the House of Burgesses a -remonstrance to Parliament so strident that his fellow legislators -modified it before adoption. Wythe was one of the first to express the -concept of separate nationhood for the Colonies within the British -Empire. - -Although elected to Congress in 1775–76, Wythe exerted little influence -in that body. He spent considerable time helping draft a State -constitution and design a State seal, and was not present at the time -of the formal signing of the Declaration in August 1776. Furthermore, -within a few months, Wythe, Jefferson, and Edmund Pendleton undertook -a 3-year project to revise Virginia’s legal code. In 1777 Wythe also -presided as speaker of the lower house of the legislature. - -An appointment as one of the three judges of the newly created Virginia -high court of chancery followed the next year. Sitting on it for 28 -years, during 13 of which he was the only chancellor, Wythe charted the -course of Virginia jurisprudence. In conjunction with these duties, he -was an ex officio member of the State Superior Court. - -Wythe’s real love was teaching. In 1779 Jefferson and other officials -of the College of William and Mary created the first chair of law in -a U.S. institution of higher learning and appointed Wythe to fill -it. In that position, he educated America’s earliest college-trained -lawyers, among them John Marshall and James Monroe. To supplement his -lectures, Wythe introduced the use of moot courts and legislatures, -in which students could put their knowledge into actual practice. In -1787 he also demonstrated his love of the classics and literature -by offering free to anyone interested a class in Latin, Greek, and -English literature. That same year, he attended the U.S. Constitutional -Convention, but played an insignificant role and did not sign the -Constitution. The following year, however, he was one of the Federalist -leaders at the Virginia ratifying convention. - -In 1791, the year after Wythe resigned his professorship, his chancery -duties caused him to move his home to Richmond, the State capital. -But he was reluctant to give up his teaching and opened a private law -school. One of his last and most promising pupils was a teenager named -Henry Clay. - -In 1806, in his eighth decade, Wythe died at Richmond under mysterious -circumstances—probably of poison administered by his heir, a favorite -grandnephew. Reflecting a lifelong aversion to slavery, Wythe -emancipated his slaves in his will. His grave is in the yard of St. -John’s Episcopal Church at Richmond. - - - - -Part Three - -Signers of the Declaration: - -Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings - - -Over the decades that separate present-day America from the early -periods of its history, a large number of the structures commemorating -those periods have been marred or obliterated. Those relating to the -signers of the Declaration of Independence have not been spared. The -ravages of war, urbanization, fire, aging, weathering, neglect, and -vandalism have destroyed all the residences of 21 of these 56 men and -seriously impaired some of those that have survived. - -Beyond those factors detrimental to all historic buildings are -two special ones that have hampered the marking and preserving of -signers’ homes and other sites. For decades following adoption of the -Declaration, these individuals were not accorded the reverence bestowed -on them in modern times. Secondly, many of them have received only -slight historical recognition because they lacked national reputations -other than as signers. - -Yet among the residences and buildings that remain are many of major -significance. As a whole, they reveal much about the way of life of -the signers and illuminate the events involved in the creation of the -Declaration. Of outstanding significance is Independence National -Historical Park, Pa. Within its boundaries the document was written, -debated, approved, and signed. The National Park Service administers -the park in cooperation with the city of Philadelphia and various -private agencies. Three residences of signers are also units of the -National Park System: Adams National Historic Site, Mass.; the Floyd -House, in Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y.; and the Nelson House, -part of Colonial National Historical Park, Va. - -Almost half the extant homes of the signers are owned by private -individuals, many of whom personally reside in them and a few of whom -are descendants of the signers. The rest of the residences are owned -and maintained by States, cities, and a wide variety of nongovernmental -institutions, such as patriotic-civic organizations, memorial -associations, local historical societies, foundations, universities, -churches, and corporations and business firms. - -Reflecting the dedicated efforts of many of the above individuals and -agencies, a considerable number of the buildings and residences provide -fine examples of historic preservation and restoration. Unfortunately, -some structures have badly deteriorated. But the increased recent -interest in the signers has enhanced the identification, renovation, -and preservation of pertinent sites and buildings. - -In addition to the preservation of sites and buildings, the subject -of this book, the signers have been honored in many other ways. -Commemoration varies widely, however, from State to State and from -signer to signer. Some have been recognized in a major way; others -hardly at all. - -In the forefront of the groups that have marked extant homes and -buildings, as well as the sites of former structures and graves, or -otherwise memorialized the signers are: Daughters of the American -Revolution; Daughters of the Revolution; Colonial Dames of America; -National Society of Colonial Dames of America; Sons of the American -Revolution; Sons of the Revolution; and the Descendants of the Signers -of the Declaration of Independence, Inc., chartered by Congress in 1907. - -A major share of the sites of residences with no physical remains -has been marked. The 20 signers for whom no existing homes have been -located are: Samuel Adams, Abraham Clark, William Ellery, Benjamin -Franklin, Lyman Hall, John Hart, Francis Lewis, Philip Livingston, -Thomas McKean, Lewis Morris, Robert Morris, John Morton, Robert Treat -Paine, John Penn, George Read, Caesar Rodney, George Ross, Benjamin -Rush, Roger Sherman, and James Smith. Another signer, Samuel Chase, is -represented in this volume only by a structure (Chase-Lloyd House) that -he began building but never resided in. - -Monuments and memorials range from simple plaques to the Thomas -Jefferson Memorial, D.C., in the National Park System. Statues of -several signers are located in the U.S. Capitol. Special monuments -have been erected to those from two States. The Founders’ Monument, -in Augusta, Ga., is dedicated to the three signers from that State -(Gwinnett, Hall, and Walton) and contains the burial places of the -latter two. A monument to the three North Carolina signers (Hewes, -Hooper, and Penn) at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, in -Greensboro, N.C., includes the tombs of Hooper and Penn. - - -Described in the following pages are the principal buildings associated -with the signers of the Declaration. They are comprised of three -categories: National Park Service Areas, National Historic Landmarks, -and Other Sites Considered. - -The principal aim of the National Survey of Historic Sites and -Buildings is to identify nationally important sites that are not -_National Park Service Areas_, but no survey of historic places would -be complete without including them. This is particularly true because -many of them were designated as National Historic Landmarks before they -became part of the National Park System. Further information about -a particular area may be obtained by writing directly to the park -superintendent at the address listed immediately following the location. - -_National Historic Landmarks_ are those sites judged by the Advisory -Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments to -meet the criteria of national significance in commemorating the history -of the United States (pp. 270–271). They have been declared by the -Secretary of the Interior to be eligible for designation as National -Historic Landmarks. Final designation occurs when the owners apply for -such status. They receive certificates and bronze plaques attesting to -the distinction. - -_Other Sites Considered_ consist of those sites deemed by the Advisory -Board to possess noteworthy historical value but not national -significance. The list of sites included in this category does not -purport to be exhaustive; it is merely a representative sampling, all -that is possible because of space limitations. - -Many sites in the Other Sites Considered category in all phases of -history are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, -maintained by the National Park Service’s Office of Archeology and -Historic Preservation. The register consists not only of sites in the -National Park System and National Historic Landmarks but also those of -State and local significance, nominated through appropriate channels -by the various States. It is published biennally and distributed by -the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, -Washington, D.C., 20402. The latest volume is _The National Register of -Historic Places, 1972_, price $7.80. - - -[Illustration: SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION - -HISTORIC SITES OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE (map)] - -For the convenience of users of this volume, sites and buildings are -listed alphabetically by State. The following code indicates site -categories: - - _Site Categories_ - - ☑ NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AREAS - ∆ NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS - ⊗ OTHER SITES CONSIDERED - -NOTE: _The following descriptions indicate sites that are open to the -public. Before visiting any of them, inquiry should be made to the -owners or custodians concerning dates and hours of access and admission -costs, usually nominal. Special permission should be obtained to visit -privately owned sites._ - - - - -Huntington Birthplace, Connecticut ∆ - - _Location: Windham County, on the north side of Conn. 14, about 2 - blocks west of its junction with Conn. 97, Scotland._ - - -This plain but charming farmhouse on the bank of Merrick’s Brook was -the birthplace and home of Samuel Huntington through his boyhood and -early manhood. He lived in it from 1731 probably until 1760, the year -he moved to Norwich. - -The house, built in the period 1700–22, is shaded by huge trees and -fronted by a spacious lawn. It is a large, two-story, clapboarded-frame -structure of saltbox design. The gable roof slopes steeply at the rear. -Exterior windows are topped by projecting cornices; the center door, by -a rectangular transom. A one-story kitchen wing with front porch at the -northeast end of the house along the main axis was added early in the -19th century. - -[Illustration: Huntington Birthplace.] - -The floor plan is typical of a central chimney New England dwelling. -Behind a short central entrance hall, which contains an L-shaped -stairway, is a large stone central chimney with three fireplaces. Two -of these heat the parlor and dining room, entered from the hall; a -huge third one serves the large original kitchen, which ranges across -the rear two-thirds of the house behind the dining room and chimney. -A small bedroom is situated back of the parlor alongside the original -kitchen, between it and the one-story new kitchen addition. Three -additional bedrooms, one of which has a fully paneled fireplace wall, -are located upstairs. Wallpaper has been added to some of the rooms, -but the fireplaces, wainscoting, and wide-board floors are original. - -The privately owned house, which is in good condition and little -altered, has never been restored, though some modern conveniences have -been installed. It is not open to the public. - - - - -Huntington House, Connecticut ⊗ - - _Location: New London County, 34 East Town Street, Norwich._ - - -Samuel Huntington erected this house in the years 1783–85 and lived in -it until his death in 1796. Since that time, the frame dwelling has -been extensively modified on both the exterior and interior and a major -addition made at the rear. - -[Illustration: Huntington House.] - -Originally the residence was a large, two-story, rectangular structure -with a gable roof, two interior chimneys, tall corner pilasters, and -triangular pediments above the first-story windows. By the middle of -the 19th century, however, the structure had been remodeled in Greek -Revival style, including the construction of a two-story portico across -the entire front, or north, side, and in the center of this facade a -central two-tiered porch. Later in the century, the portico and the two -interior chimneys were removed. Sometime during the century, a large -two-story section was added to the rear of the house, and a projecting -two-story bay on the west side. - -The present two-tiered porch at the entrance is a modern replacement -whose design differs considerably from the earlier one. Four large -Doric columns support it, and a railing runs around the second-story -level. The east entranceway consists of a one-story portico with an -elliptical plan and Doric columns. Other modern features include -clapboarding and window sash. - -The central hall, extending from the entranceway through the rest of -the house and rear addition, has always dominated the floor plan, which -otherwise has been completely obliterated. Interior partitions have -either been removed to create larger rooms or added to make smaller -ones. Stairs are located in the front and rear of the hall. Little, if -any, of the original interior finish remains. - -The house, also known as the Governor Huntington House, in excellent -condition, is owned and occupied by a charitable organization and -is not open to the general public. Huntington’s remains rest in the -adjacent Old Burial Ground. - - - - -Williams Birthplace, Connecticut ⊗ - - _Location: New London County, on the west side of Conn. 87 at the - south end of the commons, Lebanon._ - - -William Williams was born in this house in 1731 and lived in it until -1755, when his father gave him a residence elsewhere in Lebanon. -Constructed about 1712 by Rev. Samuel Welles, a Congregational -minister, it later came into the possession of Rev. Solomon Williams, -the signer’s father, and is also known as the Welles-Williams House. -Over the years, considerable alteration has occurred. - -The rectangular frame structure is two stories high with a gable roof. -Exterior louvered shutters flank the windows on both stories. The -Greek Revival architrave of the central door was added about 1830. A -one-story ell, containing a kitchen and part of the dining room, is -located at the rear southwest corner of the house. A barn has been -built on the end of the ell. A more recent one-story frame wing extends -from the southeast rear corner. The residence was recently covered with -clapboard. - -[Illustration: Williams Birthplace.] - -In modern times the original large central stone chimney has been -replaced by a much smaller brick one, which provides a fireplace for -the present living room. This has resulted in a major revamping of the -typical central chimney floor plan. It once consisted of two tiers of -four rooms but today is divided into large living room, dining room, -and parlor, plus a bath, and three bedrooms upstairs. Two of the latter -originally had fully paneled walls. Only one is paneled today. - -The house, a private residence not accessible to the public, is in good -condition. - - - - -Williams House, Connecticut ∆ - - _Location: New London County, southeast corner of the junction of - Conn. 207 and Conn. 87, Lebanon._ - - -Of the two extant residences of William Williams, this house, where he -lived the greater part of his life, is less altered. His father, Rev. -Solomon Williams, acquired it in 1748 and 7 years later presented it to -William, who resided there until his death in 1811. - -The dwelling is a two-story, rectangular frame building. A long, -1½-story service wing extends from the center of the rear of the -house. The original clapboard siding, covered with asbestos shingles -in the 1930’s, has recently been reexposed. The front entranceway, in -the Greek Revival style, was probably constructed about 1830. Other -exterior changes to the main house are limited to the lowering of the -two original interior chimneys on the back side of the ridge of the -gabled roof, the addition of a brick chimney at the north end, and the -insertion of a one-story bay window in the living room at the south end. - -[Illustration: Williams House.] - -The central hall divides each floor into two large rooms. Downstairs, -to the north of the hall, which incorporates the original stairway, is -a parlor, whose entire fireplace wall is still covered with the old -paneling; to the south of the hall is the living room. Its entranceway -from the hall has been widened and two columns inserted. Upstairs are -two bedrooms with fully paneled fireplace walls. The six original -fireplaces, except for the one in the kitchen, have been closed up, -but their mantels have been left in place. All the original wide -floorboards remain. The rear service wing contains a dining room and -kitchen on the first floor and four small bedrooms above. - -The well-preserved house is today a private home and is not open to the -public. - - - - -Wolcott House, Connecticut ∆ - - _Location: Litchfield County, on the east side of South Street - nearly opposite its intersection with Wolcott Avenue, Litchfield._ - - -Oliver Wolcott erected and occupied this residence in 1753, some 2 -years after he moved from Windsor to Litchfield, and lived in it until -he died in 1797. Except for a major rear addition, it has been only -slightly altered. - -[Illustration: Wolcott House.] - -The two-story, frame structure has a gable roof, a large central -chimney, and slight overhangs at the gable ends. Attached to the south -end of the house on the main axis is a small, 1½-story frame wing with -gambrel roof. A one-story porch, added by Wolcott about 1783, extends -across this wing. The roof of the porch is of the coved, or “barrow,” -type. The walls of the main house and wing are covered with clapboards, -and the windows have louvered shutters. Triangular pediments cap the -first-story windows. The center door, topped by a round arch fanlight, -is sheltered by a Federal period broken-pediment portico supported by -two fluted columns. - -Later additions include small bay windows on each side of the -chimney in the south end wall of the south wing; a wide dormer in -the west, or front, upper story of the wing; and a two-story, frame, -clapboard-covered service wing, added in the 1880’s at the northeast -corner on the rear of the main house, which gave the structure its -present L-shape. The service wing, which cannot be seen from the -street, contains the present kitchen and servants’ workrooms and -bedrooms. - -The floor plan of the main house is the central chimney type. To the -rear of the short central hall, which is equipped with the original -L-shaped stairway and divides this portion of the house into two tiers -of rooms, is the central chimney. On the first floor, to the north of -the hall, is the dining room; to the south, the parlor. The fireplace -walls in both rooms are fully paneled, and the floors have wide boards. -Back of the parlor, a hall leads on the south to the morning room, or -bedroom, in the south wing; and on the north, to the original kitchen, -which contains a large fireplace. Four bedrooms occupy the second story -of the main house, two of them featuring paneled overmantels, and one -bedroom is located on the second floor of the south wing. - -One of Wolcott’s descendants, who acquired and restored the house about -1920, resides in it today. In excellent condition, it is the oldest -extant structure in Litchfield Historic District, a National Historic -Landmark relating primarily to colonial architecture. The house is not -accessible to the public. - - - - -The White House, District of Columbia ∆ - - _Location: 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW., Washington._ - - -Signers John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the first two occupants of -the White House, official residence of our Nation’s Presidents since -1800. It is a national shrine that symbolizes the honor and dignity of -the highest office in the land, and has been the scene of many historic -events and brilliant social affairs. Like the Nation itself, it bears -the influences of successive Chief Executives. Although rebuilt and -modernized, it retains the simplicity and charm of its original -appearance. - -[Illustration: South facade of the White House.] - -President George Washington approved the plans for the White House, -drawn by Irish-born James Hoban, winner of the prize competition. -Maj. Pierre Charles L’Enfant, the French artist-engineer, located the -mansion in his plan of the Federal City, in which it and the Capitol -were the first public buildings erected. The cornerstone was laid on -October 13, 1792. Workmen used light gray sandstone from the Aquia -Creek Quarries, in Virginia, for the exterior walls. During the course -of construction or soon thereafter, they apparently were painted -white. The building was thus unofficially termed the “White House” from -an early date, but for many years it was usually referred to as the -“President’s House” or the “President’s Palace.” - -[Illustration: North facade of the White House in 1807.] - -In the Palladian style of architecture, the main facade resembles -the Duke of Leinster’s mansion in Dublin. Hoban probably derived -the details of other faces and the interior arrangement from -other contemporary European mansions. He supervised the original -construction; the rebuilding after the burning by British forces, in -1814; and the erection of the north and south porticoes, some years -later. Over the course of time, however, various architects modified -Hoban’s original plans, notably Benjamin H. Latrobe during and after -the Jefferson administration. - -President and Mrs. John Adams were the first occupants, in November -1800 when the Government moved from Philadelphia to Washington. The -interior had not yet been completed, and Mrs. Adams used the unfinished -East Room to dry the family wash. During Jefferson’s administration -the east and west terraces, or pavilions, were built. Jefferson, who -practiced democratic simplicity in his social life, opened the mansion -each morning to all arrivals. - -During the War of 1812, British forces captured the city and set the -torch to the White House, the Capitol, and other Government buildings -in retaliation for the destruction by U.S. troops of some public -buildings in Canada. Only the partially damaged exterior walls and -interior brickwork of the White House remained in the spring of 1815 -when reconstruction began. In 1817 the recently elected President, -James Monroe, was able to occupy the structure. In 1824 builders -erected the south portico; and in 1829, the large north portico over -the entrance and driveway. The west wing, including the President’s -oval office, was added during the first decade of the 20th century. The -east wing was built in 1942. - -Over the years, the White House proper has been extensively renovated -and modernized on various occasions. The old sandstone walls have been -retained, however. The aim has been to keep the historical atmosphere -while providing a more livable home for the President and his family. - -Located on the first floor of the main building are the East Room, -Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, and Family Dining -Room. These richly furnished rooms are open to the public on a special -schedule. The ground and second floors are restricted to the use of the -presidential family and guests. On the ground floor are the Diplomatic -Reception Room, Curator’s Office, Vermeil Room, China Room, and -Library. The second floor contains the Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting -Room, Queens’ Bedroom (Rose Guest Room), Treaty Room, Yellow Oval Room, -and Empire Guest Room. Neither of the wings, reserved for the President -and his staff, are ordinarily accessible to the public. - -The simple dignity of the White House is enhanced by the natural beauty -of its informal but carefully landscaped grounds. - - - - -College Hill, Georgia ∆ - - _Location: Richmond County, 2216 Wrightsboro Road, Augusta._ - - -In 1795 George Walton built this house on the western outskirts of -Augusta on land that had been granted him by the State of Georgia in -1787. He lived in it until his death in 1804. - -[Illustration: College Hill.] - -The handsome, two-story, frame structure features weatherboarded and -clapboarded walls, a gable roof, and a brick chimney at each end. -Of special interest is the two-tiered veranda extending across the -entire main facade. At its front and sides on both levels are a series -of segmental arches supported by delicate square columns on high -pedestals. The fine balustrade is composed of delicate, sheaf-like -balusters. Central double doors are located on the front of both -stories. The doors are framed by pilasters and sidelights and topped -by segmental fanlights. The windows have exterior louvered shutters. -A one-story kitchen, added in 1898, extends from the southwest rear -corner of the house. - -The central hall, which contains a U-shaped stairway, divides the main -section of the structure into two pairs of rooms. The larger front two -are equipped with fireplaces and have original mantels decorated in the -Adam style. Behind the main hall is a smaller rear hall. The hall walls -are plastered, and the board walls of the principal rooms are covered -with paper and wainscoting. Five bedrooms occupy the second floor. The -original kitchen was situated in a separate building that is no longer -extant. - -Known today as the Walton-Harper House, since 1885 College Hill has -been owned by the Harper family, descendants of Walton. Little altered -but never restored, it is a private residence and is not shown publicly. - - - - -Meadow Garden, Georgia ⊗ - - _Location: Richmond County, 1320 Nelson Street, Augusta._ - - -About 1790 Gov. George Walton moved from Savannah to Augusta, then the -capital. At that time, he built Meadow Garden cottage at the northern -edge of the city, on confiscated Loyalist lands in his possession. He -resided in it until 1795, the year he constructed and occupied a larger -home, College Hill, just west of Augusta. He deeded Meadow Garden under -trusteeship to Thomas Watkins, who later conveyed it to George Walton, -Jr. Over the years, it has been doubled in size and otherwise altered. - -[Illustration: Meadow Garden.] - -Meadow Garden was originally a modest 1½-story cottage of frame -construction built over a high brick basement. The gable roof was -pierced by two front dormers and an interior central chimney. Windows -were located in the gable ends. An entrance door and hall were situated -on the western bay of the south facade, which had three bays. Two -rooms on the first floor opened off the east of the hall, and the -basement contained two more finished rooms. - -Sometime after 1800 the house was enlarged and converted into a -central hall type by a major three-bay wide extension to the west of -the side hall, which became the central hall. The gable roof of the -original building was extended over the new portion, which was also -equipped with an interior chimney. About 1903 a single dormer was -added to the extension. The two first-floor rooms in the addition, -which lacks a cellar, are about two steps lower than the two in the -original structure. The second floor of the present house contains four -bedrooms. A one-story porch, probably not original, extends across the -front, or south, side. Its Doric columns rest on square pedestals and -are linked by a light balustrade. About 1903 a one-story kitchen was -added to the rear northwest corner of the house. - -Many interior features are intact, but the plaster walls are covered -with paper. The southwest room, or library, located in the 1800 -addition and restored in 1969, contains an excellent late Georgian -mantel and overmantel. The building has been roofed with modern -material. - -The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution -acquired the residence in 1900, and the following year opened it to -visitors. In 1960 the National Society presented it to the State -Society. It is currently operated as a historic house museum by the -Augusta Chapter. A caretaker’s residence is located on the grounds. - - - - -Tabby Cottage, Georgia ⊗ - - _Location: Liberty County, on St. Catherines Island, which is - located about 10 miles off the Georgia coast southeast of Midway - between St. Catherines and Sapelo Sounds._ - - -The original portion of this structure, today an eight-bedroom house -and the main building on St. Catherines Island, may have been built -by Button Gwinnett in 1765 when he purchased the island, on which he -resided until his death in 1777 at Savannah. In 1929 the owner of the -island extensively remodeled the gable-roofed building. He retained -its basic shape and preserved many of its features, including mantels, -stair rail, and wide-board, hand-pegged floors. To the rear at a right -angle on one side he added a 1½-story wing, also with gable roof, which -more than doubled the floor space. The original, or front, section of -the house, also 1½ stories in height, was constructed of “tabby,” a -mixture of lime, ground from burned oyster shells, with sand, shells, -and water. The wing is of frame with a stucco finish. Both parts of -the residence are now roofed with Ludowici tile and feature dormers, -interior chimneys, and shuttered exterior windows. - -Other tabby structures on the island include seven guest cottages and -about a dozen slave quarters, all probably dating from the early 19th -century. Many of them are in ruins but some are in good condition. -Elsewhere are four present employee residences, as well as several -barns and maintenance buildings. Boundaries of old cotton and tobacco -fields are discernible, as well as dozens of Indian burial mounds. Of -special interest, between Persimmon Point and Wamassee Head, is the -undisturbed site of the Mission of Santa Catalina (1566-ca. 1684), a -Spanish mission. None of the buildings remain, but potsherds and other -surface debris are plentiful. - -When this volume went to press, the National Survey of Historic Sites -and Buildings was making a further study of Tabby Cottage to determine -the exact degree of its authenticity in relation to Gwinnett. Privately -owned St. Catherines Island, not accessible to the public, has already -been accorded National Historic Landmark status because of its -associations with Spanish exploration and settlement. - - - - -Whipple Birthplace, Maine ⊗ - - _Location: York County, 88 Whipple Street, Kittery._ - - -William Whipple, a signer from New Hampshire, was a native of Kittery, -now in Maine but then in Massachusetts. Born in this house in 1730, he -probably lived in it until, like many boys of the locality, he went to -sea. About 1760 he abandoned his life as a seaman and took up residence -in Portsmouth, N.H. - -This handsome frame residence, the only one extant associated with a -signer in Maine, occupies a picturesque setting on a small cove along -the Piscataqua River. The two-story building has been considerably -altered and enlarged over the years, but it is in excellent condition -and rests on original foundations. It has been painted red since at -least 1873. - -[Illustration: Whipple Birthplace.] - -In its present form the house is Georgian in style with a central -hall plan. The exterior walls are clapboarded. On the east, or -front, elevation a round arch window on the second story sits over a -pedimented center door. The ell at the rear is a 20th-century addition. -A slight overhang on the south end of the house indicates that it may -once have been a garrison house, and that the upper story projected -over the first. This portion of the house was constructed of hemlock, -square-dovetailed at the corners. At some later date, the structure -was enlarged, and in the mid-19th century the exterior was completely -renovated. - -The residence originally featured a center chimney floor plan. In the -19th century the central chimney was removed and a center hall with -stairway added, as well as two small interior chimneys with fireplaces, -one at each side of the hall. On the first floor, to the south of the -hall, is the bedroom where Whipple was born; to the north, a large -parlor. The original kitchen is located to the rear, or west, of the -center hall and parlor. - -Privately occupied, the house is not open to the public. - - - - -Carroll Mansion, Maryland - - _Location: Anne Arundel County, Duke of Gloucester Street, between - Newman and St. Marys Streets, Annapolis._ - - -Charles Carroll III of Carrollton was born in 1737 at this townhouse, -which his father had probably built about 1735. Around the age of 11, -young Carroll traveled to Europe for an education and did not return to -Maryland until 1765. Thereafter, he lived mainly at Doughoregan Manor -but utilized his birthplace, which he inherited from his father, when -in Annapolis. In 1804, when he retired from public life, he closed it -up. In 1870 one of his granddaughters deeded the house and property to -the Redemptionist Fathers of St. Mary’s Catholic Church, which had been -built in 1858–60 on adjacent lands also donated by the Carrolls. - -[Illustration: Carroll Mansion.] - -Carroll Mansion, a brick rectangular structure constructed in Flemish -bond, rises 2½ stories over a basement. Belt courses mark the first- -and second-floor levels on the north and south sides. Segmental arches -head the windows. Two massive chimneys penetrate the slate-covered -gable roof. They are located at what may have been the original gable -ends. Five gabled dormers protrude from the south side of the roof; -four from the north. A wood cornice with dentils and modillions -extends along the sides and up the gables at the ends. - -Exterior alterations include the addition of a one-story basement at -the east, or present rear, end of the residence and a one-story porch -and entrance at the west end. The front entrance, probably dating from -the early or mid-19th century, is highlighted by a rectangular transom -and sidelights. The original entrance was apparently located in the -center of the north side of the house, where a passageway, erected in -1858, now connects it to St. Mary’s Church. - -Interior alterations have practically obliterated the original floor -plan. A stair hall occupies a central compartment at the north side, -and the stairs appear to be original. Only two major rooms retain some -of their original finish. A large one on the south side of the first -floor, now used as a chapel, has walls paneled in plaster and a plaster -cornice. Another, at the east end, features a plaster cornice, a -ceiling divided by triple panels, and a wooden mantelpiece. - -The building, in fair condition, is used as a residence by the -Redemptionist Fathers and is not accessible to the public. It is part -of Colonial Annapolis Historic District. - - - - -Carrollton Manor, Maryland ⊗ - - _Location: Frederick County, on the south side of Manor Wood Road, - immediately east of the East Alco Aluminum Company Plant, just west - of Buckeystown._ - - -In 1765 Charles Carroll, returning to Maryland after completing his -extensive education in Europe, built this home near the mouth of the -Monocacy River along Tuscarora Creek on a 10,000-acre tract of land he -had acquired from his father. Young Carroll never spent much time at -Carrollton Manor. Shortly after he had constructed it, his father died, -and he preferred to spend his time at Doughoregan Manor, the ancestral -family home in Howard County. - -The rectangular manor is constructed of native limestone. It rises 2½ -stories above an elevated basement. A pair of chimneys are located at -the west end of the gable roof, and a single chimney at the east end. A -later one-story addition extends from the east end. The central door, -sheltered by a one-story porch on the north, is topped by a rectangular -transom and flanked by sidelights, both probably dating from the Greek -Revival period. Dating from the same time are the two triple windows in -the first story at the rear of the house. A one-story porch that once -extended across that elevation has been removed. - -[Illustration: Carrollton Manor.] - -The house contains four rooms on each floor. East of the front entrance -is a stair hall and a spacious dining room; to the west, a library and -living room. Large double doors connect the living and dining rooms. -The second floor contains four bedrooms; the attic, four more. - -Upon Carroll’s death, his descendants inherited the manor. In 1968 an -aluminum company bought the property and erected a large office and -plant buildings and a spur railroad track to the west of the house. -In excellent condition, though never restored, it is today used as a -company residence and is not open to visitors. A nearby chapel, erected -by Carroll, is still used as a parish church. - - - - -Chase-Lloyd House, Maryland ∆ - - _Location: Anne Arundel County, 22 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis._ - - -Although Samuel Chase began building this house in 1769 while he was -a young lawyer, he never resided in it, for he sold it unfinished in -1771 to Edward Lloyd IV, a wealthy Maryland planter and politician. -Lloyd immediately engaged architect William Buckland, newly arrived in -Annapolis, to continue construction, completed 3 years later with the -aid of local architect William Noke. - -[Illustration: Chase-Lloyd House.] - -The structure, one of the first three-story Georgian townhouses erected -in the American Colonies, ranks among the finest of its type in the -United States and is one of the major attractions in Colonial Annapolis -Historic District. The house rises three full stories over a high -basement. Two massive interior chimneys protrude through the broad, -low, hip-on-hip roof. