summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/59074-0.txt
diff options
context:
space:
mode:
Diffstat (limited to '59074-0.txt')
-rw-r--r--59074-0.txt12188
1 files changed, 12188 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/59074-0.txt b/59074-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ac5ec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/59074-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,12188 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59074 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+The Foraminifera
+
+An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa
+
+by
+
+FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.
+
+
+This book has been written with a view of meeting a demand which
+has arisen for a concise account of the Foraminifera, suited to the
+requirements of the student of Natural History and Palaeontology.
+
+With 14 plates and 42 illustrations in the Text.
+
+
+DEMY 8vo. CLOTH, 10s. 6d.
+
+[Illustration: The Keystone Printing Co., 552-4 Lonsdale St., Melb.]
+
+[Illustration: =A FOSSIL CRINOID=
+
+(Helicocrinus plumosus), about 5/6 nat. size, in Silurian Mudstone,
+Brunswick, Victoria.
+
+ (_Spec. in Nat. Mus., Melbourne_).
+]
+
+
+
+
+Australasian Fossils
+
+A Students' Manual of Palaeontology
+
+By FREDERICK CHAPMAN,
+
+Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne.
+
+Formerly Assistant in the Geological Department of the Royal College of
+Science, London.
+
+Assoc. Linnean Soc. [Lond.], F.R.M.S., etc.
+
+Author of "The Foraminifera," "A Monograph of the Silurian Bivalved
+Mollusca of Victoria," "New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the
+National Museum," etc.
+
+With an Introduction by
+
+PROFESSOR E. W. SKEATS, D.Sc., F.G.S.
+
+GEORGE ROBERTSON & COMPANY PROPY. LTD.,
+
+Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, Brisbane and London.
+
+1914.
+
+
+To
+
+PROFESSOR JOHN WESLEY JUDD
+
+
+ this work is dedicated as a slight tribute of esteem, and in grateful
+ acknowledgement of kindly help and encouragement through many years.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ Page
+
+ Preface 10
+
+ Introduction by Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., F.G.S. 13
+
+
+ PART I.--GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
+
+ Chap. I.--Nature and uses of Fossils 21
+
+ " II.--Classification of Fossil Animals and Plants 34
+
+ " III.--The Geological Epochs and Time-range of Fossils 41
+
+ " IV.--How Fossils are Found, and the Rocks They Form 51
+
+
+ PART II.--SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY.
+
+ Chap. V.--Fossil Plants 82
+
+ " VI.--Fossil Foraminifera and Radiolaria 95
+
+ " VII.--Fossil Sponges, Corals and Graptolites 107
+
+ " VIII.--Fossil Starfishes, Sea-lilies and Sea-urchins 133
+
+ " IX.--Fossil Worms, Sea-mats and Lamp-shells 152
+
+ " X.--Fossil Shell-fish 174
+
+ " XI.--Fossil Trilobites, Crustacea and Insects 220
+
+ " XII.--Fossil Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals 257
+
+
+ Appendix.--Notes on Collecting and Preserving Fossils 315
+
+ Index 321
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ Fig. Page
+
+ 1. Fossil Shells in clay 22
+
+ 2. Tracks, probably of Crustaceans 22
+
+ 3. Structure of Silicified Wood in tangential section:
+ _Araucarioxylon Daintreei_, Chapm. 24
+
+ 4. Portrait of William Smith 26
+
+ 5. Raised Beach: Brighton, England 28
+
+ 6. Raised Beach: Torquay, Victoria 28
+
+ 7. Marine Fossils in Volcanic Tuff: Summit of Snowdon 29
+
+ 8. Kitchen Middens: Torquay, Victoria 30
+
+ 9. Submerged Forest on the Cheshire Coast 30
+
+ 10. _Pecten murrayanus_, Tate. A fossil shell allied to
+ a living species 32
+
+ 11. Cliff section: Torquay, Victoria 42
+
+ 12. Diagram of superposition of Strata 42
+
+ 13. Diagram of the Range-in-time of Australasian Fossils 50
+
+ 14. _Diprotodon_ skeletons in situ: Lake Callabonna, S. Australia 51
+
+ 15. Bird remains on sand dunes: King Island, Bass Strait 52
+
+ 16. Impression of Bird's feather in Ironstone: Western Victoria 52
+
+ 17. A Fossil Turtle: _Notochelone costata_, Owen sp. 52
+
+ 18. A Ganoid Fish: _Pristisomus crassus_, A. S. Woodward 54
+
+ 19. A fossil Insect in amber (_Tipula sp._) 54
+
+ 20. A fossil Crustacean: _Thalassina emerii_, Bell 55
+
+ 21. An Ammonite: _Desmoceras flindersi_, McCoy sp. 55
+
+ 22. Belemnites: _Belemnites diptycha_, McCoy 56
+
+ 23. A Group of Lamp-shells: _Magellania flavescens_, Lam. sp. 56
+
+ 24. Zoarium of a living Polyzoan: _Retepora_ sp. 58
+
+ 25. A fossil Polyzoan: _Macropora clarkei_, T. Woods sp. 58
+
+ 26. Fossil Worm-tubes: (?) _Serpula_ 60
+
+ 27. A living Sea-urchin: _Strongylocentrotus erythrogrammus_, Val. 60
+
+ 28. A fossil Sea-urchin: _Linthia antiaustrails_, Tate 60
+
+ 29. A fossil Brittle-Star: _Ophioderma egertoni_, Brod. sp. 60
+
+ 30. A fossil Crinoid: _Taxocrinus simplex_, Phillips sp. 62
+
+ 31. Graptolites on Slate: _Tetragraptus fruticosus_, J. Hall sp. 62
+
+ 32. A Stromatoporoid: _Actinostroma_ 63
+
+ 33. Corals in Devonian Marble: _Favosites_ 64
+
+ 34. Siliceous Skeleton of a living Sponge: (?) _Chonelasma_ 64
+
+ 35. Spicules of a fossil Sponge: _Ecionema newberyi_, McCoy sp. 65
+
+ 36. Nummulites: _N. gizehensis_, Ehr. var. _champollioni_, De
+ la Harpe 65
+
+ 37. Cainozoic Radiolaria 66
+
+ 38. Radiolaria in Siliceous Limestone 67
+
+ 39. Travertin Limestone, with leaves of Beech (_Fagus_) 67
+
+ 40. Freshwater Limestone with shells (_Bulinus_) 68
+
+ 41. Hardened mudstone with Brachiopods (_Orthis_, etc.) 69
+
+ 42. Diatomaceous Earth 72
+
+ 43. _Lepidocyclina_ Limestone 73
+
+ 44. Coral in Limestone: _Favosites grandipora_, Eth. fil. 74
+
+ 45. Crinoidal Limestone 74
+
+ 46. Turritella Limestone 75
+
+ 47. Ostracodal Limestone 75
+
+ 48. _Halimeda_ Limestone 77
+
+ 49. Tasmanite: a Spore Coal 77
+
+ 50. Kerosene Shale 77
+
+ 51. Bone Bed 77
+
+ 52. Bone Breccia 79
+
+ 53. Cainozoic Ironstone with Leaves (_Banksia_) 80
+
+ 54. _Girvanella conferta_, Chapm., in Silurian Limestone 83
+
+ 55. Palaeozoic Plants 83
+
+ 56. Restoration of _Lepidodendron_ 84
+
+ 57. Stem of _Lepidodendron (Lepidophloios)_, showing leaf-scars 84
+
+ 58. Upper Palaeozoic Plants 85
+
+ 59. Map of Gondwana-Land 87
+
+ 60. Mesozoic Plants 88
+
+ 61. Cainozoic Plants 90
+
+ 62. Eucalyptus leaves from the Deep Leads 92
+
+ 63. Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Foraminifera 97
+
+ 64. _Lepidocyclina marginata_, Mich. sp. Sections of shell
+ showing structure 99
+
+ 65. Cainozoic Foraminifera 100
+
+ 66. Fossil Radiolaria 103
+
+ 67. Palaeozoic Sponges and Archaeocyathinae 108
+
+ 68. Cainozoic Sponges 111
+
+ 69. Silurian Corals 111
+
+ 70. Upper Palaeozoic Corals 116
+
+ 71. Cainozoic Corals 118
+
+ 72. Stromatoporoidea and Cladophora 121
+
+ 73. Lower Ordovician Graptolites 125
+
+ 74. Lower Ordovician Graptolites 125
+
+ 75. Upper Ordovician and Silurian Graptolites 127
+
+ 76. Fossil Crinoids 135
+
+ 77. Fossil Starfishes 140
+
+ 78. _Protaster brisingoides_, Gregory, in Silurian Sandstone 142
+
+ 79. _Gregoriura spryi_, Chapm., in Silurian Mudstone 143
+
+ 80. Cainozoic Sea-urchins 145
+
+ 81. Cainozoic Sea-urchins 147
+
+ 82. Fossil Worms 153
+
+ 83. Palaeozoic Polyzoa 156
+
+ 84. Cainozoic Polyzoa 157
+
+ 85. Lower Palaeozoic Brachiopods 159
+
+ 86. Silurian and Devonian Brachiopods 161
+
+ 87. Carbopermian Brachiopods 163
+
+ 88. Mesozoic Brachiopods 165
+
+ 89. Cainozoic Brachiopods 167
+
+ 90. Lower Palaeozoic Bivalves 176
+
+ 91. Palaeozoic Bivalves 179
+
+ 92. Carbopermian Bivalves 180
+
+ 93. Lower Mesozoic Bivalves 181
+
+ 94. Cretaceous Bivalves 183
+
+ 95. Cainozoic Bivalves 185
+
+ 96. Cainozoic Bivalves 186
+
+ 97. Fossil Scaphopods and Chitons 188
+
+ 98. Lower Palaeozoic Gasteropoda 192
+
+ 99. Silurian Gasteropoda 194
+
+ 100. Upper Palaeozoic Gasteropoda 195
+
+ 101. Mesozoic Gasteropoda 197
+
+ 102. Cainozoic Gasteropoda 199
+
+ 103. Cainozoic Gasteropoda 200
+
+ 104. Late Cainozoic and Pleistocene Gasteropoda 201
+
+ 105. Palaeozoic Cephalopoda 206
+
+ 106. Mesozoic and Cainozoic Cephalopoda 208
+
+ 107. Diagram restoration of an Australian Trilobite (_Dalmanites_) 224
+
+ 108. Cambrian Trilobites 226
+
+ 109. Older Silurian Trilobites 228
+
+ 110. Newer Silurian Trilobites 230
+
+ 111. Carboniferous Trilobites and a Phyllopod 232
+
+ 112. Silurian Ostracoda 236
+
+ 113. Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Ostracoda 238
+
+ 114. Cainozoic Ostracoda 239
+
+ 115. Fossil Cirripedes 242
+
+ 116. Cirripedes. _Lepas anatifera_, Linn.: living goose
+ barnacle, and _L. pritchardi_, Hall: Cainozoic 242
+
+ 117. _Ceratiocaris papilio_, Salter 244
+
+ 118. Ordovician Phyllocarids 245
+
+ 119. Silurian Phyllocarids 245
+
+ 120. Fossil Crabs and Insects 247
+
+ 121. Silurian Eurypterids 249
+
+ 122. _Thyestes magnificus_, Chapm. 259
+
+ 123. _Gyracanthides murrayi_, A. S. Woodw. Restoration 260
+
+ 124. Teeth and Scales of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Fishes 260
+
+ 125. _Cleithrolepis granulatus_, Egerton 263
+
+ 126. Tooth of _Ceratodus avus_, A. S. W., and phalangeal
+ of a carnivorous Deinosaur 264
+
+ 127. Scale of _Ceratodus ? avus_ 265
+
+ 128. The Queensland Lung-fish: _Neoceratodus forsteri_, Krefft 266
+
+ 129. _Leptolepis gregarius_, A. S. W. 266
+
+ 130. Cretaceous and Cainozoic Fish-teeth 268
+
+ 131. Cainozoic Fish remains 270
+
+ 132. _Bothriceps major_, A. S. W. 273
+
+ 133. _Ichthyosaurus australis_, McCoy 277
+
+ 134. Fossil Reptiles 278
+
+ 135. Impression of Bird's feather, magnified, Cainozoic: Victoria 281
+
+ 136. _Cnemiornis calcitrans_, Owen 284
+
+ 137. _Dinornis maximus_, Owen. Great Moa 284
+
+ 138. _Pachyornis elephantopus_, Owen 285
+
+ 139. Skeleton of _Sarcophilus ursinus_, Harris sp. 288
+
+ 140. Skull of fossil specimen of _Sarcophilus ursinus_ 288
+
+ 141. _Thylacinus major_, Owen. Hind part of mandible 289
+
+ 142. _Phascolomys pliocenus_, McCoy. Mandible 290
+
+ 143. Cainozoic Teeth and Otolith 291
+
+ 144. Skeleton of _Diprotodon australis_, Owen 291
+
+ 145. Right hind foot of _Diprotodon australis_ 292
+
+ 146. Restoration of _Diprotodon australis_ 292
+
+ 147. Skull and mandible of _Thylacoleo carnifex_, Owen 293
+
+ 148. _Wynyardia bassiana_, Spencer 294
+
+ 149. Tooth of _Scaldicetus macgeei_, Chapm. 297
+
+ 150. Impressions of footprints in dune sand-rock, Warrnambool 301
+
+ Map of Australia, showing chief fossiliferous localities.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The more important discoveries of fossils in the southern hemisphere
+have received, as a rule, very meagre notice in many of the text-books
+of Geology and Palaeontology published in England, Germany and America,
+and used by Australasian students. It is thought, therefore, that the
+time has arrived when an attempt should be made to collect the main facts
+bearing upon this subject, in order to present them from an _Australasian_
+standpoint. With this in view, references to fossils occurring in the
+northern hemisphere are subordinated, seeing that these may be easily
+obtained on reference to the accepted text-books in general use.
+
+The present work does not presume to furnish a complete record of
+Australasian palaeontology, since that would mean the production of a much
+more extensive and costly volume. Sufficient information is here given,
+however, to form a groundwork for the student of this section of natural
+science, and a guide to the collector of these "medals of creation."
+
+The systematic portion of this book has been arranged primarily from the
+biological side, since Palaeontology is the "study of ancient life."
+Taking each life-group, therefore, from the lowest to the highest types,
+all the divisions represented by fossils are dealt with in turn, beginning
+with their occurrence in the oldest rocks and ending with those in the
+newest strata.
+
+If a commendation of the study of fossils, apart from its scientific
+utility, were needed, it could be pointed out that palaeontology as a
+branch of geology is, _par excellence_, an open-air study: and since
+it requires as handmaids all the sister sciences, is a subject of
+far-reaching interest. Microscopy and photography are of immense value
+in certain branches of fossil research, the former in the examination of
+the minute forms of mollusca, foraminifera and ostracoda, the latter in
+the exact portraiture of specimens too intricate to copy with the brush,
+or too evanescent to long retain, when out of their matrix, their clean
+fresh surfaces. With geology or palaeontology as an objective, a country
+walk may be a source of much enjoyment to its students, for "in their hand
+is Nature like an open book"; and the specimens collected on a summer
+excursion may be closely and profitably studied in the spare time of the
+winter recess.
+
+The author sincerely trusts that students may share the same pleasure
+which he has derived from the study of these relics of past life; and that
+the present attempt to show their relationship both in geological time and
+biological organisation, may be the means of inducing many to make further
+advances in this fascinating subject.
+
+In the production of this work several friends and collaborators have
+materially assisted, their aid considerably increasing its value. It is
+therefore with grateful thanks that the author acknowledges the help and
+encouragement given by Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., who has not only
+been good enough to write the Introductory passages, but who has carefully
+gone over the MS. and made many helpful suggestions. Mr. W. S. Dun,
+F.G.S., Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey Branch of the Department
+of Mines, Sydney, has also rendered generous help in giving the benefit
+of his full acquaintance of the palaeontology of his own State. To the
+Trustees of the National Museum the author is under special obligations
+for permission to photograph many unique fossil specimens in the Museum
+collection, comprising Figs. 3, 16-18, 20-22, 28-31, 35, 39, 40, 45, 46,
+51-54, 57, 62, 78, 79, 127, 133, 136, 147 and 148. The author's thanks
+are also due to Dr. E. C. Stirling, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., for permission to
+use Figs. 143, 144 and 145, whilst similar privileges have been accorded
+by Prof. A. G. Seward, F.R.S., Dr. F. A. Bather, F.R.S., and Mr. C. L.
+Barrett. Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, F.R.S., has kindly cleared up
+some doubtful points of stratigraphy and further increased the author's
+indebtedness by the loan of a unique slide of Radiolaria figured on p. 69.
+Mr. Eastwood Moore, to whom special thanks are due, has greatly added to
+the pictorial side of this work by his skillful help in preparing many of
+the illustrations for the press, as well as in the drawing of the several
+maps. The grouped sets of fossils have been especially drawn for this work
+by the author. They are either copied from authentic specimens or from
+previously published drawings; references to the authorities being given
+in the accompanying legends. Dr. T. S. Hall has kindly read the section
+on Graptolites and Mammalia. For many helpful suggestions and the careful
+reading of proofs, thanks are especially owing to Mr. W. E. G. Simons, Mr.
+R. A. Keble, and to my wife.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+ Geological Department,
+ The University, Melbourne.
+
+William Smith, the Father of English Geology, used to apologize for the
+study of palaeontology by claiming that "the search for a fossil is at
+least as rational a proceeding as the pursuit of a hare." Those of us who
+are accustomed to take the field, armed with a hammer, in the search for
+"medals of creation" and from time to time have experienced the sporting
+enjoyment of bringing to light a rare or perfect specimen are quite
+prepared to support his claim. But the student of fossils needs the help
+of a text book to guide him to the literature on the subject, to help
+him with his identifications or to indicate that some of his finds are
+new and hitherto undescribed. European and American workers have long
+been provided with excellent books treating generally of fossils, but the
+illustrations have been quite naturally taken mainly from forms occurring
+in the Northern Hemisphere. Our own fossil forms both plants and animals
+are numerous, interesting and in many cases peculiar, but the literature
+concerning them is so widely scattered in various scientific publications
+that a warm welcome should be given to this book of Mr. Chapman's, in
+which the Australian evidence is brought together and summarised by one,
+whose training, long experience, and personal research qualify him to
+undertake the task. Especially will teachers and students of Geology and
+Palaeontology value such an undertaking. Workers in other countries who
+have only partial access to the Australian literature on the subject
+should also find this a valuable book of reference.
+
+In the study of fossils we are concerned with the nature, evolution
+and distribution of the former inhabitants of the earth. The study of
+Palaeontology may be justified as a means of scientific discipline, for
+the contributions the subject makes to the increase of natural knowledge
+and the unfolding of panoramas of ancient life. It also provides perhaps
+the most positive evidence in the story of evolution. So, too, the student
+of the present day distribution of animals and plants finds the key to
+many a problem in zoo-geography in the records of past migrations yielded
+by the study of fossils in different lands. The stratigraphical geologist
+is of course principally concerned with two important aspects of the study
+of fossils.
+
+The masterly generalisation of William Smith that strata can be identified
+by their fossil contents established by close study of the rocks and
+fossils of the British Oolites has been confirmed generally by subsequent
+work. The comparative study of the fossil contents of rocks in widely
+separated areas has proved to be the most valuable means by which the
+correlation of the rocks can be effected and their identity of age
+established. In some cases the recognition of a single fossil species
+in two areas separated, perhaps, by thousands of miles may suffice to
+demonstrate that the rocks are of the same age. For example, a graptolite
+such as _Phyllograptus typus_ is found in many parts of the world, but has
+only a very restricted range in time. It has been found only in rocks of
+Lower Ordovician age. Its occurrence in Wales and in the rocks of Bendigo
+practically suffices to establish the identity in age of the rocks in
+these widely separated areas.
+
+Generally, however, much closer study and a more detailed examination of a
+large number of the fossils of a rock series are required before the age
+of the rocks can be surely established and a safe correlation made with
+distant localities.
+
+The stratigraphical generalisations to be made from the study of fossils
+however must be qualified by certain considerations. Among these are the
+fact that our knowledge of the life forms of a given geological period is
+necessarily incomplete, that the differences in the fossil contents of
+rocks may depend not only on differences of age but also in the conditions
+under which the organisms lived and the rocks were accumulated, and that
+forms of life originating in one area do not spread themselves immediately
+over the earth but migrate at velocities depending on their mode of life
+and the presence or absence of barriers to their progress.
+
+Our incomplete knowledge of the forms living in remote geological periods
+arises partly from the fact that some forms had no permanent skeleton
+and were therefore incapable of preservation, partly to the obliteration
+of the skeletons of organisms through subsequent earth movements in the
+rocks or through the solvent action of water. Many land forms, too,
+probably disintegrated on the surface before deposits were formed over
+the area. Apart from these causes which determine that a full knowledge
+of the fossils from ancient rocks in particular, will never be acquired,
+our knowledge is incomplete by reason either of difficulty of access to
+certain areas or incomplete search. As a result of later discoveries
+earlier conclusions based on incomplete evidence as to the age of a rock
+series, have not infrequently been modified.
+
+The study of the present distribution of animals and plants over the
+earth is a help in the attempt to decide how far the fossil differences
+in the sets of rocks are due to differences in the ages of the rocks or
+to differences in the conditions under which the organisms lived. The
+present, in this, as in many other geological problems, is the key to the
+past.
+
+We know, for instance, that differences of climate largely control the
+geographical distribution of land animals and especially of land plants,
+and for that reason among others, fossil plants are generally less
+trustworthy guides to geological age than fossil animals.
+
+In the distribution of marine animals at the present day we find that
+organisms of simple structure are generally more wide-spread and less
+susceptible to changes in their environment than are the more complex
+organisms with specialised structures. Hence we find, for instance, a
+fossil species of the Foraminifera may persist unchanged through several
+geological periods, while a species of fossil fish has in general not only
+a short range in time but often a restricted geographical extent. If we
+consider the marine organisms found at the present day we find a number
+of free-swimming forms very widely distributed, while a large number are
+restricted either by reason of climate or of depth. Certain organisms
+are only to be found between high and low tide levels, others between
+low tide level and a depth of thirty fathoms, while many quite different
+forms live in deeper waters. If we confine our attention to shallow-water
+marine forms we note that certain forms are at the present day restricted
+to waters of a certain temperature. We find, therefore, a contrast between
+arctic and tropical faunas, while other types characterize temperate
+latitudes. Climatic and bathymetrical differences at the present day
+therefore lead to distinct differences in the distribution of certain
+organisms, while other forms, less sensitive to these factors, range
+widely and may be almost universally distributed. Similar conditions
+obtained in past geological times, and therefore in attempting to
+correlate the rocks of one area with those of another those fossils which
+are most wide-spread are often found to be the most valuable.
+
+Attention should also be paid to the conditions under which the deposits
+accumulated, since it is clear that rocks may be formed at the same time
+in different areas and yet contain many distinct fossils by reason of
+climatic or bathymetrical differences. Among living marine organisms we
+find certain forms restricted to sandy or muddy sea-bottoms and others
+to clear water, and these changes in the conditions of deposition
+of sediment have played their part in past geological periods in
+determining differences in the fossil faunas of rocks which were laid
+down simultaneously. We not infrequently find mudstones passing laterally
+into limestones, and this lithological change is always accompanied by
+a more or less notable change in the fossil contents of the two rock
+types. Such facts emphasize the close connection between stratigraphy
+and palaeontology, and indicate that the successful tracing out of the
+geological history of any area is only possible when the evidence of the
+stratigrapher is reinforced by that provided by the palaeontologist. The
+fact that species of animals and plants which have been developed in a
+particular area do not spread all over the world at once but migrate
+very slowly led Huxley many years ago to put forward his hypothesis of
+"homotaxis." He agreed that when the order of succession of rocks and
+fossils has been made out in one area, this order and succession will be
+found to be generally similar in other areas. The deposits in two such
+contrasted areas are homotaxial, that is, show a similarity of order,
+but, he claimed, are not necessarily synchronous in their formation. In
+whatever parts of the world Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils
+may be found, the rocks with Carboniferous fossils will be found to
+overlie those with Devonian, and these in their turn rest upon those
+containing Silurian fossils. And yet Huxley maintained that if, say,
+Africa was the area in which faunas and floras originated, the migration
+of a Silurian fauna and flora might take place so slowly that by the time
+it reached Britain the succeeding Devonian forms had developed in Africa,
+and when it reached North America, Devonian forms had reached Britain and
+Carboniferous forms had developed in Africa. If this were so a Devonian
+fauna and flora in Britain may have been contemporaneous with Silurian
+life in North America and with a Carboniferous fauna and flora in Africa.
+
+This could only be true if the time taken for the migration of faunas
+and floras was so great as to transcend the boundaries between great
+geological periods. This does not appear to be the case, and Huxley's idea
+in its extreme form has been generally abandoned. At the same time certain
+anomalies in the range in time of individual genera have been noted, and
+may possibly be explained on such lines. For instance, among the group of
+the graptolites, in Britain the genus _Bryograptus_ occurs only in the
+Upper Cambrian and the genus _Leptograptus_ only in the Upper Ordovician
+rocks. In Victoria these two genera, together with typical Lower
+Ordovician forms, may be found near Lancefield preserved on a single slab
+of shale. In the same way, in a single quarry in Triassic rocks in New
+South Wales, a number of fossil fish have been found and described, some
+of which have been compared to Jurassic, others to Permian, and others to
+Carboniferous forms in the Northern Hemisphere.
+
+Another point which the palaeontologist may occasionally find evidence for
+is the existence of "biological asylums," areas which by means of land or
+other barriers may be for a long period separated from the main stream
+of evolution. We know that the present fauna and flora of Australia
+is largely of archaic aspect, as it includes a number of types which
+elsewhere have long ago become extinct or were never developed. This
+appears to be due to the long isolation of Australia and, as Professor
+Gregory happily puts it--its "development in a biological backwater." We
+have some evidence that similar asylums have existed in past geological
+periods, with the result that in certain areas where uniform conditions
+prevailed for a long time or where isolation from competition prevented
+rapid evolution, some organisms which became extinct in other areas,
+persisted unchanged in the "asylum" into a younger geological period.
+
+The broad generalizations that rocks may be identified by their fossil
+contents and that the testimony of the rocks demonstrates the general
+order of evolution from simple to complex forms, have only been placed
+on a surer footing by long continued investigations. The modifications
+produced by conditions of deposit, of climate and of natural barriers
+to migration, while introducing complexities into the problems of
+Palaeontology, are every year becoming better known; and when considered
+in connection with the variations in the characters of the rocks, provide
+valuable and interesting evidence towards the solution of the ultimate
+problems of geology and palaeontology, which include the tracing out of
+the evolution of the history of the earth from the most remote geological
+period to that point at which the geologist hands over his story to the
+archaeologist, the historian, and the geographer.
+
+ ERNEST W. SKEATS.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS.
+
+
+=Scope of Geology.--=
+
+The science of GEOLOGY, of which PALAEONTOLOGY or the study of fossils,
+forms a part, is concerned with the nature and structure of the earth, the
+physical forces that have shaped it, and the organic agencies that have
+helped to build it.
+
+
+=Nature of Fossils.--=
+
+The remains of animals and plants that formerly existed in the different
+periods of the history of the earth are spoken of as fossils. They are
+found, more or less plentifully, in such common rocks as clays, shales,
+sandstones, and limestones, all of which are comprised in the great series
+of Sedimentary Rocks (Fig. 1).
+
+According to the surroundings of the organisms, whether they existed on
+land, in rivers, lakes, estuaries, or the sea, they are spoken of as
+belonging to terrestrial, fluviatile, lacustrine, estuarine, or marine
+deposits.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 1.--Fossil Shells Embedded in Sandy Clay.=
+
+About 3/4 nat. size. Of Cainozoic or Tertiary Age (Kalimnan Series).
+Grange Burn, near Hamilton, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+
+(G = Glycimeris. L = Limopsis. N = Natica).]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 2.--Tracks probably of Crustaceans (Phyllocarids).=
+
+About 3/4 nat. size. Impression of a Slab of Upper Ordovician Shale.
+Diggers' Rest, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+The name fossil, from the Latin 'fodere' to dig,--'fossilis,' dug out,--is
+applied to the remains of any animals or plants which have been buried
+either in sediments laid down in water, in materials gathered together
+by the wind on land as sand-dunes, in beds of volcanic ash, or in cave
+earths. But not only remains of organisms are thus called fossils, for the
+name is also applied to structures only indirectly connected with once
+living objects, such as rain-prints, ripple-marks, sun-cracks, and tracks
+or impressions of worms and insects (Fig. 2).
+
+
+=Preservation of Fossils.--=
+
+In ordinary terms, fossils are the durable parts of animals and plants
+which have resisted complete decay by being covered over with the deposits
+above-named. It is due, then, to the fact that they have been kept from
+the action of the air, with its destructive bacteria, that we are able to
+still find these relics of life in the past.
+
+
+=Petrifaction of Fossils.--=
+
+When organisms are covered by a tenacious mud, they sometimes undergo no
+further change. Very often, however, moisture containing mineral matter
+such as carbonate of lime or silica, percolates through the stratum which
+contains the fossils, and then they not only have their pores filled with
+the mineral, but their actual substance may also undergo a molecular
+change, whereby the original composition of the shell or the hard part is
+entirely altered. This tends almost invariably to harden the fossils still
+further, which change of condition is called petrifaction, or the making
+into stone.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 3. Thin Slice of Petrified or Silicified Wood in
+Tangential Section.=
+
+Araucarioxylon Daintreei, Chapm. = Dadoxylon australe, Arber; × 28.
+Carbopermian: Newcastle, New South Wales.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Structure Preserved.--=
+
+Petrifaction does not necessarily destroy the structure of a fossil. For
+example, a piece of wood, which originally consisted of carbon, hydrogen,
+and nitrogen, may be entirely replaced by flint or silica: and yet the
+original structure of the wood may be so perfectly preserved that when
+a thin slice of the petrifaction is examined under a high power of the
+microscope, the tissues with their component cells are seen and easily
+recognised (Fig. 3).
+
+
+=Early Observers.--=
+
+Remains of animals buried in the rocks were known from the earliest times,
+and frequent references to these were made by the ancient Greek and Roman
+philosophers.
+
+
+Xenophanes.--
+
+Xenophanes, who lived B.C. 535, wrote of shells, fishes and seals which
+had become dried in mud, and were found inland and on the tops of the
+highest mountains. The presence of these buried shells and bones was
+ascribed by the ancients to a plastic force latent in the earth itself,
+while in some cases they were regarded as freaks of nature.
+
+
+Leonardo da Vinci.--
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italian observers came to
+the fore in clearly demonstrating the true nature of fossils. This was
+no doubt due in part to the fact that the Italian coast affords a rich
+field of observation in this particular branch of science. The celebrated
+painter Leonardo da Vinci (early part of the sixteenth century), who
+carried out some engineering works in connection with canals in the north
+of Italy, showed that the mud brought down by rivers had penetrated into
+the interior of shells at a time when they were still at the bottom of the
+sea near the coast.
+
+
+Steno.--
+
+In 1669, Steno, a Danish physician residing in Italy, wrote a work on
+organic petrifactions which are found enclosed in solid rocks, and showed
+by his dissection of a shark which had been recently captured and by a
+comparison of its teeth with those found fossil in the cliffs, that they
+were identical. The same author also pointed out the resemblance between
+the shells discovered in the Italian strata and those living on the
+adjacent shores. It was not until the close of the eighteenth century,
+however, that the study of fossil remains received a decided impetus.
+It is curious to note that many of these later authors maintained the
+occurrence of a universal flood to account for the presence of fossil
+shells and bones on the dry land.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 4.--William Smith (1769-1839.)=
+
+"The Father of English Geology," at the age of 69.
+
+ (_From Brit. Mus. Cat._)
+]
+
+
+=Fossils an Index to Age.--=
+
+A large part of the credit of showing how fossils are restricted to
+certain strata, and help to fix the succession and age of the beds, is due
+to the English geologist and surveyor, William Smith (Fig. 4). "The Father
+of English Geology," as he has been called, published two works[1] in the
+early part of last century, in which he expressed his view of the value of
+fossils to the geologist and surveyor, and showed that there was a regular
+law of superposition of one bed upon another, and that strata could be
+identified at distant localities by their included fossils. Upon this
+foundation the work of later geologists has been firmly established; and
+students of strata and of fossils work hand in hand.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Strata identified by Organised Fossils," 1816-1819; and
+"Stratigraphical System of Organised Fossils," 1817.]
+
+
+=Stratigraphy.--=
+
+That branch of geology which discusses the nature and relations of the
+various sediments of the earth's crust, and the form in which they were
+laid down, is called Stratigraphy. From it we learn that in bygone times
+many of those places that are now occupied by dry land have been, often
+more than once, covered by the sea; and thus Tennyson's lines are forcibly
+brought to mind--
+
+ "There where the long street roars hath been
+ The stillness of the central sea."
+
+
+=Elevated Sea-beds.--=
+
+A striking illustration in proof of this emergence of the land from
+the sea is the occurrence of marine shells similar to those now found
+living in the sea, in sea-cliffs sometimes many hundreds of feet above
+sea-level. When these upraised beds consist of shingle or sand with
+shore-loving shells, as limpets and mussels, they are spoken of as Raised
+Beaches. Elevated beaches are often found maintaining the same level along
+coast-lines for many miles, like those recorded by Darwin at Chili and
+Peru, or in the south of England (Fig. 5). They also occur intermittently
+along the Victorian coast, especially around the indents, where they have
+survived the wear and tear of tides along the coast line (Fig. 6). They
+are also a common feature, as a capping, on many coral islands which have
+undergone elevation.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 5.--A Raised Beach at Black Rock, Brighton, England.=
+
+ (_Original_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 6.--Raised Beach (a) and Native Middens (b)=
+
+Torquay, Victoria.
+
+ (Original).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 7.--Marine Fossils (Orthis flabellulum, Sowerby.)=
+
+About nat. size. In Volcanic Tuff of Ordovician Age. From the Summit of
+Snowdon, North Wales, at an elevation of 3571 feet above sea level.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Sea-beds far from the Present Coast.--=
+
+Marine beds of deeper water origin may be found not only close to the
+coast-line, but frequently on the tops of inland hills some miles from
+the sea-coast. Their included sea-shells and other organic remains are
+often found covered by fine sediment forming extensive beds; and they
+may frequently occur in the position in which they lived and died (Fig.
+7). Although it is well known that sea-birds carry shell-fish for some
+distance inland, yet this would not account for more than a few isolated
+examples.
+
+
+=Raised Beaches as Distinct from Middens.--=
+
+Again, it may be argued that the primitive inhabitants of countries
+bordering the coast were in the habit of piling up the empty shells of
+the edible molluscs used by them for food: but these "kitchen middens"
+are easily distinguished from fossil deposits like shelly beaches, by the
+absence of stratified layers; and, further, by the shells being confined
+to edible species, as the Cockle (_Cardium_), the Blood-cockle (_Arca_),
+the Mussel (_Mytilus_), and the Oyster (_Ostrea_) (Fig. 8).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 8.--Remains of Edible Shell Fish=
+(Kitchen-midden--native, mirrn-yong)
+
+in Sand Dunes near Spring Creek, Torquay, Victoria.
+
+ (_Original_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 9.--Part of a Submerged Forest=
+
+seen at low water on the Cheshire coast at Leasowe, England.
+
+ (_From Seward's "Fossil Plants"_)
+]
+
+
+=Submerged Forests.--=
+
+Evidence of change in the coast-line is shown by the occurrence of
+submerged forest-land, known as "fossil forests," which consist of the
+stumps of trees still embedded in the black, loamy soil. Such forests,
+when of comparatively recent age, are found near the existing coast-line,
+and may sometimes extend for a considerable distance out to sea (Fig. 9).
+
+From the foregoing we learn that:--
+
+ _1.--Fossils afford data of the various Changes that have taken place
+ in past times in the Relative Positions of Land and Water._
+
+=Changes of Climate in the Past.--=
+
+At the present day we find special groups of animals (fauna), and plants
+(flora), restricted to tropical climates; and others, conversely, to the
+arctic regions. Cycads and tree-ferns, for example, seem to flourish best
+in warm or sub-tropical countries: yet in past times they were abundant
+in northern Europe in what are now temperate and arctic regions, as in
+Yorkshire, Spitzbergen, and Northern Siberia, where indeed at one time
+they formed the principal flora.
+
+The rein-deer and musk-sheep, now to be found only in the arctic regions,
+once lived in the South of England, France and Germany. The dwarf willow
+(_Salix polaris_) and an arctic moss (_Hypnum turgescens_), now restricted
+to the same cold region, occur fossil in the South of England.
+
+In Southern Australia and in New Zealand, the marine shells which lived
+during the earlier and middle Tertiary times belong to genera and species
+which are indicative of a warmer climate than that now prevailing; this
+ancient fauna being like that met with in dredging around the northern
+coasts of Australia (Fig. 10.)
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 10.--A Fossil Shell (Pecten murrayanus, Tate).=
+
+Of Oligocene to Lower Pliocene Age in Southern Australia; closely allied
+to, if not identical with, a species living off the coast of Queensland.
+About nat. size.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+From the above evidence we may say that:--
+
+ _2.--Fossils teach us that in Former Times the Climate of certain
+ parts of the earth's surface was Different from that now existing._
+
+=Fossils as Guides to Age of Strata.--=
+
+In passing from fossil deposits of fairly recent origin to those of older
+date, we find the proportion of living species gradually diminish, being
+replaced by forms now extinct. After this the genera themselves are
+replaced by more ancient types, and if we penetrate still deeper into
+the series of geological strata, even families and orders of animals and
+plants give place to others entirely unknown at the present day.
+
+From this we conclude that:--
+
+ _3.--Fossil Types, or Guide Fossils, are of great value in indicating
+ the Relative Age of Geological Formations._
+
+=Gradual Evolution of Life-forms from Lower to Higher Types.--=
+
+As a general rule the various types of animals and plants become simpler
+in organisation as we descend the geological scale. For example, in the
+oldest rocks the animals are confined to the groups of Foraminifera,
+Sponges, Corals, Graptolites, Shell-fish and Trilobites, all back-boneless
+animals: whilst it was not until the Devonian period that the primitive
+fishes appeared as a well-defined group; and in the next formation, the
+Carboniferous Series, the first traces of the Batrachians (Frog-like
+animals) and Reptiles are found. Birds do not appear, so far as their
+remains are known, until near the close of the Jurassic; whilst Mammals
+are sparsely represented by Monotremes and Marsupials in the Triassic and
+Jurassic, becoming more abundant in Cainozoic times, and by the Eutheria
+(Higher Mammals) from the commencement of the Eocene period.
+
+It is clear from the above and other facts in the geological distribution
+of animal types that:--
+
+ _4.--The Geological Record supports in the main the Doctrine of
+ Evolution from Simpler to more Complex types; and fossils throw much
+ light upon the Ancestry of Animals and Plants now found Living._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE CLASSIFICATION OF FOSSIL ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
+
+
+An elementary knowledge of the principles underlying the classification of
+animals and plants is essential to the beginner in the study of fossils.
+
+
+=The Naming of Animals.--=
+
+In order to make a clearly understood reference to an animal, or the
+remains of one, it is as necessary to give it a name as it is in the case
+of a person or a place. Before the time of Linnaeus (1707-1778), it was
+the custom to refer, for example, to a shell, in Latin[2] as "the little
+spiral shell, with cross markings and tubercles, like a ram's horn;" or to
+a worm as "the rounded worm with an elevated back." Improvements in this
+cumbersome method of naming were made by several of the earlier authors
+by shortening the description; but no strict rule was established until
+the tenth edition of Linnaeus' "Systema Naturae" (1758), when that author
+instituted his binomial nomenclature by giving each form enumerated both
+a generic and specific name. In plain words, this method takes certain
+life-forms closely related, but differing in minute particulars, and
+places them together in a genus or kindred group. Thus the true dogs
+belong to the genus _Canis_, but since this group also includes wolves,
+jackals, and foxes, the various canine animals are respectively designated
+by a specific name; thus the dog (_Canis familiaris_), the dingo (_C.
+dingo_), the wolf (_C. lupus_), the jackal (_C. aureus_), and the fox (_C.
+vulpes_). The generic name is placed first. Allied genera are grouped
+in families, (for example, Canidae), these into orders (ex. Carnivora),
+the orders into classes (ex. Mammalia), and the classes into phyla or
+subkingdoms (ex. Vertebrata).
+
+[Footnote 2: The Latin description was used more commonly than it is at
+present, as a universal scientific language.]
+
+Plants are classified in much the same way, with the exception that
+families and orders are, by some authors, regarded as of equal value, or
+even reversed in value; and instead of the term phylum the name series is
+used.
+
+
+Classification of the Animal Kingdom.
+
+ NAME OF PHYLUM. | FORMS FOUND FOSSIL
+ ----------------------+-------------------------------------------------
+ I.--PROTOZOA | Foraminifera, Radiolaria.
+ |
+ II.--COELENTERATA | Sponges, Corals, Stromatoporoids, Graptolites.
+ |
+ III.--ECHINODERMATA | Crinoids, Starfishes, Brittle-stars, Sea-urchins.
+ |
+ IV.--VERMES | Worms (tube-making and burrowing kinds).
+ |
+ V.--MOLLUSCOIDEA | Polyzoa or Sea-mats, Brachiopods or Lamp-shells.
+ |
+ VI.--MOLLUSCA | Shell-fish: as Bivalves, Tusk-shells,
+ | Chitons or Mail-shells, Gasteropods or
+ | Snails, Pteropods or Sea-butterflies;
+ | Cuttle-fishes.
+ |
+ VII.--ARTHROPODA | Joint-footed animals: as Trilobites, Cyprids,
+ | Crabs and Lobsters, Centipedes, Spiders
+ | and Insects.
+ |
+ VIII.--VERTEBRATA | Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.
+
+
+Classification of Animal Kingdom.
+
+The first seven groups of the above classification are back-boneless
+animals or Invertebrata; the eighth division alone comprising the animals
+with a vertebra or backbone.
+
+
+=Characters of the Several Phyla.--=
+
+In the first group are placed those animals which, when living, consist
+of only one cell, or a series of similar cells, but where the cells were
+never combined to form tissues having special functions, as in the higher
+groups.
+
+PROTOZOA.--
+
+The _Amoeba_ of freshwater ponds is an example of such, but owing to its
+skin or cortex being soft, and its consequent inability to be preserved,
+it does not concern us here. There are, however, certain marine animals
+of this simple type of the Protozoa which secrete carbonate of lime to
+form a chambered shell (Foraminifera); or silica to form a netted and
+concentrically coated shell held together with radial rods (Radiolaria);
+and both of these types are found abundantly as fossils. They are mainly
+microscopic, except in the case of the nummulites and a few other kinds of
+foraminifera, which are occasionally as large as a crown piece.
+
+COELENTERATA.--
+
+The second group, the Coelenterata, shows a decided advance in
+organisation, for the body is multicellular, and provided with a
+body-cavity which serves for circulation and digestion. The important
+divisions of this group, in which the organisms have hard parts capable of
+being fossilised, are the limy and flinty Sponges, the Corals, and allied
+groups, as well as the delicate Graptolites which often cover the surface
+of the older slates with their serrated, linear forms, resembling pieces
+of fret-saws.
+
+ECHINODERMATA.--
+
+The third group, Echinodermata, comprises the Sea-lilies (Crinoids),
+Starfishes and Sea-urchins, besides a few other less important types; and
+all these mentioned are found living at the present day. Their bodies are
+arranged in a radial manner, the skin being strengthened by spicules and
+hardened by limy deposits ultimately forming plates. They have a digestive
+canal and a circulatory system, and are thus one remove higher than the
+preceding group.
+
+VERMES.--
+
+The fourth group, Vermes (Worms), are animals with a bilateral or
+two-sided body, which is sometimes divided into segments, but without
+jointed appendages. Those which concern the student of fossils are the
+tube-making worms, the errant or wandering worms which form casts like the
+lob-worm, and the burrowing kinds whose crypts or dwellings become filled
+with solid material derived from the surrounding mud.
+
+MOLLUSCOIDEA.--
+
+Group five, the Molluscoidea, contains two types; the Flustras or Sea-mats
+(Polyzoa) and the Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda). They are at first sight
+totally unlike; for the first-named are colonies of compound animals,
+and the second are simple, and enclosed between two valves. They show in
+common, however, a bilateral symmetry. The mouth is furnished with fine
+tentacles, or with spirally rolled hair-like or ciliated processes.
+
+MOLLUSCA.--
+
+The sixth group, the Mollusca, includes all shell-fish. They are
+soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical animals, without definite segments.
+The shells, on account of being formed of carbonate of lime on an organic
+basis, are often found preserved in fossiliferous strata.
+
+ARTHROPODA.--
+
+The seventh group, the Arthropoda, or joint-footed animals, are
+distinguished by their segmented, lateral limbs, and by having a body
+composed of a series of segments or somites. The body and appendages are
+usually protected by a horny covering, the 'exoskeleton.' The group of the
+Trilobites played an important part in the first era of the formation of
+the earth's crust; whilst the other groups were more sparsely represented
+in earlier geological times, but became more and more predominant until
+the present day.
+
+VERTEBRATA.--
+
+The great group of the Vertebrata comes last, with its chief
+characteristic of the backbone structure, which advances in complexity
+from the Fishes to the Higher Mammals.
+
+=A Simplified Classification of the Vegetable Kingdom.=
+
+ SERIES. | FORMS FOUND FOSSIL.
+ ---------------------+----------------------------------
+ I.--THALLOPHYTA |Sea-weeds: as Corallines and
+ | Calcareous Algae.
+ |
+ II.--BRYOPHYTA |Mosses, Liverworts.
+ |
+ III.--PTERIDOPHYTA |Fern-like plants, as Horse-tails,
+ | Club-mosses and true Ferns.
+ |
+ IV.--PTERIDOSPERMEAE|Oldest Seed-bearing plants,
+ | with fern-like foliage.
+ |
+ V.--GYMNOSPERMEAE |Plants with naked seeds, as Cycads
+ | (Fern-palms), Ginkgo
+ | (Maiden-hair Tree), and
+ | Conifers (Pine trees).
+ |
+ VI.--ANGIOSPERMEAE |Flowering plants, as Grasses,
+ | Lilies and all ordinary trees
+ | and plants.
+
+
+=Characters of the Plant Series.=
+
+THALLOPHYTA.--
+
+The first series, the Thallophytes, are simple unicellular plants, and
+occupy the same position in the vegetable kingdom as the Protozoa do in
+the animal kingdom. Fossil remains of these organisms seem to be fairly
+well distributed throughout the entire geological series, but, owing to
+the soft structure of the fronds in most of the types, it is often a
+matter of doubt whether we are dealing with a true thallophyte or not.
+Many of the so-called sea-weeds (fucoids) may be only trails or markings
+left by other organisms, as shell-fish and crustaceans.
+
+BRYOPHYTA.--
+
+The second series, the Bryophytes or moss plants, are represented in the
+fossil state by a few unimportant examples.
+
+PTERIDOPHYTA.--
+
+The third series, the Pteridophytes, includes the Ferns found from
+the Devonian up to the present day, Horse-tails and allied forms,
+like _Equisetites_, and the Club-mosses and _Lepidodendron_ of the
+Carboniferous period in various parts of the world.
+
+PTERIDOSPERMEAE.--
+
+The fourth series, the Pteridospermeae, comprises some of the earliest
+seed-bearing plants, as _Alethopteris_ and _Neuropteris_. They occur in
+rocks of Upper Palaeozoic age as far as known.
+
+GYMNOSPERMEAE.
+
+The fifth series, the Gymnospermeae, contains the most important types of
+plants found fossil, especially those of the primary and secondary rocks:
+they were more abundant, with the exception of the Coniferae, in the
+earlier than in the more recent geological periods.
+
+ANGIOSPERMEAE.--
+
+The sixth series, the Angiospermeae, comprises all the Flowering Trees
+and Plants forming the bulk of the flora now living, and is divided
+into the kinds having single or double seed-leaves (Monocotyledones the
+Dicotyledones respectively). This important group came into existence
+towards the close of the Cretaceous period simultaneously with the higher
+mammals, and increased in abundance until modern times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS: AND THE TIME RANGE OF FOSSILS.
+
+
+=Superposition of Strata.--=
+
+Fossils are chiefly found in rocks which have been formed of sediments
+laid down in water, such as sandstone, shale and most limestones. These
+rocks, broadly speaking, have been deposited in a horizontal position,
+though really slightly inclined from shore to deep-water. One layer has
+been formed above another, so that the oldest layer is at the bottom, and
+the newest at the top, of the series (Fig. 11). Let us, for instance,
+examine a cliff showing three layers: the lower, a sandstone, we will
+Call A; the intermediate, a shale or clay bed, B; and the uppermost, a
+limestone or marl, C (Fig. 12). In forming a conclusion about the relative
+ages of the beds, we shall find that A is always older than B, and B than
+C, provided no disturbance of the strata has taken place. For instance,
+the beds once horizontally deposited may have been curved and folded
+over, or even broken and thrust out of place, within limited areas; but
+occurrences like these are extremely rare. Moreover, an examination of the
+surrounding country, or of deep cuttings in the neighbourhood, will tell
+us if there is any probability of this inversion of strata having taken
+place.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 11.--Horizontal Layers of Fossiliferous Clays and
+Sands.=
+
+In Sea Cliff, Torquay Coast, Victoria, looking towards Bird Rock.
+
+ (_Original_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 12.--Cliff-Section to Show Superposition of Strata.=
+
+A = Sandstone. B = Shale. C = Limestone.]
+
+This law of superposition holds good throughout the mass of sedimentary
+rocks forming the crust of the earth.
+
+(1). Thus, the position of the strata shows the relative ages of the beds.
+
+
+=Differences in Fossil Faunas.--=
+
+Turning once again to our ideal cliff section, if we examine the fossils
+obtained from bed A, we shall find them differing in the number of kinds
+or species common to the other beds above and below. Thus, there will
+be more species alike in beds A and B or in B and C. In other words the
+faunas of A and B are more nearly related than those of A and C. This is
+explained by the fact that there is a gradual change in specific forms as
+we pass through the time series of strata from below upwards; so that the
+nearer one collecting platform is to another, as a rule, the stronger is
+the community of species.
+
+
+=Guide Fossils.--=
+
+Certain kinds of fossils are typical of particular formations. They are
+known as guide fossils, and by their occurrence help us to gain some idea
+of the approximate age of rocks widely separated by ocean and continent.
+Thus we find fossils typical of the Middle Devonian rocks in Europe, which
+also occur in parts of Australia, and we therefore conclude that the
+Australian rocks containing those particular fossils belong to the same
+formation, and are nearly of the same age.
+
+(2). The included fossils, therefore, give evidence of the age of the
+beds.
+
+
+=Value of Lithological Evidence.--=
+
+The test of age by rock-structure has a more restricted use, but is of
+value when taken in conjunction with the sequence of the strata and the
+character of their included fossils.
+
+To explain both the valuable and the uncertain elements of this last
+method as a determinant of age, we may cite, for instance, the Upper
+Ordovician slates of Victoria and New South Wales as an example of uniform
+rock formation; whilst the yellow mudstones and the grey limestones of
+the Upper Silurian (Yeringian series) of the same states, are instances
+of diverse lithological structures in strata of similar age. A reference
+in the latter case to the assemblages of fossils found therein, speedily
+settles the question.
+
+(3). Hence, the structure and composition of the rocks (lithology), gives
+only partial evidence in regard to age.
+
+
+=Strata Vertically Arranged.--=
+
+The Stratigraphical Series of fossiliferous sediments comprises bedded
+rocks from all parts of the world, which geologists arrange in a vertical
+column according to age.
+
+A general computation of such a column for the fossiliferous rocks of
+Europe gives a thickness of about 14 miles. This is equivalent to a mass
+of strata lying edgewise from Melbourne to Ringwood. The Australian
+sediments form a much thicker pile of rocks, for they can hardly fall
+short of 37 miles, or nearly the distance from Melbourne to Healesville.
+
+This vertical column of strata was formed during three great eras of time.
+The oldest is called the Primary or Palaeozoic ("ancient life"), in which
+the animals and plants are of primitive types. This is followed by the
+Secondary or Mesozoic ("middle life"), in which the animals and plants are
+intermediate in character between the Palaeozoic and the later, Cainozoic.
+The third era is the Tertiary or Cainozoic ("recent life"), in which the
+animals and plants are most nearly allied to living forms. These great
+periods are further subdivided into epochs, as the Silurian epoch; and
+these again into stages, as the Yeringian stage.
+
+
+Vertical Column of Fossiliferous Strata, Australia.
+
+ ERA. | EPOCHS IN | EQUIVALENT STRATA
+ | EUROPE. | IN AUSTRALIA.
+ -------------+---------------+-------------------------------
+ | HOLOCENE | Dunes, Beaches, and Shell-beds
+ | | now forming.
+ | |
+ | PLEISTOCENE | Raised Beaches, River Terraces,
+ | | Swamp Deposits
+ | | with Diprotodon, Cave
+ | | Breccias, Helix Sandstone.
+ | |
+ CAINOZOIC | PLIOCENE | Upper.--Estuarine beds of
+ or | | bores in the Murray basin,
+ TERTIARY | | Marine beds of
+ (Note 1). | | Limestone Creek, Glenelg
+ | | River, Vic. (Werrikooian).
+ | |
+ | | Lower.--Kalimnan red
+ | | sands (terrestrial) and
+ | | shell marls (marine) of
+ | | Victoria, Deep Leads
+ | | (fluviatile) in part, Upper
+ | | Aldingan of South
+ | | Australia.
+ -------------+---------------+-------------------------------
+ CAINOZOIC | MIOCENE | Deep Leads in part: Leaf-beds
+ or | | of Bacchus Marsh,
+ TERTIARY | | Dalton and Gunning.
+ (Continued). | | Janjukian Series of C.
+ | | Otway, Spring Creek, and
+ | | Table Cape. Batesford
+ | | Limestone. Polyzoal
+ | | Rock of Mt. Gambier and
+ | | the Nullarbor Plains.
+ | | Older Cainozoic of Murray
+ | | basin, Lower Aldingan
+ | | Series of S. Australia,
+ | | Corio Bay and
+ | | Bairnsdale Series.
+ | |
+ | OLIGOCENE | Shelly clays and leaf-beds
+ | | of the Balcombian Series
+ | | at Mornington; also
+ | | Shell-marls and clays
+ | | with Brown Coal, Altona
+ | | Bay, and lower beds at
+ | | Muddy Creek, W. Vict.
+ | |
+ | EOCENE | Probably no representatives.
+ -------------+---------------+-------------------------------
+ | |
+ MESOZOIC | CRETACEOUS | Upper.--Leaf-beds of Croydon,
+ or | | Q. Desert Sandstone,
+ SECONDARY | | Q. Radiolarian Rock, N.
+ | | Territory. Gin-gin Chalk,
+ | | W.A.
+ | |
+ | | Lower.--Rolling Downs
+ | | Formn., Q. Lake Eyre
+ | | beds, S.A.
+ | |
+ | JURASSIC | Marine.--Geraldton, W.A.
+ | |
+ | | Freshwater.--Carbonaceous
+ | | sandstone of S.
+ | | Gippsland, the Wannon,
+ | | C. Otway and Barrabool
+ | | Hills. Ipswich Series, Q.
+ | | Mesozoic of Tasmania,
+ | | Talbragar beds, N.S.W.
+ | |
+ | TRIASSIC | Upper leaf-beds at Bald
+ | | Hill, Bacchus Marsh, Vict.
+ | | Hawkesbury Series (Parramatta
+ | | Shales, Hawkesbury
+ | | Sandstone, Narrabeen
+ | | beds), N.S.W. Burrum
+ | | Beds, Q.
+ -------------+---------------+------------------------------
+ PALAEOZOIC | PERMIAN and | Carbopermian (Note 2),
+ or | CARBONIFEROUS,| Coal Measures of New
+ PRIMARY | UPPER | South Wales, W. Australia,
+ | | Queensland (Gympie
+ | | Series) and Tasmania.
+ | | Gangamopteris beds of
+ | | Bacchus Marsh, Vict.
+ | | Upper Carboniferous of
+ | | Clarence Town, N.S.W.
+ | CARBONIFEROUS,| Fish and Plant beds,
+ | LOWER | Mansfield, Vict. Grampian
+ | | sandstone; Avon
+ | | River sandstone, Vict.
+ | | (?) Star beds, Queensland.
+ | | Lepidodendron
+ | | beds of Kimberley, W.A.
+ | | (Note 3).
+ | DEVONIAN | Upper.--Sandstones of Iguana
+ | | Creek, with plant remains.
+ | | Lepidodendron
+ | | beds with Lingula, Nyrang
+ | | Creek, N.S. Wales.
+ | | Middle.--Fossiliferous marbles
+ | | and mudstones of
+ | | Buchan, Bindi and Tabberabbera,
+ | | Vict. Rocks
+ | | of the Murrumbidgee,
+ | | N.S. Wales, and of Burdekin,
+ | | Queensland.
+ | SILURIAN | Upper.--(Yeringian stage).--Lilydale,
+ | | Loyola, Thomson
+ | | River, and Waratah
+ | | Bay, Vict.; Bowning and
+ | | Yass (in part), N.S.
+ | | Wales; Queensland.
+ | | Lower (Melbournian
+ | | stage).--Melbourne,
+ | | Heathcote, Vict.; Bowning
+ | | and Yass (in part),
+ | | N.S. Wales. Gordon R.
+ | | Limestone.
+ | ORDOVICIAN, | Slates (graptolitic).--Victoria
+ | UPPER and | and New South
+ | LOWER | Wales. (?) Gordon River
+ | | Limestone, Tas., in part
+ | | (Note 4). Larapintine
+ | | series of Central Australia.
+ | CAMBRIAN | Mudstones and limestones
+ | | of Tasmania,
+ | | South Australia, Victoria
+ | | and W. Australia.
+ | PRE-CAMBRIAN | Fossiliferous rocks doubtful;
+ | | chiefly represented
+ | | by schistose and other
+ | | metamorphic rocks.
+
+1.--The classification of the Cainozoics as employed here is virtually
+the same as given by McCoy in connection with his work for the Victorian
+Geological Survey. The writer has obtained further evidence to support
+these conclusions from special studies in the groups of the cetacea,
+mollusca and the protozoa. The alternative classification of the
+cainozoics as given by one or two later authors, introducing the useful
+local terminology of Hall and Pritchard for the various stages or assises
+is as follows:--
+
+ TATE AND DENNANT. | HALL AND PRITCHARD.
+ Stages. | Stages.
+ |
+ Werrikooian Pleistocene | Werrikooian Pliocene.
+ Pliocene |
+ |
+ Kalimnan Miocene | Kalimnan Miocene.
+ |
+ Janjukian (?) Oligocene | Balcombian Eocene.
+ |
+ Balcombian Eocene | Janjukian
+ | and
+ Aldingan Eocene | Aldingan Eocene.
+ (lower beds | in part
+ at that loc.) |
+
+2.--Or Permo-carboniferous. As the series is held by some authorities to
+partake of the faunas of both epochs, it is preferable to use the shorter
+word, which moreover gives the natural sequence. There is, however, strong
+evidence in favour of using the term Permian for this important series.
+
+3.--Mr. W. S. Dun regards the _Lepidodendron_ beds of W. Australia, New
+South Wales and Queensland as of Upper Devonian age. There is no doubt,
+from a broad view of the whole question as to the respective age of
+these beds in Australia, that the one series is continuous, and probably
+represents the Upper Devonian and the Lower Carboniferous of the northern
+hemisphere.
+
+4.--These limestones contain a fauna of brachiopods and corals which, at
+present, seems to point to the series as intermediate between the older
+Silurian and the Upper Ordovician.
+
+Vertical Column of Fossiliferous Strata, New Zealand.
+
+ | EPOCHS IN | EQUIVALENT STRATA
+ ERA. | EUROPE. | IN NEW ZEALAND.
+ ------------+------------------+----------------------
+ | HOLOCENE | River Alluvium. Beach
+ | | Sands and Gravel.
+ | |
+ CAINOZOIC | PLEISTOCENE | Raised Beaches. Older Gravel
+ or | | Drifts.
+ TERTIARY | | Moraines. Boulder Clays.
+ | |
+ | PLIOCENE | Upper.--Petane series. }
+ | | Lower.--Waitotara } Wanganui
+ | | and Awatere series. } system.
+ | |
+ | MIOCENE | Oamaru series.
+ | |
+ | OLIGOCENE | Waimangaroa series.
+ ------------+------------------+---------------------------
+ | CRETACEOUS | Waipara series (of Hutton).
+ | |
+ MESOZOIC | JURASSIC | Mataura and Putataka
+ or | | series.
+ SECONDARY | |
+ | TRIASSIC | Wairoa, Otapiri and Kaihiku
+ | | series.
+ ------------+------------------+-----------------------------
+ | PERMIAN | Aorangi (unfossiliferous)
+ | | series.
+ | |
+ | (?)CARBONIFEROUS | Maitai series (with Spirifer
+ | | and Productus.)
+ | |
+ | | (?)Te Anau series (unfossiliferous).
+ PALAEOZOIC | |
+ or | SILURIAN | Wangapeka series.
+ PRIMARY | |
+ | ORDOVICIAN | Kakanui series (with Lower
+ | | Ordovician graptolite
+ | | facies).
+ | |
+ | CAMBRIAN | Unfossiliferous. Metamorphic
+ | | schists of the Maniototo
+ | | series.
+
+1.--Based for the most part, but with some slight modifications, on Prof.
+J. Park's classification in "Geology of New Zealand," 1910.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 13.=
+
+Range-in-Time of Fossils in Australasian Sedimentary Rocks.
+
+_E.M., del._]
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 14.--Skeleton of Diprotodon australis, Owen.=
+
+Uncovered in Morass at Lake Callabonna, South Australia.
+
+ (_By permission of Dr. E. C. Stirling_).
+]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND: AND THE ROCKS THEY FORM.
+
+
+As already noticed, it is the hard parts of buried animals and plants that
+are generally preserved. We will now consider the groups of organisms,
+one by one, and note the particular parts of each which we may reasonably
+expect to find in the fossil state.
+
+MAMMALS.--The bones and teeth: as the _Diprotodon_ remains of Lake
+Callabonna in South Australia (Fig. 14), of West Melbourne Swamp,
+Victoria, and the Darling Downs, Queensland. Rarely the skin, as in the
+carcases of the frozen Mammoth of the tundras of Northern Siberia; or the
+dried remains of the _Grypotherium_ of South American caves.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 15.--Bird Bones.=
+
+Exposed on Sand-blow at Seal Bay, King Island.
+
+ (_Photo by C. L. Barrett_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 16.--Impression of a Bird's Feather in Ironstone.=
+
+About 2/3 nat. size. Of Cainozoic (? Janjukian) Age. Redruth, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 17.--Notochelone costata, Owen sp. (Anterior portion
+of carapace.)=
+
+About 1/4 nat. size. A Marine Turtle from the Lower Cretaceous of Flinders
+River, Queensland.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+BIRDS:--Bones: as the Moa bones of New Zealand and the Emu bones of the
+King Island sand-dunes (Fig. 15). Very rarely the impressions of the
+feathers of birds are found, as in the ironstone occurring in the Wannon
+district of Victoria (Fig. 16), and others in fine clays and marls on
+the continent of Europe and in England. Fossil eggs of sea-birds are
+occasionally found in coastal sand-dunes of Holocene age.
+
+REPTILES.--Skeletons of fossil turtles (_Notochelone_) are found in
+Queensland (Fig. 17). Whole skeletons and the dermal armour (spines and
+bony plates) of the gigantic, specialised reptiles are found in Europe,
+North America, and in other parts of the world.
+
+FISHES.--Whole skeletons are sometimes found in sand and clay rocks, as
+in the Trias of Gosford, New South Wales (Fig. 18), and in the Jurassic
+of South Gippsland. The ganoid or enamel-scaled fishes are common fossils
+in the Devonian and Jurassic, notably in Germany, Scotland and Canada:
+and they also occur in the sandy mudstone of the Lower Carboniferous of
+Mansfield, Victoria.
+
+INSECTS.--Notwithstanding their fragility, insects are often well
+preserved as fossils, for the reason that their skin and wings consist
+of the horny substance called chitin. The Tertiary marls of Europe are
+very prolific in insect remains (Fig. 19). From the Miocene beds of
+Florissant, Colorado, U.S.A., several hundred species of insects have been
+described.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 18.=
+
+=A Fossil Fish with Ganoid Scales (Pristisomus crassus, A.S. Woodw.).=
+
+About 1/2 nat. size. Trias (Hawkesbury Series), of Gosford, New South
+Wales.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig 19.--A Fossil Insect (Tipula sp.) in Amber.=
+
+Nat. size. Oligocene beds; Baltic Prussia.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 20.--A Fossil Lobster (Thalassina emerii, Bell).=
+
+Slightly reduced. From the Pleistocene of Port Darwin, Northern Territory.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 21.--An Ammonite (Desmoceras flindersi, McCoy sp.)=
+
+Half nat. size. Showing complex sutures. L. Cretaceous: Marathon, Flinders
+River, Queensland.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+CRUSTACEA.--The outer crust, or exoskeleton, of these animals is often
+hard, being formed of a compound of carbonate and phosphate of lime on
+an organic, chitinous base. The earliest forms of this group were the
+trilobites, commencing in Cambrian times, and of which there is a good
+representative series in Australian rocks. Remains of crabs and lobsters
+are found in the various Cainozoic deposits in Australia (Fig. 20), and
+also in the Jurassic in other parts of the world.
+
+MOLLUSCA.--The Cuttle-fish group (Cephalopoda, "head-footed"), is well
+represented by the Nautilus-like, but straight _Orthoceras_ shells
+commencing in Ordovician times, and, in later periods, by the beautiful,
+coiled Ammonites (Fig. 21). The true cuttle-fishes possess an internal
+bone, the sepiostaire, which one may see at the present day drifted on to
+the sand at high-water mark on the sea-shore. The rod-like Belemnites are
+of this nature, and occur abundantly in the Australian Cretaceous rocks of
+South Australia and Queensland (Fig. 22).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 22. Belemnites (Belemnites diptycha, McCoy).=
+
+1/3 nat. size. Lower Cretaceous. Central South Australia.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 23.--A Group of Lamp Shells (Magellania flavescens,
+Lam. sp.)=
+
+Attached to a Polyzoan.
+
+About 1/3 nat. size. Dredged from Westernport, Victoria.
+
+ (_C.J. Gabriel Coll._)
+]
+
+Elephant-tusk shells (Scaphopoda) are frequent in our Tertiary beds: they
+are also sparingly found in the Cretaceous, and some doubtful remains
+occur in the Palaeozoic strata of Australia.
+
+The shells of the ordinary mollusca, such as the snails, whelks, mussels,
+and scallops, are abundant in almost all geological strata from the
+earliest periods. Their calcareous shells form a covering which, after the
+decay of the animal within, are from their nature among the most easily
+preserved of fossil remains. There is hardly an estuary bed, lake-deposit,
+or sea-bottom, but contains a more or less abundant assemblage of these
+shell-fish remains, or testacea as they were formerly called ("testa," a
+shell or potsherd). We see, therefore, the importance of this group of
+fossils for purposes of comparison of one fauna with another (_antea_,
+Fig. 1).
+
+The chitons or mail-shells, by their jointed nature, consisting of a
+series of pent-roof-shaped valves united by ligamental tissue, are nearly
+always represented in the fossil state by separate valves. Fossil examples
+of this group occur in Australia both in Palaeozoic rocks and, more
+numerously, in the Cainozoic series.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 24.--Zoarium of a Living Polyzoan. (Retepora)=
+
+2/3 nat. size.
+
+Flinders, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 25.--A Fossil Polyzoan (Macropora clarkei, T. Woods,
+ sp.)=
+
+About 1/2 nat. size. Cainozoic (Balcombian). Muddy Creek, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+MOLLUSCOIDEA.--The Brachiopods or Lamp-shells consist generally of two
+calcareous valves as in the true mollusca (Fig. 23), but are sometimes of
+horny texture. Like the previous class, they are also easily preserved
+as fossils. They possess bent, loop-like or spiral arms, called brachia,
+and by the movement of fine ciliated (hair-like) processes on their
+outer edges conduct small food particles to the mouth. The brachia are
+supported by shelly processes, to which are attached, in the Spirifers,
+delicate spirally coiled ribbons. These internal structures are often
+beautifully preserved, even though they are so delicate, from the fact
+that on the death of the animal the commissure or opening round the valves
+is so tightly closed as to prevent the coarse mud from penetrating while
+permitting the finer silt, and more rarely mineral matter in solution, to
+pass, and subsequently to be deposited within the cavity. At the Murray
+River cliffs in South Australia, a bed of Cainozoic limestone contains
+many of these brachiopod shells in a unique condition, for the hollow
+valves have been filled in with a clear crystal of selenite or gypsum,
+through which may be seen the loop or brachial support preserved in its
+entirety.
+
+The Sea-mats or Polyzoa, represented by _Retepora_ (the Lace-coral)
+(Fig. 24) and _Flustra_ (the Sea-mat) of the present sea-shore, have a
+calcareous skeleton, or zoarium, which is easily preserved as a fossil.
+Polyzoa are very abundant in the Cainozoic beds of Australia, New Zealand,
+and elsewhere (Fig. 25). In the Mesozoic series, on the other hand, they
+are not so well represented; but in Europe and North America they play an
+important part in forming the Cretaceous and some Jurassic strata by the
+abundance of their remains.
+
+WORMS (VERMES).--The hard, calcareous tubes of Sea-worms, the Polychaeta
+("many bristles") are often found in fossiliferous deposits, and sometimes
+form large masses, due to their gregarious habits of life; they also occur
+attached to shells such as oysters (Fig. 26). The burrows of the wandering
+worms are found in Silurian strata in Australia; and the sedentary forms
+likewise occur from the Devonian upwards.
+
+ECHINODERMATA.--Sea-urchins (Echinoidea) possess a hard, calcareous,
+many-plated test or covering and, when living are covered with spines
+(Fig. 27). Both the tests and spines are found fossil, the former
+sometimes whole when the sediment has been quietly thrown down upon them;
+but more frequently, as in the Shepherd's crown type (_Cidaris_), are
+found in disjointed plates, owing to the fact that current action, going
+on during entombment has caused the plates to separate. The spines are
+very rarely found attached to the test, more frequently being scattered
+through the marl or sandy clay in which the sea-urchins are buried. The
+best conditions for the preservation of this group is a marly limestone
+deposit, in which case the process of fossilisation would be tranquil
+(Fig. 28).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 26.--Fossil Worm Tubes (? Serpula.)=
+
+Attached to a Pecten.
+
+Slightly Enlarged. Cainozoic (Balcombian). Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Victoria.
+
+ (_F. C. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 27.=
+
+=A Regular Sea-Urchin (Strongylocentrotus erythrogrammus, Val.)=
+
+About 2/3 nat. size. Showing Spines attached. Living. Victoria.
+
+ (_F. C. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 28.--A Fossil Sea-Urchin (Linthia antiaustralis,
+Tate).=
+
+Test denuded of Spines.
+
+About 2/3 nat. size. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Curlewis, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 29.--Ophioderma egertoni, Broderip, sp.=
+
+About 1/2 nat. size. A Brittle Star from the Lias of Seaton, Devon,
+England.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+The true Starfishes (Asteroidea), are either covered with calcareous
+plates, or the skin is hardened by rough tubercles; and these more lasting
+portions are preserved in rocks of all ages. The shape of the animal is
+also often preserved in an exquisite manner in beds of fine mud or clay.
+
+The Brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea) have their body covered with hard,
+calcareous plates. Their remains are found in rocks as old as the
+Ordovician in Bohemia but their history in Australia begins with the
+Silurian period (Fig. 29). From thence onward they are occasionally found
+in successive strata in various parts of the world.
+
+The bag-like echinoderms (Cystidea) form a rare group, restricted to
+Palaeozoic strata. The plates of the sack, or theca, and those of the
+slender arms are calcareous, and are capable of being preserved in the
+fossil state. A few doubtful remains of this group occur in Australia.
+
+The bud-shaped echinoderms (Blastoidea) also occur chiefly in Devonian and
+Carboniferous strata. This is also a rare group, and is represented by
+several forms found only in New South Wales and Queensland.
+
+The well known and beautiful fossil forms, the Stone-lilies (Crinoidea)
+have a very extended geological history, beginning in the Cambrian; whilst
+a few species are living in the ocean at the present day. The many-jointed
+skeleton lends itself well to fossilisation, and remains of the crinoids
+are common in Australia mainly in Palaeozoic strata (Fig. 30). In Europe
+they are found abundantly also in Jurassic strata, especially in the Lias.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 30.=
+
+=A Fossil Crinoid (Taxocrinus simplex, Phillips sp.)=
+
+About 1/2 nat. size.
+
+Wenlock Limestone (Silurian), Dudley, England.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 31.--Graptolites on Slate (Tetragraptus fruticosus,
+J. Hall, sp.)=
+
+Nat. Size. Lower Ordovician. Bendigo, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 32.=
+
+=Polished Vertical Section of a Stromatoporoid. (Actinostroma).=
+
+Nat. size. Middle Devonian. South Devon, England.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+HYDROZOA.--The Graptolites ("stone-writing") have a chitinous skin
+(periderm) to the body or hydrosome, which is capable of preservation to
+a remarkable degree; for their most delicate structures are preserved on
+the surfaces of the fine black mud deposits which subsequently became
+hardened into slates. In Australia graptolites occur from the base of the
+Ordovician to the top of the Silurian (Fig. 31).
+
+Another section of the Hydrozoa is the Stromatoporoidea. These are
+essentially calcareous, and their structure reminds one of a dense coral.
+The polyps build their tiers of cells (coenosteum) in a regular manner,
+and seem to have played the same part in the building of ancient reefs in
+Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous times as the Millepora at the present
+day (Fig. 32).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 33.--Fossil Corals (Favosites).=
+
+Photograph of a Polished Slab, 2/3 nat. size. In Devonian Limestone,
+Buchan, Victoria.]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 34.--Siliceous Skeleton of a Living Hexactinellid
+Sponge.=
+
+Probably Chonelasma.
+
+× 4. Mauritius. (Viewed in Two Directions.)
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+ANTHOZOA.--The true Corals have a stony skeleton, and this is capable of
+easy preservation as a fossil. There is hardly any fossiliferous stratum
+of importance which has not its representative corals. In Australia their
+remains are especially abundant in the Silurian, Devonian (Fig. 33), and
+Carboniferous formations, and again in the Oligocene and Miocene.
+
+SPONGES.--The framework of the sponge may consist either of flinty,
+calcareous, or horny material (Fig. 34). The two former kinds are well
+represented in our Australian rocks, the first appearing in the Lower
+Ordovician associated with graptolites, and again in the Cretaceous and
+Tertiary rocks (Fig. 35); whilst the calcareous sponges are found in
+Silurian strata, near Yass, and again in the Cainozoic beds of Flinders,
+Curlewis and Mornington in Victoria.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 35.=
+
+=Spicules of a Siliceous Sponge (Ecionema newberyi, McCoy sp.)=
+
+Highly magnified. Cainozoic Shell-Marl.
+
+Altona Bay Coal-Shaft.]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 36.=
+
+=Nummulites (N. gizehensis Ehr. var. champollioni, de la Harpe).=
+
+About nat. size. Middle Eocene Limestone. Cyrene, Northern Africa.
+
+ (_Coll. by Dr. J. W. Gregory_).
+]
+
+PROTOZOA.--The important and widely-distributed group of the Foraminifera
+("hole-bearers") belonging to the lowest phylum, the Protozoa, generally
+possess a calcareous shell. The tests range in size from tiny specks of
+the fiftieth of an inch in diameter, to the giant Nummulite, equalling a
+five shilling piece in size (Fig. 36). Their varied and beautiful forms
+are very attractive, but their great interest lies in their multifarious
+distribution in all kinds of sediments: they are also of importance
+because certain of the more complex forms indicate distinct life zones,
+being restricted to particular strata occurring in widely-separated areas.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 37.--Siliceous Skeletons of Radiolaria.=
+
+× 58. Late Cainozoic Age. Bissex Hill, Barbados, West Indies.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+Members of the allied order of the Radiolaria have a flinty shell (Fig.
+37); and these organisms are often found building up siliceous rocks such
+as cherts (Fig. 38).
+
+PLANTS.--The harder portions of plants which are found in the fossil
+state are,--the wood, the coarser vascular (vessel-bearing) tissue of the
+leaves, and the harder parts of fruits and seeds.
+
+Fossil wood is of frequent occurrence in Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and
+Cainozoic strata in Australia, as, for instance, the wood of the trees
+called _Araucarioxylon_ and _Dadoxylon_ in the Coal measures of New South
+Wales (see _antea_, Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 38.--Radiolaria in Siliceous Limestone.=
+
+× 40. Middle Devonian: Tamworth, New South Wales.
+
+ (_From Prof. David's Collection_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 39.--Travertin Limestone with Leaves of Beech
+(Fagus).=
+
+Nat. size. Pleistocene: near Hobart, Tasmania.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+Fossil leaves frequently occur in pipe-clay beds, as at Berwick, Victoria,
+and in travertine from near Hobart, Tasmania (Fig. 39). Fossil fruits are
+found in abundance in the ancient river gravels at several hundreds of
+feet below the surface, in the "deep leads" of Haddon, Victoria, and other
+localities in New South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 40--Freshwater Limestone with Shells (Bulinus).=
+
+About 4/5 nat. size. Mount Arapiles, Western Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 41.--Fossiliferous Mudstone of Silurian (Yeringian)
+Age.=
+
+With Brachiopods. About 2/3 nat. size. Near Lilydale, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS.
+
+
+Section I.--ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS.
+
+Under this head are placed the muds, clays, mudstones, shales and slates.
+MUDS are usually of a silty nature, that is, containing a variable
+proportion of sand (quartz) grains. Such are the estuarine muds of
+Pleistocene and Recent age, containing brackish water foraminifera and
+ostracoda, and those shells of the mollusca usually found associated with
+brackish conditions. Lacustrine mud can be distinguished by the included
+freshwater shells, as _Limnaea_, _Coxiella_ (brackish), _Cyclas_ and
+_Bulinus_, as well as the freshwater ostracoda or cyprids (Fig. 40).
+
+CLAYS are tenacious mud deposits, having the general composition of a
+hydrous silicate of alumina with some iron. When a clay deposit tends to
+split into leaves or laminae, either through moderate pressure or by the
+included fossil remains occupying distinct planes in the rock, they are
+called SHALES.
+
+Clays and Shales of marine origin are often crowded with the remains
+of mollusca. The shells are sometimes associated with leaves and other
+vegetable remains, if forming part of an alternating series of freshwater
+and marine conditions. An example of this type of sediments is seen in the
+Mornington beds of the Balcombian series in Victoria.
+
+MUDSTONE is a term applied to a hardened clay deposit derived from the
+alteration of an impure limestone, and is more often found in the older
+series of rocks. Mudstones are frequently crowded with fossils, but
+owing to chemical changes within the rock, the calcareous organisms are
+as a rule represented by casts and moulds. At times these so faithfully
+represent the surface and cavities of the organism that they are almost
+equivalent to a well preserved fossil (Fig. 41).
+
+SLATE.--When shale is subjected to great pressure, a plane of regular
+splitting called cleavage is induced, which is rarely parallel to the
+bedding plane or surface spread out on the original sea-floor: the
+cleavage more often taking place at an appreciable angle to the bedding
+plane. The graptolitic rocks of Victoria are either shales or slates,
+according to the absence or development of this cleavage structure in the
+rock.
+
+
+Section II.--SILICEOUS ROCKS.
+
+In this group are comprised all granular quartzose sediments, and organic
+rocks of flinty composition.
+
+SANDSTONES.--Although the base of this type of rock is formed of quartz
+sand, it often contains fossils. Owing to its porous nature, percolation
+of water containing dissolved CO_{2} tends to bring about the solution
+of the calcareous shells, with the result that only casts of the shells
+remain.
+
+FLINTS and CHERTS.--These are found in the form of nodules and bands in
+other strata, principally in limestone. In Europe, flint is usually found
+in the Chalk formation, whilst chert is found in the Lower Greensands,
+the Jurassics, the Carboniferous Limestone and in Cambrian rocks. In
+Australia, flint occurs in the Miocene or Polyzoal-rock formation of Mount
+Gambier, Cape Liptrap and the Mallee borings. Flint is distinguished
+from chert by its being black in the mass, often with a white crust,
+and translucent in thin flakes; chert being more or less granular in
+texture and sub-opaque in the mass. Both kinds appear to be formed as
+a pseudomorph or replacement of a portion of the limestone stratum by
+silica, probably introduced in solution as a soluble alkaline silicate.
+Both flint and chert often contain fossil shells and other organic
+remains, such as radiolaria and sponge-spicules, which can be easily seen
+with a lens in thin flakes struck off by the hammer.
+
+DIATOMITE is essentially composed of the tiny frustules or flinty cases
+of diatoms (unicellular algae), usually admixed with some spicules of the
+freshwater sponge, _Spongilla_. It generally forms a layer at the bottom
+of a lake bed (Fig. 42).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 42.--Diatomaceous Earth. (Post-Tertiary).=
+
+Containing freshwater forms, as Pinnularia, Cocconeis and Synedra. × 150.
+Talbot, Victoria.]
+
+
+Section III.--CALCAREOUS ROCKS.
+
+LIMESTONES FORMED BY ORGANISMS.--Organic limestones constitute by far
+the most important group of fossiliferous rocks. Rocks of this class are
+composed either wholly of carbonate of lime, or contain other mineral
+matter also, in varying proportion. Many kinds of limestones owe their
+origin directly to the agency of animals or plants, which extracted the
+calcareous matter from the water in which they lived in order to build
+their hard external cases, as for example the sea-urchins; or their
+internal skeletons, as the stony corals. The accumulated remains of these
+organisms are generally compacted by a crystalline cement to form a
+coherent rock.
+
+The chief groups of animals and plants forming such limestone rocks are:--
+
+(a) _FORAMINIFERA._--Example. Foraminiferal limestone as the Nummulitic
+limestone of the Pyramids of Egypt, or the _Lepidocyclina_ limestone of
+Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria (Fig. 43).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 43.=
+
+=Limestone composed of Polyzoa and Foraminifera (Lepidocyclina).=
+
+× 6. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+(b) _CORALS._--Ex. "Madrepore limestone," or Devonian marble, with
+_Pachypora_. Also the Lilydale limestone, with _Favosites_, of Silurian
+age, Victoria (Fig. 44).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 44.--A Fossil Coral (Favosites grandipora).=
+
+2/3 nat. size. From the Silurian of Lilydale, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 45.--Polished Slab of Marble formed of Joints of
+Crinoids.=
+
+About 2/3 nat. size. Silurian.
+
+Toongabbie, Gippsland, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+(c) _STONE-LILIES._--Ex. Crinoidal or Entrochial limestone, Silurian,
+Toongabbie, Victoria (Fig. 45). Also the Carboniferous or Mountain
+limestone, Derbyshire, England.
+
+(d) _WORM-TUBES.-_-Ex. Serpulite limestone of Hanover, Germany. _Ditrupa_
+limestone of Torquay and Wormbete Creek, Victoria.
+
+(e) _POLYZOA._---Ex. Polyzoal limestone, as the so-called Coralline Crag
+of Suffolk, England; and the Polyzoal Rock of Mount Gambier, S. Australia.
+
+(f) _BRACHIOPODA._--Ex. Brachiopod limestone of Silurian age, Dudley,
+England. _Orthis_ limestone of Cambrian age, Dolodrook River, N. E.
+Gippsland.
+
+(g) _MOLLUSCA._--Ex. Shell limestone, as the _Turritella_ bed of Table
+Cape, Tasmania, and of Camperdown, Victoria (Fig. 46), or the Purbeck
+Marble of Swanage, Dorset, England.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 46.--Turritella Limestone.=
+
+(T. acricula, Tate); 3/4 nat. size. Cainozoic.
+
+Lake Bullen Merri, near Camperdown, Victoria.]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 47.--Limestone composed of the Valves of an Ostracod
+(Cypridea).=
+
+Upper Jurassic. × 9.
+
+Swanage, Dorset, England.]
+
+(h) _OSTRACODA._--Ex. Cypridiferous limestone, formed of the minute valves
+of the bivalved ostracoda, as that of Durlston, Dorset, England (Fig. 47).
+
+(i) _CADDIS FLY LARVAE._--Ex. Indusial limestone, formed of tubular cases
+constructed by the larvae of the Caddis fly (_Phryganea_). Occurs at
+Durckheim, Rhine District, Germany.
+
+(j) _RED SEAWEEDS._--Ex. Nullipore limestone, formed by the stony thallus
+(frond) of the calcareous sea-weed _Lithothamnion_, as in the Leithakalk,
+a common building stone of Vienna.
+
+(k) _GREEN SEAWEEDS._--Ex. _Halimeda_ limestone, forming large masses of
+rock in the late Cainozoic reefs of the New Hebrides (Fig. 48).
+
+(l) (?) _BLUE-GREEN SEAWEEDS._--Ex. _Girvanella_ limestone, forming the
+Peagrit of Jurassic age, of Gloucester, England.
+
+
+Section IV.--CARBONACEOUS and MISCELLANEOUS ROCKS.
+
+COALS and KEROSENE SHALES (Cannel Coal).--These carbonaceous rocks are
+formed in much the same way as the deposits in estuaries and lagoon
+swamps. They result from the sometimes vast aggregation of vegetable
+material (leaves, wood and fruits), brought down by flooded rivers from
+the surrounding country, which form a deposit in a swampy or brackish
+area near the coast, or in an estuary. Layer upon layer is thus formed,
+alternating with fine mud. The latter effectually seals up the organic
+layers and renders their change into a carbonaceous deposit more certain.
+
+When shale occurs between the coal-layers it is spoken of as the
+under-clay, which in most cases is the ancient sub-soil related to the
+coal-layer immediately above. It is in the shales that the best examples
+of fossil ferns and other plant-remains are often found. The coal itself
+is composed of a partially decomposed mass of vegetation which has become
+hardened and bedded by pressure and gradual drying.
+
+Spore coals are found in thick deposits in some English mines, as at
+Burnley in Yorkshire. They result from the accumulation of the spores of
+giant club-mosses which flourished in the coal-period. They are generally
+referred to under the head of Cannel Coals. The "white coal" or Tasmanite
+of the Mersey Basin in Tasmania is an example of an impure spore coal with
+a sandy matrix (Fig. 49).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 48.=
+
+=Rock composed of the calcareous joints of Halimeda (a green sea-weed).=
+
+About 2/3 nat. size. Late Cainozoic. Reef-Rock. Malekula, New Hebrides.
+
+ (_Coll. by Dr. D. Mawson._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 49.--Thin Slices of "White Coal" or "Tasmanite,"
+showing crushed Megaspores.=
+
+× 28. Carbopermian. Latrobe, Tasmania.
+
+ (_F. C. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 50.--Thin Slice of "Kerosene Shale."=
+
+× 28. Carbopermian. Hartley, New South Wales.
+
+ (_F. C. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 51.--Bone Bed, with Fish and Reptilian Remains.=
+
+About 1/2 nat. size. (Rhaetic). Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire, England.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+The Kerosene Shale of New South Wales is related to the Torbanite of
+Scotland and Central France. It occurs in lenticular beds between the
+bituminous coal. It is a very important deposit, commercially speaking,
+for it yields kerosene oil, and is also used for the manufacture of gas.
+The rock is composed of myriads of little cell-bodies, referred to as
+_Reinschia_, and first supposed to be allied to the freshwater alga,
+_Volvox_; but this has lately been questioned, and an alternative view is
+that they may be the megaspores of club-mosses (Fig. 50).
+
+The coals of Jurassic age in Australia are derived from the remains of
+coniferous trees and ferns; and some beautiful examples of these plants
+may often be found in the hardened clay or shale associated with the coal
+seams.
+
+The Brown Coals of Cainozoic or Tertiary age in Australia are still but
+little advanced from the early stage, lignite. The leaves found in them
+are more or less like the present types of the flora. The wood is found
+to be of the Cypress type (_Cupressinoxylon_). In New Zealand, however,
+important deposits of coal of a more bituminous nature occur in the
+Oligocene of Westport and the Grey River Valley, in the Nelson District.
+
+BONE BEDS.--The bones and excreta of fish and reptiles form considerable
+deposits in some of the sedimentary formations; especially those partly
+under the influence of land or swamp conditions. They constitute a kind of
+conglomerate in which are found bone-fragments and teeth (Fig. 51). These
+bone-beds are usually rich in phosphates, and are consequently valuable
+as a source of manure. The Miocene bone-bed with fish teeth at Florida,
+U.S.A., is a notable example. The nodule bed of the Victorian Cainozoics
+contains an assemblage of bones of cetaceans (whales, etc.).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 52.--Bone Breccia, with remains of Marsupials.=
+
+About 3/4 nat. size. Pleistocene.
+
+Limeburners Point, Geelong, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+BONE BRECCIAS.--These are usually formed of the remains of the larger
+mammals, and consist of a consolidated mass of fragments of bones and
+teeth embedded in a calcareous matrix. Bone-breccias are of frequent
+occurrence on the floors of caves which had formerly been the resort of
+carnivorous animals, and into which they dragged their prey. The surface
+water percolating through the overlying calcareous strata dissolved a
+certain amount of lime, and this was re-deposited on the animal remains
+lying scattered over the cave floor. A deposit so formed constitutes a
+stalagmite or floor encrustation. As examples of bone-breccias we may
+refer to the limestone at Limeburners Point, Geelong (Fig. 52); and the
+stalagmitic deposits of the Buchan Caves.
+
+IRONSTONE.--Rocks formed almost entirely of limonite (hydrated peroxide of
+iron) are often due to the agency of unicellular plants known as diatoms,
+which separate the iron from water, and deposit it as hydrous peroxide
+of iron within their siliceous skeletons. In Norway and Sweden there are
+large and important deposits of bog iron-ore, which have presumably been
+formed in the beds of lakes.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 53.=
+
+=Cainozoic Ironstone with Leaves (Banksia ? marginata, Cavanilles).=
+
+Slightly enlarged. Below Wannon Falls, Redruth, Victoria.]
+
+Clay ironstone nodules (sphaerosiderite) have generally been formed
+as accretions around some decaying organic body. Many clay ironstone
+nodules, when broken open, reveal a fossil within, such as a coprolitic
+body, fern frond, fir-cone, shell or fish.
+
+Oolitic ironstones are composed of minute granules which may have
+originally been calcareous grains, formed by a primitive plant or alga,
+but since replaced by iron oxide or carbonate.
+
+The Tertiary ironstone of western Victoria is found to contain leaves,
+which were washed into lakes and swamps (Fig. 53); and the ferruginous
+groundmass may have been originally due to the presence of diatoms, though
+this yet remains to be proved.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.--SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FOSSIL PLANTS.
+
+
+=Cambrian Plants.--=
+
+The oldest Australian plant-remains belong to the genus _Girvanella_.
+This curious little tubular unicellular organism, once thought to be a
+foraminifer, shows most affinity with the blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae),
+an important type of plant even now forming calcareous deposits such
+as the calcareous grains on the shores of the Salt Lake, Utah, and the
+pea-grit of the Carlsbad hot springs. _Girvanella problematica_ occurs
+in the Lower Cambrian limestones of South Australia, at Ardrossan and
+elsewhere.
+
+
+=Silurian Plants.--=
+
+Amongst Silurian plants may be mentioned the doubtful sea-weeds known as
+_Bythotrephis_. Their branch-like impressions are fairly common in the
+mudstones of Silurian age found in and around Melbourne. They generally
+occur in association with shallow-water marine shells and crustacea of
+that period.
+
+The genus _Girvanella_ before mentioned is also found in the Silurian
+(Yeringian) of Lilydale and the Tyers River limestone, Victoria (Fig. 54).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 54.--Section through pellet of Girvanella conferta=,
+Chapm.
+
+× 35. From the Silurian (Yeringian) Limestone of Tyers River, Gippsland,
+Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+_Haliserites_ is a primitive plant of the type of the club-mosses so
+common in the rocks of the Carboniferous period. This genus is found in
+some abundance in the Yeringian stage of the Silurian in Gippsland (Fig.
+55).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 55.--PALAEOZOIC PLANTS.=
+
+(Approximate dimensions in fractions).
+
+ A--Bythotrephis tenuis, J. Hall. Silurian. Victoria.
+
+ B--Haliserites Dechenianus, Göppert. Silurian. Victoria.
+
+ C--Cordaites australis, McCoy. Upper Devonian. Victoria.
+
+ D--Sphenopteris iguanensis, McCoy. Upper Devonian. Victoria.
+
+ E--Glossopteris Browniana, Brongniart. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 56.=
+
+=Restoration of Lepidodendron elegans.=
+
+ (_After Grand'Eury._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 57.=
+
+=Lepidodendron australe, McCoy.=
+
+Portion of Stem showing Leaf-cushions.
+
+Slightly reduced.
+
+Carboniferous.
+
+Manilla River, Co. Darling, N.S.W.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Devonian and Carboniferous Plants.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 58.--UPPER PALAEOZOIC PLANTS.=
+
+A--Rhacopteris inaequilatera, Göppert sp. Up. Carboniferous. Stroud, New
+South Wales.
+
+ (_After Feistmantel_).
+
+B--Gangamopteris spatulata, McCoy. Carbopermian. Bacchus Marsh, Victoria.]
+
+Plant-life was not abundant, however, until Upper Devonian and
+Carboniferous times. In the rocks of these periods we meet with the large
+strap-shaped leaves of _Cordaites_ and a fern, _Sphenopteris_, in the
+first-named series; and the widely distributed _Lepidodendron_ with its
+handsome lozenge-scarred stems in the later series (Fig. 56). _Cordaites_
+has been found in Victoria in the Iguana Creek beds (Upper Devonian),
+and it also probably occurs at the same horizon at Nungatta, New South
+Wales. _Lepidodendron_ occurs in the Lower Carboniferous sandstone of
+Victoria and Queensland (Fig. 57): in New South Wales it is found at Mt.
+Lambie, Goonoo, Tamworth and Copeland in beds generally regarded as Upper
+Devonian. Both of these plants are typical of Carboniferous (Coal Measure)
+beds in Europe and North America. The fern _Rhacopteris_ is characteristic
+of Upper Carboniferous shales and sandstones near Stroud, and other
+localities in New South Wales as well as in Queensland (Fig. 58). These
+beds yield a few inferior seams of coal. _Girvanella_ is again seen in the
+oolitic limestones of Carboniferous age in Queensland and New South Wales.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Plants.--=
+
+The higher division of the Australian Carboniferous usually spoken of
+as the Permo-carboniferous, and here designated the Carbopermian (see
+Footnote 2, page 48), is typified by a sudden accession of plant forms,
+chiefly belonging to ferns of the _Glossopteris_ type. The lingulate
+or tongue-shaped fronds of this genus, with their characteristic
+reticulate venation, are often found entirely covering the slabs of
+shale intercalated with the coal seams of New South Wales; and it is
+also a common fossil in Tasmania and Western Australia. The allied form,
+_Gangamopteris_, which is distinguished from _Glossopteris_ by having no
+definite midrib, is found in beds of the same age in Victoria, New South
+Wales, and Tasmania. These plant remains are also found in India, South
+Africa, South America and the Falkland Islands. This wide distribution
+of such ancient ferns indicates that those now isolated land-surfaces
+were once connected, forming an extensive continent named by Prof. Suess
+"Gondwana-Land," from the Gondwana district in India (Fig. 59).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _E. M. del._ (_After J. W. Gregory_).
+
+ =Fig. 59.--Map of the World in the Upper Carboniferous Era.=
+]
+
+
+=Triassic Plants.--=
+
+The widely distributed pinnate fern known as _Thinnfeldia_ is first found
+in the Trias; in the Narrabeen shales near Manly, and the Hawksbury
+sandstone at Mount Victoria, New South Wales. It is also a common
+fossil of the Jurassic of South Gippsland, and other parts of Victoria.
+The grass-like leaves of _Phoenicopsis_ are frequently met with in
+Triassic strata, as in the upper series at Bald Hill, Bacchus Marsh, and
+also in Tasmania. The large Banana-palm-like leaves of _Taeniopteris_
+(_Macrotaeniopteris_) are common to the Triassic and Lower Jurassic beds
+of India: they are also met with in New Zealand, and in the upper beds at
+Bald Hill, Bacchus Marsh.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 60.--MESOZOIC PLANTS.=
+
+ A--Thinnfeldia odontopteroides. Morris sp. Trias. N.S. Wales.
+
+ B--Cladophlebis denticulata, Brongn. sp. var. australis, Morr.
+ Jurassic, Victoria.
+
+ C--Taeniopteris spatulata, McClell. var. Daintreei, McCoy. Jurassic,
+ Victoria.
+
+ D--Brachyphyllum gippslandicum, McCoy. Jurassic, Victoria.
+
+ E--Ginkgo robusta, McCoy. Jurassic, Victoria.
+
+]
+
+
+=Jurassic Plants.--=
+
+The Jurassic flora of Australasia is very prolific in plant forms.
+These range from liverworts and horse-tails to ferns and conifers. The
+commonest ferns were _Cladophlebis_, _Sphenopteris_, _Thinnfeldia_
+and _Taeniopteris_. The conifers are represented by _Araucarites_
+(cone-scales, leaves and fruits), _Palissya_ and _Brachyphyllum_ (Fig.
+60). The _Ginkgo_ or Maiden-hair tree, which is still living in China
+and Japan, and also as a cultivated plant, was extremely abundant in
+Jurassic times, accompanied by the related genus, _Baiera_, having more
+deeply incised leaves; both genera occur in the Jurassic of S. Gippsland,
+Victoria, and in Queensland. The Jurassic flora of Australasia is in many
+respects like that of the Yorkshire coast near Scarborough. In New Zealand
+this flora is represented in the Mataura series, in which there are many
+forms identical with those of the Australian Jurassic, and even of India.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Plants.--=
+
+An upper Cretaceous fern, (?) _Didymosorus gleichenioides_, is found in
+the sandstones of the Croydon Gold-field, North Queensland.
+
+
+=Plants of the Cainozoic.--Balcombian Stage.--=
+
+The older part of the Cainozoic series in Australasia may be referred
+to the Oligocene. These are marine beds with occasional, thick seams of
+lignite, and sometimes of pipe-clay with leaves, the evidence of river
+influence in the immediate neighbourhood. The fossil wood in the lignite
+beds appears to be a _Cupressinoxylon_ or Cypress wood. Leaves referable
+to plants living at the present day are also found in certain clays,
+as at Mornington, containing _Eucalyptus precoriacea_ and a species of
+_Podocarpus_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 61.--CAINOZOIC PLANTS.=
+
+ A--Cinnamomum polymorphoides, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria.
+
+ B--Laurus werribeensis, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria.
+
+ C--Banksia Campbelli, Ettingsh. Cainozoic. Vegetable Creek, N.S.W.
+
+ D--Fagus Risdoniana, Ettingsh. Cainozoic. Tasmania.
+
+ E--Spondylostrobus Smythi, Mueller. Cainozoic. (Deep Leads), Victoria.
+
+]
+
+
+=Miocene Leaf-beds.--Janjukian Stage.--=
+
+Later Cainozoic deposits, evidently accumulated in lakes, and sometimes
+ferruginous, may be referred to the Miocene. They are comparable in
+age with the Janjukian marine beds of Spring Creek and Waurn Ponds in
+Victoria. These occur far inland and occupy distinct basins, as at the
+Wannon, Bacchus Marsh (Maddingley), and Pitfield Plains. Leaf-beds of
+this age occur also on the Otway coast, Victoria, containing the genera
+_Coprosmaephyllum_, _Persoonia_ and _Phyllocladus_. In all probability the
+Dalton and Gunning leaf-beds of New South Wales belong here. Examples of
+the genera found in beds of this age are _Eucalyptus_ (a species near _E.
+amygdalina_), _Banksia_ or Native Honeysuckle, _Cinnamomum_ or Cinnamon,
+_Laurus_ or Laurel, and _Fagus_ (_Notofagus_) or Beech (Fig. 61). In the
+leaf-beds covered by the older basalt on the Dargo High Plains, Gippsland,
+leaves of the _Ginkgo Murrayana_ occur.
+
+In South Australia several occurrences of leaf beds have been recorded,
+containing similar species to those found in the Cainozoic of Dalton and
+Vegetable Creek, New South Wales. For example, _Magnolia Brownii_ occurs
+at Lake Frome, _Bombax Sturtii_ and _Eucalyptus Mitchelli_ at Elizabeth
+River, and _Apocynophyllum Mackinlayi_ at Arcoona.
+
+
+=Fruits of the "Deep Leads."--=
+
+The Deep Leads of Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania probably begin
+to date from the period just named, for they seem to be contemporaneous
+with the "Older Gold Drift" of Victoria; a deposit sometimes containing
+a marine fauna of Janjukian age. This upland river system persisted
+into Lower Pliocene times, and their buried silts yield many fruits, of
+types not now found in Australia, such as _Platycoila_, _Penteune_ and
+_Pleioclinis_, along with _Cupressus_ (_Spondylostrobus_) and _Eucalyptus_
+of the existing flora (Fig. 62).
+
+
+=Pleistocene Plants.--=
+
+The Pleistocene volcanic tuffs of Mount Gambier have been shown to contain
+fronds of the living _Pteris_ (_Pteridium_) _aquilina_ or Bracken fern,
+and a _Banksia_ in every way comparable with _B. marginata_, a species of
+the Native Honeysuckle still living in the same district.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 62.--Leaves of a Fossil Eucalyptus. (E. pluti,
+McCoy).=
+
+About 3/4 nat. size. From the Cainozoic Deep Leads, Daylesford, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+The siliceous valves of freshwater diatoms constitute the infusorial
+earths of Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand. The
+commonest genera met with are _Melosira_, _Navicula_, _Cymbella_ (or
+_Cocconema_), _Synedra_, _Tabellaria_, _Stauroneis_ and _Gomphonema_.
+They are, generally speaking, of Pleistocene age, as they are often found
+filling hollows in the newer basalt flows. In Victoria diatomaceous
+earths are found at Talbot (See Fig. 42), Sebastopol and Lancefield; in
+Queensland, at Pine Creek; in New South Wales, at Cooma, Barraba, and the
+Richmond River; and in New Zealand at Pakaraka, Bay of Islands. In the
+latter country there is also a marine diatomaceous rock in the Oamaru
+Series, of Miocene age.
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+ _Girvanella problematica_, Nicholson and Etheridge. Cambrian: S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Bythotrephis tenuis_, J. Hall. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Haliserites Dechenianus_, Göppert sp. Silurian and Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Cordaites australis_, McCoy. Upper Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Lepidodendron australe_, McCoy. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria and
+ Queensland. Up. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Rhacopteris inaequilatera_, Göppert sp. Carboniferous: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Glossopteris Browniana_, Brongniart. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
+ Queensland, Tasmania and W. Australia.
+
+ _Gangamopteris spatulata_, McCoy. Carbopermian: Victoria, New South
+ Wales and Tasmania.
+
+ _Thinnfeldia odontopteroides_, Morris sp. Triassic: New South Wales.
+ Jurassic: Victoria, Queensland and Tasmania.
+
+ _Cladophlebis denticulata._, Brongn. sp., var. australis, Morris.
+ Jurassic: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Taeniopteris spatulata_, McClelland. Jurassic: Queensland, New South
+ Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania.
+
+ (?) _Didymosorus gleichenioides_, Etheridge fil. Upper Cretaceous:
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Eucalyptus precoriacea_, Deane. Oligocene: Victoria.
+
+ _Eucalyptus_, _Banksia_, _Cinnamomum_, _Laurus_ and _Fagus_. Miocene:
+ Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania.
+
+ _Spondylostrobus Smythi_, von Mueller. (Fruits and wood). Lower
+ Pliocene: Victoria and Tasmania.
+
+ _Pteris_ (_Pteridium_) _aquilina_, Linné, and _Banksia_ cf.
+ _marginata_, Cavanilles. Pleistocene: Victoria and South
+ Australia.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+ Girvanella.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Trans. R. Soc. S. Australia, vol.
+ XIII. 1890, pp. 19, 20. Etheridge, R. and Card, G. Geol. Surv.
+ Queensland, Bull. No. 12, 1900, pp. 26, 27, 32. Chapman, F. Rep.
+ Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide Meeting (1907), 1908, p. 337.
+
+ Devonian Ferns and Cordaites.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. V.,
+ 1876, p. 21. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. V.
+ pt. 3, 1897, p. 117.
+
+ Lepidodendron.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874, p. 37.
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv, New South Wales, vol. II.,
+ pt. 3, 1891, p. 119. Idem, Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
+ 196.
+
+ Carboniferous Fungi.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Surv. W.A., Bull, No.
+ 10, 1903, pp. 25-31.
+
+ Carboniferous Ferns.--Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ vol. VIII. pt. 2, 1905, pp. 157-161, pls. XXII. and XXIII.
+
+ Glossopteris.--Feistmantel, O. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
+ No. 3, 1890. Arber, N. Cat. Foss. Plants, Glossopteris Flora,
+ Brit. Mus., 1905.
+
+ Gangamopteris.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875, p. 11.
+
+ Jurassic Plants.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic., Dec. II. 1875, p. 15.
+ Woods, T. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. I.