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond and -adorned by belt courses of rubbed brick at the second- and third-floor -levels. An enriched cornice embellishes the roofline. At the front, -or east, facade the axial line features a tall, projecting central -pavilion and entranceway, an arched window on the third floor, and -crowning pediment with a small bull’s-eye window. - -Of particular note is the entranceway, in essentially a Palladian -motif. The three-section composition was rarely used in Georgian houses -before the Revolution. The door is topped by a fanlight and flanked by -two panels of sidelights. The three openings are framed by two engaged -Ionic columns and two Ionic pilasters which support an entablature -that becomes an open pediment over the door. The triple windows on the -second floor over the entrance door and the arched windows in the -center of the three on the third are also unusual. - -The sides of the house lack architectural distinction, but in the rear -a large Palladian window within a brick arch ornaments and lights the -interior stair landing. The only exterior alterations are a three-story -wooden screened porch and adjoining steel fire escape on the south side -of the structure near the west corner. - -The floor plan is typical of the center hall type of house, with -four rooms on each floor, except that lateral halls divide the front -and rear rooms. The unusually large center hall is dominated by -a magnificent stairway and a pair of free-standing Ionic columns -bearing a full entablature. A parlor, large dining room, sitting -room, and breakfast room are located on the first floor, which has -been only slightly altered. A small back stairway is adjacent to the -breakfast room. Ornamentation of the plaster ceilings and doorways is -outstanding. The dining room, the most elaborate room, contains an -imported Italian mantelpiece that is richly decorated. The second floor -is also exquisitely ornamented. - -The Lloyd family owned the house until 1847, when Chase’s descendants -acquired it. In 1888 one of them bequeathed it to the Protestant -Episcopal Church for use as a home for elderly women. It is in -excellent condition and is well maintained. The first floor is open to -visitors and contains some items that belonged to the Lloyds or to the -later Chase owners. The upper two floors are utilized for the ladies’ -home. - - - - -Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Maryland ⊗ - - _Location: 800 East Lombard Street, Baltimore._ - - -This was the winter home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton during his -twilight years and the site of his death in 1832. Christopher Deshon, a -Baltimore merchant, built it in 1811–12, and in 1818 sold it to Richard -Caton, husband of Carroll’s youngest daughter, Mary. Carroll spent the -winters there with the couple until his demise. The rest of the time, -he resided at Doughoregan Manor in Howard County. - -The Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, a good example of Classic Revival -architecture, is constructed of brick laid in Flemish bond. It stands -3½ stories high. Six pedimented dormers—three each at the south (front) -and north elevations—as well as a central chimney and two end chimneys -pierce the low gable roof. A belt course at the second-floor line and -dentil cornice at roof level, both of sandstone, extend across the -north and south elevations. Recessed rectangular panels of wood are -inserted between the second- and third-story windows of the south -and west elevations. A large semicircular window is located in the -west gable of the attic story. The wide-paneled center door at the -main entrance to the house is sheltered by an Ionic marble portico -surmounted by an iron railing. - -[Illustration: Deshon-Caton-Carroll House.] - -The central hall plan provides for four large rooms, two on each side -of the hallway on each of the first three floors. The front entrance -opens into a stair hall, in which an elegant spiral stairway rises in -an open well up through the three stories. A counting room for business -purposes, family dining room, breakfast room, and study occupy the -first floor. The second floor, once used primarily for recreation and -formal entertainment, contains a large parlor, formal dining room, -music room, and library. Bedrooms occupy the third floor, and the attic -at one time contained slave quarters. - -The house remained in the Caton family until 1856. During the last -quarter of that century, a furniture store occupied the first floor, -and the owner divided the upper floors into apartments. In 1914 the -city of Baltimore acquired the building, and 3 years later put it -to use as the “Carroll Vocational School.” From about 1930 until -1956 the structure served as a recreation center. Subsequently the -house faced the threat of demolition, prevented by the efforts of -the Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc. In 1963 the -mayor of Baltimore decided that the residence should be preserved. -Upon completion of restoration and renovation, in 1967, it was placed -under the Municipal Museum, a nonprofit corporation. This organization -operates it today for the city as a historic house museum. - - - - -Doughoregan Manor, Maryland ∆ - - _Location: Howard County, on the west side of Manor Lane, about 1 - mile south of Md. 144 and 8 miles west of Ellicott City._ - - -Charles Carroll III of Carrollton preferred this manor, the ancestral -family home, over his other residences. He lived in it for most of -the period 1766–1832 rather than at Carrollton Manor or his Annapolis -townhouse. In 1717 Charles Carroll I had acquired the 10,000 acres that -originally comprised the estate. His son Charles II probably built the -main section of the mansion about a decade later. In the 1760’s Charles -III inherited it. In the 1830’s, after his death in 1832, it was -greatly enlarged. It is still owned and occupied by the Carroll family. - -[Illustration: Doughoregan Manor.] - -Much changed over the years, Doughoregan Manor is now an -architecturally distinguished complex of buildings united into one -long structure, about 300 feet in extent. The original manor was a -Georgian, 1½-story, brick structure with gambrel roof and two pairs of -end chimneys. A kitchen-servants’ quarters and a chapel, both probably -one-story and constructed of brick about 1780, stood detached from the -house, on the south and north respectively. - -In the 1830’s Charles Carroll V undertook a comprehensive expansion -in the Greek Revival style that converted the manor to its present -five-part composition. He raised the main house to two stories and -cut off the gable roof to form a flat deck, which was balustraded and -surmounted by an octagonal cupola. At the front (east) center door -he added a one-story portico with four Doric columns. To the rear of -the residence, he attached another portico, over which he erected a -room. Along both sides of the rear portico, he constructed a covered, -one-story veranda with iron columns that extended the length of the -main house. The heights of the kitchen-servants’ quarters and the -chapel were raised and they were connected to the main house by -two-story wings, topped by unifying wooden walkways. - -Inside the central part of the mansion, an oak-paneled central hall -extends from front to rear. The principal stairway is located in a -small side hall adjacent to the front of the main hall. On one side of -the main hall in the 1727 portion of the house are library and large -parlor; on the other, small parlor and dining room. The second-floor -bedrooms, remodeled in the 1830’s, were completely renovated and -redecorated about 1915. The chapel, refurbished in the 1830’s and again -after the Civil War, is in good condition and is still used as a parish -church. It is one of the few surviving private chapels in the United -States dating from the 18th century. The grave of Charles Carroll III -is located next to the altar. - -The estate, comprising 2,800 acres, and mansion are well maintained. -They are not open to the public. - - - - -Habre-de-Venture, Maryland ∆ - - _Location: Charles County, on the west side of Rose Hill Road, - which connects Md. 6 and Md. 225, about 1 mile north of Port - Tobacco._ - - -In 1771 Thomas Stone built this plantation house near the busy -riverport town of Port Tobacco, Md. He lived in it during his most -politically active years, and on his death in 1787 was buried in the -adjacent family graveyard. - -[Illustration: Habre-de-Venture.] - -A Georgian structure of brick and frame, Habre-de-Venture consists -of five parts: a central house connected to two wings by two covered -passageways, or “hyphens.” The hyphens and wings extend southward to -form a semicircle. The main building is a 1½-story structure over an -elevated basement. It has a dormered gambrel roof flanked by external -end chimneys. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond with glazed -headers. Center doors and full-length, one-story porches are located at -the front and rear of the house. - -A center hall, with stairs set against its west wall, divides the -central unit into dining and living rooms. In 1928 the Baltimore Museum -of Art removed the elaborate hand-carved paneling in the living room; -it was subsequently replaced with a replica. The fireplace wall in the -dining room protrudes out into the room, and the flue curves back to -the wall and up to the ceiling. - -To the west of the central house is the kitchen wing, a low, two-story, -gable-roofed structure with brick ends and frame sides. Its second -story, added about 1820, contains two bedrooms. The connecting -hyphen, originally gabled roof and one story in height and containing -a breakfast room, was increased to 1½ stories by the addition of a -gambrel roof with dormers to provide bathrooms for the second floor -of the main house. The east wing, a gambrel-roofed, low, 1½-story -frame structure that has one room on each floor, served as Stone’s law -office. A one-story gabled brick hyphen connects it to the main house. - -Except for the alterations mentioned above, Habre-de-Venture has -changed but slightly through the years. In excellent condition and -carefully restored, it now serves as a private residence and is not -shown publicly. - - - - -Paca House, Maryland ∆ - - _Location: Anne Arundel County, 186 Prince George Street, - Annapolis._ - - -William Paca, a young, newly married lawyer, built this townhouse in -the years 1763–65 as his principal residence and occupied it until -1780. At that time, a few months after the death of his second wife, he -sold the house and moved to Wye Plantation, a country estate in Queen -Annes County he had acquired about 1760. - -[Illustration: Paca House.] - -The Paca House is a large, five-part Georgian structure, today part -of Colonial Annapolis Historic District. Two brick wings (kitchen and -office) sit at right angles to the main axis of the central house, to -which they are connected by brick passageways, or hyphens. The central -unit is a gable-roofed brick structure of 2½ stories over an elevated -basement. The front facade is laid in all-header bond, and the ends in -Flemish bond. The window arches, of rubbed brick, are flat. A small, -one-story frame porch, which is pedimented and done in modified Roman -Doric style, provides access to the central entrance. - -Large brick chimneys rise from both ends of the central house, and -smaller ones from the wings. Three gabled dormers are situated in the -front of the main roof and two in the rear. The 1½-story wings are also -gable-roofed. The west wing and both of the hyphens had been raised to -two stories in the 19th century, but were recently lowered to their -original height. - -On each side of the center hall in the main house are two rooms. The -interior has been greatly altered over the years, and portions of the -original wood and plaster finish remain only in the center hall, the -stair hall behind it, and the parlor. The main stairway is equipped -with the original Chinese Chippendale balustrade. - -In 1899 the Paca House became the Carvel Hall Hotel, enlarged in 1906 -by rear additions that completely hid the back of the original house. -In 1964, when the structure faced demolition, Historic Annapolis, -Inc., purchased the Paca House portion. The next year, the State of -Maryland acquired the entire property. In 1967–69 it razed the 1906 -hotel additions and restored the gardens. Presently, the Maryland -Historical Trust, a public agency, holds title to the house, but -Historic Annapolis, Inc., retains all the responsibilities and rights -of ownership and administration. When this volume went to press, the -residence was undergoing an extensive restoration program and was not -accessible to the public. Historic Annapolis, Inc., plans to utilize it -as a guesthouse for visiting dignitaries, though the first floor will -be open to visitors. - - - - -Peggy Stewart House, Maryland - - _Location: Anne Arundel County, 207 Hanover Street, Annapolis._ - - -Thomas Stone purchased this Georgian residence in 1783 and until -his death 4 years later occupied it while in Annapolis, though he -maintained his home at Habre-de-Venture in Charles County. The Peggy -Stewart House was built sometime between 1761 and 1764 by Thomas -Rutland. Its owner in the period 1772–79 was Anthony Stewart, an -Annapolis merchant. In 1774 Revolutionaries forced him to burn his -ship, the _Peggy Stewart_, when he attempted to land a cargo of tea on -which he had paid taxes. Five years later, he fled to England. - -[Illustration: Peggy Stewart House.] - -Over the years, the rectangular brick house has been substantially -modified on both the exterior and interior. Its 2½ stories rest on an -elevated basement. At the time of a major alteration in 1894, the gable -roof was replaced by the present hip roof, which has a cutoff deck and -balustrade, and the chimneys were rebuilt in their current form. Two -gabled dormers are located at the front of the roof and one at each -side. Highlighting the ends of the house are central pavilions, which -have triangular pediments with round center windows. The chimneys cut -through the front corners of the pediments. A wooden box cornice with -frieze board below extends around the eaves. A large wing at the rear -is a later addition. - -The front facade of the house is comprised of all-header bond and -the sides of English bond. The basement and first-story windows are -topped by segmental arches, but the second-story windows have flat -ones. The sills are of stone, and louvered shutters flank the first- -and second-floor windows. The front entranceway, sheltered by a small -wooden porch with a triangular broken pediment, has a paneled door that -is surmounted by a rectangular glazed transom. - -In 1837 the house had 12 rooms, eight of which were equipped with -fireplaces. The original portion of the house, excluding the rear -addition, has a center hall floor plan. The stairs are set against the -east wall, beyond which is a large living room. A parlor and dining -room are situated to the west of the hall. Five bedrooms are located -upstairs. The interior of the house has been extensively remodeled in -recent times. Only one fireplace, in the southeast front room on the -second floor, retains its original mantel. - -The Peggy Stewart House, also known as the Rutland-Peggy Stewart House -and the Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, is privately owned and is not open -to the public. It is part of Colonial Annapolis Historic District. - - - - -Adams (John) Birthplace, Massachusetts ∆ - - _Location: Norfolk County, 133 Franklin Street, Quincy._ - - -This was the original homestead of the Adams family and the birthplace -of John Adams. Although not architecturally impressive, it is -historically notable as the place where John Adams grew to manhood. It -is adjacent to the John Quincy Adams Birthplace. - -The original house, a typical New England saltbox structure of frame -construction with a massive central chimney, was probably built -about 1681. It consisted of two lower and two upper rooms. Extensive -alterations were made over the years. The rear lean-to, built at some -unknown date in the 18th century, added two downstairs rooms and two -small upper ones, separated by a large attic. - -In 1720 John Adams’ father, “Deacon” John Adams, purchased the house, -where in 1735 young John was born. He lived there until his marriage -in 1764. He and his bride moved into a residence next door that he -had inherited from his father in 1761 and 6 years later was to be the -birthplace of his son John Quincy. In 1774 John bought his birthplace -home from his brother. His public duties and legal business kept him -away most of the time. By 1783, when he and his family were in Europe, -tenants resided in both the John Adams Birthplace and the John Quincy -Adams Birthplace. In 1788, when John Adams sailed home, he settled at -“Peacefield,” or the “Old House,” now Adams National Historic Site, in -another part of Quincy. In 1803 he sold both birthplaces to his son -John Quincy. - -[Illustration: John Adams and John Quincy Adams Birthplaces.] - -The John Adams Birthplace remained in the possession of the Adams -family until 1940, when they deeded it to the city of Quincy. In 1896 -they had given the Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, -permission to restore the residence, which the next year was made -accessible to the public. When the Adams Chapter dissolved in 1950, the -Quincy Historical Society took over the administration. In excellent -condition and still owned by the city, the house is open to the public. - - - - -Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Massachusetts ∆ - - _Location: Norfolk County, 141 Franklin Street, Quincy._ - -This frame structure was John Adams’ residence and law office during -the War for Independence and the birthplace of his son John Quincy. In -1744 “Deacon” John Adams had acquired the residence, the oldest part -of which may date from 1663. In 1761 he bequeathed it to young John. -At the time of the latter’s marriage 3 years later, he moved into it -from his neighboring birthplace so that he could better accommodate his -library and set up a law office. In 1767 John Quincy was born in the -house. - -Shortly thereafter, John’s growing law practice and role in public -affairs made it convenient for him to live in Boston most of the time, -but his wife and son remained in the Quincy home until after the War -for Independence. By 1783, when the family was in Europe, tenants were -occupying it. After coming back to the United States in 1788, John -Adams took up residence at “Peacefield,” or the “Old House,” now Adams -National Historic Site. In 1803 John Quincy purchased both birthplaces -from his father, and from 1805 to 1807 lived in his own birthplace. - -The John Quincy Adams Birthplace is well preserved. Like the John Adams -Birthplace, it is of typical New England saltbox design, originally -comprised of two upper and two lower rooms arranged around a huge -central chimney, and has been extensively altered. John Adams added a -lean-to of two rooms at the back for use as a new kitchen during the -time he used the original kitchen as a law office-library. - -In 1897 the Quincy Historical Society, aided by Adams heirs, restored -and opened the John Quincy Adams Birthplace to the public. In 1940 the -Adams family turned it over to the city of Quincy. Administered by the -Quincy Historical Society, it is accessible to the public. - - - - -Adams National Historic Site, Massachusetts ☑ - - _Location: Norfolk County, bounded by Adams Street, Furnace Brook - Parkway, and Newport Avenue, Quincy; address: 135 Adams Street, - Quincy, Mass. 02169._ - - -Featuring the Adams Mansion, this site is a memorial to four -generations of the distinguished Adams family, who resided in it from -1788 until 1927. - -John Adams (1735–1826), signer of the Declaration of Independence, -diplomat, the first Vice President, and the second President, -founded a long line of men who were outstanding in politics and -intellectual life. John Quincy (1767–1848), his son, won fame as a -diplomat, U.S. Congressman, Secretary of State, and sixth President. -Charles Francis Adams (1807–86), son of John Quincy, became a U.S. -Congressman, diplomat, and author. His four sons—John Quincy II -(1833–94), Charles Francis, Jr. (1835–1915), Henry (1838–1918), and -Brooks (1848–1927)—made notable marks in politics, literature, and -historiography. - -[Illustration: Adams Mansion.] - -The Adams Mansion, named “Peacefield” by John Adams but known to -some as the Vassall-Adams House and later to the Adams family as -the “Old House,” was dear and close to all of them. In 1730–31 Maj. -Leonard Vassall, a wealthy West Indian sugar planter who had come -to Massachusetts some 8 years before, built the oldest part of -the building. Comprising the front western section of the present -residence, it was a 2½-story frame structure of Georgian design with -clapboarded walls and gambrel roof. The first floor contained two rooms -separated by a central stair hall; the second floor, two bedrooms -and center hall; and the dormered attic, three smaller chambers. The -kitchen and servants’ quarters were detached. - -John Adams, while still Minister to Great Britain, bought the house in -September 1787 from Vassall’s grandson, Leonard Vassall Borland, and on -his return the next year took possession. At that time, he apparently -attached the 2½-story kitchen and servants’ quarters to the rear, or -northwest, corner of the main structure. In 1800, near the end of his -Presidency, he doubled the size of the residence by adding a large, -2½-story, L-shaped wing of frame at the east end. It was constructed -in the same Georgian style as the original house and contained on the -first floor a second entry hall and staircase and the “Long Room” to -the east of the hall. Adams’ large study-library was located on the -second floor. - -Other additions were made in the 19th century. In 1836 John Quincy -Adams built the passage along the back, or north, side of the structure -connecting the two rear service ells. In 1869 Charles Francis added -30 feet to the kitchen ell for additional servants’ quarters; the -following year, a detached stone library overlooking the garden; and in -1873, the stone stable. Brooks constructed the present entrance gates -in 1906. - -After retiring from the Presidency in 1801, John Adams lived in the -house year round until his death in 1826. Subsequently, until Brooks’ -death in 1927, other family members resided in it full time or spent -their summers there. The furnishings, to which each generation -contributed, reveal the continuity of life in the residence and the -tastes of the Adams family. - -In 1946 the Adams Memorial Society donated the property to the -Federal Government. Consisting of almost 5 acres, it includes the -well-maintained house, library, garden, and stables. It may be visited -from spring until the fall. - - - - -Elmwood, Massachusetts ∆ - - _Location: Middlesex County, 33 Elmwood Street, Cambridge._ - - -This impressive 18th-century mansion, also known as the -Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, was the residence of three men prominent -in American history: Andrew Oliver, royal Lieutenant Governor of -Massachusetts (1771–74); Elbridge Gerry, politician, diplomat, Governor -of the Commonwealth, signer of the Declaration, U.S. Representative, -and Vice President; and James Russell Lowell, author, poet, teacher, -and statesman. - -In 1767 Andrew Oliver, while serving as royal secretary of -Massachusetts, erected the building. An ex-stamp tax collector and a -firm Tory, he aroused the hatred of the Whigs, who on at least one -occasion attacked his home. He died in 1774 while serving as royal -Lieutenant Governor. Some time during the War for Independence, -Oliver’s estate including the mansion, was confiscated. - -[Illustration: Elmwood.] - -In 1787 Elbridge Gerry, who the previous year had retired from business -in Marblehead, Mass., moved to Cambridge and purchased the estate. -He lived there for the rest of his long career in public service. In -March 1813 he took the oath of office as Vice President in his home. -Because of heavy debts, on his death in Washington, D.C., in 1814, his -Cambridge residence remained his sole real estate holding. - -The mansion was also the birthplace and lifelong home of James Russell -Lowell (1819–91), one of the most distinguished men of letters of his -era, as well as a prominent U.S. diplomat. Except during the period -1877–85, when he served as Minister to Spain and Great Britain, he -lived at his birthplace, which he named “Elmwood.” - -Elmwood is a large, square, clapboarded-frame structure in Georgian -style with brick-lined walls and two interior chimneys. The first- and -second-story windows are topped by cornices. Above the foreshortened -third-story windows, typical in three-story Georgian houses, runs a -boldly modillioned cornice. A balustrade encloses the low-pitched hip -roof. The most striking exterior feature, however, is the entranceway, -which is flanked by Tuscan pilasters supporting a classic entablature -decorated with a frieze. A large window rests on the entablature -parapet motif and is flanked by Ionic pilasters and topped by a -triangular pediment. - -A one-story porch with balustraded roof deck on the north side of the -house, as well as a terrace on the south side, are later additions. -Located in the rear, at the northwest corner, is a two-story service -wing; in the rear, at the southwest corner, a one-story wing. Both of -them are of frame construction. All three floors in the main section -are bisected into two rooms on either side by a central hall. Portions -of the interior have been altered and modernized. - -Donated to Harvard University in 1962 and now used as the presidential -residence, Elmwood is not open to the public. The house and grounds are -in fine condition. - - - - -Gerry Birthplace, Massachusetts ⊗ - - _Location: Essex County, 44 Washington Street, Marblehead._ - - -Elbridge Gerry was born in this framehouse and resided in it until -1787, when he moved to Cambridge, Mass. His father, Thomas, had built -it about 1730, and it remained in possession of the Gerry family until -1820. - -Architectural evidence strongly suggests that the L-shaped building was -originally a two-story Georgian structure. About 1820 the two stories -were apparently raised and a third one built underneath. Since that -time, changes have been slight. The original interior finish of the -first story is entirely 19th century, and the original paneling on the -walls of the second story is clearly 18th century. - -[Illustration: Gerry Birthplace.] - -Today, the exterior is clapboarded. The long arm of the ell faces north -toward the street. A central hall divides the first floor of the long -arm into two rooms, the east and west parlors, both with 19th century -mantels, fireplaces, and flanking arched alcoves. The west parlor opens -into the short arm of the ell, which extends southward to the rear and -contains the dining room. Attached to the rear of the short arm is a -small rear service wing containing an L-shaped, one-story kitchen. A -one-story open veranda runs around the east and south elevations of the -long side of the ell, and a small porch flanks the dining room on its -west side. The second story contains three bedrooms, all displaying the -original 18th-century paneling on the fireplace walls. The third floor -consists of four bedrooms. - -The house and grounds, privately owned and not open to the public, are -well maintained. - - - - -Hancock-Clarke House, Massachusetts ∆ - - _Location: Middlesex County, 35 Hancock Street, Lexington._ - - -The only extant residence associated with John Hancock, this was his -boyhood home. In 1744, upon the death of his father at Quincy, the -7-year-old boy came to live at this house with his grandfather, Rev. -John Hancock. In 1750 the lad joined his childless uncle, Thomas -Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant who adopted him. - -[Illustration: Hancock-Clarke House.] - -By the time of the Revolution, Rev. Jonas Clarke, a relative by -marriage of the Hancocks, occupied the house, which had been built as -a parsonage by Rev. John Hancock. Clarke encouraged Revolutionaries to -use his home as a meetingplace and refuge. On the evening of April 18, -1775, patriot leaders Hancock and Samuel Adams were visiting there. -Around midnight, after everyone had gone to bed, Paul Revere and later -William Dawes, warning the countryside of the approach of British -troops, galloped up and informed the household. A few hours later, -Hancock and Adams fled northward to Burlington, Mass. They later moved -from place to place, staying away from Boston, until they proceeded to -Philadelphia to attend the Continental Congress, which convened the -next month. - -The Hancock-Clarke House consists of two frame sections, erected by -Rev. John Hancock at different times. The original one, built in 1698, -presently forms the small rear ell, 1½ stories high with gambrel roof. -A living room-kitchen and tiny study are located downstairs and two -low-studded chambers upstairs. The 2½-story front, or main, section of -the house dates from 1734 and was financed by Thomas Hancock for his -father. It has a large central chimney and contains a short center hall -and two rooms on each of the two floors. - -In 1896, when the building faced demolition, the Lexington Historical -Society acquired it and moved it from across the street to its present -location. In 1902 the society constructed a rear brick addition -containing a fireproof vault to protect its more valuable possessions. -Restored to its 18th-century appearance and well maintained, the -Hancock-Clarke House is open to the public and serves as headquarters -of the society. Recently the society purchased the original site of the -house, where foundations are visible. - - - - -Bartlett House, New Hampshire ∆ - - _Location: Rockingham County, on the west side of N.H. 111, - opposite the town hall, Kingston._ - - -This is the only extant structure closely associated with Josiah -Bartlett. He built it in 1774, after fire consumed his earlier home on -the same site, and lived in it until his death in 1795. - -[Illustration: Bartlett House.] - -The rectangular frame residence is clapboarded and two stories in -height. Two interior chimneys pierce the gabled roof. Exterior louvered -shutters border the windows. Many of the house’s existing features -date from the second third of the 19th century, when it was remodeled -in the Greek Revival style. They include the giant corner pilasters; -cornices over the first-story windows; the center door with cornice, -sidelights, and pilasters; and the one-story porch across the south end -of the structure. Another addition, at the southwest corner, was the -two-story frame ell, which gave the building its present L-shape. This -ell contains a summer kitchen and workroom on the first floor and four -bedrooms on the second. - -Center halls bisect the rooms on both stories of the main house -into pairs. The downstairs hall is divided into two sections, each -containing a stairway set against the north wall. To the south of -the hall on the first floor are the living room and the dining room, -originally the kitchen. These rooms are equipped with the original -chimneys and fireplaces. North of the hall is a parlor and behind it -a bedroom. Around 1860 the chimney for these rooms and the fireplace -in the parlor were rebuilt, and two closets that flanked the parlor -fireplace were converted into the existing arched alcoves. The second -floor contains four bedrooms, two on each side of the central hall. The -original wide floorboards are still in place throughout the residence. - -The house, in excellent condition, is still in the possession of -Bartlett descendants and is not open to the public. It has never -been restored, but is furnished with some original Bartlett pieces, -including a medical table and instruments. - - - - -Moffatt-Ladd House, New Hampshire ∆ - - _Location: Rockingham County, 154 Market Street, Portsmouth._ - - -An outstanding example of a late Georgian mansion, this impressive -three-story structure was the longtime residence of William Whipple. -Ship carpenters constructed it in 1763 for John Moffatt, a sea captain -and wealthy merchant. He presented it the following year as a wedding -gift to his son, Samuel, a merchant-shipowner. In 1768, after the -latter had failed in business and fled to the West Indies to escape -creditors, Captain Moffatt reacquired it and lived in it for the rest -of his life. Whipple and his wife, Catherine, Moffatt’s daughter, moved -into the house the same year as the captain. Whipple resided there -until his death in 1785; his wife and apparently his father-in-law, -too, survived him. - -[Illustration: Moffatt-Ladd House.] - -The square, clapboarded building stands on a slight elevation -overlooking old Portsmouth Harbor. Noteworthy features of the elaborate -exterior include white corner quoins and richly pedimented first- and -second-floor windows. The third-story windows, smaller in size, abut -the distinctive cornice. Side windows, like those on the third-floor -front, lack pediments. Rear windows on the first two stories have flat -arches with lengthened keystones. The hip roof, flanked by three end -chimneys, is cut off to form a flat deck, or captain’s walk, which -is enclosed by an attractive balustrade with urn finials. A delicate -fence with large ornamental posts, also topped by urn finials, spans -the front of the house, which is approached by a flight of granite -steps that lead up to the portico-covered entranceway. Near the front -northeast comer of the residence is the countinghouse, or office -(1810), a small, square building with a hip roof. - -The interior of the house is as highly embellished as the exterior. The -outstanding room on the first floor is the unusually spacious entrance -hall, one of the finest in New England. Its carved cornice is handsome, -and the walls are covered with rare imported French wallpaper of the -early 19th century. The beautiful and finely carved flight of stairs -is lighted by a roundheaded window in the side wall above the landing. -Except for the simple detail in the drawing room, that in other -first-floor rooms—dining room and pantry—is rich. Four bedrooms are -located on the second floor, and five additional chambers on the third. -Three of the second-floor bedrooms have richly carved overmantels. - -The carefully restored house and grounds were owned by the Ladd family, -descendants of the Moffatts through marriage, until 1969. From 1913 -until 1969, they leased the house to the Colonial Dames of America, -which maintained it for public display. In 1969 the Colonial Dames -acquired full title to the property. The first two floors of the house -are furnished in period pieces, and the third floor is not open. - - - - -Thornton House, New Hampshire ∆ - - _Location: Rockingham County, 2 Thornton Street, Derry Village._ - - -Matthew Thornton lived in this residence, which has since been -considerably altered, during his medical and most of his political -career. He probably acquired it in 1740, the year he moved from -Worcester, Mass., to present Derry Village (then a part of Londonderry) -to set up his medical practice. He resided in it until about 1780, when -he retired as a doctor and moved to a farm near Merrimack, N.H. - -The gable roof of the two-story frame structure, of the saltbox type, -slopes steeply to the rear, or north, and forms a one-story lean-to. -Two interior chimneys sit behind the ridge of the roof. The exterior, -remodeled in the Greek Revival style probably in the mid-19th century, -features giant pilasters on the front corners and a one-story portico -over the center door. The clapboarding is a replacement of the -original. All windows, including those in the gable ends, have exterior -louvered shutters, and flat cornices surmount those on the first floor. -A one-story frame service ell, extending from the northwest corner and -giving the house its present L-shape, contains the modernized kitchen -and what were once workrooms for servants. - -[Illustration: Thornton House.] - -Inside the house, a center hall bisects the rooms into two pairs and is -divided into two sections, each with its own stairway on the east wall. -To the east of the hall are the living room and modern laundry room; to -the west, dining room and present family room. The two chimneys, built -between the pairs of rooms to provide four fireplaces, one for each -room, were rebuilt on a smaller scale in the early 19th century for use -with Franklin stoves. Thus none of the original fireplaces and mantels -exist any longer, but a 19th-century mantel remains in the dining room. -The opposite fireplace in the family room, however, is modern. Features -dating from the 18th century include the framing and wide floorboards, -visible in all rooms except the family room where they are covered. The -second floor contains three bedrooms. - -The Thornton House, in fair condition, is used as a private residence -and is not open to the public. Its present owner hopes to restore it. - - - - -Hopkinson House, New Jersey ∆ - - _Location: Burlington County, 101 Farnsworth Avenue, Bordentown._ - - -Owned by the Hopkinson family for several generations, this house was -the residence of signer Francis Hopkinson from 1774 until his death in -1791. It was built in 1750 by merchant John Imlay (Emley), who used -part of it as a store. Sometime before 1768 Joseph Borden, a prominent -New Jersey citizen, acquired it. Hopkinson married his daughter at -Philadelphia in 1768, and, after a tour as customs collector at New -Castle, Del. (1772–74), moved to Bordentown and took up residence with -his father-in-law. - -Upon Hopkinson’s death, his eldest son, Joseph (1770–1842), inherited -the house. He achieved fame as composer, lawyer, judge, and politician. -Among his distinguished guests were Irish poet Thomas Moore, Thomas -Paine, and Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother. The Hopkinson family -retained possession of the property until 1915; since then, it has been -owned by the Wells family. - -The Hopkinson House is an L-shaped, brick and frame structure with a -gambrel, dormered roof. The main 2½-story section is constructed of -brick. The center door is topped by a rectangular transom, flanked by -sidelights, and sheltered by a segmental hood. A central hall, divided -into two sections by means of a wide folding door with an arched -fanlight above, bisects the first floor into two large rooms, living -room and library. Both of these are currently used by the Bordentown -Chamber of Commerce as an office and museum, open to the public. The -front portion of the central hall serves as an entrance hall; the rear -section, as the stair hall. A narrow hall extends from the stair hall -south across the rear of the main house. The second and third floors, -each containing four bedrooms, are used as apartments. - -[Illustration: Hopkinson House.] - -A two-story brick wing extends to the rear from the northeast corner -of the main section. Its first-floor dining room and the two bedrooms -comprising the second floor form an apartment unit. Attached to this -wing at the rear of the brick arm is a two-story frame wing that once -contained the kitchen and servant’s bedroom. - -The exterior of the house, except for the metal roof, appears to -be little altered. Interior features are plastered walls, wide -floorboards, and 19th-century mantels. Much of the original woodwork -and