+ 1883, p. 37. Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
+ 314. Dun, W. S. (Taeniopteris), Rep. Austr. Asso. Adv. Sci.,
+ Sydney, 1898, pp. 384-400. Seward, A. C. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic.,
+ vol. I. pt. 3, 1904; Chapman, F. Ibid., vol II. pt. 4, 1908; vol.
+ III., pt. 1, 1909. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, p. 311.
+
+ Older Cainozoic Plants.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic., Dec. IV. 1876, p.
+ 31. Ettingshausen, C. von. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
+ No. 2, 1888. Idem, Trans. New Zealand Inst., vol. XXIII. (1890),
+ 1891, p. 237. Deane, H. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 1,
+ 1902, pp. 15, 20.
+
+ Lower Pliocene Deep Leads.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. 1876,
+ p. 29. Mueller, F. von. Geol. Surv. Vic., New Veg. Foss., 1874
+ and 1883.
+
+ Pleistocene and other Diatom Earths.--Card, G. W. and Dun, W. S., Rec.
+ Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. V. pt. 3, 1897, p. 128.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA AND RADIOLARIA.
+
+
+=Protozoans, Their Structure.--=
+
+The animals forming the sub-kingdom PROTOZOA ("lowliest animals"), are
+unicellular (one-celled), as distinguished from all the succeeding higher
+groups, which are known as the METAZOA ("animals beyond"). The former
+group, Protozoa, have all their functions performed by means of a simple
+cell, any additions to the cell-unit merely forming a repetitional
+or aggregated cell-structure. A familiar example of such occurs in
+pond-life, in the Amoeba, a form which is not found fossilised on account
+of the absence of any hard parts or covering capable of preservation.
+Foraminifera and Radiolaria, however, have such hard parts, and are
+frequently found fossilised.
+
+
+=Foraminifera: Their Habitats.--=
+
+The _FORAMINIFERA_ are a group which, although essentially one-celled,
+have the protoplasmic body often numerously segmented. The shell or test
+formed upon, and enclosing the jelly-like sarcode, may consist either
+of carbonate of lime, cemented sand-grains, or a sub-calcareous or
+chitinous (horny) covering. The Foraminifera, with very few exceptions,
+as _Mikrogromia_, _Lieberkuehnia_, and some forms of _Gromia_, are all
+marine in habit. Some genera, however, as _Miliolina_, _Rotalia_ and
+_Nonionina_, affect brackish water conditions.
+
+Since Foraminifera are of so lowly a grade in the animal kingdom, we may
+naturally expect to find their remains in the oldest known rocks that show
+any evidence of life. They are, indeed, first seen in rocks of Cambrian
+age, although they have not yet been detected there in Australian strata.
+
+
+=Cambrian Foraminifera.--=
+
+In parts of Siberia and in the Baltic Provinces, both Cambrian and
+Ordovician rocks contain numerous glauconite casts of Foraminifera,
+generally of the _Globigerina_ type of shell. In England some Middle
+Cambrian rocks of Shropshire are filled with tiny exquisitely preserved
+spiral shells belonging to the genus _Spirillina_, in which all the
+characters of the test are seen as clearly as in the specimens picked out
+of shore-sand at the present day.
+
+
+=Silurian Foraminifera.--=
+
+The Silurian rocks in all countries are very poor in foraminiferal shells,
+only occasional examples being found. In rocks of this age at Lilydale,
+Victoria, the genus _Ammodiscus_, with fine sandy, coiled tests, is found
+in the Cave Hill Limestone.
+
+So far as known, hardly any forms of this group occur in Devonian strata,
+although some ill-defined shells have been found in the Eifel, Germany.
+
+
+=Carboniferous Foraminifera.--=
+
+The Carboniferous rocks in many parts of the world yield an abundant
+foraminiferal fauna. Such, for instance, are the _Saccammina_ and
+_Endothyra_ Limestones of the North of England and the North of Ireland.
+The Australian rocks of this age have not afforded any examples of the
+group, since they are mainly of estuarine or freshwater origin.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 63.--PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC FORAMINIFERA.=
+
+ A--Nubecularia stephensi, Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
+
+ B--Frondicularia woodwardi, Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
+
+ C--Geinitzina triangularis, Chapman and Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
+
+ D--Valvulina plicata, Brady. Carbopermian. West Australia.
+
+ E--Vaginulina intumescens, Reuss. Jurassic. West Australia.
+
+ F--Flabellina dilatata, Wisniowski. Jurassic. West Australia.
+
+ G--Marginulina solida, Terquem. Jurassic. West Australia.
+
+ H--Frondicularia gaultina, Reuss. Cretaceous. West Australia.
+
+]
+
+
+=Carbopermian Foraminifera.--=
+
+In Australia, as at Pokolbin, New South Wales, in the Mersey River
+district, Tasmania, and in the Irwin River district, Western Australia,
+the Permian rocks, or "Permo-carboniferous" as they are generally called,
+often contain beds of impure limestone crowded with the chalky white
+tests of _Nubecularia_: other interesting genera occur at the first named
+locality as _Pelosina_, _Hyperammina_, _Haplophragmium_, _Placopsilina_,
+_Lituola_, _Thurammina_, _Ammodiscus_, _Stacheia_, _Monogenerina_,
+_Valvulina_, _Bulimina_, (?)_Pleurostomella_, _Lagena_, _Nodosaria_,
+_Frondicularia_, _Geinitzina_, _Lunucammina_, _Marginulina_, _Vaginulina_,
+_Anomalina_ and _Truncatulina_. The sandy matrix of certain _Glossopteris_
+leaf-beds in the Collie Coal measures in W. Australia have yielded
+some dwarfed examples belonging to the genera _Bulimina_, _Endothyra_,
+_Valvulina_, _Truncatulina_ and _Pulvinulina_; whilst in the Irwin River
+district similar beds contain _Nodosaria_ and _Frondicularia_ (Fig. 63).
+
+
+=Triassic Foraminifera.--=
+
+The Triassic and Rhaetic clays of Europe occasionally show traces of
+foraminiferal shells, probably of estuarine habitat, as do the Wianamatta
+beds of New South Wales, which also belong to the Triassic epoch. The
+Australian representatives are placed in the genera _Nubecularia_,
+_Haplophragmium_, _Endothyra_, _Discorbina_, _Truncatulina_, and
+_Pulvinulina_. These shells are diminutive even for foraminifera, and
+their starved condition indicates uncongenial environment.
+
+
+=Jurassic Foraminifera.--=
+
+The Jurassic limestones of Western Australia, at Geraldton, contain many
+species of Foraminifera, principally belonging to the spirally coiled and
+slipper-shaped _Cristellariae_. Other genera present are _Haplophragmium_,
+_Textularia_, _Bulimina_, _Flabellina_, _Marginulina_, _Vaginulina_,
+_Polymorphina_, _Discorbina_, and _Truncatulina_.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Foraminifera.--=
+
+In the Lower Cretaceous rocks known as the Rolling Downs Formation in
+Queensland, shells of the Foraminifera are found in some abundance
+at Wollumbilla. They are represented chiefly by _Cristellaria_ and
+_Polymorphina_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 64.--Structure in Lepidocyclina.=
+
+ A--Vertical section through test of Lepidocyclina marginata,
+ Michelotti sp.: showing the equatorial chambers (eq. c) and the
+ lateral chambers (l.c.)
+
+ B--Section through the median disc, showing the hexagonal and ogive
+ chambers. × 18.
+
+ Cainozoic (Janjukian). Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria.
+
+ (_F.C. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Cainozoic Foraminifera.--=
+
+The Cainozoic strata in all parts of the world are very rich in
+Foraminifera, and the genera, and even many species are similar to those
+now found living. Certain types, however, had a restricted range, and are
+therefore useful as indicators of age. Such are the Nummulites and the
+_Orbitoides_ of the Eocene and the Oligocene of Europe, India and the West
+Indies; and the _Lepidocyclinae_ of the Miocene of Europe, India, Japan
+and Australia (Fig. 64).
+
+The genus _Lepidocyclina_ is typically represented in the Batesford beds
+near Geelong, Victoria by _L. tournoueri_, a fossil of the Burdigalian
+stage (Middle Miocene) in Europe, as well as by _L. marginata_. A
+limestone with large, well-preserved tests of the same genus, and
+belonging to a slightly lower horizon in the Miocene has lately been
+discovered in Papua.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 65.--CAINOZOIC FORAMINIFERA.=
+
+ A--Miliolina vulgaris, d'Orb. sp. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. and S.A.
+
+ B--Textularia gibbosa, d'Orb. Oligocene and Miocene. Vict. & S.A.
+
+ C--Nodosaria affinis, d'Orb. Oligocene. Victoria.
+
+ D--Polymorphina elegantissima. P. and J. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. and
+ S.A.
+
+ E--Truncatulina ungeriana, d'Orb. sp. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. & S.A.
+
+ F--Amphistegina vulgaris, d'Orb. Oligocene-L. Pliocene. Vict. & S.A.
+
+]
+
+Some of the commoner Foraminifera found in the Cainozoic beds of Southern
+Australia are--_Miliolina vulgaris_, _Textularia gibbosa_, _Nodosaria
+affinis_, _Polymorphina elegantissima_, _Truncatulina ungeriana_ and
+_Amphistegina lessonii_ (Fig. 65). The first-named has a chalky or
+porcellanous shell; the second a sandy test; the third and fourth glassy
+or hyaline shells with excessively fine tubules; the fifth a glassy shell
+with numerous surface punctations due to coarser tubules than usual in
+the shell-walls; whilst the last-named has a smooth, lenticular shell,
+also hyaline, and occurring in such abundance as often to constitute a
+foraminiferal rock in itself.
+
+
+=Pleistocene Foraminifera.--=
+
+The estuarine deposits of Pleistocene age in southern Australia often
+contain innumerable shells of _Miliolina_, _Rotalia_ and _Polystomella_.
+One thin seam of sandy clay struck by the bores in the Victorian Mallee
+consists almost entirely of the shells of the shallow-water and estuarine
+species, _Rotalia beccarii_.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+=Radiolaria: Their Structure.--=
+
+The organisms belonging to the order _RADIOLARIA_ are microscopic, and
+they are all of marine habitat. The body of a radiolarian consists of a
+central mass of protoplasm enclosed in a membranous capsule, and contains
+the nuclei, vacuoles, granules and fat globules; whilst outside is a
+jelly-like portion which throws off pseudopodia or thin radiating threads.
+The skeleton of Radiolaria is either chitinous or composed of clear,
+glassy silica, and is often of exquisitely ornamental and regular form.
+
+
+=Habitat.--=
+
+These tiny organisms generally live in the open ocean at various depths,
+and sinking to the bottom, sometimes as deep as 2,000 to 4,000 fathoms,
+they form an ooze or mud.
+
+
+=Subdivisions.--=
+
+Radiolaria are divided into the four legions or orders,--Acantharia,
+Spumellaria, Nasselaria and Phaeodaria: only the second and third groups
+are found fossil. The Spumellarians are spherical, ellipsoidal, or
+disc-shaped, and the Nasselarians conical or helmet-shaped.
+
+
+=Cambrian Radiolaria.--=
+
+Certain cherts or hard, siliceous rocks of the palaeozoic era are often
+crowded with the remains of Radiolaria, giving the rock a spotted
+appearance. (See _antea_, Fig. 38). Some of the genera thus found are
+identical with those living at the present day, whilst others are peculiar
+to those old sediments. In Australia, remains of their siliceous shells
+have been found in cherts of Lower Cambrian age near Adelaide. These have
+been provisionally referred to the genera _Carposphaera_ and _Cenellipsis_
+(Fig. 66).
+
+
+=Ordovician Radiolaria.--=
+
+Radiolaria have been detected in the Lower Ordovician rocks of Victoria,
+in beds associated with the Graptolite slates of this series. In New South
+Wales Radiolarian remains are found in the cherts and slates of Upper
+Ordovician age at Cooma and Mandurama.
+
+
+=Silurian Radiolaria.--=
+
+The Silurian black cherts of the Jenolan Caves in New South Wales contain
+casts of Radiolaria.
+
+
+=Devonian Radiolaria.--=
+
+The Lower Devonian red jaspers of Bingera and Barraba in New South Wales
+have afforded some casts of Radiolaria, resembling _Carposphaera_ and
+_Cenosphaera_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 66.--FOSSIL RADIOLARIA.=
+
+ A--Aff. Carposphaera (after David and Howchin). Cambrian. Brighton,
+ S.A.
+
+ B--Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Mid. Devonian. Tamworth, N.S.W.
+
+ C--Amphibrachium truncatum, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.
+
+ D--Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.
+
+]
+
+The large number of fifty-three species have been found in the radiolarian
+rocks of Middle Devonian age at Tamworth in New South Wales (Fig. 66).
+These have been referred to twenty-nine genera comprising amongst
+others, _Cenosphaera_, _Xiphosphaera_, _Staurolonche_, _Heliosphaera_,
+_Acanthosphaera_ and _Spongodiscus_.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Radiolaria.--=
+
+Although certain silicified rocks in the Jurassic in Europe have furnished
+a large series of Radiolaria, the Australian marine limestones of this age
+have not yielded any of their remains up to the present. They have been
+found, however, in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland, and in the (?)Upper
+Cretaceous of Port Darwin, N. Australia. The Radiolaria from the latter
+locality belong to the sub-orders Prunoidea, Discoidea and Cyrtoidea
+(Fig. 66). The rock which contains these minute fossils is stated to be
+eaten by the natives for medicinal purposes. As its composition is almost
+pure silica, its efficacy in such cases must be more imaginary than real.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Radiolaria.--=
+
+Cainozoic rocks of Pliocene age, composed entirely of Radiolaria, occur at
+Barbados in the West Indies. No Cainozoic Radiolaria, however, have been
+found either in Australia or New Zealand up to the present time.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+FORAMINIFERA.
+
+ _Nubecularia stephensi_, Howchin. Carbopermian: Tasmania and New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Frondicularia woodwardi_, Howchin. Carbopermian: W. Australia and New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Geinitzina triangularis_, Chapm. & Howchin. Carbopermian: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Pulvinulina insignis_, Chapman. Trias (Wianamatta Series): New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Marginulina solida_, Terquem. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Flabellina dilatata_, Wisniowski. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Vaginulina striata_, d'Orbigny. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Truncatulina lobatula_, W. and J. sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Miliolina vulgaris_, d'Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Textularia gibbosa_, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Nodosaria affinis_, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Polymorphina elegantissima_, Parker and Jones. Cainozoic: Victoria,
+ Tasmania, and S. Australia.
+
+ _Truncatulina ungeriana_, d'Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria, King Island,
+ and S. Australia.
+
+ _Amphistegina lessonii_, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Lepidocyclina martini_, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
+ Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _L. tournoueri_, Lemoine and Douvillé. Cainozoic (Junjukian):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Cycloclypeus pustulosus_, Chapman. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Fabularia howchini_, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
+
+ _Hauerina intermedia_, Howchin. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
+
+ _Rotalia beccarii_, Linné sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Polystomella striatopunctata_, Fichtel and Moll sp. Pleistocene:
+ Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+
+RADIOLARIA.
+
+ (?) _Carposphaera_ sp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
+
+ (?) _Cenellipsis_ sp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
+
+ _Cenosphaera affinis_, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Staurolonche davidi_, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Amphibrachium truncatum_, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: Northern Territory.
+
+ _Dictyomitra triangularis_, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: Northern
+ Territory.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+FORAMINIFERA.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIX. 1895;
+ pp. 194-198. Chapman, F. and Howchin, W. Mem. Geol. Surv. New
+ South Wales, Pal. No. 14, 1905. Chapman, F. Bull. Geol. Surv. W.
+ Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 15-18.
+
+ Trias.--Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt.
+ 4, 1909, pp. 336-339.
+
+ Jurassic.--Chapman, F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt.
+ II., 1904, pp. 186-199.
+
+ Cretaceous.--Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870, pp.
+ 239 and 242. Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. VIII.
+ 1886, pp. 79-93. Idem, ibid., vol. XIX., 1895, pp. 198-200. Idem,
+ Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 38-43.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XII. 1889,
+ pp. 1-20. Idem, ibid., vol. XIV. 1891, pp. 350-356. Jensen, H.
+ I. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXIX. pt. 4, 1905, pp.
+ 829-831. Goddard, E. J. and Jensen, H. I. ibid., vol. XXXII. pt.
+ 2, 1907, pp. 308-318. Chapman, F. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool.,
+ vol. XXX. 1907, pp. 10-35.
+
+ General.--Howchin, W. Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide Meeting,
+ 1893, pp. 348-373.
+
+
+RADIOLARIA.
+
+ Lower Cambrian.--David, T. W. E. and Howchin, W. Proc. Linn. Soc. New
+ South Wales, vol. XXI. 1897, p. 571.
+
+ Devonian.--David, T. W. E. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXI.
+ 1897, pp. 553-570. Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol.
+ LV. 1890, pp. 38-64.
+
+ Upper Cretaceous.--Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XLIX.
+ 1893, pp. 221-226.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+FOSSIL SPONGES, CORALS AND GRAPTOLITES.
+
+
+_SPONGES._
+
+
+=Characteristics of Sponges.--=
+
+The Sponges are sometimes placed by themselves as a separate phylum, the
+Porifera. With the exception of a few freshwater genera, they are of
+marine habit and to be found at all depths between low tide (littoral)
+and deep water (abyssal). Sponges are either fixed or lie loosely on the
+sea-floor. They possess no organs of locomotion, and have no distinct axis
+or lateral appendages. They exist by setting up currents in the water
+whereby the latter is circulated through the system, carrying with it
+numerous food particles, their tissues being at the same time oxygenated.
+Their framework, in the siliceous and calcareous sponges, is strengthened
+by a mineral skeleton, wholly or partially capable of preservation as a
+fossil.
+
+
+=Cambrian and Ordovician Sponges.--=
+
+The oldest rocks in Australia containing the remains of Sponges are the
+Cambrian limestones of South Australia, at Ardrossan and elsewhere.
+Some of these sponge-remains are referred to the genus _Protospongia_,
+a member of the Hexactinellid group having 6-rayed skeletal elements.
+When complete, the _Protospongia_ has a cup- or funnel-shaped body,
+composed of large and small modified spicules, which form quadrate areas,
+often seen in isolated or aggregated patches on the weathered surface of
+the rock. _Protospongia_ also occurs in the Lower Ordovician slates and
+shales of Lancefield (_P. oblonga_), and Bendigo (_P. reticulata_ and _P.
+cruciformis_), in Victoria (Fig. 67 A). At St. David's, in South Wales,
+the genus is found in rocks of Middle Cambrian age. The South Australian
+limestones in which _Protospongia_ occurs are usually placed in the Lower
+Cambrian.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 67.--PALAEOZOIC SPONGES, &c.=
+
+ A--Protospongia reticulata, T. S. Hall. Low. Ordovician. Bendigo.
+
+ B--Receptaculites fergusoni, Chapm. Silurian. Wombat Creek, Vict.
+
+ C--R. australis, Salter. (Section of wall, etched, after Eth. & Dun)
+ Mid. Devonian. Co. Murray, N.S.W.
+
+ D--Protopharetra scoulari, Eth. fil. Cambrian. S.A.
+
+]
+
+Another genus of Sponges, _Hyalostelia_, whose affinities are not very
+clear, occurs in the South Australian Cambrian at Curramulka. This type
+is represented by the long, slightly bent, rod-like spicules of the
+root-tuft, and the skeletal spicules with six rays, one of which is much
+elongated.
+
+_Stephanella maccoyi_ is a Monactinellid sponge, found in the Lower
+Ordovician (Bendigo Series) of Bendigo, Victoria.
+
+
+=Silurian Sponges.--=
+
+Numerous Sponges of Silurian age are found in the neighbourhood of Yass,
+New South Wales, which belong to the Lithistid group, having irregular,
+knotty and branching spicules. These sponges resemble certain fossil
+fruits, generally like diminutive melons; their peculiar spicular
+structure, however, is usually visible on the outside of the fossil,
+especially in weathered specimens. The commonest genus is _Carpospongia_.
+
+
+=Receptaculites: Silurian to Carboniferous.--=
+
+In Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous times the curious saucer-
+or funnel-shaped bodies known as _Receptaculites_ must have been fairly
+abundant in Australia, judging by their frequent occurrence as fossils.
+They are found as impressions or moulds and casts in some of the mudstones
+and limestones of Silurian age in Victoria, as at Loyola and Wombat
+Creek, in west and north-east Gippsland respectively. In the Devonian
+limestones of New South Wales they occur at Fernbrook, near Mudgee, at the
+Goodradigbee River, and at Cavan, near Yass; also in beds of the same age
+in Victoria, at Bindi, and Buchan (Fig. 67, B.C.). _Receptaculites_ also
+occur in the Star Beds of Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous age in
+Queensland, at Mount Wyatt. It will thus be seen that this genus has an
+extensive geological range.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Sponges.--=
+
+A Monactinellid Sponge, provisionally referred to _Lasiocladia_, has been
+described from the Gympie beds of the Rockhampton District, Queensland.
+_Lasiocladia_, as well as the Hexactinellid Sponge _Hyalostelia_, occurs
+in the Carbopermian of New South Wales.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Sponges.--=
+
+No sponge-remains seem to occur above the Carbopermian in Australia
+until we reach the Cretaceous rocks. In the Lower Cretaceous series in
+Queensland a doubtful member of the Hexactinellid group is found, namely,
+_Purisiphonia clarkei_. In the Upper Cretaceous of the Darling Downs
+District pyritized Sponges occur which have been referred to the genus
+_Siphonia_, a member of the Lithistid group, well known in the Cretaceous
+of Europe.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Sponges.--=
+
+A white siliceous clay, supposed to be from a "Deep Lead," in the
+Norseman district in Western Australia, has proved to consist almost
+entirely of siliceous sponge-spicules, belonging to the Monactinellid,
+the Tetractinellid, the Lithistid, and the Hexactinellid groups (Fig. 69
+A, B). The reference of the deposit to a "deep lead" or alluvial deposit
+presents a difficulty, since these sponge-spicules represent moderately
+deep water marine forms. This deposit resembles in some respects the
+spicule-bearing rock of Oamaru, New Zealand, which is of Miocene age.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 68.--CAINOZOIC SPONGES.=
+
+ A--Latrunculia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.
+
+ B--Geodia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.
+
+ C--Ecionema newberyi. McCoy sp. Cainozoic. Boggy Creek, Gippsland,
+ Vict.
+
+ D--Plectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Moorabool, Vict.
+
+ E--Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic. Flinders, Vict.
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 69.--SILURIAN CORALS.=
+
+ A--Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.). Gippsland, Vict.
+
+ B--Favosites grandipora, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.). Lilydale, Vict.
+
+ C--Favosites grandipora, vertical section. Ditto.
+
+ D--F. grandipora, transverse section. Ditto.
+
+ E--Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Lilydale, Vict.
+
+ F--Halysites peristephesicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. N.S. Wales.
+
+ G--Heliolites interstincta, Wahl sp Vict. (transv. sect). Silurian..
+
+]
+
+In the Cainozoic beds of southern Australia Sponges with calcareous
+skeletons are not at all uncommon. The majority of these belong to the
+Lithonine section of the Calcispongiae, in which the spicules are regular,
+and not fixed together. Living examples of these sponges, closely related
+to the fossils, have been dredged from the Japanese Sea. The fossils
+are found mainly in the Janjukian, at Curlewis, in the Moorabool River
+limestones, and in the polyzoal rock of Flinders, all in Victoria. They
+belong to the genera _Bactronella_, _Plectroninia_ and _Tretocalia_ (Fig.
+68, D and E). Some diminutive forms also occur in the older series, the
+Balcombian, at Mornington, namely, _Bactronella parvula_. At Boggy Creek,
+near Sale, in Victoria, a Tetractinellid Sponge, _Ecionema newberyi_, is
+found in the Janjukian marls; spicules of this form have also been noted
+from the clays of the Altona Bay coal-shaft (Fig. 68 C).
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The _ARCHAEOCYATHINAE_: an ancient class of organisms related both to the
+Sponges and the Corals.
+
+
+=Archaeocyathinae in Cambrian Strata.--=
+
+These curious remains have been lately made the subject of detailed
+research, and it is now concluded that they form a group probably
+ancestral both to the sponges and the corals. They are calcareous, and
+generally cup-shaped or conical, often furnished at the pointed base
+with roots or strands for attachment to the surrounding reef. They have
+two walls, both the inner and the outer being perforated like sponges.
+As in the corals, they are divided by transverse septa and these are
+also perforated. Certain of the genera as _Protopharetra_ (Fig. 67 D),
+_Coscinocyathus_, and _Archaeocyathina_, are common to the Cambrian
+of Sardinia and South Australia, whilst other genera of the class are
+also found in Siberia, China, Canada and the United States. A species
+of _Protopharetra_ was recently detected in a pebble derived from
+the Cambrian limestone in the Antarctic, as far south as 85 deg. An
+_Archaeocyathina_ limestone has also been found in situ from Shackleton's
+farthest south.
+
+
+_CORALS_ (Class Anthozoa).
+
+
+=Rugose Corals.--=
+
+Many of the older types of Corals from the Palaeozoic rocks belong to the
+Tetracoralla (septa in multiples of four), or Rugosa (i.e., with wrinkled
+exterior).
+
+
+=Ordovician Corals.--=
+
+In Great Britain and North America Rugose Corals are found as early as
+Ordovician times, represented by _Streptelasma_, _Petraia_, etc. In
+Australia they seem to first make their appearance in the Silurian period.
+
+
+=Silurian Corals.--=
+
+In rocks of Silurian age in Australia we find genera like _Cyathophyllum_
+(with single cups or compound coralla), _Diphyphyllum_, _Tryplasma_
+and _Rhizophyllum_, the first-named often being very abundant. The
+compound corallum of _Cyathophyllum approximans_ presents a very handsome
+appearance when cut transversely and polished. This coral is found in
+the Newer Silurian limestone in Victoria; it shows an alliance with _C.
+mitchelli_ of the Middle Devonian of the Murrumbidgee River, New South
+Wales (Fig. 69 A).
+
+
+=Silurian Hexacoralla.--=
+
+It is, however, to the next group, the Hexacoralla, with septa in
+multiples of six, twelve, and twenty-four, that we turn for the most
+varied and abundant types of Corals in Silurian times. The genus
+_Favosites_ (Honey-comb Coral) is extremely abundant in Australian
+limestones (Fig. 69 B, C), such as those of Lilydale, Walhalla, and
+Waratah Bay in Victoria, and of Hatton's Corner and other localities near
+Yass, in New South Wales. _Pleurodictyum_ is also a familiar type in the
+Australian Silurian, being one of the commonest corals in the Yeringian
+stage; although, strange to say, in Germany and N. America, it is typical
+of Devonian strata (Fig. 69 E). _Pleurodictyum_ had a curious habit of
+growing, barnacle fashion, on the side of the column of the crinoids
+or sea-lilies which flourished in those times. _Syringopora_, with its
+funnel-shaped tabulae or floor partitions, is typical of many Australian
+limestones, as those from Lilydale, Victoria, and the Delegate River, New
+South Wales. _Halysites_ (Chain Coral), with its neat strings of tubular
+and tabulated corallites joined together by their edges, is another
+striking Coral of the Silurian period (Fig. 69 F). This and the earlier
+mentioned _Syringopora_, is by some authors regarded as belonging to the
+Alcyonarian Corals (typically with eight tentacles). _Halysites_ is known
+from the limestones of the Mitta Mitta River, N.E. Gippsland, Victoria;
+from the Molong and Canobolas districts in New South Wales; from the
+Gordon River limestone in Tasmania; and from Chillagoe in Queensland.
+Abroad it is a well known type of Coral in the Wenlockian of Gotland
+in Scandinavia, and Shropshire in England, as well as in the Niagara
+Limestone of the United States.
+
+
+=Silurian Octocoralla.--=
+
+Perhaps the most important of the Octocoralla is _Heliolites_
+("Sunstone"), which is closely allied to the Blue Coral, _Heliopora_, a
+frequent constituent of our modern coral reefs. The genus _Heliolites_
+has a massive, calcareous corallum, bearing two kinds of pores or tubes,
+large (autopores) containing complete polyps, and small (siphonopores)
+containing the coenosarc or flesh of the colony. Both kinds of tubes are
+closely divided by tabulae, whilst the former are septate. _Heliolites_ is
+of frequent occurrence in the Silurian limestones of New South Wales and
+Victoria (Fig. 69 G).
+
+
+=Devonian Corals.--=
+
+The Middle Devonian beds of Australia are chiefly limestones, such as
+the Buchan limestone, Victoria; the Burdekin Series, Queensland; and
+the Tamworth limestone of New South Wales. These rocks, as a rule, are
+very fossiliferous, and the chief constituent fossils are the Rugose and
+Perforate Corals. _Campophyllum gregorii_ is a common form in the Buchan
+limestone (Fig. 70 A), as well as some large mushroom-shaped _Favosites_,
+as _F. gothlandica_ and _F. multitabulata_. Other genera which may
+be mentioned as common to the Australian Middle Devonian rocks are,
+_Cyathophyllum_, _Sanidophyllum_ and _Spongophyllum_, _Heliolites_ is
+also found in limestones of this age in New South Wales and Queensland.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 70.--UPPER PALAEOZIC CORALS.=
+
+ A--Campophyllum gregorii, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian. Buchan, Vict.
+
+ B--Pachypora meridionalis, Nich. & Eth. fil. Mid Devonian. Queens.
+
+ C--Aulopora repens, Kn. & W. (after Hinde). Devonian. Kimberley
+ district, W.A.
+
+ D--Zaphrentis culleni, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. New South Wales.
+
+ E--Trachypora wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Marine Ser.) New
+ South Wales.
+
+ F--Stenopora crinita, Lonsdale. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.) N.S.W.
+
+]
+
+In the Burdekin Series (Middle Devonian) in Queensland we also find
+_Cystiphyllum_, _Favosites gothlandica_, and _Pachypora meridionalis_
+(Fig. 70 B), whilst in beds of the same age at Rough Range in Western
+Australia are found _Aulopora repens_ (Fig. 70 C), and another species of
+_Pachypora_, namely, _P. tumida_.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Corals.--=
+
+The only true Carboniferous marine fauna occurring in Australia, appears
+to be that of the Star Beds in Queensland, but so far no corals have been
+found. The so-called Carboniferous of Western Australia may be regarded
+as Carbopermian or even of Permian age. The marine Carbopermian beds of
+New South Wales contain several genera of Corals belonging to the group
+Rugosa, as _Zaphrentis_ (Fig. 70 D), _Lophophyllum_, and _Campophyllum_.
+Of the Tabulate corals may be mentioned _Trachypora wilkinsoni_, very
+typical of the Upper Marine Series (Fig. 70 E) and _Cladochonus_.
+
+In the Gympie beds of the same system in Queensland occur the following
+rugose corals, _Zaphrentis profunda_ and a species of _Cyathophyllum_.
+
+In the Carbopermian of Western Australia the rugose corals are represented
+by _Amplexus_, _Cyathophyllum_, and _Plerophyllum_, which occur in rocks
+on the Gascoyne River.
+
+The imperfectly understood group of the Monticuliporoids, by some authors
+placed with the Polyzoa (Order Trepostomata), are well represented in
+Australia by the genus _Stenopora_ (Fig. 70 F). The corallum is a massive
+colony of long tubes set side by side and turned outwards, the polyp
+moving upwards in growth and cutting off the lower part of the tube by
+platforms like those in the tabulate corals. Some of the species of
+_Stenopora_, like _S. tasmaniensis_, of New South Wales and Tasmania,
+are found alike in the Lower and Upper Marine Series. _S. australis_ is
+confined to the Bowen River Coal-field of Queensland. _Stenopora_ often
+attains a large size, the corallum reaching over a foot in length.
+
+Neither Jurassic or Cretaceous Corals have been found in Australasia,
+although elsewhere as in Europe and India, the representatives of modern
+corals are found in some abundance.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Corals.--=
+
+In Tertiary times the marine areas of southern Australia were the home
+of many typical solitary Corals of the group of the Hexacoralla. In the
+Balcombian beds of Mornington, Victoria, for instance, we have genera
+such as _Flabellum_, _Placotrochus_, _Sphenotrochus_, _Ceratotrochus_,
+_Conosmilia_, _Trematotrochus_, _Notophyllia_ and _Balanophyllia_ (Fig.
+71).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 71.--CAINOZOIC CORALS.=
+
+ A--Flabellum victoriae, Duncan. Balcombian. Mornington, Vict.
+
+ B--Placotrochus deltoideus, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton,
+ Vic.
+
+ C--Balanophyllia seminuda, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton,
+ Vic.
+
+ D--Stephanotrochus tatei, Dennant. Janjukian. Torquay, near Geelong,
+ Vict.
+
+ E--Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Janjukian. Table Cape, Tas.
+
+ F--Graphularia senescens. Tate sp. Janjukian. Waurn Ponds, near
+ Geelong, Vic.
+
+ G--Trematotrochus clarkii, Dennant. Kalimnan. Gippsland Lakes, Vic.
+
+]
+
+Corals especially characteristic of the Janjukian Series are _Paracyathus
+tasmanicus_, _Stephanotrochus tatei_, _Montlivaltia variformis_,
+_Thamnastraea sera_ and _Dendrophyllia epithecata_. The stony axis of the
+Sea-pen, _Graphularia senescens_, a member of the Octocoralla, is also
+typical of this stage, and are called "square-bones" by the quarrymen at
+Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, where these fossils occur.
+
+The Kalimnan Corals are not so abundantly represented as in the foregoing
+stages, but certain species of _Flabellum_ and _Trematotrochus_, as _F.
+curtum_ and _T. clarkii_, are peculiar to those beds. Several of the
+Janjukian Corals persist into Kalimnan times, some dating as far back as
+the Balcombian, as _Sphenotrochus emarciatus_. The Sea-pen, _Graphularia
+senescens_ is again found at this higher horizon, at Beaumaris; it
+probably represents a varietal form, the axis being smaller and more
+slender.
+
+Other examples of the Octocoralla are seen in _Mopsea_, two species of
+which are found in the Janjukian at Cape Otway; the deeper beds of the
+Mallee; and the Mount Gambier Series.
+
+A species of the Astraeidae (Star-corals) of the reef-forming section,
+_Plesiastraea st.vincenti_, is found in the Kalimnan of Hallett's Cove,
+South Australia.
+
+
+_HYDROZOA._
+
+The few animals of this group met with in fossil faunas are represented by
+the living _Millepora_ (abundant as a coral reef organism), _Hydractinia_
+(parasitic on shells, etc.), and _Sertularia_ (Sea-firs).
+
+
+=Milleporids and Stylasterids.--=
+
+Although so abundant at the present time, the genus _Millepora_ does
+not date back beyond the Pleistocene. The Eocene genus _Axopora_ is
+supposed to belong here, but is not Australian. Of the Stylasterids one
+example is seen in _Deontopora_, represented by the branchlets of _D.
+mooraboolensis_, from the Janjukian limestone of the Moorabool Valley,
+near Geelong.
+
+
+=Hydractinia.--=
+
+_Hydractinia_ dates from the Upper Cretaceous rocks in England, and in
+Australia its encrusting polypidom is found attached to shells in the
+polyzoal limestone of Mount Gambier (Miocene).
+
+
+Stromatoporoids.
+
+An important group of reef-builders in Palaeozoic times was the organism
+known as _Stromatopora_, and its allies. The structures of these hydroid
+polyps resemble successional and repetitional stages of a form like
+_Hydractinia_. As in that genus it always commenced to grow upon a base
+of attachment such as a shell, increasing by successive layers, until the
+organic colony often reached an enormous size, and formed great mounds
+and reefs (see _antea_, Fig. 32). The stromatoporoid structure was formed
+by a layer of polyp cells separated by vertical partitions, upon which
+layer after layer was added until a great vertical thickness was attained.
+This limestone-making group first appeared in the Silurian, and probably
+reached its maximum development in Middle Devonian times, when it almost
+disappeared, except to be represented in Carbopermian strata by a few
+diminutive forms.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 72.--STROMATOPOROIDEA and CLADOPHORA.=
+
+ A--Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A.
+
+ B--Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A. Vertical
+ section.
+
+ (_After G. J. Hinde_).
+
+ C--Callograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.
+
+ (_After T. S. Hall_).
+
+ D--Ptilograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.
+
+ (_After T. S. Hall_).
+
+ E--Dictyonema pulchellum, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.
+
+ F--Dictyonema macgillivrayi, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.
+
+]
+
+
+=Silurian Stromatoporoids.--=
+
+In the Silurian limestones of Victoria (Lilydale, Waratah Bay, Walhalla
+and Loyola), and New South Wales (near Yass), Stromatoporoids belonging to
+the genera _Clathrodictyon_ (probably _C. regulare_), _Stromatopora_ and
+_Idiostroma_ occur. _Stromatoporella_ has been recorded from the Silurian
+rocks of the Jenolan Caves, New South Wales.
+
+
+=Devonian Stromatoporids.--=
+
+The Middle Devonian strata of Bindi, Victoria, yield large, massive
+examples of _Actinostroma_. This genus is distinguished from the closely
+allied _Clathrodictyon_ by its vertical pillars passing through several
+laminae in succession. Rocks of the same age in Queensland contain
+_Stromatopora_, whilst in Western Australia the Rough Range Limestone
+has been shown to contain _Actinostroma clathratum_ (Fig. 72 A, B) and
+_Stromatoporella eifeliensis_.
+
+
+Cladophora.
+
+
+=Palaeozoic Cladophora.--=
+
+Some branching and dendroid forms of Hydrozoa probably related to
+the modern Calyptoblastea ("covered buds"), such as _Sertularia_ and
+_Campanularia_, are included in the Cladophora ("Branch bearers"). They
+existed from Cambrian to Devonian times, and consist of slender, forking
+branches sometimes connected by transverse processes or dissepiments, the
+branches bearing on one or both sides little cups or hydrothecae which
+evidently contained the polyps, and others of modified form, perhaps for
+the purpose of reproduction. The outer layer, called the periderm was of
+chitinous material. They were probably attached to the sea-floor like the
+Sertularians (Sea-firs).
+
+
+=Dictyonema and Allies.--=
+
+Remains of the above group are represented in the Australian rocks by
+several species of _Dictyonema_ (Fig. 72 E, F) occurring in the Lower
+Ordovician of Lancefield, and in similar or older shales near Mansfield.
+Some of these species are of large size, _D. grande_ measuring nearly a
+foot in width. The genera _Callograptus_, _Ptilograptus_ (Fig. 72 C, D)
+and _Dendrograptus_ are also sparsely represented in the Upper Ordovician
+of Victoria, the two former from San Remo, the latter from Bulla.
+
+
+Graptolites (Graptolitoidea).--
+
+
+=Value of Graptolites to Stratigraphist.--=
+
+The Graptolites were so named by Linnaeus from their resemblances to
+writing on the slates in which their compressed remains are found. They
+form a very important group of Palaeozoic fossils in all parts of the
+world where these rocks occur, and are well represented in Australasia.
+The species of the various Graptolite genera are often restricted to
+particular beds, and hence they are of great value as indicators of
+certain horizons or layers in the black, grey or variously coloured slates
+and shales of Lower Ordovician to Silurian times. By their aid a stratum
+or set of strata can be traced across country for long distances, and the
+typical species can be correlated even with those in the older slates and
+shales of Great Britain and North America.
+
+
+=Nature of Graptolites.--=
+
+The Graptolites were compound animals, consisting of a number of polyps
+inserted in cups or thecae which budded out in a line from the primary
+sicula or conical chamber, which chamber was probably attached to floating
+sea-weed, either by a fine thread (nema), or a disc-like expansion. This
+budding of the polyp-bearing thecae gives to the polypary or colony the
+appearance of a fret-saw, with the teeth directed away from the sicula.
+
+The habit of the earlier graptolites was to branch repeatedly, as
+in _Clonograptus_, or to show a compound leaf-like structure as in
+_Phyllograptus_. Later on the many-branched forms had their branches
+reduced until, as in _Didymograptus_, there were only two branches.
+Sometimes the branches opened out to direct the thecae upwards, the better
+to procure their food supply. In _Diplograptus_ the thecae turned upwards
+and acquired a support by the formation of a medium rod (virgula), often
+ending in a disc or float. In Silurian times _Monograptus_ prevailed, a
+genus having only a single row of thecae supported by a straight or curved
+virgula. In _Retiolites_ the polypary opened out by means of a net-work
+of fine strands, rendering it better able to float, at the same time
+retaining its original strength.
+
+
+=Lower Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria.--=
+
+The Lower Ordovician slates and shales of Victoria have been successfully
+divided into several distinct series by means of the Graptolites. These,
+commencing at the oldest, are:--
+
+(1) Lancefield Series. Characterised by _Bryograptus clarki_, _B.
+victoriae_, _Didymograptus pritchardi_, _D. taylori_ and _Tetragraptus
+decipiens_. Other forms less restricted are, _Clonograptus magnificus_
+(measuring over a yard in breadth), _C. flexilis_, _C. rigidus_,
+_Leptograptus antiquus_ and _Tetragraptus approximatus_ (Fig. 73).
+
+(2) Bendigo Series. Characterised by _Tetragraptus fruticosus_, _T.
+pendens_, _Trichograptus fergusoni_ and _Goniograptus thureaui_. This
+series also contains _Tetragraptus serra_ (ranging into Darriwill
+Series), _T. bryonoides_, _T. quadribrachiatus_, _T. approximatus_ (base
+of the series), _Phyllograptus typus_, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_,
+_Goniograptus macer_ and many _Didymograpti_, including _D. bifidus_ (Fig.
+74).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 73.--LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOLITES.=
+
+ A--Bryograptus clarki, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.
+
+ B--Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.
+
+ C--Phyllograptus typus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.
+
+ D--Goniograptus macer, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.
+
+ E--Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.
+
+ F--Trigonograptus wilkinsoni, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Darriwill, Vict.
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 74.--LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOLITES.=
+
+ A--Loganograptus logani, J. Hall sp. L. Ordov. Newham, Vict.
+
+ B--Tetragraptus approximatus, Nich. L. Ordovician. Canada and Victoria.
+
+ (_After Nicholson_)
+
+ C--Tetragraptus serra, Brongn. sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.
+
+ D--Didymograptus bifidus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Guildford, Vict.
+
+]
+
+(3) Castlemaine Series. Characterised by _Didymograptus bifidus_, _D.
+caduceus_ and _Loganograptus logani_. _Phyllograptus_ persists from the
+Bendigo Series. It also contains _Tetragraptus serra_, _T. bryonoides_,
+_T. quadribrachiatus_, _Goniograptus macer_ and several _Didymograpti_.
+
+(4) Darriwill Series. Characterised by _Trigonograptus wilkinsoni_.
+Also contain _Diplograptus_, _Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_, whilst
+_Didymograptus_ is rare.
+
+
+=Lower Ordovician Graptolites, New Zealand.--=
+
+In New Zealand Lower Ordovician Graptolites are found in the Kakanui
+Series, at Nelson, north-west of South Island. Some of the commoner forms
+are _Didymograptus extensus_, _D. caduceus_, _Loganograptus logani_,
+_Phyllograptus typus_, _Tetragraptus similis_ and _T. quadribrachiatus_.
+
+Graptolites agreeing closely with those of the Lancefield Series of
+Victoria occur near Preservation Inlet in the extreme South-west, and have
+been identified as _Clonograptus rigidus_, _Bryograptus victoriae_ and
+_Tetragraptus decipiens_.
+
+
+=Upper Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria.--=
+
+The Upper Ordovician rocks of Victoria, as at Wombat Creek and Mount
+Wellington in Gippsland, and at Diggers' Rest near Sunbury, contain the
+double branched forms like _Dicranograptus ramosus_, _Dicellograptus
+elegans_ and _D. sextans_; the sigmoidal form _Stephanograptus gracilis_;
+and the diprionidian (biserial) forms as _Diplograptus tardus_,
+_Climacograptus bicornis_, _Cryptograptus tricornis_, _Glossograptus
+hermani_ and _Lasiograptus margaritatus_ (Fig. 75).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 75.--UPPER ORDOVICIAN and SILURIAN GRAPTOLITES.=
+
+ A--Dicranograptus ramosus, J. Hall sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
+
+ B--Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
+
+ C--Diplograptus carnei, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. N. S. Wales.
+
+ D--Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
+
+ E--Glossograptus hermani, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.
+
+ F--Retiolites australis, McCoy. Silurian. Keilor, Victoria.
+
+ G--Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian. Wood's Point, Victoria.
+
+]
+
+
+=Upper Ordovician Graptolites, New South Wales.--=
+
+In New South Wales, at Tallong, the Upper Ordovician Graptolites are well
+represented by such forms as _Dicellograptus elegans_, _Dicranograptus
+nicholsoni_, _Diplograptus carnei_, _D. foliaceus_, _Cryptograptus
+tricornis_ and _Glossograptus quadrimucronatus_, etc. Other localities in
+New South Wales for this Graptolite fauna are Stockyard Creek, Currowang,
+Tingaringi, Lawson, and Mandurama.
+
+
+=Tasmania.--=
+
+From Tasmania a _Diplograptus_ has been recorded, but the particular
+horizon and locality are uncertain.
+
+
+=Silurian Graptolites, Victoria.--=
+
+In the Silurian shales at Keilor, in Victoria, _Monograptus_ is a common
+genus, and _Cyrtograptus_ and _Retiolites australis_ (Fig. 75 F) also
+occur. Several species of _Monograptus_ have also been found at South
+Yarra and Studley Park. At the latter place and Walhalla _Monograptus
+dubius_, which is a Wenlock and Ludlow fossil in Britain, has been found
+in some abundance (Fig. 75 G).
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+SPONGES.
+
+ _Protospongia_ sp. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Hyalostelia_ sp. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Protospongia oblonga_, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Stephanella maccoyi_, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Carpospongia_ sp. Silurian: Yass, New South Wales.
+
+ _Receptaculites fergusoni_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Receptaculites australis_, Salter sp. Devonian: Victoria and New
+ South Wales. Carboniferous: Queensland.
+
+ (?) _Lasiocladia hindei_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Purisiphonia clarkei_, Bowerbank. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Geodia_ sp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Tethya_ sp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Ecionema newberyi_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Plectroninia halli_, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Tretocalia pezica_, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+
+ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.
+
+ _Protopharetra scoulari_, Etheridge, fil. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Coscinocyathus australis_, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Archaeocyathina ajax_, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+
+CORALS.
+
+ _Cyathophyllum approximans_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Tryplasma liliiformis_, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Favosites grandipora_, Etheridge fil. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Pleurodictyum megastomum_, Dun. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Halysites peristephicus_, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Heliolites interstincta_, Linné sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Campophyllum gregorii_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria and
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Cystiphyllum australasicum_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: New South
+ Wales and Queensland.
+
+ _Favosites multitabulata_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria and New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Pachypora meridionalis_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Queensland.
+
+ _Zaphrentis culleni_, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Lophophyllum corniculum_, de Koninck. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Zaphrentis profunda_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Campophyllum columnare_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Trachypora wilkinsoni_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Stenopora tasmaniensis_, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: Tasmania and New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Flabellum gambierense_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia and
+ Tasmania.
+
+ _Placotrochus deltoideus_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia
+ and Tasmania.
+
+ _Sphenotrochus emarciatus_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia,
+ and Tasmania.
+
+ _Ceratotrochus exilis_, Dennant. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Conosmilia elegans_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Balanophyllia armata_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Thamnastraea sera_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria and Tasmania.
+
+ _Graphularia senescens_, Tate sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+
+HYDROZOA.
+
+ _Clathrodictyon_ (?) _regulare_, Rosen sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Actinostroma clathratum_, Nicholson. Devonian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Stromatoporella eifeliensis_, Nich. Devonian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Dictyonema pulchella_, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Ptilograptus_ sp. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Callograptus_ sp. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+
+GRAPTOLITES.
+
+ _Bryograptus victoriae_, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician (Lancefield
+ Series): Victoria.
+
+ _Tetragraptus fruticosus_, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Bendigo Series):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Didymograptus caduceus_, Salter. L. Ordovician (Castlemaine Series):
+ Victoria. Also New Zealand.
+
+ _Didymograptus bifidus_, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Castlemaine Series):
+ Victoria. Also New Zealand.
+
+ _Trigonograptus wilkinsoni_, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician (Darriwill
+ Series): Victoria.
+
+ _Dicranograptus ramosus_, J. Hall sp. Upper Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Monograptus dubius_, Suess. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Retiolites australis_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+SPONGES.
+
+ Cambrian.--Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV. (N.S.), 1892,
+ p. 188.
+
+ Ordovician.--Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. I. pt. I. 1889, pp.
+ 60, 61 (_Protospongia_). Idem, ibid., vol. XI. (N.S.), pt. II.
+ 1899, pp. 152-155 (_Protospongia and Stephanella_).
+
+ Silurian to Carboniferous.--Salter, J. W. Canad. Org. Rem. Dec. I.
+ 1859, p. 47. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv.
+ New South Wales, vol. VI. 1898, pp. 62-75. Chapman, F. Proc. R.
+ Soc. Vict. vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 5-15.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Q., 1892, p. 199.
+
+ Cretaceous.--Bowerbank, J. S. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1869, p. 342.
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 438,
+ 439 (_Purisiphonia_).
+
+ Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877. Chapman, F.
+ Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. 2, 1908, pp. 210-212
+ (_Ecionema_). Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. LVI.,
+ 1900, pp. 50-56 (calcisponges). Idem, Bull. Geol. Surv. W.
+ Austr., No. 36, 1910, pp. 7-21 (sponge-spicules).
+
+
+ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.
+
+ Etheridge, R. jnr., Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIII. 1890, pp.
+ 10-22. Taylor, T. G. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. II., pt. 2,
+ 1910 (a monograph).
+
+
+CORALS.
+
+ Silurian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol.
+ II. pt. 1, 1890, pp. 15-21 (Silurian and Devonian). Idem, ibid.,
+ vol. II. pt. 4, 1892, pp. 165-174 (Silurian and Devonian). Idem,
+ in Pal. and Geol. Queensland, 1892. Idem, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol.
+ I., No. 10, 1891, pp. 201-205 (_Rhizophyllum_). Id., ibid., vol.
+ III. No. 2, 1897, pp. 30-33 (_Columnaria_). Id., Prog. Rep. Geol.
+ Surv. Vict., No. 11, 1899, pp. 30-36. Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New
+ South Wales, No. 13, pt. I., 1904 (_Halysites_). Id., ibid., No.
+ 13, pt. 2, 1907 (_Tryplasma_). De Koninck, L. G. ibid., Pal. No.
+ 6, 1898. Shearsby, A. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. V., vol. III. 1906,
+ pp. 547-552. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. II. pt. 1,
+ 1907, pp. 67-80.
+
+ Devonian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. and Foord, A. H. Ann. Mag. Nat.
+ Hist., ser. V., vol. XIV., 1884, pp. 175-179 (_Alveolites_ and
+ _Amplexopora_ = _Litophyllum_). Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and
+ Pal. Queensland, 1892. Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
+ vol. IX. 1895, pp. 518-539. Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, vol. VI. pt. 3, 1899, pp. 152-182 (Tamworth District).
+ Id., Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. IV. No. 7, 1902, pp. 253-260. De
+ Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6,
+ 1898. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III, pt. 2, 1912,
+ pp. 215-222.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ Pal. No. 5, 1891. Idem, in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892. Id.,
+ Bull. Geol. Surv., W. Austr., No. 10, 1903, pp. 8-10.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Duncan, P. M. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870,
+ pp. 284-318; vol. XXXI. 1875, pp. 673-678; vol. XXXII. 1876, pp.
+ 341-351. Woods, T. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XI.,
+ 1878, pp. 183-195; ibid., vol. XXX. 1879, pp. 57-61. Idem, Trans.
+ Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. I., 1878, pp. 104-119. Dennant, J.
+ Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vols. XXIII. (1899) to XXVIII. (1904).
+
+
+STROMATOPOROIDS.
+
+ Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII, 1890, p. 193.
+
+
+GRAPTOLITES.
+
+ McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Decades I. (1874): II. (1875): V. (1877).
+ Hall, T. S. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. IV. p. I. 1892, pp. 7,
+ 8 (_Dictyonema_). Idem, Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp.
+ 438-451; Id., Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Brisbane, 1909, pp.
+ 318-320. Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 4, 1906, pp.
+ 266-278. Id., ibid., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 188-211. Idem,
+ Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. part 1, 1910, pp. 16,
+ 17. Ibid., pp. 49-59.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FOSSIL SEA-LILIES, STARFISHES, BRITTLE-STARS AND SEA-URCHINS.
+
+
+=Divisions of Echinodermata.--=
+
+The sub-kingdom of ECHINODERMATA includes the above groups comprised in
+the Classes Crinoidea, Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea and Echinoidea. Besides
+these are the less important classes of the Cystidea or sac-shaped
+echinoderms (of which no definite remains are recorded from Australian
+rocks); the Blastoidea or bud-shaped echinoderms (of which four genera are
+known from Australia); the Edrioasteroidea or sessile starfishes (unknown
+in Australia); and the Holothuroidea or sea-cucumbers (represented as
+fossils by the skin spicules and plates, an example of which has been
+recorded from Australia).
+
+
+_CRINOIDEA, or Sea-lilies._
+
+
+=Crinoidea, their General Structure.--=
+
+These often beautiful and graceful animals resemble a starfish mounted
+on a stalk. They are composed of calcareous joints and plates, and are
+therefore important as rock-formers. The stalk or column may be either
+short or long, and is generally rooted, in the adult stage, in the mud of
+the sea-floor. Fossil Crinoids were sometimes furnished with a coiled
+termination, which could be entwined around such objects as the stems of
+sea-weeds. The crinoid column is composed of numerous plates, and is round
+or pentagonal. Upon this is fixed the calyx or cup, with its attached
+arms, which serve to bring food to the mouth, situated on the upper part
+of the cup. The arms are grooved, and the water, being charged with food
+particles (animalcula), pours down these channels into the mouth. The
+stem elevates the animal above the mud or silt of the sea-floor, thus
+making it more easy for it to obtain its food supply. The stalks of
+fossil Crinoids sometimes reached the enormous length of 50 feet. Their
+calcareous skeleton is built upon a plan having five planes of symmetry;
+this pentamerism is found throughout the crinoids, the blastoids and
+the free-moving echinoderma. Crinoids range from moderately shallow-
+to deep-water, and at the present day are almost restricted to abyssal
+conditions. The more ancient types usually found their habitats amongst
+reefs or in comparatively clear water, where there was a marked freedom
+from sediment, although that was not an essential, as seen by their
+numerous remains in the Australian mudstones and sandstones.
+
+
+=Cambrian Crinoids.--=
+
+The group of the Crinoidea first appears in the Upper Cambrian, and
+persists to the present time. In North America the genus _Dendrocrinus_
+occurs in the Cambrian and Ordovician; and some stem-joints from the Upper
+Cambrian limestone of the Mount Wellington district, Victoria, may be
+provisionally referred to this genus.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 76.--FOSSIL CRINOIDS.=
+
+ A--(?) Pisocrinus yassensis, Eth. fil. Side of calyx. Silurian. Yass,
+ New South Wales.
+
+ B--(?) Pisocrinus yassensis, Eth. fil. Dorsal Surface. Silurian. N. S.
+ W.
+
+ C--Botryocrinus longibrachiatus, Chapm. Silurian. Flemington, Vict.
+
+ D--Helicocrinus plumosus, Chapm. Stem, distal end. Brunswick, Victoria.
+
+ E--Phialocrinus konincki, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.)
+ Nowra, New South Wales.
+
+ F--Isocrinus australis, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous. Wollumbilla, Q'ld.
+
+]
+
+
+=Ordovician Crinoids.--=
+
+No undoubted Crinoid remains have been found in the Australian Ordovician;
+although many genera are found elsewhere in that system, chiefly
+in N. America, as _Reteocrinus_, _Hybocrinus_, _Heterocrinus_ and
+_Dendrocrinus_, and in Europe and North America, as _Rhodocrinus_ and
+_Taxocrinus_.
+
+
+=Silurian Crinoids.--=
+
+The Silurian Crinoidea of Australia are largely represented by the
+remains of the columns or stalks, which are often found in such abundance
+as to constitute large masses of sub-crystalline limestone, as that of
+Toongabbie, Victoria. The columns of the Crinoids do not usually possess
+sufficient characters to enable the forms to be identified. There are,
+however, more perfect and identifiable remains of several very interesting
+generic types in the Silurian faunas as follows:--
+
+In New South Wales _Pisocrinus_ is represented with some reservation by
+(?) _P. yassensis_, found at Limestone Creek, near Yass (Fig. 76 A, B).
+
+In Victoria, _Helicocrinus plumosus_ and _Botryocrinus longibrachiatus_
+occur at Brunswick and Flemington, respectively (Fig. 76). The former is
+a delicate and handsome species, having a small cup with finely pinnate
+arms, which are forked once, and with a pentagonal stem coiled at the
+distal end (see Frontispiece). The genus _Botryocrinus_ is found in rocks
+of a similar age in North America and England. _Hapalocrinus victoriae_, a
+member of the Platycrinidae, has been described from the mudstone of South
+Yarra, near Melbourne. The species above mentioned are of Melbournian age,
+belonging to the lower stage of the Silurian system.
+
+
+=Devonian Crinoids.--=
+
+In the Middle Devonian of Queensland, fragmentary crinoid stems are found
+interbedded with the limestone of the Broken River.
+
+Thin slices of the limestone of the same age from Buchan, Victoria, show
+numerous ossicles and stem-joints of Crinoids.
+
+Similar remains have also been recorded from the Devonian of the Kimberley
+district and the Gascoyne River in Western Australia.
+
+
+=Carboniferous Crinoids.--=
+
+The Carboniferous (Star Beds) of Queensland has yielded remains of
+_Actinocrinus_.
+
+The Matai Series of New Zealand, which may be regarded as almost certainly
+of Carboniferous age, contains remains of a _Cyathocrinus_, found in the
+limestone of the Wairoa Gorge.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Crinoids.--=
+
+The Carbopermian (Upper Marine Series) of New South Wales yields the
+interesting Crinoid having a large, globular cup, known as _Phialocrinus_;
+the best known species of this genus are _P. konincki_ (Fig. 76 E) and
+_P. princeps_. Beds of the same age in New South Wales, also in the Upper
+Marine Series, contain the aberrant Crinoid with strongly sculptured
+plates of the calyx in the decorticated condition, _Tribrachiocrinus
+clarkei_.
+
+_Poteriocrinus_ and _Platycrinus_ are, with some reservation, recorded
+from the Gympie Series at Stanwell and the marine beds of the Bowen River
+Coal-field respectively, both in Queensland.
+
+In Western Australia the Carbopermian rocks of the Gascoyne River
+are known to contain crinoid stems, tentatively referred to either
+the Rhodocrinidae or the Actinocrinidae. There is also a species of
+_Platycrinus_ known from the Gascoyne and Irwin Rivers, and from the
+Kimberley District.
+
+
+=Triassic Crinoids.--=
+
+The Kaihiku Series of Nelson, New Zealand, has yielded some crinoid stems,
+but the genus has not yet been determined.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Crinoids.--=
+
+In the Lower Cretaceous Limestone of Queensland, at Mitchell Downs and
+Wollumbilla, a typical Crinoid, closely allied to the living _Pentacrinus_
+is found, namely, _Isocrinus australis_ (Fig. 76 F).
+
+The Upper Cretaceous opal deposits of White Cliffs in Wilcannia, New South
+Wales, contain many opalised fossil remains, amongst them being _Isocrinus
+australis_, already noticed as occurring in the Lower Cretaceous of
+Queensland.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Crinoids.--=
+
+_Pentacrinus stellatus_ is a species founded on some deeply indented
+pentagonal stem-joints found in the Oamaru Series (Miocene) at Curiosity
+Shop, South Canterbury, New Zealand, and also occurring in the Chatham
+Islands. This species has been identified in the Aire Coastal beds in
+Victoria, of the same age. Another generic type, _Antedon_, the beautiful
+"Feather Star," is frequently met with in Janjukian strata in Victoria
+and South Australia, as at Batesford and Mount Gambier, represented by
+the denuded crown and the ossicles of the arms of a comparatively large
+species; whilst another and smaller form has been described from beds of
+the same age from borings in the Victorian Mallee, under the name of _A.
+protomacronema_.
+
+
+_BLASTOIDEA--Bud-shaped Echinoderms._
+
+
+=Distribution and Characters of Blastoidea.--=
+
+This forms a small class which has a few representatives in the rocks
+of Australia. Elsewhere they are chiefly of Devonian and Carboniferous
+ages. In Australia they are confined, so far as known, to sediments of
+the Carboniferous System. The animal was rooted to the sea-floor and a
+jointed stem was usually present. The cup or theca, as before noted, is
+bud-shaped, and consists of basal, radial and deltoid plates, the edges of
+which are folded inwards into the thecal cavity, and thus the internal
+organs came into contact with the incurrent water. The cup bears five
+food grooves, bordered by numerous arms or brachioles, which directed the
+incurrent particles into the thecal cavity.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Blastoids.--=
+
+Three genera of blastoids have been recorded from the Gympie Beds, or
+Carbopermian, of the Rockhampton District of Queensland. They are,
+_Mesoblastus_, _Granatocrinus_ and _Tricoelocrinus_. A similar fossil in
+beds of like age, and provisionally referred to the genus _Metablastus_,
+has been lately recorded from Glenwilliam, Clarence Town, New South Wales.
+
+
+_ASTEROIDEA, or Starfishes._
+
+
+=Characters of True Starfishes.--=
+
+These free-moving echinoderms are usually five-sided, though sometimes
+star-shaped, with numerous arms surrounding a central disc. The mouth is
+central on the under side of the disc, and the anus above and near the
+centre (excentric), the latter being covered by a porous plate called
+the madreporite. The hydraulic system of starfishes consists of tubes
+extending along the grooved arms and giving off side branches which end
+in processes called podia and terminating in suckers. The podia pass
+through pores in the floor plates of the grooves, and communicate within
+the body with distensions called ampulla. By this means the podia serve as
+feet, and can be withdrawn by the expulsion of the water in them into the
+ampulla. The stout flexible covering of the starfish is strengthened by
+calcareous plates and bars, owing to the presence of which they are often
+preserved as fossils.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 77.--FOSSIL STARFISH.=
+
+ A--Palaeaster smythi. McCoy sp. Silurian. Flemington, Victoria.
+
+ B--Urasterella selwyni, McCoy. Silurian. Kilmore, Victoria.
+
+ C--Palaeaster giganteus, Eth. fil. Carbopermian. Near Farley, New
+ South Wales.
+
+ D--Pentagonaster sp. Tertiary (Janjukian). Bore in Mallee, Victoria.
+
+]
+
+
+=Silurian Starfishes.--=
+
+The oldest Australian fossil Starfishes are found in the Silurian. In
+Victoria they occur in some abundance in the lower, Melbournian, series,
+but appear to be absent or at all events very scarce in the upper, or
+Yeringian series. The commonest genus is _Palaeaster_, of which there are
+two species, _P. smythi_ (Fig. 77 A) and _P. meridionalis_, found alike in
+the sandy and argillaceous strata near Melbourne. _Urasterella_ is another
+genus found in the Silurian rocks near Melbourne, in which the marginal
+series of plates seen in _Palaeaster_ are wanting, giving to the starfish
+a slender, long-armed aspect (Fig. 77 B).
+
+
+=Carbopermian Starfishes.--=
+
+In the Lower Marine Series of the Carbopermian of New South Wales a very
+large species of _Palaeaster_ occurs (_P. giganteus_), measuring 7 inches
+from point to point across the disc (Fig. 77 C). Two other species of the
+same genus occur in this series (_P. stutchburii_ and _P. clarkei_) the
+latter also ranging into the Upper Marine Series.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Starfishes.--=
+
+No remains of true Starfishes have been recorded from Australia between
+the Carbopermian and the Tertiary systems. In the Janjukian Series of
+Victoria the marginal plates of a species of _Pentagonaster_ are typical
+fossils. They have been recorded from Waurn Ponds, Spring Creek near
+Torquay, and Batesford (Fig. 77 D). In the Mallee Bores, both marginal and
+abactinal plates of this genus are found in polyzoal limestone (Miocene).
+_Pentagonaster_ also occurs in the Lower Muddy Creek beds (Oligocene),
+and the Upper beds of the same locality (Lower Pliocene). A species of
+_Astropecten_ has been described from the Waikari River, New Zealand
+(Oamaru Series).
+
+
+_OPHIUROIDEA, or Brittle-stars._
+
+
+=Characters of Brittle-Stars.--=
+
+The Brittle-stars are frequently found at the present day cast up on
+the fine sandy beaches of the coast. They are easily distinguished from
+true starfishes by having a definite central disc, to which the arms are
+attached. The arms are used for locomotion and prehension, and have their
+grooves covered over with plates. The ossicles of the arms are moveable
+and controlled by muscles which enable them to be used as feet. The lower
+surface of the disc has a central arrangement of five rhomboidal sets of
+jaws, formed of modified ossicles, called the mouth frame, whilst the
+upper surface bears, between one set of arms, the madreporite or covering
+plate to the water vascular system, as in starfishes.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 78.--Protaster brisingoides=, Gregory.
+
+Negative cast of the calcareous skeleton. Nat. size. Silurian Sandstone,
+Flemington, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Silurian Brittle-Stars.--=
+
+The Brittle-stars in Australia first appear in the Silurian, but
+in England and Bohemia date back to the Ordovician. _Protaster_ is
+the commonest genus, and is represented by _P. brisingoides_ of the
+Melbournian stage of Silurian strata at Flemington (Fig. 78). It also
+occurs rarely in the Yeringian beds at Yering, both Victorian localities.
+A very ornamental form, _Gregoriura spryi_, occurs in the same division
+of the Silurian at South Yarra. In this fossil the delicate spines
+attached to the adambulacral ossicles are well preserved and form a
+marginal fringe to the arm (Fig. 79). _Sturtzura_ is another Silurian
+genus, found in the Wenlock of England and in the Melbournian of
+Flemington, Victoria.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 79.--A Brittle-Star.= (Gregoriura spryi, Chapm.)
+
+Nat. size. From the Silurian Mudstone of South Yarra, Victoria.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Cainozoic Brittle-Stars.--=
+
+From the Victorian Cainozoic beds, in the Lower Pliocene of Grange Burn,
+Hamilton, a vertebral ossicle of an ophiurian has been obtained, which has
+been provisionally referred to the genus _Sigsbeia_.
+
+
+_ECHINOIDEA, or Sea-urchins._
+
+This group is an important one amongst Australian fossils, especially
+those of Cainozoic age.
+
+
+=Characters of Sea-urchins.--=
+
+Echinoids are animals enclosed in a spheroidal box or test composed of
+numerous calcareous plates, disposed geometrically as in the Starfishes,
+along five principal lines. The test in the living condition is more or
+less densely covered with spines. The mouth is on the under surface. The
+anus is either on the top of the test (dorso-central), or somewhere in
+the median line between the two lower ambulacra. The ambulacra ("a garden
+path") are the rows of perforated plates on the upper (abactinal) surface
+sometimes extending to the lower surface, through which protrude the
+podia, which in Starfishes are situated in grooves on the lower surface.
+
+
+=Silurian Palaeechinoids.--=
+
+The Palaeechinoids are represented in the Silurian of Australia by
+occasional plates, as at Bowning, New South Wales, and near Kilmore,
+Victoria, whilst spines are not uncommon in certain Silurian limestones at
+Tyer's River, Gippsland.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Palaeechinoids.--=
+
+In the Carbopermian of New South Wales, tests of _Archaeocidaris_ have
+been recorded, and also a plate of the same genus in the Gympie Beds of
+Rockhampton, Queensland.
+
+
+=Regular Echinoids.--=
+
+The regular Echinoids date from Permian times. They have two vertical rows
+of plates for each ambulacrum and inter-ambulacrum. The mouth is on the
+underside, and the anus abactinal (on the upper side) and near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 80.--CAINOZOIC SEA-URCHINS.=
+
+ A--Cidaris (Leiocidaris) australiae, Duncan sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
+ Cape Otway, Victoria
+
+ B--Psammechinus woodsi, Laube. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murray River
+ Cliffs, S. Australia
+
+ C--Fibularia gregata, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Aldinga, S.A.
+
+ D--Echinocyamus (Scutellina) patella, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
+ Torquay, Victoria
+
+ E--Clypeaster gippslandicus, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Bairnsdale,
+ Victoria
+
+ F--Studeria elegans, Laube. sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murray River
+ Cliffs, S. Australia.
+
+]
+
+
+=Cainozoic Regular Echinoids.--=
+
+In Australasia they make their first appearance in strata of Tertiary age,
+and some species, as _Paradoxechinus novus_, range through Balcombian
+strata to Kalimnan in Victoria, or Oligocene to Lower Pliocene, but are
+more typically Janjukian. _Echinus_ (_Psammechinus_) _woodsi_ (Fig. 80 B)
+is common in Janjukian strata in Victoria and South Australia and occurs
+sparingly in the Kalimnan. Another common form of the regular Echinoids
+in Southern Australia is _Cidaris australiae_ (Fig. 80 A), ranging from
+Janjukian to Kalimnan, occurring more frequently in the older series. In
+New Zealand a species of _Cidaris_ (_C. striata_), is known from the
+Oamaru Series at Brighton. An _Echinus_ occurs in the Oamaru Series of
+Broken River, and two species of that genus in the Wanganui formation of
+Shakespeare Cliff. _Temnechinus macleayana_ has been recorded from the
+Cainozoic (Miocene or Pliocene) of Yule Island, Papua.
+
+
+=Irregular Echinoids.--=
+
+The irregular Echinoids are not known before the Upper Cretaceous in
+Australia, and are very common in the Tertiaries. They are distinguished
+by the anus (periproct) passing backward from the apex, as compared with
+the regular forms, and by the elongation of the test and the loss of the
+strong solid spines, which are replaced by thin, slender hair-like spines.
+The animal is thus better fitted to burrow through the ooze on which it
+feeds.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Irregular Echinoids.--=
+
+An interesting form, _Micraster sweeti_, is found in the Upper Cretaceous
+or Desert Sandstone of Maryborough in Queensland, which reminds one of
+typical European species of this genus.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Irregular Echinoids.--=
+
+Amongst the Australian Cainozoic Echinoids of the irregular type the
+following may be mentioned. The little subglobular test of _Fibularia
+gregata_, and _Echinocyamus_ (_Scutellina_) _patella_ (Fig. 80 C, D) are
+Janjukian in age. The large _Clypeaster, C. gippslandicus_ (Fig. 80 E),
+ranges from the Oligocene to Lower Pliocene in Victoria (Balcombian to
+Kalimnan), and vies in size, especially in the Janjukian, with some large
+species like those from Malta and Egypt. This genus includes some of the
+largest known sea-urchins. The biscuit urchin, _Arachnoides (Monostychia)
+australis_, is commonest in the Janjukian, but ranges from Balcombian
+to Kalimnan. A common urchin from the polyzoal rock of Mt. Gambier is
+_Echinolampas gambierensis_, which is also found in the Lower beds of
+Muddy Creek. A typical Janjukian fossil is _Duncaniaster australiae_,
+formerly thought to belong to the Cretaceous genus _Holaster_. Although
+found living, the genus _Linthia_ attained its maximum development both in
+size and abundance, in Janjukian or Miocene times, as seen in _L. gigas_
+(having a length of 7-1/2 inches) and _L. mooraboolensis_. _Echinoneus
+dennanti_ is restricted to the Janjukian. Several species of _Eupatagus_
+occur in the Cainozoic or Tertiary beds of South Australia, Victoria and
+New Zealand; _Lovenia forbesi_ (Fig. 81 C) is common in the Janjukian to
+Kalimnan, both in Victoria and South Australia. In the latter State also
+occur the following genera:--_Studeria_, _Cassidulus_, _Echinolampas_,
+_Plesiolampas_, _Linthia_, _Schizaster_ and _Brissopsis_. In New
+Zealand the following Cainozoic genera, amongst others of the irregular
+sea-urchins, may be cited:--_Hemipatagus_, _Brissopsis_, _Hemiaster_, and
+_Schizaster_ (Fig. 81).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 81--CAINOZOIC SEA-URCHINS.=
+
+ A--Hemiaster planedeclivis, Gregory. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Morgan, S.
+ Australia
+
+ B--Schizaster sphenoides, T. S. Hall. Cainozoic (Barwonian).
+ Sherbrooke River, Victoria
+
+ C--Lovenia forbesi, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murray River
+ Cliffs, S. Australia
+
+]
+
+A clypeastroid, _Peronella decagonalis_ has been described from the (?)
+Lower Pliocene of Papua.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Holothuroidea.--=
+
+The _HOLOTHUROIDEA_ (Sea-Cucumbers) are represented in Australian deposits
+by a unique example of a dermal spicule of wheel-like form, referred to
+_Chiridota_, obtained from the Cainozoic (Janjukian) beds of Torquay. This
+genus is also known from the "calcaire grossier" or Middle Eocene of the
+Paris Basin, and is found living in all parts of the world.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+CRINOIDS.
+
+ (?) _Pisocrinus yassensis_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Helicocrinus plumosus_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Botryocrinus longibrachiatus_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Hapalocrinus victoriae_, Bather. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Actinocrinus_ sp. Carboniferous: Queensland.
+
+ _Cyathocrinus_ sp. Carboniferous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Phialocrinus konincki_, Clarke sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Phialocrinus princeps_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Tribrachiocrinus clarkei_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ (?) _Platycrinus_ sp. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Platycrinus_ sp. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Isocrinus australis_, Moore sp. Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Pentacrinus stellatus_, Hutton. Miocene: New Zealand, Chatham Ids.
+ and Victoria.
+
+ _Antedon protomacronema_, Chapman. Miocene: Victoria (deep borings).
+
+
+BLASTOIDS.
+
+ (?) _Mesoblastus australis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+
+STARFISHES.
+
+ _Palaeaster smythi_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Palaeaster meridionalis_, Eth. fil. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Urasterella selwyni_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Palaeaster giganteus_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (L. Mar. Ser.): New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Palaeaster clarkei_, de Koninck. Carbopermian (L. and Up. Mar. Ser.):
+ New South Wales.
+
+ _Pentagonaster_ sp. Miocene: Victoria.
+
+ _Astropecten_ sp. Miocene: New Zealand.
+
+
+BRITTLE-STARS.
+
+ _Protaster brisingoides_, Gregory. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Gregoriura spryi_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Sturtzura leptosomoides_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ (?) _Sigsbeia_ sp. Lower Pliocene: Victoria.
+
+
+ECHINOIDS.
+
+ _Palaeechinus_ sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ (?) _Archaeocidaris selwyni_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Micraster sweeti_, Eth. fil. Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Cidaris (Leiocidaris) australiae_, Duncan. Miocene and Lower
+ Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Cidaris striata_, Hutton. Miocene: New Zealand.
+
+ _Echinus (Psammechinus) woodsi_, Laube sp. Miocene and L. Pliocene:
+ Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Temnechinus macleayana_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (? Lower Pliocene):
+ Papua.
+
+ _Fibularia gregata_, Tate. Miocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Echinocyamus (Scutellina) patella_, Tate sp. Oligocene to Miocene:
+ Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Clypeaster gippslandicus_, McCoy. Oligocene to L. Pliocene: Victoria.
+
+
+ _Arachnoides (Monostychia) australis_, Laube sp. Oligocene to L.
+ Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Echinoneus dennanti_, Hall. Miocene: Victoria.
+
+ _Duncaniaster australiae_, Duncan sp. Miocene: Victoria.
+
+ _Lovenia forbesi_, T. Woods sp. Miocene and L. Pliocene: Victoria and
+ S. Australia.
+
+ _Hemiaster planedeclivis_, Gregory. Miocene: Victoria.
+
+
+HOLOTHURIAN.
+
+ _Chiridota_ sp. Miocene: Victoria.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+CRINOIDS.
+
+ Silurian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. No. 5, 1904,
+ pp. 287-292 (_Pisocrinus_). Bather, F. A. Geol. Mag., Dec.
+ XV. vol. IV. 1897, pp. 337-345 (_Hapalocrinus_). Chapman, F.
+ Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II. 1903, pp. 107-109
+ (_Helicocrinus_ and _Botryocrinus_). Bather, F. A. Ottawa Nat.,
+ vol. XX. No. 5, 1906, pp. 97, 98.
+
+ Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv.
+ New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 121-126. Etheridge, R.
+ jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 207-219. Idem, Mem.
+ Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, 1892, pp. 75-119.
+
+ Cretaceous.--Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870, p.
+ 243. Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
+ 439 (_Isocrinus_).
+
+ Cainozoic.--Hutton, F. W. Cat. Tert. Moll. and Ech. of New Zealand,
+ 1873, p. 38.
+
+
+BLASTOIDS.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
+ pp. 210-213. Taylor, T. G. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
+ 1908, pp. 54-59 (_? Metablastus_).
+
+
+STARFISHES.
+
+ Silurian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I., 1874, pp. 41-43.
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I., No. 10, 1891, pp.
+ 199, 200.
+
+ Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv.
+ New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, pt. 2, 1892, pp. 70-75. De Koninck,
+ L. G. Ibid., Pal. No. 6, 1898, p. 127.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc., Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt.
+ I. 1902, pp. 81, 82 (_Pentagonaster_). Hutton, F. W. Cat. Tert.
+ Moll, and Ech. New Zealand, 1873, p. 38.
+
+
+BRITTLE-STARS.
+
+ Silurian.--Gregory, J. W. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VI. 1889, pp.
+ 24-27. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIX. (N.S.), pt. II.
+ 1907, pp. 21-27.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. I.
+ 1902, p. 82 (cf. _Sigsbeia_).
+
+
+ECHINOIDS.
+
+ Silurian.--Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. II. pt. 1, 1907,
+ pp. 77, 78.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ Pal. No. 5, pt. 2, 1892, pp. 67-69.
+
+ Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
+ pp. 559, 560.
+
+ Cainozoic.--T. Woods. Trans. Adelaide Phil. Soc., 1867. Laube, G. C.
+ Sitz, k. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. LIX. 1869, pp. 183-198. Hutton,
+ F. W. Cat. Tert. Moll, and Ech. New Zealand, 1873, pp. 38-43.
+ Duncan, P. M. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXIII. 1877, pp.
+ 42-73. Tate, R. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXIII. 1877, pp.
+ 256-258. Idem, Southern Science Record, 1885, p. 4. Idem, Trans.
+ R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIV. pt. 2, 1891, pp. 270-282. McCoy, F.
+ Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. VI. VII. 1879, 1883. Gregory, J. W. Geol.
+ Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 481-492. Ibid., Dec. III.
+ vol. IX. 1892, pp. 433-437. Cotteau, G. H. Mem. Zool. France,
+ vol. II. No. 4, 1889, p. 228; vol. III. No. 5, 1890, pp. 537-550;
+ vol. IV. No. 5, 1891, pp. 620-633. Bittner, A. Sitz. k.k. Ak.
+ Wiss. Wien, 1892, vol. 101, pp. 331-371. Hall, T. S. Proc. Roy.
+ Soc. Vic., vol. XIX. (N.S.), pt. II. 1906, pp. 48, 53. Chapman,
+ F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. II. 1908, pp.
+ 214-218. Pritchard, G. B. ibid., vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. I. 1908,
+ pp. 392-400.
+
+
+HOLOTHURIAN.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Hall, T. S. Proc, R. Soc. Vict., vol. X. (N.S.), pt. I.
+ 1902, pp. 82, 83.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+FOSSIL WORMS, SEA-MATS and LAMP-SHELLS.
+
+
+The first-named group, the ringed worms, belong to the phylum Annelida,
+so-called because of the ring-like structure of their bodies. The
+two remaining groups, the Polyzoa or Sea-mats and the Brachiopods or
+Lamp-shells, are comprised in the phylum Molluscoidea, or mollusc-like
+animals.
+
+
+_WORMS (Annelida)._
+
+
+=Annelida and their Fossil Representatives.--=
+
+These animals, owing to the scarcity of hard parts within their bodies,
+play a rather insignificant role as a fossil group. Worms are laterally
+symmetrical animals, with a dorsal and a ventral surface. They are
+segmented, the body being formed of numerous rings. Only those of the
+Class Chaetopoda ("bristle-feet") are represented by identifiable fossil
+remains. Fossil worms, moreover, chiefly belong to the Order Polychaeta
+("many bristles"). The horny jaws of these worms are sometimes found in
+the older rocks and are known as conodonts.
+
+
+=Silurian Conodonts.--=
+
+Conodonts belonging to three genera are known from Australia. They are all
+from the Silurian of the Bowning District, near Yass, New South Wales, and
+are referred to the genera _Eunicites_, _Oenonites_ and _Arabellites_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 82--FOSSIL WORMS.=
+
+ A--Trachyderma crassituba, Chapm, Silurian. South Yarra, Vict.
+
+ B--Cornulites tasmanicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. Heazlewood, Tas.
+
+ C--Spirorbis ammonius, M. Edwards, var. truncata, Mid. Devonian.
+ Buchan, Victoria
+
+ D--Torlessia mackayi, Bather. ? Trias. Mt. Torlesse, N. Zealand.
+
+]
+
+
+=Palaeozoic Errant Worms.--=
+
+The wandering Worms (Polychaeta errantia) are also recognised by their
+impressions, trails, borings and castings. Burrows formed by these worms
+are seen in _Arenicolites_, found in the Silurian sandstone of New
+South Wales, near Yass, and in the Carbopermian (Gympie Series) near
+Rockhampton, Queensland. The membranous-lined burrows of _Trachyderma_
+(_T. crassituba_), occur in some abundance in the Silurian mudstones
+in the neighbourhood of Melbourne, Victoria (Fig. 82 A). The genus
+_Trachyderma_ is common also to Great Britain and Burmah, in beds of the
+same age.
+
+
+=Worm Tracks.--=
+
+Some of the curious markings on the Carboniferous sandstone of Mansfield,
+Victoria, may be due to worm trails and castings, especially since they
+are associated with sun-cracks and ripple-marks.
+
+
+=Sedentary Worms.--=
+
+The sedentary or tube-making Worms (Polychaeta tubicola) are represented
+by numerous forms. The long conical tube of _Cornulites tasmanicus_ is
+recorded from the Silurian of Zeehan, Tasmania (Fig. 82 B). _Spirorbis_
+occurs in the Middle Devonian of Victoria (Fig. 82 C), and W. Australia,
+and also in the Carbopermian of W. Australia. _Torlessia_ is found in
+the Trias or Lower Jurassic of the province of Canterbury, New Zealand
+(Fig. 82 D). The genus _Serpula_ is widely distributed, occurring in the
+Carbopermian (Upper Jurassic Series), near East Maitland, New South Wales
+(_S. testatrix_), in the Jurassic of W. Australia (_S. conformis_), in the
+Lower Cretaceous of Wollumbilla, Queensland (_S. intestinalis_), and the
+Darling River, north west of New South Wales, (_S. subtrachinus_), as well
+as in Cainozoic deposits in Victoria (_S. ouyenensis_). _Ditrupa_ is very
+abundant in some shelly deposits of Janjukian age in Victoria.
+
+
+MOLLUSCOIDEA.
+
+The Sea-mats (Polyzoa) and the Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) constitute a
+natural group, the MOLLUSCOIDEA, which, although unlike in outward form,
+have several physiological structures in common. The respiratory organs
+lie in front of the mouth, and are in the form of fleshy tentacles or
+spiral appendages. These animals are more nearly allied to the worms than
+to the molluscs.
+
+
+_POLYZOA._
+
+
+=Characters of Polyzoa.--=
+
+These are almost exclusively marine forms, and are important as fossils.
+They form colonies (polypary or zoarium), and by their branching,
+foliaceous or tufty growth resemble sea-weeds. The cells in which the
+separate zoöids lived have peculiar characters of their own, which serve
+to distinguish the different genera.
+
+
+=Subdivisions of Polyzoa.--=
+
+Polyzoa are divided into the Sub-classes Phylactolaemata, in which the
+mouth of the zoöid has a lip, and the series of tentacles is horse-shoe
+shaped; and the Gymnolaemata, in which there is no lip to the mouth, and
+the tentacles form a complete circle. The first group forms its polypary
+of soft or horny material, which is not preserved fossil. The latter
+has a calcareous polypary, and is of much importance as a fossil group.
+This latter sub-class is further subdivided into the following Orders,
+viz.:--Trepostomata ("turned mouths"), Cryptostomata ("hidden mouths"),
+Cyclostomata ("round mouths"), and Cheilostomata ("lip mouths" furnished
+with a moveable operculum).
+
+
+=Trepostomata (Palaeozoic).--=
+
+The Order Trepostomata may include some genera as _Monticulipora_ and
+_Fistulipora_, previously referred to under the corals. They become
+extinct after Permian times. _Fistulipora_ occurs in certain Gippsland
+limestones.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 83--PALAEOZOIC POLYZOA.=
+
+ A--Fenestella margaritifera, Chapm. Silurian. Near Yering, Vict.
+
+ B--Polypora australis, Hinde. Carbopermian. Gascoyne River, Western
+ Australia
+
+ C--Rhombopora tenuis, Hinde. Carbopermian. Gascoyne River, Western
+ Australia
+
+ D--Protoretepora ampla, Lonsdale sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
+
+]
+
+
+=Cryptostomata (Palaeozoic).--=
+
+In the order Cryptostomata we have the genus _Rhombopora_ with its long,
+slender branches, which occurs in the Silurian of Victoria and the
+Carbopermian of Queensland and W. Australia (Fig. 83 C). Of this order a
+very important Australian genus is _Fenestella_, the funnel-shaped zoaria
+of which are found in the Silurian of Victoria and New South Wales, and
+also in the Carboniferous of the latter State. _Fenestella_ also occurs in
+the Carbopermian of W. Australia and Tasmania (Fig. 83 A). Accompanying
+the remains of _Fenestella_ in the Carbopermian rocks, and closely related
+to it, are found the genera _Protoretepora_ and _Polypora_ (Fig. 83 B, D).
+
+Polyzoa have been noticed in Jurassic rocks in W. Australia, but no
+species have been described.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 84--CAINOZOIC POLYZOA.=
+
+ A--Lichenopora australis, MacGillivray. Balcombian. Hamilton, Victoria
+
+ B--Heteropora pisiformis, MacGillivray. Janjukian. Moorabool, Victoria
+
+ C--Cellaria australis, MacGillivray. Balcombian. Hamilton, Vict.
+
+ D--Selenaria cupola, T. Woods sp. Balcombian. Hamilton, Vict.
+
+ E--Lepralia elongata, MacGill. Balcombian. Hamilton, Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Cheilostomata (Cretaceous).--=
+
+Species of the genera (?) _Membranipora_ and (?) _Lepralia_, belonging to
+the Cheilostomata, have been described from the Lower Cretaceous of the
+Darling River, New South Wales, and Wollumbilla, Queensland, respectively.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Polyzoa.--=
+
+A very large number of genera of the Polyzoa have been described from
+the Tertiary strata of South Australia and Victoria. Some of the
+principal of these are _Crisia_, _Idmonea_, _Stomatopora_, _Lichenopora_,
+_Hornera_, _Entalophora_ and _Heteropora_ of the order Cyclostomata; and
+_Catenicella_, _Cellaria_, _Membranipora_, _Lunulites_, _Selenaria_,
+_Macropora_, _Tessarodoma_, _Adeona_, _Lepralia_, _Bipora_, _Smittia_,
+_Porina_, _Cellepora_ and _Retepora_ of the order Cheilostomata. Many of
+these genera, and not a few Australian species, are found also in the
+Cainozoic or Tertiary beds of Orakei Bay, New Zealand (Fig. 84).
+
+
+_BRACHIOPODA (Lamp-shells)._
+
+
+=Brachiopods: Their Structure.--=
+
+These are marine animals, and are enclosed in a bivalved shell. They
+differ, however, from true bivalves (Pelecypoda) in having the shell
+on the back and front of the body, instead of on each side as in the
+bivalved mollusca. Each valve is equilateral, but the valves differ from
+one another in that one is larger and generally serves to attach the
+animal to rocks and other objects of support by a stalk or pedicle. Thus
+the larger valve is called the pedicle valve and the smaller, on account
+of its bearing the calcareous supports for the brachia or arms, the
+brachial valve. Generally speaking, the shell of the valve is penetrated
+by numerous canals, which give the shell a punctate appearance. Some
+brachiopod shells, as _Atrypa_ and _Rhynchonella_, are, however, devoid of
+these.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 85--LOWER PALAEOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.=
+
+ A--Orthis (?) lenticularis, Wahlenberg. Up. Cambrian. Florentine
+ Valley, Tasmania
+
+ B--Siphonotreta maccoyi, Chapm. Up. Ordovician. Bulla, Vict.
+
+ C--Lingula yarraensis, Chapm. Silurian. South Yarra, Victoria
+
+ D--Orbiculoidea selwyni, Chapm. Silurian. Merri Creek, Victoria
+
+ E--Chonetes melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. South Yarra, Vict.
+
+ F--Stropheodonta alata, Chapm. Silurian. Near Lilydale, Vict.
+
+]
+
+
+=Cambrian Brachiopods.--=
+
+Brachiopods are very important fossils in Australasian rocks. They first
+appear in Cambrian strata, as for example, in the Florentine Valley, in
+Tasmania, where we find _Orthis lenticularis_ (Fig. 85 A). In Victoria,
+near Mount Wellington, in the mountainous region of N.E. Gippsland,
+_Orthis platystrophioides_ is found in a grey limestone. In South
+Australia the grey Cambrian limestone of Wirrialpa contains the genus
+_Huenella_ (_H. etheridgei_). This genus is also found in the Middle and
+Upper Cambrian of N. America.
+
+
+=Ordovician Brachiopods.--=
+
+Coming to Ordovician rocks, the limestones of the Upper Finke Basin in
+South Australia contain _Orthis leviensis_ and _O. dichotomalis_. The
+Victorian mudstone at Heathcote may be of Ordovician age or even older; it
+has afforded a limited fauna of brachiopods and trilobites, amongst the
+former being various species of _Orthis_, _Chonetes_, and _Siphonotreta_.
+The latter genus is represented in both the Lower and Upper Ordovician
+rocks of slaty character in Victoria (Fig. 85 B).
+
+
+=Silurian Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Silurian system in Australasia as in Europe, N. America and elsewhere,
+is very rich in brachiopod life. It is impossible to enumerate even all
+the genera in a limited work like the present, the most typical only being
+mentioned.
+
+In New Zealand the palaeozoic fauna is at present imperfectly worked
+out, but the following genera from the Wangapekian (Silurian) have been
+identified, viz., _Chonetes_, _Stricklandinia_, _Orthis_, _Wilsonia_,
+_Atrypa_, and _Spirifer_. The specific identification of these forms with
+European types is still open to question, but the species are undoubtedly
+closely allied to some of those from Great Britain and Scandinavia.
+
+The Victorian Silurian Brachiopods are represented by the horny-shelled
+_Lingula_, the conical _Orbiculoidea_, a large species of _Siphonotreta_,
+_Stropheodonta_ (with toothed hinge-line), _Strophonella_, _Chonetes_
+(with hollow spines projecting from the ventral valve, one of the species
+_C. melbournensis_ being characteristic of the Melbournian division of
+Silurian rocks), _Orthis_, _Pentamerus_, _Camarotoechia_, _Rhynchotrema_,
+_Wilsonia_, _Atrypa_ (represented by the world-wide _A. reticularis_),
+_Spirifer_ and _Nucleospira_ (Figs. 85, 86).
+
+New South Wales has a very similar assemblage of genera; whilst Tasmania
+possesses _Camarotoechia_, _Stropheodonta_ and _Orthis_.
+
+
+=Devonian Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Devonian limestones and associated strata are fairly rich in
+Brachiopods. The Victorian rocks of this age at Bindi and Buchan contain
+genera such as _Chonetes_ (_C. australis_), _Spirifer_ (_S. yassensis_ and
+_S. howitti_) and _Athyris_.
+
+In New South Wales we again meet with _Spirifer yassensis_, veritable
+shell-banks of this species occurring in the neighbourhood of Yass,
+associated with a species of _Chonetes_ (_C. culleni_) (Fig. 86 D, E).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 86--SILURIAN and DEVONIAN BRACHIOPODS.=
+
+ A--Camarotoechia decemplicata, Sow. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ B--Nucleospira australis, McCoy. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ C--Atrypa reticularis, L. sp. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ D--Chonetes culleni, Dun. Mid. Devonian. New South Wales
+
+ E--Spirifer yassensis, de Koninck. Devonian. New South Wales and
+ Victoria
+
+]
+
+In the Upper Devonian of New South Wales abundant remains occur of both
+_Spirifer disjunctus_ and _Camarotoechia pleurodon_ (var.).
+
+The Upper Devonian Series at Nyrang Creek near Canowindra, New South
+Wales, contains a _Lingula_ (_L. gregaria_) associated with the
+_Lepidodendron_ plant beds of that locality.
+
+Queensland Devonian rocks contain _Pentamerus_, _Atrypa_ and _Spirifer_.
+In Western Australia the Devonian species are _Atrypa reticularis_,
+_Spirifer_ cf _verneuili_, _S. musakheylensis_ and _Uncinulus_ cf.
+_timorensis_.
+
+
+=Carboniferous Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Carboniferous Brachiopod fauna is represented in New South Wales at
+Clarence Town and other localities by a species which has an extensive
+time-range, _Leptaena rhomboidalis_ var. _analoga_, and the following,
+a few of which extend upwards into the Carbopermian:--_Chonetes
+papilionacea_, _Productus semireticulatus_, _P. punctatus_, _P. cora_,
+_Orthothetes crenistria_, _Orthis (Rhipidomella) australis_, _O.
+(Schizophoria) resupinata_, _Spirifer striatus_, _S. bisulcatus_, _Cyrtina
+carbonaria_ and _Athyris planosulcatus_.
+
+In New Zealand the Matai series, referred to the Jurassic by Hutton, as
+formerly regarded by Hector, and latterly by Park, as of Carboniferous
+age, on the ground of a supposed discovery of _Spirifer subradiatus_ (_S.
+glaber_) and _Productus brachythaerus_ in the Wairoa Gorge. Although these
+species may not occur, the genera _Spirifer_ and _Productus_ are present,
+which, according to Dr. Thomson, are distinctly of pre-Triassic types.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 87--CARBOPERMIAN BRACHIOPODS.=
+
+ A--Productus brachythaerus, Sow. Carbopermian. New South Wales, &c.
+
+ B--Strophalosia clarkei, Eth. sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W., &c.
+
+ C--Spirifer convolutus, Phillips. Carbopermian. N.S.W., &c.
+
+ D--Spirifer (Martiniopsis) subradiatus, Sow. Carbopermian. New South
+ Wales, &c.
+
+]
+
+
+=Carbopermian Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Brachiopod fauna of Carbopermian age in New South Wales is rich
+in species of _Productus_ and _Spirifer_. Amongst the former are _P.
+cora_ (also found in Western Australia, Queensland and Tasmania), _P.
+brachythaerus_ (also found in Western Australia and Queensland), (Fig. 87
+A), _P. semireticulatus_ (also found in Western Australia, Queensland and
+the Island of Timor, and a common species in Europe), and _P. undatus_
+(also found in Western Australia and Queensland, as well as in Great
+Britain and Russia). _Strophalosia_ is an allied genus to _Productus_.
+It is a common form in beds of the same age in W. Australia, Tasmania,
+and New South Wales. The best known species is _S. clarkei_ (Fig. 87 B).
+This type of shell is distinguished from _Productus_ in being cemented by
+the umbo of the ventral valve, which valve is also generally less spinose
+than the dorsal. When weathered the shells present a peculiar silky or
+fibrous appearance. The genus _Spirifer_ is represented in W. Australia
+by such forms as _S. vespertilio_, _S. convolutus_, _S. hardmani_, _S.
+musakheylensis_, and _S. striatus_; whilst _S. vespertilio_ and _S.
+convolutus_ are common also to New South Wales (Fig. 87 C), and the latter
+only to Tasmania. _S. vespertilio_ is found in the Gympie beds near
+Rockhampton, Queensland; and _S. tasmaniensis_ in Queensland (Bowen River
+Coal-field, Marine Series), New South Wales and Tasmania. Of the smoother,
+stout forms, referred to the sub-genus _Martiniopsis_, we may mention _S.
+(M.) subradiatus_, which occurs in W. Australia, New South Wales, and
+Tasmania (Fig. 87 D).
+
+In the Queensland fauna, the Gympie series contains, amongst other
+Brachiopods _Productus cora_, _Leptaena rhomboidalis_ var., _analoga_,
+_Spirifer vespertilio_ and _S. strzeleckii_.
+
+Other Carbopermian Brachiopod genera found in Australian faunas are
+_Cleiothyris_, _Dielasma_, _Hypothyris_, _Reticularia_, _Seminula_,
+_Cyrtina_, and _Syringothyris_.
+
+
+=Triassic Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Kaihiku Series of New Zealand (Hokonui Hills and Nelson) are probably
+referable to the Trias. The supposed basal beds contain plants such as
+_Taeniopteris_, _Cladophlebis_, _Palissya_ and _Baiera_. Above these
+are marine beds containing Brachiopods belonging to _Spiriferina_,
+_Rhynchonella_, _Dielasma_ and _Athyris_. The succession of these beds
+presents some palaeontological anomalies still to be explained, for the
+flora has a decided leaning towards a Jurassic facies.
+
+Next in order of succession the Wairoa Series, in the Hokonui Hills and
+Nelson, New Zealand, contains _Dielasma_ and _Athyris wreyi_.
+
+The succeeding series in New Zealand, the Otapiri, or Upper Triassic
+contains the Brachiopod genera _Athyris_[3] and _Spiriferina_, found at
+Well's Creek, Nelson.
+
+[Footnote 3: Referred by Hector to a new sub-genus _Clavigera_, which
+name, however, is preoccupied.]
+
+
+=Jurassic Brachiopods.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 88--MESOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.=
+
+ A--Rhynchonella variabilis Schloth. sp. Jurassic. W. Australia
+
+ B--Terebratella davidsoni, Moore. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ C--Lingula subovalis, Davidson. L. Cretaceous. S. Australia
+
+ D--Rhynchonella croydonensis, Eth. fil. Up. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+]
+
+The marine Jurassic beds of W. Australia, as at Shark Bay and Greenough
+River, contain certain _Rhynchonellae_ allied to European species, as _R.
+variabilis_ (Fig. 88 A), and _R._ cf. _solitaria_.
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Lower Cretaceous or Rolling Downs Formation of Queensland has
+yielded a fair number of Brachiopods, principally from Wollumbilla,--as
+_Terebratella davidsoni_ (Fig. 88 B), (?) _Argiope wollumbillensis_, (?)
+_A. punctata_, _Rhynchonella rustica_, _R. solitaria_, _Discina apicalis_
+and _Lingula subovalis_. From beds of similar age in Central South
+Australia and the Lake Eyre Basin _Lingula subovalis_ (Fig. 88 C), and
+_Rhynchonella eyrei_ have been recorded; the latter has been compared with
+a species (_R. walkeri_) from the Middle Neocomian of Tealby in Yorkshire.
+
+
+=Upper Cretaceous Brachiopod.--=
+
+A solitary species of the Brachiopoda occurs in the Upper Cretaceous of
+Australia, namely, _Rhynchonella croydonensis_ (Fig. 88 D) of the Desert
+Sandstone of the Croydon Gold-fields and Mount Angas, Queensland.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Brachiopods.--=
+
+The Brachiopoda of the Cainozoic or Tertiary strata of Australia
+and New Zealand are well represented by the genera _Terebratula_,
+_Magellania_, _Terebratulina_, _Terebratella_, _Magasella_ and
+_Acanthothyris_. In the Balcombian or Oligocene of southern Australia
+occur the following:--_Terebratula tateana_, _Magellania corioensis_,
+_M. garibaldiana_ and _Magasella compta_ (Figs. 89 A, D); and most of
+these range into the next stage, the Janjukian, whilst some extend even
+to the Kalimnan. _Terebratulina suessi_, Hutton sp. (= _T. scoulari_,
+Tate) ranges through the Balcombian and Janjukian, but is most typical
+of the Janjukian beds in Victoria: it also occurs in the Oamaru Series
+of New Zealand (= Janjukian). _Acanthothyris squamosa_ (Fig. 89 F) is
+typical of the Janjukian of southern Australia, and it occurs also in
+the Pareora beds of the Broken River, New Zealand. The latter are green,
+sandy, fossiliferous strata immediately succeeding the Oamaru stone of the
+Hutchinson Quarry beds. _A. squamosa_ is said to be still living south of
+Kerguelen Island. _Magellania insolita_ is a Victorian species which is
+also found in the Oamaru Series of New Zealand.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 89--CAINOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.=
+
+ A--Terebratula tateana, T. Woods. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ B--Magellania corioensis, McCoy, sp. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ C--Magellania garibaldiana, Dav. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ D--Magasella compta, Sow. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ E--Terebratulina catinuliformis, Tate. Cainozoic. S. Australia
+
+ F--Acanthothyris squamosa, Hutton sp. Cainozoic. Tasmania
+
+]
+
+Whilst many of the older Tertiary brachiopods range into the next
+succeeding stage of the Kalimnan in Victoria, such as _Magellania
+insolita_, _Terebratulina_ catinuliformis_ (Fig. 89 E) and _Magasella
+compta_, one species, _Terebratella pumila_, is restricted to the
+Kalimnan, occurring at the Gippsland Lakes.
+
+The next stage, the Werrikooian, typical in upraised marine beds on the
+banks of the Glenelg River in western Victoria, contains _Magellania
+flavescens_, a species still living (see _antea_, Fig. 23), and _M.
+insolita_, having the extraordinarily wide range of the whole of the
+Cainozoic stages in southern Australia.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+WORMS.
+
+ _Eunicites mitchelli_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Oenonites hebes_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Arabellites bowningensis_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Arenicolites_ sp. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Trachyderma crassituba_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Cornulites tasmanicus_, Eth. fil. Silurian: Tasmania.
+
+ _Spirorbis ammonius_, M. Edw. var. _truncata_, Chapm. Mid. Devonian:
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Spirorbis omphalodes_, Goldfuss. Devonian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Serpula testatrix_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Torlessia mackayi_, Bather. Lower Mesozoic: New Zealand.
+
+ _Serpula conformis_, Goldfuss. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Serpula intestinalis_, Phillips. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Serpula subtrachinus_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Serpula ouyenensis_, Chapm. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Ditrupa cornea_, L. sp. var. _wormbetiensis_, McCoy. Cainozoic:
+ Victoria.
+
+
+POLYZOA.
+
+ _Rhombopora gippslandica_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Fenestella australis_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Protoretepora ampla_, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: W. Australia, New South
+ Wales, Queensland, and Tasmania.
+
+ _Polypora australis_, Hinde. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Rhombopora tenuis_, Hinde. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Rhombopora laxa_, Etheridge sp. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Membranipora wilsonensis_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ (?) _Lepralia oolitica_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Lichenopora australis_, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Heteropora pisiformis_, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Cellaria australis_, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Membranipora macrostoma_, Reuss. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
+
+ _Selenaria marginata_, T. Woods. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
+
+ _Macropora clarkei_, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Adeona obliqua_, MacGill. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Lepralia burlingtoniensis_, Waters. Cainozoic: Victoria.
+
+ _Bipora philippinensis_, Busk sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
+
+ _Porina gracilis_, M. Edwards sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
+
+ _Cellepora fossa_, Haswell, sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
+
+ _Retepora fissa_, MacGill. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).
+
+
+BRACHIOPODA.
+
+ _Orthis lenticularis_, Wahlenberg sp. Cambrian: Tasmania.
+
+ _Orthis platystrophioides_, Chapm. Cambrian: Victoria.
+
+ _Huenella etheridgei_, Walcott. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Orthis leviensis_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia, (?) Victoria.
+
+ _Siphonotreta discoidalis_, Chapm. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Siphonotreta maccoyi_, Chapm. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Lingula yarraensis_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Orbiculoidea selwyni_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Chonetes melbournensis_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Stropheodonta alata_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Orthis elegantula_, Dalman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Pentamerus australis_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria and New South Wales.
+
+ _Conchidium knightii_, Sow. sp. Silurian: Victoria and New South Wales.
+
+ _Camarotoechia decemplicata_, Sow. sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Rhynchotrema liopleura_, McCoy sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Atrypa reticularis_, L. sp. Silurian: New South Wales and Victoria.
+ Devonian: New South Wales, W. Australia and Queensland.
+
+ _Spirifer sulcatus_, Hisinger sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Nucleospira australis_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Chonetes australis_, McCoy. Mid. Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Chonetes culleni_, Dun. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Spirifer yassensis_, de Koninck. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales and
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Spirifer_ cf. _verneuili_, de Kon. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales and
+ W. Australia.
+
+ _Lingula gregaria_, Eth. fil. Upper Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Spirifer disjunctus_, Sow. Up. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Productus cora_, d'Orb. Carboniferous: New South Wales and Queensland.
+
+ _Orthothetes crenistria_, Sow. sp. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Spirifer striatus_, Sow. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Productus brachythaerus_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
+ Queensland, W. Australia.
+
+ _Strophalosia clarkei_, Eth. sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
+ Tasmania and W. Australia.
+
+ _Spirifer (Martiniopsis) subradiatus_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South
+ Wales, Tasmania and W. Australia.
+
+ _Spirifer convolutus_, Phillips. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
+ Tasmania and W. Australia.