trim has apparently been replaced, but the basic floor plan has not -been greatly changed. The residence is in good condition. - - - - -Maybury Hill, New Jersey ∆ - - _Location: Mercer County, 346 Snowden Lane, Princeton._ - - -Maybury Hill, built about 1725, was the birthplace and boyhood home -of North Carolina signer Joseph Hewes. His father leased it from 1730 -until 1755. - -The house provides a fine example of Georgian architecture. It was -originally a small, two-story stone structure with gable roof. A short -distance away, at the northeast corner, stood a detached kitchen -building. In 1735, following a fire, the main house was rebuilt. In -1753 a major addition was made on the north side connecting it with the -kitchen building. This resulted in an L-shaped, two-story structure -with gabled roof and three end chimneys. The only alteration of -consequence since that time occurred about 1900, when the fieldstone -exterior walls were covered with concrete. - -Flat brick arches top the windows. Second-story windows have exterior -louvered shutters; those on the first, paneled shutters. Today the -house has a center hall floor plan. To the south of the hall is the -large parlor, which dates from 1725. To the north are the dining and -living rooms, added in 1753. Both of them have paneled walls, shell -cabinets, and exposed ceiling beams. The kitchen, dating from 1725, -is still in the northeast corner of the building. The dining room -fireplace is faced with tile. Four bedrooms occupy the upstairs. All -the floors are constructed of wide boards. - -Little-altered Maybury Hill was renovated in 1920, and is still in -excellent condition. A private residence, it is not open to visitors. - -[Illustration: Maybury Hill.] - - - - -Morven, New Jersey ∆ - - _Location: Mercer County, 55 Stockton Street, Princeton._ - - -Morven was the birthplace and lifelong home of Richard Stockton -(1730–81). In the summer of 1783 it was also the official residence -of his brother-in-law Elias Boudinot, President of the Continental -Congress, which was then meeting in Princeton. That same year, many -Revolutionary leaders gathered at the mansion to celebrate the signing -of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the War for Independence. - -Between 1701 and 1709 Stockton’s grandfather, also named Richard, -built the earliest section of Morven. It grew in a series of stages -until about 1775, when its exterior appearance approximated that of -today. Because fires in 1776, set by the British during the War for -Independence, and 1821 necessitated extensive repairs, the interior -dates from the late 18th or early 19th century. - -[Illustration: Morven.] - -A large Georgian mansion of brick, Morven consists of three sections: a -main central, two-story section over a raised basement and two lower, -attached, two-story wings. The facade of the main section, although -basically early Georgian in style, was altered in the 19th century -by the addition of a wide, one-story, Greek Revival porch. A central -hall divides the section into a large dining room and the Gold Room. -Fireplace walls in these rooms are fully paneled. The central hall -intersects a stair hall, which runs across the rear of the main portion -of the house and connects with the two wings. On the first floor of -the east wing are two large family rooms, the Red Room and library. -This wing was partially burned by the British. The west service wing -includes the kitchen. The only recent change, in 1945–54, was the -addition of a solarium, or Green Room, at the rear of the main section; -a one-story porch was enclosed to form the new room. - -Morven remained in possession of the Stockton family until 1945, when -Gov. and Mrs. Walter E. Edge acquired it. Nine years later, they -donated it to the State of New Jersey. Since that time, it has been the -official residence of the Governor. It is not accessible to the public. - - - - -President’s House, New Jersey ∆ - - _Location: Mercer County, on Nassau Street just northwest of Nassau - Hall, on the Princeton University campus, Princeton._ - - -From 1756 until 1879 this house was the official residence of the -president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton University after -1896). In 1768, when John Witherspoon emigrated from Scotland to -America to assume the presidency, he occupied it. While living there, -he represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress and signed the -Declaration. In 1779 he moved to his nearby farm, Tusculum. From then -until 1794 his son-in-law Samuel S. Smith, vice president of the -college, resided in the President’s House. From 1879 until 1968 it -was the home of the Dean of the Faculty and was known as the “Dean’s -House.” Since 1968, it has been called the Maclean House and has been -used by the Princeton Alumni Council. - -[Illustration: President’s House.] - -The Georgian building was designed and constructed in 1756 by Robert -Smith, a master carpenter of Philadelphia. Both on the exterior and -the interior, it has changed only slightly throughout the years. It -was originally a two-story brick structure, rectangular in shape, with -gable roof. A one-story polygonal bay extends westward from the rear -southwest comer. Near the same corner, a two-story service wing of -brick and stone runs southward. Above the windows of the main facade -are flat stone winged arches with keystones. Over the center door is a -fanlight surmounted by a triangular pediment. The exterior has retained -its original appearance and arrangement except that small double -dormers were later inserted in the center of the front and rear roofs -to create a third level. Additions in 1868 were a wide one-story frame -porch on the front of the residence and a one-story frame, polygonal -bay on the east side near the northeast front corner. - -The center door opens into a central hall that extends through the -house to rear stairs, against the east wall. To the east of the hall -are a library and study. The fireplace wall in the library is fully -paneled. To the west of the hall are a parlor and dining room. The -second floor of the main house contains four bedrooms; the third floor, -three additional rooms. Two bedrooms are located on the second floor -of the service wing. In excellent condition, the house is open to the -public. - - - - -Tusculum, New Jersey ⊗ - - _Location: Mercer County, 166 Cherry Hill Road, Princeton._ - - -John Witherspoon made this his home from 1779 until his death in 1794. -In 1773, while serving as president of the College of New Jersey (later -Princeton University), he acquired some farmland near Princeton and -built Tusculum. For several years he leased out the house and farm, but -in 1779 he moved from the President’s House to Tusculum. - -The two-story Georgian structure of fieldstone with gabled roof and -two pairs of end chimneys originally had only one extension, a lower, -two-story, stone and frame wing attached to the west end of the house -along its main axis. First-story windows of both sections have exterior -paneled shutters; second-story windows, louvered shutters. In later -years, two additional wings, both of frame and two stories in height, -were added to the east and west ends of the structure. Designed in the -same style as the rest of the house, they do not seriously alter the -original appearance of the front elevation. - -[Illustration: Tusculum.] - -The stairway is located in an ell at the rear portion of the center -hall along the east wall. To the east of the hall lie the living room -and study; to the west, a large dining room, which occupies the entire -west half of the main house. Four bedrooms are upstairs. The finish in -two of them date from about 1825. The original service wing, on the -west side, contains a kitchen on the first floor and two bedrooms on -the second. - -Tusculum has never undergone any major alterations and it is in -excellent condition. In 1924 the present owner acquired it. Under -his supervision, a Philadelphia firm restored it to its 18th-century -appearance. The major changes were the removal of 19th-century porches -at the front, or south, and elimination of a partition wall in the -dining room. The structure continues to serve as a private residence -and is not shown to visitors. - - - - -Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), New York ☑ - - _Location: Suffolk County, 20 Washington Avenue, Mastic, Long - Island; address: Fire Island National Seashore, P.O. Box 229, - Patchogue, N.Y. 11772._ - - -This farmhouse, which stood on a large estate the Floyd family had -acquired in 1718, was the birthplace in 1734 of William Floyd and his -residence for the greater part of his life—though he and his family -were forced to abandon it in the period 1776–83 and flee to Middletown, -Conn. During that time, British troops and Loyalists considerably -damaged the estate. In 1803 Floyd presented the house to his son Nicoll -and moved to present Westernville, N.Y. - -[Illustration: Floyd Birthplace.] - -The earliest section of the large, frame Georgian building, which was -enlarged several times along its west side during the 18th century, -dates from about 1724. The structure now consists of a two-story main -section and three wings. The former, entered through a Dutch door, -is laid out in central hall fashion. To the west of the hall are a -parlor and back of that an office; to the east, a dining room, behind -which are a gunroom and pantry side by side. Interesting features on -the first floor are exposed ceiling beams and wide floorboards. Seven -bedrooms occupy the second floor. - -Extending from the rear of the central hall is a two-story north -service wing, probably added about 1900. A 1½-story east service wing, -with a dormered, gable roof, dates from the 18th century. At the rear, -or to the north, of this wing, is a third service wing, 1½ stories -high. It contained the original kitchen and was once located at the -west end of the main house. Except for this relocation and the addition -of the north wing, the main house and east wing are basically unchanged -from their 18th-century appearance. The overall structure is in good -condition and is furnished with many original pieces belonging to the -Floyd family. - -In 1965 Floyd descendants donated 613 acres of the estate to the U.S. -Government for inclusion in Fire Island National Seashore, but retained -use and occupational rights to 43 acres and the house for a period of -25 years. Thus the residence will not be open to the public until 1990. - - - - -General Floyd House, New York ∆ - - _Location: Oneida County, on the west side of Main Street opposite - Gilford Hill Road, Westernville._ - - -William Floyd lived in this home from 1803 until his death in 1821. -In 1784 he had begun purchasing frontier land near present Rome in -western New York, and 3 years later the State granted him 10,240 acres -in the same area. During the summers, he visited and developed his -tracts. In 1803, nearly 70 years of age, he deeded his residence at -present Mastic, on Long Island, N.Y., to his son Nicoll and moved the -rest of his family to present Westernville, where he constructed this -farmhouse. He spent the remainder of his life farming and improving his -wilderness lands. - -[Illustration: General Floyd House.] - -Constructed of frame, the Georgian-style residence consists of a large, -two-story main section with gable roof and a lower, two-story service -wing attached to the west end. A center door, flanked by a pair of -small windows, opens into a central hall that extends through the -house to another door on the north side. The stairs are set against -the west wall of the hall. To the east of the hall are two large -parlors containing cupboards and paneled fireplace walls. To the west -of the hall is a dining room and behind that a study. The rooms have -plastered walls and ceilings and wide floorboards. Four bedrooms occupy -the second floor, and the attic is unfinished. The service wing, which -includes the kitchen, is located to the west of the dining room. - -The structure, unaltered except for metal roofs and modern plumbing, -is in excellent condition. It remained in the possession of Floyd -descendants until 1956. Still privately owned, it is not open to the -public. - - - - -Iredell House, North Carolina ⊗ - - _Location: Chowan County, 107 East Church Street, Edenton._ - - -Early in 1798, in a state of extreme mental anguish because of mounting -debts brought on by unwise speculation in lands, James Wilson, probably -while visiting North Carolina on Federal circuit court matters, took -refuge in this house. It was the home of his friend and fellow U.S. -Supreme Court Justice James Iredell. Within a few months, Wilson died -there. - -[Illustration: Iredell House.] - -The little-altered Iredell House is a large L-shaped structure. It is -constructed of frame and is two stories in height with gable roof. -Two-story verandas span the front, or south, and rear elevations of -the long arm of the ell. The building was erected in three stages. The -earliest, the present short, or east, arm of the ell, was built in 1759 -by John Wilkins, with its narrow gable end fronting on the street. In -1776 Joseph Whedbee enlarged the structure by adding to its west side -the two easternmost bays of the present five-bay long arm. In 1810 -Iredell’s widow extended the arm by three bays to its present size and -added the verandas. - -The original section of the house contains a living room and one other -room on the first floor and two bedrooms on the second. The first floor -of the 1776 section consists of the dining room; the second floor, a -large bedroom. These two sections are furnished as a historic house -museum and are open to the public. The remaining section of the long -arm, dating from 1810, serves as the caretaker’s quarters. The State -owns and administers the residence. - - - - -Nash-Hooper House, North Carolina ∆ - - _Location: Orange County, 118 West Tryon Street, Hillsborough._ - - -The Nash-Hooper House is the only extant residence that can be -associated with William Hooper and is the only surviving home of a -signer in the State. It was built in 1772 by Francis Nash, who later -attained the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army and -lost his life in the War for Independence. In 1782, after the British -had driven Hooper into hiding and destroyed his estate Finian near -Wilmington, he moved to Hillsborough, where his family had fled. He -purchased the Nash-Hooper House and resided in it until his death in -1790. Subsequently, from 1869 until 1875, it was the home of William A. -Graham, former Governor of North Carolina. - -The original portion of the rectangular, two-story house was -constructed with a braced oak frame that was held together by pegs and -pins. It rests on shale foundations over an elevated basement, in which -are located two rooms and a center hall. The roof is gabled, with a -chimney at each end. A one-story, frame, “sitting room” (later dining -room) wing, added in 1819 on a log base, extends from the rear, or -north, of the house and creates its present L-shape. Weatherboarded -siding covers both sides of the wing and the front of the main section. -All the windows are flanked with exterior louvered shutters. The -one-story porch spanning the front of the house dates from the late -19th century. A detached kitchen, erected in 1819 just east of the -house adjacent to the storeroom and dining room in the north wing, was -demolished in 1908. Sometime during the period 1939–59, the dining room -in the north wing was converted into the present kitchen, and bathrooms -were installed in the residence. - -[Illustration: Nash-Hooper House.] - -The center hall of the main house is divided into two sections by means -of an arch near the rear. West of the hall are a large library and a -small study or bedroom; to the east, a large parlor and in the rear -corner a narrow, lateral stair hall, with the stairs set against the -north wall. Three bedrooms are located on the second floor, and the -attic is unfinished. Wide floorboards are exposed throughout most of -the main house. An original pine mantel remains in the dining room. - -Although the little-altered Nash-Hooper House is structurally sound, it -has never been restored, and extensive painting and plastering will be -required to return it to good condition. It is privately owned and is -not open to the public. - -Hooper was buried to the east of his home in the garden. That part -of the garden was later absorbed by the town cemetery, behind the -Presbyterian Church. In 1894 Hooper’s remains were reinterred at -Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., though his original -gravestone remains in the Hillsborough cemetery. - - - - -Independence National Historical Park, Pennsylvania ☑ - - _Location: Philadelphia County, in downtown Philadelphia; address: - 313 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19106._ - - -This park in the old part of Philadelphia is not only preeminent -among the sites associated with the signers of the Declaration of -Independence, but also notably commemorates other major aspects of -the Nation’s founding and initial growth and many momentous national -events. These include meetings of the First and Second Continental -Congresses; adoption and signing of the Declaration, which marked the -creation of the United States; and the labors of the Constitutional -Convention of 1787, which perpetuated it. As historian Carl Van Doren -has said: “On account of the Declaration of Independence, [Independence -Hall] is a shrine honored wherever the rights of man are honored. On -account of the Constitution, it is a shrine cherished wherever the -principles of self-government on a federal scale are cherished.” - -[Illustration: Independence Hall.] - -Independence Hall was originally the State House for the Province of -Pennsylvania. In 1729 the provincial assembly set aside funds for -the building, designed by lawyer Andrew Hamilton. Three years later, -construction began under the supervision of master carpenter Edmund -Wooley. In 1736 the assembly moved into the statehouse, which was not -fully completed until 1756. - -As American opposition to British colonial policies mounted, -Philadelphia became a center of organized protest. To decide on a -unified course of action, in 1774 the First Continental Congress met -in newly finished Carpenters’ Hall, whose erection the Carpenters’ -Company of Philadelphia had begun 4 years earlier. In 1775 the Second -Continental Congress, taking over the east room of the ground floor -of the statehouse from the Pennsylvania assembly, moved from protest -to resistance. Warfare had already begun in Massachusetts. Congress -created an Army and appointed George Washington as commander in chief. -Yet the final break with the Crown had not come; not until a year later -would independence be declared. - -On July 2, 1776, Congress passed Richard Henry Lee’s resolution of -June 7 recommending independence. The Delegates then turned their -attention to Thomas Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration, which had -been submitted on June 28. After modification, it was adopted on July -4. Four days later, in Independence Square, the document was first read -publicly, to the citizens of Philadelphia. In a formal ceremony on -August 2, about 50 of the 56 signers affixed their signatures to the -Declaration; the others apparently did so later. - -Long, hard years of war ensued. In the late autumn and winter of -1776–77, the British threatened Philadelphia and Congress moved to -Baltimore. Again in the fall of 1777 it departed, this time for York, -Pa. During the British occupation of Philadelphia that winter and the -next spring, the redcoats used Independence Hall as a barracks and as a -hospital for American prisoners. In the summer of 1778, the Government -returned. On November 3, 1781, Congress officially received news of -Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown. Independence practically had been -won. - -Earlier that same year, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual -Union had gone into effect. Under the Confederation, Congress stayed -in Philadelphia until 1783, and later met in other cities. In 1787 -the Constitutional Convention also held its highly secret sessions in -Independence Hall, in the same chamber in which the Declaration had -been adopted. - -About the same time that Philadelphia became the second Capital -(1790–1800) under the Constitution, after the Government had moved -from New York City, Independence Hall acquired three new neighbors -in Independence Square: City Hall (1791), on the east; County Court -House (1789), on the west; and American Philosophical Society Hall, -on the southeast. Beginning in 1790, Congress met in the County Court -House (subsequently known as Congress Hall). The following year, after -sitting for a few days in Independence Hall, the U.S. Supreme Court -moved to City Hall. In 1793 George Washington was inaugurated for his -second term as President in Congress Hall, and 4 years later President -Adams also took his oath of office there. - -In 1799 the State government vacated Independence Hall and moved -to Lancaster. The next year, the Federal Government relocated to -Washington, D.C. The city of Philadelphia then used City Hall and -Congress Hall, and various tenants occupied Independence Hall until the -city acquired it in 1818. For example, during the period 1802–27 artist -Charles Willson Peale operated a museum there. He and his son painted -many of the signers and heroes of the War for Independence. These -portraits form the nucleus of the park’s present collection, which is -exhibited in the Second Bank of the United States Building; a special -room is devoted to the signers. - -Stately and symmetrical Independence Hall, a 2½-story red brick -structure that has been carefully restored, is the most beautiful -18th-century public building of Georgian style in the United States. -The tall belltower, reconstructed along the original lines in 1828 by -architect William Strickland, dominates the south facade. Smaller -two-story, hip-roofed, brick wings, erected in 1736 and 1739 and -restored in 1897–98, one of which serves as a park information center, -are connected to the main building by arcades. - -[Illustration: Independence Hall in 1778.] - -The interior focus of interest in Independence Hall is the Assembly -Room, the eastern one on the first floor. Probably no other room in -the United States has been the scene of such political courage and -wisdom. In this chamber, members of the Continental Congress and the -Constitutional Convention formulated and signed the Declaration of -Independence and Constitution. The room is about 40 feet square and -20 feet high. Twin segmental-arched fireplaces along the east wall -flank the speaker’s dais. Massive fluted pilasters raised on pedestals -adorn the paneled east wall. The other three walls are plastered. -A heavy Roman Doric entablature borders the plaster ceiling. The -furniture arrangement at the time of the Continental Congress has been -duplicated. The only original furnishings are the “Rising Sun” chair -and the silver inkstand with quill box and shaker used by the signers -of the Declaration and the Constitution. - -[Illustration: Restored Assembly Room, Independence Hall, where Members -of the Continental Congress adopted and signed the Declaration of -Independence.] - -The other large room on the ground floor, where the U.S. Supreme Court -held sessions for a few days in 1791 and again in August 1796, housed -the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and later other State and local -courts. The paneled walls are decorated with massive fluted pilasters -of the Roman Doric order. The central hall between this room and the -Assembly Room is richly adorned with a Roman Doric order of columns and -entablature, fully membered. On the second floor are the Long Room, -Governor’s Council Chamber, and Committee Room. These are furnished to -represent the activities of the Pennsylvania legislature and government -prior to 1775. - -The Liberty Bell, a worldwide emblem of freedom, is displayed in the -tower stair hall on the south end of the first floor. [When this -volume went to press, the bell was scheduled to be moved in the near -future to a newly constructed belltower, part of the park visitor -center, located 2 blocks from Independence Hall.] The source of the -2,080-pound bell’s name is the “Proclaim Liberty” inscription, engraved -on it to commemorate the 50th anniversary of William Penn’s Charter -of Privileges (1701). In 1750 the Pennsylvania assembly authorized -erection of the Independence Hall belltower, and the next year -ordered a bell from England. After it arrived in 1752, it was cracked -during testing and was twice recast by local workmen. As the official -statehouse bell, it was rung on public occasions. In 1777, before the -British occupied Philadelphia, the Government moved it temporarily to -Allentown, Pa. Traditionally the bell cracked once again, in 1835, -while tolling the death of Chief Justice John Marshall. The exterior -appearances of City Hall and Congress Hall have changed little since -the 1790’s, when many of the signers served in the Government. The -interior of Congress Hall has been restored and refurnished as the -meetingplace of Congress in the 1790’s. Exhibits in City Hall describe -the activities of the U.S. Supreme Court during the same period of -time, and portray Philadelphia life during the late 18th century. -Carpenters’ Hall, a block east of Independence Square, is still owned -and operated by the Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia. The hall -memorializes the First Continental Congress and possesses architectural -significance. - -The American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743 by Benjamin -Franklin and the oldest learned society in the United States, still -maintains its headquarters in Philosophical Hall. Its distinguished -membership once included 15 of the signers. The society’s collections -also contain furniture and documents associated with them. - -In the years 1789–91, the Library Company of Philadelphia (organized -in 1731), one of the first public libraries in the United States, -erected Library Hall, across from Independence Square on the corner of -Library and Fifth Streets. Numbering among the members were 11 signers, -including company founder Franklin. Library Hall, reconstructed by the -American Philosophical Society, now serves as its library. The Library -Company is quartered elsewhere in the city. - -In addition to the preceding buildings, numerous sites associated -with the signers have also been identified within the park. Many of -them have been marked. On some, later buildings now stand. In a few -instances, the National Park Service has excavated and stabilized -foundations. Outstanding among the sites is that of the Jacob Graff, -Jr., House, two blocks from Independence Hall on the southwest corner -of Seventh and Market Streets. Jefferson was occupying the second floor -of the 3½-story brick house when he wrote the Declaration in June 1776. -His rented quarters consisted of a bedroom and parlor. He likely did -much of his writing on a portable writing desk of his own design. In -1791 the Graff House was also the residence of signer James Wilson. It -was demolished in 1883. - -Other sites include those of the home (1766–90) and other structures -associated with Franklin, on Franklin Court in the block south of -Market Street between Third and Fourth Streets; two adjoining homes -(1785–90 and 1790–95) of Robert Morris, on the southeast corner of -Market and Sixth Streets, one of which was the unofficial Presidential -Mansion (1790–1800), where John Adams resided (1797–1800) while -President; Clarke Hall, on the southwest corner of Chestnut and Third -Streets, the residence of Samuel Huntington (1779–81) and Thomas -McKean (1781); Benjamin Rush’s home (1791–93), on the northwest corner -of Walnut and Third Streets; the James Wilson home (“Fort Wilson”) -(1778–90), on the southwest corner of the same intersection; and City -Tavern, near Walnut and Second Streets, a gathering place for members -of the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention, as well as -other Government officials. - -In connection with the U.S. Bicentennial commemoration, the National -Park Service plans to reconstruct the Graff House and the City Tavern. - -[Illustration: Congress Hall, seat of the U.S. Congress from 1790 until -1800.] - -The graves and tombs of seven signers are also located in the park. -Five (Franklin, Hewes, Hopkinson, Ross, and Rush) are in Christ Church -Burial Ground, at the southeast corner of Fifth and Arch Streets; and -two (Wilson and Robert Morris) in the yard of Christ Church, on Second -Street between Church and Filbert Streets. The graves of Hewes and Ross -are unmarked. A rose garden, dedicated in January 1971 to the memory -of the signers of the Declaration by the Daughters of the American -Revolution, is situated in a plot in the area between Walnut and Locust -and Fourth and Fifth Streets. - -[Illustration: Carpenters’ Hall, meetingplace in 1774–75 of the First -Continental Congress.] - -Buildings and sites in the park that are mainly of interest in other -themes of history than that treated in this volume include: the First -Bank of the United States; the Second Bank of the United States (Old -Custom House); New Hall (Marine Corps Museum); the Pemberton House -(Army-Navy Museum); the Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange; the Bishop -White House; the Deshler-Morris House, in Germantown; the Todd House; -St. George’s Church; St. Joseph’s Church; St. Mary’s Church; Mikveh -Israel Cemetery; and Gloria Dei (Old Swede’s) Church National Historic -Site. - -[Illustration: The Graff House about 1855. By this time, alterations -had rendered it almost completely unrecognizable from its original -appearance. Among other changes, it had been joined to an adjacent -building and raised a story higher, more than doubling its size.] - -The structures and properties in 22-acre Independence National -Historical Park, most of which are open to the public, include those -owned by the city of Philadelphia, but administered by the National -Park Service. These consist of Independence Hall, Congress Hall, City -Hall, and Independence Square. In recent years, to enhance the setting -of the area, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has created Independence -Mall in the three blocks directly north of Independence Hall. Federally -owned buildings include the First and Second Banks of the United -States; the Deshler-Morris House, administered by the Germantown -Historical Society; Todd House; Bishop White House; New Hall; Pemberton -House; and the Philadelphia Exchange. - -Among those privately owned buildings whose owners have cooperative -agreements with the National Park Service are Carpenters’ Hall -and Christ Church, both National Historic Landmarks. The American -Philosophical Society owns Philosophical Hall, another Landmark and the -only privately owned building on the square, but also operates Library -Hall, on federally owned land. - -In 1948, upon recommendation of the Philadelphia National Shrines Park -Commission, Congress created Independence National Historical Park. -This act specified the Federal Government’s role in the commemoration -of existing historic sites and buildings and the acquisition and -management of others. The entire undertaking is guided by an advisory -commission of distinguished citizens. Many individuals and private -and civic organizations have contributed to the preservation and -beautification of the park. - - - - -Parsons-Taylor House, Pennsylvania ⊗ - - _Location: Northampton County, northeast corner of Fourth and Ferry - Streets, Easton._ - - -This house, built by William Parsons in 1757, was leased by George -Taylor during the last year of his life and was the site of his death -in February 1781. His health failing and his iron business declining, -he had moved there the previous April from Greenwich Township, N.J. - -[Illustration: Parsons-Taylor House.] - -The residence, a small, two-story Georgian structure constructed of -fieldstone, has a steep gable roof and a pent roof extending along the -front at the second-floor level. A single chimney is located in the -north sidewall. The front door is surmounted by a rectangular transom; -the center door, in the south side, is sheltered by a hood. A frame -attachment to the house, probably existing in 1780, no longer stands. - -A single large room containing stairs and a fireplace on the north wall -make up the first floor. The walls are plastered, and the joists are -supported by heavy, exposed beams. Bedrooms occupy the second floor -and attic. Restored about 1906, the structure is in fine condition -and is owned by the George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American -Revolution, which uses it as a meetingplace. It is not usually open to -visitors. - - - - -Shippen-Wistar House, Pennsylvania ⊗ - - _Location: Philadelphia County, southwest corner of Fourth and - Locust Streets, Philadelphia._ - - -Meetingplace of medical and political dignitaries, this townhouse was -the residence of three eminent doctors and was visited by some of the -signers and other key governmental officials. It was erected about -1750 by Dr. William Shippen, Sr. (1712–1802). A prominent medical man -of his day, he also served in the Continental Congress and contributed -to Philadelphia’s cultural life. His son, Dr. William Shippen, Jr. -(1736–1808), won distinction as a teacher as well as a practitioner, -helped found the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, and in -the period 1777–81 directed medical services in the Continental Army. -He and his father apparently shared the residence part of the time -during their careers. Like the Shippens, Dr. Caspar Wistar (1761–1818), -who acquired the house in 1798, was distinguished in medical and -intellectual circles. - -Various signers and other Delegates to the Continental Congress paid -visits to the home. Richard Henry Lee, brother-in-law of young Shippen, -stayed there. Francis Lightfoot and Arthur Lee likely often made calls. -On occasion John Adams and John Witherspoon stopped by. Other notables -who did so later were George Washington, while presiding over the -Constitutional Convention (1787); Benjamin Rush, before his clash with -Shippen, Jr., over medical conditions in the Continental Army; Robert -R. Livingston, who had served on the Declaration drafting committee, -in the 1780’s; John Adams, while Vice President; and Jefferson, as -Secretary of State. - -The exterior of the house is in good condition, but the interior -has been extensively altered. A 3½-story building in the colonial -Philadelphia architectural style, it is constructed in Flemish bond -with red bricks and black headers. The windows are shuttered. Notable -are a high gable on the Fourth Street side and brick parapet walls on -the roof joining the two end chimneys, one on each side of the roof -near the peak of the ridge. A garden extends along the Locust Street -side at the original rear of the house, which is now entered from -that side rather than from Fourth Street. The building is owned and -occupied by an insurance company, which has built a passageway between -it and the adjacent Cadwalader House on the south. Access to the two -structures is limited to the company’s customers. - - - - -Summerseat, Pennsylvania ∆ - - _Location: Bucks County, on Clymer Street in the block bounded by - Morris and Hillcrest Avenues, Morrisville._ - - -Summerseat was erected in the 1770’s by Thomas Barclay, a Philadelphia -merchant. In 1806 George Clymer acquired it and resided in it until his -death in 1813. It is a two-story, brick and stone Georgian structure -over an elevated basement. The roof is gabled and slate-covered. The -wall of the front, or east, facade is brick; the end walls, probably -also of brick, are covered with cement; the rear wall is of fieldstone. -Front first- and second-story windows are topped by flat arches of -gauged brick; rear windows on both levels and all the basement windows, -by segmental arches, also of gauged brick. Exterior solid shutters -flank the first- and second-story windows. - -A rectangular transom and triangular pediment surmount the front center -door. Central halls divide the four rooms on each floor into pairs. -Each of the rooms is equipped with a fireplace. The stairs, located -at the rear of the hall along the south wall, are lighted by a large -window over the landing. The walls, floors, and some of the woodwork -appear to be original. Restored in 1931 and renovated 4 years later, -the house is owned by the Morrisville School District and is used for -educational purposes. It is open to the public only on a restricted -basis. - -[Illustration: Summerseat.] - - - - -Taylor House, Pennsylvania ∆ - - _Location: Lehigh County, on Front Street, Catasauqua._ - - -In 1768 George Taylor employed Philadelphia carpenters to build this -stone residence on the east bank of the Lehigh River, about 15 miles -west of Easton at the site of present Catasauqua. The structure was -located on a 331-acre tract of land, known as the “Manor of Chawton,” -which he had acquired the previous year. In 1771 he leased out most -of the manor as a farm, and 5 years later sold the house and land to -Philadelphia merchant John Benezet. - -The rectangular residence is Georgian in style and consists of two -stories over an elevated basement. The thick walls are built of stone -masonry rubble faced with a whitish, slaked-lime stucco. Over the -windows are flat arches of gauged brick. First-floor windows have -exterior solid-panel shutters; those on the second floor, louvered. A -heavy, overhanging cornice surrounds the truncated hip roof. The brick -chimneys at both ends are symmetrically paired. A two-story stone -kitchen wing, dating from about 1800, adjoins the house at the south -end. - -[Illustration: Taylor House.] - -At the center of the front, or west, facade, a flight of marble -pyramidal steps lead up to a double door, over which are a rectangular -transom and triangular pediment. The central hall, which extends to the -rear of the house toward the stairway, is divided by an archway, with -fluted pilasters. Situated to the north of the hall are living room and -parlor; to the south, dining room and reception, or service, room. Of -special interest in the dining room, parlor, and living room are the -finely executed door pediments and fully paneled fireplace walls. Other -walls in these rooms have paneled wainscots and finely detailed chair -rails. The fireplace paneling and mantel in the dining room date from -the 19th century and represent the Greek Revival style, but the rest of -the first-floor paneling and mantels are original, as are also the wide -pine floorboards and iron hardware. - -The second floor consists of four bedrooms and two small