+
+ _Cleiothyris macleayana_, Eth. fil. sp. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Dielasma elongata_, Schlotheim sp. Trias (Kaihiku Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Athyris wreyi_, Suess sp. Trias (Wairoa Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Athyris_ sp. Trias (Otapiri Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Rhynchonella variabilis_, Schlotheim sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Terebratella davidsoni_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Rhynchonella solitaria_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Lingula subovalis_, Davidson. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Rhynchonella croydonensis_, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Terebratula tateana_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balcombian and Janjukian):
+ Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Magellania corioensis_, McCoy, sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
+ Janjukian): Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Magellania garibaldiana_, Davidson sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
+ Janjukian): Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Magasella compta_, Sow. sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian to Kalimnan):
+ Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Terebratula suessi_, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and Janjukian):
+ Victoria, S. Australia, and New Zealand (Oamaru Series.)
+
+ _Acanthothyris squamosa_, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria
+ and S. Australia, New Zealand (Oamaru Series) (also living).
+
+ _Terebratella pumila_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
+
+ _Magellania flavescens_, Lam. sp. Pleistocene: Victoria (also living).
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+WORMS.
+
+ Silurian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890,
+ pp. 339, 340. Idem, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. (for 1896), 1897, p. 37.
+ Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1910,
+ pp. 102-105.
+
+ Devonian.--Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. II. vol. VII. 1890, p. 199.
+ Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, p. 220.
+
+ Carboniferous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Australia, No.
+ 10, 1903, p. 10.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales.
+ Pal. No. 5, 1892, pp. 119-121.
+
+ Lower Mesozoic.--Bather, F. A. Geol. Mag., Dec. V. vol. II. 1905, pp.
+ 532-541.
+
+ Lower Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Soc. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, Pal. No. 11. 1902, pp. 12, 13.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. I.
+ 1913, pp. 182-184.
+
+
+POLYZOA.
+
+ Silurian.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. I.
+ 1903, pp. 61-63. Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic., vol. II., pt. 1,
+ 1907, p. 78.
+
+ Carboniferous.--Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp.
+ 199-203.
+
+ Carbopermian.--De Koninck Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No.
+ 6, 1898, pp. 128-140.
+
+ Cainozoic.--Stolicka, F. Novara Exped., Geol. Theil., vol. I. pt. 2,
+ pp. 87-158. Waters, A. W. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXVII.
+ 1881, pp. 309-347; ibid., vol. XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 257-276 and pp.
+ 502-513; ibid., vol. XXXIX. 1883, pp. 423-443; ibid., vol. XL.
+ 1884, pp. 674-697; ibid., vol. XLI. 1885, pp. 279-310; ibid.,
+ vol. XLIII. 1887, pp. 40-72 and 337-350. MacGillivray, P. H.
+ Mon. Tert. Polyzoa Vict., Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. IV. 1895.
+ Maplestone, C. M. "Further Descr. Polyzoa Vict.," Proc. Roy. Soc.
+ Vict., vol. XI. (N.S.), pt. I. 1898, pp. 14-21, et seqq.
+
+
+BRACHIOPODA.
+
+ Cambrian.--Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV. 1892, pp. 185,
+ 186. Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. pt. 2, 1904, p.
+ 101. Walcott, C. D. Smiths. Misc. Coll., vol. LIII. 1908, p. 109.
+ Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic., vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1911,
+ pp. 310-313.
+
+ Ordovician.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Parl. Papers, S. Aust., No. 158, 1891,
+ pp. 13, 14. Tate, R. Rep. Horn Exped., pt. 3, 1896, pp. 110, 111.
+ Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 3, 1904, pp.
+ 222-224.
+
+ Silurian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic. Dec. V. 1877, pp. 19-29. Eth., R.
+ jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. 3, pt. 2, 1892, pp.
+ 49-60 (Silurian and Devonian _Pentameridae_). Idem, Proc. Roy.
+ Soc., Tas., (for 1896), 1897, pp. 38-41. De Koninck, L. G. Mem.
+ Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 20-29. Dun,
+ W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904,
+ pp. 318-325 (Silurian to Carboniferous). Ibid., vol. VIII. pt.
+ 3, 1907, pp. 265-269. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI.
+ (N.S.), pt. 1, 1903, pp. 64-79. Ibid., vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. 1,
+ 1908, pp. 222, 223. Ibid., vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. 1. 1913, pp.
+ 99-113.
+
+ Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV., 1876, pp. 16-18.
+ Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 100-102.
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 64-68.
+ De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal., No. 6,
+ 1898, pp. 64-85. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII.
+ (N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 16-19.
+
+ Carboniferous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. IV. No. 3,
+ 1901, pp. 119, 120. Idem, Geol. Surv. W. Austr., Bull. No. 10,
+ 1903, pp. 12-23. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ vol. VII., pt. 2, 1902, pp. 72-88 and 91-93.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Sowerby, G. B., in Strzelecki's Phys. Descr. of New
+ South Wales, etc., 1845, pp. 275-285. McCoy, F. Ann. Mag. Nat.
+ Hist., vol. XX. 1847, pp. 231-236. Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag. Dec.
+ III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 105 and 145-154. Etheridge, R. jnr.
+ Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 225-264. De Koninck, L. G.
+ Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal., No. 6, 1898, pp. 140-203.
+ Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4,
+ 1909, pp. 293-304.
+
+ Lower Cretaceous.--Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI.
+ 1870, pp. 243-245. Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. R. Soc. S. Austr.,
+ vol. II. pt. 1, 1902, pp. 8, 9.
+
+ Upper Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
+ p. 560.
+
+ Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877, pp. 11-13. Tate,
+ R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. III. 1880, pp. 140-170. Idem,
+ ibid., vol. XXIII. 1899, pp. 250-259. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z.
+ Inst., vol. XXXVII. 1905, pp. 474-481 (Revn. Tert. Brach.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+FOSSIL SHELL-FISH (MOLLUSCA).
+
+
+=Molluscan Characters.--=
+
+The phylum or sub-kingdom Mollusca is a group of soft-bodied animals
+(mollis, soft), which, although having no external skeleton, usually
+possess the protective covering of a shell. This shell is secreted
+from the outer skin or mantle, and is composed of carbonate of lime
+(calcareous) with a varying proportion of organic material.
+
+
+=Hard Parts.--=
+
+Fossil molluscan remains consist practically of the shells, but the
+calcareous apertural lid (operculum) of some kinds is often preserved, as
+in _Turbo_ and _Hyolithes_; or the horny lids of others, as _Bithynia_
+of the European Pleistocene "brick earths." The cuttle-fishes have hard,
+horny beaks and internal bones, and the latter are frequently found fossil
+in Australia.
+
+
+=Characters of Pelecypoda.--=
+
+The class for first consideration is the important one of the Bivalved
+Mollusca, the _LAMELLIBRANCHIATA_ ("plate-gills") or _PELECYPODA_
+("hatchet foot"). The shells are double, hinged dorsally and placed on
+either side of the animal, that is, they are left and right. The height is
+measured on a vertical line drawn from the beaks or umbones to the ventral
+margin. The length is the greatest distance between the margins parallel
+with a line drawn through the mouth and posterior adductor impression. The
+thickness is measured by a line at right angles to the line of height. The
+shell being placed mouth forward, the valves are thus left and right. The
+anterior is usually shorter, excepting in some cases, as in _Donax_ and
+_Nucula_.
+
+
+=Hinge Structure.--=
+
+In the absence of the animal, the character of the hinge-structure is very
+important. Some are without teeth (edentulous). The oldest forms have been
+grouped as the "Palaeoconcha," and it has been shown that here, although
+well-developed teeth were absent, the radial ribs of the surface and
+ventral areas were carried over to the dorsal margin and became a fixed
+character in the form of crenulations or primitive teeth.
+
+The taxodont type of hinge teeth shows alternating teeth and sockets, as
+in _Nucula_.
+
+The schizodont type is seen in the heavy, variable teeth of _Trigonia_ and
+_Schizodus_.
+
+The isodont type of hingement is a modification of the taxodont,
+represented by two ridges originally divergent below the beak, and
+forming an interlocking series of two pairs of teeth and sockets as in
+_Spondylus_; or where the primitive hinge disappears as in _Pecten_, the
+divergent ridge-teeth (crura) may only partially develop.
+
+The dysodonts have a feeble hinge-structure derived from the external
+sculpture impinging on the hinge-line, as in _Crenella_.
+
+The pantodonta are an ancient palaeozoic group which seems allied to the
+modern teleodont or long toothed shells, but the laterals may exceed a
+pair in a single group, as in _Allodesma_.
+
+The diogenodonta have lateral and cardinal teeth upon a hinge-plate, but
+never more than two laterals and three cardinals in any one group, as in
+_Crassatellites_.
+
+The cyclodonta have extremely arched teeth, which curve out from under the
+beaks, as in _Cardium_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 90--LOWER PALAEOZOIC BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Ambonychia macroptera, Tate. Cambrian. S. Australia
+
+ B--Grammysia cuneiformis, Eth. fil. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ C--Panenka gippslandica, McCoy sp. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ D--Nucula melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ E--Nuculites maccoyianus. Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ F--Palaeoneilo victoriae, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+]
+
+The teleodonts include the more highly developed types of hinge, with
+attenuated teeth and sockets. Common shells of our coast, and from
+Cainozoic beds, belonging to this group are _Venus_, _Mactra_ and
+_Meretrix_.
+
+The asthenodonta are boring and burrowing molluscs that have lost the
+hinge dentition from disuse as _Corbula_ and _Pholas_.
+
+
+=Cambrian Bivalve.--=
+
+The earliest example of a bivalved shell in Australian rocks is
+_Ambonychia macroptera_ (Fig. 90 A), which occurs in the Cambrian
+Limestone of Curramulka, S. Australia. It is quite a small form, being
+less than a quarter of an inch in length.
+
+
+=Ordovician Bivalve.--=
+
+In the basal Ordovician mudstone of Heathcote, Victoria, there is
+a bivalve which in some respects resembles a _Modiolopsis_ (?_M.
+knowsleyensis_), but the exact relationship is still doubtful.
+
+
+=Silurian Bivalves.--=
+
+The Silurian sandstones, mudstones, slates and limestones of Australia
+and New Zealand, unlike the older rocks just mentioned, contain a
+rich assemblage of bivalve fossils. In Victoria the lower division or
+Melbournian stage contains the following principal genera:--_Orthonota_,
+_Grammysia_, _Leptodomus_, _Edmondia_, _Cardiola_, _Ctenodonta_,
+_Nuculites_, _Nucula_, _Palaeoneilo_, _Conocardium_, _Modiolopsis_ and
+_Paracyclas_. The upper division or Yeringian stage contains other
+species of similar genera to those in the Melbournian, as _Grammysia_,
+_Palaeoneilo_ and _Conocardium_; whilst _Panenka_, _Mytilarca_,
+_Sphenotus_, _Actinodesma_, _Lunulicardium_, _Actinopteria_ and
+Cypricardinia are, so far as known, peculiar to this and a still higher
+stage. _Cardiola_ is a widely distributed genus, occurring as well in
+Tasmania; whilst in Europe it is found both in Bohemia and Great Britain.
+Its time-range in the northern hemisphere is very extensive, being found
+in beds ranging from Upper Ordovician to Devonian. _Actinopteria_ is found
+also in New South Wales and New Zealand, and _Pterinea_ and _Actinodesma_
+in New South Wales.
+
+The molluscs with a taxodont hinge-line (beset with numerous little
+teeth and sockets) are quite plentiful in the Australian Silurian; such
+as _Nucula_, a form common around Melbourne (_N. melbournensis_ (Fig.
+90 D)); _Nuculites_, which has an internal radial buttress or clavicle
+separating the anterior muscle-scar from the shell-cavity, and which is
+found likewise in the Melbourne shales (_N. maccoyianus_ (Fig. 90 E));
+_Ctenodonta_, represented in both the Melbournian and Yeringian stages
+(_C. portlocki_); and _Palaeoneilo_, a handsome, subrostrate generic
+type with concentric lamellae or striae, commonest in the Melbournian,
+but occasionally found in the younger stage (_P. victoriae_ Fig. 90 F,
+Melbournian;--_P. raricostae_, Yeringian). _Conocardium_ is represented
+by two species in Victoria (_C. bellulum_ and _C. costatum_); whilst in
+New South Wales _C. davidis_ is found at Oakey Creek. In New Zealand
+_Actinopteria_ and _Pterinea_ occur in the Wangapeka series (Silurian).
+
+
+=Devonian Bivalves.--=
+
+The compact limestone and some shales of Middle Devonian age in the N.E.
+Gippsland area in Victoria, contain several as yet undescribed species
+belonging to the genera _Sphenotus_, _Actinodesma_ and _Paracyclas_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 91--PALAEOZOIC BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Mytilarca acutirostris, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ B--Modiolopsis melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ C--Goniophora australis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ D--Paracyclas siluricus, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ E--Actinopteria australis, Dun. Devonian. New South Wales
+
+ F--Lyriopecten gracilis, Dun. Devonian. New South Wales
+
+]
+
+The genera _Paracyclas_, _Aviculopecten_ and _Pterinea_ have been recorded
+from New South Wales, chiefly from the Yass district. The derived
+boulders found in the Upper Cretaceous beds forming the opal-fields at
+White Cliffs, New South Wales, have been determined as of Devonian age.
+They contain, amongst other genera, examples of _Actinopteria_ (_A.
+australis_), _Lyriopecten_ (_L. gracilis_) (Fig. 91 F), and _Leptodesma_
+(_L. inflatum_ and _L. obesum_).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 92--CARBOPERMIAN BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Stutchburia farleyensis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales
+
+ B--Deltopecten limaeformis, Morris sp. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales
+
+ C--Aviculopecten sprenti, Johnston. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales
+
+ D--Chaenomya etheridgei, de Kon. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales
+
+ E--Pachydomus globosus J. de C. Sow. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales
+
+]
+
+
+=Carbopermian Bivalves.--=
+
+One of the most prolific palaeozoic series for bivalved mollusca is the
+Carbopermian. To select from the numerous genera and species we may
+mention _Stutchburia farleyensis_ (Fig. 92 A) and _Edmondia nobilissima_
+from Farley, New South Wales; and _Deltopecten limaeformis_ (Fig. 92
+B), found in the Lower Marine Series at Ravensfield, New South Wales,
+and in the Upper Marine Series at Burragorang and Pokolbin in the same
+State, in Queensland at the Mount Britton Gold-field, and in Maria Id.,
+Tasmania. _Deltopecten fittoni_ occurs in both series in New South Wales,
+and in the Upper Marine Series associated with "Tasmanite shale" in
+Tasmania. _Aviculopecten squamuliferus_ is a handsome species found alike
+in Tasmania and New South Wales; whilst _A. tenuicollis_ is common to
+W. Australia and New South Wales. Other characteristic bivalves of the
+Carbopermian of New South Wales are _Chaenomya etheridgei_ (Fig. 92 D)
+and _Pachydomus globosus_ (Fig. 92 E). The gigantic _Eurydesma cordatum_
+is especially characteristic of the New South Wales Lower Marine Series,
+and is also found in Tasmania. All three species are found in Queensland.
+
+
+=Triassic Bivalves.--=
+
+The Triassic rocks of New South Wales were accumulated under either
+terrestrial, lacustrine, or brackish (estuarine) conditions. Hence the
+only bivalved mollusca found are referred to the freshwater genera _Unio_
+(_U. dunstani_) and _Unionella_ (_U. bowralensis_ and _U. carnei_ (Fig. 93
+A)). The latter genus differs from Unio in the structure of the adductor
+muscle-impressions.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 93--LOWER MESOZOIC BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Unionella carnei, Eth. fil. Triassic. New South Wales
+
+ B--Mytilus problematicus, Zittel. Triassic. New Zealand
+
+ C--Monotis salinaria, Zittel. Triassic. New Zealand
+
+ D--Trigonia moorei, Lycett. Jurassic. W. Australia
+
+ E--Astarte cliftoni, Moore. Jurassic. W. Australia
+
+]
+
+The Queensland Trias (Burrum Formation) contains a solitary species of
+bivalved mollusca, _Corbicula burrumensis_. This genus is generally found
+associated with freshwater or brackish conditions.
+
+In New Zealand marine Triassic beds occur, containing, amongst other
+genera, a species of _Leda_. In the succeeding Wairoa Series the
+interesting fossil, _Daonella lommeli_ occurs. This shell is typical of
+the Norian (Upper Trias) of the Southern Tyrol. Above the _Daonella_ bed
+occurs the _Trigonia_ bed, with that genus and _Edmondia_. In the next
+younger stage, the Otapiri Series, near Nelson, there are fine-grained
+sandstones packed full of the remains of _Mytilus problematicus_ (Fig. 93
+B) and _Monotis salinaria_ (Fig. 93 C), the latter also a Norian fossil.
+
+
+=Jurassic Bivalves.--=
+
+Jurassic bivalved molluscs are plentiful in the W. Australian limestones,
+as at Greenough River. Amongst others may be mentioned _Cucullaea
+semistriata_, _Ostrea_, _Gryphaea_, _Trigonia moorei_ (Fig. 93 D), _Pecten
+cinctus_, _Ctenostreon pectiniforme_ and _Astarte cliftoni_ (Fig. 93 E).
+Several of the species found are identical with European Jurassic fossils.
+
+Jurassic strata in Victoria, being of a freshwater and lacustrine nature,
+yield only species of _Unio_, as _U. dacombei_, and _U. stirlingi_.
+
+The Jurassic beds of S. Australia contain a species of _Unio_ named _U.
+eyrensis_. In the same strata which contains this shell, plant remains
+are found, as _Cladophlebis_ and _Thinnfeldia_, two well-known types of
+Jurassic ferns.
+
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Bivalves.--=
+
+In Queensland the Lower Cretaceous limestones and marls contain a large
+assemblage of bivalves, the more important of which are _Nucula truncata_
+(Fig. 94 A), _Maccoyella reflecta_ (Fig. 94 B), _M. barkleyi_, _Pecten
+socialis_ and _Fissilunula clarkei_ (Fig. 94 C), from Wollumbilla; and
+_Inoceramus pernoides_, _I. carsoni_ and _Aucella hughendenensis_ from the
+Flinders River (the latter also from New South Wales).
+
+In the Lake Eyre District of S. Australia we find _Maccoyella barkleyi_,
+which also occurs in Queensland and New South Wales (at White Cliffs),
+_Trigonia cinctuta_, _Mytilus rugocostatus_ and _Modiola eyrensis_. The
+handsome bivalve, _Pleuromya plana_ occurs near Broome in W. Australia.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 94--CRETACEOUS BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Nucula truncata, Moore. L. Cretaceous. South Australia
+
+ B--Maccoyella reflecta, Moore sp. Up. and L. Cretaceous. Q'land.
+
+ C--Fissilunula clarkei, Moore sp. Up. and L. Cretaceous. Q'land.
+
+ D--Inoceramus carsoni, McCoy. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ E--Cyrenopsis opallites, Eth. fil. Up. Cretaceous. New South Wales
+
+ F--Conchothyra parasitica, Hutton. Cretaceous. New Zealand
+
+]
+
+
+=Upper Cretaceous Bivalves.--=
+
+The Upper Cretaceous or Desert Sandstone at Maryborough, Queensland,
+has yielded amongst others, the following shells:--(_Nucula gigantea_,
+_Maccoyella reflecta_ also found in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland,
+New South Wales and S. Australia), and _Fissilunula clarkei_ (also found
+in the L. Cretaceous of New South Wales, Queensland and S. Australia).
+Some of these beds, however, which were hitherto believed to belong
+to the Upper and Lower Series respectively may yet prove to be on one
+horizon--the Lower Cretaceous. _Cyrenopsis opallites_ (Fig. 94 E) of White
+Cliffs, New South Wales, appears to be a truly restricted Upper Cretaceous
+species.
+
+The Cretaceous of New Zealand (Amuri System) contains _Trigonia sulcata_,
+_Inoceramus_ sp. and the curious, contorted shell, _Conchothyra
+parasitica_ (Fig. 94 F) which is related to _Pugnellus_, a form usually
+considered as a sub-genus of _Strombus_.
+
+From Papua an _Inoceramus_ has been recorded from probable Cretaceous beds.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Bivalves.--=
+
+In Victoria, South Australia, and the N.W. of Tasmania, as well as in
+New Zealand, Cainozoic marine beds are well developed, and contain an
+extensive bivalved molluscan fauna. Of these fossils only a few common and
+striking examples can here be noticed, on account of the limits of the
+present work.
+
+The commonest genera are:--_Ostrea_, _Placunanomia_, _Dimya_, _Spondylus_,
+_Lima_, _Pecten_, _Arca_, _Barbatia_, _Plagiarca_, _Cucullaea_,
+_Glycimeris_, _Limopsis_, _Nucula_, _Leda_, _Trigonia_, _Cardita_, _Cuna_,
+_Crassatellites_, _Cardium_, _Protocardium_, _Chama_, _Meretrix_, _Venus_
+(_Chione_), _Dosinea_, _Gari_, _Mactra_, _Corbula_, _Lucina_, _Tellina_,
+_Semele_ and _Myodora_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 95--CAINOZOIC BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Dimya dissimilis, Tate. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+ B--Spondylus pseudoradula, McCoy. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+ C--Pecten polymorphoides, Zittel. Janjukian. South Australia
+
+ D--Leda vagans, Tate. Janjukian. South Australia
+
+ E--Modiola praerupta, Pritchard. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Persistent Species.--=
+
+To mention a few species of persistent range, from Balcombian to
+Kalimnan, we may cite the following from the Cainozoic of southern
+Australia:--_Dimya dissimilis_ (Fig. 95 A), _Spondylus pseudoradula_ (Fig.
+95 B), _Lima (Limatula) jeffreysiana_, _Pecten polymorphoides_ (found also
+in the Oamaru Series, New Zealand) (Fig. 95 C), _Amusium zitteli_ (found
+also in both the Waimangaroa and Oamaru Series of New Zealand), _Barbatia
+celleporacea_, _Cucullaea corioensis_, _Limopsis maccoyi_, _Nucula
+tenisoni_, _Leda vagans_ (Fig. 95 D), _Corbula ephamilla_ and _Myodora
+tenuilirata_.
+
+
+=Balcombian Bivalves.--=
+
+On the other hand, many species have a restricted range, and these are
+invaluable for purposes of stratigraphical correlation. For example,
+in the Balcombian we have _Modiola praerupta_ (Fig. 95 E), _Modiolaria
+balcombei_, _Cuna regularis_, _Cardium cuculloides_, _Cryptodon
+mactraeformis_, _Verticordia pectinata_ and _V. excavata_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 96--CAINOZOIC BIVALVES.=
+
+ A--Modiola pueblensis, Pritchard. Janjukian. Victoria
+
+ B--Cardita tasmanica, Tate. Janjukian. Tasmania
+
+ C--Lucina planatella, Tate. Janjukian. Tasmania
+
+ D--Ostrea manubriata, Tate. Kalimnan. Victoria
+
+ E--Limopsis beaumariensis, Chap. Kalimnan. Victoria
+
+ F--Venus (Chione) subroborata, Tate sp. Kalimnan. Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Janjukian Bivalves.--=
+
+In the Janjukian Series restricted forms of bivalves are exceptionally
+numerous, amongst them being:--_Dimya sigillata_, _Plicatula ramulosa_,
+_Lima polynema_, _Pecten praecursor_, _P. eyrei_, _P. gambierensis_,
+_Pinna cordata_, _Modiola pueblensis_ (Fig. 96 A), _Arca dissimilis_,
+_Limopsis multiradiata_, _L. insolita_, _Leda leptorhyncha_, _L.
+crebrecostata_, _Cardita maudensis_, _C. tasmanica_ (Fig. 96 B), _Cuna
+radiata_, _Lepton crassum_, _Cardium pseudomagnum_, _Venus (Chione)
+multitaeniata_, _Solenocurtus legrandi_, _Lucina planatella_ (Fig. 96 C),
+_Tellina porrecta_ and _Myodora lamellata_.
+
+In Papua a _Pecten_ (_P. novaeguineae_) has been recorded from the ? Lower
+Pliocene of Yule Island.
+
+
+=Kalimnan Bivalves.--=
+
+The Kalimnan beds contain the following restricted or upward ranging
+species:--_Ostrea arenicola_, _O. manubriata_ (Fig. 96 D), _Pecten
+antiaustralis_ (also in the Werrikooian Series), _Perna percrassa_,
+_Mytilus hamiltonensis_, _Glycimeris halli_, _Limopsis beaumariensis_
+(also Werrikooian) (Fig. 96 E), _Leda crassa_ (also living), _Trigonia
+howitti_, _Cardita solida_, _C. calva_ (also living), _Erycina micans_,
+_Meretrix paucirugata_, _Sunetta gibberula_, _Venus (Chione) subroborata_
+(Fig. 96 F), _Donax depressa_, _Corbula scaphoides_ (also living), _Barnea
+tiara_, _Lucina affinis_, _Tellina albinelloides_ and _Myodora corrugata_.
+
+
+=Werrikooian Bivalves.--=
+
+The next stage, the Werrikooian (Upper Pliocene), contains a large
+percentage of living species, as _Ostrea angasi_, _Placunanomia ione_
+(ranging down into Janjukian), _Glycimeris radians_, _Leda crassa_ (also
+a common Kalimnan fossil), various species of _Venus (Chione)_, as _V.
+strigosa_ and _V. placida_, and _Barnea australasiae_.
+
+
+=Pleistocene Bivalves.--=
+
+The bivalved shells of the Pleistocene are similar to those now found
+living round the Australian coast, as _Pecten asperrimus_, _Mytilus
+latus_, _Leda crassa_, _Soletellina biradiata_ and _Spisula parva_.
+
+Pleistocene shells of bivalved genera occur in the coastal hills of Papua,
+including the following:--_Cultellus_, _Corbula_, _Mactra_, _Tellina_,
+_Venus (Chione)_, _Dione_, _Dosinea_, _Leda_ and _Arca_.
+
+The _SCAPHOPODS_ ("digger foot") or the "Elephant-tusk shells" are
+adapted, by their well-developed foot, to burrow into the mud and sand.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 97--FOSSIL SCAPHOPODS and CHITONS.=
+
+ A--Dentalium huttoni, Bather. Jurassic. New Zealand
+
+ B--Dentalium mantelli, Zittel. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ C--Chelodes calceoloides, Eth. fil. Silurian. New South Wales
+
+ D--Ischnochiton granulosus, Ashby and Torr sp. Cainozoic (Balc).
+ Victoria
+
+ E--Cryptoplax pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic (Kalimnan). Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Devonian Scaphopods.--=
+
+This group of mollusca makes its first appearance in Australasian
+sediments in the Middle Devonian (Murrumbidgee beds) of New South Wales,
+represented by _Dentalium tenuissimum_.
+
+
+=Jurassic Scaphopods.--=
+
+In the Jurassic strata of the Mataura Series of New Zealand, _Dentalium
+huttoni_ (Fig. 97 A) occurs at the Kowhai River and Wilberforce.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Scaphopods.--=
+
+_Dentalium wollumbillensis_ occurs in the drab and dark-coloured
+limestones of the Lower Cretaceous of the Lake Eyre Basin in S. Australia,
+and the same species is also found in the Lower Cretaceous (Rolling Downs
+Formation) of Wollumbilla, Queensland.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Scaphopods.--=
+
+The Cainozoic beds both of New Zealand and southern Australia yield
+many species of _Dentalium_, the commonest and most widely distributed
+being the longitudinally ribbed _D. mantelli_ (Fig. 97 B), which ranges
+from the Balcombian to the Werrikooian stages in Australia, and is also
+typical of the Oamaru Series in New Zealand, where it is accompanied by
+the ponderous species, _D. giganteum_, which attained a length of over six
+inches. Another form common in our Cainozoics is the smooth-shelled _D.
+subfissura_; this also has a wide range, namely Balcombian to Kalimnan.
+
+
+=Palaeozoic Chitons.--=
+
+The _POLYPLACOPHORA_ or Chitons ("Mail-shells"), first appeared in the
+Ordovician. In Australia _Chelodes calceoloides_ (Fig. 97 C) is found in
+the Silurian of Derrengullen Creek, Yass, New South Wales; and another
+species of the genus is found in beds of the same age at Lilydale,
+Victoria. Between that period and the Cainozoic or Tertiary there is a gap
+in their history in Australia.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Chitons.--=
+
+_Ischnochiton granulosus_ (Fig. 97 D) is a Balcombian species of the
+modern type of "mail-shell," occurring not infrequently in the clays of
+Balcombe's Bay, Port Phillip, Victoria. _Cryptoplax pritchardi_ (Fig. 97
+E) is a curious form belonging to the attenuated, worm-like group of the
+Cryptoplacidae, until lately unknown in the fossil state; it is found in
+the Kalimnan Series near Hamilton, Victoria. Several other genera of the
+chitons are found fossil in the Australian Cainozoics which still live
+on our coasts, as _Lorica_, _Plaxiphora_ and _Chiton_. The first-named
+genus is represented fossil by _Lorica duniana_ from the _Turritella_ bed
+(Janjukian) of Table Cape, Tasmania.
+
+
+=Characters of Gasteropoda.--=
+
+The _GASTEROPODA_ ("belly-foot") or univalve shells possess a muscular
+foot placed beneath the stomach and viscera. In the Heteropoda this foot
+is modified as a vertical fin, and in the Pteropoda as two wing-like
+swimming membranes close to the head. The mantle lobe is elevated along
+the back like a hood, and its surfaces and edges secrete the shell
+which contains the animal. The shell is typically a cone (example,
+_Patella_ or Limpet) which is often spirally coiled either in a plane
+(ex. _Planorbis_), conically turbinoid (ex. _Trochus_), or turreted (ex.
+_Turritella_). The body and shell are attached by muscles, the spiral
+forms being attached to the columella or axial pillar, and the bowl-shaped
+forms to the inner surface of the shell.
+
+Gasteropod shells are normally right-handed (dextral), but a few genera
+as _Clausilia_, _Bulinus_ and _Physa_, are left-handed (sinistral). The
+height or length of the shell is measured from the apex to the lower
+margin of the mouth. In coiled shells we may regard them as a more or less
+elongated cone wound round a central pillar, the columella, or around a
+central tube. A turn or coil of the shell is a whorl, and together, with
+the exception of the last, form the spire. The line between two adjacent
+whorls is the suture. When the columella is solid the shell is said to
+be imperforate, and when a central tube is left by the imperfect fusion
+of the whorls, it is perforate. The opening of the tubular columella is
+termed the umbilicus, and this is sometimes contracted by the encroachment
+of shell matter termed the callus. The aperture is entire when the rim
+is uninterrupted; and channelled when there is a basal notch, where the
+siphon which conducts water to the gills is lodged.
+
+As a rule the large heavy gasteropods inhabit shallow water. The following
+living genera are characteristic of rocky shore-lines; _Risella_,
+_Buccinum_, _Purpura_ and _Patella_. Genera typical of sandy shores are
+_Nassa_, _Natica_, _Cypraea_, _Turritella_ and _Scala_.
+
+
+=Cambrian Gasteropods.--=
+
+From the Cambrian of South Australia Prof. Tate described some minute
+Gasteropods which he referred to the genera _Stenotheca_ (_S. rugosa_,
+var. _paupera_), _Ophileta (O. subangulata)_ (Fig. 98 A), and _Platyceras
+(P. etheridgei)_. In these beds at Curramulka the following Pteropods were
+found by the same authority, viz., _Salterella planoconvexa_, _Hyolithes
+communis_ (Fig. 98 C) and _H. conularioides_.
+
+The Cambrian Limestone of the Kimberley District, W. Australia, contains
+the characteristic Pteropod _Salterella hardmani_ (Fig. 98 B). The shell
+is a conical tube, straight or slightly curved, and measuring scarcely an
+inch in length.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 98--LOWER PALAEOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=
+
+ A--Ophileta subangulata, Tate. Cambrian. South Australia
+
+ B--Salterella hardmani, Foord. Cambrian. West Australia
+
+ C--Hyolithes communis, Billings. Cambrian. South Australia
+
+ D--Scenella tenuistriata, Chapm. Cambrian. Victoria
+
+ E--Raphistoma browni, Eth. fil. Ordovician. South Australia
+
+ F--Helicotoma johnstoni, Eth. fil. Silurian. Tasmania
+
+]
+
+The Upper Cambrian of the Mersey River District in Tasmania has afforded
+some doubtful examples of the genus _Ophileta_.
+
+In the Upper Cambrian Limestones of the Dolodrook Valley, near Mt.
+Wellington, Victoria, a minute limpet shaped Gasteropod occurs, named
+_Scenella tenuistriata_ (Fig. 98 D).
+
+
+=Ordovician Gasteropods.--=
+
+Ordovician limestones with fossil shells occur in the Leigh's Creek
+District in South Australia, and also at Tempe Downs and Petermann and
+Laurie's Creeks, W. of Alice Springs. The euomphaloid shell _Ophileta
+gilesi_ was described from Laurie's Creek, and _Eunema larapinta_ from
+the Tempe Downs. A pleurotomarid, _Raphistoma browni_ (Fig. 98) occurs
+near Leigh's Creek, and at Laurie's and Petermann Creeks. A Pteropod,
+_Hyolithes leptus_, has been described from the Lower Ordovician of Coole
+Barghurk Creek, near Meredith, Victoria.
+
+
+=Silurian Gasteropods.--=
+
+The Silurian Gasteropods are fairly well represented, especially in
+the upper stage, and are widely distributed throughout the Australian
+fossiliferous localities. Moreover, some of the species are identical
+with those found as far off as North America and Europe. In Victoria
+the shales and sandstones of the lower stage (Melbournian) contain the
+genera _Bellerophon_, _Cyrtolites_ and _Loxonema_. The Pteropoda include
+_Tentaculites_, _Coleolus_, _Hyolithes_ and _Conularia_ (_C. sowerbii_
+(Fig. 99 F), a species also found in Great Britain). The Victorian
+limestones and mudstones of the upper stage (Yeringian) are somewhat rich
+in Gasteropods, such genera occurring as _Pleurotomaria_, _Phanerotrema_
+(with cancellated shell and large slit-band), _Murchisonia_, _Gyrodoma_,
+_Bellerophon_, _Trematonotus_ (a spiral shell with a large trumpet-shaped
+mouth and a dorsal row of perforations in place of a slit-band),
+_Euomphalus_, _Cyclonema_, _Trochus (Scalaetrochus)_, _Niso (Vetotuba)_,
+_Loxonema_, _Platyceras_ and _Capulus_. The section Pteropoda contains
+_Tentaculites_, _Hyolithes_ and _Conularia_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 99--SILURIAN GASTEROPODA.=
+
+ A--Hyolithes spryi, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
+
+ B--Gyrodoma etheridgei, Cressw. sp. Silurian (Yeringian). Vict.
+
+ C--Bellerophon cresswelli. Eth. fil. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
+
+ D--Euomphalus northi, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
+
+ E--Trochonema montgomerii. Eth. fil. sp. Silurian. Tasmania
+
+ F--Conularia sowerbii, Defr. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
+
+]
+
+In the Silurian of New South Wales the chief Gasteropod genera are
+_Bellerophon (B. jukesi)_, _Euomphalus_, _Omphalotrochus_, and _Conularia
+(C. sowerbii.)_.
+
+In Tasmania are found _Raphistoma_, _Murchisonia_, _Bellerophon_,
+_Helicotoma_, _Trochonema_ and _Tentaculites_.
+
+
+=Devonian Gasteropods.--=
+
+The derived boulders of the White Cliffs opal field have been referred to
+the Devonian system, but of this there is some doubt, as the Gasteropods
+noted from these boulders closely resemble those of the Silurian fauna:
+they are _Murchisonia Euomphalus_ (_E. culleni_), and _Loxonema_. The
+genus _Murchisonia_ has also been recorded from the Baton River, New
+Zealand (Wangepeka Series) by MacKay.
+
+The Middle Devonian Gasteropod fauna in Victoria, as found in the Buchan
+and Bindi Limestones, comprises _Murchisonia_, _Trochus_, and _Platyceras_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 100--UPPER PALAEOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=
+
+ A--Gosseletina australis, Eth. fil. sp. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
+
+ B--Yvania konincki, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
+
+ C--Loxonema babbindoonensis, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
+
+ D--Pleurotomaria (Ptychomphalina) morrisiana, McCoy. Carbopermian.
+ N.S. Wales
+
+ E--Platyschisma oculum, Sow. sp. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales
+
+ F--Murchisonia carinata, Eth. Carbopermian. Queensland
+
+]
+
+In New South Wales the best known genera are _Pleurotomaria_,
+_Murchisonia_, _Bellerophon_, _Euomphalus_ and _Loxonema_. The two latter
+genera have also been obtained at Barker Gorge, Western Australia.
+
+
+=Carboniferous Gasteropods.--=
+
+Carboniferous Gasteropoda have been found in New South Wales, belonging
+to the genera _Gosseletina_ (_G. australis_) (Fig. 100 A) and _Yvania_
+(_Y. konincki_) (Fig. 100 B), both of which have their countertypes in the
+Carboniferous of Belgium. _Y. konincki_ is also found in the Carbopermian
+(Gympie beds) of Rockhampton, Queensland, while _Y. levellii_ is found in
+the Carbopermian of Western Australia.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Gasteropods.--=
+
+The Carbopermian gasteropods of New South Wales are _Pleurotomaria_
+(_Mourlonia_), _Keeneia platyschismoides_, _Murchisonia_, _Euomphalus_,
+_Platyschisma_ (_P. oculum_) (Fig. 100 E), _Loxonema_ and _Macrocheilus_.
+Examples of the genus _Conularia_ are sometimes found, probably attaining
+a length, when complete, of 40 centimetres.
+
+In Tasmania we find _Conularia tasmanica_, a handsome Pteropod, also
+of large dimensions. _Platyschisma_, _Pleurotomaria_ (_Mourlonia_),
+_Bellerophon_ and _Porcellia_ are amongst the Carbopermian Gasteropods of
+Queensland.
+
+In Western Australia _Pleurotomaria_ (_Mourlonia_), _Bellerophon_,
+_Euomphalus_, _Euphemus_, _Platyceras_, and _Loxonema_ occur in the
+Carbopermian.
+
+
+=Jurassic Gasteropods.--=
+
+Jurassic gasteropods are found sparingly in the limestone of the
+Geraldton District and other localities in Western Australia. The more
+important of these are _Pleurotomaria_ (_P. greenoughiensis_), _Turbo_
+(_T. australis_) (Fig. 101 A) and _Rissoina_ (_R. australis_) (Fig. 101 B).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 101--MESOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=
+
+ A--Turbo australis, Moore. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+ B--Rissoina australis, Moore. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+ C--Natica ornatissima, Moore. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ D--Pseudamaura variabilis, Moore sp. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ E--Rostellaria waiparensis, Hector.--Cretaceous. New Zealand
+
+]
+
+
+=Cretaceous Gasteropods.--=
+
+The Queensland gasteropod fauna comprises _Cinulia_ a typical Cretaceous
+genus, _Actaeon_ and _Natica_. These occur in the Lower Cretaceous or
+Rolling Downs Formation. _Cinulia_ is also found in South Australia at
+Lake Eyre with _Natica_ (_N. ornatissima_) (Fig. 101 C). _Pseudamaura
+variabilis_ (Fig. 101 D) is found in New South Wales, Queensland and South
+Australia; whilst _Anchura wilkinsoni_ occurs in Queensland and South
+Australia.
+
+In New Zealand the Waipara Greensands (Cretaceous) contain a species of
+_Rostellaria_ (_R. waiparensis_) (Fig. 101 E).
+
+
+=Cainozoic Gasteropods.--=
+
+Cainozoic Gasteropods are exceedingly abundant in beds of that system
+in Australasia. The Cainozoic marine fauna in Australia is practically
+restricted to the States of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania;
+whilst New Zealand has many species in common with Australia.
+
+
+=Genera.--=
+
+The commonest genera of the marine Cainozoic or Tertiary deposits
+are:--_Haliotis_, _Fissurellidea_, _Emarginula_, _Subemarginula_,
+_Astralium_, _Liotia_, _Gibbula_, _Eulima_, _Niso_, _Odostomia_,
+_Scala_, _Solarium_, _Crepidula_, _Calyptraea_, _Natica_, _Rissoa_,
+_Turritella_, _Siliquaria_, _Cerithium_, _Newtoniella_, _Tylospira_,
+_Cypraea_, _Trivia_, _Morio_, _Semicassis_, _Lotorium_, _Murex_, _Typhis_,
+_Columbella_, _Phos_, _Nassa_, _Siphonalia_, _Euthria_ (_Dennantia_),
+_Fusus_, _Columbarium_, _Fasciolaria_, _Latirus_, _Marginella_, _Mitra_,
+_Volutilithes_, _Voluta_, _Harpa_, _Ancilla_, _Cancellaria_, _Terebra_,
+_Pleurotoma_, _Drillia_, _Conus_, _Bullinella_ and _Vaginella_.
+
+
+=Persistent Species.--=
+
+Amongst the Cainozoic Gasteropoda of southern Australia which have a
+persistent range through Balcombian to Kalimnan times, we find:--_Niso
+psila_, _Crepidula unguiformis_ (also Werrikooian and Recent), _Natica
+perspectiva_, _N. hamiltonensis_, _Turritella murrayana_, _Cerithium
+apheles_, _Cypraea leptorhyncha_, _Lotorium gibbum_, _Volutilithes
+antiscalaris_ (also in Werrikooian), _Marginella propinqua_, _Ancilla
+pseudaustralis_, _Conus ligatus_ and _Bullinella exigua_.
+
+
+=Balcombian Gasteropods.--=
+
+Species restricted to the Balcombian stage include _Scala dolicho_,
+_Seguenzia radialis_, _Dissocheilus eburneus_, _Trivia erugata_, _Cypraea
+ampullacea_ (Fig. 102 A), _C. gastroplax_, _Colubraria leptoskeles_,
+_Murex didymus_ (Fig. 102 B), _Eburnopsis aulacoessa_ (Fig. 102 C),
+_Fasciolaria concinna_, _Mitra uniplica_, _Harpa abbreviata_, _Ancilla
+lanceolata_, _Cancellaria calvulata_ (Fig. 102 D), _Buchozia oblongula_,
+_Pleurotoma optata_, _Terebra leptospira_ and _Vaginella eligmostoma_
+(Fig. 102 E), (also found at Gellibrand River).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 102--CAINOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=
+
+ A--Cypraea ampullacea, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria
+
+ B--Murex didymus, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria
+
+ C--Eburnopsis aulacoessa, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria
+
+ D--Cancellaria calvulata, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria
+
+ E--Vaginella eligmostoma, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 103--CAINOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=
+
+ A--Eutrochus fontinalis, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Vict.
+
+ B--Morio wilsoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Victoria
+
+ C--Scala lampra, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). South Australia
+
+ D--Natica gibbosa, Hutton. Cainozoic (Janjukian). South Australia
+
+ E--Volutilithes anticingulatus, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
+ Victoria
+
+ F--Struthiolaria sulcata, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere series). New
+ Zealand
+
+]
+
+
+=Janjukian Gasteropods.--=
+
+Species of Gasteropods restricted to the Janjukian stage
+include:--_Pleurotomaria tertiaria_, _Haliotis mooraboolensis_, _Liotia
+lamellosa_, _Thalotia alternata_, _Eutrochus fontinalis_ (Fig. 103 A),
+_Astralium hudsonianum_, _Turbo atkinsoni_, _Odostomia polita_, _Scala
+lampra_ (Fig. 103 C), _Natica gibbosa_ (Fig. 103 D) (also found in the
+Pareora Series of the Oamaru system and in the Wanganui beds of New
+Zealand), _Calyptraea subtabulata_, _Turritella aldingae_, _Cerithiopsis
+mulderi_, _Cerithium flemingtonense_, _Cypraea platyrhyncha_, _C.
+consobrina_, _Morio wilsoni_ (Fig. 103 B), _Lotorium abbotti_, _Murex
+otwayensis_, _Eburnopsis tesselatus_, _Tudicla costata_, _Latirus
+semiundulatus_, _Fusus meredithae_, _Columbarium spiniferum_, _Voluta
+pueblensis_, _V. heptagonalis_, _V. macroptera_ (also recorded from
+Hall's Sound, Papua) (Fig. 103 E), _Volutilithes anticingulatus_ (also
+from Papua), _Harpa clathrata_, _Bela woodsi_, _Bathytoma paracantha_ and
+_Volvulella inflatior_.
+
+_Dolium costatum_, allied to the "Fig-Shell" has been noted from the
+Cainozoic clays (? Lower Pliocene), Yule Island, Papua.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 104--LATE CAINOZOIC and PLEISTOCENE GASTEROPODA=
+
+ A--Bankivia howitti, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ B--Eglisia triplicata, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ C--Voluta masoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ D--Ancilla papillata. Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ E--Terebra geniculata, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ F--Helix simsoniana, Johnston. Pleistocene. Tasmania
+
+]
+
+
+=Kalimnan Gasteropods.--=
+
+Species of Gasteropods restricted to the Kalimnan Stage, or only
+passing upwards include:--_Bankivia howitti_ (Fig. 104 A), _Liopyrga
+quadricingulata_, _Calyptraea corrugata_, _Natica subvarians_,
+_Turritella pagodula_, _Eglisia triplicata_ (Fig. 104 B), _Tylospira
+clathrata_, _Cypraea jonesiana_, _Lotorium ovoideum_, _Sistrum
+subreticulatum_, _Voluta masoni_ (Fig. 104 C), _Ancilla papillata_ (Fig.
+104 D), _Cancellaria wannonensis_, _Drillia wanganuiensis_ (also in the
+Petane Series of New Zealand), _Terebra catenifera_, _T. geniculata_ (Fig.
+104 E) and _Ringicula tatei_.
+
+
+=New Zealand Cainozoic Gasteropods.--=
+
+Characteristic Gasteropoda of the Oamaru Series in New Zealand are
+_Pleurotomaria tertiaria_ (also in the Australian Janjukian), _Scala
+lyrata_, _Natica darwinii_, _Turritella cavershamensis_, _Ancilla hebera_
+(also in the Australian Balcombian and Janjukian) and _Pleurotoma
+hamiltoni_. Gasteropods of the Awatere Series in New Zealand are _Natica
+ovata_, _Struthiolaria sulcata_ (Fig. 103 F), and _Scaphella corrugata_
+(found also in the Oamaru Series). The Putiki beds of the Petane Series in
+New Zealand contain _Trophon expansus_, _Pisania drewi_ and _Pleurotoma
+wanganuiensis_.
+
+
+=Werrikooian Gasteropods.--=
+
+The marine gasteropods of the Werrikooian of southern Australia, as found
+at Limestone Creek, Glenelg River, Western Victoria, and the Moorabool
+Viaduct near Geelong, are nearly all living at the present time, with
+the exception of a few older Cainozoic species. Amongst these latter are
+_Conus ralphi_, _Pleurotoma murndaliana_, _Volutilithes antiscalaris_ and
+_Columbarium craspedotum_.
+
+
+=Pleistocene Gasteropoda.--=
+
+The Pleistocene land mollusca, and especially the gasteropods of
+Australia, present some striking points of interest, for whilst most of
+the species are still living, some appear to be extinct. The travertine
+deposits of Geilston, near Hobart, Tasmania contain _Helix geilstonensis_
+and _H. stanleyana_, the latter still living. The calcareous _Helix_
+sandstone of the islands in Bass Strait are largely composed of shells
+of that genus and generally represent consolidated sand-dunes which have
+undergone a certain amount of elevation. One of the prevalent species is
+_Helix simsoniana_ (Fig. 104 F), a handsome keeled form, somewhat related
+to the living _H. launcestonensis_. It is found in some abundance in the
+Kent's Group and in the adjacent islands.
+
+The large ovoid land-shells, _Panda atomata_, although still existing,
+are found associated with extinct marsupials, as _Thylacoleo_, in the
+stalagmitic floor of the Buchan Caves, Gippsland.
+
+The _Diprotodon_-breccias of Queensland have afforded several species
+of _Helix_ and other land-shells, as well as the brackish-water genus
+_Melania_. The Raised Beaches of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria,
+and Tasmania all contain species of land and freshwater shells identical
+with those now found living in the same localities.
+
+The Raised Beaches of New Zealand contain numerous marine shells all
+having living representatives. Some of these elevated beaches occur as
+high as 150 feet above sea-level at Taranaki, and at 200 feet near Cape
+Palliser in Cook Strait.
+
+Many species of Pleistocene Mollusca identical with those now living
+in Torres Strait, the China Sea and the Philippine Islands are
+found in Papua. They occur in the greenish sandy clay of the hills
+near the present coast line and comprise the following genera of
+Gasteropods:--_Ranella_, _Nassa_, _Mitra_, _Oliva_, _Terebra_, _Conus_,
+_Strombus_, _Bulla_ and _Atys_.
+
+
+=Characters of Cephalopoda.--=
+
+The highest class of the mollusca is the _CEPHALOPODA_ ("head-feet").
+In these shell-fish the extremity of the body or foot is modified, and
+furnished with eyes, a funnel and tentacles. It has also strong horny
+beaks or jaws which make it a formidable enemy to the surrounding life in
+the sea. In the chambered forms of this group the animal partitions off
+its shell at regular intervals, like the Pearly Nautilus and the Ammonite,
+inhabiting only the last chamber cavity, but still communicating with the
+earlier series by a continuous spiral tube (siphuncle). In some forms like
+the living squid and the extinct Belemnite, the shell is internal and
+either spoon-shaped, or dart-shaped, that is, subcylindrical and pointed.
+
+
+=Characters of Cephalopod Shells.--Nautiloidea.--=
+
+In geological times the nautiloid forms were the first to appear (in the
+Ordovician), and they were either straight shells, as _Orthoceras_, or
+only slightly curved, as _Cyrtoceras_. Later on they became more closely
+coiled, and as they were thus less likely to be damaged, they gradually
+replaced the straight forms.
+
+The Ammonites have the siphuncle close to the outside of the shell, whilst
+in the Nautilus it is more or less median. The sutures or edges of the
+septa in _Nautilus_ and its allies are curved or wavy, but not so sharply
+flexed or foliaceous as in _Ammonites_. The Nautiloidea range from the
+Ordovician and are still found living.
+
+
+=Ammonoidea.--=
+
+The Ammonoidea appear in Devonian times and die out in the Cretaceous.
+They were very abundant in Jurassic times, especially in Europe.
+
+
+=Belemnoidea.--=
+
+The Belemnoidea, ranging from the Trias to Eocene, comprise the extinct
+_Belemnites_, the interesting genus _Spirulirostra_ of Miocene times, and
+the living _Spirula_.
+
+
+=Sepioidea.--=
+
+The Sepioidea or true Cuttle-fishes ("pen-and-ink fish") range from the
+Trias to the present day.
+
+
+=Octopoda.--=
+
+The Octopoda, with _Octopus_ and _Argonauta_ (the paper "Nautilus") are
+present-day modifications. The male of the latter is without a shell, the
+female only being provided with a delicate boat-shaped shell secreted by
+the mantle and the two fin-like expansions of the dorsal arms.
+
+
+=Ordovician Cephalopods.--=
+
+The Ordovician cephalopods of Australasia are not numerous, and are,
+so far as known, practically restricted to the limestones of the
+Larapintine series at Laurie's Creek and Tempe Downs, in Central South
+Australia. Amongst them may be mentioned _Endoceras warburtoni_ (Fig.
+105 A), (a straight form in which the siphuncle is partially filled with
+organic deposits); _Orthoceras gossei_; _O. ibiciforme_; _Trochoceras
+reticostatum_ (a coiled form); and _Actinoceras tatei_ (a genus
+characterised by swollen siphuncular beads between the septa).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 105--PALAEOZOIC CEPHALOPODA.=
+
+ A--Endoceras warburtoni, Eth. fil. Ordovician. South Australia
+
+ B--Orthoceras lineare, Münster sp. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
+
+ C--Cycloceras ibex, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
+
+ D--Phragmoceras subtrigorium, McCoy. Mid Devonian. Victoria
+
+ E--Gastrioceras jacksoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian. W. Australia
+
+ F--Agathiceras micromphalum, Morris sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W.
+
+]
+
+
+=Silurian Cephalopods.--=
+
+Silurian cephalopods are more generally distributed, and in Victoria
+constitute an important factor in the molluscan fauna of that system.
+_Orthoceras_ and _Cycloceras_ are the best known genera, represented by
+_Orthoceras capillosum_, found near Kilmore, Victoria; _O. lineare_ (Fig.
+105 B), from the Upper Yarra; _Cycloceras bullatum_, from the Melbournian
+of Collingwood and Whittlesea; and _C. ibex_ (Fig. 105 C) from South
+Yarra and Flemington, in both Melbournian shale and sandstone. The latter
+species occurs also at Rock Flat Greek, New South Wales. Other Victorian
+species are _Kionoceras striatopunctatum_, a well-known European fossil
+with a reticulated and beaded ornament, found near Warburton and at
+McMahon's Creek, Upper Yarra.
+
+_Orthoceras_ is also recorded from Tasmania and from the Wangapeka beds of
+Baton River, New Zealand. _Cyclolituites_, a partially coiled nautilian
+is recorded from Bowning, near Yass, New South Wales; whilst the closely
+related _Lituites_ is noted from the Silurian of Tasmania.
+
+
+=Devonian Cephalopods.--=
+
+The only genus of cephalopoda at present recorded from the Devonian of
+Victoria is _Phragmoceras_ (_P. subtrigonum_) (Fig. 105 D), which occurs
+in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan, E. Gippsland. From beds of
+similar age in New South Wales _Orthoceras_, _Cyrtoceras_ and _Goniatites_
+have been noted; whilst the latter genus also occurs near Kimberley,
+Western Australia. In Queensland _Gyroceras philpi_ is a characteristic
+shell, found in the Fanning and Reid Gap Limestones of the Burdekin
+Formation (Middle Devonian).
+
+
+=Carbopermian Cephalopods.--=
+
+The Carbopermian rocks of New South Wales have yielded _Orthoceras
+striatum_, _Cameroceras_, _Nautilus_ and _Agathiceras micromphalum_
+(Fig. 105 F). In Queensland the Gympie Formation contains _Orthoceras_,
+_Gyroceras_, _Nautilus_, _Agathiceras micromphalum_ and _A.
+planorbiforme_. In Western Australia the Kimberley rocks contain
+_Orthoceras_, _Glyphioceras sphaericum_ and _Agathiceras micromphalum_;
+whilst the largest known Australian goniatite, _Gastrioceras jacksoni_
+(Fig. 105 E) is found in the Irwin River District. _Actinoceras hardmani_
+is an interesting fossil from the Carbopermian of Lennard River, N.W.
+Australia. In Tasmania the genera _Orthoceras_ and _Goniatites_ have been
+recorded from beds of similar age.
+
+
+=Triassic Cephalopods.--=
+
+For Triassic cephalopoda we look to New Zealand, where, in the Mount Potts
+_Spiriferina_ Beds of the Kaihiku Series a species of _Orthoceras_ has
+been recorded. The Wairoa Series next in succession contains _Orthoceras_
+and an Ammonite.
+
+
+=Jurassic Cephalopods.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 106--MESOZOIC and CAINOZOIC CEPHALOPODA.=
+
+ A--Perisphinctes championensis, Crick. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+ B--Nautilus hendersoni, Eth. fil. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ C--Haploceras daintreei, Eth. sp. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ D--Crioceras australe, Moore. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ E--Aturia australis, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ F--Spirulirostra curta, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Victoria
+
+]
+
+The Jurassic of Western Australia yields a rich cephalopod fauna, from
+which may be selected as typical examples the _Nautilus_, _N. perornatus_
+and the following Ammonites: _Dorsetensia clarkei_; _Normanites
+australis_; and _Perisphinctes championensis_ (Fig. 106 A). These all
+occur in the Greenough River District, and at several other Jurassic
+localities in Western Australia.
+
+The Jurassic system of New Zealand (Putataka Series) contains _Ammonites
+aucklandicus_ and _Belemnites aucklandicus_, both from the upper marine
+horizon of that series.
+
+Upper Jurassic Ammonites belonging to the genera _Macrocephalites_ (_M._
+cf. _calloviensis_) and _Erymnoceras_ (_E._ cf. _coronatum_) have been
+recorded from Papua.
+
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Cephalopods.--=
+
+Remains of Cephalopoda are fairly abundant in the Lower Cretaceous of
+Australasia. From amongst them may be selected the following--_Nautilus
+hendersoni_ (Fig. 106 B) (Q.); _Haploceras daintreei_ (Fig. 106 C) (Q. and
+N.S.W.); _Desmoceras flindersi_ (Q. and N.S.W.); _Schloenbachia inflatus_
+(Q.); _Scaphites cruciformis_ (N. Terr.); _Ancyloceras flindersi_ (Q.
+and N.S.W.); _Crioceras australe_ (Fig. 106 D) (Q. and S.A.); _Belemites
+australis_ (Q.); _B. oxys_ (Q., N.S.W., and S.A.); _B. sellheimi_ (Q. and
+S.A.); _B. diptycha_, = _canhami_, Tate, (Q., N.S.W., and S.A.); and _B.
+eremos_ (Centr. S.A.).
+
+
+=Upper Cretaceous Cephalopods.--=
+
+In the Upper Cretaceous (Desert Sandstone) of Queensland there occurs
+a Belemnite somewhat resembling _Belemnites diptycha_, but with a very
+pointed apex.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Cephalopods, New Zealand.--=
+
+In New Zealand the Amuri System (Cretaceous) contains fossils which
+have been referred to the genera _Ammonites_, _Baculites_, _Hamites_,
+_Ancyloceras_ and _Belemnites_, but probably these determinations require
+some further revision. A species of Belemnite has also been noted from
+probable Cretaceous beds in Papua.
+
+The Cainozoic System in Victoria contains a true _Nautilus, N.
+geelongensis_; and _Aturia australis_ (Fig. 106 E), a nautiloid shell
+having zig-zag suture lines and septal necks enclosing the siphuncle.
+_A. australis_ is also found in the Oamaru Series of New Zealand; in
+Victoria it has an extensive vertical range, from Balcombian to Kalimnan
+(Oligocene to Lower Pliocene). Species of _Nautilus_ are also found in the
+Janjukian of the Murray River Cliffs; where, in some cases the shell has
+been infilled with clear gypsum or selenite, through which can be seen the
+tubular siphuncle in its original position. _Spirulirostra curta_ (Fig.
+106 F) is an interesting cuttle-bone of rare occurrence. The genus is
+represented by two other species only, occurring in the Miocene of Italy
+and Germany. In Victoria it is occasionally found in the Janjukian marly
+limestone at Bird Rock near Torquay.
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+PELECYPODA.
+
+ _Ambonychia, macroptera_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia. (?)
+ _Modiolopsis knowsleyensis_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Orthonota australis_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Grammysia cuneiformis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Leptodomus maccoyianus_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Edmondia perobliqua_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Cardiola cornucopiae_, Goldfuss sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Panenka gippslandica_, McCoy sp. Silurian (Tanjilian): Victoria.
+
+ _Ctenodonta portlocki_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Nuculites maccoyianus_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Nucula melbournensis_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Palaeoneilo victoriae_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Pterinea lineata_, Goldfuss. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Lunulicardium antistriatum_, Chapm. Silurian (Tanj.): Victoria.
+
+ _Conocardium costatum_, Cressw. sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Conocardium davidis_, Dun. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Actinopteria boydi_, Conrad sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Aviculopecten spryi_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Modiolopsis complanata_, Sowerby sp. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Goniophora australis_, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Cypricardinia contexta_, Barrande. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Paracyclas siluricus_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Actinopteria australis_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Lyriopecten gracilis_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Leptodesma inflatum_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Stutchburia farleyensis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Edmondia nobilissima_, de Koninck. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Deltopecten limaeformis_, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
+ Queensland and Tasmania.
+
+ _Aviculopecten squamuliferus_, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New South
+ Wales and Tasmania.
+
+ _Aviculopecten tenuicollis_, Dana sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales
+ and W. Australia.
+
+ _Chaenomya etheridgei_, de Koninck sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales
+ and Queensland.
+
+ _Maeonia elongata_, Dana. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Pachydomus globosus_, J. de C. Sow. sp. Carbopermian: New South
+ Wales, Tasmania and Queensland.
+
+ _Eurydesma cordatum_, Morris. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Unio dunstani_, Eth. fil. Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Unionella carnei_, Eth. fil. Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Corbicula burrumensis_, Eth. fil. Trias: Queensland.
+
+ _Daonella lommeli_, Wissm. sp. Trias: New Zealand.
+
+ _Mytilus problematicus_, Zittel. Trias: New Zealand.
+
+ _Monotis salinaria_, Zittel. Trias: New Zealand.
+
+ _Cucullaea semistriata_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Trigonia moorei_, Lycett. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Ctenostreon pectiniforme_, Schlotheim sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Astarte cliftoni_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Unio dacombei_, McCoy. Jurassic: Victoria.
+
+ _Unio eyrensis_, Tate. Jurassic: S. Australia.
+
+ _Nucula truncata_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Maccoyella reflecta_, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
+ Queensland (also U. Cretaceous), and S. Australia.
+
+ _Maccoyella barkleyi_, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
+ Queensland and S. Australia.
+
+ _Fissilunula clarkei_, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
+ Queensland, and S. Australia; also Up. Cret. in Queensland and
+ South Australia.
+
+ _Inoceramus carsoni_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Trigonia cinctuta_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: S. Australia.
+
+ _Mytilus rugocostatus_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Cyrenopsis opallites_, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Conchothyra parasitica_, Hutton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Dimya dissimilis_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and South
+ Australia.
+
+ _Spondylus pseudoradula_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and
+ South Australia.
+
+ _Pecten polymorphoides_, Zittel. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and
+ South Australia; also New Zealand.
+
+ _Cucullaea corioensis_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and
+ South Australia.
+
+ _Leda vagans_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and South
+ Australia.
+
+ _Corbula ephamilla_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and South
+ Australia.
+
+ _Modiola praerupta_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.
+
+ _Pecten praecursor_, Chapm. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Modiola pueblensis_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Limopsis insolita_, Sow. sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria and S.
+ Australia. Also Oamaru Ser., N.Z.
+
+ _Cardita tasmanica_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janj.): Tasmania.
+
+ _Lucina planatella_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria and Tasmania.
+
+ _Pecten novaeguineae_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (?Lower Pliocene), Yule
+ Island, Papua.
+
+ _Ostrea manubriata_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Glycimeris halli_, Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Limopsis beaumariensis_, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan and Werrikooian):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Trigonia howitti_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Meretrix paucirugata_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Venus (Chione) subroborata_, Tate, sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria and
+ South Australia.
+
+
+SCAPHOPODA.
+
+ _Dentalium tenuissimum_, de Koninck. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Dentalium huttoni_, Bather. Jurassic: New Zealand.
+
+ _Dentalium wollumbillensis_, Eth. fil. L. Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Dentalium, mantelli_, Zittel. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia and
+ New Zealand.
+
+
+POLYPLACOPHORA.
+
+ _Chelodes calceoloides_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Ischnochiton granulosus_, Ashby and Torr sp. Cainozoic (Balc.):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Lorica duniana_, Hull. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Tasmania.
+
+ _Cryptoplax pritchardi_, Hall. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+
+GASTEROPODA.
+
+ _Ophileta subangulata_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Platyceras etheridgei_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Salterella planoconvexa_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Salterella hardmani_, Foord. Cambrian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Hyolithes communis_, Billings. Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Scenella tenuistriata_, Chapm. Cambrian (Upper): Victoria.
+
+ _Ophileta gilesi_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Raphistoma browni_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Hyolithes leptus_, Chapm. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Helicotoma johnstoni_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: Tasmania.
+
+ _Coleolus (?) aciculum_, J. Hall. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Hyolithes spryi_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Conularia ornatissima_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.
+
+ _Phanerotrema australis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Gyrodoma etheridgei_, Cressw. sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Trematonotus pritchardi_, Cressw. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Bellerophon cresswelli_, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria.
+
+ _Euomphalus northi_, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Cyclonema australis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Trochonema montgomerii_, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian: Tasmania.
+
+ _Bellerophon jukesii_, de Koninck. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Conularia sowerbii_, Defrance. Silurian: Victoria and New South Wales.
+
+ _Euomphalus culleni_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Gosseletina australis_, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Yvania konincki_, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales; and
+ Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Bellerophon costatus_, Sow. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Mourlonia humilis_, de Koninck. Carbopermian: West Australia and New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Pleurotomaria (Ptychomphalina) morrisiana_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Keeneia platyschismoides_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Lower Marine): New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Platyschisma oculum_, Sow. sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Macrocheilus filosus_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Loxonema babbindonensis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Conularia tenuistriata_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Conularia tasmanica_, Carbopermian: Tasmania.
+
+ _Murchisonia carinata_, Etheridge. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Pleurotomaria greenoughiensis_, Eth. fil. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Turbo australis_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Rissoina australis_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Cinulia hochstetteri_, Moore. Cretaceous: Queensland and S. Australia.
+
+ _Natica ornatissima_, Moore. Cretaceous: S. Australia.
+
+ _Pseudamaura variabilis_, Moore sp. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
+ Queensland and S. Australia.
+
+ _Anchura wilkinsoni_, Eth. fil. Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Rostellaria waiparensis_, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Niso psila_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Crepidula unguiformis_, Lam. Cainozoic (Balc.-Recent): Victoria and
+ Tasmania.
+
+ _Natica hamiltonensis_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Recent): Victoria and
+ South Australia.
+
+ _Turritella murrayana_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria, S.
+ Australia and Tasmania.
+
+ _Cerithium apheles_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Volutilithes antiscalaris_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Balc.-Werrikooian):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Ancilla pseudaustralis_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria,
+ S. Australia and Tasmania.
+
+ _Cypraea ampullacea_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.
+
+ _Murex didyma_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.
+
+ _Eburnopsis aulacoessa_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.
+
+ _Cancellaria calvulata_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.
+
+ _Vaginella eligmostoma_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.
+
+ _Eutrochus fontinalis_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Turbo atkinsoni_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Tasmania and
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Scala lampra_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S. Australia.
+
+ _Natica gibbosa_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria. Also Oamaru
+ and Wanganui Series: New Zealand.
+
+ _Morio wilsoni_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Voluta heptagonalis_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S. Australia.
+
+ _Volutilithes anticingulatus_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian):
+ Victoria and Tasmania. Also Papua.
+
+ _Bathytoma paracantha_, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria and
+ Tasmania. Also Papua.
+
+ _Dolium costatum_, Deshayes. Cainozoic. (? Lower Pliocene): Yule
+ Island, Papua.
+
+ _Bankivia howitti_, Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Eglisia triplicata_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Voluta masoni_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Ancilla papillata_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Drillia wanganuiensis_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria. Also
+ Petane Series: New Zealand.
+
+ _Terebra geniculata_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Pleurotomaria tertiaria_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria. Also
+ Oamaru Series: New Zealand.
+
+ _Scala lyrata_, Zittel sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.
+
+ _Natica darwinii_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.
+
+ _Turritella cavershamensis_, Harris. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.
+
+ _Ancilla hebera_, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand. Also
+ (Balc. and Janj.): Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
+
+ _Pleurotoma hamiltoni_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.
+
+ _Natica ovata_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Struthiolaria sulcata_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Trophon expansus_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Pisania drewi_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Bankivia fasciata_, Menke. Cainozoic (Werrikooian-Recent): Victoria.
+
+ _Astralium aureum_, Jonas sp. Cainozoic (Werrikooian-Recent): Victoria.
+
+ _Natica subinfundibulum_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Werr.): Victoria and
+ S. Australia.
+
+ _Nassa pauperata_, Lam. Cainozoic (Werr.-Rec.): Victoria.
+
+ _Helix tasmaniensis_, Sow. Cainozoic (Pleistocene): Tasmania.
+
+ _Helix geilstonensis_, Johnston. Cainozoic (Pleistocene): Tasmania.
+
+ _Panda atomata_, Gray sp. Cainozoic (Pleist.-Rec.): Victoria and New
+ South Wales.
+
+
+CEPHALOPODA.
+
+ _Endoceras warburtoni_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Orthoceras gossei_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Orthoceras ibiciforme_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Trochoceras reticostatum_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Actinoceras tatei_, Eth. fil. sp. Ordovician: S. Australia.
+
+ _Orthoceras capillosum_, Barrande. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Orthoceras lineare_, Münster sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.
+
+ _Cycloceras bullatum_, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Cycloceras ibex_, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Kionoceras striatopunctatum_, Münster sp. Silurian (Tanjilian):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Phragmoceras subtrigonum_, McCoy. Mid. Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Gyroceras philpi_, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian: Queensland.
+
+ _Orthoceras striatum_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Agathiceras micromphalum_, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales
+ and W. Australia.
+
+ _Gastrioceras jacksoni_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Actinoceras hardmani_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: N.W. Australia.
+
+ _Nautilus perornatus_, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Dorsetensia clarkei_, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Normanites australis_, Crick sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Perisphinctes championensis_, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Ammonites aucklandicus_, Hector. Jurassic: New Zealand.
+
+ _Belemnites aucklandicus_, Hector. Jurassic: New Zealand.
+
+ _Nautilus hendersoni_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Haploceras daintreei_, Etheridge sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and
+ New South Wales.
+
+ _Ancyloceras flindersi_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Crioceras australe_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Scaphites eruciformis_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Northern
+ Territory.
+
+ _Belemnites diptycha_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland, New South
+ Wales, and S. Australia.
+
+ _Belemnites eremos_, Tate. Lower Cretaceous: S. Australia.
+
+ _Nautilus geelongensis_, Foord. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Aturia australis_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria. Oamaru
+ Series: New Zealand.
+
+ _Spirulirostra curta_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+MOLLUSCA.
+
+ Cambrian.--Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp.
+ 98, 99 (Pteropoda). Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV.
+ 1892, pp. 183-185 (Pelec. and Gastr.), pp. 186, 187 (Pteropoda).
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXIX. 1905, p.
+ 251 (Pteropoda). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIII. pt.
+ II. 1910, pp. 313, 314 (Gastr.).
+
+ Ordovician.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Parl. Papers, Leg. Assemb., S. Austr.,
+ No. 158, 1891, pp. 9, 10 (Gastr. and Ceph.). Tate, R. Rep. Horn.
+ Sci. Exped., pt. 3, 1896, pp. 98-110. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc.
+ Vic., vol. XV. pt. II. 1903, pp. 119, 120 (_Hyolithes_).
+
+ Silurian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic., Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 23-29.
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I. No. 3, 1890, pp.
+ 62-67 (Gastr.). Idem, ibid., vol. I. No. 7, 1891, pp. 126-130
+ (Pelec. and Gastr.). Cresswell, A. W. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
+ V. 1893, pp. 41-44. Etheridge, R. jun. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol.
+ III. No. 4, 1898, pp. 71-77 (Gastr.). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. New
+ South Wales, vol. V. pt. 2, 1898, pp. 67-70 (_Chelodes_). De
+ Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geo. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898,
+ pp. 29-35. Etheridge, R. jnr. Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict., No.
+ XI. 1899, pp. 34, 35 (Pelec.). Idem, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V.
+ No. 2, 1904, pp. 75-77 (Ceph.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc., Vict.,
+ vol. XVI. pt. 11. 1904, pp. 336-341 (Pteropoda). Idem, Mem. Nat.
+ Mus. Melbourne, No. 2, 1908 (Pelecypoda).
+
+ Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal., Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 18, 19
+ (Ceph.). Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
+ 69 (_Gyroceras_). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 85-105.
+
+ Carboniferous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. III. No. 1,
+ 1897, pp. 7-9 (_Actinoceras_). Idem, Geol. Surv. W.A., Bull. No.
+ 27, 1907, pp. 32-37.
+
+ Carbopermian.--Morris, J., in Strzelecki's Phys. Descr. of New South
+ Wales, etc., 1845, pp. 270-278 and 285-291. Foord, A. H. Geol.
+ Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 103, 104. Etheridge, R.
+ jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 264-296. Idem., Proc.
+ Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. IX. 1895, pp. 530-537 (Pelec.
+ and Gastr.). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 203-274. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W.
+ S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, vol. II. pt.
+ I. 1906 (_Palaeopecten_). Idem, ibid., vol. II., pt. 2, 1910
+ (_Eurydesma_).
+
+ Trias.--Zittel, K. Novara Exped., vol. I. Abth. II. Geol. Theil.,
+ 1864, pp. 26-29. Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, Pal. No. 1, 1888, pp. 8-14.
+
+ Jurassic.--Zittel, K. Novara Exped., vol. I., Abth. II. Geol. Theil.,
+ 1864, pp. 20-34. Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI.
+ pp. 245-260 (Jurassic and Cretaceous Moll.). Etheridge, R. jnr.
+ ibid., vol. XXVIII. 1872, pp. 317-359 (Palaeozoic, Jur. and Cret.
+ Moll.). Crick, G. C. Geol. Mag., Dec. IV. vol. I. 1894, pp.
+ 385 393 and 433-441 (Ceph.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.,
+ vol. XVI. pt. II. 1904, pp. 327-332. Marshall, P. Trans. New
+ Zealand Inst., vol. XLI. 1909, pp. 143-145 (New Zealand Ceph.).
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Surv. W.A. Bull. No. 36, 1910, pp. 30-40.
+
+ Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp.
+ 445-503 and 561-574. Idem, Geol. Surv. Queensland, Bull. No. 13,
+ 1901, pp. 13-35. Idem, Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. II. pt. 1,
+ 1902 (S.A. Moll.). Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
+ No. 11, 1902, pp. 16-49 (New South Wales Moll.).
+
+ Cainozoic.--Zittel, K. Novara Exped. Geol. Theil., vol. I. Abth. II.
+ 1864, pp. 34-55 (Pelec. and Gastr. New Zealand). McCoy, F. Prod.,
+ Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874; Dec. II. 1875; Dec. III. 1876; Dec. V.
+ 1877; Dec. VI. 1879. Woods, J. E. T. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. (1875),
+ 1876, pp. 13-26 (Table Cape Moll.). Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc. New
+ South Wales, vol. III. 1879, pp. 222-240 (Muddy Creek Moll.).
+ Idem, ibid., vol. IV. 1880, pp. 1-24. Hutton, F. W. Trans. New
+ Zealand Inst. vol. IX. 1877, pp. 593-598. Ibid., vol. XVII.
+ 1885, pp. 313-332 (New Zealand Pelec. and Gastr.). Idem, Proc.
+ Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. I. 2nd ser. (1886), 1887, pp.
+ 205-237, (distr. lists, Pareora and Oamaru). Idem, Macleay, Mem.
+ Vol. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1893, pp. 35-92 (Pliocene Moll.
+ New Zealand). Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. VII. 1886,
+ pp. 96-158, and vol. IX., 1887, pp. 142-189 (Pelec.); ibid., pp.
+ 190-194 (Scaphopoda); ibid., 194-196 (Pteropoda). Idem, ibid.,
+ vol. X. 1888, pp. 91-176; vol. XI. 1889, pp. 116-174; vol. XIII.
+ 1890, pp. 185-235; and vol. XVII. 1893, pp. 316-345 (Gastr.).
+ Idem, Journ. R. Soc., New South Wales, vol. XXVII. 1893, pp.
+ 169-191. Idem, ibid., vol. XXXI. 1897, pp. 392-410 (Gastr. and
+ Pelec.). Idem, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXIII. 1899, pp.
+ 260-277 (Revision of Moll.). Pritchard, G. B. Proc. Roy. Soc.
+ Vic., vol. VII. 1895, pp. 225-231 (Pelec.). Idem, ibid., vol.
+ VIII. 1896, pp. 79-141 (Moll. of T. Cape). Idem, ibid., vol. XI.
+ pt. I. 1898, pp. 96-111 (Gastr.). Idem, ibid., vol. XIV. pt. I.
+ 1901, pp. 22-31 (Pelec.). Idem, ibid., vol. XVI. pt. II. 1903,
+ pp. 87-103 (Pelec.). Idem, ibid., vol. XVI. pt. I. 1903, pp.
+ 83-91 (_Pleurotomaria_). Idem, ibid., vol. XVII. pt. I. 1904, pp.
+ 320-337 (Gastr.) Idem, ibid., vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. I. 1913, pp.
+ 192-201 (Volutes). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII.
+ pt. II. 1905, pp. 391-393 (Chitons). Ashby, E. and Torr. W. G.
+ Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXV. 1901, pp. 136-144 (Chitons).
+ Thomson, J. A. Trans. New Zealand Inst., Vol. XL. 1908, pp. 102,
+ 103 (N.Z. Moll.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XX. pt.
+ II. 1908, pp. 218-220 (Chiton). Idem, ibid., vol. XXV. pt. I.
+ 1912, pp. 186-192 (Gastr.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+FOSSIL TRILOBITES, CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.
+
+
+=Arthropods and their Structure.--=
+
+The above-named fossil groups are included by zoologists in the
+sub-kingdom Arthropoda ("joint-footed animals"). The Arthropods possess a
+body and limbs composed of a number of jointed segments covered externally
+with a hard, shelly material and separated by a softer, flexible skin.
+They have no internal skeleton, and therefore the only portion which can
+be preserved in the fossil state is the harder part of the outer covering.
+Under exceptional conditions of fossilisation, however, even frail insects
+such as ants, wasps and dragon-flies are sometimes found more or less
+wholly preserved and showing their original minute structure.
+
+
+=Subdivisions of Arthropoda.--=
+
+The principal representatives of the group of the Arthropods which are
+found as fossils include the Trilobites; various Crustacea proper, as
+Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, Pod-shrimps and Water-fleas; the Insects;
+and occasionally Spiders and Scorpions (Arachnida). The King-crabs and
+Eurypterids (as the extinct _Pterygotus_) form a separate sub-class, the
+Merostomata, which are placed by some authors in the group of Spiders and
+Scorpions: their remains date back to the time when the older Palaeozoic
+strata were deposited.
+
+
+=Crustacea, an Archaic Group.--=
+
+A typical division of the Arthropod group, and one which was well
+represented from the earliest period up to the present day, is the
+_CRUSTACEA_. As the name denotes, these animals are generally invested
+with a strong shelly covering or "crust," usually of horny or chitinous
+material, which in some forms is strengthened by deposits of phosphate
+of lime. Of the horny condition of the shell the groups of the bivalved
+Crustacea (Ostracoda) and the "water-fleas" (Entomostraca) supply notable
+instances; whilst the limy-structured shell is seen in the common crab.
+Some authorities separate the great extinct group of the Trilobites
+from the rest of the Crustacea; but it will here be convenient, in a
+preliminary study, to consider them together.
+
+
+=Development of Crustacea.--=
+
+The development of the lower forms of the Crustacea is interesting,
+from the fact that the young usually escapes from the egg in a larval
+state known as a "nauplius." In this stage there are no segments to
+the body, and but a solitary median eye, such as may be seen in the
+common water-flea known to microscopists as _Cyclops_. The three pairs
+of appendages seen in this larval crustacean represent the two pairs of
+antennae and the jaws or mandibles of the full-grown form.
+
+Among the higher Crustacea, however, there is no larval form; the young
+escaping from the egg in a more or less highly developed condition
+resembling the adult. The group of the Crabs, Lobsters and Shrimps (or
+Decapoda, _i.e._, having ten ambulatory feet) exhibit a larval stage in
+which the young form ("zoea") has a segmented abdomen and seven pairs of
+appendages.
+
+
+=Trilobites.--=
+
+The first group of arthropods here described is that of the _TRILOBITES_.
+These were so named on account of the three-lobed form of the body.
+This particular feature distinguishes them from the Crustacea proper;
+which includes the Phyllopods (with leaf-like limbs), as the freshwater
+_Estheria_, the Ostracoda or Bivalved Water-fleas, the Barnacles or
+Cirripedia and the Higher Crustacea (Malacostraca), including Shrimps,
+Crabs, and Lobsters, of which the oldest representatives are the
+Pod-shrimps (Phyllocarida).
+
+
+=Habits of Trilobites.--=
+
+The remains of these primitive but often strikingly ornamented
+crustacean-like animals, the trilobites, are found in comparative
+abundance in the limestones, mudstones, and even the sandstones of the
+older sedimentary rocks of Australasia. They were amongst the most
+prolific types of animal life existing in the seas of Palaeozoic times,
+and are especially characteristic of Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian
+rocks. Trilobites, as a group, seem to have adapted themselves to almost
+all conditions of marine life: some are found in the hardened black mud
+of shallow waters, whilst others are to be looked for in the limestones
+and excessively fine sediments of deeper waters. In all probability
+certain of these forms crawled over the soft, oozy sea-bed in order to
+obtain their food, and consequently their remains in the stratified rocks
+would be restricted to the fine black shales; whilst the freely swimming
+forms could change their habitat at will, and would be found alike in
+sandy or clayey deposits. As some indication of their varied habits, the
+eyes of trilobites differ greatly in size. They are always compound like
+the eye of the house-fly, though of a semi-lunar shape. In some forms the
+eyes are very small or even absent, whilst in others they are exceedingly
+large and prominent. This latter feature probably indicates their
+frequenting moderately deep water.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 107--Diagram-restoration of an Australian Trilobite.=
+
+(Dalmanites meridianus, Eth. fil. and Mitch, sp.)
+
+To show the sutures or joints, and the structure of the back of the
+carapace.
+
+ About 2/3 natural size.
+]
+
+
+=Structure of Trilobites.--=
+
+The complete structure and zoological relationship of the trilobites has
+always been open to some doubt. As regards the former, within recent
+years exceptionally well-preserved specimens from the Utica Slates and
+the Cincinnati Limestone of Ohio, rocks of Ordovician age, have been
+discovered and dissected, whereby our knowledge of the organisation of
+this group is greatly advanced. These remarkable fossil remains show that
+the Trilobites bore on their under surface a number of appendages, one
+pair to each segment, except that of the anal. The front pair is whip-like
+and served as antennae; the others are branched, the forward portion being
+a crawling limb, and the hinder, which was fringed with bristles or thin
+plates, may have served either for swimming or breathing. At the base of
+the four pairs of appendages attached to the head there was an arrangement
+for biting the food, from whence it was passed to the mouth. Taking one
+of the commonest Australasian trilobites, _Dalmanites meridianus_, for
+an example of general structure, and looking at the back of the shell or
+upper surface, we see the trilobate (three-lobed) form well defined (Fig.
+107). The central ridge is termed the axis, and on either side of this are
+arranged the pleural lobes, each well marked transverse division of which,
+in the central or thoracic region, being a pleuron or rib. The whole body
+is divided into three more or less distinct portions,--the head-shield or
+cephalon, the thorax, and the tail-shield or pygidium. The central area
+of the head-shield is called the glabella or cranidium, against which, on
+either side, are placed the free cheeks carrying the compound sessile eyes
+when present. The appendages of the head are pediform or leglike, arranged
+in five pairs, and biramous or forked, excepting the antennae, which are
+simple and used as sensory organs. In front of the mouth is the hypostoma
+or forelip, and behind it is the metastoma or hind-lip. The segments of
+the head-shield are most closely united, and in all the trilobites are of
+the same number. Those of the thorax have flexible joints and are variable
+in number. The segments of the abdomen are fused together and form a
+caudal shield or pygidium.
+
+The larval stage of the trilobite was a protonauplian form (that is more
+primitive than the nauplius), the protoaspis; the adult stage, being
+attained by the addition of segments at the successive moults.
+
+The earliest known trilobites in Australia are some Cambrian species from
+South Australia, Western Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.
+
+
+=Lower Cambrian Trilobites.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 108--CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES.=
+
+ A--Ptychoparia howchini, Eth. fil. L. Cambrian. South Australia
+
+ B--Dolichometopus tatei, H. Woodw. L. Cambrian. South Australia
+
+ C--Agnostus australiensis, Chapm. Up. Cambrian. Victoria
+
+ D--Ptychoparia thielei, Chapm. Up. Cambrian. Victoria
+
+ E--Dikellocephalus florentinensis, Eth. fil. L. Cambrian. Tasmania
+
+]
+
+In the Lower Cambrian Limestone of Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, the
+following trilobites occur:--a species doubtfully referred to _Olenellus_
+(? _O. pritchardi_); _Ptychoparia howchini_ (Fig. 108 A); _P. australis_;
+_Dolichometopus tatei_ (Fig. 108 B); and _Microdiscus subsagittatus_.
+The Cambrian of the Northern Territory contains _Olenellus brownii_. In
+Western Australia _Olenellus forresti_ is found in similar beds.
+
+
+=Upper Cambrian Trilobites.--=
+
+The Dolodrook Limestone (Upper Cambrian) of Gippsland, Victoria,
+contains the remains of the primitive little trilobite _Agnostus_ (_A.
+australiensis_, Fig. 108 C); _Crepicephalus_ (_C. etheridgei_); and
+_Ptychoparia_ (_P. thielei_ (Fig. 108 D) and _P. minima_). The Upper
+Cambrian sandstones of Caroline Creek, Tasmania, contain _Dikellocephalus_
+(_D. tasmanicus_); a species of _Asaphus_ and _Ptychoparia_ (_P.
+stephensi_). Beds of the same age in the Florentine Valley, Tasmania, have
+yielded _Dikellocephalus_ (_D. florentinensis_, Fig. 108 E).
+
+
+=Ordovician Trilobites.--=
+
+Trilobites of Lower Ordovician age or even older, are found in the
+Knowsley beds near Heathcote in Victoria. They are referred to two genera,
+_Dinesus_ and _Notasaphus_. Both forms belong to the ancient family
+of the Asaphidae. Associated with these trilobites are some doubtful
+species of sea-weed, spicules of siliceous sponges, traces of threadlike
+hydrozoa, some fragments of graptolites allied to _Bryograptus_, and
+several brachiopods. At the Lyndhurst Gold-fields, near Mandurama, New
+South Wales, trilobites related to the genus _Shumardia_ have been found
+associated with brachiopods (lamp-shells), pteropods (sea-butterflies),
+and graptolites (hydrozoa) of an Upper Ordovician facies.
+
+The limestone beds at Laurie's Creek and other localities in Central
+Australia contain remains of _Asaphus illarensis_, _A. howchini_ and _A.
+lissopelta_; whilst in the limestone and quartzite of Middle Valley, Tempe
+Downs, _A. thorntoni_ also occurs.
+
+
+=Silurian Trilobites.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 109--OLDER SILURIAN TRILOBITES.=
+
+ A--Ampyx parvulus, Forbes, var. jikaensis, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.)
+ Victoria
+
+ B--Cypaspis spryi, Gregory. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
+
+ C--Homalonotus harrisoni, McCoy. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria
+
+ D--Phacops latigenalis, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales
+
+]
+
+Trilobites are well-known fossils in the Australasian Silurian strata. As
+they occur rather abundantly along with other fossils in rocks of this age
+they are extremely useful aids in separating the system into the different
+beds or zones. In Victoria the Silurian is divisible into two sets of
+beds: an older, or Melbournian stage (the bed-rock of Melbourne) and a
+younger, Yeringian (Lilydale series). Trilobites of Melbournian age are
+found to belong to the genera _Ampyx_, _Illaenus_, _Proetus_, _Cyphaspis_,
+_Encrinurus (Cromus)_ and _Homalonotus_. The commonest species are
+_Cyphaspis spryi_ (Fig. 109 B), and _Encrinurus (Cromus) spryi_ from the
+South Yarra mudstones; and _Ampyx parvulus_, var. _jikaensis_ (Fig. 109
+A), and _Homalonotus harrisoni_ (Fig. 109 C), from the sandstone of Moonee
+Ponds Creek.
+
+The handsome _Dalmanites meridianus_ and _Homalonotus vomer_ occur at
+Wandong in what appear to be passage beds between the Melbournian and
+Yeringian.
+
+The Yeringian of Victoria is far richer in trilobites than the preceding
+series, and includes the genera _Proetus_, _Cyphaspis_, _Bronteus_,
+_Lichas_, _Odontopleura_, _Encrinurus_, _Calymene_, _Homalonotus_,
+_Cheirurus_, and _Phacops_. The rocks in this division occur as mudstones,
+limestones, and occasionally sandstones and conglomerates. The mudstones,
+however, prevail, and these pass insensibly into impure limestones of
+a blue-black colour, weathering to brown, as at Seville; the change of
+structure indicating less turbid water. At Lilydale, and on the Thomson
+River, as well as at Loyola and Waratah Bay, almost pure limestone
+occurs, which represents clear water conditions, not necessarily deep;
+there, however, trilobites are scarce, and the prevailing fauna is that
+of an ancient coral reef. Some described Yeringian species are _Lichas
+australis_ (Fig. 110 A), _Odontopleura jenkinsi_ (Fig. 110 B) (found
+also in New South Wales), _Encrinurus punctatus_ (Fig. 110 C), _Calymene
+tuberculosa_, _Bronteus enormis_, _Phacops sweeti_, and _P. serratus_
+(Fig. 110 E). In _Calymene_ ("covered up") the joints of the thorax
+are facetted at the angles, so that each pleuron could work over that
+immediately behind; in consequence of this it could roll itself up like
+a woodlouse or slater, hence the name of the genus. This trilobite also
+occurs in England, and is there known amongst the quarry men and fossil
+collectors as the "Dudley Locust." Perhaps the most characteristic and
+common trilobite of the Yeringian series in Victoria is _Phacops sweeti_
+(Fig. 110 D), formerly identified with Barrande's _P. fecundus_, from
+which it differs in the longer and larger eye with more numerous lenses.
+It is found in Victoria in the Upper Yarra district near the junction
+of the Woori Yallock and the Yarra Rivers; north-west of Lilydale; near
+Seville; at Loyola near Mansfield; and at Fraser's Creek near Springfield,
+Kilmore.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 110--NEWER SILURIAN TRILOBITES.=
+
+ A--Lichas australis, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria
+
+ B--Odontopleura jenkinsi. Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales
+
+ C--Encrinurus punctatus, Brunnich sp. Silurian. N.S. Wales.
+
+ D--Phacops sweeti, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales
+
+ E--Phacops serratus, Foerste. Silurian. N.S. Wales
+
+]
+
+In New South Wales trilobites are abundant in the Yass district, amongst
+other localities, where the upper beds, corresponding to the Yeringian
+of Victoria, are well developed. _Dalmanites meridianus_ is common to
+the Silurian of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. In Victoria
+this handsome species is found in the hard, brown, sandy mudstone of
+Broadhurst's and Kilmore Creeks, and, as previously noted, in the hard,
+blue mudstone of Wandong. At the latter locality specimens may be found in
+the railway ballast quarry, where they are known to the workmen as "fossil
+butterflies." The species also occurs at the famous fossil locality of
+Hatton's Corner, Yass; at Bowning; and at Limestone Creek, all in New
+South Wales. Other trilobites occurring in the Silurian of New South Wales
+are _Odontopleura jenkinsi_, _O. bowningensis_, _Cheirurus insignis_ and
+_Phacops latigenalis_ (Fig. 109 D).
+
+In the Wangapeka series of New Zealand the calcareous shales and
+limestones of the upper division contain _Calymene blumenbachii_,
+_Homalonotus knightii_ and _H. expansus_.
+
+
+=Devonian Trilobites.--=
+
+Trilobites suddenly became rare in the Australian Devonian. The only
+known examples of trilobite remains belong to a species of _Cheirurus_
+occasionally found in the Middle Devonian limestone of Buchan, Victoria;
+and a species of _Proetus_ in the Devonian of Barker Gorge, Napier Range,
+West Australia.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Trilobites.--=
+
+Trilobites of Carbopermian age are found in New South Wales, Queensland,
+and Western Australia. All the genera belong to the family Proetidae.
+The genera _Phillipsia_ (_P. seminifera_, Fig. 111 A), _Griffithides_
+(_G. eichwaldi_, Fig. 111 B), and _Brachymetopus_ (_B. strzelecki_, Fig.
+111 C) occur in New South Wales. _Griffithides eichwaldi_ is also found
+in Queensland. Other Queensland species are _Phillipsia woodwardi_, _P.
+seminifera_ var. _australasica_ and _P. dubia_. _Phillipsia grandis_ is
+found in the Carbopermian of the Gascoyne River, Western Australia.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 111--CARBONIFEROUS TRILOBITES and a PHYLLOPOD.=
+
+ A--Phillipsia seminifera, Phillips. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
+
+ B--Griffithides eichwaldi, Waldheim. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
+
+ C--Brachymetopus strzelecki, McCoy. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales
+
+ D--Estheria coghlani, Cox. Triassic. N.S. Wales
+
+]
+
+
+=Phyllopoda in Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic.=
+
+The _PHYLLOPODA_, which belong to the Crustacea in the strict sense of
+the term, comprise the Estheriidae and Cladocera (water-fleas). The
+former group is represented by _Leaia mitchelli_, which is found in the
+Upper Carboniferous or Carbopermian of the Newcastle District, New South
+Wales. In the still later Hawkesbury series (Triassic) of New South Wales,
+_Estheria coghlani_ (Fig. 111 D) occurs. This species is a minute form,
+the carapace measuring from 1.25mm. to 2mm. in the longer diameter of
+the shell. In the upper part of the Wairoa Series (Triassic) of Nelson,
+New Zealand, there is found another species of _Estheria_, identified
+with a European form _E. minuta_. _Estheria mangaliensis_ is another form
+occurring in the Jurassic (Ipswich series) of Queensland. At the present
+day these little _Estheriae_ sometimes swarm in countless numbers in
+freshwater lakes or salt marshes.
+
+
+=Ostracoda: Their Structure.--=
+
+Passing on to the next group, the bivalved _OSTRACODA_, we note that these
+have existed from the earliest geological periods to the present day. They
+are usually of minute size, commonly about the sixteenth of an inch in
+length, although some attained a length of nearly one inch (_Leperditia_).
+Their bodies are indistinctly segmented, and are enclosed within a
+horny or calcareous shell. This shell consists of two valves which are
+joined along the back by a ligament or hinge, the ends and ventral edge
+remaining quite free. The pairs of appendages present are the antennae
+(2), mandibles (1), maxillae (2), and thoracic feet (2). The only portion
+found in the fossil state is the bivalved carapace, the two valves being
+frequently met with still united, especially when these tiny animals have
+settled down quietly on the sea-bed and have been quickly covered with
+sediment.
+
+
+=Features of the Ostracod Carapace.--=
+
+Since the body parts of the ostracod are wanting in the fossil examples,
+the generic determination is attended with some difficulty, especially
+in regard to the smooth or bean-shaped forms. The chief distinctive
+characters to note are, the contour of the carapace seen in three
+directions (top, side and end views), the structure of the hinge, and
+the position and figure of the muscle-spots or points of adhesion of the
+muscular bands which hold or relax the two valves. The valves in certain
+genera fit closely upon one another. In others, one overlaps the other,
+the larger being sometimes the right (as in _Leperditia_), sometimes
+the left (as in _Leperditella_). The hinge-line is often simple or
+flange-like, or it may consist of a groove and corresponding bar, or there
+may be a series of teeth and sockets. Lateral eye-tubercles are sometimes
+seen on the surface of the valve, whilst in the animal there was also a
+small eye.
+
+
+=Habits of Ostracoda.--=
+
+Ostracoda swarmed in many of the streams, lakes and seas of past
+geological times, and they still exist in vast numbers under similar
+conditions. Like some other minute forms of life, they played a most
+important part in building up the rock formations of the sedimentary
+series of the earth's crust; and by the decomposition of the organism
+itself they are of real economic value, seeing that in some cases their
+decay resulted in the subsequent production of oil or kerosene shales
+and bituminous limestones. The Carboniferous oil shales in the Lothians
+of Scotland, for example, are crowded with the carapaces of Ostracoda
+associated with the remains of fishes.
+
+
+=Cambrian Ostracoda.--=
+
+Some undescribed forms of the genus _Leperditia_ occur in the hard,
+sub-crystalline Cambrian Limestone of Curramulka, South Australia.
+
+
+=Silurian Ostracoda.--=
+
+In Victoria and New South Wales the oldest rocks from which we have
+obtained the remains of Ostracoda up to the present, are the uppermost
+Silurians, in which series they occur both in the limestone and the
+mudstone. In Victoria their bivalved carapaces are more often found in the
+limestone; but one genus, _Beyrichia_, is also met with in abundance in
+the mudstone. These mudstones, by the way, must have originally contained
+a large percentage of carbonate of lime, since the casts of the shells of
+mollusca are often excessively abundant in the rock, and the mudstone is
+cavernous, resembling an impure, decalcified limestone. These Yeringian
+mudstones of Victoria seem, therefore, to be the equivalent of the
+calcareous shales met with in the Wenlock and Gotland Series in Europe;
+a view entirely in accordance with the character of the remainder of
+the fauna. One of the commonest of the Silurian ostracods is _Beyrichia
+kloedeni_, a form having an extensive distribution in Europe. It occurs
+in the Silurian mudstone of the Upper Yarra District. Other species of the
+same genus are _B. wooriyallockensis_ (Fig. 112 A), distinguished from the
+former by differences in the shape of the lobes and its longer valves;
+also a form with narrow lobes, _B. kilmoriensis_; and the ornate _B.
+maccoyiana_, var. _australis_. Of the smooth-valved forms, mention may be
+made of _Bythocypris hollii_, _B. caudalis_ (Fig. 112 D), and the striking
+form, _Macrocypris flexuosa_. Regarding the group of the _Primitiae_, of
+which as many as thirteen species and varieties have been described from
+the Lilydale Limestone, we may mention as common forms _P. reticristata_
+(Fig. 112 E) and _P. punctata_. This genus is distinguished by the
+bean-shaped or purse-shaped carapace, with its well developed marginal
+flange and mid-dorsal pit. Other genera which occur in our Silurians and
+are of great interest on account of their distribution elsewhere. are
+_Isochilina_, _Aparchites_, _Xestoleberis_, _Aechmina_, and _Argilloecia_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 112--SILURIAN OSTRACODA.=
+
+ A--Beyrichia wooriyallockensis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
+
+ B--Xestoleberis lilydalensis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
+
+ C--Argilloecia acuta, Jones and Kirkby. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
+
+ D--Bythocypris caudalis, Jones. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
+
+ E--Primitia reticristata, Jones. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria
+
+]
+
+The largest ostracod yet described from Australia, measuring more than a
+quarter of an inch in length, occurs in the Upper Silurian of Cliftonwood,
+near Yass, New South Wales. It belongs to the genus _Leperditia_ (_L.
+shearsbii_), and is closely related to _L. marginata_, Keyserling sp.;
+which occurs in strata of similar age in the Swedish and Russian Baltic
+area. A limestone at Fifield, New South Wales, probably of Silurian age,
+contains _Primitia_, _Kloedenia_, and _Beyrichia_.
+
+
+=Devonian Ostracoda.--=
+
+The little _Primitia cuneus_ (Fig. 113 A) with a bean-shaped carapace and
+median pit or depression occurs somewhat frequently in the Middle Devonian
+Limestone of Buchan, Victoria. Another species, _Primitia yassensis_, is
+found in the shaly rock of Narrengullen Greek, New South Wales. It is
+probable that many other species of the group of the ostracoda remain to
+be described from Australian Devonian rocks.
+
+
+=Carboniferous Ostracoda.--=
+
+In Queensland a conspicuous little ostracod is _Beyrichia varicosa_ from
+the Star Beds of Corner Creek.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Ostracoda.--=
+
+In the Carbopermian of Cessnock, New South Wales, _Primitia dunii_ occurs;
+and in that of Farley is found _Jonesina etheridgei_. From both these
+localities _Leperditia prominens_ was also obtained. Another species from
+New South Wales is _Entomis jonesi_ (Fig. 113 B), described from the Muree
+Sandstone by de Koninck.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 113--UPPER PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC OSTRACODA.=
+
+ A--Primitia cuneus, Chapm. Mid. Devonian. Victoria
+
+ B--Entomis jonesi, de Kon. Carboniferous. New South Wales
+
+ C--Synaphe mesozoica, Chapm. sp. Triassic. New South Wales
+
+ D--Cythere lobulata, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+ E--Paradoxorhyncha foveolata, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+ F--Loxoconcha jurassica, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+ G--Cytheropteron australiense, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia
+
+]
+
+
+=Triassic Ostracoda.--=
+
+The Triassic (Wiannamatta Shales) of Grose Vale, New South Wales has
+afforded a few specimens of ostracoda belonging to _Synaphe_ (_S.
+mesozoica_, Fig. 113 C), _? Darwinula_, and _? Cytheridea_.
+
+
+=Jurassic Ostracoda.--=
+
+The marine Jurassic strata of Western Australia at Geraldton, have yielded
+a small but interesting series of ostracoda, largely of modern generic
+types. The genera, which were found in a rubbly _Trigonia_-Limestone, are
+_Cythere_, _Paradoxorhyncha_, _Loxoconcha_, and _Cytheropteron_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 114--CAINOZOIC OSTRACODA.=
+
+ A--Bairdia amygdaloides, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+ B--Cythere clavigera, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+ C--Cythere scabrocuneata, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+ D--Cytherella punctata, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Cainozoic Ostracoda.--=
+
+The fossiliferous clays and calcareous sands of the southern Australian
+Cainozoic beds often contain abundant remains of ostracoda. The moderately
+shallow seas in which the fossiliferous clays, such as those of Balcombe's
+Bay, were laid down, teemed with these minute bivalved Crustacea. All the
+forms found in these beds are microscopic. They either belong to living
+species, or to species closely allied to existing forms. Some of the more
+prominent of the Balcombian species are _Cythere senticosa_, a form which
+is now found living at Tenedos, and _C. clavigera_ (Fig. 114 B), with
+the young form sometimes referred to as _C. militaris_, a species which
+may still be dredged alive in Hobson's Bay. Other genera common in these
+clays are _Bairdia_, with its broad, pear-shaped carapace, represented by
+the still living _B. amygdaloides_ (Fig. 114 A). _Cytherella_, with its
+compressed, subquadrate carapace, as seen in _C. punctata_ (Fig. 114 D),
+a species having an elaborate series of muscle-spots, and which, like the
+previous species, is found living in Australian seas; and _Macrocypris_,
+with its slender, pointed, pear-shaped outline.
+
+
+=Cirripedia: Their Habits and Structure.--=
+
+_CIRRIPEDIA OR BARNACLES._--These curious modifications of the higher
+group of Crustacea (Eucrustacea) date back to Ordovician times. They
+appear to have tried every possible condition of existence; and although
+they are mostly of shallow water habits, some are found at the great
+depth of 2,000 fathoms (over two miles). Those which secrete lime or
+have calcareous shells, attach themselves to stones, pieces of wood,
+shell-fish, crabs, corals and sea-weeds. Others are found embedded in the
+thick skin of whales and dolphins, or in cavities which they have bored
+in corals or shells of molluscs. Some are found parasitic in the stomachs
+of crabs and lobsters, or within other cirripedes. They begin life, after
+escaping from the egg, as a free-swimming, unsegmented larva ("nauplius"
+stage), and before settling down, pass through the free-swimming,
+segmented "cypris" stage, which represents the pupa condition, and in
+which state they explore their surroundings in search of a suitable
+resting place for their final change and fixed condition. Just before
+this occurs, glands are developed in the pupa barnacle, which open into
+the suckers of the first pair of appendages or antennae. When a suitable
+place for fixation has been found, these glands pour out a secretion which
+is not dissolved by water, and thus the barnacle is fixed head downwards
+to its permanent position. The compound eyes of the "cypris" stage
+disappear, and henceforth the barnacle is blind. The characteristic plates
+covering the barnacle are now developed, and the six pairs of swimming
+feet become the cirri or plumes, with which the barnacle, by incessant
+waving, procures its food. In short, as remarked by one authority, it is
+a crustacean "fixed by its head, and kicking the food into its mouth with
+its legs."
+
+Cirripedes may be roughly divided into two groups, the Acorn Barnacles
+and the Goose Barnacles. Although dissimilar in general appearance, they
+pass through identical stages, and are closely related in most of their
+essential characters. The latter forms are affixed by a chitinous stalk or
+peduncle, whilst the acorn barnacles are more or less conical and affixed
+by the base.
+
+
+=Silurian Cirripedes.--=
+
+The stalked barnacles are probably the oldest group, being found as far
+back as the Ordovician period. In Australia the genus _Turrilepas_ occurs
+in Silurian rocks, _T. mitchelli_ (Fig. 115 A) being found at Bowning in
+the Yass District of New South Wales. The isolated plume-like plates of
+_T. yeringiae_ (Fig. 115 B) are not uncommon in the olive mudstone of the
+Lilydale District in Victoria.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 115--FOSSIL CIRRIPEDIA.=
+
+ A--Turrilepas mitchelli, Eth. fil. Silurian. New South Wales
+
+ B--Turrilepas yeringiae, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ C--(?) Pollicipes aucklandicus, Hector sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru series).
+ New Zealand
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 116--LIVING AND FOSSIL CIRRIPEDES.=
+
+ A--Lepas anatifera, L. Common Goose Barnacle. Living
+
+ B--Lepas pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Cainozoic Lepadidae.--=
+
+The genus _Lepas_ (the modern goose barnacles) is represented by isolated
+plates in the Cainozoic (Janjukian) limestones and marls of Waurn
+Ponds, and Torquay near Geelong: it also occurs in a stratum of about
+the same age, the nodule bed, at Muddy Creek, near Hamilton, Victoria
+(_L. pritchardi_, Fig. 116). In New Zealand the gigantic cirripede,
+_?Pollicipes aucklandicus_ (Fig. 115 C), occurs in the Motutapu beds.
+
+
+=Cainozoic Balanidae.--=
+
+The Acorn Barnacles are represented in our Cainozoic shell marls and
+clays by a species of _Balanus_ from the Janjukian of Torquay; whilst
+two species of the genus occur in the Kalimnan beds at Beaumaris, Port
+Phillip, in similar beds in the Hamilton District, and at the Gippsland
+Lakes.