dressing -rooms. The fireplace paneling in the two bedrooms on the front side of -the house is almost as elaborate as that downstairs. A 1½-story, brick -summer kitchen, near the rear of the house, dates from about 1850. - -The slightly altered Taylor House, acquired in 1945 by the Lehigh -County Historical Society and restored in 1966–68, is in excellent -condition and is open to the public. - - - - -Governor Hopkins House, Rhode Island ∆ - - _Location: Providence County, 15 Hopkins Street, Providence._ - - -Stephen Hopkins bought this framehouse in 1742 and resided in it until -his death in 1785. It is the only extant structure closely associated -with him. The oldest section, the lower level of the present southwest -rear ell, dates from about 1707, when the small dwelling comprised two -first-floor rooms and an attic. As soon as he acquired the building, -Hopkins enlarged and remodeled it into its present L-shaped, two-story -form. - -The Georgian building, which has a gabled roof and two chimneys, is -clapboarded. Cornices decorate the first-story windows. In 1928, during -a major restoration, a reconstructed door, with triangular pediment and -pilasters typical of the 18th century, was inserted in place of one of -the four windows along the present front elevation. This door, the only -major alteration in the house, became the main entrance. It replaced -a door on the west side, which opens into the original kitchen and is -still extant. - -The central hall, along the east wall of which is the main stairway, -divides the front of the residence into two rooms, study and parlor. -The recessed parlor bookshelves, set in paneling above the hearth, -are distinctive. The paneling of the two fireplaces in the study and -ell is simpler. A passageway leads from the parlor to the southwest -ell, which consists of the original kitchen and in the southeast -corner a small bedroom. Five bedrooms, two of which are equipped with -fireplaces, are located upstairs. The interior of the house, including -stairs, woodwork, floors, and fireplaces, is largely original. The fine -garden was designed by a descendant of Stephen Hopkins, the late Alden -Hopkins, prominent landscape architect. - -[Illustration: Governor Hopkins House.] - -The Governor Hopkins House, first located on the northeast corner of -Hopkins and South Main Streets, was moved eastward in 1804 along the -north side of and about halfway up Hopkins Street. In 1927, to make -way for the construction of a new courthouse, the building was again -relocated eastward along the same street, to its present site, and the -next year was restored. Since that time, the State of Rhode Island has -owned the house and maintained the exterior and grounds. The Society of -Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island maintains and administers -the interior as a historic house museum. - - - - -Heyward-Washington House, South Carolina ∆ - - _Location: Charleston County, 87 Church Street, Charleston._ - - -From 1778 until 1794 this townhouse was the principal residence -of Thomas Heyward, Jr. During this period, however, he also spent -considerable time at White Hall, his country estate near that of -his father about 25 miles northeast of Savannah, and in 1780–81 was -imprisoned by the British at St. Augustine. In 1770 his father, Daniel, -a rice planter, had purchased the lot and a two-story house standing on -it. Within 2 years, he probably demolished it and erected the present -one. Thomas inherited it in 1777, and moved in the following year, -upon completion of his tour in the Continental Congress. In 1780, when -the British took Charleston, they captured him and forced his family -to flee from the townhouse. For a week in 1791 the city rented it for -use of President Washington, who was visiting Charleston while touring -the Southern States. Three years later, Heyward sold the property and -retired to White Hall. - -[Illustration: Heyward-Washington House.] - -A slightly altered Georgian structure, the residence is a superb -example of a Charleston “double house.” The floor plan is the typical -Georgian center hall type, with four rooms on each floor. Two -interior chimneys allow for two fireplaces in pairs set back to back -on all floors. The first-floor rooms are simple; those on the second, -elaborate, for entertaining. The downstairs hall, divided by an arch -at midpoint, extends to a rear door. A Palladian window lights the -stairway, located at the rear of the hall against the north wall. - -The large second-floor drawing room, the most elaborate room in the -house, features paneled walls, pedimented doors, interior paneled -shutters, an elaborate ceiling cornice, and a fireplace with a -magnificent carved mantel. In addition to the drawing room, the second -floor contains a smaller parlor and two bedrooms, each of which has a -paneled fireplace wall. Four more rooms are located on both the first -and third floors. Except for reconstruction in 1929 of one front room -and the front of the hall on the first floor, the structure is largely -original. - -The brick house is square and rises three stories. The hipped roof -is pierced by a single front dormer and ornamented by a narrow, -denticulated cornice. Brick flat arches head the windows. The upper -windows have louvered shutters; those on the first floor, paneled -shutters. The center entrance, a reconstruction, consists of a -fan-lighted door surmounted by a pediment and flanked by Roman Doric -columns. A rear courtyard contains a brick kitchen-laundry with slave -quarters above, a carriage house, wood and tool sheds, a necessary, and -garden. - -Subsequent to Heyward’s ownership, the house passed through several -hands until rescued from the threat of demolition in 1929 by the -Charleston Museum. After restoration and furnishing with period pieces, -it was opened to the public. A collection of china once owned by -Heyward is on display, as well as portraits of the Heyward family. - - - - -Hopsewee-on-the-Santee, South Carolina ∆ - - _Location: Georgetown County, on an unimproved road just west of - U.S. 17, about 13 miles southwest of Georgetown._ - - -Erected by his father during the 1740’s, this house on the north bank -of the North Santee River was the birthplace in 1749 and the boyhood -home of Thomas Lynch, Jr. He lived in it until his father sold it in -1763, the year before young Lynch sailed to Europe to continue his -education. It is the only surviving residence closely associated with -him. - -[Illustration: Hopsewee-on-the-Santee.] - -The 2½-story framehouse rests on a brick foundation, which is covered -with scored tabby. Two front dormers and two interior chimneys -protrude from the hip roof. A broad, two-story porch, or piazza, with -square columns extends across the front of the building. The frame, -comprised of black cypress, is of mortise-and-tenon construction, and -the walls are clapboarded. Exterior paneled shutters flank the first- -and second-story windows. Except for the present metal roof and the -screening of the front porch, the outside of the structure has not been -appreciably altered. - -The central hall arrangement divides four rooms into pairs on the first -two floors. All the rooms are equipped with fireplaces. Throughout, the -mantels, wainscoting, cornice mold, and heart pine floors are original -and excellently crafted. The full cellar is constructed of brick and -divided into rooms. Two one-story, cypress, shingled outbuildings, -located to the northeast and northwest of the main house, probably once -served as kitchens. About 1948, by which time the house had fallen into -decay and the grounds were overgrown, the present owner acquired the -property, restored the garden, and repaired the residence. In fine -condition, it is privately occupied, but is shown to the public part of -the week. - - - - -Middleton Place, South Carolina ∆ - - _Location: Dorchester County, on an unimproved road just east of - S.C. 61, about 13 miles northwest of Charleston._ - - -This mansion, of which only the south wing stands today, was the -birthplace and lifelong home of Arthur Middleton (1742–87). About 1738 -his grandfather had built a 3½-story brick house at the site. Some 3 -years later, Arthur’s father began laying out the surrounding gardens -that have since won international fame as Middleton Place Gardens. More -than 100 slaves labored for a decade to complete the 45-acre gardens -and 16-acre lawn. In 1755 the mansion was enlarged by the addition -of two two-story brick flankers, or detached wings, on the north and -south sides of the original structure, for use respectively as a -library-conservatory and guest quarters. - -During the War for Independence, British troops pillaged the residence -and despoiled the plantation. In 1865, as Union soldiers approached -during the Civil War, the slaves set the mansion to the torch, which -left only the walls standing. In 1868 William Middleton erected a -roof over the south wing, the least damaged section of the three, and -reoccupied it. In 1886 an earthquake felled the ruined walls of the -north wing and central section. - -[Illustration: The south wing (1755) of Middleton Place, the only -18th-century section of the mansion that has survived.] - -In the 1930’s the two-story, brick south wing was renovated and -enlarged. The major additions, both two-story brick and executed in an -18th-century manner, were a service wing along the main axis of the -wing at the south end; and, on the west side, a right-angled entrance -wing, containing a vestibule and stairway, and constructed with a -stepped and curvilinear gable roof to match those on the ends of the -original south wing. A third addition in the 1930’s was a one-story -brick porch on the east, or river, elevation. All the brickwork is -Flemish bond, the shutters are paneled, and a louvered circular window -decorates the gable end of the new entrance wing. The interior chimneys -are three in number. A parlor, dining room, and living room are located -on the first floor of the original south wing and three bedrooms on the -second. The interior finish dates from the mid-19th century, but many -of the furnishings are original 18th-century Middleton pieces. - -To the east and north of the present house and ruins of the central -block and north wing are the famous gardens, which have been enlarged -and perfected over the years. They extend from the Ashley River and -the paired butterfly lakes at their foot west toward the residence and -beyond in sweeping terraces. To the northwest of the house, in another -18th-century formal garden, is the family graveyard, containing the -mausoleum of Arthur Middleton. - -The estate comprises 7,000 acres and is still owned by Middleton -descendants. They occupy the south wing, which is not open to the -public, unlike the gardens. According to present plans, about 110 -acres, embracing the gardens, burial plot, plantation house, and -reconstructed outbuildings, will be donated to a nonprofit organization -that will preserve them and keep them open to the public. - - - - -Rutledge House, South Carolina ∆ - - _Location: Charleston County, 117 Broad Street, Charleston._ - - -The residence of Edward Rutledge during his later years, this building -is the only existing one that can be identified with him. Unfortunately -the construction date and the exact years of his residence cannot be -determined, though he was definitely the occupant in 1787. - -The large, rectilinear, clapboarded, frame structure is two stories -high over a basement. The roof is hipped. A bilevel porch, supported -by columns, extends across the west side and around the south, or -rear, side of the house. A central modillioned pediment with circular -window fronts the main roof and is “supported” by consoles. Exterior -louvered shutters flank the corniced windows. The center doorway, once -crowned by a cornice, now has a triangular pediment. A small, two-story -clapboard wing, added to the front of the east end along the main -axis in the late 19th century, is the only definite major exterior -alteration. Behind it, runs a two-story porch. - -[Illustration: Rutledge House.] - -A center hall extends about halfway through the house. On one side are -two rooms with fireplaces; on the other, a front stair hall containing -a curved stairway. Behind this is a large room, accessible only from -the entrance hall. The kitchen, possibly another later addition, is -located in a wing that projects from the rear of the house at the -southeast corner. The interior woodwork appears to date from the -1880’s, and partition walls now subdivide the large original rooms into -smaller ones. - -The Rutledge House, known in modern times as the Carter-May House, is -now a Roman Catholic home for elderly women. Portions of the first -floor may be visited upon request. A large garden is located at the -rear of the building. - - - - -Berkeley, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Charles City County, on the south side of Va. 5, about 8 - miles west of Charles City._ - - -In historical interest this fine mansion has few rivals among the James -River plantations. It was the birthplace and lifelong home of Benjamin -Harrison V (1726–91), signer of the Declaration and three-term Governor -of Virginia, as well as the birthplace and boyhood residence of his -son, William Henry (1773–1841), ninth President of the United States -and grandfather of Benjamin (1833–1901), the 23rd President. William -Henry probably wrote his 1841 inaugural address at Berkeley in the room -in which he had been born. - -[Illustration: Berkeley.] - -Benjamin Harrison IV, the signer’s father, built the structure in 1726. -In 1781 British troops under Benedict Arnold plundered the plantation, -but did not seriously harm the mansion. In the 1790’s one of the -Harrisons, probably Benjamin VI, made some architectural alterations -and redecorated the interior in the Adam style. By the time of the -Civil War, the plantation was known as Harrison’s Landing. In 1862 it -served as a supply base and camp for the Union Army of the Potomac -following its retreat from the Battle of Malvern Hill, Va., which ended -the Peninsular Campaign. Gen. George B. McClellan utilized the mansion -as his headquarters. While quartered nearby, Gen. Daniel Butterfield -composed the famous bugle call “Taps.” - -The early Georgian mansion has been altered somewhat over the years, -but retains much of the original structure and character. It is 2½ -stories high and has a dormered, gable roof with two tall interior -ridge chimneys, and distinctive pedimented gable ends, including -modillioned cornice. The brick walls are laid in Flemish bond. Gauged -brick is employed in the flat window arches, the belt course, and -door pediments. The broad-piered central doors on the north and south -elevations, with pediments in gauged brick, are reconstructions. Two -detached, two-story, brick dependencies, set slightly south of the -house on the river side, were built in the 1840’s to replace similar -structures that had been erected sometime before 1800. - -The center hall plan has been slightly modified. The hall bisects -the four rooms on the first floor into pairs. A small stairs in the -northwest corner was probably inserted about 1800. Most of the interior -finish clearly reflects the Adam alterations of the 1790’s. - -By 1915 the mansion was in poor condition. Subsequent owners have -reconstructed and restored it to its 18th-century appearance. This -included removal of a 19th-century porch on all four sides, replacement -of the window sash and exterior door framings, and reconstruction of -the center stairs. The upper floors are used as a private residence, -but the basement and first floor may be visited. The unmarked grave of -signer Benjamin Harrison is located in the family cemetery, a quarter -of a mile southeast of the plantation house. - - - - -Elsing Green, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: King William County, on a private road about 1 mile - southwest of Va. 632, some 10 miles southwest of King William Court - House._ - - -In 1758, while Carter Braxton was visiting in England, his brother -George probably built for him this impressive plantation home on a high -bluff overlooking the Pamunkey River. Upon his return in 1760, Carter -took up residence in it and lived there until 1767. He then moved to a -new residence, Chericoke, a few miles to the northwest. - -[Illustration: Elsing Green.] - -The exterior is original, but about 1800 a fire destroyed the -interior. The present 18th-century style woodwork is a 20th-century -reconstruction. The Georgian structure of brick, laid in Flemish bond, -is U-shaped. Two wings project to the north, or rear, of the central -section. The large building is two stories in height and has a hip roof -and four tall chimneys. Side doors are centered in each wing, and there -are also central doors in the front and rear facades of the main house. -The door on the front, or river, facade, with gauged brick triangular -pediment, is a reconstruction. - -The flat window arches are constructed of splayed brick. The -second-floor level is marked by a strong course of gauged brick, -unmolded and four courses high. Two old, detached, brick dependencies, -1½ stories high, flank the mansion. The eastern one may date from 1719; -the western contains a restored kitchen. A reconstructed smokehouse and -dairy rest on their original, symmetrically located, foundations. - -An off-center hall extends northward halfway through the main arm -of the U from the south, or front, entrance and intersects with an -east-west lateral hall running the length of the main mansion. The -ends of this long cross hall each contain a stairway set against the -south wall. The southeast comer of the residence is occupied by a large -parlor; the southwest corner, by a smaller living room; and each of the -north wings, by a single large room. Four bedrooms are upstairs, which -has the same general plan as the ground floor. - -The carefully restored house and well maintained estate, which now -includes about 3,000 acres, are in excellent condition but are -privately occupied and not open to visitors. - - - - -Menokin, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Richmond County, on an unimproved road about 1 mile west - of County Route 690, some 4 miles northwest of Warsaw._ - - -Menokin, completed in 1769 by Col. John Tayloe of nearby Mount Airy as -a wedding gift for his daughter and her husband, Francis Lightfoot Lee, -was the home where they spent most of their lives and the one Lee loved -best. He died there in 1797. - -This late Georgian house, similar in many respects to Mount Airy though -much smaller, was likely constructed by the same architect-builder, -probably John Ariss. The exterior possesses the qualities of a large -mansion, though the actual dimensions are rather modest. - -[Illustration: Ruins of Menokin.] - -The residence, constructed of local brown sandstone, is two stories -high with hip-on-hip roof and two large interior chimneys. Its exterior -walls are covered with plaster. The stone trim—quoins, belt courses, -and window and door trim—is elaborate. Two stone belt courses, one at -the second-floor line and the other at the sill level of the upper -windows, divide the main, or north, facade horizontally. The upper -course is eliminated on the other three facades. No longer standing are -two two-story, gable-roofed, detached, symmetrical service buildings, -a kitchen to the east and office to the west, which once stood in -the forecourt at right angles to the main house. They undoubtedly -heightened the impression of the mansion’s large size. - -A center hall extends halfway through the first floor, which contains -dining room, living room, kitchen, and bedroom. Four bedrooms, divided -into pairs by a central hall, are located on the second floor. - -Unoccupied for many years, Menokin is in ruinous condition. The roof -and walls on the southeast side have collapsed. The yard and grounds, -part of a 590-acre farm, are overgrown with vegetation and small trees. -The owner has removed and stored the original interior paneling. -Extensive reconstruction would be required to restore the structure to -its original condition. It is not open to the public. - - - - -Monticello, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Albemarle County, just off Va. 53, about 2 miles - southeast of Charlottesville._ - - -“Monticello,” Italian for “Little Mountain,” is an enduring tribute to -the genius and versatility of Thomas Jefferson, who personally designed -and supervised erection of the splendid mansion. He resided in it for -many years of his long life, his spirit lives on in its architectural -perfection and the ingenious devices with which he equipped it, and -he is buried nearby. Sitting amid pleasant gardens and lawns on a -hilltop, the residence overlooks Charlottesville; the University of -Virginia, which Jefferson founded and some of whose buildings he -designed; and the green rolling hills of the surrounding countryside. -Especially after his retirement from public life in 1809 until his -death, at the age of 83 on July 4, 1826, the prominent men of his -age made pilgrimages to Monticello. To this day it is visited by the -humble, as well as the great—all who admire Jefferson’s character and -accomplishments. - -[Illustration: Monticello.] - -In 1757 Jefferson’s father died and passed on the property, 2,750 -acres, to him. Eleven years later, he began leveling the hilltop. To -make all parts of it accessible, he built paths, or roundabouts, as he -called them, on its slopes at four different levels; remains of these -are visible today. In 1770 fire destroyed Jefferson’s modest residence, -his birthplace Shadwell, and he moved to Monticello, where he had -already begun building a mansion. The first part of it completed was -the small southwest pavilion, which Jefferson occupied as a bachelor’s -quarters until January 1772, when he brought his bride, Martha Wayles -Skelton, to share it with him. It is still known as “Honeymoon Cottage.” - -The first Monticello, vastly different from the present one, was -probably completed in 1775. Constructed of brick with cut-stone -trim, it consisted of a central two-story unit, with pedimented -gable roof running from front to rear and one-story gabled wings, -set perpendicularly to the central block. The chief architectural -accent was the main two-story portico, Doric below and Ionic above. -Small polygonal bays projected from the ends of the wings. Jefferson -made numerous alterations and major changes after the War for -Independence. The present two-wing structure, built between 1793 and -1809, incorporates the rooms of the original house at its rear. It also -reflects a shift in architectural preference in the United States from -Georgian to Roman Revival—elements of both of which are represented. -Jefferson was almost entirely responsible for starting the Roman -Revival. - -The mansion consists of 2½ stories over a basement and contains 35 -rooms. The dominating feature is the central dome, over an octagonal -room. The house is furnished largely with Jefferson belongings, -including a replica of the small portable desk on which he probably -wrote the Declaration of Independence. Some of the clever devices in -the residence are a 7-day calendar-clock and a dumbwaiter. One room -contains one of the first parquet floors in the United States. The -upper levels, accessible only by narrow staircases, are not shown to -the public. - -Before Jefferson built Monticello, every plantation had a group of -small outbuildings such as the laundry, smokehouse, dairy, stable, -weaving house, schoolhouse, and kitchen. Jefferson sought to render -these as inconspicuous as possible and increase the efficiency of -the facilities they provided by constructing two series of rooms for -these purposes beneath the outer sides of two long L-shaped terraces -extending from the house. Below the south terrace, beyond the angle -of the ell, are the kitchen, the cook’s room, servants’ rooms, room -for smoking meat, and the dairy. At the end of this terrace, stands -“Honeymoon Cottage.” Under the far side of the north terrace are the -stables, carriage house, icehouse, and laundry. Jefferson used the -small building terminating this terrace, adjacent to which is the -paddock, as an office. An underground passageway—containing storage -rooms for wine, beer, cider, and rum—connects the basement of the main -house with the series of service rooms along the outer sides of the -ells. Jefferson is buried in the family graveyard, which is adjacent to -the road leading from the house. - -Upon Jefferson’s death in 1826, his daughter Martha inherited -Monticello, but was soon forced to sell it, to the first of a series of -private owners. In 1923 the newly organized Thomas Jefferson Memorial -Foundation purchased the estate, the following year opened it to the -public, and has retained ownership to the present day. - - - - -Mount Airy, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Richmond County, on the north side of U.S. 360, about 1½ - miles west of Warsaw._ - - -Francis Lightfoot Lee resided in this beautiful mansion for a short -time in 1769, while its owner, his new father-in-law, Col. John Tayloe, -completed building Menokin nearby as a residence for him and his bride. - -Mount Airy, which sits on a ridge overlooking the Rappahannock Valley, -is one of the finest late Georgian mansions to be erected in America. -Built in the years 1758–62, it is attributed to noted Virginia -architect John Ariss, and is considered to be his best work. It was -the first residence in the English Colonies to carry out completely -a full five-part Palladian villa plan: a main house connected to -two dependencies by quadrant passageways that partially enclose -a forecourt. The massive main section, standing over an elevated -basement, and the two dependencies are two stories high and of dark -brown sandstone construction trimmed in light-colored limestone. The -one-story passageways curve from the main house to the dependencies and -enclose a semicircular forecourt on the north, or entrance, facade. - -[Illustration: Mount Airy.] - -Prominent characteristics of the main building are front and rear -central projecting pavilions of rusticated limestone, both having -loggias, three windows in the second story, and crowning triangular -pediments; limestone belt course; rusticated angle quoins; and two -pairs of interior chimneys near the ridge of the hip roof, which was -rebuilt after a fire in 1844 and may have replaced a hip-on-hip roof. -The four square piers gracing the front loggia are faced with Roman -Doric pilasters. The rear loggia has three round arches topped with -heavy, marked, voussoired keystones. - -The two dependencies have hip roofs and central chimneys, and -their corner quoins match those of the main house. The connecting -passageways, also of stone, are covered with shed roofs concealed from -the front. At the point where they connect with the main house, which -rests on an elevated basement, they are stepped up to allow entrance to -the first floor. - -Fire destroyed the probably fine wooden interiors in 1844, but the -original floor plan was retained in the reconstruction. A magnificent -central hall extends through the house between the front and rear -loggias. Full-height windows flank both central entrance doors. The -elliptical stairway in the front northwest corner room, in which there -is also a pantry, dates from the 19th century, but the original stairs -may have been in the present cross hall between the two east drawing -rooms, lighted by the central arch of a Palladian window in the east -end wall. In the southwest corner is a large dining room. - -Mount Airy, in good condition, is still used as a residence by Tayloe -descendants and is not open to the public. Francis Lightfoot Lee is -buried with his wife in the Tayloe family cemetery, located about 300 -yards northwest of the mansion. - - - - -Nelson House (Colonial National Historical Park), Virginia ☑ - - _Location: York County, northwest corner of Main and Pearl Streets, - Yorktown; address: Colonial National Historical Park, P.O. Box 210, - Yorktown, Va. 23490._ - - -Thomas Nelson, Jr., may have been born in this house in 1738, resided -fulltime in it from 1767 until 1781, and probably stayed in it on -occasion during the following 8 years prior to his death. During the -latter period, he was living in partial retirement at his Hanover -County estate, Offley Hoo. - -The probable builder, between 1732 and 1741, was Thomas (“Scotch Tom”) -Nelson, Sr., the signer’s grandfather. Thomas Jr.’s father, William, -lived in the residence until about 1738, the year of his marriage, when -he moved to his own house across the street. Thomas, Jr., could have -been born at either place. After “Scotch Tom” died, in 1745, his widow -continued in residence. Upon her death in 1766, Thomas, Jr., who since -his marriage 4 years earlier had apparently lived with his father, -acquired her home and moved in the next year. - -[Illustration: Nelson House.] - -According to family tradition, the Nelson House served as the second -headquarters of Gen. Charles Cornwallis during the siege of Yorktown -(September-October 1781), and with Nelson’s permission American -artillery shelled and hit the house. The historical record indicates -that both British and French military personnel likely used it, but -their identities cannot be definitely ascertained. And the southeast -face of the residence does show evidence of damage from cannon fire. -The Marquis de Lafayette, who revisited the United States in 1824–25, -was quartered there when in the former year he attended the celebration -of the anniversary of the Battle of Yorktown, in which he had played a -key role. - -The Nelson House is an impressive specimen of early Georgian -architecture, though the four south and five north dormers added in -the 1920’s detract from the original design. The broad roof is gabled -and pedimented at the ends, with two massive interior chimneys and -strongly dentiled cornice. The Flemish bond brickwork includes gauged -belt course, water table, and flat window arches with segmental -soffits. Corner quoins, as well as the window sills and lintels and -their tall keystones, are of stone. The quoins and two levels of tall -windows give the house a strong vertical effect. The north center door -has simple gauged and molded brick piers that are topped by a brick -pediment. Destroying the symmetry of the south facade is the off-center -door, enclosed in a vestibule. A more elaborate door on the west side -is modern, replacing an original untrimmed service opening. - -On one side of the off-center hall are two small rooms, with a lobby -and service stairs between them; on the opposite side of the hall, -are two larger rooms, divided by a tiny one, probably a pantry. The -general plan is repeated upstairs, where there are four bedrooms. Most -of the original interior woodwork, highlighted by the first-floor -wall-to-ceiling paneling, is still intact. From a decorative -standpoint, the most striking chamber is the northeast drawing room. -All the fireplaces in the residence are apparently reconstructions, as -are also the balusters and handrails of the stairs. - -The house remained in possession of the Nelson family until 1914. In -1920–21 its owners rehabilitated and restored it and renamed it York -Hall. In 1968 the National Park Service acquired it. When this volume -went to press, an extensive research and restoration program was being -carried out preparatory to opening the building to the public. - - - - -Poplar Forest, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Bedford County, on the east side of County Route 661, - about 6½ miles west of Lynchburg._ - - -In 1806–19 Thomas Jefferson designed and built this architecturally -significant octagonal house on his 4,000-acre Bedford County plantation -as a summer home and retreat. He occupied it intermittently until his -death in 1826. - -The plantation came into the possession of Jefferson through Martha -Wayles Skelton, whom he married in 1772. For many years, whenever he -visited it to superintend its management, he resided in a two-room -cottage, the only dwelling. In June 1781, just after abdicating the -governorship and narrowly escaping capture with a group of legislators -during a British raid on Charlottesville, he temporarily moved his -family to the cottage. Before the month was out, a horse threw and -injured him. During his recuperation, he wrote _Notes on the State -of Virginia_, a study of social and political life in 18th-century -Virginia. In 1806–19 he erected Poplar Forest, whose completion -coincided with his retirement from public office. When visitors became -too numerous at Monticello or the fancy struck, he took up residence at -his retreat for a month or two, usually twice a year. As the years went -on, he refined the structure. - -[Illustration: Poplar Forest.] - -In 1845 a fire destroyed the roof and interior, leaving only the four -chimneys, the brick walls, and possibly the portico columns. That -same year, the present unadorned roof, octagonal and hipped like its -predecessor, and dormers were added. Prior to the fire, there was a -skylight and balustraded deck at the edge of the roof, with a Tuscan -cornice below that extended around the building. The one-story brick -building is set over a high basement. Because of the sloping ground -on the rear side, the structure is two stories high there. One- and -two-story tetrastyle Tuscan porticoes are attached to the front and -rear of the house respectively. The front one is pedimented; the -unpedimented rear one is built over a one-story arcade. - -The original interior plan is unchanged. Four elongated octagonal rooms -are grouped symmetrically around the present dining room, a square -central room that was once lighted from above by the central skylight, -not replaced in 1845. No aboveground traces remain of a flat-roofed -office wing, referred to by Jefferson, but a kitchen and smokehouse -still stand. - -Poplar Forest, in good condition, is a private residence and is not -open to the public. - - - - -Stratford Hall, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Westmoreland County, just north of Va. 214, about 1 mile - northeast of Lerty._ - - -This architecturally outstanding mansion along the Potomac River -was the ancestral home of the Lee family. It was the birthplace and -boyhood home of two signers of the Declaration of Independence, Richard -Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee, as well as their three distinguished -brothers, Arthur, William, and Thomas Ludwell. A later resident was -Col. Henry “Lighthorse Harry,” hero of the War for Independence. His -son, Robert E., Confederate leader during the Civil War, was born in -the house in 1807. - -[Illustration: Stratford Hall.] - -Thomas Lee—planter, merchant, shipowner, and politician—built the -mansion in the years 1725–30 on his 16,000-acre plantation. Upon his -death in 1750, the residence passed to his eldest son, Philip Ludwell. -Meantime, Richard Henry had been born there in 1732 and Francis -Lightfoot 2 years later. They maintained residence until 1757 and 1758 -respectively, when they moved to their own estates. In 1782 Philip -Ludwell’s oldest daughter, Matilda, wife of “Lighthorse Harry,” her -cousin, inherited the mansion. In 1790 she died, and 3 years later her -husband remarried. One of his sons by that union was Robert E. Lee, who -lived in the house only 3 or 4 years, at the end of which his parents -moved to Alexandria. - -Stratford Hall is a magnificent and rare example of an H-shaped -residence and illustrates the transition from the 17th-century William -and Mary style of architecture to early Georgian. The mansion is one -story high over an elevated basement and has a hip roof. Variations -in color and size between the Flemish bond brickwork in the basement -and upper story soften the austerity of the bold mass of the house. In -the central connecting arm, the flights of stone steps leading up to -the north and south entrances, which diminish in width as they ascend -to the main floor level and are flanked by ponderous balustrades, are -conjectural reconstructions, erected in 1929. Twin sets of four huge -chimney stacks are centered over the east and west wings. The stacks -are connected by arches and encompass balustraded roof decks, from -which the Lees could view navigation on the Potomac River. - -“Lighthorse Harry” Lee made many changes. By 1800 he had altered or -replaced the exterior stairs and changed most of the interior trim, -except that in the central block’s great hall, to the Adam style. The -floor plan is unusual in colonial dwellings. The two wings each have -four rooms, divided laterally by a central hallway on the main floor. -The connecting central block consists of the fully paneled great hall, -or salon—one of the most formal and monumental rooms of the early -Georgian period in the English Colonies. The basement contains service -rooms and some bedrooms; the main floor, living quarters and bedrooms. -In the east wing’s dining room is a service alcove, common in Virginia -mansions. The 18th-century stairway was removed during the 1929 -restoration. The only access between floors is now a small stairway in -the east wing. - -The mansion is built in the center of a square parterre, a service -building being located at each corner of the square. Flanking the -entrance forecourt are the kitchen and library, 1½-story brick -structures with jerkin-head roofs. At the rear corners are a school -and office, with hip roofs. Outside the square are balanced brick -buildings: a stable on one side and smokehouse on the other. Seven of -the 12 original structures that were still standing in 1929 have been -restored. They provide an excellent picture of plantation life in the -18th century. Farther removed from the house, near the wharf on the -river, is the reconstructed mill. - -In 1929 the Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., acquired the -mansion and 1,100 acres. Besides reconstructing the exterior stairs, -the foundation restored the library and library closet in the west -wing, as well as the dining room and service alcove in the east wing, -to their 18th-century appearance. The east and west corridors, parlor -in the west wing, Robert E. Lee’s birthplace room, and an adjoining -bedroom in the east wing were left as they appeared about 1800. The -formal garden, just east of the mansion, has also been restored. The -foundation today operates Stratford Hall as a historic house museum. - - - - -Tuckahoe, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: Goochland County, on the south side of Va. 650, about 13 - miles west of Richmond._ - - -Tuckahoe, situated along the James River, was the boyhood home of -Thomas Jefferson for 7 years and the place where he obtained his -elementary education. The mansion, outbuildings, and surrounding -gardens and lands constitute an outstanding example of a Southern -colonial