+
+
+=Phyllocarida: Their Structure.--=
+
+A large and important group of the higher Crustacea, but confined to the
+older rocks of Victoria, is the order _PHYLLOCARIDA_. This seems to form
+a link between the Entomostraca, including the bivalved Ostracoda and the
+well-known group of the lobsters, shrimps and crabs. The body of these
+phyllocarids consists of five segments to the head, eight to the thorax,
+and from two to eight to the abdomen. The portion usually preserved in
+this group is the carapace, which covers the head and thorax, and although
+often in one piece, is sometimes hinged, or otherwise articulated along
+the back. In front of the carapace there is a moveable plate, the rostrum
+or beak (Fig. 117). There are two pairs of antennae to the head, and the
+animal is provided with a pair of stalked compound eyes. The thoracic
+segments are furnished with soft leaf-like legs as in the Phyllopods.
+The abdomen is formed of ring-like segments, and generally terminates
+in a sharp tail-piece or telson, often furnished with lateral spines.
+In many respects the ancient phyllocarids correspond with the living
+genus _Nebalia_, which is found inhabiting the shallow waters of the
+Mediterranean and elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 117--Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter.=
+
+Silurian. Lanarkshire.
+
+ (_After H. Woodward_)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 118--ORDOVICIAN PHYLLOCARIDS.=
+
+ A--Rhinopterocaris maccoyi, Eth. fil. sp. L. Ordovician. Victoria
+
+ B--Caryocaris angusta, Chapm. L. Ordovician. Victoria
+
+ C--Saccocaris tetragona, Chapm. L. Ordovician. Victoria
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 119--SILURIAN PHYLLOCARIDS.=
+
+ A--Ceratiocaris pritchardi, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ B--Ceratiocaris cf. murchisoni, Agassiz sp. Silurian. Victoria
+
+ C--Ceratiocaris pinguis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Ordovician Phyllocarids.--=
+
+Phyllocarids of the Lower Ordovician slates are referred to the genera
+_Rhinopterocaris_, _Caryocaris_, _Saccocaris_ and _Hymenocaris_. The
+first-named is the commonest type; and is found in slates of the
+Lancefield, Bendigo and Castlemaine Series at the localities named,
+as well as at Dromana. _Rhinopterocaris_ (Fig. 118 A) is readily
+distinguished by its long--ovate outline, and this, together with its
+wrinkled chitinous appearance makes it resemble the wing of a dipterous
+insect. _Caryocaris_ (Fig. 118 B) is a smaller and narrower form which
+occurs in the Victorian Lower Ordovician slates, as well as in ice-borne
+blocks derived from the Ordovician, at Wynyard, in N.W. Tasmania.
+
+
+=Silurian Phyllocarids.--=
+
+The chief type of Phyllocarid in the Silurian is _Ceratiocaris_ (Fig.
+119). The carapace is typically ovate, straight on one edge, the dorsal,
+and convexly curved on the other, the ventral. They resemble bean-pods in
+outline, hence the name "pod-shrimps." Several species are known from the
+Victorian shales, mudstones, and sandstones; the forms found in Australia
+if complete would seldom attain five inches in length, whilst some British
+species are known to reach the exceptional length of two feet. The long,
+grooved and jointed telson is not uncommon in the sandstones of Melbourne
+and Kilmore. Other genera described from Victoria are _Aptychopsis_ and
+_Dithyrocaris_.
+
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Crab.--=
+
+The earliest example of the _DECAPODA_ in the Australian rocks, so far
+recorded, is the Lower Cretaceous _Prosopon etheridgei_ (Fig. 120 A) from
+Queensland, which has affinities with some Jurassic and Neocomian crabs
+found in Europe. Other crustacean remains of less decipherable nature
+occur in this same deposit.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 120--FOSSIL CRABS and INSECTS.=
+
+ A--Prosopon etheridgei, H. Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ B--Ommatocarcinus corioensis, Cressw. sp. Cainozoic (Jan.) Vic.
+
+ C--Harpactocarcinus tumidus, H. Woodw. Cainozoic (Oamaru). New Zealand
+
+ D--Aeschna flindersensis, H. Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ E--Ephemera culleni, Eth. fil. and Olliff. Cainozoic (Deep Leads). New
+ South Wales
+
+]
+
+
+=Cainozoic Crabs.--=
+
+Of the Cainozoic decapod Crustacea there is a Victorian species of a
+stalk-eyed crab, _Ommatocarcinus corioensis_ (Fig. 120 B), found in the
+marls of Curlewis and Port Campbell, and probably of Janjukian age.
+Various portions of similar Crustacea, consisting of claws and fragmentary
+carapaces, are found from time to time in the Victorian clays and
+limestones of Balcombian and Janjukian ages, but they are insufficient
+for identification. A carapace of one of the Oxystomata (with rounded
+cephalo-thorax and non-salient frontal region) has occurred in the
+Kalimnan marl of the Beaumaris Cliffs, Port Phillip. It is closely allied
+to a crab now found in Hobson's Bay and generally along the Victorian
+coast.
+
+Remains of a shore-crab (Fam. Cancridae) are found at three localities,
+in the Oamaru Series, in New Zealand; near Brighton, in Nelson and at
+Wharekuri in the Waitaki Valley. It has been described under the name of
+_Harpactocarcinus tumidus_ (Fig. 120 C), a genus of the Cyclometopa or
+"bow crabs."
+
+
+=Pleistocene Lobster.--=
+
+Numerous remains of a lobster, _Thalassina emerii_ (see _antea_, Fig. 20),
+supposed to be of Pleistocene age, occur in nodules found on Queensland
+and North Australian (Port Darwin) beaches.
+
+
+=Eurypterids in the Silurian.--=
+
+The order _EURYPTERIDA_ comprises an extinct group of Crustacea closely
+allied to the modern King-crab (_Limulus_). The body was covered with a
+thin chitinous skeleton, ornamented with regular scale-like markings. This
+group is represented in Victorian rocks by the remains of _Pterygotus_
+("Sea-scorpions"), animals which often attained a length of six feet.
+_Pterygotus_ (see Fig. 121 A) had the fore part of the body fused, forming
+the cephalo-thorax, which was furnished with anterior, marginal facetted
+eyes and central ocelli or smaller simple ones. To the ventral surface
+of the body were attached six pairs of appendages. The first pair are
+modified antennae with pincer-like terminations, used for prehensile
+purposes. Then come four pairs of slender walking feet. The sixth pair of
+appendages is in the form of powerful swimming feet or paddles, at the
+bases of which are the comb-like jaws. The abdomen consists of thirteen
+joints, the last of which, the telson, is spatulate and posteriorly
+pointed. Fragments of a tolerably large species of _Pterygotus_ occur in
+the Silurian shales of South Yarra, Melbourne, Victoria. It was probably
+about 18 inches in length when complete. Of this form, known as _P.
+australis_ (Fig. 121 B), portions of the chelate (clawed) appendages, and
+parts of the abdominal segments have been found from time to time, but no
+complete fossil has yet been discovered.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 121--SILURIAN EURYPTERIDS.=
+
+ A--Pterygotus osiliensis, Schmidt. I. of Oesel. (_After Schmidt_)
+
+ B--Pterygotus australis, McCoy. Part of a body-segment. Silurian
+ (Melb.) Victoria
+
+]
+
+
+=Jurassic Insects.--=
+
+Of the group of the _INSECTA_, the Ipswich Coal measures (Jurassic)
+of Queensland have yielded an interesting buprestid beetle
+(_Mesostigmodera_), whilst beds of the same age in New South Wales contain
+the remains of a probable _Cicada_, associated with leaves of the fern
+_Taeniopteris_.
+
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Dragon-fly.--=
+
+From the Lower Cretaceous of the Flinders River district, Queensland,
+there has been obtained a fossil dragon-fly, _Aeschna flindersensis_ (Fig.
+120 D).
+
+
+=Cainozoic Insects.--=
+
+Certain Cainozoic beds of New South Wales, of the age of the Deep-leads
+of Victoria, and probably equivalent to the Kalimnan terrestrial series,
+contain a species of _Cydnus_, a bug-like insect belonging to the order
+Rhynchota; and there are in the same series a Midge (_Chironomus_),
+a Day-fly (_Ephemera_, Fig. 120 E) and several beetles (? _Lagria_,
+_Palaeolycus_, _Cyphon_ and _Oxytelus_). The occurrence of these insects
+of the Deep-leads helps to complete the landscape picture of those
+far-off Lower Pliocene times, when the old river systems brought down
+large contributions of vegetable waste from higher lands, in the form of
+twigs with leaves and fruits; with occasional evidences of the rich and
+varied fauna of insect life which was especially promoted in the damp and
+vegetative areas of the lower lands.
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+TRILOBITES.
+
+ _Ptychoparia howchini_, Eth. fil. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
+
+ _Dolichometopus tatei_, H. Woodward. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
+
+ _Olenellus browni_, Eth. fil. Lower Cambrian: Northern Territory.
+
+ _Agnostus australiensis_, Chapm. Upper Cambrian: Victoria.
+
+ _Ptychoparia thielei_, Chapm. Upper Cambrian: Victoria.
+
+ _Dikellocephalus florentinensis_, Eth. fil. Upper Cambrian: Tasmania.
+
+ _Dinesus ida_, Eth. fil. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Asaphus illarensis_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: Central S. Australia.
+
+ _Ampyx parvulus_, Forbes, var. _jikaensis_, Chapm. Silurian
+ (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Illaenus jutsoni_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Proetus euryceps_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Cyphaspis spryi_, Gregory. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Bronteus enormis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Lichas australis_, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Odontopleura jenkinsi_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales. Silurian
+ (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Encrinurus punctatus_, Brunnich sp. Silurian: New South Wales.
+ Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Encrinurus (Cromus) murchisoni_, de Koninck. Silurian: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Encrinurus (Cromus) spryi_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Calymene blumenbachii_, Brongn. Silurian (Wangapeka Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Homalonotus expansus_, Hector. Silurian (Wangapeka Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Homalonotus knightii_, König. Silurian (Wangapeka Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Homalonotus harrisoni_, McCoy. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Homalonotus vomer_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Cheirurus insignis_, Beyrich. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Phacops sweeti_, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian: New South Wales.
+ Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Phacops serratus_, Foerste. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria. Silurian:
+ New South Wales.
+
+ _Dalmanites meridianus_, Eth. fil. and Mitch, sp. Silurian: New South
+ Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.
+
+ _Cheirurus_ sp. Middle Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Proetus_ sp. Devonian: Western Australia.
+
+ _Phillipsia seminifera_, Phillips. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Phillipsia grandis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: W. Australia and
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Griffithides eichwaldi_, Waldheim. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Brachymetopus strzelecki_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+
+PHYLLOPODA.
+
+ _Leaia mitchelli_, Eth. fil. Upper Carboniferous: New South Wales.
+
+ _Estheria coghlani_, Cox. Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Estheria minuta_, Alberti sp. Trias: New Zealand.
+
+ _Estheria mangaliensis_, Jones. Jurassic: Queensland.
+
+
+OSTRACODA.
+
+ _Leperditia_ sp. Lower Cambrian: S. Australia.
+
+ _Beyrichia kloedeni_, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Beyrichia wooriyallockensis_, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Beyrichia maccoyiana_, Jones, var. _australis_, Chapm. Silurian:
+ (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Bythocypris hollii_, Jones. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Macrocypris flexuosa_, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian) Victoria.
+
+ _Primitia reticristata_, Jones. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Leperditia shearsbii_, Chapm. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Primitia cuneus_, Chapm. Middle Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Beyrichia varicosa_, T. R. Jones. Carboniferous: Queensland.
+
+ _Primitia dunii_, Chapm. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Jonesina etheridgei_, Chapm. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Entomis jonesi_, de Koninck. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Synaphe mesozoica_, Chapm. sp. Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Cythere lobulata_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Paradoxorhyncha foveolata_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Loxoconcha jurassica_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Cytheropteron australiense_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.
+
+ _Bairdia amygdaloides_, Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.
+
+ _Cythere senticosa_, Baird. Cainozoic. Also living: Victoria.
+
+ _Cythere clavigera_, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.
+
+ _Cytherella punctata_, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.
+
+ _Cytherella pulchra_, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.
+
+
+CIRRIPEDIA.
+
+ _Turrilepas mitchelli_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Turrilepas yeringiae_, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.
+
+ _Lepas pritchardi_, Hall. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _(?) Pollicipes aucklandicus_, Hector sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series):
+ New Zealand.
+
+ _Balanus_ sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian and Kalimnan): Victoria.
+
+
+PHYLLOCARIDA.
+
+ _Rhinopterocaris maccoyi_, Eth. fil. sp. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Hymenocaris hepburnensis_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Caryocaris marri_, Jones and Woodw. L. Ordovician: Victoria and
+ Tasmania.
+
+ _Caryocaris angusta_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Saccocaris tetragona_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
+
+ _Ceratiocaris_ cf. _murchisoni_, Agassiz sp. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Ceratiocaris pinguis_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Ceratiocaris pritchardi_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Aptychopsis victoriae_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+ _Dithyrocaris praecox_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+
+DECAPODA.
+
+ _Prosopon etheridgei_, H. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Ommatocarcinus corioensis_, Cresswell sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Ebalia_ sp. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
+
+ _Harpactocarcinus tumidus_, H. Woodw. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Thalassina emerii_, Bell. (?) Pleistocene: Queensland and Northern
+ Territory.
+
+
+EURYPTERIDA.
+
+ _Pterygotus australis_, McCoy. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.
+
+
+INSECTA.
+
+ _Mesostigmodera typica_, Etheridge fil. and Olliff. Jurassic:
+ Queensland.
+
+ _(?) Cicada lowei_, Etheridge fil. and Olliff. Jurassic: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Aeschna flindersensis_, H. Woodward. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Chironomus venerabilis_, Eth. fil. and Oll. Cainozoic: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Ephemera culleni_, Eth. fil. and Oll. Cainozoic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Palaeolycus problematicum_, Eth. fil. and Oll. Cainozoic: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+TRILOBITES.
+
+ McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. III. 1876, pp. 13-20, pls. XXII.
+ and XXIII. (Silurian). Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. IX.
+ 1877, p. 602, pl. XXVII. (_Homalonotus_). Woodward, H. Geol.
+ Mag., Dec. III. vol. I. 1884, pp. 342-344, pl. XI. (Cambrian).
+ Mitchell, J. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. II. 1888,
+ pp. 435-440, pl. XI. (Silurian). Foerste, A. F. Bull. Sci. Lab.
+ Denison Univ., vol. III. pt. V. 1888, pp. 122-128, pl. XIII.
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. V.
+ pp. 501-504, pl. XVIII. (_Bronteus_). Idem, Parl. Papers, Leg.
+ Assemb. S.A., vol. I. No. 23, 1892; ibid., vol. 2, No. 52, 1893
+ (_Asaphus_). Id., Geol. Queensland, 1892, pp. 214-216, pls.
+ VII. VIII. and XLIV. (Carboniferous). Id., Proc. R. Soc. Vict.,
+ vol. VI. (N.S.), 1894, pp. 189-194, pl. XI. (_Bronteus_). Id.,
+ ibid, vol. VIII. (N.S.), 1896, pp. 56, 57, pl. I. (_Dinesus_).
+ Id., Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. No. 2, 1904, pp. 98-101, pl. X.
+ (Cambrian). Id., Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXII. 1898, pp.
+ 1-3, pl. IV. (Cambrian). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Mitchell, J.
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VI. 1892, pp. 311-320, pl.
+ XXV.; ibid., vol. VIII. 1894, pp. 169-178, pls. VI. VII.; ibid.,
+ vol. X. 1896, pp. 486-511, pls. XXXVIII.-XL.; ibid., vol. XXI.
+ 1897, pp. 694-721, pls. L.-LV. Tate, R. Rep. Horn Exped., 1896,
+ Part 3, Palaeontology, pp. 111, 112, pl. III. De Koninck, L. G.
+ Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 36-47 pl.
+ I. (Silurian); pp. 276-281, pl. XXIV. (Carboniferous). Gregory,
+ J. W. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIII. (N.S.) pt. II, 1901, pp.
+ 179-182, pl. XXII. (_Cyphaspis_). Ibid., vol. XV. (N.S.) pt.
+ II. 1903, pp. 154-156, pl. XXVI. (_Dinesus_ and _Notasaphus_.)
+ Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. II.
+ 1910, pp. 314-322, pls. LVIII. and LIX. (Cambrian). Ibid.,
+ vol. XXIV. (N.S.) pt. II. 1912, pp. 293-300, pls. LXI.-LXIII.
+ (Silurian).
+
+
+PHYLLOPODA.
+
+ Cox, J. C. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. V., pt. 3, 1881, p.
+ 276 (_Estheria_). Etheridge, R. jnr. ibid., vol. VII. 1893, pp.
+ 307-310, text fig. (_Leaia_). Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, Pal. No. 1, 1888, pp. 6-8, pl. I. (_Estheria_).
+
+
+OSTRACODA.
+
+ Brady, G. S. in Etheridge, jnr. Geol. Mag., 1876, p. 334 (Cainozoic).
+ De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No.
+ 6, 1898, pp. 33, 36 (Silurian); ibid., pp. 275, 276, pl. XXIV.
+ (Carboniferous). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI.
+ (N.S.), pt. II. 1904, pp. 199-204, pl. XXIII. (Jurassic).
+ Idem, ibid., vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1909, pp. 1-5, pl. I.
+ (_Leperditia_). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol.
+ VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp. 1-3, pl. LIV. (Triassic). Idem, Rec.
+ Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, p. 221, pl. XXXVI.
+ (_Primitia_). Idem, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt.
+ II. 1903, pp. 109-113, pl. XVI. (_Beyrichia_). Ibid., vol. XVII.
+ (N.S.) pt. I. 1904, pp. 299-312, pls. XIII.-XVII. (Silurian).
+
+
+CIRRIPEDIA.
+
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 337, 338,
+ pl. XI. (_Turrilepas_). Hall, T.S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
+ XV. (N.S.) pt. I. 1902, pp. 83, 84, pl. XI. (_Lepas_). Benham,
+ W. B. Geol. Mag., Dec. IV. vol. X. pp. 110-119, pls. IX. X. (_?
+ Pollicipes_). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXII. (N.S.)
+ pt. II. 1910, pp. 105-197, pls. XXVIII. XXIX. (_Turrilepas_).
+
+
+PHYLLOCARIDA.
+
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. I.
+ 1894, pp. 5-8, pl. IV. (Ordovician). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc.
+ Vict. vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II. 1903, pp. 113-117, pl. XVIII.
+ (Ordovician); ibid., vol. XVII. (N.S.) pt. I. 1904, pp. 312-315,
+ pl. XVII.; ibid., vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1910, pp. 107-110,
+ pl. XXVIII. (Silurian). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III.
+ pt. 2, 1912, pp. 212, 213, pls. XVII. XVIII. (Ordovician).
+
+
+DECAPODA.
+
+ Bell, T. Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. I. 1845, pp. 93, 94. Text-fig.
+ (_Thalassina_). Woodward, H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol.
+ XXXII. 1876, pp. 51-53, pl. VII. (_Harpactocarcinus_). Idem.,
+ Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VII. (2), pt. 2, 1892, pp.
+ 301-304 pl. IV. (_Prosopon_).
+
+ Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.) pt. II. 1905, pp.
+ 356-360, pl. XXIII. (_Ommatocarcinus_).
+
+
+EURYPTERIDA.
+
+ McCoy, F. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp. 193, 194, text fig.
+ (_Pterygotus_).
+
+
+INSECTA.
+
+ Woodward, H. Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. I. 1884, pp. 337-339, pl. XI.
+ (_Aeschna_). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Olliff, A. S. Mem. Geol.
+ Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 7, 1890 (Mesozoic and Cainozoic).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FOSSIL FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND MAMMALS.
+
+
+=Vertebrates.--=
+
+The above-named classes of animals are distinguished from those previously
+dealt with, by the presence of a vertebral column. The vertebral axis
+may be either cartilaginous as in some fishes, or bony as in the greater
+number of animals belonging to this sub-kingdom.
+
+
+=Chordata.--=
+
+_LINKS BETWEEN THE INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES._--The curious little
+ascidians or "sea-squirts," belonging to the group Tunicata, are held
+by some authorities to be the degenerate descendants of a free-swimming
+animal having a complete notochord and nerve-tube, structures which
+are now only seen in the tails of their tadpole-like larvae. The fully
+developed tunicate is generally sessile and provided with a thick outer
+coat (tunic) and muscular inner lining. This outer coat in some forms, as
+_Leptoclinum_, is strengthened with tiny calcareous spicules, and these
+are sometimes found in the fossil state in Cainozoic clays, as well as
+in some of the calcareous deep-sea oozes. The little stellate spicules of
+_Leptoclinum_ are abundant in the Balcombian clays of Mornington, Victoria.
+
+Another primitive form with a notochord is the Lancelet, but this, having
+no hard parts, is not found in the fossil state.
+
+
+=Primitive Types of Fishes.--=
+
+_FISHES._--The remains of fishes are naturally more abundant in the
+fossil condition, owing to their aquatic habits, than those of other
+vertebrates. The earliest fishes were probably entirely cartilaginous,
+and some have left only a mere trace or impression on the rocks in which
+they were embedded. These primitive fishes have no lower jaw, and are
+without paired limbs. They are sometimes placed in a class by themselves
+(_AGNATHA_). The orders of this primitive fish series as represented in
+Australasia are the Osteostraci ("bony shells"), of which the remains of
+the _Cephalaspis_-like head-shield of _Thyestes_ has been found in the
+Silurian of N.E. Gippsland, Victoria (Fig. 122); and the Antiarchi, with
+its many-plated cuirass, armoured body-appendages, internal bony tissue,
+and coarsely tuberculated exterior, as seen in _Asterolepis australis_,
+a fossil occasionally found in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan,
+Gippsland.
+
+
+=True Fishes.--Devonian.--=
+
+Of the true fishes (Pisces), the Elasmobranchii ("slit-gills"), a
+sub-class to which the modern sharks belong, are represented in the
+Devonian series by the paired spines of a form resembling _Climatius_,
+found both in Victoria and New South Wales. Remains of Dipnoi
+("double-breather" or lung-fishes) occur in the Devonian of Barker Gorge,
+Western Australia, represented by a new species allied to _Coccosteus_
+("berry-bone" fish); and in a bed of the same age at the Murrumbidgee
+River, New South Wales by the cranial buckler of _Ganorhynchus süssmilchi_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 122--Incomplete Head-Shield= of Thyestes magnificus,
+Chapm. From the Silurian (Yeringian) of Wombat Creek, N.E. Gippsland. 4/5
+nat. size]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 123=
+
+=Gyracanthides murrayi=,
+
+A. S. Woodw.
+
+L. Carboniferous. Mansfield, Victoria.
+
+(Restoration).
+
+About 1/12 nat. size]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 124--TEETH and SCALES of PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC
+FISHES.=
+
+ A--Strepsodus decipiens, A. S. Woodw. L. Carboniferous. Victoria
+
+ B--Elonichthys sweeti, A. S. Woodw. L. Carboniferous. Victoria
+
+ C--Corax australis, Chapm. L. Cretaceous. Queensland
+
+ D--Belouostomus sweeti, Eth. fil. and Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Q.
+
+]
+
+
+=Carboniferous Fishes.--=
+
+The Lower Carboniferous sandstone of Burnt Creek and other localities near
+Mansfield, Victoria, contains an abundant fish fauna, associated with
+stems of _Lepidodendron_. The slabs of sandstone are often ripple-marked
+and show signs of tracks and castings of shore-living animals. These
+deposits were probably laid down in shallow water at the shore margin
+or in salt lagoons or brackish areas skirting the coast, into which
+at intervals the remains of the giant lycopods were drifted. The more
+important of these fish remains are Elasmobranchs, as _Gyracanthides
+murrayi_ (Fig. 123) and _Acanthodes australis_; the Dipnoan, _Ctenodus
+breviceps_; a Rhizodont or fringe-finned ganoid, _Strepsodus decipiens_
+(Fig. 124 A); and a genus related to _Palaeoniscus_, _Elonichthys_
+(_E. sweeti_, Fig. 124 B, and _E. gibbus_). The defence spines of
+_Gyracanthides_ are fairly abundant in the sandstones; whilst on some
+slabs the large enamelled scales of _Strepsodus_ are equally conspicuous.
+
+From the sandstones of the same age, Lower Carboniferous, in the Grampians
+of Western Victoria, some small but well-preserved spines belonging to the
+genus _Physonemus_ have been found associated with a new variety of the
+well-known European Carboniferous brachiopod, _Lingula squamiformis_ (var.
+_borungensis_).
+
+
+=Carbopermian Fishes.--=
+
+In the Carbopermian (Gympie Beds) of the Rockhampton District, Queensland,
+a tooth of a Cochliodont ("snail tooth") occurs, which has been doubtfully
+referred to the genus _Deltodus_ (? _D. australis_). The Cochliodontidae
+show dentition remarkably like that of the _Cestracion_ or Port Jackson
+Shark. Another tooth having the same family relationship has been
+referred to _Tomodus ? convexus_, Agassiz; this is from the Carbopermian
+of the Port Stephen district of New South Wales. From the Newcastle Coal
+Measures in New South Wales a _Palaeoniscus_-like fish, _Urosthenes
+australis_ has been described.
+
+Carbopermian fish remains are rare in Western Australia. They comprise
+a wrinkled tooth of _Edestus_ (_E. davisii_) from the Gascoyne River,
+belonging to a fish closely related to the Port Jackson shark; and a
+cochliodont, _Poecilodus_ (_P. jonesi_, Ag.) from the Kimberley district.
+
+
+=Triassic Fishes.--=
+
+Fossil fishes are important and numerous in Australian Triassic beds,
+especially in New South Wales. At the base of the Hawkesbury or close
+of the Narrabeen series, the railway ballast quarry near Gosford has
+yielded an extensive and extremely interesting collection. Near the floor
+of the quarry there is a band of sandy shale and laminated sandstone 5
+feet 9 inches in thickness, and this contains the following genera:--A
+dipnoan, _Gosfordia_; and the following ganoids or enamelled scale
+fishes--_Myriolepis_, _Apateolepis_, _Dictyopyge_, _Belonorhynchus_,
+_Semionotus_, _Pristisomus_ (see _antea_, Fig. 18), _Cleithrolepis_ (Fig.
+125), _Pholidophorus_ and ? _Peltopleurus_.
+
+
+=Upper Triassic Fishes.--=
+
+In the middle of the Wianamatta or Upper Trias Series at St. Peter's,
+near Sydney, which contains a fauna described as slightly older in aspect
+than that of Gosford, having Carbopermian affinities, there occur in
+the hard shale or clay stone the genera _Pleuracanthus_ (a Palaeozoic
+shark); _Sagenodus_ (a dipnoan related to _Ctenodus_ of the Victorian
+Carboniferous); and the following ganoids,--_Palaeoniscus_, _Elonichthys_,
+_Myriolepis_, _Elpisopholis_, _Platysomus_ and _Acentrophorus_. From the
+soft shales were obtained _Palaeoniscus_, _Semionotus_, _Cleithrolepis_
+and _Pholidophorus_; an assemblage of genera somewhat comparable with the
+Gosford fauna.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 125--Cleithrolepis granulatus, Egerton.=
+
+Triassic (Hawkesbury Series). Gosford, New South Wales. 3/4 nat. size.
+
+ (_After Smith Woodward_.)
+]
+
+
+=Lower Mesozoic Fishes.--=
+
+From the Lower Mesozoic sandstone (?Triassic) of Tasmania, two species of
+_Acrolepis_ have been described, viz., _A. hamiltoni_ and _A. tasmanicus_.
+The former occurs in the thick bed of sandstone, of nearly 1,000 feet,
+at Knocklofty; the latter species in the sandstone with _Vertebraria_
+conformably overlying the Carbopermian at Tinderbox Bay.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 126--REMAINS of JURASSIC and OTHER VERTEBRATES.=
+
+ 1--Ceratodus avus, A. S. Woodw. Left splenial with lower tooth. Cape
+ Paterson, Victoria. About 1/3 nat. size
+
+ 2--Ceratodus forsteri, Krefft. Left lower tooth. Living. Queensland.
+ About 1/3 nat. size
+
+ 3--Phalangeal of Carnivorous Dinosaur. Cape Paterson. About 1/3 nat.
+ size
+
+ 4--Phalangeal of Megalosaurian. Wealden, Sussex, England. 1/4 nat. size
+
+]
+
+=Jurassic Fishes.--=
+
+The Jurassic beds of Victoria contain three genera. _Psilichthys selwyni_,
+a doubtful palaeoniscid was described from Carapook, Co. Dundas; whilst
+_Leptolepis_, a genus found in the Trias of New South Wales and the Lias
+and Oolite of Europe, is represented by _L. crassicauda_ from Casterton,
+associated with the typical Jurassic fern, _Taeniopteris_. In the Jurassic
+beds of South Gippsland, at Cape Paterson, an interesting splenial tooth
+of the mudfish, _Ceratodus_, was found, named _C. avus_ (Fig. 126). Since
+then, in a bore-core from Kirrak near the same place a fish scale was
+discovered (Fig. 127) which, by its shape, size and structure seems to
+differ in no way from the living lung-fish of Queensland (Fig. 128). It
+is reasonable to infer that tooth and scale belong to the same species;
+and in view of the close relationship of the tooth with that of the living
+mudfish, rather than with that of the _Ceratodus_ found fossil in the
+Mesozoic of Europe, it may be referred to _Neoceratodus_, in which genus
+the living species is now placed.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 127--Scale of Ceratodus (Neoceratodus)= (?)avus, A.
+S. Woodw. Jurassic. Kirrak, S. Gippsland, Victoria. About nat. size]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 128--The Queensland Lung-Fish=
+
+or Barramunda (Neoceratodus forsteri). About 1/12th. nat. size
+
+ (_After Lydekker, in Warne's Natural History_)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 129--Leptolepis gregarius=, A. S. Woodw.
+
+Talbragar Series, Jurassic. Talbragar River, New South Wales 1/2 nat.
+size]
+
+From the Jurassic beds (Talbragar Series) of New South Wales, an
+interesting collection of ganoid fishes has been described, comprising
+_Coccolepis australis_, _Aphnelepis australis_, _Aetheolepis mirabilis_,
+_Archaeomaene tenuis_, _A. robustus_, _Leptolepis talbragarensis_, _L.
+lowei_ and _L. gregarina_ (Fig. 129).
+
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Fishes.--=
+
+Fish remains are fairly abundant in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland.
+They comprise both the sharks and the ganoids. Of the sharks, a specimen,
+showing seven conjoined vertebrae has been named _Lamna daviesii_, from
+the Richmond Downs, Flinders River district; and a tooth referred to
+_Lamna appendiculatus_, Agassiz, from Kamileroy, Leichhardt River, N.W.
+Queensland. The typical Cretaceous genus _Corax_ is represented by a
+small tooth named _C. australis_ (Fig. 124 C), from the Hamilton River,
+Queensland, and which closely approaches the tooth of _Corax affinis_,
+Agassiz, from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe. Of the ganoid fishes two
+genera, both members of the family _Aspidorhynchidae_, have been found
+in Queensland. _Aspidorhynchus_ sp. and _Belonostomus sweeti_ (Fig. 124
+D) have both occurred at Hughenden, Flinders River district. The former
+genus has a slender body and produced rostrum; in Europe it is more
+characteristic of Jurassic strata. _Belonostomus_ ranges from the Upper
+Oolite, Bavaria, to the Upper Cretaceous in other parts of the world.
+Remains of a species of _Portheus_, one of the predaceous fishes which
+lived in the Cretaceous period, consisting of a portion of the cranium
+with the anterior part of the jaws, has been obtained from the Rolling
+Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) near Hughenden, Queensland.
+
+
+=Cretaceous Fishes, New Zealand.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 130--CRETACEOUS and CAINOZOIC FISH-TEETH.=
+
+ A--Notidanus marginalis, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand
+
+ B--Callorhynchus hectori, Newton. Cainozoic. New Zealand
+
+ C--Oxyrhina hastalis, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ D--Lamna apiculata, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ E--Carcharodon auriculatus, Blainv. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria
+
+ F--Sargus laticonus, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand
+
+]
+
+The Cretaceous beds of New Zealand are grouped in ascending order as the
+Waipara Greensands, the Amuri Limestone and the Weka Pass Stone. In the
+Waipara beds occur the teeth of _Notidanus marginalis_ (Fig. 130 A), and
+_N. dentatus_. In the Amuri Limestone _N. dentatus_ is again found, as
+well as the genus _Lamna_, represented by _L. compressa_, Ag. (originally
+described as _L. marginalis_, Davis), _L. carinata_ and _L. hectori_. Two
+forms of "Elephant fish" are represented by their dental plates, namely
+_Callorhynchus hectori_ (Fig. 130 B) and _Ischyodus thurmanni_, Pictet and
+Campiche (recorded as _I. brevirostris_, Ag.).
+
+
+=Cainozoic Fishes.--=
+
+Fish remains principally consisting of teeth, are common fossils in the
+Cainozoic beds of southern Australia, particularly in Victoria, and also
+in New Zealand.
+
+
+=Balcombian Series, Southern Australia.--=
+
+The Balcombian beds as seen at Mornington and in the Lower Beds at Muddy
+Creek, Hamilton, contain the teeth of sharks as _Odontaspis contortidens_,
+_Lamna crassidens_, _L. apiculata_, _Oxyrhina hastalis_ (rarely), _O.
+minuta_, _Carcharodon megalodon_, and _C. robustus_.
+
+
+=Janjukian.--=
+
+The Janjukian Series (Miocene), represented at Torquay, Waurn Ponds and
+Table Cape, contains an abundant fish fauna, including amongst sharks,
+_Cestracion cainozoicus_, _Asteracanthus eocaenicus_, _Galeocerdo davisi_,
+_Carcharoides totuserratus_, _Odontaspis contortidens_, _O. incurva_,
+_O. cuspidata_, _Lamna crassidens_, _L. apiculata_ (Fig. 130 D), _L.
+compressa_, _L. bronni_, _Oxyrhina hastalis_ (occasional) (Fig. 130 C),
+_O. desori_, _O. retroflexa_, _O. minuta_, _Carcharodon auriculatus_ (Fig.
+130 E), _C. megalodon_ and _C. robustus_. A species of chimaeroid or
+Elephant fish is represented by a left mandibular tooth named _Ischyodus
+mortoni_, from the Table Cape Beds, Tasmania.
+
+The Corio Bay series contains teeth of _Acanthias geelongensis_, _Sphyrna
+prisca_, _Odontaspis contortidens_, _O. attenuata_, _Oxyrhina minuta_,
+_Carcharodon megalodon_, amongst sharks; whilst the spine of a Porcupine
+Fish, _Diodon connewarrensis_ has been obtained from the clays of Lake
+Connewarre, Victoria.
+
+
+=Kalimnan.--=
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 131--CAINOZOIC FISH REMAINS.=
+
+ A--Carcharoides tenuidens, Chapm. Cainozoic (Janj.) Victoria
+
+ B--Odontaspis contortidens. Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ C--Galeocerdo latidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria
+
+ D--Myliobatis morrabbinensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.)
+ Victoria
+
+ E--Labrodon confertidens. Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.
+
+ F--Diodon formosus, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.
+
+]
+
+The Kalimnan Series is also prolific in the remains of fishes, the
+principal localities being Beaumaris and Grange Burn, Hamilton. Amongst
+the sharks there found are, _Notidanus jenningsi_ (related to the Indian
+Grey Shark), _Cestracion cainozoicus_ (related to the Port Jackson
+Shark), _Asteracanthus eocaenicus_, _Galeocerdo davisi_, _G. latidens_
+(Fig. 131 C), _G. aduncus_, _Odontaspis contortidens_ (Fig. 131 B),
+_O. incurva_, _O. cuspidata_, _O. attenuata_, _Lamna apiculata_, _L.
+compressa_, _Oxyrhina hastalis_ (abundant), _O. desori_, _O. retroflexa_,
+_O. eocaena_, _O. minuta_, _Carcharodon auriculatus_ and _C. megalodon_.
+An extinct species of Sting Ray, _Myliobatis moorabbinensis_ (Fig. 131 D),
+is found at Beaumaris, represented by occasional palatal teeth. Mandibular
+and palatine teeth of an extinct genus of Elephant Fish, _Edaphodon_
+(_E. sweeti_) are occasionally found at Beaumaris, and at Grange Burn
+near Hamilton. Two extinct forms of the Wrasse family, the Labridae, are
+found in Victoria; the pharyngeals of _Labrodon confertidens_ (Fig. 131
+E), occurring at Grange Burn, Hamilton, and those of _L. depressus_, at
+Beaumaris. The palatal jaws of a Porcupine Fish, _Diodon formosus_ (Fig.
+131 F), are frequently met with at the base of the Kalimnan Series, both
+at Grange Burn and Beaumaris.
+
+
+=Oamaru Series, New Zealand.--=
+
+In New Zealand the Oamaru Series, which is comparable in age with the
+Victorian Janjukian, contains numerous fish remains, chiefly teeth
+of sharks. These are: _Notidanus primigenius_, _N. marginalis_ (also
+occurring in the Waipara Series), _Galeocerdo davisi_, _Odontaspis
+incurva_, _O. cuspidata_, _O. attenuata_, _Lamna apiculata_, _L.
+compressa_, _Oxyrhina retroflexa_, _Carcharodon auriculatus_, _C.
+megalodon_ and _C. robustus_. The teeth of a Sting Ray, _Myliobatis
+plicatilis_ and of a species of Sea-bream, _Sargus laticonus_, also occur
+in this series (Fig. 130 F).
+
+
+=Pleistocene.--=
+
+A species of fish belonging to the family of the Perches, _Ctenolates
+avus_, has been described from freshwater carbonaceous shale of
+Pleistocene age from Nimbin on the Richmond River, New South Wales.
+
+
+=Amphibians: Their Structure.--=
+
+_AMPHIBIANS._--This group includes amongst living forms the Frogs,
+Toads, Newts, and Salamanders. The remains of amphibia are rare in
+Australasian rocks, and practically limited to the group of the Triassic
+Labyrinthodonts. The Amphibia are distinguished from Reptiles by certain
+changes which their young undergo after leaving the egg. In this
+intermediate stage they breathe by external gills, these being sometimes
+retained together with the internal lungs in the adult stage. In the
+older forms of this group the vertebra is of the nature of a notochord,
+the joints consisting of a thin bony ring with a gelatinous interior.
+The Labyrinthodontia have a long, lizard-like body, short pectoral limbs
+as compared with the pelvic, and five-toed feet. The skull is completely
+roofed over. The teeth are pointed, with a large pulp cavity and wall of
+infolded or plicated dentine (hence the name labyrinthodont--maze-tooth).
+The vertebrae are hollow on both sides, sometimes imperfectly ossified,
+and with a notochordal canal. Ventral aspect with bony thoracic plates.
+Cranial bones deeply sculptured, and carrying mucus canals.
+
+
+=Carbopermian Labyrinthodonts.--=
+
+The genus _Bothriceps_, probably an Archegosaurian, is represented by two
+species, _B. australis_ and _B. major_ from New South Wales (Fig. 132).
+The latter species occurs in the Oil Shale (Carbopermian) of Airly.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 132--Bothriceps major, A. S. Woodward.=
+
+Carbopermian. New South Wales. About 1/11th. nat. size
+
+ (_After A. S. Woodward_).
+]
+
+
+=Triassic Labyrinthodonts.--=
+
+From the Hawkesbury Series near Gosford, New South Wales, the
+labyrinthodont, _Platyceps wilkinsoni_ has been described. The skeleton
+is nearly complete and exposed on the ventral face; the head is 27mm.
+long and 32mm. broad. This specimen is associated with the remains of
+ganoid fishes, as _Palaeoniscus_ and _Cleithrolepis_, together with the
+equisetum-like plant _Phyllotheca_.
+
+Other, somewhat doubtful remains having similar affinities to the
+labyrinthodonts are also recorded from the Wianamatta beds (Upper Trias)
+at Bowral, New South Wales, consisting of a maxilla with teeth and 11
+vertebrae with ribs of the left side. Remains of a labyrinthodont,
+_Biloela_, supposed to be related to _Mastodonsaurus_, have been
+recorded from the Hawkesbury Series of Cockatoo Island, Port Jackson,
+New South Wales, by W. J. Stephens, and consisting of a pectoral plate
+compared by that author with _M. robustus_ (now transferred to the genus
+_Capitosaurus_).
+
+The only other recorded remains of this group in Australasia are those
+noted by W. J. Stephens from the Kaihiku Series (Trias) at Nugget Point,
+Otago; and in the Otapiri Series (Upper Trias) of the Wairoa district, New
+Zealand.
+
+
+=Reptilia: Their Structure.--=
+
+_REPTILIA._--The Reptiles are cold-blooded, vertebrated animals, with
+a scaly skin or armour. Their respiration is essentially by means of
+lungs, and they are terrestrial or aquatic in habit. The skeleton is
+completely ossified (bony). Reptiles, although resembling amphibians
+externally, are more differentiated in structure and of generally
+larger proportions. They exhibit great diversity of form, especially as
+regards their extremities. They were even adapted for flying, as in
+the Pterosaurs ("Flying Dragons") with their membranous wing attached
+to the anterior limb. The Deinosaurs ("Terrible Reptiles") were often
+of great size, exceeding the dimensions of any land mammals, and their
+limbs were adapted for walking. The marine reptiles, as the Ichthyosauria
+("Fish-lizards") and Sauropterygia ("lizard-finned") had the limbs
+transformed into paddles. The neural spines in the vertebra of the Turtles
+are laterally expanded into a carapace and united with dermal plates.
+The vertebrae of Reptilia show great variation of form, being biplanate
+(amphiplatyan), biconcave (amphicoelus), hollow in front (procoelus),
+or hollow at the back (opisthocoelus). In the case of Reptiles having
+both pairs of limbs developed, the cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal
+regions may be separately distinguished. Amongst the Ophidia (Snakes),
+Pythonomorpha ("Sea-lizards") and Ichthyosaurs ("Fish-lizards") there is
+no differentiated sacral region. The skull of the Reptiles is nearer that
+of Birds than Amphibians. The basiocciput (basal bone of the skull at the
+back) articulates with the atlas (top joint of the backbone) by means of
+a single condyle (protuberance). All reptiles, with the exception of the
+Chelonians (Turtles), and a few others, are furnished with teeth: these
+are formed chiefly of dentine with a layer of enamel.
+
+
+=Dentition.--=
+
+Some teeth have solid crowns (pleodont); some grow from persistent pulps
+(coelodont); socketed teeth (thecodont) are inserted in alveoli; some are
+fused with the supporting bone along the outer rim or top (acrodont);
+whilst others are developed laterally along the flange-like inner rim of
+the jaw (pleurodont).
+
+
+=Permian and Triassic Reptiles.--=
+
+The history of Reptilia commences in Permian and Triassic times, when
+they were notably represented by the Theromorphs, _Pareiasaurus_
+and _Tritylodon_ in South Africa; the Proterosauria of the European
+and American Permian and Trias, represented by the lizard-like
+_Palaeohatteria_ and the dorsally frilled _Dimetrodon_, with its
+formidable array of neural spines; also the Rhynchosauria, with their
+beak-like jaws of the same formations. These two groups constitute the
+order Rhynchocephalia, which is represented at the present day by the
+Tuatera of New Zealand.
+
+
+=Triassic Reptile, New Zealand.--=
+
+The earliest Australian reptilian record is that of a vertebra of
+_Ichthyosaurus_ from the Kaihiku Series of Mount Potts, New Zealand
+(Triassic). This specimen was named _I. australis_ by Hector, but since
+that species name was preoccupied by McCoy in 1867 it is suggested here
+that the New Zealand species should be distinguished as _I. hectori_. The
+New Zealand occurrence of _Ichthyosaurus_ makes the geological history of
+the genus very ancient in this part of the world.
+
+
+=Jurassic Reptiles.--=
+
+At Cape Paterson, Victoria, in the Jurassic coal-bearing sandstone
+an extremely interesting discovery was made a few years ago, of the
+ungual bone (claw) of a carnivorous Deinosaur, probably related to
+_Megalosaurus_ of the European Jurassic and Cretaceous beds (See Fig. 126,
+3, 3 A). The presence of an animal like this in Australia points to the
+former existence of a concomitant terrestrial animal fauna, upon which the
+deinosaur must have preyed.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 133--Ichthyosaurus australis, McCoy.=
+
+ A--Part of head, showing eye protected by sclerotic plates
+
+ B--Left pectoral paddle. L. Cretaceous. Flinders River, Queensland.
+ 1/8 nat. size
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Lower Cretaceous Reptiles.--=
+
+The Rolling Downs formation (Lower Cretaceous) of the Thompson and
+Flinders Rivers in Queensland has yielded remains of a Tortoise,
+_Notochelone costata_ (see _antea_, Fig. 17); and the interesting
+Fish-lizard _Ichthyosaurus_. Numerous and well preserved remains of _I.
+australis_ McCoy come from the Flinders River (Fig. 133); whilst _I.
+marathonensis_ is recorded from Marathon Station, Queensland. The former
+species is typically represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and was
+considered by McCoy to be one of the largest examples of the genus,
+since a perfect specimen would probably reach the length of 25 feet. Its
+teeth resemble those of _I. campylodon_, Carter, from the English Chalk.
+Of the Sauropterygia two species of _Pliosaurus_ (_P. macrospondylus_
+and _P. sutherlandi_) have been described from the Lower Cretaceous
+of the Flinders River; whilst the latter species has also occurred at
+Pitchery Creek, Central Queensland and at Marathon. _P. macrospondylus_
+is distinguished from _P. sutherlandi_ by the roughened edges of
+the vertebral centra. Another genus of the "lizard-finned" reptiles
+(Sauropterygia), viz., _Cimoliosaurus_, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous of
+White Cliffs, New South Wales (Fig. 134 B, C.)
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 134--FOSSIL REPTILES.=
+
+ A--Taniwhasaurus oweni. Hector. (Lower jaw). Cretaceous. New Zealand
+
+ B--Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Teeth). Up. Cretaceous. New
+ South Wales
+
+ C--Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Phalangeal). Up.
+ Cretaceous. New South Wales
+
+ D--Miolania oweni, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene. Queensland
+
+]
+
+
+=Cretaceous Reptiles, New Zealand.--=
+
+The Waipara Series (Cretaceous) of New Zealand contains a fairly large
+number of reptilian species belonging to several genera among which may
+be mentioned _Plesiosaurus_, _Polycotylus_, and _Cimoliosaurus_ among the
+Sauropterygia; and _Tylosaurus_ and _Taniwhasaurus_ (Fig. 134 A), marine
+lizard-like reptiles, belonging to the sub-order Pythonomopha.
+
+
+=Cainozoic and Pleistocene Reptiles.--=
+
+The later Cainozoic deposits of Queensland contain remains of Crocodiles
+referred to _Pallymnarchus pollens_ (from Maryvale Creek) and _Crocodilus
+porosus_ (from Chinchilla and Arcola, near Brisbane, Queensland). The
+former species has also occurred at Clunes, whilst _Crocodilus porosus_ is
+recorded from the Loddon Valley, both in Victoria. Another late Tertiary
+reptile is the remarkable Horned Turtle, _Miolania oweni_, which is found
+in Queensland in Pleistocene deposits (Fig. 134 D), and in the Pliocene
+(Deep Leads) of Gulgong, New South Wales; whilst a second species of the
+same genus, _M. platyceps_, is found in coral sand at Lord Howe Island,
+400 miles distant from Australia. This genus has a skull with large bony
+protuberances, giving it a horned appearance, and the tail is encased in
+a bony sheath. A species of _Miolania_ is also described from Patagonia.
+The Cave deposits of Wellington Valley, New South Wales, as well as the
+fluviatile deposits of Queensland, have, yielded the bones of several
+genera of lizards, including the Giant Lizard (_Megalania_), which, in its
+length of 20 feet exceeded that of most living crocodiles.
+
+
+=Birds.--=
+
+_BIRDS (AVES)._--These warm-blooded animals are closely related to
+Reptiles in many essential particulars; and are generally considered
+to more nearly approach the Deinosaurs than any other group. The
+Ratitae ("Raft-breasted" or keel-less birds) and Carinatae (with keeled
+breast-bones), a sub-class including most modern birds, were probably
+differentiated before the Cainozoic period.
+
+
+=Jurassic Bird.--=
+
+The oldest recorded bird, the remarkable _Archaeopteryx_, of the
+Upper Jurassic of Bavaria in Europe, belonging to the Saururae
+(Reptilian-tailed) is, so far, restricted to the beds of that age.
+
+
+=Miocene Bird, New Zealand.--=
+
+The earliest known birds in Australasia occur in the Miocene rocks (Oamaru
+Series), of New Zealand. In this series, in the Marawhenua Greensands,
+a Giant Penguin, _Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_ is found at Kakanui near
+Oamaru, at Curiosity Shop near Christchurch and at Brighton near Nelson,
+New Zealand: this interesting occurrence shows that these restricted
+antarctic birds had already become an established type as early as the
+Miocene.
+
+
+=Victorian Cainozoic Bird.--=
+
+The impression of a bird's feather, probably of a Wader, has lately been
+described from Western Victoria (see _antea_ Fig. 16 and Fig. 135). This
+occurs in ironstone, on the surface of which are also impressions of Gum
+(_Eucalyptus_) and Native Honeysuckle (_Banksia_) leaves, of species
+closely related to those now growing in the same locality. This ironstone
+is probably of Janjukian age, and may therefore be coincident with the New
+Zealand occurrence of the _Palaeeudyptes_ in the Oamaru Series.
+
+
+=Pliocene Moa, New Zealand.--=
+
+In the Wanganui System (Pliocene) the Putiki Beds have yielded bones of a
+small Moa (_Dinornis_), probably the oldest example of the group of great
+flightless birds which later predominated in New Zealand.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 135--Impression of Bird's Feather in Ironstone.=
+
+Wannon River, Victoria. (Enlarged).]
+
+
+=Pleistocene Struthious Birds, Australia.--=
+
+Bones of a struthious or Ostrich-like bird, described by Owen under
+the name of _Dromornis australis_, a bird as large as the Moa, have
+been recorded from the Pleistocene of Peak Downs and the Paroo River,
+Queensland. Indeterminate species of the same genera occur in Phillip Co.,
+New South Wales, and the Mount Gambier Caves, South Australia; whilst
+_Dromaeus patricius_ is known from King's Creek, Darling Downs, Queensland.
+
+_Genyornis newtoni_ is an extinct bird allied to the Emeus; it has been
+found in Pleistocene deposits at Lake Callabonna, South Australia, and
+other fragmentary remains have been identified by Dr. Stirling and Mr.
+Zietz from Mount Gambier and Queensland. Regarding the build and habits
+of _Genyornis_, those authors remark that "Its legs combine a huge femur
+nearly as massive, in all but length, as that of _Dinornis maximus_, and
+a tibia equalling that of _Pachyornis elephantopus_ with the relatively
+slender metatarse of _Dinornis novae-zealandiae_ (_ingens_) and toes which
+are insignificant beside those of any of the larger moas."... "In height
+it may be confidently stated to have been from 6 feet to 6 feet 6 inches,
+that is if the neck should have been of proportions similar to those of
+_Pachyornis elephantopus_." Those authors also attribute a slow, sluggish
+habit to the bird, and suggest that herbage rather than roots formed its
+food. It is very probable that the footprints of birds found in the older
+dune rock of Warrnambool, Victoria, associated with the doubtful "human
+footprints" may have been made by _Genyornis_ or a related form.
+
+An extinct Emu, _Dromaeus minor_, has lately been described from the
+sub-recent deposits in King Island, Bass Strait.
+
+
+=Pleistocene Carinate Birds, Australia.--=
+
+Many genera of carinate birds belonging to living Australian types have
+been identified by De Vis from the fluviatile deposits on the Darling
+Downs, Queensland. These include Falcons (_Taphaetus_ and _Necrastur)_;
+a Pelican (_Pelicanus_); an Ibis (_Palaeopelargus_); a Spoonbill
+(_Platalea_); Ducks (_Anas_, _Dendrocygna_, _Biziura_ and _Nyroca_); a
+Darter (_Plotus_); a Pigeon (_Lithophaps_); a Ground-pigeon (_Progura_); a
+Mound-builder (_Chosornis_); a Rail (_Porphyrio_); Moor-hens (_Gallinula_,
+_Tribonyx_ and _Fulica_); and a Stork (_Xenorhynchus_).