plantation. - -[Illustration: Tuckahoe.] - -The land on which Tuckahoe stands was patented in 1695 by William -Randolph. His son Thomas inherited the plantation and built the north -wing of the mansion about 1712. Sometime between 1730 and 1745, William -Randolph II enlarged the residence to its present proportions. When -Randolph died in 1745, Peter Jefferson moved his family, including -2-year-old Thomas, from Shadwell to Tuckahoe to fulfill a promise Peter -had made to Randolph, his wife’s cousin, to act as guardian of his son, -Thomas Mann Randolph. In 1752 the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell. - -Like Stratford Hall, the house is an outstanding and rare example of -an H-shaped structure of early Georgian style in the Colonies. It is a -large, two-story frame structure lined with brick nogging and exterior -weatherboarded walls, except for the two solid brick ends of the south -wing. Two long gabled wings are connected by a broad central block. -Tall slender chimneys accentuate the narrow gable ends and the marked -verticality of the structure, which is further enhanced by the high -brick foundations. The chimneys in the frame ends of the north wing -project, but those in the south brick ends are flush with the walls. -The second-floor level is marked by a wooden belt course and the -roofline by a modillioned cornice. - -The central doorways on the north and south sides have low porches with -square posts supporting gable roofs. The south porch is approached by -a long flight of stone steps, splayed but lacking a balustrade; the -north porch is near ground level. The doors in the center block, on -the east and west elevations, are sheltered by pedimented hoods. All -four exterior doors, one in each wing and two in the central block, are -original, as are also the weatherboarding and sash. - -On the first floor of each of the wings are two rooms, divided by a -center cross hall. The north wing contains two parlors; the south, -a dining room and “children’s” room. The central connecting block -contains one large room, or salon. The second floor repeats the plan of -the first floor except that, of the original five bedrooms, the one in -the central block has been modernized and subdivided into several rooms. - -The interior decoration and trim, of the finest workmanship, is -remarkably unaltered and in fine condition. All the walls are covered -with simple paneling. The original wide floorboards remain throughout -the structure. The hall stairways, especially the north one, with -elaborately turned and spiraled balusters, are outstanding examples of -early Georgian style. Mantels throughout the house date from the 19th -century, but the marble fireplace facing in the west bedroom of the -north wing is original. - -East of the mansion is the small, one-room, brick, one-story -schoolhouse attended by Jefferson, as well as fine boxwood gardens. A -short distance to the west of the main house is a plantation street, -containing a complex of eight early 18th-century buildings, all in -excellent condition and little altered. They include kitchen, tobacco -house, three slave quarters, smokehouse, and barn. - -Since Tuckahoe passed out of the possession of the Randolph family in -1830, a succession of individuals have owned it. It is still a private -residence, not open to the public. - - - - -Wythe House, Virginia ∆ - - _Location: On the west side of the Palace Green, between Duke of - Gloucester and Prince George Streets, Williamsburg._ - - -This house in Colonial Williamsburg is a superb example of a Georgian -brick house. It was the residence of George Wythe from around 1755 -until 1791, a period that spanned some of his most active years in -politics and jurisprudence. His father-in-law, the noted Virginia -architect Richard Taliaferro, designed and built it for him and his -second wife about 1755. When Taliaferro died two decades later, Wythe -inherited it and resided in it until 1791, when he moved to Richmond. -A decade earlier, the house had served as Gen. George Washington’s -headquarters prior to the siege of Yorktown. - -The outstanding aspects of the little-altered early Georgian structure -are its good lines and fine brickwork, in Flemish bond. It is two -stories high over a basement and has a hip roof and two interior -chimneys. Smaller windows on the upper level create an illusion that -the modestly sized house is larger than it actually is. The simple -facade is enriched mainly by the broad muntins and wide frames of the -windows and a fine paneled double door with rectangular transom. The -flat window arches are constructed of gauged brick. Windows, doors, -and house corners have rubbed dressings, and a modillioned cornice -decorates the eaveline. - -[Illustration: Wythe House.] - -Each floor consists of four rooms bisected into pairs by a central -hall. Chimneys between each of the pairs afford fireplaces for all -eight rooms. The handsome but unpretentious stairway contains the -only elaborate woodwork. Plaster dadoes, however, are found in every -room, with chair rails on plasterboard, and single molded cornices. On -the first floor are study, parlor, students’ room, and dining room; -on the second, four bedrooms. The existing mantels are replacements. -Furnishings are of the late 18th century or earlier and represent -American craftmanship. Extending behind the house is the formal garden; -along the north, the kitchen, smokehouse, laundry, lumberhouse, and -stable. - -In 1926, when Bruton Parish acquired the residence, it was in poor -condition. By 1931 the parish had repaired and restored it, and -utilized it as a parish house for 6 years. Colonial Williamsburg then -acquired it, and in 1939–40 accomplished additional restoration. Today -the building is one of the main attractions at Colonial Williamsburg -and is part of Williamsburg Historic District, a National Historic -Landmark. - - - - -Appendix - -The Declaration and Its History - - -_Text of the Declaration_ - -IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. - -The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, - -When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people -to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, -and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal -station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, -a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should -declare the causes which impel them to the separation. - -We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created -equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable -Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of -Happiness.——That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted -among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the -governed.——That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive -of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish -it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such -principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall -seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, -indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be -changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience -hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are -sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which -they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, -pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them -under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to -throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future -security.——Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and -such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former -Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain -is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct -object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To -prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. - -_He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary -for the public good._ - -_He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing -importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should -be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend -to them._ - -_He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large -districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right -of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and -formidable to tyrants only._ - -_He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, -uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, -for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his -measures._ - -_He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with -manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people._ - -_He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause -others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of -Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; -the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of -invasion from without, and convulsions within._ - -_He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that -purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing -to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the -conditions of new Appropriations of Lands._ - -_He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his -Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers._ - -_He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of -their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries._ - -_He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of -Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance._ - -_He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the -Consent of our legislatures._ - -_He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to -the Civil power._ - -_He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to -our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to -their Acts of pretended Legislation:_ - -_For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:_ - -_For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders -which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:_ - -_For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:_ - -_For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:_ - -_For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:_ - -_For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:_ - -_For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring -Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging -its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument -for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:_ - -_For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and -altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:_ - -_For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested -with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever._ - -_He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his -Protection and waging War against us._ - -_He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and -destroyed the lives of our people._ - -_He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries -to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun -with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most -barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation._ - -_He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas -to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their -friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands._ - -_He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured -to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian -Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction -of all ages, sexes and conditions._ - -_In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress -in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered -only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by -every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free -people._ - -_Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We -have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to -extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them -of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have -appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured -them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, -which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. -They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. -We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our -Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in -War, in Peace Friends._ - - -=We, therefore=, the Representatives of the =united States of America=, -in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the -world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by -Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and -declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be =Free -and Independent States=; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to -the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and -the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and -that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, -conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all -other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. - -And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the -protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our -Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. - - - - -_History of the Document_ - - -The best known of all the copies of the Declaration of Independence -is the parchment copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack. This one, signed -by 56 Delegates of the Continental Congress on and after August 2, -1776, is displayed today in Exhibition Hall at the National Archives -Building. Jefferson’s final draft of the Declaration, known as the -“rough draft,” cumulatively bearing the corrections, amendments, and -deletions of the drafting committee and of Congress as a whole, as -well as Jefferson’s marginal and textual notes, is preserved among -the Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress. The revised draft, -adopted by the Delegates on July 4, 1776, and signed only by John -Hancock and Charles Thomson, President and Secretary of the Continental -Congress, is known as the broadside copy. It was sent to the printer -and has never been located. Sixteen copies of the printed broadside -have survived. In addition to the “rough draft,” as least six other -handwritten contemporary copies of the Declaration, one fragmentary, -have survived and are in various archival collections. Five were made -by Jefferson and one by John Adams. - -The history of the parchment copy of the Declaration is fascinating. -From 1776 until 1789, along with other important national papers, it -was safeguarded by Secretary of Congress Thomson, who carried it -with him as Congress, at first to escape British troops and later for -other reasons, convened in various cities: Philadelphia, Baltimore, -Lancaster, York, Princeton, Trenton, Annapolis, and New York. - -When the Constitution took effect in 1789 and Thomson left office, -he relinquished the Declaration to the newly created Department of -State, which was under the temporary stewardship of Acting Secretary -John Jay. Its offices were in New York’s old City Hall (Federal -Hall). The next March, Thomas Jefferson became the first Secretary -of State and custodian of the instrument he had created. Later that -year, Philadelphia became the seat of the Federal Government and the -Declaration returned to its birthplace. There it remained for a decade, -until 1800, when the Government moved to the new national Capital of -Washington. - -Secretary of State John Marshall apparently at first stored the -Declaration in his Department’s temporary offices in the old Treasury -Building, at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., and possibly -then at Seven Buildings, 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. After -a few months, likely in 1801, the document was transferred to the War -Office Building, at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., where -the Department of State moved its offices. The Declaration remained -there until the summer of 1814, during the War of 1812, when British -troops invaded the Capital. Shortly before they arrived, Secretary of -State James Monroe packed the instrument and other state papers in -linen sacks and sent them by wagon to a barn on the Virginia side of -the Potomac 2 miles above Chain Bridge for one night, and then to a -clergyman’s home in Leesburg, Va. Within a few weeks, after the British -threat had subsided, the documents were brought back to Washington and -probably temporarily kept in various structures because of the burning -of the War Office Building by the British. - -In 1820 the Department of State moved the Declaration to its -headquarters at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Stored for -years in scroll fashion, the document had already been damaged by -numerous unrollings, other handling, and frequent moves. In the period -1820–23 the use of a “wet” copying process to produce a facsimile -apparently divested the parchment of some of its ink, especially that -of the signatures. - -Subsequently the Declaration remained relatively undisturbed until -1841, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster, concluding that it should -be on public view, ordered that it be mounted, framed, and moved to -the newly constructed Patent Office, in the block bounded by Seventh, -Ninth, F, and G Streets NW. The Patent Office was then part of the -Department of State. Placed beside George Washington’s commission -as commander in chief of the Continental Army in a large frame on a -wall of the second floor hall opposite a window, for 35 years the -Declaration endured exposure to glare, summer heat, and winter cold. -The text retained its legibility, but the parchment faded and yellowed, -cracked and warped. Many of the signatures had faded, some becoming -blurred or almost invisible. - -The Federal Government in 1876 lent the Declaration to the city of -Philadelphia, site of the national Centennial Exposition. On July -4 Richard Henry Lee, grandson of the signer, read it publicly. It -was then exhibited in a fireproof safe behind a plate glass window -and seen by more people than ever before. Philadelphians, deploring -its condition, fought to retain it and only reluctantly returned -it to Washington. Heeding the outcry of those who had viewed the -timeworn parchment, a Government commission studied the possibility -of restoration and in time concluded that such an attempt might be -damaging. - -Meantime, in 1877, as a safeguard the Declaration was moved from -the Patent Office to a more fireproof building at 17th Street and -Pennsylvania Avenue NW. shared by the State, War, and Navy Departments. -It had narrowly escaped destruction, for only a few months later fire -gutted the Patent Office. Finally, in 1894, for protection from the -light, State Department officials sealed the 118-year-old sheet between -two glass plates and locked it in a safe in the basement. There it lay, -except for rare occasions, in darkness and unobserved for more than a -quarter of a century. - -In 1921 the Department of State, responding to the recommendation of a -special commission, relinquished custodianship of the Declaration to -the Library of Congress. The transfer was made personally by Herbert -Putnam, the Librarian, using a library mail truck, a Model T Ford. -At first he kept the document in his office. In 1924, however, he -placed it together with the Constitution, on public exhibition in -a bronze-and-marble shrine on the second floor. At this time, the -Declaration was encased between heavy glass panes specially treated to -keep out harmful rays of light. - -The Declaration and the Constitution remained there until the outbreak -of World War II. On December 26, 1941, just 19 days after the Japanese -attack on Pearl Harbor, they left Washington under heavy guard by -train en route to Fort Knox, Ky., where they arrived the following -day. Specialists took advantage of the opportunity and cleaned and -restored the Declaration to the maximum degree. In 1944 both it and -the Constitution were taken back to the Library of Congress. They -remained there until 1952, at which time a tank under military escort -carried them to Washington’s National Archives Building, repository of -the Nation’s permanent records, which are under the jurisdiction of -the National Archives and Records Service of the U.S. General Services -Administration. - -[Illustration: Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives -Building, Washington, D.C.] - -[Illustration: This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition -Hall, National Archives Building, contains the Declaration of -Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.] - - * * * * * - -Still enshrined there today, along with thousands of other priceless -national records, is the parchment copy of the Declaration. The massive -bronze doors at the Constitution Avenue entrance to the building lead -to the circular Exhibition Hall. At its rear center stands a marble -shrine containing the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, -and the Bill of Rights. They are sealed in helium-filled bronze and -glass cases, screened from harmful light rays by special filters, and -can be lowered within seconds into a large fireproof, shockproof, and -bombproof vault. - -The hall also features a “Formation of the Union” exhibit, a collection -of documents illustrating the evolution of the U.S. Government from -1774 until 1791. They include the Articles of Association (1774), -the Articles of Confederation (1777), the Treaty of Paris (1783), -and Washington’s inaugural address (1789). Above the exhibits are -two murals. In one, Jefferson is presenting the Declaration to John -Hancock, President of the Continental Congress; in the other, James -Madison is submitting the Constitution to George Washington, President -of the Constitutional Convention. - - - - -Suggested Reading - - - BECKER, CARL L. _The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the - History of Political Ideas._ New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace, - 1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in - 1922, that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political - background, philosophical origins, and literary merit, and - discusses subsequent reaction to it. - - BOYD, JULIAN P. _The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution - of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its - Author, Thomas Jefferson._ Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University - Press, 1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study - published by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with - the bicentennial celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the - nature and evolution of the various drafts. - - BURNETT, EDMUND C. _The Continental Congress._ New York: Macmillan, - 1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book remains - one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing with - the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration. - - DUMBAULD, EDWARD. _The Declaration of Independence and What It Means - Today._ Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. - Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document and - differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying - intellectual and political influences. - - MALONE, DUMAS. _The Story of the Declaration of Independence._ New - York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable - account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical - sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations - assembled by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan. - - McGEE, DOROTHY H. _Famous Signers of the Declaration._ New York: - Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this - volume presents biographies of selected signers. - - NATIONAL ARCHIVES. _The Formation of the Union._ Washington: National - Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970. A handsome - but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief history - of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents. - - WHITNEY, DAVID C. _Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the Men - Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped to - Establish the United States of America._ Chicago: J. G. Ferguson, - 1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular - versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those - associated with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers - and patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis. - - - - -Criteria for Selection of Historic Sites of National Significance - - -=A.= National significance is ascribed to buildings, sites, objects, or -districts which possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or -interpreting the historical (history and archeology) heritage of our -Nation, such as: - -1. Structures or sites at which events occurred that have made a -significant contribution to, and are identified prominently with, -or which outstandingly represent, the broad cultural, political, -economic, military, or social history of the Nation, and from which an -understanding and appreciation of the larger patterns of our American -heritage may be gained. - -2. Structures or sites associated importantly with the lives of persons -nationally significant in the history of the United States. - -3. Structures or sites associated significantly with an important event -that outstandingly represents some great idea or ideal of the American -people. - -4. Structures that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an -architectural type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of -a period, style, or method of construction; or a notable structure -representing the work of a master builder, designer, or architect. - -5. Objects that figured prominently in nationally significant events; -or that were prominently associated with nationally significant -persons; or that outstandingly represent some great idea or ideal of -the American people; or that embody distinguishing characteristics of a -type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style, -or method of construction; or that are notable as representations of -the work of master workers or designers. - -6. Archeological sites that have produced information of a major -scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light -upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States. -Such sites are those which have produced, or which may reasonably be -expected to produce, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas to a -major degree. - -7. When preserved or restored as integral parts of the environment, -historic buildings not sufficiently significant individually by reason -of historical association or architectural merit to warrant recognition -may collectively compose a “historic district” that is of historical -significance to the Nation in commemorating or illustrating a way of -life in its developing culture. - - -=B.= To possess national significance, a historic or prehistoric -structure, district, site, or object must possess integrity. For a -historic or prehistoric _site_, integrity requires original location -and intangible elements of feeling and association. The site of a -structure no longer standing may possess national significance if the -person or event associated with the structure was of transcendent -importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential. - -For a historic or prehistoric _structure_, integrity is a composite -quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and -intangible elements of feeling and association. A structure no longer -on the original site may possess national significance if the person or -event associated with it was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s -history and the association consequential. - -For a historic _district_, integrity is a composite quality derived -from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements -of feeling and association inherent in an ensemble of historic -buildings having visual architectural unity. - -For a historic _object_, integrity requires basic original workmanship. - - -=C.= Structures or sites which are primarily of significance in the -field of religion or to religious bodies but are not of national -importance in other fields of the history of the United States, such as -political, military, or architectural history, will not be eligible for -consideration. - - -=D.= Birthplaces, graves, burials, and cemeteries, as a general rule, -are not eligible for consideration and recognition except in cases -of historical figures of transcendent importance. Historic sites -associated with the actual careers and contributions of outstanding -historical personages usually are more important than their birthplaces -and burial places. - - -=E.= Structures, sites, and objects achieving historical importance -within the past 50 years will not as a general rule be considered -unless associated with persons or events of transcendent significance. - - - - -Acknowledgments - - -_Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and -Monuments (1971)_ - - Durward L. Allen, _Purdue University_. - Hon. E. Y. Berry, _Rapid City, S. Dak._ - Anthony A. Buford, _Clayton, Mo._ - Loren C. Eiseley, _University of Pennsylvania_. - Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson, _Stonewall, Tex._ - Peter C. Murphy, Jr., _Springfield, Oreg._ - Nathaniel A. Owings, _San Francisco, Calif._ - Melvin M. Payne, _National Geographic Society_. - Linden C. Pettys, _Ann Arbor, Mich._ - Steven Rose, _Arcadia, Calif._ - William G. Shade, _Lehigh University_. - Elisha Walker, Jr., _New York, N.Y._ - James W. Whittaker, _Seattle, Wash._ - - -_National Park Service_ - - Edwin C. Bearss, _Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East), - Denver Service Center_. - - S. Sydney Bradford, _Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of - Historic Places_. - - George S. Cattanach, Jr., _Program Coordinator, National Register of - Historic Places_. - - Henry A. Judd, Chief, _Park Historic Architecture, Division of - Historic Architecture_. - - Herbert E. Kahler, _Chief (retired), Division of History and - Archeology_. - - Ronald F. Lee, _Special Assistant to the Director_. - - John Luzader, Historian, _Historic Preservation Project (East), - Denver Service Center_. - - Warren A. McCullough, _Management Assistant, Independence National - Historical Park, Pa._ - - John D. McDermott, _Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council - on Historic Preservation_. - - Thomas W. Mullen, _Student Research Assistant (Northeastern - University), Division of History_. - - Denys Peter Myers, _Architectural Historian, Division of History_. - - John D. R. Platt, _Historian, Independence National Historical Park, - Pa._ - - Charles W. Porter III, _Chief Historian (retired), Division of - History_. - - Charles W. Snell, _Historian, Division of History_. - - Martin I. Yoelson, _Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence - National Historical Park, Pa._ - - -_Other Individuals_ - - Roland A. Block, _Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission, - Staatsburg, N.Y._ - - Jerry M. Bloomer, _Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery, - Shreveport_. - - Edwin Cox, _President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond_. - - Alonzo T. Dill, _West Point, Va._ - - Educational Programs Staff, _National Archives and Records Service, - U.S. General Services Administration_. - - Ms. Constance M. Greiff, _Vice President, Historical Society of - Princeton, N.J._ - - Ms. Virginia Gunter, _Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society, - Concord_. - - Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr., _Elsing Green, King William, Va._ - - Charles H. McCormick, _Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State - College, Fairmont, W. Va._ - - Ms. Mildred Steinbach, _Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New - York_. - - E. Berkeley Tompkins, _Director, Division of Historical and Cultural - Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover_. - - - - -Art and Picture Credits - - -The National Park Service gratefully acknowledges the assistance -of agencies and individuals furnishing illustrations and granting -permission to reproduce them. - -_Page_ - - ii Oil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of - the same name (1786–95). Color separations courtesy United - States Capitol Historical Society and Eastern National Park - and Monument Association. Of the 48 individuals in the - painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis for - many later portraits by other artists. - - 4 Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress. - - 5 Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress. - - 6 Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton, - after a cartoon (1774) published in London. Library of - Congress. - - 7 Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress. - - 8 Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service. - - 9 Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park - Service. - - 10 Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of - Congress. - - 11 Library of Congress. - - 12 Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 13 Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt. - Library of Congress. - - 14 Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence - National Historical Park. - - 17 Library of Congress. - - 19 Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress. - - 21 Library of Congress. - - 22 Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S. - Oertel. Library of Congress. - - 23 Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.) - Historical Society. - - 28 Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 29 Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.) - Historical Society. - - 30 Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of - Congress. - - 33 Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence - National Historical Park. - - 36 Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 39 Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 41 Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an - unknown artist. Independence National Historical Park. In - 1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority on historical portraits, - maintained that this likeness was not Carter Braxton but was - that of his brother George. - - 43 Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 45 Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773 - painting. Independence National Historical Park. - - 47 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 48 Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley, - from Henry Howe, _Life and Death on the Ocean_ (1855). - Library of Congress. - - 49 Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson - Peale. Independence National Historical Park. - - 50 Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of - American History_ (September 1880). Library of Congress. - - 51 Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 53 Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle). - Independence National Historical Park. - - 55 Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of - Fine Arts, Philadelphia. - - 57 Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian - Schussele. Library of Congress. - - 59 Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 62 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of - Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of - Congress. The detail is a conjectural representation; no - portrait or reliable likeness of Button Gwinnett is known to - exist. - - 63 Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William - Brotherhead, _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of - Congress. - - 65 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of - Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of - Congress. - - 67 Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 70 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 71 Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan, - Jr. Independence National Historical Park. Some authorities - have questioned the authenticity of this likeness. - - 73 Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles - Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park. - - 74 Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale, - from James Herring and James B. Longacre, _The National - Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans_ (1836). Library - of Congress. - - 75 Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 77 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 79 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. According to one - authority, Trumbull based his likeness on the features of - Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close resemblance to - his father. - - 81 Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after - Robert E. Pine. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and - Independence National Historical Park. - - 83 Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National - Historical Park. - - 85 Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National - Historical Park. - - 87 Library of Congress. - - 89 Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress. - - 90 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of - Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of - Congress. - - 92 Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National - Historical Park. - - 94 Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John - Sanderson, _Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of - Independence_ (1824). Independence National Historical Park. - - 96 Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art - Reference Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park - Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y. - - 97 Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, from _Magazine of - American History_ (December 1885). Library of Congress. - - 99 Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence - National Historical Park. - - 100 Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National - Historical Park. - - 103 Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 104 Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 106 Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence - National Historical Park. - - 107 Engraving by William Birch, from _The City of Philadelphia_ - (1800). Independence National Historical Park. - - 109 Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The - R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La. - - 110 Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason - Chamberlin. Independence National Historical Park. - - 112 Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia - State Capitol. National Park Service. - - 113 Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles - Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park. - - 115 Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 116 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of - Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of - Congress. - - 118 Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 120 Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of - Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of - Congress. - - 122 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 123 Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du - Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia - B. Henry. - - 125 Engraving (1799) by William Birch & Son. Library of Congress. - - 127 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle). - Independence National Historical Park. - - 129 Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle). - Independence National Historical Park. - - 130 Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead, - _The Book of the Signers_ (1861). Library of Congress. - - 132 Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton - Art Gallery, Shreveport, La. - - 133 Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 135 Library of Congress. - - 137 Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T. - Pool. Independence National Historical Park. - - 139 Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire - Historical Society, Concord. - - 140 Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 142 Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs - in the Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer, - Douglas Armsden, Kittery Point, Maine. - - 144 Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 145 Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature - attributed to James Peale. Independence National Historical - Park. - - 146 Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society - of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park. - - 149 Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence - National Historical Park. - - 150 Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, from _An - Account of the College of New Jersey_ (1764). Library of - Congress. - - 152 Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle). - Independence National Historical Park. - - 154 Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull. - Independence National Historical Park. - - 164 National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn). - - 165 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 167 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 168 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 169 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 171 National Park Service (Abbie Rowe). - - 172 Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson, _The - Stranger in America_ (1807). Library of Congress. - - 174 National Park Service (Charles W. Snell). - - 175 National Park Service (John O. Littleton). - - 178 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 179 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 181 National Park Service (Snell). - - 182 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 184 National Park Service (Snell). - - 185 National Park Service (Snell). - - 187 Photographer, William L. Klender. - - 188 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 190 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 192 Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff. - Library of Congress. - - 194 National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.). - - 196 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 197 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 198 National Park Service (Snell). - - 200 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 201 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 203 National Park Service (Snell). - - 205 National Park Service (Snell). - - 206 Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer, - Constance Greiff. - - 207 National Park Service (Snell). - - 208 Department of Public Information, Princeton University, - Princeton, N.J. - - 210 National Park Service (Snell). - - 211 National Park Service (Snell). - - 212 National Park Service (Snell). - - 213 National Park Service (Snell). - - 215 National Park Service (Snell). - - 216 National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson). - - 219 Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine - (July 1787). Library of Congress. - - 220 National Park Service. - - 223 National Park Service. - - 224 National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher). - - 225 National Park Service. - - 227 National Park Service (Snell). - - 229 National Park Service (Snell). - - 230 National Park Service (Snell). - - 232 National Park Service (Wrenn). - - 233 National Park Service. - - 235 National Park Service (Snell). - - 236 Photographer, Jesse Gibbes. - - 238 National Park Service (Snell). - - 239 National Park Service (Snell). - - 241 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 242 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 244 National Park Service (Snell). - - 246 National Park Service (Snell). - - 248 National Park Service (Snell). - - 250 National Park Service (Snell). - - 251 National Park Service (Littleton). - - 253 National Park Service (Snell). - - 256 National Park Service (Snell). - - 265 National Archives. - - 266 National Archives. - - — FRONT END PAPER: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae. - Independence National Historical Park. - - — REAR END PAPER: National Park Service sketch. - - - - -Index - - - “A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America - in General Congress Assembled,” _see_ Declaration of - Independence - - _A Summary View of the Rights of British America_ (tract), 86, 87 - - Abingdon, Md., 113 - - Abolition of slavery, _see under_ Slaves - - Academies and academic affairs, _see_ Education - - Adam architectural style, 174, 239–240, 251–253 - - Adams, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John - - Adams, Brooks, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195 - - Adams, Charles Francis, grandson of signer, 33, 194, 195 - - Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., great-grandson of signer, 33, 194 - - Adams, “Deacon” John, father of signer, 191–192, 193 - - Adams, Henry, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194 - - Adams, John (signer) (“Atlas of American Independence”), career of and - sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 29, 30, _33–35_, 37, - 38, 58, 59, 61, 68, 74, 75, 88, 90, 93, 115, 124, 128, - _170–173_, _191–195_, 218, 222, 228, 262 - - Adams, John Quincy, son of signer and sites associated with, 30, 33, - 35, _191–195_ - - Adams, John Quincy II, great-grandson of signer, 33, 194 - - Adams, Mrs. John (Abigail Smith), wife of signer, 34, 35, 191–192, 193 - - Adams, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 37 - - Adams, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 37 - - Adams, Samuel (signer) (“Firebrand of the Revolution”), career of and - sites associated with, 12, 27, 31, _36–39_, 59, 60, 68, - 69, 160, 199 - - Adams (John) Birthplace, Mass., _191–192_ - - Adams (John Quincy) Birthplace, Mass., 191, _192–193_ - - Adams Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 192 - - Adams (John) family and descendants, 33, 34, 191–195 _passim_ - - Adams Mansion, _see_ Adams National Historic Site - - Adams Memorial Society, 195 - - Adams National Historic Site (Adams Mansion; “Old House”; “Peacefield”; - Vassall-Adams House), Mass., 160, 192, _193–195_ - - Admiralty boards, courts, and judges: - civil, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - naval, _see_ Continental Navy - - Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and - Monuments, 161, 272 - - Age of signers: at time of death, compared, 28–29, 43, 45, 52, 62, 98, - 99, 109, 199; - at time of signing, compared, 28–29, 55, 79, 99, 123, 127. - _See also specific signers._ - - Agencies of U.S. Government, _see under_ United States - - Agricultural Society of S.C., 76 - - Agriculture, _see_ Farms and farming - - Alamance, Battle of, N.C., 78 - - Albany, N.Y., 96, 153 - - Albany Congress (1754) and Albany Plan of Union, 56, 79, 80 - - Albemarle County, Va., 86 - - Alcoholic beverages, 51 - - Alexandria, Va., 136, 252 - - Alison, Rev. Francis, educator, 101, 118, 132 - - Allen, Md., 45 - - Allentown, Pa., 221 - - Almanacs, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts - - America and Americans, _see_ United States; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index_ - - American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 116 - - American Philosophical Society, 126, 221, 222, 226 - - American Philosophical Society Hall (Philosophical Hall), Pa., 218–226 - - American Revolution, _see_ War for Independence; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index_ - - American Revolution, Daughters of the, _see_ Daughters of the - American Revolution - - American Revolution, Sons of the, _see_ Sons of the American Revolution - - Amesbury, Mass., 39 - - Ammunition, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance - - Ancestry of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_) - - Anglican Church, 43–44, 45, 56, 62, 77, 113, 122, 136. - _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - Anglo-Saxon origin of signers, 27 - - Annapolis and Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., 43, 44, 45, - 46, 100, 113, 147, 170–191 _passim_, 263 - - Annapolis Convention (_1786_), 46, 48, 108, 119 - - Antifederalists and Antifederalism, 61, 94 - - Antislavery movement, _see under_ Slaves - - Aquia Creek Quarries, Va., 171 - - Archeologists and archeological excavation, 177 - - Architects, architectural styles, and architectural features, _see - specific architects, architectural styles, and buildings - and residences_ - - Archives: Federal, _see_ National Archives and Records Service; - non-Federal, and Declaration of Independence, 262 - - Ariss, John, architect-builder, 242, 246 - - Aristocrats and aristocracy, 31, 37, 41, 61, 66, 76, 77, 79, 97, 99, - 147 - - Arlington, Mass., 60 - - Armies, standing, 60. - _See also especially_ Continental Army; - _and various wars, battles, and nations_. - - Arms, ammunition, and ordnance, 9, 22, 38, 42, 84, 103, 106, 111, - 137, 138, 248 - - Army-Navy Museum, Pa., 224 - - Army of the Potomac (Civil War), 239 - - Arnold, Gen. Benedict, British officer, 239 - - Arson, and historic sites, 40 - - Art and artists, 81–83, 85, 134, 218, 234, 267 (_and see_ Museums _and - illustrations throughout this volume_) - - Articles of Association (_1774_), 267 - - Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union: debated, drafted, - adopted, and signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 71, 76, 81, 84, 90, 91, - 93–94, 100, 106, 110, 117, 129, 131, 136, 145, 149, 151, 218; - document exhibited, 267; - signers of Declaration who also signed, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90, - 93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149. - _See also_ Continental Congress. - - Ashley River, 103, 237 - - Assemblies, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in independence - movement, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial - clash; - signers serve in, _see specific signers_. - _See also individual colonies/States._ - - Assembly Room (Independence Hall, Pa.), _219–221_ - - Athens, Ga., 142 - - Attorneys and attorneys-general, _see_ Legal practice, legal - education, and jurisprudence - - Augusta, Ga., 67, 141, 142, 161, 173, 175, 176 - - Augusta (Ga.) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176 - - Authors, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts; - Literature and literary figures; - _and particular authors_ - - _Autobiography_, of Benjamin Franklin, 58 - - - Bachelor signers, 29, 73, 120 - - Back River, 154 - - Baltimore, Md., 45, 46, 50, 124, 183, 184, 185, 187, 217, 263 - - Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 44 - - Baltimore County, Md., 46 - - Baltimore Municipal Museum, 183 - - Baltimore Museum of Art, 187 - - Bank of England, 46 - - Bank of North America, 108, 147 - - Bank of the United States, First and Second, 218, 224, 226 - - Banks and banking, governmental and private, 46, 108, 147, - 218, 224, 226. - _See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing; - Currency and money; - Speculators and speculation. - - Barbados, 59 - - Barclay, Thomas, merchant, 229 - - Bartlett, Josiah (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, - _39–41_, _199–201_ - - Bartlett, Mrs. Josiah, wife of signer, 40 - - Bartlett descendants, 201 - - Bartlett House, N.H., _199–201_ - - Battles, _see under name of battle_ - - Bedford County, Va., 249 - - Beith (town), Scotland, 149 - - Benezet, John, merchant, 230 - - Bennington, Battle of, N.Y., 40 - - Berkeley (Harrison’s Landing) (estate), Va., 70, 71, _239–240_ - - Bible, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Bicentennial, U.S., 222 - - Bill of Rights, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution - - Birthplaces of signers, _see specific signers_ - - Bishop White House, Pa., 224, 226 - - Blacks, _see_ Slaves - - Bonaparte, Joseph, Napoleon’s brother, 204 - - Bonaparte, Napoleon, French ruler, 204 - - Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts: - favor or oppose U.S. Constitution, 94, 125; - on astronomy, 130; - on monetary theory, 130; - on religion, 149; - signers write, 33, 35, 55–56, 58, 86, 87, 94, 125, 126, 130, 145, - 146, 149, 150; - support Revolutionary cause, 9, 11, 12, 15, 33, 35, 86, 87, - 145, 146, 150. - _See also_ Libraries; - Literature and literary figures; - _and particular works_. - - Borden, Joseph, father-in-law of signer, 204 - - Bordentown, N.J., 82, 204, 205 - - Bordentown (N.J.) Chamber of Commerce, 205 - - Borland, Leonard Vassall, and Adams National Historic Site, 194 - - Boston and Boston Harbor, Mass., 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 33–34, 36, 37–39, - 53–54, 59–60, 68, 69, 77, 93, 115, 116, 120, 143, 193, 199. - _See also entries immediately following._ - - Boston (Mass.) Latin School, 36, 68, 77, 115 - - Boston Massacre, 5, 34, 37, 68, 115 - - Boston Port Act, 111 - - “Boston Tea Party,” 7, 38 - - “Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering,” (The) - (cartoon), reproduced, 6 - - Boudinot, Annis, marries signer, 134 - - Boudinot, Elias, brother-in-law of signer, 207 - - Boyhood homes of signers, _see specific signers_ - - Braintree, Mass., _see_ Quincy - - Brandywine, Battle of, Pa., 50 - - Braxton, Carter (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29, - _41–42_, 70, 71, 135, _240–242_ - - Braxton, George, brother of signer, 41, 240 - - Braxton, Mrs. Carter, first wife of signer, 41 - - Braxton, Mrs. Carter, second wife of signer, 41 - - Bridgeport, Conn., 65 - - Bristol, England, 62 - - Britain, British, British Isles, British Empire, and British - Commonwealth of Nations, _see_ Great Britain - - Broadside copies of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of - Independence - - Bronx, N.Y., 105. - _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor. - - Brookhaven and Brookhaven Township, N.Y., 53 - - Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., 97, 98. - _See also_ New York City and New York Harbor. - - Brothers, among signers, 92 - - Brown University, R.I., 80 - - Bruton Parish, Va., 256 - - Buckland, William, architect, 181–182 - - Bucks County, Pa., 137, 138 - - Builders, buildings, and building materials, _see specific - builder-architects, buildings, and residences_ - - Burgesses, House of, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses - - Burgoyne, Gen. John, British officer, 40, 143, 153 - - Burial places and burial grounds, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places - - Burke County, Ga., 67 - - Burlington, Mass., 199 - - Burlington and Burlington County, N.J., 148 - - Business and businessmen, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Butterfield, Gen. Daniel, and “Taps,” 240 - - Byberry (“The Homestead”), Pa., 124 - - Byfield (plantation), Del., 120, 121 - - - Cadwalader House, Pa., 228 - - Calvinists and Calvinism, 116, 149. - _See also_ Christianity and religion; - Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church. - - Cambridge, Mass., 9, 60, 68, 196, 197 - - Cambridge University (England), 99, 103, 111 - - Canada, 44, 46, 173 - - Canals, 44 - - Cape Fear region of N.C., 77 - - Capital cities: national, _see_ United States Capitals; - State, _see particular cities_ - - Capital punishment, 50, 126 - - Capitol (U.S.), _see_ United States Capitol - - Carlisle, Pa., 146 - - Carolinas, 115. - _See also_ North Carolina; - South Carolina. - - Caroline County, Va., 117 - - Carpenters, 114, 201, 217, 221 - - Carpenters’ Company of Philadelphia, 217, 221 - - Carpenters’ Hall, Pa., 8, 217, 221, 224, 226 - - Carroll, Charles I, grandfather of signer, 185 - - Carroll, Charles II, father of signer, 43, 185 - - Carroll, Charles III, of Carrollton (signer), career of and sites - associated with, 16, 28, 31, 35, _43–45_, 46, 52, 114, - _179–181_, _183–186_ - - Carroll, Charles V, grandson of signer, 186 - - Carroll, Father John, cousin of signer, 44 - - Carroll, Mary, daughter of signer, 45, 183 - - Carroll (Charles) American Heritage Association, Inc., 185 - - Carroll family and descendants, 43, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185 - - Carroll Mansion, Md., 43, _179–180_ - - “Carroll Vocational School,” Md., 184 - - Carrollton Manor, Md., 43, _180–181_, 185 - - Carskerdo, Scotland, 145 - - Carter, Robert “King,” grandfather of signer, 41 - - Carter-May House, S.C., _see_ Rutledge House - - Carvel Hall Hotel, Md., 189 - - Catasauqua, Pa., 230 - - Catholic Church, _see_ Roman Catholic Church - - Caton, Mary Carroll, daughter of signer, 45, 183 - - Caton, Richard, son-in-law of signer, 45, 183 - - Caton family, 184 - - Cecil County, Md., 118, 124 - - Cemeteries and burial places, of signers, marked, 160 (_and see - specific signers_) - - Centennial (U.S.) Exposition, 264 - - Chain Bridge, 263 - - Chancery courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and - jurisprudence - - Channing, William Ellery, descendant of signer, 52 - - Chantilly (estate), Va., 92, 94 - - Chapels and chaplains, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Charitable organizations, 166 - - Charles Carroll American Heritage Association, Inc., 185 - - Charles City and Charles City County, Va., 70 - - Charles County, Md., 135–136, 189 - - Charleston and Charleston Harbor, S.C., 65, 76, 103, 104, 127, - 128, 129, 233 - - Charleston County, S.C., 99 - - Charleston “double house,” 233–234 - - Charleston (S.C.) Museum, 234 - - Charlestown, Mass., 9 - - Charlottesville, Va., 88, 89, 243, 250 - - Charter of Privileges (_1701_), 221 - - Chase, Mrs. Samuel, first wife of signer, 45, 46 - - Chase, Mrs. Samuel, second wife of signer, 46 - - Chase, Samuel (signer) (“Demosthenes of Maryland”), career of and - sites associated with, 16, 29, 44, _45–46_, 113, 114, 136, - 161, _181–182_ - - Chase family and descendants, 183 - - Chase-Lloyd House, Md., 161, _181–183_ - - Chatham County, Ga., 67 - - “Chawton Manor,” Pa., 230 - - Chemistry education, 123, 124 - - Chericoke (estate), Va., 42, 240 - - Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, 44 - - Chester and Chester County, Pa., 50, 101, 109, 110, 118, 137, 138 - - Chestertown, Md., 114 - - Chew, Benjamin, lawyer-jurist, 82 - - Chilbury Hall, Md., 113 - - Children of signers, number and careers of, compared, 29–30, 41 (_and - see individual signers_) - - Christ Church, Christ Churchyard, and Christ Church Burial Ground, - Pa., 58, 75, 83, 108, 123, 126, 148, 224, 226 - - Christ Episcopal Church, Del., 121 - - Christianity and religion, and historic sites, 160, 181, 186, 199; - and signers, 28, 31, 33, 43, 45, 65, 68, 73, 77, 88, 90, 95, 97, - 115, 116, 122, 149–150, 181, 186; - freedom in, 88, 90, 97; - in Colonies, 55–56; - in public education, 126; - in Scotland, 149–150; - in Va., 90, 93, 263; - theologian prominent in, 52. - _See also specific denominations and churches._ - - Churches and church affairs, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Circuit courts and judges, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary - - Cities, towns, and villages: and committees/councils of - correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence; - and committees/councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety; - and historic preservation, 160; - and signers, _see particular signers_. - _See also individual cities, towns, and villages._ - - City Hall, old, New York City, _see_ Federal Hall - - City Hall (Philadelphia), 218, 221 - - City Tavern (Philadelphia), 222 - - Civic affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_ - - Civic organizations, and historic preservation, 160 - - Civil War (U.S.), 186, 236, 239, 251 - - Clark, Abraham (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _47–48_, 160 - - Clarke, Rev. Jonas, relative of signer, 199 - - Clarke Hall (Philadelphia), 222 - - Classical and Classic Revival architectural style, 183–184. - _See also_ Greek Revival architectural style. - - Classics, studied, _see under_ Education - - Clay, Henry, law student, 154, 156 - - Clergymen, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Clymer, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29, - _49–51_, 134, _229_ - - Cobblers, 129 - - Codes, legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence - - Codfish, 59 - - College Hill (Walton-Harper House), Ga., 142, _173–175_ - - College of Charleston, S.C., 104 - - College of New Jersey, _see_ Princeton University - - College of Philadelphia, 82, 113, 124, 126, 146, 148 - - College of William and Mary, Va., 41, 70, 86, 154–156 - - Colleges and universities, and historic sites, 160; - chemistry education in, 123, 124; - classical education in, 154, 156; - legal education in, 154–156; - medical education in, 123–126; - signers aid, head, and serve, 67, 123–126, 142, 146, 148, - 150–151, 154–156; - signers attend, 30 (_and see particular signers_). - _See also_ Education; - and _specific colleges and universities_. - - Colonial and colonial Philadelphia architectural style, 172, - 228, 246, 252 - - Colonial Annapolis Historic District, Md., _see_ Annapolis and - Colonial Annapolis Historic District - - Colonial Dames of America, 160, 202 - - Colonial National Historical Park, Va., 160, 247–249 - - Colonial Park Cemetery, Ga., 64 - - Colonial Williamsburg, Va., _see_ Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic - District, and Colonial Williamsburg - - Colonies, Thirteen (British-American): and British Empire, 147, 156; - and signers, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and individual - signers_; - architecture in, _see particular styles_; - confederations of, actual and proposed, 16, 34, 56, 79, 80 (_and - see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union); - constitutions, legislatures, and governments of, 9, 15 (_and see - specific colonies/States_); - cultural heritage of, 8; - foreign nations recognize independence of, 35; - government and diplomacy of, _see_ Continental Congress; - heroes and prominent men in, 27, 31, 34, 37, 43, 55, 56, 68, 115; - independence movement in, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash, Declaration of Independence, _and_ - Independence resolution; - meetings and congresses of, 56, 79, 80, 93, 132; - proprietary, 43, 56–57, 113, 120, 122, 136; - publications popular in, 15, 55–56, 81; - regions and trade of, 30, 62; - status of Ga. in, 15, 64, 89; - territory added to, 3; - wars in, _see specific wars_. - _See also_ Continental Congress; - States; - War for Independence; - _individual colonies/States and regions_; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index_. - - Columbia University (King’s College), N.Y., 97 - - Commerce, trade, and manufacturing: and colonial protest, 97; - and historic sites, 160, 181, 228; - and signers, 27, 31 (_and see specific signers_); - Britain-Colonies, 4, 8, 9, 37–38, 62, 68; - Continental Congress regulates, 49, 52, 95; - embargoes and restrictions on, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash; - France-Colonies, 147; - in slaves, _see_ Slaves; - in various colonies, 36, 52, 55, 80, 101, 120, 184, 202; - Indian-Colonies, 4; - individuals other than signers in, 51, 59, 62, 68, 106, 111, 115, - 184, 204, 251; - treaties deal with, 35, 58, 88–89. - _See also_ Banks and banking; - Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - Taxes and taxation. - - Commissions and commissioners, _see individual commissions, - governmental bodies, and topics_ - - Committee of fifty-one, 95, 98 - - Committee of one hundred, 98 - - Committee of sixty, 95, 98 - - Committees, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, topics, and - entries immediately preceding and following_ - - Committees of correspondence, 7–8, 37–38, 40, 44, 45, 59, 70, 72, 73, - 78, 81, 93, 106, 113, 130, 136, 138, 146, 150 - - Committees of safety, 9, 10, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 54, 60, 68, 72, - 76, 103, 106, 114, 122, 131, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 145 - - Common Ground Cemetery, R.I., 52 - - Common schools, _see_ Education - - _Common Sense_ (pamphlet), 11, 12, 15, 124 - - Community affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific - signers_ - - Companies, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Composers, musical, _see_ Music and musicians - - Concord and Battle of Concord, Mass., 8, 9, 10, 12, 38, 42, 60, 68 - - Confederacy (Civil War), 251 - - Confederations: of Colonies, actual and proposed, _see under_ Colonies; - of Thirteen States, _see_ Articles of Confederation and Perpetual - Union; - Continental Congress - - Conferences, _see particular agencies, governmental bodies, and topics_ - - Confiscation of lands, _see under_ Land - - Congregationalists and Congregational Church, 65, 68, 77, 144, 150, - 166. - _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - Congresses, colonies/States, _see individual colonies/States_; - Continental, see Continental Congress; - intercolonial, _see under_ Colonies; - U.S., _see_ United States Congress - - Congress Hall (County Court House), Pa., 218, 221, 223, 226 - - Congressional Cemetery, D.C., 62 - - Connecticut (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16, - 18, 24, 53, 72, 83–84, 123, 129–131, 133, 143, 144–145, - 152–153, 164–170, 211 - - Connecticut (Great) Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131 - - Conservatives and conservatism, political, 14, 16, 18, 22–23, 37, 41, - 42, 45–46, 56, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79, 80, 88, 94, 96, 101, 113, - 114, 118, 119, 128, 135, 136, 141–142, 145, 147; - religious, 56, 65 - - _Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority - of the British Parliament_ (tract), 146 - - Constitutional conventions and constitutions: British, _see under_ - Great Britain; - colonies/States, _see specific colonies/States_; - U.S., _see_ United States Constitution _and_ United States - Constitutional Convention - - Continental Army, and signers, 27, 34, 40, 60, 99–100, 107, 111; - battles and campaigns of, _see_ War for Independence; - Continental Congress regulates, 34, 49, 60, 71, 84, 91, 98, 101, - 105, 115, 143, 145, 147, 151; - created, 14, 217; - Declaration distributed to, 22; - financed, 14, 60, 106–108; - inspected, 134; - leadership of, 14, 29, 34, 41, 69, 74–75, 217, 264; - medical service and conditions in, 40, 125, 228; - recruiting poster of, reproduced, 10; - recruitment-enlistment for, 60, 121; - supplied, 14, 60, 84, 95, 106–108, 137, 138; - veterans of, 60, 114. - _See also_ Militia. - - Continental Association, 9, 66, 103 - Continental Congress (First and Second), adjourns and convenes, 7–8, - 9, 14, 38, 93; - and Adams (John), 18, 33–35, 38; - and Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation and - Perpetual Union; - and Bank of North America, _see_ Bank of North America; - and Colonies, _see_ Colonies; - and committees of correspondence and safety, _see_ Committees of - correspondence _and_ Committees of safety; - and Cornwallis’ surrender, 218; - and Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of Independence; - and Halifax Resolves, 74; - and Hancock, 69; - and independence from Britain, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash _and_ Independence resolution; - and Indians, _see_ Indians and Indian affairs; - and maritime matters, _see_ Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - and Olive Branch Petition, 14; - and signers, _see particular signers_; - and U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution; - book on, 268; - Delegates and delegations to, _see individual Delegates and - colonies/States and under_ Counties and parishes; - diplomatic program of, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; - father-son team in, 100; - fiscal problems and policies of, 31, 49–50, 60, 71, 106–108, 111, - 117, 131, 141, 143, 151; - gathering place for members of, 222; - key days in, 18; - meetingplaces of, _front endpaper_, 8, 14, 50, 217, 219–221, 224, - 263; - memorialized, 221; - officials of, 22, 24, 39, 52, 67, 69, 84, 92, 94, 101, 117, 136, - 207, 262–263, 267; - organization and committees/commissions of, 8, 15, 16, 34, 40, 44, - 49–50, 52, 54, 71, 74, 81, 84, 91, 95, 98, 105, 110, 115, 131, - 138, 141, 143, 147, 151; - profiteering in, 31, 46, 106–107; - prominent men not Delegates to, 27; - regulates commerce, 49, 52, 95; - representation and voting procedures in, 8, 15, 18, 24, 27, 39, 66 - (_and see individual colonies/States_); - sectional rivalries in, 74; - temper and range of political opinion in, 8–9, 14–15, 16, 18, 34, - 88, 135, 136, 141, 147. - _See also entries immediately preceding and following, specific - colonies/States, and appropriate topics throughout - this index._ - - Continental currency, 31, 49, 69 - - Continental Loan Office, 52 - - Continental Navy, 15, 34, 52, 74–75, 81, 82, 108 - - Continental Navy Board, 82. _See also_ Continental Navy. - - Convention of Saratoga, _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga - - Conventions, _see individual conventions, colonies/States, and - appropriate topics_ - - Conway, Thomas, and Conway Cabal, 60, 95, 125 - - Coopers, 83 - - Corbin, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 42 - - Cornwallis, Gen. Charles, British officer, 218, 248 - - Corporations, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Correspondence, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of - correspondence - - Coton (estate), Va., 91 - - Cotton planters, _see_ Planters and plantations - - Councils, _see particular councils, cities, towns, colonies/States, - and appropriate topics_ - - Councils of correspondence, _see_ Committees of correspondence - - Councils of safety, _see_ Committees of safety - - Counties and parishes, and committees/councils of correspondence and - safety, _see_ Committees of correspondence _and_ Committees of - safety; - militia of, _see_ Militia; - offices in and affairs of, role of signers in, _see specific - signers_; - send Delegates to Continental Congress, 54, 66, 141. - _See also individual colonies/States and counties/parishes._ - - Counting rooms and houses, 36, 184, 202 - - County Court House, Pa., _see_ Congress Hall - - Courts, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence - - Coventry Forge, Pa., 137 - - Criteria of eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic - Landmark status, 161, 270–271 - - Crown, British, _see_ Colonies; - Great Britain - - Crown Point, N.Y., 115 - - Cumberland County, Pa., 122 - - Currency and money, and Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental - Congress; - British problems with, 3; - Continental, 31, 49, 69; - signers raise to further Revolutionary cause, 31, 49; - speculation in, _see_ Speculators and speculation; - status of signers regarding, _see_ Wealth and financial status of - signers; - theory on, 130. _See also_ Banks and banking. - - Customs laws, collection, and officials, British and American, 3, 4, - 6, 34, 37, 52, 68, 82, 101 - - - Dana, Richard Henry, Sr., grandson of signer, 52 - - Dartmouth College, N.H., 40, 84 - - Daughters of signers, _see particular signers_ - - Daughters of the American Revolution, 160, 176, 192, 224, 227 - - Daughters of the Revolution, 160 - - Dawes, William, patriot, 10, 199 - - “Dean’s House,” N.J., _see_ President’s House - - Deaths of signers: age at, compared, 28–29; - earliest, 62, 98, 109, 199; - latest, 35, 43; - on anniversary of adoption of Declaration, 35, 90. - _See also specific signers._ - - Debts and economic reversals of signers, 36–37, 46, 63–64, 69, 73, 78, - 89–90, 107–108, 112, 132, 146, 148, 196, 213 - - “Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in - General Congress Assembled” (A), _see_ Declaration of - Independence - - Declaration of Independence, and Adams (John), 16, 18, 20, 33–34; - and Va. constitution, 20; - anniversary of, 35, 90, 264; - author of, _see_ Jefferson, Thomas; - books on, 268–269; - broadside copies of, 22, 69, 262; - building, residence, and rooms involved in creation of, 18, 159–160, - 217, 222, _rear endpaper_; - celebrated and read publicly, 22, 217, 264; - contents and style of, analyzed, 20, 22; - debated, altered, adopted, and signed, 3, 18, 20, 22, 23–24, 28, 33, - 34, 67, 69, 71, 72, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 93, 95, 100, 106, 110, - 117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 136, 159–160, 217, 219–220, 222, 262 - (_and see individual signers_); - desk written on, 222, 245; - displayed, in various places, 3, 262–267; - displayed, photo of, 266; - drafted, 14, 16, 18, 33, 34, 55, 57–58, 88, 90, 93, 129, 130, 217, - 228, 245, 262, 263; - drafting committee of, illus. of, ii; - historical background and origins of, 3–24; - history of document, 262–267; - Jefferson presents to Hancock, in mural, 267; - misconceptions concerning, 23–24; - newspapers describe and publish, 21; - parchment copy of, 23–24, 69, 262–267; - parchment copy of, facsimile of, reproduced, 19; - political philosophy of, 20; - preamble of, 20; - predicted, 78, 82; - presented to Continental Congress, illus. of, ii; - printed and distributed, 22, 23–24, 262; - reflects unanimity, 23; - revised draft of, 262; - rough draft of, illus. of first page of, 17; - rough drafts of, 17, 18, 20, 262; - signatures on, order and nature of, 23–24, 39, 60, 67, 93, 100, 139, - 140, 153, 155, 217, 262; - signers of, _see_ Signers of the Declaration _and specific signers_; - significance and influence of, 3, 20; - text of, reprinted, 259–262; - titles of, 23; - traditions concerning, 52, 58, 69, 79. - _See also_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; - Independence resolution. - - “Declaration of Independence” (The) (painting), reproduced, ii - - “Declaration of Rights,” 20. - _See also_ Rights. - - Degrees, academic and honorary, signers earn, _see individual signers_ - - Deists, 28 - - Delaware (Three Lower Counties) (colony and State), history of and - historic sites in, 16, 18, 24, 27, 100–102, 118–121, 122, 135. - _See also_ Pennsylvania. - - Delaware County, Pa., 109 - - Delegates, _see particular legislative bodies and appropriate topics_ - - Democracy, 3. - _See also appropriate related topics throughout this index._ - - Democratic-Republicans and Democratic-Republican Party, 52, 61–62, - 85, 89, 102. - _See also_ Jeffersonians. - - Departments of U.S. Government, _see appropriate departments - following_ United States - - Derry Village, N.H., 139, 203 - - Descendants of signers, achieve distinction, 29–30; - and historic sites, 160. - _See also specific signers and individuals_. - - Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, - Inc., 160 - - Deshler-Morris House, Pa., 224, 226 - - Deshon, Christopher, merchant, 183 - - Deshon-Caton-Carroll House, Md., 45, _183–185_ - - Dickinson, John, lawyer-legislator, 18, 69, 93, 110, 119, 146 - - Dickinson College, Pa., 126 - - Dinwiddie, Robert, British official, 154 - - Diplomats and diplomacy, 15, 16, 29, 33, 35, 44, 46, 55, 58, 61, 71, - 85, 88, 93, 95, 98, 128, 136, 143, 151, 193–196 - - Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of signers, _see - particular signers_ - - District courts, U.S., _see_ United States Judiciary - - District of Columbia, _see_ Washington, D.C. - - Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals, 31, - 39–40, 56, 65, 66, 67, 97, 98, 121, 123–127, 139–140, 152, - 201, 203, 218, 228. - On the health of individual signers, _see specific signers._ - - Dorchester, Mass., 129 - - Dorchester, S.C., 65 - - Doric architectural style, 166, 176, 186, 244 - - “Double house,” 233–234 - - Doughoregan Manor, Md., 43, 45, 179, 180, 183, _185–186_ - - Dover, Del., 18, 101, 119, 120, 121 - - Down Hatherly (village), England, 62 - - Drafting, of Articles of Confederation, _see_ Articles of Confederation - and Perpetual Union; - of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence; - of key State documents, _see individual States_; - of U.S. Constitution, _see_ United States Constitution - - Drafts, various, of Declaration, _see_ Declaration of Independence - - Dublin, Ireland, 118, 172 - - Duels, 62, 63, 64, 117 - - Duke of Leinster, 172 - - Dunmore, Lord John M., British official, 42, 111 - - Durham Furnace, Pa., 137, 138 - - Dutch, _see_ Holland - - Duties, _see_ Customs laws, collection, and officials - - - East Cemetery, Conn., 153 - - East River, 97 - - East Windsor, Conn., 153 - - Eastern Shore, _see_ Maryland - - Easton, Pa., 137, 138, 230 - - Easton Cemetery, Pa., 138 - - Economic matters, _see mainly_ Banks and banking; - Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Economic status of signers, _see_ Wealth and financial status of - signers - - Edenton, N.C., 73, 78, 148 - - Edge, Gov. (N.J.) and Mrs. Walter E., and Morven, 208 - - Edinburgh, Scotland, 134, 149 - - Education, and Jefferson, 85, 86; - and Lowell, 195–196; - classical, 39, 45, 154; - in chemistry, 123, 124; - in various colonies/States, 84, 102, 229, 245, 252, 255; - legal, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence; - medical, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, - and hospitals; - of signers, compared, 27, 28, 30 (_and see specific signers_); - reform of, 126; - religious, in public schools, 126 (_and see_ Christianity - and religion); - signers further as teachers, professors, and administrators, 33, 56, - 65, 67, 80, 85, 115, 142, 154–156. - _See also_ Colleges and universities. - - Elections and elective officials, _see particular legislative bodies, - offices, individuals, and colonies/States_ - - Electors, presidential, _see under_ United States Presidents - and Presidency - - Elementary schools, _see_ Education - - Eligibility of sites and buildings for National Historic Landmark - status, _see_ National Historic Landmarks - - Elizabeth City County, Va., 154 - - Ellery, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _51–52_, 160 - - Elmwood (Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House), Mass., _195–197_ - - Elsing Green (estate), Va., 41, 42, _240–242_ - - Emancipation of slaves, _see_ Slaves - - Embargoes, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash - - Emley, John, _see_ Imlay, John - - England and Englishmen, _see_ Colonies; - Great Britain - - English language and literature, _see_ Literature and literary figures - - Epidemics, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, - and hospitals - - Esopus, N.Y., 98 - - Essays and essayists, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts - - _Essays: Literary, Moral, and Philosophical_ (book), 126 - - Essex County, N.J., 47 - - Eton (school), England, 99 - - Europe, and _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56; - architecture in, 172; - capital from, 148; - colonists from, and western lands, 148; - culture of, 88; - medical students from, 126; - signers visit and study in, 30, 43, 88, 92, 95, 103, 179, 180, - 192, 193, 235; - U.S. diplomats in, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy. - _See also specific countries._ - - Excavation, archeological, 177 - - “Exceptional value,” sites and buildings of, _see_ National - Historic Landmarks - - Excise taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation - - Exeter, N.H., 143 - - Exhibition Hall (National Archives Building, D.C.), 262, 266, 267 - - Exports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - - Facsimiles of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence - - Fairfax County, Va., 91 - - Families of signers, suffer during War for Independence, 31, 47, 54, - 71–72, 94–95, 104–105, 110. - _See also specific signers and families._ - - Farms and farming: and signers, 31, 45, 47, 53, 72, 80, 83, 85, 101, - 109, 110, 117, 124, 129, 134, 140, 164, 203, 209, 210–211, - 212–213; - in various areas, 33, 76, 101, 117, 138, 140, 164, 166, 230, 255. - _See also_ Planters and plantations. - - Farmville, Va., 141 - - Federal, _see United States entries and those immediately following_ - - Federal City, _see_ Washington, D.C. - - Federal Hall (old City Hall), New York City, 263 - - Federal period architecture and literature, 81, 170 - - Federalists and Federalist Party, 35, 44, 46, 52, 61, 89, 102, 108, - 116, 119, 128, 131, 156. - _See also_ Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians. - - Ferries, 140 - - Financial matters, _see_ Currency and money; - Wealth and financial status of signers - - Finian (estate), N.C., 77, 78, 79, 214 - - Finns and Finland, 109 - - Fire Island National Seashore, N.Y., 160, 210–212 - - Fires, and historic sites, 40, 86, 97, 159, 199, 207, 247, 250, 263 - - First Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States - - First Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 224, 226 - - First Baptist Church, N.J., 72 - - First Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress - - First Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Pa., 133 - - First South Carolina Regiment of Continentals, 99 - - Fiscal matters, _see_ Currency and money - - Floor plans, _see specific houses_ - - Florida (region and State), 76, 104, 128, 233 - - Floyd, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 53 - - Floyd, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 54 - - Floyd, Nicoll, son of signer, 54, 211, 212 - - Floyd, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _53–54_, _210–213_ - - Floyd Birthplace (Fire Island National Seashore), N.Y., 53, 54, - 160, _210–212_ - - Floyd family and descendants, 54, 210–213 - - Floyd (General) House, N.Y., _see_ General Floyd House - - Flushing, N.Y., 95 - - Food shortages, 147 - - Foreign affairs, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy - - Foreign born signers, 27–28 (_and see particular signers_) - - “Formation of the Union” exhibit, 267 - - Fort Knox, Ky., 265 - - Fort Oswego, N.Y., 95 - - Fort Stanwix, N.Y., Second Treaty of (_1784_), 153 - - “Fort Wilson” (residence), Pa., 146, 147, 222 - - Foundations, historic, and historic sites, 160 - - Founders’ Monument, Ga., _see_ Signers’ Monument - - France, and Democratic-Republicans, 61; - and signers, 35, 43, 58, 95, 100, 145, 147; - and War for Independence, 145; - artist-engineer from, 171; - cedes land to Britain, 3, 4; - commerce of, 147; - diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 55, 58, 61, 88; - fortress of, 139; - loans money to Continental Congress, 108; - revolution in, 35, 88–89; - undeclared war of, with U.S., 35, 61; - wallpaper from, 202; - wars of, _see specific wars_. - _See also_ New France. - - Franklin, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, - 18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 35, 44, _55–58_, 79, 82, 88, 110, 124, - 128, 147, 160, 221, 222, 224 - - Franklin, James, half-brother of signer, 55 - - Franklin College, Ga., 67, 142 - - Franklin stoves, 204 - - Frederick and Frederick County, Md., 43, 135 - - French and Indian War, 3, 56, 95, 97, 115, 144 - - French language, 44 - - French Revolution, 35, 88–89 - - Friends Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 51 - - Frontier and frontiersmen, 4, 54, 56, 78, 85, 86, 108, 141, - 147, 148, 212 - - Fulling mills, 72 - - Furniture and furnishings, associated with signers, collectively, - 219, 221. - _See also individual sites._ - - - Gadsden, Christopher, legislator, 128 - - Gage, Gen. Thomas, British officer-official, 10 - - Galloway, John, Loyalist, 138 - - Gardens, famous, 236–237. _See also specific sites._ - - Garrison house, 178 - - General Floyd House, N.Y., 54, _212–213_ - - General Services Administration (U.S.), _see_ United States General - Services Administration - - George II, King of England, 68 - - George III, King of England, 4, 8, 15, 22, 24, 68 - - George Taylor Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 227 - - Georgetown and Georgetown County, S.C., 99 - - Georgia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 8, 9, - 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 51, 54, 56, 62–67, 76, 138, 140–142, 148, - 161, 173–177 - - Georgia State Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, 176 - - Georgian architectural style, 176–178, 181–183, 185–191, 194–198, - 201–202, 206–213, 218–219, 226–227, 229–234, 239–249, 251–256 - - German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Pa., 138 - - Germans and Germany, 40 - - Germantown and Battle of Germantown, Pa., 23, 151, 224 - - Germantown (Pa.) Historical Society, 226 - - Gerry, Elbridge (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 29, - _59–62_, _195–198_ - - Gerry, Mrs. Elbridge, wife of signer, 61–62 - - Gerry, Thomas, father of signer, 197 - - Gerry Birthplace, Mass., _197–198_ - - Gerry family, 197 - - “Gerrymander,” 61 - - Gifford (village), Scotland, 149 - - Glamorganshire, Wales, 95 - - Glasgow, Scotland, 149 - - Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church National Historic Site, Pa., 226 - - Gloucestershire, England, 62 - - “God save the King” (British national anthem), 76 - - “God save the thirteen States” (song), 76 - - Goochland County, Va., 86 - - Governor Hopkins House, R.I., _231–232_ - - Governor Huntington House, Conn., _see_ Huntington House - - Governors, _see specific colonies/States and individuals_ - - Grace Episcopal Church, Va., 112 - - Graff, Jacob, Jr., House, Pa.: and Declaration of Independence, - 18, 222; - illus. of, 225, _rear endpaper_ - - Graham, Gov. (N.C.) William A., and Nash-Hooper House, 214 - - Grammar schools, _see_ Education - - Granville County, N.C., 117 - - Graves, graveyards, and gravestones, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places - - Great Britain, agents of various American colonies in, 56; - and Federalists, 61; - and Ga., 15, 64, 89; - and Liberty Bell, 221; - and signers, 28, 31, 41, 56, 62, 64, 68, 76, 82, 88, 95, 99, 103, - 106, 109, 111, 113, 115, 127, 136, 143, 240; - and slave trade, 20; - Army of, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash _and - specific wars_; - Bank of England in, 46; - clashes with American Colonies, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash _and_ War for Independence; - colonies of, _see_ Colonies; - Commonwealth of Nations of, 147; - “conspiracy” in, 3–4; - constitution of, 15; - creditors in, 4, 78; - debtors in, 78; - diplomacy of and U.S. diplomats in, 35, 194, 196; - Empire of, and Colonies, 155; - financial problems of, 3; - France cedes lands to, 3, 4; - grants lands, 95; - kings of, _see specific kings_; - national anthem of, 76; - navy of, 64, 98, 141; - Parliament of, _see under_ Independence movement and British-colonial - clash; - people of, and Declaration of Independence, 20; - recognizes U.S. independence, _see_ Treaty of Paris; - reorganization of imperial structure of, 147; - Revolutionary tracts circulate in, 81, 146; - rights of citizens of, 8–9; - ties of, to American Colonies, 8; - trade of, 8, 9, 31, 37, 46; - treasury of, 3; - wars of, _see specific wars_. - _See also_ Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish; - Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish; - Wales and Welshmen; - _and other appropriate topics throughout this index_. - - Great Compromise, in U.S. Constitutional Convention, 131 - - Greek language, 39, 156 - - Greek Revival architectural style, 164–165, 166, 168, 180, 185–186, - 199–201, 203–204, 207–208, 231 - - Greenland, 115 - - Greensboro, N.C., 79, 118, 161 - - Greenwich Forge and Greenwich Township, N.J., 138, 226 - - Grievances, colonial, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial - clash - - Grist mills, 72 - - Grove Street Cemetery, Conn., 131 - - Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, N.C., 79, 118, 161, 216 - - Guns and gunpowder, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance - - Gwinnett, Button (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27–28, - _62–64_, 65, 67, 98, 140, 161, _176–177_ - - Gwinnett, Mrs. Button, wife of signer, 62 - - - H-shaped buildings, 251–253, 253–255 - - Habre-de-Venture (estate), Md., 136, _186–188_, 189 - - Hackney School, England, 103, 111 - - Haddington (town) and Haddington Presbytery, Scotland, 149 - - Hague (town), Va., 94 - - “Hail Columbia” (song), 81 - - Halifax Resolves, 74 - - Hall, Lyman (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 64, - _65–67_, 140, 141, 160, 161 - - Hall, Mrs. Lyman, first wife of signer, 65 - - Hall, Mrs. Lyman, second wife of signer, 65 - - Hall, Rev. Samuel, uncle of signer, 65 - - Hall family, 66 - - Hall’s Knoll (estate), Ga., 66, 67 - - Hamilton, Alexander, and Hamiltonians, 35, 89. - _See also_ Federalists and Federalist Party. - - Hamilton, Andrew, lawyer-architect, 217 - - Hampton, Va., 154 - - Hancock, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 12, 22, - 24, 34, 37, 38, 39, 59, 60, _67–69_, 115, 116, _198–199_, - 262, 267 - - Hancock, John George Washington, son of signer, 69 - - Hancock, Rev. John, grandfather of signer, 199 - - Hancock, Thomas, uncle of signer, 68, 199 - - Hancock-Clarke House, Mass., _198–199_ - - Hancock family, 199 - - Hanover County, Va., 42, 112, 247 - - Harford County, Md., 113 - - Harper family, 175 - - Harrison, Benjamin IV, father of signer, 239 - - Harrison, Benjamin V (signer) (“Falstaff of Congress”), career of and - sites associated with, 30, 69, _70–71_, _239–240_ - - Harrison, Benjamin VI, son of signer, 239 - - Harrison, Benjamin, great-grandson of signer and President, 30, 70, 239 - - Harrison, Joseph H., legislator, 114, 136 - - Harrison, Mrs. Benjamin V, wife of signer, 70 - - Harrison, William Henry, son of signer and President, 30, 70, 239 - - Harrison family, 70, 71, 240 - - Harrison’s Landing, Va., _see_ Berkeley - - Hart, John (signer) (“Honest John”), career of and sites associated - with, _71–72_, 160 - - Hart, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 72 - - Harvard College and University, Mass., 30, 33, 36, 51, 59, 68, 77, - 115, 144, 197 - - Hayes Plantation, N.C., 148 - - Health of signers, _see specific signers_ - - Henry, Patrick, career of, 27, 28, 42, 70, 71, 86, 88, 92, 93, 111 - - Heraldic emblems, 82 - - Hessians, _see_ Germans and Germany - - Hewes, Joseph (signer), career of and sites associated with, 29, - _73–75_, 116, 117, 161, _206_, 224 - - Heyward, Daniel, father of signer, 233 - - Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., first wife of signer, 76 - - Heyward, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., second wife of signer, 76 - - Heyward, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, - 31, _75–76_, 99, 104, 127, 128, _233–234_ - - Heyward family, 76, 234 - - Heyward-Washington House, S.C., _233–234_ - - Higher education, _see_ Colleges and universities - - Hills, The (estate), Pa., 108 - - Hillsborough, N.C., 79, 214 - - Historians and historiography, 33, 194. - _See also entries immediately following_. - - Historic Annapolis, Inc., 189 - - Historic Districts, _see_ National Historic Landmarks - - Historic foundations, and historic sites, 160 - - Historic Places, National Register of, _see_ National Register of - Historic Places - - Historic preservation activities and problems, 159–162. - _See also entries immediately preceding and following_. - - Historic sites and buildings of national significance, _see_ National - Historic Landmarks - - Historical societies, State and local: and historic preservation, 160 - - Historiography, _see_ Historians and historiography - - Hoban, James, architect, 171, 172 - - Holland (Dutch Republic; Netherlands), 35, 96, 211 - - Homes of signers, _see_ Residences of signers - - “Homestead” (The), Pa., _see_ Byberry - - “Honeymoon Cottage,” Va., 244, 245 - - Hooper, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 77 - - Hooper, Rev. William, father of signer, 77 - - Hooper, William (signer) (“Prophet of Independence”), career of and - sites associated with, 31, _77–79_, 116, 117, 161, _214–216_ - - Hopewell, N.J., 72 - - Hopkins, Alden, descendant of signer, 232 - - Hopkins, Esek, brother of signer, 80, 81 - - Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, first wife of signer, 80 - - Hopkins, Mrs. Stephen, second wife of signer, 80 - - Hopkins, Stephen (signer), career of and sites associated with, 51, - _79–81_, _231–232_ - - Hopkins (Governor) House, R.I., _see_ Governor Hopkins House - - Hopkinson, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _81–83_, _204–205_, 224 - - Hopkinson, Joseph, son of signer, 81, 204 - - Hopkinson, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, 82 - - Hopkinson family, 204 - - Hopkinson House, N.J., _204–205_ - - Hopsewee-on-the-Santee (plantation), S.C., 99, _234–236_ - - Horses, 101, 121, 134 - - Hospitals, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, - and hospitals - - House of Burgesses, _see_ Virginia House of Burgesses - - Howard County, Md., 43, 180, 183 - - Howe, Lord Richard, British admiral, 98, 128, 136 - - Howe, Sir William, British officer, 13, 128 - - Humanitarians and reformers, 50, 80, 97, 123–126 - - Humphreys, Charles, legislator, 110 - - Hunterdon County, N.J., 72 - - Huntington, Mrs. Samuel, wife of signer, 83 - - Huntington, Samuel (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _83–84_, _164–166_, 222 - - Huntington Birthplace, Conn., _164–165_ - - Huntington House (Governor Huntington House), Conn., _165–166_ - - - Illnesses of signers, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical - afflictions of signers - - Imlay (Emley), John, merchant, 204 - - Immanuel Episcopal Churchyard, Del., 119 - - Impeachment, 46, 102, 148 - - Imports, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Imprisonment, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war - - Inaugurations and inaugural addresses of U.S. Presidents, _see under_ - United States Presidents and Presidency - - Indentured servants, 31, 137 - - Independence Day (U.S.), 76 - - Independence Hall (State House for the Province of Pennsylvania), Pa., - _front endpaper_, 14, 18, 22, 216, _217–226_ - - Independence Mall, Pa., 226 - - Independence movement (U.S.) and British-colonial clash: and Adams - (John), 18, 33–34; - and Adams (Samuel), 36–38; - and British Parliament, 8, 9, 14, 15, 38, 42, 56, 57, 59, 72, 81, - 86, 93, 134, 146, 155; - and Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress; - and R.I., 15; - and Va., 15; - British actions and postures during, 3–156 _passim_, 199; - colonial grievances, protests, and actions during, 3–156 _passim_, - 189–190, 195, 199, 217, 259–262; - fathers of, 33, 67; - fruition and celebration of, 15, 22, 218; - outcome of, predicted, 78, 82; - public attitudes toward, 22–23; - range of reaction to, _see_ Conservatives and conservatism, - Loyalists and Tories, Moderates, _and_ Radicals and radicalism; - results in war, _see_ War for Independence; - signers’ role in, _see individual signers_; - timing of, 8, 16, 217. - _See also_ Declaration of Independence; - Independence resolution; - _specific colonies/States_; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index_. - - Independence National Historical Park, Pa., 159–160, _216–226_ - - Independence resolution (U.S.), background, introduction, and adoption - of, 14, 15–18, 22, 27, 34, 39, 44, 46, 60, 67, 72, 74, 92, 93, - 95, 98, 100, 101, 106, 109, 110, 111, 114, 118, 119, 120–121, - 122, 127, 128, 134, 135, 136, 147, 153, 217. - _See also_ Declaration of Independence; - Independence movement and British-colonial clash. - - Independence Square, Pa., 217, 221, 222, 226 - - Indians and Indian affairs, 4, 51, 84, 89, 98, 105, 115, 122, 131, - 138, 141, 147, 152–153, 177 - - Indigo, 66 - - Indigo Society School, S.C., 99 - - Individuals, and historic preservation, 160 (_and see particular - sites_); - rights of, _see_ Rights - - Inflation, 147 - - Insane and insanity, 126 - - Intellectuals and intellectual life, 43, 55, 85, 145, 194, 228 - - Intercolonial affairs, _see_ Colonies - - Interstate disputes, _see under_ States - - Inventors and invention, 55, 85 - - Ionic architectural style, 182, 184, 197, 244 - - Iredell, James, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, 78, 148, 213 - - Iredell, Mrs. James, and certain signers, 79, 214 - - Iredell House, N.C., _213–214_ - - Irish, Ireland, and Scotch-Irish, 43, 101, 118, 127, 132, 137, 139, - 146, 171, 172, 204 - - Iron and iron manufacturing, 31, 132, 137, 226 - - Iroquois (Six Indian Nations) Indians, 138, 153 - - Italy and Italians, 88, 113, 183, 243 - - - Jacob Graff, Jr., House, Pa., _see_ Graff, Jacob, Jr., House - - Jails, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war - - James River, 239, 253 - - Jasper County, S.C., 75 - - Jay, John, diplomat, 35, 58, 263 - - Jefferson, Martha, daughter of signer, 245 - - Jefferson, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, 88, 244, 249 - - Jefferson, Peter, father of signer, 86, 254 - - Jefferson, Thomas (signer and author of Declaration), career of and - sites associated with, 16, 18, 20, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, - _85–90_, 93, 124, 154, 155, _170–173_, 217, 222, 228, - _243–245_, _249–251_, _253–255_, 262, 263, 267, - _rear endpaper_. - _See also_ Jeffersonians. - - Jefferson family, 245 - - Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial, D.C., 161 - - Jefferson (Thomas) Memorial Foundation, 245 - - Jefferson Papers, 262 - - Jeffersonians, 35. _See also_ Democratic-Republicans and - Democratic-Republican Party. - - _Jersey_ (ship), 48 - - Jesuits, _see_ Roman Catholic Church - - John Adams Birthplace, Mass., _see_ Adams (John) Birthplace - - John Quincy Adams Birthplace, Mass., _see_ Adams (John Quincy) - Birthplace - - Johnson, Thomas, lawyer, 114, 136 - - Jones, John Paul, naval officer, 74–75 - - Judges, judicial matters, and jurisprudence, _see_ Legal practice, - legal education, and jurisprudence - - - Kent County, Del., 120, 121 - - King and Queen County, Va., 41 - - King George’s War, 139, 152 - - King William County and King William Courthouse, Va., 41 - - Kings, denounced, 15 (_and see specific kings_) - - King’s Attorneys, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and - jurisprudence - - King’s College, N.Y., _see_ Columbia University - - Kingston, N.H., 39, 41 - - Kingston, N.Y., 98 - - Kittery, Maine, 143, 177 - - - Ladd family, 201–202 - - Lafayette, Marquis de, visits U.S., 248 - - Lake George, 144 - - Lancaster, Pa., 122, 132, 218, 263 - - Land, and signers, 31, 47, 61, 63, 66, 67, 95, 102, 108, 119, 133, - 138, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148, 175, 212, 213; - interstate disputes over, 119, 133, 143, 153; - Loyalist, confiscated, 61, 67, 103, 138, 142, 175; - major grants of, 54, 63, 95, 102, 212; - speculation in, 108, 147, 148, 213 - - Landmarks, National Historic, _see_ National Historic Landmarks - - Languages, _see specific languages_ - - Latin language, 39, 146, 156 - - Latrobe, Benjamin H., architect, 172 - - Laurel Hill Cemetery, Pa., 102 - - Laurens, Henry, legislator, 117 - - Laws and lawyers, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and - jurisprudence - - Learned societies, 80, 116, 126, 218–226 _passim_ - - Lebanon, Conn., 144–145, 166 - - Lee, Arthur, brother of signers, 35, 90, 228, 251 - - Lee, Francis Lightfoot (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _90–91_, 92, 93, 228, _242–243_, _246–247_, _251–253_ - - Lee, Henry (Col. “Lighthorse Harry”), relative of signers, 251–252 - - Lee, Matilda, niece of signers, 251–252 - - Lee, Mrs. Francis Lightfoot, wife of signer, 91, 242, 246 - - Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, first wife of signer, 92 - - Lee, Mrs. Richard Henry, second wife of signer, 92 - - Lee, Philip Ludwell, brother of signers, 91, 92, 251 - - Lee, Richard Henry (signer and sponsor of independence resolution), - career of and sites associated with, 15–16, 18, 22, 24, 27, - 28, 44, 46, 71, 74, 86, 90, 91, _92–94_, 111, 128, 147, 217, - 228, _251–253_ - - Lee, Richard Henry, grandson of signer, 264 - - Lee, Robert E., Confederate officer, 251–253 - - Lee, Thomas, father of signers, 91, 92, 251 - - Lee, Thomas Ludwell, brother of signers, 251 - - Lee, William, brother of signers, 90, 251 - - Lee family, 91, 94, 251–253 - - Lee (Robert E.) Memorial Foundation, Inc., 253 - - Leesburg, Va., 91, 263 - - Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence: admiralty, _see_ - Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - and colonial protests, 97; - and slaves, 80; - codes for, State, compiled and revised, 88, 101, 120, 131, 148, 155; - famous trials in, 34; - Federal, _see_ United States Judiciary; - impeachment in, 46, 148; - individuals other than signers practice, 97, 101, 113, 117, 118, - 122, 132, 134, 135, 141, 204, 217, 232; - political partisanship in, 46; - schools teach, 43, 154–156; - signers study and practice, _see specific signers_. - _See also particular laws._ - - Legislatures, colonial, provincial, and State: role of, in - independence movement, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash; - signers serve in, _see individual signers_. - _See also specific colonies/States._ - - Lehigh County (Pa.) Historical Society, 231 - - Lehigh River, 230 - - Leinster, Duke of, 172 - - L’Enfant, Maj. Pierre Charles, artist-engineer-architect, 108, 171 - - “Letters of the Federal Farmer to the Republican,” 94 - - Lewis, Francis (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, - _94–96_, 160 - - Lewis, Mrs. Francis, wife of signer, 31, 94, 95 - - Lexington and Battle of Lexington, Mass., 12, 38, 42, 60, 68 - - Lexington (Mass.) Historical Society, 199 - - Liberty Bell, 221 - - Liberty County, Ga., 65–66 - - Libraries, public and private, 56, 80, 134, 151, 176, 186, 193, 195, - 207, 209, 222, 236, 253, 262, 264–265. - _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts. - - Library Company of Philadelphia, 222 - - Library Hall, Pa., 222, 226 - - Library of Congress, 90, 262, 264–265 - - Linlithgo, N.Y., 96 - - Litchfield, Litchfield Historic District, and Litchfield County, - Conn., 152, 153, 169 - - Literature (English and American) and literary figures, 8, 18, 33, - 36–37, 45, 52, 55, 81–83, 86, 115, 123–126, 134, 146, 156, - 194, 195–196, 204. - _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts. - - Liverpool, England, 106 - - Livingston, Mrs. Philip, mother of signer, 96 - - Livingston, Mrs. Philip, wife of signer, 96–97 - - Livingston, Philip, father of signer, 96 - - Livingston, Philip (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _96–98_, 160 - - Livingston, Robert R., helps draft Declaration, 14, 16, 18, 20, 228 - - Livingston Manor, N.Y., 96, 98 - - Llandaff (city), Wales, 95 - - Lloyd, Edward IV, planter-politician, 181 - - Lloyd family, 183 - - Local affairs and politics, role of signers in, _see specific signers_ - - Local groups and historical societies, and historic preservation, 160 - - Locke, John, British political philosopher, 20 - - London, England, 43, 46, 55, 56, 68, 76, 99, 103, 113, 124 - - Londonderry, N.H., 139, 140, 203 - - Long Island, Long Island Sound, and Battle of Long Island, N.Y., 53, - 54, 95, 98, 212 - - Longevity of signers, _see_ Age of signers - - Lord North, British official, 82 - - Loudoun County, Va., 91 - - Louisbourg (fortress), Nova Scotia, 139 - - Lowell, James Russell, career of, 195–196 - - Lower Counties, Three, _see_ Delaware - - Loyalists and Tories: activities of, in various colonies/States, 7, - 22–23, 40, 46, 53–54, 66, 77, 95, 104, 105, 119, 121, 122, - 134, 138, 211; - criticized, 127; - forgiven, 79; - lands and property of, confiscated, 61, 67, 103, 138, 142, 175, 195; - legally defended, 147; - punishment of, recommended, 103, 143; - ridiculed, 82 - - Ludowici tile, 177 - - Lutwyche’s Ferry, N.H., 140 - - Lynch, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, 99, 100 - - Lynch, Thomas, Sr., father of signer, 99, 100, 128 - - Lynch, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _99–100_, 127, _234–236_ - - Lynchburg, Va., 89 - - - Maclean House, N.J., _see_ President’s House - - McClellan, Gen. George B., Union officer, 239–240 - - McIntosh, Gen. Lachlan, and signer Gwinnett, 63, 64 - - McKean, Mrs. Thomas, first wife of signer, 101 - - McKean, Mrs. Thomas, second wife of signer, 101 - - McKean, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 24, - _100–102_, 119, 120, 121, 160, 222 - - Madison, James, President, 61, 85, 89, 267 - - Magistrates, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence - - Mail service, 56, 57, 264 - - Maine (region and State), history of and historic site in, 139, - 143, 177–178. - _See also_ Massachusetts. - - Malvern Hill, Va., Battle of, 239 - - Manhattan, _see_ New York City and New York Harbor - - Manor houses, 185–186, 230 - - “Manor of Chawton,” 230 - - Manufacturing, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Marblehead, Mass., 59, 196 - - Marine and maritime matters, _see_ Continental Navy; - Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - United States Navy; - _and foreign navies_ - - Marine Corps Museum, Pa., _see_ New Hall - - Marital status of signers, compared, 29 (_and see_ Bachelor signers - _and individual signers_) - - Marshall, John, Supreme Court Justice and Secretary of State, 46, 154, - 155, 221, 263 - - Maryland (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 9, 16, - 18, 24, 43–46, 106, 113–114, 118, 124, 134, 135–136, 179–191 - - Maryland Historical Trust, 189 - - Mason, George, and Declaration of Independence, 20 - - Masonboro Sound, N.C., 77 - - Massachusetts (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 6, - 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 18, 24, 30, 33–39, 53–54, 55, 56, 59–62, - 67–69, 77, 93, 115–116, 119, 129, 139, 140, 160, 177, - 191–199, 203, 217. - _See also_ Maine. - - Mastic, N.Y., 53, 54, 212 - - Mathematics, 47, 109 - - Matlack, Timothy, and Declaration of Independence, 262 - - Mattaponi River, 41 - - Maybury Hill (estate), N.J., 73, 206 - - Meadow Garden (cottage), Ga., 142, _175–176_ - - _Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the - Mind_ (book), 126 - - Medicine, medical practice, and medical societies, _see_ Doctors, - medical education, medical practice, and hospitals - - Memorials and monuments to signers, 161. - _See also specific signers._ - - Menokin (estate), Va., 91, _242–243_, 246 - - Menotomy, Mass., 60 - - Merchant marine and maritime affairs, 20, 28, 31, 42, 52, 59, 64, 68, - 70, 71, 73, 74, 80, 82, 84, 91, 95, 98, 99, 100, 114, 119, - 121, 123, 136, 142–143, 147, 177, 201–202, 251. - _See also_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing. - - Merchants and mercantile firms, _see_ Commerce, trade, and - manufacturing - - Merchants’ Exchange, Pa., 224, 226 - - Meredith family, 49 - - Merrick’s Brook, Conn., 164 - - Merrimack, N.H., 140, 203 - - Merrimack River, 140 - - Middle Colonies, 4, 16, 30, 134, 150 - - Middleton, Arthur (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, - 99, _103–104_, 127, 128, _236–237_ - - Middleton, Henrietta, sister of one signer and wife of another, 127 - - Middleton, Henry, father of one signer and father-in-law of another, - 104, 127, 128, 234 - - Middleton, Mrs. Arthur, wife of signer, 103 - - Middleton, William, and Middleton Place, 236 - - Middleton family and descendants, 103, 237 - - Middleton Place (estate), S.C., 103, 104, _236–237_ - - Middleton Place Gardens, S.C., 236–237 - - Middletown, Conn., 54, 211 - - Midway (town) and Midway District, Ga., 66 - - Midway Congregational Church, Ga., 64 - - Mikveh Israel Cemetery, Pa., 226 - - Military affairs, _see_ Continental Army; - Militia; - _specific nations and individuals_; - _and other appropriate topics throughout this index_ - - Militia, of various colonies/States and counties: activities of, 9, - 10, 12, 22, 38, 40, 42, 53, 54, 64, 69, 76, 111, 146; - signers aid and serve in, 18, 27, 31, 40, 53, 54, 69, 75, 101, 103, - 104, 105, 110–112, 114, 120–121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 132, 133, - 138, 139, 140–141, 142–143, 145, 152–153 - - Mills, 72, 253 - - Ministers, diplomatic, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; - religious, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Mint, U.S., _see_ United States Mint - - Mission of Santa Catalina, Ga., 177 - - Moderates, political, 8, 16, 42, 69, 98, 110, 119, 127, 128, 138, 147 - - Moffatt, Catherine, marries signer, 202 - - Moffatt, John, father-in-law of signer, 201–202 - - Moffatt, Samuel, merchant-shipowner, 201 - - Moffatt family, 201–202 - - Moffatt-Ladd House, N.H., _201–202_ - - Mohawk River, 54 - - Monarchs and monarchy, _see_ Kings - - Monetary theory and money, _see_ Currency and money - - Monmouth County, N.J., 134 - - Monocacy River, 180 - - Monroe, James, President, 85, 154, 155, 173, 263 - - Monticello (“Little Mountain”) (estate), Va., 86, 88, 90, - _243–245_, 250 - - Montreal, Canada, 46 - - Monuments to signers, _see_ Memorials and monuments to signers - - Moore, Thomas, Irish poet, 204 - - Morality, in Scotland, 149 - - Morris, Gouverneur, and Mrs. Robert Morris, 108 - - Morris, Lewis (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _104–105_, 160 - - Morris, Mrs. Lewis, wife of signer, 105 - - Morris, Mrs. Robert, wife of signer, 106 - - Morris, Robert (signer) (“Financier of the Revolution”), career of and - sites associated with, 18, 27, 28, 29, 50, _106–108_, 110, - 129, 147, 160, 222, 224 - - Morris (Lewis) family, 105 - - “Morris’ Folly” (house), Pa., 107, 108 - - Morrisania (estate), N.Y., 105 - - Morrisville and Morrisville School District, Pa., 51, 229 - - Morton, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 98, - _109–110_, 147, 160 - - Morton, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 109 - - Morton, Sketchley, son of signer, 109 - - Morven (estate), N.J., 134, 135, _207–208_ - - Moultrie, Gen. William, Army officer, 76, 128 - - Mount Airy (estate), Va., 91, 242, _246–247_ - - Mount Vernon (Va.) Conference (_1785_), 46, 136 - - Municipal affairs and municipalities, _see_ Cities, towns, - and villages - - Museums, 183, 187, 205, 218, 224, 234. - _See also specific historic house museums._ - - Music and musicians, 81–83, 85, 204 - - “My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free” (song), 82 - - - Nash, Francis, and Nash-Hooper House, 214 - - Nash-Hooper House, N.C., _214–216_ - - Nassau Hall (Princeton University), 150, 151 - - National affairs, signers lack reputation in, 27, 39, 51, 71, 113, - 116–117, 122, 137, 138, 139, 144, 154, 159; - signers later take major part in, 29 - - National Archives and Records Service, 265 - - National Archives Building, D.C., 3, 262, 265–266 - - National Historic Landmarks, described individually, 164–165, 168–175, - 181–183, 185–189, 191–193, 195–209, 212–216, 229, 247, 249–256; - mapped, _facing page_ 163; - nature, eligibility, and designation of, 161–163, 226, 256, 270–271. - _See also_ National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings. - - National origins of signers, compared, 27–28 (_and see individual - signers_) - - National parks, National Park Service, and National Park System: and - historic-archeological preservation, 159–162; - sites considered for inclusion in, 161; - sites in, described individually, 193–195, 210–212, 216–227, 247–249; - sites in, in National Register, 162; - sites in, mapped, _facing page_ 163. - _See also_ National Register of Historic Places; - National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings; - Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. - - National Register of Historic Places, 162 - - _National Register of Historic Places, 1972_, 162 - - National significance of historic sites and buildings, _see_ National - Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings - - National Society of Colonial Dames of America, 160 - - National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, _see_ - Daughters of the American Revolution - - National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, purpose and - procedures of, 161–162. - _See also_ National Historic Landmarks; - Other Sites Considered. - - Nativity of signers, _see_ National origins of signers - - Navies, _see_ Continental Navy; - United States Navy; - _and specific nations_ - - Negroes, _see_ Slaves - - Nelson, Mrs. Thomas, Jr., wife of signer, 111 - - Nelson, Thomas (“Scotch Tom”), Sr., grandfather of signer, 247–248 - - Nelson, Thomas, Jr. (signer), career of and sites associated with, 88, - _110–112_, _247–249_ - - Nelson, William, father of signer, 247–248 - - Nelson family, 249 - - Nelson House (York Hall), Va., 112, 160, _247–249_ - - Netherlands, _see_ Holland - - New Bern, N.C., 78 - - New Castle and New Castle County, Del., 82, 101, 118, 119, - 120, 122, 204 - - New England and New England architectural style, 20, 28, 30, 66, 68, - 69, 74, 81, 115, 139, 144, 164, 191, 193, 202, 203. - _See also specific colonies/States._ - - _New England Courant_ (newspaper), 55 - - New France, 139, 152 - - New Hall (Marine Corps Museum), Pa., 224, 226 - - New Hampshire (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 9, - 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 39–41, 76, 128, 139–140, 142–143, - 177, 199–204 - - New Hampshire Medical Society, 40 - - New Haven, Conn., 130, 131 - - New Jersey (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 16, - 18, 24, 47–48, 56, 71–72, 81–83, 101, 121, 124, 133–135, - 149–151, 204–210 - - New Jersey, College of, _see_ Princeton University - - New London and New London Township, Pa., 101, 118, 132 - - New London County, Conn., 84 - - New Milford, Conn., 129 - - New York (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 6, 9, - 14, 16, 18, 22, 23, 24, 44, 53–54, 94–98, 104–105, 110, 115, - 119, 134–135, 143, 144, 148, 153, 160, 210–213. - _See also entries immediately following._ - - New York Chamber of Commerce, 97 - - New York City and New York Harbor, N.Y., 22, 95–98, 135, 218, 263. - _See also_ Bronx; - Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights; - Staten Island. - - New York Hospital, 97 - - New York Society Library, N.Y., 97 - - Newark, N.J., 134 - - Newburyport, Mass., 140 - - Newington Plantation, Va., 41 - - Newport, R.I., 51, 52, 69, 80, 143 - - Newspapers, 20, 22, 37, 43, 55, 81, 124, 125, 127, 145 - - Newton, Mass., 129 - - Noke, William, architect, 182 - - Nonimportation agreements and measures, _see_ Independence movement - and British-colonial clash - - North, Lord, British official, 82 - - North America, Bank of, _see_ Bank of North America - - North Bridge, Mass., 8 - - North Burial Ground, R.I., 81 - - North Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, - 15, 16, 18, 24, 30, 73–75, 77–79, 99, 116–118, 161, - 206, 213–216. - _See also_ Carolinas. - - North East (town), Md., 118 - - North Santee River, 99, 234 - - Northampton County, Pa., 137, 138 - - Northern United States, 28. - _See also specific colonies/States._ - - Norwich, Conn., 83, 84, 164 - - _Notes on the State of Virginia_ (book), 250 - - Nova Scotia, Canada, 139 - - - Occupations of signers, _see_ Vocations of signers - - Octagonal houses and rooms, 245, 249–251 - - Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, - programs and activities of, 162 - - Offices, political, various local, State, and National, held by - signers, _see individual signers_ - - Offley Hoo (estate), Va., 112, 247 - - Ohio (State), 153 - - Old Burial Ground, Conn., 84, 166 - - Old Custom House, Pa., 224 - - Old Granary Burying Ground, Mass., 39, 69, 116 - - “Old House,” Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site - - Old House Plantation, S.C., 75, 76 - - Old St. Paul’s Cemetery, Pa., 110 - - Old Swedes’ Church, Pa., _see_ Gloria Dei Church National Historic Site - - Olive Branch Petition, 14 - - Oliver, Andrew, British official, 195 - - Oliver-Gerry-Lowell House, Mass., _see_ Elmwood - - Orators and orations, and signers, 45, 52, 71, 78, 85, 86, 90, 92, - 122, 136, 150, 151 - - Ordnance, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance - - Orphans, 49, 95, 120, 141 - - Other Sites Considered, described individually, 165–167, 175–181, - 183–185, 189–191, 197–198, 209–210, 213–214, 220–228; - nature of, 161–162 - - Otis, James, lawyer-radical leader, 77 - - Oxford, Md., 106 - - - Paca, John, son of signer, 114 - - Paca, Mrs. William, first wife of signer, 113 - - Paca, Mrs. William, second wife of signer, 114 - - Paca, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 44, - 46, _113–114_, 136, _188–189_ - - Paca family, 114 - - Paca House, Md., 113, _188–189_ - - Paine, Mrs. Robert Treat, wife of signer, 115 - - Paine, Robert Treat (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, - _115–116_, 160 - - Paine, Robert Treat, son of signer, 115 - - Paine, Robert Treat, great-grandson of signer, 115 - - Paine, Thomas, author-patriot, 12, 15, 107, 124, 204 - - Painters and painting, _see_ Art and artists - - Paisley (town), Scotland, 149, 150 - - Palladian architectural style, 172, 182, 183, 234, 246, 247 - - Pamphlets, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts - - Pamunkey River, 41, 240 - - Parchment copy of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence - - Parents of signers, _see specific signers_ - - Paris, France, 43, 88, 124. - _See also_ Treaty of Paris - - Parishes, political, _see_ Counties and parishes; - religious, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Parliament, British: and Colonies, _see under_ Independence movement - and British-colonial clash - - Parsons, William, and Parsons-Taylor House, 226 - - Parsons-Taylor House, Pa., _226–227_ - - Parties, political, _see particular political parties and individuals_ - - Patent Office, D.C., 264 - - Patowmack (Potowmack) Company, 44 - - Patriotic-civic organizations, and historic sites, 160 - - Patriots and patriotic movement, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash - - Peace negotiations and treaties, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; - Indians and Indian affairs; - _and specific treaties_ - - “Peacefield,” Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site - - Peach Tree Plantation, S.C., 99, 100 - - Peale, Charles Willson, artist, 218 - - _Peggy Stewart_ (ship), 189–190 - - Peggy Stewart House (Rutland-Peggy Stewart House; Rutland-Stewart-Stone - House), Md., _189–191_ - - Pemberton House (Army-Navy Museum), Pa., 224, 226 - - Penal matters, _see_ Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war - - Pendleton, Edmund, lawyer-patriot, 88, 111, 117, 155 - - Peninsular Campaign (Civil War), 239–240 - - Penn, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, _116–118_, - 160, 161 - - Penn, Mrs. John, wife of signer, 117 - - Penn, William, and Charter of Privileges, 221 - - Penn (John) family, 118 - - Penn (William) family, 56 - - Pennsylvania (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, - 8–9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 24, 27, 30, 44, 49–51, 55–58, 82, 93, - 100–102, 106–110, 118, 122–126, 132–133, 137–138, 143, - 145–148, 153, 159–160, 216–231. - _See also_ Delaware. - - _Pennsylvania Gazette (The)_ (newspaper), 55 - - Pennsylvania Hospital, 125, 126 - - Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, 58, 126 - - Pennsylvania State House, _see_ Independence Hall - - Persimmon Point, Ga., 177 - - Perth Amboy, N.J., 134 - - Philadelphia, Pa., 3, 8, 9, 14–24 _passim_, 38, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49–50, - 51, 52, 55–56, 57, 58, 64, 73, 82, 83, 95, 100–133 _passim_, - 138, 146–148, 159–160, 172, 199, 204, 209, 210, 216–226, 228, - 230, 263–264. - _See also entries immediately following._ - - Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts, 51 - - Philadelphia Agricultural Society, 51 - - Philadelphia architectural style, 228 - - Philadelphia Bank, 51 - - Philadelphia Bible Society, 126 - - Philadelphia College of Physicians, 126 - - Philadelphia Dispensary, 126 - - Philadelphia (Merchants’) Exchange, 224, 226 - - Philadelphia Medical Society, 126 - - Philadelphia National Shrines Park Commission, 226 - - Philanthropists and philanthropy, 55, 56, 96, 97, 115 - - Philosophical Hall, Pa., _see_ American Philosophical Society Hall - - Philosophical Society of Newport, R.I., 80 - - Physicians, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical afflictions of - signers; - Doctors, medical education, medical practice, and hospitals - - Piscataqua River, 177 - - Plainfield Academy, Conn., 84 - - Planters and plantations, 4, 28, 31, 41, 42, 43, 62, 63–64, 65, 66, - 70, 75–76, 86, 94, 99, 103, 104, 106, 110, 111, 113, 120, 129, - 135, 177, 186, 194, 233, 236–237, 239–256 _passim_. - _See also_ Slaves; - _and specific plantations._ - - Poets and poetry, _see_ Literature and literary figures - - Politics, politicians, political parties, and political theory, _see - particular political parties, colonies/States, signers, other - individuals, and appropriate topics throughout this index_ - - Poll taxes, _see under_ Taxes and taxation - - _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, 55–56 - - Poplar Forest (retreat), Va., 89, _249–251_ - - Port Royal Island, S.C., 76, 128 - - Port Tobacco (town), Md., 136, 186 - - Portland, Mass., 115 - - Portraits of signers: collection of, discussed, 218; - collective, reproduced, ii; - individual, reproduced, _see specific signers_ - - Portsmouth and Portsmouth Harbor, N.H., 143, 177, 202 - - Post offices and postal officials, _see_ Mail service - - Potomac, Army of the (Civil War), 239 - - Potomac River and Potomac River Valley, 44, 92, 251, 263 - - Potowmack Company, _see_ Patowmack Company - - Poughkeepsie, N.Y., 98, 105 - - Powell, Thomas, newspaper publisher, 127 - - Poynton Manor, Md., 135 - - Prehistory and prehistoric sites, 177 - - Presbyterian Cemetery, N.J., 48 - - Presbyterian Cemetery, N.Y., 54 - - Presbyterian Church, N.C., 216 - - Presbyterians and Presbyterian Church, 48, 54, 56, 149–151, 216. - _See also_ Calvinists and Calvinism; - Christianity and religion. - - Presidential electors, _see under_ United States Presidents - and Presidency - - Presidents, of Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress; - U.S., _see_ United States Presidents and Presidency - - “President’s House,” D.C., _see_ White House - - President’s House (Dean’s House; Maclean House) (Princeton - University), N.J., 150, 151, _208–209_ - - President’s Lot, Princeton (N.J.) Cemetery, 151 - - “President’s Palace,” D.C., _see_ White House - - Press, _see_ Newspapers - - Primogeniture, 120, 135 - - Prince George County, Va., 154 - - Prince George’s Parish, S.C., 99 - - Princess Anne (town), Md., 45 - - Princeton Alumni Council, 208 - - Princeton and Battle of Princeton, N.J., 23–24, 72, 73, 134, - 135, 207, 263. - _See also_ Princeton University. - - Princeton Cemetery, N.J., 151 - - Princeton University (College of New Jersey), 84, 124, 134, 149, - 150–151, 208–209 - - Printing and publishing industry, 55. - _See also_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts; - Newspapers. - - Printing of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence - - Prisons, prisoners, and prisoners-of-war, 31, 48, 50, 75, 76, 94, 103, - 107, 108, 126, 128, 132, 134–135, 140–141 - - Private individuals, groups, and agencies: and historic - preservation, 160 - - Private schools, _see_ Education - - Privateers and privateering, 60, 97 - - Professions of signers, _see_ Vocations of signers - - Profiteering among signers, 31, 46, 59, 60, 106–107 - - “Progressive” party, in Va., 88 - - _Prophecy (The)_ (essay), 82 - - Proprietary colonies, _see under_ Colonies - - Prospect Hill Cemetery, Pa., 98 - - Protestant Episcopal Church, 183. - _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - Protestants and Protestant Church, 28, 183. - _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - Protests, colonial, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial - clash - - Providence and Providence County, R.I., 79–81 - - _Providence Gazette and Country Journal_ (newspaper), 81 - - Psychiatry, _see_ Insane and insanity - - Public libraries, _see_ Libraries - - Public schools, _see_ Education - - Public service, role of signers in, 29, 31 (_and see specific signers_) - - Public speaking, _see_ Orators and orations - - Publishers and publishing, _see_ Printing and publishing industry - - Puritans, 65–66 - - Putnam, Herbert, and Declaration of Independence, 264 - - - Quakers, 56, 73. _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - Queen Annes County, Md., 113, 188 - - Quincy (Braintree), Mass., 33, 34–35, 68, 192, 193 - - Quincy (Mass.) Historical Society, 192, 193 - - - Radicals and radicalism, 16, 18, 34, 37–38, 45, 49, 71, 77, 78, 80, - 88, 98, 103, 119, 130, 141, 147, 155 - - Rahway, N.J., 48 - - Raleigh’s Tavern, Va., 93 - - Randolph, Peyton, legislator, 42 - - Randolph, Thomas, relative of signer, 254 - - Randolph, Thomas Mann, relative of signer, 86, 254 - - Randolph, William, relative of signer, 86, 254 - - Randolph, William II, relative of signer, 254 - - Randolph family, 86, 255 - - Rappahannock Valley, 246 - - Read, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27, 29, - 101, _118–119_, 120, 121, 135, 160 - - Read, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 118 - - Reading, Pa., 146 - - Redemptionist Fathers, 179, 180 - - Reform and reformers, _see_ Humanitarians and reformers - - Regulators, of North Carolina, 78 - - Relatives of signers, _see individual signers_ - - Religion, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Representation, political, and representative government, _see - specific governmental bodies, colonies/States, and appropriate - topics throughout this index_ - - Republicans and republicanism, 61, 79, 128, 145, 147 - - Residences of signers, condition and status of, 31 (_and see - particular residences_) - - Retirement of signers, _see individual signers_ - - Revere, Paul, patriot and artist, 5, 10, 68, 199 - - Revolution, Daughters of the, 160 - - Revolution, Daughters of the American, _see_ Daughters of the - American Revolution - - Revolution, Revolutionaries, and Revolutionary movement, _see_ - Independence movement and British-colonial clash; - War for Independence; - _specific Revolutionaries_; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index_ - - Revolution, Sons of the, 160 - - Revolution, Sons of the American, 160 - - Revolutionary War (U.S.), _see_ War for Independence - - Rhode Island (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 15, - 16, 18, 24, 30, 51–52, 79–81, 143, 231–232 - - Rhode Island College, 80 - - Rice planters, _see_ Planters and plantations - - Richmond, Va., 42, 86, 88, 156, 255 - - Richmond Academy, Ga., 142 - - Richmond County, Va., 91 - - Ridley Township, Pa., 109 - - Rights: Bill of, U.S., _see under_ United States Constitution; - declarations of, by colonies/States, 20; - of Englishmen, and Colonies, 8–9; - of man, and Declaration of Independence, 20; - of States, 123 - - “Rights of the Colonies Examined” (The) (article-pamphlet), 81 - - Rising Sun (town), Md., 124, 134 - - “Rising Sun” chair, 219 - - Risks and sacrifices of signers, 22, 23–24, 31–32 (_and see - individual signers_) - - Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation, Inc., 253 - - Rodney, Caesar (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, 29, - 101, _120–121_, 160 - - Roman Catholic Church, 28, 43, 44, 179, 180, 238. - _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - Roman Doric and Roman Revival architectural style, 189, 219, 221, - 234, 245, 247 - - Rome, N.Y., 54, 212 - - Roselle, N.J., 47, 48 - - Rosney Cemetery, Ga., 142 - - Ross, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 118, - _122–123_, 160, 224 - - Ross, John, stepbrother of signer, 122 - - Ross, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 122 - - Rough draft of Declaration, _see under_ Declaration of Independence - - Royalists, _see_ Loyalists and Tories - - Royalty, _see_ Kings - - Rush, Benjamin (signer), career of and sites associated with, 27, 31, - _123–126_, 134, 160, 222, 224, 228 - - Rutland, Thomas, and Peggy Stewart House, 189 - - Rutland-Peggy Stewart House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House - - Rutland-Stewart-Stone House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House - - Rutledge, Edward (signer), career of and sites associated with, 18, - 28, 31, 99, 104, _127–129_, 135, _237–238_ - - Rutledge, John, brother of signer, 127, 128 - - Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, first wife of signer, 127 - - Rutledge, Mrs. Edward, second wife of signer, 129 - - Rutledge (Carter-May) House, S.C., _237–238_ - - - Sacrifices of signers, _see_ Risks and sacrifices of signers - - Safety, committees/councils of, _see_ Committees of safety - - St. Andrews (city), Scotland, 145 - - St. Andrew’s Society, 97 - - St. Ann’s Church, N.Y., 105 - - St. Augustine, Fla., 76, 104, 128, 233 - - St. Catherines Island, Ga., 63, 64, 176–177 - - St. George’s Church, Pa., 224 - - St. Helena’s Parish, S.C., 75 - - St. James Parish, S.C., 99 - - St. John’s Episcopal Church, Va., 156 - - St. John’s Parish, Ga., 64, 65–66, 67, 141 - - St. Joseph’s Church, Pa., 224–226 - - St. Luke’s Parish, S.C., 75 - - St. Mary’s Catholic Church, Md., 179–180 - - St. Mary’s Church, Pa., 226 - - St. Paul’s Cemetery, Md., 46 - - St. Paul’s Cemetery, Old, Pa., 110 - - St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, S.C., 129 - - Salem, Mass., 68 - - Salem, N.J., 82 - - Saltbox architectural style, 164, 191, 193, 203 - - Santa Catalina Mission, Ga., 177 - - Santee River, North, 99, 234 - - Santee River, South, 99 - - Saratoga (Schuylerville) and Battle of Saratoga, N.Y., 40, 143, 153 - - Savannah, Ga., 63, 64, 66, 67, 76, 140–142, 175, 176, 233 - - Savannah River, 67 - - Sawmills, 72 - - Schools, _see_ Education - - Schuylerville, N.Y., _see_ Saratoga and Battle of Saratoga - - Schuylkill River, 108 - - Science and scientists, 55, 56, 80, 85, 89, 116, 130 - - Scituate (city) and Scituate Township, R.I., 80 - - Scots, Scotland, and Scotch-Irish, 74, 77, 96, 101, 122, 124, 134, - 139, 145, 146, 149–150, 208. - _See also_ Great Britain. - - Scotland (city), Conn., 83 - - Seamen, _see_ Continental Navy; - Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - United States Navy; - _and various nations_ - - Second Bank of the United States, _see_ Bank of the United States - - Second Bank of the United States Building, Pa., 218, 226 - - Second Continental Congress, _see_ Continental Congress - - Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (N.Y.), 153 - - Secondary education, _see_ Education - - Secretaries, of Continental Congress, _see under_ Continental Congress; - of U.S. Government Departments, _see following_ United States; - of various other bodies, signers as, _see individual signers_ - - Senate, U.S., _see_ United States Senate - - Servants, 31, 137, 186, 194, 195, 203. - _See also_ Slaves. - - Seven Buildings, D.C., 263 - - Shadwell (plantation), Va., 86, 244, 254 - - Shell Bluff Plantation, Ga., 67 - - Shenandoah River Valley, 44 - - Sherman, Roger (signer), career of and sites associated with, 16, 18, - 20, 29, 106, _129–131_, 160 - - Ship carpenters, 201 - - Shippen, Dr. William, Sr., and Philadelphia, 228 - - Shippen, Dr. William, Jr., brother-in-law of signers, 125, 228 - - Shippen-Wistar House, Pa., 228 - - Shippensburg, Pa., 132 - - Ships, shippers, and shipping, _see_ Continental Navy; - Merchant marine and maritime affairs; - United States Navy; - _and various nations_ - - Sickness of signers, _see_ Disease, sickness, and physical - afflictions of signers - - Signers of the Constitution (U.S.), _see_ United States Constitution - - Signers of the Declaration: age of, at time of signing and death, - compared, _see_ Age of signers; - biographical analysis and comparison of, collective, 27–32; - biographical sketches of, individual, 33–156; - books on, 268–269; - early (formal signing), 23, 67, 217, 262; - furniture and items associated with, collectively, 219, 221; - honored and commemorated, ii, 159–160, 224; - interest in, increases, 160; - largest number of, from one State, 30; - late, 23, 24, 60, 93, 100, 139, 140, 153, 155, 217, 262; - nationally famous, 34; - one of, prominent in affairs of two States, _see_ McKean, Thomas; - one of, votes against independence, 27, 118, 121; - painted, ii, 218, _and see individual portraits_, 33–156 _passim_; - prominent patriots who were not, 27, 28, 29; - reflect regional and colonial attitudes, 30; - remarks of, on signing, 52, 58, 79; - replace opponents of independence, 27, 47, 72; - residences and sites associated with, collective, status of, 31, - 159–163, 216 (_and see particular residences and sites_); - subsequent careers of, 29, 31 (_and see individual signers_); - traditions regarding, 24, 52, 58; - tragic life among, 99; - way of life of, 28–29, 159; - who also signed Articles of Confederation, 29, 36, 39, 59, 76, 90, - 93–94, 100, 106, 117, 129, 149; - who also signed Articles of Confederation and Constitution (U.S.), - 29, 106, 129; - who also signed Constitution (U.S.), 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 106, 129; - who did not vote for or take a stand on independence, 27, - 106, 118–119; - who were non-natives of States they signed for, 30, 39, 55, 62, 65, - 72, 73, 77, 82, 95, 101, 106, 116, 118, 122, 129, 132, 137, - 139, 140, 143, 145, 149. - _See also_ Declaration of Independence; - _specific signers_; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index._ - - Signers’ Monument, Ga., 67, 142, 161 - - Six Indian Nations, _see_ Iroquois Indians - - Skelton, Martha Wayles, marries signer, 86, 244, 249 - - Sketchley, John, stepfather of signer, 109 - - Slaves, and Congress, 58; - and Declaration of Independence, 20; - and Ga. economy, 66; - and New England shippers, 28; - British capture, 76; - burn estate, 236; - emancipated, 156; - in N.Y., 53; - institution of, opposed and condemned, 20, 28, 58, 80, 92, - 123, 126, 156; - labor in gardens, 236; - laws on, 80; - quarters for, 177, 184, 234, 255; - signers own and trade, 28, 53, 63, 90, 110. - _See also_ Servants. - - Smith, Abigail, _see_ Adams, Mrs. John - - Smith, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, - _132–133_, 160–161 - - Smith, Rev. Samuel S., son-in-law of signer, 151, 208 - - Smith, Robert, carpenter, 209 - - Smugglers and smuggling, 34, 68 - - Social status of signers, _see_ Aristocrats and aristocracy; - _and individual signers_ - - Society of Colonial Dames in the State of Rhode Island, 232 - - Songs, _see_ Music and musicians - - Sons of Liberty, 37, 45, 95, 97 - - Sons of signers, careers of, 30 (_and see particular signers_) - - Sons of the American Revolution, 160 - - Sons of the Revolution, 160 - - Sourland Mountains, 72 - - South Carolina (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, - 16, 18, 24, 64, 66, 75–76, 99–100, 103–104, 117, 127–129, - 135, 233–238. - _See also_ Carolinas. - - South Santee River, 99 - - South Windsor, Conn., 152 - - Southern United States, 28, 30, 70, 74–75, 140–141, 233. - _See also_ Planters and plantations; - _and specific colonies/States._ - - Spain and Spaniards, 59, 115, 177, 196 - - Speaking, public, _see_ Orators and orations - - Speculators and speculation, 4, 108, 143, 147, 148, 213 - - Spoils system, 102 - - Spotsylvania County, Va., 154 - - Staffordshire, England, 62 - - Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp Act agitation, 34, - 37, 45, 56–57, 68, 70, 91, 93, 95, 97, 101, 106, 110, 119, - 120, 134, 146, 155, 195 - - Stark, Gen. John, Army officer, 40 - - State Department, _see_ United States Department of State - - State House for the Province of Pennsylvania, _see_ Independence Hall - - Staten Island, N.Y., 98, 128. _See also_ New York City and New - York Harbor. - - States (U.S.), and historic preservation, 160; - and National Register of Historic Places, 162; - economic and financial problems of, 107–108; - governmental bodies and other agencies of, _see individual - colonies/States_; - honor and maintain homes of signers, 160, 161; - land disputes among, 119, 133, 143, 153; - large and small, and U.S. Constitution, 131; - militia of, _see_ Militia; - receive taxes, 117; - rights of, _see_ States’ rights; - role of, in Revolution, _see particular States and appropriate - topics_; - seals of, 155; - signer prominent in affairs of two, _see_ McKean, Thomas; - signers non-natives of those they signed for, 30, 39, 55, 62, 65, - 72–73, 77, 82, 95, 101, 106, 116, 118, 122, 129, 132, 137, - 139, 140, 143, 145, 149; - signers’ role in affairs of, _see specific States and signers_. - _See also_ Continental Congress; - _and individual States._ - - States’ rights, 123 - - Statues of signers, 161 - - Stewart, Anthony, merchant, 189 - - Stewart (Peggy) House, Md., _see_ Peggy Stewart House - - Stockton, Julia, wife of one signer and daughter of another, 124 - - Stockton, Mrs. Richard, wife of signer, 134 - - Stockton, Richard, grandfather of signer, 207 - - Stockton, Richard (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, - 33, 124, _133–135_, _207–208_ - - Stockton family, 134, 208 - - Stone, Mrs. Thomas, wife of signer, 136 - - Stone, Thomas (signer), career of and sites associated with, - _135–136_, _186–188_, _189–191_ - - Stonington, Conn., 72 - - Stony Brook Quaker Meeting House Cemetery, N.J., 135 - - Stores, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Stoughton, Mass., 129 - - Stovall (town), N.C., 117 - - Stratford Hall (estate), Va., 91–92, _251–253_ - - Strickland, William, architect, 218 - - Students, _see_ Education - - Suffolk County, N.Y., 53, 54 - - Suffolk Resolves, 38 - - Sugar Act, 37 - - Sugar planters, _see_ Planters and plantations - - _Summary View of the Rights of British America (A)_ (tract), 86, 87 - - Summerseat (estate), Pa., 51, _229_ - - Sunbury, Ga., 63, 64, 66 - - Superior Courts, State, _see individual States_ - - Supreme courts, of colonies and States, _see specific colonies/States_; - of United States, _see_ United States Judiciary - - Surgeons, _see_ Doctors, medical education, medical practice, - and hospitals - - Surveyors and surveying, 47, 80, 86, 109, 130, 132 - - Susquehanna River, 132 - - Sussex County, Del., 101, 121 - - Swedes and Sweden, 109 - - - Tabby construction material, 177, 235 - - Tabby Cottage, Ga., 63, _176–177_ - - Taliaferro, Richard, father-in-law of signer, 255 - - “Taps” (bugle call), 240 - - Tariffs, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Taunton, Mass., 115 - - Taverns, 222 - - Taxes and taxation, and British-colonial conflict, _see_ Independence - movement and British-colonial clash; - and signers, 37, 56, 131; - excise, on alcoholic beverages, 51; - in Boston, 36; - on stamps, _see_ Stamp Act, Stamp Tax, Stamp Act Congress, and Stamp - Act agitation; - on sugar, _see_ Sugar Act; - on tea, _see_ Tea and Tea Act; - poll, 113, 114, 136; - States receive, 117. - _See also_ Customs laws, collection, and officials. - - Tayloe, Col. John, father-in-law of signer, 91, 242, 246 - - Tayloe, Mrs. John, mother-in-law of signer, 91 - - Tayloe, Rebecca, marries signer, 91, 242, 246 - - Tayloe family and descendants, 91, 247 - - Taylor, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 31, - _137–138_, _226–227_, _230–231_ - - Taylor, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 137, 242 - - Taylor (George) Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, 227 - - Taylor House, Pa., 137–138, _230–231_ - - Tea and Tea Act, 7, 38, 49, 53–54, 189–190 - - Teachers and teaching, _see_ Education - - Temperance, 123, 126 - - “Temple of Minerva” (opera), 82 - - “The Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man or Tarring and Feathering” - (cartoon), reproduced, 6 - - “The Declaration of Independence” (painting), reproduced, ii - - The Hills (estate), Pa., 108 - - “The Homestead,” Pa., _see_ Byberry - - _The Pennsylvania Gazette_ (newspaper), 55 - - _The Prophecy_ (essay), 82 - - “The Rights of the Colonies Examined” (article-pamphlet), 81 - - “The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America,” - _see_ Declaration of Independence - - Theology, _see_ Christianity and religion - - Thirteen Colonies, _see_ Colonies - - Thomas Jefferson Memorial, D.C., 161 - - Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 245 - - Thomson, Charles, and Declaration of Independence, 22, 69, 262 - - Thornton, Matthew (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, - 28, 31, _139–140_, _203–204_ - - Thornton House, N.H., _203–204_ - - Thornton’s Ferry and Thornton’s Ferry Cemetery, N.H., 140 - - Three Lower Counties, _see_ Delaware - - Tobacco planters, _see_ Planters and plantations - - Todd House, Pa., 224, 226 - - Tombs and tombstones, _see_ Cemeteries and burial places - - Tories, _see_ Loyalists and Tories - - Townhouses, 43, 50, 76, 96, 97, 107, 108, 120, 179, 185, 188, 228, 233 - - Towns, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages - - Townshend Acts (_1767_), 37, 93, 120 - - Tracts, _see_ Books, pamphlets, essays, and tracts - - Trade and traders, _see_ Commerce, trade, and manufacturing - - Traditions regarding signing of Declaration, 24, 52, 58 - - Treasury, British, _see under_ Great Britain; - U.S., _see_ United States Treasury Department - - Treasury Building (old), D.C., 263 - - Treaties, _see_ Diplomats and diplomacy; - Indians and Indian affairs; - _and specific nations and treaties_ - - Treaty of Fort Stanwix, Second, 153 - - Treaty of Paris (_1783_), 24, 35, 58, 207, 267 - - Trenton and Battle of Trenton, N.J., 23–24, 51, 72, 263 - - Trials, _see_ Legal practice, legal education, and jurisprudence - - Trinity Church, N.Y., 96 - - Trumbull, John, artist, painting by, reproduced, ii - - Trumbull, Jonathan, father-in-law of signer, 144–145 - - Trumbull Cemetery, Conn., 145 - - Tryon, William, British official, 77, 153 - - Tuckahoe (estate), Va., 86, _253–255_ - - Tuscan architectural features, 196, 250 - - Tuscarora Creek, Md., 180 - - Tusculum (home), N.J., 151, 208, _209–210_ - - Tutors and tutorial system, _see_ Education - - - U-shaped buildings, 240, 242 - - “Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America” - (The), _see_ Declaration of Independence - - Union Army, _see_ Civil War - - Union Cemetery, N.H., 143 - - Unitarians and Unitarianism, 52, 116. - _See also_ Christianity and religion. - - United First Parish Church, Mass., 35 - - United Kingdom, _see_ Great Britain - - United States, and Declaration of Independence, 3, 32; - architectural and historical heritage of, 32, 159–160, 216–217, - 218, 245; - early antislavery law in, 80; - early chapel in, 186; - early chemistry education in, 124; - early legal education in, 155–156; - early libraries in, 222; - early medical practice and hospitals in, 123–126; - early music in, 82; - famous families in, 33, 91, 193; - famous writer in, 83; - first banks in, 108; - founding and early growth of, 3, 216–217; - major literary and political figures of, 194; - oldest learned society in, 221. - _See also various colonies/States, regions, entries immediately - following, and appropriate topics throughout this index._ - - United States, Bank of the, _see_ Bank of the United States - - United States Bicentennial, 222 - - United States Bill of Rights, _see under_ United States Constitution - - United States Capitals, 50, 124, 217, 263, 264 - - United States Capitol, D.C., ii, 161, 171, 173 - - United States Centennial Exposition, 264 - - United States circuit courts and judges, _see_ United States Judiciary - - United States Congress, 29, 30, 33, 40, 44, 46, 48, 50–51, 53, 54, 58, - 61, 81, 106, 118, 160, 194, 218, 221. - _See also_ Continental Congress; - United States Government; - United States House of Representatives; - United States Senate; - _and specific Congressmen_. - - United States Constitution, and Connecticut (Great) Compromise, - 118, 131; - and Pa. constitution, 148; - and signers of Declaration, 29, 39, 40, 44, 46, 50, 55, 58, 92, 106, - 129, 144, 145–148; - Bill of Rights of, 48, 61, 71, 92, 94; - Bill of Rights of, displayed, 266, 267; - Bill of Rights of, displayed, photo of, 266; - debated, drafted, adopted, and signed, 50, 106, 129, 145–148, - 218–221; - displayed, 264–265, 267; - displayed, photo of, 266; - favored and advocated, 40, 51, 61, 69, 125; - history and protection of document, 264–267; - Madison presents to Washington, mural of, 267; - opposed, 39, 46, 48, 61, 69, 71, 79, 84, 92, 94, 102, 105, 114, 119, - 125, 131, 144, 148, 151, 153, 156; - room adopted and signed in, 218–221; - signers of, who also signed Declaration, 29, 49, 50, 55, - 58, 106, 129; - significance of, 217; - takes effect, 263. - _See also_ United States Constitutional Convention. - - United States Constitutional Convention, and signers of Declaration, - 39, 44, 48, 61, 94, 108, 118, 119, 131, 136, 142, 145–148; - compromise at, 118, 131; - leader in, 228; - membership, deliberations, and actions of, 29, 49, 50, 55, 58, 61, - 131, 145–148, 154, 156, 217, 218, 222, 267; - room held in, 218–221. - _See also_ United States Constitution. - - United States courts, _see_ United States Judiciary - - United States Declaration of Independence, _see_ Declaration of - Independence - - United States Department of State, 33, 85, 88, 194, 228, 263–264 - - United States Department of the Interior, and historic - preservation, 161. - _See also_ National parks, National Park Service, and National - Park System. - - United States Department of War, 263, 264 - - United States General Services Administration, 265 - - United States Government, and Declaration, 264; - and historic sites and buildings, 195, 212, 226; - buildings of, 173; - capitals of, _see_ United States Capitals; - first official document of, _see_ Declaration of Independence; - formation of, exhibit on, 267; - Jefferson sells library to, 90; - permanent records of, 265, 267; - role of signers in, 29, 60 (_and see specific signers_). - _See also_ Colonies; - Continental Congress; - _entries immediately preceding and following_; - _and appropriate topics throughout this index_. - - United States House of Representatives, 48, 50–51, 54, 131, 195. - _See also_ United States Congress. - - United States Judiciary, 29, 45, 46, 114, 145, 148, 213, 218, 219, 221 - - United States Mint, 125 - - United States Navy, 264. - _See also_ Continental Navy. - - United States Presidents and Presidency, and John and John Quincy - Adams, 29, 30, 33, 35, 193, 194, 195, 218, 222; - and Mrs. John Adams, 34; - and signers, 29, 30, 85, 89, 239; - dignity of, 171; - electors for, 54, 84, 128, 142; - inaugurations and inaugural addresses of, 239, 267; - official residence of, _see_ White House; - unofficial residence of, 222. - _See also specific Presidents._ - - United States Secretary of State, _see_ United States Department of - State - - United States Secretary of the Interior, _see_ United States - Department of the Interior - - United States Secretary of the Treasury, _see_ United States - Treasury Department - - United States Senate, 40, 44, 62, 92, 94, 106, 108, 118, 119, 131, 142. - _See also_ United States Congress. - - United States Supreme Court, _see_ United States Judiciary - - United States Treasury Department, 106, 108, 152 - - United States Vice Presidents, 29, 33, 35, 59, 61, 85, 88, 193, - 195, 196, 228 - - United States War Department, 263, 264 - - United States War for Independence, _see_ War for Independence - - Universalist Church, N.H., 41 - - Universities, _see_ Colleges and universities - - University of Edinburgh, Scotland, 124, 134, 145, 149 - - University of Georgia, 67, 142 - - University of Glasgow, Scotland, 145 - - University of New York, 105 - - University of Pennsylvania, 82, 113, 126, 228 - - University of Pennsylvania Medical School, 228 - - University of St. Andrews, Scotland, 145 - - University of the State of Pennsylvania, 126 - - University of Virginia, 89, 90, 243 - - Urbanization, and historic preservation, 159 - - - Valley Forge, Pa., 29 - - Van Brugh, Catherine, and signer, 96 - - Van Doren, Carl, historian, quoted, 217 - - Vandalism, and historic sites, 50, 159 - - Vassall, Maj. Leonard, and Adams National Historic Site, 194 - - Vassall-Adams House, Mass., _see_ Adams National Historic Site - - Vermont (colony and State), 153 - - Verse, _see_ Literature and literary figures - - Vice Presidents, U.S., _see_ United States Vice Presidents - - Villa architectural plan, 246 - - Villages, _see_ Cities, towns, and villages - - Virginia (colony and State), history of and historic sites in, 7, 9, - 15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 41–42, 70–71, 74, 75, 85–94, 110–112, 117, - 135, 136, 141, 154–156, 160, 239–256, 263. - _See also entries immediately following._ - - Virginia Association, 42, 93 - - Virginia House of Burgesses, 38, 41–42, 70, 86, 91, 92, 93, 111, 155 - - Virginia Resolves, 42 - - Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, 88, 90 - - Vocations of signers, compared, 31. - _See also individual signers._ - - - Wakefield Academy, England, 92 - - Wales and Welshmen, 53, 62, 118 - - Wallingford, Conn., 65, 130 - - Walton, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, 50, - 64, 65, 66, 138, _140–142_, 161, _173–176_ - - Walton, George, Jr., son of signer, 175 - - Walton, Mrs. George, wife of signer, 141 - - Walton descendants, 175 - - Walton-Harper House, Ga., _see_ College Hill - - Wamassee Head, Ga., 177 - - War for Independence (U.S.), and Declaration of Independence, - 3, 23–24, 217; - and Loyalists, _see_ Loyalists and Tories; - battles and campaigns, land and naval, and course of, 3–156 - _passim_, 207–218 _passim_, 228, 233, 236, 239, 248, 263, 264; - begins, 12, 38, 42; - ends, _see_ Treaty of Paris; - feared, 134; - financed, _see_ Continental Congress, fiscal problems and - policies of; - generated, _see_ Independence movement and British-colonial clash; - heroes of, 75, 251; - heroes of, painted, 218; - impact of, on signers and their families, _see_ Risks and - sacrifices of signers; - Iroquois Indians neutral during, 153; - peace negotiations during, 35, 58, 98, 128, 136; - verge of, 9; - won, 24. - _See also appropriate topics throughout this index._ - - War of _1812_, 172, 173, 263 - - War Office Building, D.C., 263 - - Ward, Samuel, politician, 80 - - Warren (town), R.I., 80 - - Wars, and historic sites, 159. _See also specific wars._ - - Warwick Furnace, Pa., 137 - - Washington, President George, career of and sites associated with, 14, - 23–24, 27, 29, 34, 35, 42, 46, 52, 60, 69, 75, 95, 98, 104, - 107, 108, 114, 124, 125, 148, 171, 217, 218, 228, 233, - 255, 264, 267 - - Washington, D.C., history of and historic sites in, 3, 62, 108, 161, - 170–173, 218, 263–266 _passim_ - - Washington College, Md., 114 - - Watkins, Thomas, and Meadow Garden, 175 - - Wealth and financial status of signers, compared, 27, 28–29, 30, - 31, 43. - _See also_ Debts and economic reversals of signers; - _and individual signers._ - - Weapons, _see_ Arms, ammunition, and ordnance - - Webster, Daniel, Secretary of State, 264 - - Welcome (village), Md., 135 - - Welles, Rev. Samuel, and Williams Birthplace, 166 - - Welles-Williams House, Conn., _see_ Williams Birthplace - - Wells family, 204 - - West, Benjamin, artist, 82 - - West Indies, 100, 194, 202 - - West Nottingham Academy, Md., 124, 134 - - Westchester County, N.Y., 105 - - Western Reserve (in present Ohio), 153 - - Western United States, _see_ Frontier and frontiersmen - - Westernville, N.Y., 54, 211, 212 - - Westminster School, England, 95 - - Westmoreland Association (_1766_), 93 - - Westmoreland County, Va., 91, 92 - - Westward expansion, _see_ Frontier and frontiersmen - - Whedbee, Joseph, builder, 214 - - Whigs (patriots) and Whig Party, _see_ Independence movement and - British-colonial clash - - Whipple, Joseph, brother of signer, 143 - - Whipple, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 143, 202 - - Whipple, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, - _142–143_, _177–178_, _201–202_ - - Whipple Birthplace, Maine, _177–178_ - - White Hall Plantation, S.C., 76, 233 - - White (Bishop) House, Pa., 224, 226 - - White House (“President’s House”; - “President’s Palace”), D.C., 34, 85, _170–173_ - - White Plains, N.Y., 105 - - Whitestone, N.Y., 95 - - Widowers, signers as, 35, 41, 46, 54, 148 - - Widows of signers, _see_ Wives and widows of signers - - Wilkins, John, builder, 214 - - William and Mary, College of, _see_ College of William and Mary - - William and Mary architectural style, 252 - - Williams, Mrs. William, wife of signer, 144 - - Williams, Rev. Solomon, father of signer, 166, 168 - - Williams, William (signer), career of and sites associated with, 31, - _144–145_, _166–169_ - - Williams Birthplace (Welles-Williams House), Conn., _166–167_ - - Williams House, Conn., _168–169_ - - Williamsburg, Williamsburg Historic District, and Colonial - Williamsburg, Va., 15, 42, 86, 93, 111, 154–156, 255–256 - - Willing, Charles, shipper, 106 - - Willing, Thomas, shipper-legislator, 106, 110 - - Wills, 67, 120, 156 - - Wilmington, Del., 119 - - Wilmington, N.C., 77, 78, 214 - - Wilson, James (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, 29, - 110, 125, _145–148_, _213–214_, 222, 224 - - Wilson, Mrs. James, first wife of signer, 146 - - Wilson, Mrs. James, second wife of signer, 148 - - Windham, Windham County, and Windham district, Conn., 83, 144 - - Windsor, Conn., 152, 169 - - Winyaw, S.C., 99 - - Wiscasset, Maine, 139 - - Wistar, Dr. Caspar, and Philadelphia, 228 - - Witherspoon, James, son of signer, 151 - - Witherspoon, John (signer), career of and sites associated with, 28, - 31, 124, 134, _149–151_, _208–210_, 228 - - Witherspoon, Mrs. John, first wife of signer, 124, 134, 149, 150 - - Witherspoon, Mrs. John, second wife of signer, 151 - - Wives and widows of signers, last to survive, 62 (_and see particular - signers and individuals_) - - Wolcott, Oliver (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 31, - _152–153_, _169–170_ - - Wolcott, Oliver, son of signer, 152, 153 - - Wolcott, Roger, father of signer, 152, 153 - - Wolcott descendants, 170 - - Wolcott House, Conn., _169–170_ - - Wolverhampton, England, 62 - - Wooley, Edmund, carpenter, 217 - - Worcester, Mass., 33, 139, 203 - - World War II, 265 - - Writers and writing, _see_ Literature and literary figures - - Wyandotte Indians, 153 - - Wye Hall, Wye Island, and Wye Plantation, Md., 113, 114, 188 - - Wyoming Valley land dispute, 133, 143 - - Wythe, George (signer), career of and sites associated with, 24, 86, - 88, _154–156_, _255–256_ - - Wythe, Mrs. George, first wife of signer, 154 - - Wythe, Mrs. George, second wife of signer, 154–155, 255 - - Wythe, Thomas, brother of signer, 154 - - Wythe House, Va., _255–256_ - - - XYZ affair, 61 - - - Yale College, Conn., 65, 84, 96, 105, 130, 152 - - Yeoman farmers, 86 - - York and York County, Pa., 98, 132, 133, 218, 263 - - York County, Va., 111 - - York Hall, Va., _see_ Nelson House - - Yorkshire, England, 92 - - Yorktown and Battle (siege) of Yorktown, Va., 108, 111, 112, - 218, 248, 255 - - -☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 O-477-940 - - -[Illustration: Sketch of proposed reconstruction of the Graff House, -where Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.] - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of -inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed. - -For compatibility with various display devices, the symbols for Site -Categories beginning on page 163 are slightly different from the ones -used in the original book. - -Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Signers of the Declaration, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION *** - -***** This file should be named 55838-0.txt or 55838-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/3/55838/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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