+
+
+=Pleistocene and Holocene Birds, New Zealand.--=
+
+In New Zealand numerous remains of birds are found, chiefly in the
+Pleistocene strata, associated with Moa bones: such are _Cnemiornis_, the
+Flightless Pigeon Goose (Fig. 135); _Harpagornis_, a predatory hawk-like
+bird larger than any existing eagle; and _Aptornis_, an extinct Rail. The
+sand-dunes, peat bogs, swamps, river alluvium, caves and rock shelters
+of New Zealand often contain numerous remains of the gigantic Moa birds
+included in the genera _Dinornis_, _Pachyornis_ and _Anomalopteryx_, of
+which perhaps the best known are _D. giganteus_, _D. maximus_ (Fig. 136),
+_D. robustus_, _P. elephantopus_ (Fig. 137), and _A. antiqua_. Some of the
+species have become so recently extinct that remains of their skin and
+feathers have been preserved in fissures in the rocks where they were
+shielded from the influence of air and moisture. The remains of Moa birds
+are very abundant in some of the localities as at Hamilton in Southland,
+where, as Hutton estimated, the remains of at least 400 birds were
+contained within a radius of 25 feet.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 136--Cnemiornis calcitrans, Owen.=
+
+Pleistocene. New Zealand. 1/15th. nat. size
+
+ (_After Owen_).
+]
+
+[Illustration:=Fig. 137--Dinornis maximus, Owen. (Great Moa).=
+
+Pleistocene and Holocene. New Zealand.
+
+Vertical height, 8 ft. Measured along spine, 10 ft. 8 in.
+
+ (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 138--Pachyornis elephantopus, Owen sp.=
+
+Pleistocene. New Zealand. About 1/26th. nat. size.
+
+ (_After Owen_).
+]
+
+
+=Mammalia: Early Types.--=
+
+_MAMMALIA._--The history of those warm-blooded animals, the mammals,
+commences in the early part of the Mesozoic period. It was then that the
+skull began to assume the characters seen in the modern quadrupeds, and
+their well-formed limb-bones, and fusion of the three bones on each side
+of the pelvic arch to form the innominate bone, also show relationship to
+the later types. The earliest ancestral mammalian forms seem to be related
+to the theromorphic reptiles, predominant in the Permian and Trias. The
+mammals first to make their appearance were probably related to those of
+the Monotreme and Marsupial orders. More nearly related to the former is
+the group of mammals of the Mesozoic period, the Multituberculata.
+
+
+=Multituberculata.--=
+
+This group comprises the Triassic _Tritylodon_ (South Africa and Germany);
+the Upper Jurassic _Bolodon_ (England and United States); the Upper
+Jurassic to Lower Cainozoic _Plagiaulax_ (England, United States and
+France); and the Lower Eocene _Polymastodon_ (New Mexico). The molar teeth
+are ridged longitudinally, and carry numerous tubercles, hence the name of
+the group, and resemble the deciduous teeth of the Duck-billed Platypus
+(_Ornithorhynchus_).
+
+
+=Monotremata.--=
+
+The Monotremata are represented at the present day in Australia and New
+Guinea by the _Echidna_ or Spiny Anteater, and by the _Ornithorhynchus_ or
+Duck-billed Platypus of Eastern Australia and Tasmania. These egg-laying
+mammals show relationship towards the reptiles both in structure and in
+methods of reproduction.
+
+A Pliocene species of _Ornithorhynchus_ (_O. maximus_) has been recorded
+from the Deep-leads of Gulgong, New South Wales, and the same beds have
+yielded the remains of _Echidna (Proechidna) robusta_. Remains of another
+species, _Echidna, (P.) oweni_, have been described from the Pleistocene
+Cave-breccias of the Wellington Valley Caves, New South Wales; and
+_Ornithorhynchus agilis_ is found in deposits of similar age in Queensland.
+
+
+=Marsupials.--=
+
+The Marsupials or pouched mammals belong to the sub-class Metatheria. They
+are divided into Diprotodontia and Polyprotodontia, accordingly as they
+possess a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, or many front
+teeth, hence the names of the two sub-orders. A later classification of
+the Marsupials is that of their division into syndactyla and diadactyla.
+
+The diadactyla have the second and third toes separate, and are
+represented by the family Dasyuridae or Native Cats. These are
+polyprotodont. They are the most archaic of the marsupial group. Remains
+of _Dasyurus_, both of extinct and still living species are found in
+Pleistocene Cave-breccias in Victoria and New South Wales. The Tasmanian
+Devil (_Sarcophilus ursinus_) (Fig. 138, 139) and the Tasmanian Wolf
+(_Thylacinus cynocephalus_), still living in Tasmania, have left numerous
+remains on the mainland, in Victoria and New South Wales. Of the latter
+genus an extinct species is _T. major_ from the Pleistocene of Queensland
+(Fig. 140).
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 139=
+
+=Skeleton of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).=
+
+ (_F. J. Moore, prep._)
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 140=
+
+=Skull of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).=
+
+Pleistocene. Queenscliff, Victoria. About 1/2 nat. size
+
+ (_After McCoy_).
+]
+
+The syndactyla have the second and third toes enclosed in a common skin.
+The Peramelidae and the Notoryctidae are polyprotodont. The remainder are
+all diprotodont. The Peramelidae or Bandicoot family are represented in
+Pleistocene Cave-breccias in New South Wales by the genera _Peragale_ and
+_Perameles_.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 141--Thylacinus major, Owen.=
+
+Hind part of mandible, outer side. Pleistocene. Queensland.
+
+1/2 nat. size]
+
+
+=Pleistocene Diprotodonts.--=
+
+Pleistocene remains of the diprotodont forms of this syndactylous group
+are _Phascolomys_ (the Wombat), perhaps ranging as low as Upper Pliocene
+(_P. pliocenus_) (Fig. 141); _Phascolonus (P. gigas)_ (Fig. 142 A)[4],
+a large Wombat from Queensland and New South Wales and South Australia;
+the Giant Kangaroos, as _Macropus titan_ (Queensland, New South Wales,
+Victoria and South Australia), _Procoptodon goliah_ (Queensland, New South
+Wales and Victoria), _Sthenurus atlas_ (New South Wales, Queensland,
+Victoria and South Australia), _Palorchestes azael_ (Victoria, New
+South Wales and Queensland); also the great _Diprotodon_, the largest
+known marsupial, as large as, and rather taller than, a rhinoceros,
+found in almost every part of Australia, with an allied form referred
+to _Nototherium_ occurring also in Tasmania (Figs. 143, 144, 145).
+_Nototherium_ (Queensland, South Australia and Victoria), was a smaller
+animal than _Diprotodon_, with a shorter and broader skull and similar
+dentition. Remains of the extinct "Marsupial Lion," _Thylacoleo carnifex_,
+an animal allied to the phalangers, have been found in Cave-deposits in
+New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia. Incised bones
+of other animals, which are believed to have been gnawed by _Thylacoleo_,
+have been found associated with its remains. _Thylacoleo_ possessed a
+peculiar dentition, the first pair of incisors in the upper jaw being
+very large and trenchant, whilst the canine and two anterior premolars
+are small and functionless: the lower jaw has also a pair of large
+first incisors, behind which are two small premolars, and an enormous
+chisel-edged last premolar biting against a similar tooth in the upper jaw
+(Fig. 146).
+
+[Footnote 4: This genus was described by Owen in 1872 as a sub-genus of
+_Phascolomys_ founded on some cheek-teeth; and subsequently, in 1884,
+the same author described some incisors under the name of _Sceparnodon
+ramsayi_, which are now known to belong to the same animal that bore the
+cheek-teeth.]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 142--Mandible of Phascolomys pliocenus, McCoy.=
+
+(?) Upper Pliocene ("Gold Cement.") Dunolly, Vict.
+
+About 1/2 nat. size.
+
+ (_After McCoy_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 143--CAINOZOIC TEETH and OTOLITH.=
+
+ A--Phascolonus gigas, Owen. (Molar). Pleistocene. Queensland
+
+ B--Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.
+
+ C--Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Incisor). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.
+
+ D--Metasqualodon harwoodi, Sanger sp. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) South
+ Australia
+
+ E--Kekenodon onamata, Hector. (Molar). Cainozoic (Oamaruian). New
+ Zealand
+
+ F--Cetotolithes nelsoni, McCoy. (Tympanic bone). Cainozoic (Janj.)
+ Victoria
+
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 144--Diprotodon australis, Owen.=
+
+Pleistocene. South Australia.
+
+ (_After Stirling and Zeitz_).
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 145--Upper Surface of the Right Hind Foot of
+Diprotodon australis=.
+
+ A--With the Astragalus (ankle-bone) in position.
+
+ B-- " " " " removed.
+
+Cir. 1/8 nat. size.]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 146--Diprotodon australis, Owen. (Restored).=
+
+From a sketch by C. H. Angas.]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 147--Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen.=
+
+Right lateral aspect of skull and mandible.
+
+ Pleistocene. Australia. 1/5th nat. size.
+
+ c, canine. i, incisors. m, molars. pm, premolars.
+]
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 148--Wynyardia bassiana, Spencer.=
+
+Upper Cainozoic (Turritella bed). Table Cape. Tasmania.
+
+2/7th nat. size.
+
+ (_Casts in Nat. Mus. Coll._)
+]
+
+
+=Oldest Known Marsupial.=
+
+The oldest marsupial found in Australia is probably _Wynyardia bassiana_
+(Fig. 147), whose remains occurred in the _Turritella_-bed at Table
+Cape, which is either of Miocene or Lower Pliocene age. This stratum
+occurs above the well-known _Crassatellites_-bed (Miocene) of that
+locality. So far as can be gathered from its incomplete dentition,
+_Wynyardia_ represents an annectant form between the Diprotodonts and the
+Polyprotodonts.
+
+
+=Pleistocene Genera, also Living.--=
+
+Besides the genera above enumerated, many other marsupials of well-known
+living species are represented by fossil remains in Cave-deposits and on
+"sand-blows" in most of the Australian States. The genera thus represented
+in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia are _Bettongia_ (Prehensile
+Rat-Kangaroo); _Dasyurus_ (Native Cat); _Hypsiprymnus_ (Rat-Kangaroo);
+_Macropus_ (Kangaroo); _Perameles_ (Bandicoot); _Petaurus_ (Flying
+Phalanger); _Phalanger_ (Cuscus); _Phascolomys_ (Wombat); _Sarcophilus_
+(Tasmanian Devil); _Thylacinus_ (Tasmanian Wolf).
+
+
+=Cetacea.--=
+
+The order Cetacea includes Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. The earliest
+known forms belong to the sub-order Archaeoceti, and whilst absent from
+Australian deposits, are found in the Eocene of Europe, Northern Africa
+and North America.
+
+
+=Odontoceti: Toothed Whales.--=
+
+Remains of Cetacea are first met with in Australian rocks in the Oligocene
+(Balcombian) of Victoria. At Muddy Creek near Hamilton fragments of ribs
+and other bones of cetacea, not yet determined, occur in the tenacious
+blue clays of the lower part of the Clifton Bank section. In Australia
+and New Zealand the oldest determinable remains of this order belong to
+the Odontoceti, members of which range from Miocene to Pliocene. Teeth
+of the toothed whales like _Squalodon_ of the Miocene of France and
+Bavaria have been found in New Zealand (_Kekenodon_); in South Australia
+(_Metasqualodon_); and in Victoria (_Parasqualodon_). In Victoria the
+teeth of Squalodontidae occur in the Janjukian beds of Cape Otway,
+Waurn Ponds and Torquay, represented by molars and anterior teeth of
+_Parasqualodon wilkinsoni_ (Fig. 142 B, C). The same species also occurs
+at Table Cape, Tasmania, in beds of similar age. Teeth of _Metasqualodon
+harwoodi_ (Fig. 142 D) occasionally occur in the white polyzoal rock of
+the Mount Gambier district, South Australia. The gigantic toothed whale,
+_Kekenodon onamata_ (Fig. 142 E) occurs in the Marawhenua Greensands
+(Oamaru Series) at Waitaki Valley, Waihao, Ngapara, Waikouaiti and Milburn
+in New Zealand. The molar teeth of this striking species, with their
+serrated crowns, measure nearly five inches in length.
+
+
+=Ear-bones of Whales.--=
+
+The tympanic bones of whales are not uncommon in the Janjukian beds of
+Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, Victoria; and they are occasionally found
+in the basement bed of the Kalimnan at Beaumaris, Port Phillip. In the
+absence of any distinctive generic characters they have been referred
+to the quasi-genus _Cetotolithes_ (Fig. 142 F). McCoy has expressed the
+opinion that they may perhaps be referable to the ziphioid or beaked
+whales, for undoubted remains of that group, as teeth of _Ziphius
+geelongensis_, occur in these same beds; as well as portions of their
+rostrate crania, in the Kalimnan basement beds at Grange Burn, near
+Hamilton. The large curved and flattened teeth of _Ziphius (Dolichodon)
+geelongensis_ are occasionally found, more or less fragmentary, in the
+polyzoal rock of Waurn Ponds.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 149.--Tooth of Scaldicetus macgeei, Chapm.=
+
+An Extinct Sperm Whale.
+
+From the Kalimnan beds of Beaumaris, Port Phillip, Victoria.
+
+About 3/4 nat. size.]
+
+
+=Kalimnan-Scaldicetus.--=
+
+From the Kalimnan Series (Lower Pliocene) of Beaumaris, Port Phillip,
+there was described a short time since, a remarkably well preserved
+specimen of _Scaldicetus_ tooth belonging to a new form, _S. macgeei_
+(Fig. 148). Another species of the genus, with teeth of a slender form,
+has been found in the same geological series, at Grange Burn, near
+Hamilton. In only one other locality besides Australia does the genus
+occur, viz., at Antwerp, Belgium, in Crag deposits of Lower Pliocene age.
+
+
+=Sirenia.--=
+
+The order Sirenia (Manatees and Dugongs) is represented in the Australian
+Pleistocene by _Chronozoön australe_. The remains consist of the parietal
+and upper part of the occipital bones of the skull, and were discovered
+in the fluviatile deposits on the Darling Downs, Queensland. This fossil
+skull, according to De Vis, had a shallower temporal fossa and feebler
+masticating muscles, as well as a less highly developed brain than the
+existing Dugong.
+
+
+=Carnivora.--=
+
+The order Carnivora is represented in Australia by the Native Dog or Dingo
+(_Canis dingo_). It is by no means a settled question whether the Dingo
+can boast of very great antiquity. The evidence of its remains having
+been found under volcanic tuff beds in Victoria is not very convincing,
+for the original record does not indicate the precise position where
+the bones were found. The fact of the remains of the Dingo having been
+found in Cave deposits often associated with extinct marsupials, goes a
+good way to prove its antiquity. McCoy was strongly inclined to the view
+of its Pleistocene age, and points out that it shows cranial characters
+intermediate between the Dogs of South America and the Old World. Fossil
+remains of the Dingo, associated with Pleistocene mammalian forms have
+been recorded from the Wellington, Valley Caves, New South Wales; from
+the Mount Macedon Cave, near Gisborne; and in the neighbourhood of
+Warrnambool, Western Victoria.
+
+
+=Pinnipedia.--=
+
+Of the fin-footed Carnivores or Seals and Walruses, the earliest
+Australasian record is that of the remains of a small seal in the Okehu
+shell-beds near Wanganui, found in association with the bones of a small
+Moa-bird (_Dinornis_).
+
+
+=Newer Pliocene Seal.--=
+
+This seal was referred by Hector to _Arctocephalus cinereus_, a species
+synonymous, however, with the widely distributed living Seal, _Otaria
+forsteri_, Lesson, of the Southern Ocean. Another and larger species of
+eared seal allied to the living Fur Seal, _Otaria forsteri_, occurs in
+Victoria.
+
+
+=Pleistocene Seal.--=
+
+This fossil was named _Arctocephalus williamsi_ by McCoy, and was found
+in Pleistocene deposits at Queenscliff, Port Phillip, at 5 feet below the
+surface, in marl and sand stone overlain with limestone. Although referred
+at the time of description to the Pliocene, it has since been proved
+that at this locality there is a considerable thickness of practically
+sub-recent material which is more accurately classed with the Pleistocene.
+Similar remains of eared seals are not uncommon in the Pleistocene
+deposits of the Otway Coast.
+
+
+=Subrecent Human Remains.=
+
+On turning to the occurrence of "human fossils" in Australia we find the
+geological evidence for any great antiquity of man on this continent to
+be very scanty and inconclusive. This does not, however, imply that
+man's existence in Australia will not eventually be proved to date back
+far beyond the period of the "kitchen middens" of modern aspect, such as
+are now exposed on the slopes behind the sea-beaches, and on the inland
+camping grounds. Almost all the records of Australian human remains that
+have been found in other than ordinary burial places, have proved to be
+of comparatively recent date. For example, the partially lime-encrusted
+body found in the cave in the Mosquito Plains, north of Penola, South
+Australia, recorded by Tenison Woods, is that of an aborigine who, in the
+early days of settlement, crawled into the cave in a wounded condition.
+Other occurrences of human remains in caves, but of fairly recent date
+are, a child's skull found in a small cave at Bungonia, Co. Argyle, New
+South Wales, recorded by Etheridge; and the non-petrified limb-bones
+found in a cave at Wellington, New South Wales, recorded by Krefft, which
+were probably washed in from the surface in recent times. As regards the
+former, in Western Australia, as observed by Froggatt, the natives at the
+present time seek shelter in caves, where these occur, instead of building
+mia-mias.
+
+A more interesting, because probably much older, occurrence of human
+remains has been described by Etheridge and Trickett from one of the
+Jenolan Caves (Skeleton Cave); and those authors conclude from "The
+great lapse of time that must have accrued to enable the changes already
+outlined to have taken place since the introduction of the remains into
+the Skeleton Cave," that these remains are ancient.
+
+[Illustration: =Fig. 150--Impressions of Footprints in dune sand-rock.=
+
+Warrnambool, Victoria. 1/9 nat. size.
+
+ (_F. C. Photo_). (_Warrnambool Museum_).
+]
+
+Curious footprints supposed to resemble impressions of human feet with
+accompanying impress as if made by natives seated, have been long known
+from the older sand-dune rock of Warrnambool. They were found at Kellas'
+Quarry, on the Port Fairy Road in 1890 and at a depth of 54 feet. In
+November, 1912, a further discovery of similar footprints were found at
+Messrs. Steere Bros.' Quarry, Warrnambool, at a depth of 10 feet, as a
+block of stone was being removed for building purposes. These footprints
+are even more obscure than those previously found, and it would be unsafe
+to affirm their human origin, although they are suggestive of such. Their
+antiquity is certainly great, since the lavas and tuffs of the Tower
+Hill district are found overlying this old dune-rock. Other footprints
+associated with these resemble those of the Dingo and a gigantic bird,
+possibly like _Genyornis_.
+
+
+=Probable Origin of Aborigines.--=
+
+Ethnology appears to throw more light upon the subject than does geology.
+Australia has in the past been peopled by two distinct types of man.
+(1), the ancestors of the Tasmanians, now alas, extinct, who according
+to some authorities came by way of Australia from Papua through the
+Malay Peninsula, passing over to Tasmania from the mainland before the
+separation caused by the subsidence of the Bass Strait area; and who
+were represented by a negroid or woolly-haired type: (2), the present
+aboriginals of Australia, showing affinities with the Dravidians of
+Southern India, a primitive race from whose original stock the white
+Caucasian races of Europe were derived. By intermarriage with a negroid
+race like the Melanesian, it is supposed that the black Caucasian gave
+rise to the present Australian mixed aboriginal type, with negroid
+features, but possessing the long black hair and keener intellect of the
+"melanochroi," as the dark Eurasian stock was termed by Huxley.
+
+
+=Aboriginal Implements.--=
+
+The stone implements fashioned by the Tasmanian aboriginals were roughly
+chipped and of primitive type, of such forms as used at the present day by
+the Bushmen of South Africa, and representing the eoliths and palaeoliths
+of early man in the south of England. The implements of the Australian
+aboriginals on the other hand include besides these both flakes and
+worked and polished tools, such as were produced by the Neolithic men of
+Europe, as contrasted with the typically rough palaeolithic tools of the
+Tasmanian, who never grooved his axes for hafting as did the Australian
+aboriginal. According to some authorities the Tasmanians represent
+palaeolithic or even eolithic man in the character of their implements;
+whilst the Australian resembles the Middle or Mousterian stage of early
+man in certain of their ethnological characters and in the forms of their
+implements, although a marked exception is seen in their manufacture of
+polished adzes, of the neolithic period and in the use of bone implements
+such as were used in Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times. So far no human
+remains or handiwork in the form of chipped implements have been found
+in other than superficial deposits, either in Tasmania or Australia. The
+incised bone-fragment found near Ballarat, in a bed of silt beneath a
+sheet of basalt which flowed from Mount Buninyong, is believed by some
+to be evidence of man's handiwork in the early Pleistocene, though by
+others thought to have been cut by the teeth of the "marsupial lion"
+(_Thylacoleo_). A stone axe of basalt, grooved for the purpose of
+mounting in a handle, was found in gravel at Ballarat at a depth of 22
+inches from the surface. This, however, is no proof of man's antiquity,
+for superficial deposits of much greater depth are easily accumulated
+within a short period. Another implement was found at Maryborough in
+Queensland in gravels at a depth of 4 feet from the surface, but not
+below the basalt of the main lead. In this case it is believed that the
+implement may have fallen into a natural hollow or wombat-burrow. A bone
+pointer, such as used by native medicine men, was some years ago found
+buried in the Miocene marls of Waurn Ponds near Geelong. Its presence in
+so old a rock is easily explained from the fact that in the aboriginal
+ceremonies the pointer was buried after the incantations. Seeing the
+difficulties in the way of discovering reliable occurrences of man's
+handiwork in isolated examples amongst the older superficial deposits of
+silt and gravels, the ancient sand-dunes of Victoria, which date back
+at least to Upper Pliocene, should afford favourable conditions for the
+preservation of any really ancient kitchen middens, did such exist.
+Moreover, these deposits would have been less liable to disturbance when
+once they were covered, than the inland deposits, for the former are now
+consolidated into a tolerably hard stone.
+
+
+=Antiquity of Man in Australia.--=
+
+A strong argument in favour of a considerable antiquity for man in
+Australia is the fact that the dialects are many, and marriage and tribal
+customs more complex and intricate than would be found in a comparatively
+recent primitive race. In any case, it is quite possible, if not probable,
+that man was in southern Australia before the termination of the last
+phase of volcanic activity, since the tuff beds of Koroit, for example,
+are quite modern and were laid down on a modern sea-beach strewn with
+shells identical in species and condition with those now found thrown
+up in the vicinity at high tide. This view is quite compatible with the
+occurrence of dingo remains (assuming this animal was introduced by man)
+in cave deposits in Australia, associated with extinct forms of marsupials.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
+
+
+FISHES.
+
+ _Thyestes magnificus_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
+
+ _Asterolepis australis_, McCoy. Middle Devonian: Victoria.
+
+ _Ganorhynchus süssmilchi_, Etheridge fil. Devonian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Gyracanthides murrayi_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.
+
+ _Acanthodes australis_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.
+
+ _Ctenodus breviceps_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.
+
+ _Strepsodus decipiens_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.
+
+ _Elonichthys sweeti_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.
+
+ _Physonemus micracanthus_, Chapman. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.
+
+ _(?) Deltodus australis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.
+
+ _Tomodus (?) convexus_, Agassiz. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Edestus davisii_, H. Woodward. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Peocilodus jonesi_, Agassiz. Carbopermian: W. Australia.
+
+ _Gosfordia truncata_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Myriolepis clarkei_, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Apateolepis australis_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Dictyopyge robusta_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Belonorhynchus gigas_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Semionotus australis_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Pristisomus latus_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Cleithrolepis granulatus_, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Pholidophorus gregarius_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Pleuracanthus parvidens_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Sagenodus laticeps_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Palaeoniscus crassus_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Elonichthys armatus_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Elpisopholis dunstani_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Pholidophorus australis_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.
+
+ _Psilichthys selwyni_, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.
+
+ _Leptolepis crassicauda_, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.
+
+ _Ceratodus avus_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: Victoria.
+
+ _Coccolepis australis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Aphnelepis australis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Aetheolepis mirabilis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Archaeomaene tenuis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Leptolepis talbragarensis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.
+
+ _Lamna daviesii_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Lamna appendiculatus_, Agassiz. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Corax australis_, Chapm. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Aspidorhynchus_ sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Belonostomus sweeti_, Eth. fil. and A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous:
+ Queensland.
+
+ _Portheus australis_, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Cladocyclus sweeti_, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Notidanus marginalis_, Davis. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Lamna compressa_, Agassiz. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Callorhynchus hectori_, Newton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Ischyodus thurmanni_, Pictet and Campiche. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Odontaspis contortidens_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Lamna apiculata_, Ag. sp. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.): Victoria. Also
+ Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Carcharodon megalodon_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. Janj. and Kal.):
+ Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Cestracion cainozoicus_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj. and
+ Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Asteracanthus eocaenicus_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Galeocerdo davisi_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.
+ Also Cretaceous (Waipara Series) and Cainozoic (Oamaru Series):
+ New Zealand.
+
+ _Carcharoides totuserratus_, Ameghino. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.
+
+ _Odontaspis incurva_, Davis sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.): Victoria.
+ Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Oxyrhina retroflexa_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria. Also
+ Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Carcharodon auriculatus_, Blainville sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Acanthias geelongensis_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Ischyodus mortoni_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Tasmania.
+
+ _Notidanus jenningsi_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Galeocerdo aduncus_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Oxyrhina hastalis_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (rare in Balc. and Janj.,
+ abundant in Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Myliobatis moorabbinensis_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Edaphodon sweeti_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Labrodon confertidens_, Chap. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Diodon formosus_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.
+
+ _Notidanus marginalis_, Davis. Cretaceous (Waipara Series); and
+ Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Myliobatis plicatilis_, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Sargus laticonus_, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Ctenolates avus_, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene: New South Wales.
+
+ _Neoceratodus forsteri_, Krefft, sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales.
+
+
+AMPHIBIA.
+
+ _Bothriceps australis_, Huxley. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Bothriceps major_, A. S. Woodw. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
+
+ _Platyceps wilkinsoni_, Stephens. Triassic: New South Wales.
+
+
+REPTILIA.
+
+ _Ichthyosaurus hectori_, Ch. (nom. mut.). Triassic: New Zealand.
+
+ _(?) Megalosaurus_ sp. Jurassic: Victoria.
+
+ _Notochelone costata_, Owen sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Ichthyosaurus australis_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Ichthyosaurus marathonensis_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
+
+ _Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus_, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Plesiosaurus australis_, Owen. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Polycotylus tenuis_, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Cimoliosaurus haastii_, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Tylosaurus haumuriensis_, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Taniwhasaurus oweni_, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.
+
+ _Pallymnarchus pollens_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland and Victoria.
+
+
+ _Crocodilus porosus_, Schneider. Pleistocene: Queensland and Victoria.
+
+ _Miolania oweni_, A. S. Woodw. Pliocene (Deep-leads): New South Wales.
+ Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Miolania platyceps_, Owen. Pleistocene: Lord Howe Island.
+
+ _Megalania prisca_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+
+BIRDS.
+
+ _Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_, Huxley. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Dinornis_ sp. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Pelecanus proavis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Platalea subtenuis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Anas elapsa_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Gallinula strenuipes_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Fulica prior_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Dromornis australis_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Dromaeus patricius_, De Vis. Pleistocene. Queensland.
+
+ _Dromaeus minor_, Spencer. Pleistocene: King Island.
+
+ _Genyornis newtoni_, Stirling and Zietz. Pleistocene: S. Australia.
+
+ _Cnemiornis calcitrans_, Owen. Pleistocene: New Zealand.
+
+ _Harpagornis moorei_, von Haast. Pleistocene: New Zealand.
+
+ _Aptornis otidiformis_, Owen sp. Pleistocene: New Zealand.
+
+ _Dinornis giganteus_, Owen. Pleistocene and Holocene: N. Id., New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Pachyornis elephantopus_, Owen sp. Pleistocene and Holocene: S. Id.,
+ New Zealand.
+
+ _Anomalopteryx antiqua_, Hutton. Pleistocene: S. Id., New Zealand.
+
+
+MAMMALIA.
+
+ _Ornithorhynchus maximus_, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan or L. Pliocene):
+ New South Wales.
+
+ _Echidna (Proechidna) robusta_, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Ornithorhynchus agilis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: New South Wales.
+
+ _Echidna (Proechidna) oweni_, Krefft. Pleistocene: New South Wales.
+
+ _Wynyardia bassiana_, Spencer. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Tasmania.
+
+ _Dasyurus maculatus_, Kerr sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South
+ Wales. Living: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.
+
+ _Phascolomys pliocenus_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Werrikooian): Victoria.
+
+ _Sarcophilus ursinus_, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South
+ Wales. Living: Tasmania.
+
+ _Thylacinus cynocephalus_, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New
+ South Wales. Living: Tasmania.
+
+ _Thylacinus spelaeus_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and New South
+ Wales.
+
+ _Thylacinus major_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Peragale lagotis_, Reid sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales. Living: S.
+ Australia and W. Australia.
+
+ _Perameles gunni_, Gray. Pleistocene: Victoria. Living: Queensland and
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Phascolomys parvus_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Phascolonus gigas_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales
+ and S. Australia.
+
+ _Macropus titan_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, Victoria, New South
+ Wales and S. Australia.
+
+ _Macropus anak_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia and New
+ South Wales.
+
+ _Procoptodon goliah_, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South
+ Wales and Victoria.
+
+ _Sthenurus atlas_, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales,
+ Victoria, and South Australia.
+
+ _Sthenurus occidentalis_, Glauert. Pleistocene: W. Australia.
+
+ _Palorchestes azael_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales
+ and Victoria.
+
+ _Diprotodon australis_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South
+ Wales, Victoria and S. Australia.
+
+ _Nototherium mitchelli_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia
+ and Victoria.
+
+ _Thylacoleo carnifex_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales,
+ Victoria and W. Australia.
+
+ _Parasqualodon wilkinsoni_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria
+ and Tasmania.
+
+ _Metasqualodon harwoodi_, Sanger sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S.
+ Australia.
+
+ _Kekenodon onamata_, Hector. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.
+
+ _Cetotolithes nelsoni_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
+
+ _Ziphius (Dolichodon) geelongensis_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian):
+ Victoria.
+
+ _Scaldicetus macgeei_, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
+
+ _Chronozoön australis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.
+
+ _Canis dingo_, Blumenbach. Late Pleistocene or Holocene: Victoria.
+
+ _Otaria forsteri_, Lesson. Pliocene (Petane Series): N. Id., New
+ Zealand.
+
+ _Arctocephalus williamsi_, McCoy. Pleistocene: Victoria.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+FISHES.
+
+ Silurian.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt.
+ II. 1906, pp. 93-100, pls. VII. and VIII. (_Thyestes_).
+
+ Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 19, 20,
+ pl. XXXV. figs. 7, 7_a_, 7_b_ (_Asterolepis_). Etheridge,
+ R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. VI. pp. 129-132, pl. XXVIII.
+ (_Ganorhynchus_).
+
+ Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--Woodward, H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III.
+ vol. III. 1886, pp. 1-7, pl. I. (_Edestus_). Etheridge, R.
+ jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p. 296, pl. XXXIX. fig.
+ 1 (_Deltodus_). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, p. 281, pl. XXIV., fig. 11 (_Tomodus_).
+ Woodward, A. S. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 1. 1906 (Mansfield
+ Series).
+
+ Triassic.--Johnston, R. M. and Morton, A. Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania
+ (1889), 1890, pp. 102-104; ibid. (1890), 1891, pp. 152-154
+ (_Acrolepis_). Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ Pal. No. 4, 1890 (Gosford). Ibid. No. 10, 1908 (St. Peters).
+
+ Jurassic.--Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No.
+ 9, 1895. Id., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. VII. Vol. XVIII. 1906,
+ pp. 1-3, pl. I. (_Ceratodus_). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.
+ vol. XII. (N.S.) pt. II. 1900, pp. 147-151, pl. XIV. Chapman, F.
+ Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict. vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 234-235, pl.
+ XXXIX. (_Ceratodus_).
+
+ Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
+ vol. III. ser. 2, 1889, pp. 156-161, pl. IV. Idem, Geol. and
+ Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 503-504. Davis, J. W. Trans. R. Dubl.
+ Soc. vol. IV. ser. 2. 1888, pp. 1-48, pls. I.-VII. (Cretaceous
+ and Cainozoic of New Zealand). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Woodward,
+ A. S. Trans. R. Soc. Vict., vol. II. pt. II. 1892, pp. 1-7,
+ pl. I. (_Belonostomus_). Woodward, A. S. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
+ ser. 6, vol. XIX. 1894, pp. 444-447, pl. X. (_Portheus_ and
+ _Cladocyclus_). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXI.
+ (N.S.), pt. II. 1909, pp. 452, 453 (_Corax_).
+
+ Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875, pp. 8-10, pl.
+ XI. (_Carcharodon_). Chapman, F. and Pritchard, G. B. Proc. R.
+ Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1904, pp. 267-297, pls.
+ V.-VIII. Idem, ibid, vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. I. 1907, pp. 59-75,
+ pls. V.-VIII. See also Davis, J. W. (_Cretaceous_).
+
+ Pleistocene.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
+ 646 (_Neoceratodus_). Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
+ Wales, vol. VII. pt. 2, 1902, pp. 88-91, pl. XXIV. (_Ctenolates_).
+
+
+AMPHIBIA.
+
+ Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XV. 1859, pp. 647-649,
+ pl. XXII. figs. 1, 2 (_Bothriceps_). Stephens, W. J. Proc. Linn.
+ Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2. vol. I. 1886, pp. 931-940. Ibid.,
+ 1887, pp. 1175-1182, pl. XXII. Ibid., vol. II. 1887, pp. 156-158.
+ Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt.
+ 4, 1909, pp. 317-319, pl. LI. (_Bothriceps_).
+
+
+REPTILIA.
+
+ Jurassic and Cretaceous.--Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. VI. 1874,
+ pp. 333-358.
+
+ Cretaceous.--McCoy, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic., vol. VIII. pt. I. 1868,
+ p. 42 (_Plesiosaurus_). Ibid., vol. IX. pt. II. 1869, p. 77
+ (_Ichthyosaurus_). Owen, R. Geol. Mag., Dec. I. vol. VII.
+ 1870, pp. 49-53, pl. III. (_Plesiosaurus_). Id., Quart. Journ.
+ Geol. Soc. vol. XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 178-183 (_"Notochelys" =
+ Notochelone_). Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
+ Wales, ser. 2, vol. III. 1889, pp. 405-413, pls. VII. and VIII.
+ (_Ichthyosaurus_). Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp.
+ 505-510. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. XXVI. 1894, pp.
+ 354-358, 1 pl. (_Cimoliosaurus_).
+
+ Pleistocene.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ vol. I. pt. 3, 1889, pp. 149-152 (_Miolania_). Id., Geol. and
+ Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 647-653.
+
+
+AVES.
+
+ Miocene.--Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. XV. 1859, pp.
+ 670-677. Also Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. IV. 1872, pp.
+ 341-346, 1 pl. (_Palaeeudyptes_). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.
+ (N.S.) pt. I. 1910, pp. 21-26, pls. IV. and V.
+
+ Pleistocene and Holocene.--Von Haast, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. IV.,
+ 1872, pp. 192-196; and vol. VI. 1874, pp. 62-75 (_Harpagornis_).
+ Owen, R. Memoirs on the Extinct Wingless Birds of New Zealand,
+ London, 1879, 2 vols. De Vis, C. W. Proc. R. Soc. Queensland,
+ vol. VI. pt. I. 1889, pp. 6-8. Id., Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
+ Wales, vol. III. ser. 2, 1888, pp. 1277-1292, pls. XXXIII.-XXXVI.
+ (Carinatae). Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
+ vol. I. pt. 2, 1889, pp. 126-136, pls. XI.-XIII. (_Dromornis_).
+ Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 653-663. Hutton, F.
+ W. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XXIV. 1892, pp. 93-172 (Moas). Id.,
+ ibid., vol. XXV. 1893, pp. 14-16, 1 pl. (_Anomalopteryx_). Id.,
+ ibid., vol. XXIX. 1897, pp. 441-557, figs. (Moas). Id., ibid.,
+ vol. XXXVIII. 1906, pp. 66 and 67 (_Emeus crassus_). Hamilton, A.
+ Ibid, vol. XXVI. 1894, pp. 227-257 (Bibliography of Moas). Ibid,
+ vol. XXX. 1898, pp. 445 and 446 (_Euryapteryx_). Stirling, E. C.
+ and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. I. pt. II. 1900,
+ pp. 41-80, pls. XIX.-XXIV. (_Genyornis_). Spencer, W. B. Vict.
+ Nat. vol. XXIII. 1906, pp. 139 and 140; also Spencer, W. B. and
+ Kershaw, J. A. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne No. 3, 1910, pp. 5-35,
+ pls. I.-VII. (_Dromaeus minor_).
+
+
+MAMMALS.
+
+ Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XV. 1859, pp. 676-677
+ (_Phocaenopsis_). McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874,
+ pp. 21, 22, pls. III.-V. (_Phascolomys_). Ibid, Dec. II.
+ 1875, pp. 7-8, pl. XI. and Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 20 and 21, pl.
+ LV. (_Squalodon_). Ibid, Dec. III. 1876, pp. 7-12, pl. XXI.
+ (_Thylacoleo_). Ibid, Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 7-11, pl. XXXI.-XXXIII.
+ (_Diprotodon_). Ibid, Dec. V. 1877, pp. 7-9, pl. XLI. and
+ XLII. (_Arctocephalus_). Ibid, Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 5-7, pl. LI.
+ (_Macropus_): pp. 9-11, pl. LI.-LIII. (_Procoptodon_): pp. 13-17,
+ pl. LIV. (_Cetotolithes_); pp. 19 and 20, pl. LV. (_Physetodon_).
+ Ibid, Dec. VII. 1882, pp. 7-10, pl. LX. (_Canis dingo_): pp.
+ 11-13, pl. LXXII. and LXII. (_Sarcophilus_): pp. 23-26, pl.
+ LIX. (_Ziphius_). Owen, R. Extinct Mammals of Australia, London
+ 1877, 2 vols. Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XIII. 1881, pp.
+ 434-436, 1 pl. (_Kekenodon_). Lydekker, R. Cat. Foss. Mammalia,
+ Brit. Mus. part V. 1887. Id., Handbook to the Marsupialia, and
+ Monotremata. Allen's Nat. Library, 1894, pt. III. pp. 249-286.
+ De Vis, C. W. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt.
+ 3, 1883, p. 395 (Sirenian). Id., ibid, vol. X. 1895, pp. 75-133,
+ pls. XIV.-XVIII. (Macropodidae). Id., Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
+ XII. (N.S.), pt. I, 1899, pp. 107-11 (Marsupials). Etheridge, R.
+ jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 663-683 (Pleistocene
+ Mammals). Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III.
+ pt. 4, 1893, pp. 120-124, pl. XVI. (_Palorchestes_). Ibid., vol.
+ IV. pt. 3, 1895, pp. 118-126, pls. XI. and XII. (Monotremes).
+ Stirling, E. C. and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Australia,
+ vol. I. pt. I. 1899 (Descr. of _Diprotodon_, Manus and Pes.).
+ Spencer, W. B. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1900, pp. 776-794, pls. XLIX.
+ and L. (_Wynyardia_). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol.
+ XXIII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1911, pp. 257-265, pl. XXXVI. (Rev. of
+ Squalodontidae). Spencer, W. B. and Walcott, R. H. Proc. R.
+ Soc. Vict., vol. XXIV. (N.S.), pt. I. 1912, pp. 92-123, pls.
+ XXXVI.-XXIX. (_Thylacoleo_). Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict.,
+ vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 236-238, pl. XL. (_Scaldicetus_).
+ Woods, J. E. T. Geol. Observations in S. Australia, 1862, pp. 329
+ and 330 (Human Remains): also Krefft, G. Australian Vertebrata,
+ Recent and Fossil, 1867, p. 91; Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol.
+ Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. 4, 1893, pp. 128-132;
+ Etheridge, R. jnr. and Trickett, O. Ibid., vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904,
+ pp. 325-328.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.--ON THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS.
+
+
+The tools and other paraphernalia necessary for fossil collecting
+are fortunately within the reach of all. The principal of these is a
+geological hammer, preferably with a pick at one end of the head and the
+opposite end square-faced. The pick end is useful for digging out fossils
+from soft clays, or for extracting a block of fossils entire. The square
+end is employed for breaking up the slabs or masses containing fossils. To
+get good results, much will of course depend upon one's skill in striking
+the right face of a block. If bedding planes are present on the lump from
+which we wish to extract our fossils, it will be well to strike at right
+angles to these layers in order to split them asunder, thus exposing a
+shell-layer corresponding to the original surface of the ancient sea-bed
+upon which the organisms accumulated. In some cases the splitting of
+fossiliferous rocks may be best carried out with the pick end, provided it
+be not too sharply curved. The hammer should be faced with steel, for many
+fossiliferous rocks, especially compact limestones, are apt to severely
+try the temper of an ill-made tool.
+
+A chisel, of chilled steel, should accompany the hammer, since this is
+often of the greatest use in working out large fossils, more particularly
+those that are buried in a cliff or quarry face. The process of extracting
+difficult specimens should never be hurried, for one often gets
+surprisingly good results with a little extra care.
+
+A strong pocket knife may be used in trimming specimens and partially
+cleaning shells that can be safely manipulated on the spot, but the final
+cleaning should be left until the return home. The knife is also useful
+for cleaning slates and shales, since the chisel-edge is frequently a
+trifle too thick for this kind of work.
+
+For the more delicate fossils, means for careful packing should be
+provided; chip-boxes and cotton-wool being indispensable for the smaller
+specimens. A ready method of packing the fossils obtained from the
+friable, sandy tertiary deposits is to store them in tins, the contents of
+which can be firmly secured from rattling by filling up with sand. This
+sand, however, should be taken from the same bed in which the fossils
+occur, so as to get no admixture of the smaller shells from another
+formation or deposit; for although we may not wish to examine the finer
+material ourselves, it will yield in many cases a rich harvest to our
+microscopical friends, such residues containing microzoa, as shells
+of foraminifera, polyzoa and carapaces of the ostracoda. The residues
+referred to may be obtained from many of our marls and rubbly limestones
+by the simple process of washing in water, and repeatedly pouring off the
+finest clayey mud, until only a sandy deposit remains, which can then be
+dried and sorted over by the aid of a lens or low power microscope.
+
+
+=Hints on Fossil Collecting.--=
+
+As regards the places most suitable for collecting fossils, the Cainozoic
+beds are perhaps, the most accessible to a beginner, especially in
+Victoria. For instance, the cliff exposures at Beaumaris, Port Phillip,
+will afford a plentiful supply of the little heart-shaped sea-urchin,
+_Lovenia_, and an occasional _Trigonia_ and _Limopsis_, as well as
+many other fossils of the great group of the shell-fish or mollusca.
+The richest bed containing the sharks' teeth at the above locality is
+almost perpetually covered with a bed of shingle, but can be reached by
+digging at the cliff-base. Isolated specimens, however, although rather
+the worse for wear, may often be picked up amongst the shingle, having
+been washed up from the foreshore by the tide. An enticing band of large
+bivalve shells (_Dosinea_), can be seen halfway up the cliffs, near the
+baths at this locality, but are somewhat disappointing, for when obtained
+they crumble to pieces in the hand, since their shells are composed of
+the changeable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite, which has
+decomposed in place in the bed, after the shells were covered up by the
+deposit.
+
+Good collections of shells of the Balcombian series may be easily made at
+Balcombe's Bay and Grice's Creek, Port Phillip. They can there be dug out
+of the grey-blue clay with a knife, and afterwards cleaned at leisure by
+means of a soft tooth brush dipped in water. In the cement stone at the
+same place there are numerous shells of pteropods or "sea-butterflies"
+(_Vaginella_), and specimens of the stone may be obtained, showing myriads
+of the porcelain-like shells, and also their internal casts in the hard
+greenish coloured matrix.
+
+The ferruginous or ironstone beds seen in the Flemington Railway cutting,
+Melbourne, is an old marine shell-bank, resting on basalt. The shells have
+all been dissolved away, and only their casts and moulds remain. These
+impressions are, however, so faithfully moulded that the ornamentation
+of each shell can often be reproduced on a squeeze taken with a piece of
+modelling wax or plasticine. Such fossil remains are easily collected by
+carefully breaking up the blocks of ironstone with a hammer.
+
+Quarries in the older limestones and mudstones in Victoria, New South
+Wales and other States, are often good hunting grounds for fossils. The
+quarry at Cave Hill, Lilydale, for example, will be found very profitable,
+for the limestone is full of corals and molluscan shells; whilst the
+friable or rubbly portion is worth breaking down for the smaller fossils.
+The bed-rock (Silurian) of Melbourne is in places very fossiliferous;
+the sandstones of Moonee Ponds Creek generally affording a fair number
+of brachiopods, and occasionally corals. The mudstones of South Yarra,
+Studley Park, Yan Yean, and other places on the same geological horizon,
+contain a rich fauna, to be obtained only by the assiduous collector
+who will search over and break up a large number of blocks. Practice
+in this work makes a good collector; although of course one must know
+something about the objects looked for, since many apparently obscure
+fossil remains of great interest might easily be passed over for lack
+of knowledge as to what should be expected to occur at each particular
+locality.
+
+Many other good collecting grounds might here be alluded to, but we have
+purposely cited only a few near Melbourne, since a selection from other
+parts of Australasia may easily be made from the localities mentioned in
+connection with the various groups of fossils dealt with in the systematic
+portion of this work.
+
+
+=Preservation of Fossils.--=
+
+Many of the Cainozoic fossils from the shelly sands and clays are
+extremely delicate, owing in some cases to their being imperfectly
+preserved, seeing that they frequently contain in their shell-structure
+layers of the unstable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite. Fossils
+containing aragonite are:--Calcareous Sponges; Corals; Bivalved shells,
+except Oysters, Pectens, and the outer layer of _Spondylus_, _Pinna_, and
+_Mytilus_; Gasteropods (with a few exceptions); and Cephalopods. In some
+of these, however, a transformation of the aragonite into calcite enables
+the fossil to be permanently preserved. The delicate fossils referred to
+should be dipped in weak glue or gelatine and left to dry; after which
+their final cleaning can be done with the aid of a little warm water and a
+soft brush.
+
+Certain of the clays and mudstones, both of Cainozoic and Jurassic ages
+which show remains of plants, such as leaves and fern fronds, are often
+best treated with a thin surface layer of paper varnish, before they
+lose the natural moisture of the rock; for when they become perfectly dry
+the thin carbonaceous film representing the original leaf-substance peels
+off, and the fossil is consequently destroyed. A method of treatment for
+Cainozoic leaves, by dipping them in warm vaseline and brushing off the
+superfluous material, has been described by Mr. H. Deane.
+
+
+=Storing Fossils for Reference.--=
+
+Fossils specimens are generally best displayed in cardboard trays; or if
+thin wooden paper-covered tablets are used, say of about 3-16in. thickness
+and cut to proportionate sizes, the fossils should be held in place by
+pins for easy removal, unless more than one example can be shown together,
+exhibiting all aspects, when they can be secured to the tablet by a touch
+of seccotine. The smaller shells may be displayed in glass topped boxes,
+which in turn may be stuck down to tablets or placed in trays.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+ Aboriginal implements, 303
+ Aborigines, probable origin of, 302
+ _Acanthias_, 270
+ _Acanthodes_, 261
+ _Acanthosphaera_, 103
+ _Acanthothyris_, 166, 167
+ _Acentrophorus_, 263
+ _Acrolepis_, 263
+ _Actaeon_, 197
+ _Actinoceras_, 205, 207
+ _Actinocrinus_, 136
+ _Actinodesma_, 178, 179
+ _Actinopteria_, 178, 179
+ _Actinostroma_, 121, 122
+ _Adeona_, 158
+ _Aechmina_, 237
+ _Aeschna_, 250
+ _Aetheolepis_, 267
+ _Agathiceras_, 207
+ AGNATHA, 258
+ _Agnostus_, 227
+ _Allodesma_, 176
+ _Ambonychia_, 177
+ _Ammodiscus_, 96, 97
+ _Ammonites_, 204, 209, 210
+ AMMONOIDEA, 205
+ _Amoeba_, 36, 95
+ AMPHIBIA, structure of, 272
+ _Amphistegina_, 100
+ _Amplexus_, 117
+ _Ampyx_, 229
+ _Amusium_, 185
+ _Anas_, 283
+ _Anchura_, 197
+ _Ancilla_, 198, 199, 202
+ _Ancyloceras_, 209, 210
+ ANGIOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40
+ ANNELIDA, 152
+ _Anomalina_, 98
+ _Anomalopteryx_, 283
+ _Antedon_, 138
+ ANTHOZOA, 64, 113
+ Antiquity of man in Australia, 304
+ _Aparchites_, 237
+ _Apateolepis_, 262
+ _Aphnelepis_, 267
+ _Apocynophyllum_, 91
+ _Aptornis_, 283
+ _Aptychopsis_, 246
+ _Arabellites_, 153
+ _Arachnoides_, 146
+ _Araucarioxylon_, 68
+ _Araucarites_, 89
+ _Arca_, 184, 186, 188
+ _Archaeocidaris_, 144
+ _Archaeocyathina_, 113
+ ARCHAEOCYATHINAE, 112
+ _Archaeomaene_, 267
+ _Archaeopteryx_, 280
+ _Arctocephalus_, 299
+ _Arenicolites_, 153
+ Argillaceous rocks, 69
+ _Argilloecia_, 237
+ _?Argiope_, 166
+ _Argonauta_, 205
+ ARTHROPODA, structure and subdivisions of, 38, 220
+ _Asaphus_, 227, 228
+ _Aspidorhynchus_, 267
+ _Astarte_, 182
+ _Asteracanthus_, 269, 271
+ ASTEROIDEA, 139
+ _Asterolepis_, 258
+ _Astralium_, 198, 200
+ _Astropecten_, 141
+ _Athyris_, 161, 162, 165
+ _Atrypa_, 158, 160, 162
+ _Aturia_, 210
+ _Atys_, 204
+ _Aucella_, 183
+ _Aulopora_, 116
+ Australian fossiliferous strata, 45-48.
+ AVES, 280
+ Aviculopecten, 179, 180
+ _Axopora_, 119
+
+
+ Bactronella, 112
+ _Baculites_, 210
+ _Baiera_, 89, 164
+ _Bairdia_, 240
+ _Balanophyllia_, 118
+ _Balanus_, 243
+ Balcombian bivalves, 186
+ " gasteropods, 199
+ Bandicoot, 289, 295
+ _Bankivia_, 201
+ _Banksia_, 91, 281
+ _Barbatia_, 184, 185
+ Barnacles, 240
+ _Barnea_, 187
+ _Bathytoma_, 201
+ _Bela_, 201
+ _Belemnites_, 205, 209, 210
+ BELEMNOIDEA, 205
+ _Bellerophon_, 193, 194, 195, 196
+ _Belonorhynchus_, 262
+ _Belonostomus_, 267
+ _Bettongia_, 295
+ _Beyrichia_, 235, 236, 237
+ _Biloela_, 274
+ _Bipora_, 158
+ Birds, fossil, 53, 280
+ _Biziura_, 283
+ BLASTOIDEA, distribution and characters of, 61, 138
+ Blue-green Algae, 76, 82
+ Bog iron-ore, 80
+ _Bolodon_, 286
+ _Bombax_, 91
+ Bone-beds, 78
+ Bone-breccias, 79
+ _Bothriceps_, 273
+ _Botryocrinus_, 136
+ BRACHIOPODA, structure of, 57, 158
+ Brachiopod limestone, 74
+ _Brachymetopus_, 232
+ _Brachyphyllum_, 89
+ Bracken fern, 91
+ _Brissopsis_, 148
+ Brittle-stars, characters of, 61, 141
+ _Bronteus_, 229, 230
+ _Bryograptus_, 124, 126, 227
+ BRYOPHYTA, characters of, 39
+ _Buccinum_, 191
+ _Buchozia_, 199
+ _Bulimina_, 97, 98
+ _Bulinus_, 69, 191
+ _Bulla_, 204
+ _Bullinella_, 198, 199
+ _Bythocypris_, 236
+ _Bythotrephis_, 82
+
+
+ Cainozoic Balanidae, 243
+ " bird, Victoria, 281
+ " bivalves, 184
+ " brachiopods, 166
+ " brittle-stars, 143
+ " chitons, 190
+ " corals, 118
+ " crabs, 247
+ " echinoids, irregular, 146
+ " echinoids, regular, 145
+ " fishes, 269
+ " Foraminifera, 99
+ " gasteropods, 198
+ " gasteropods, New Zealand, 202
+ " Holothuroidea, 148
+ " insects, 250
+ " Lepadidae, 243
+ " Ostracoda, 239
+ " and Pleistocene reptiles, 279
+ " plants, 89
+ " Polyzoa, 158
+ Cainozoic Radiolaria, 104
+ " scaphopods, 189
+ " sponges, 110
+ " starfishes, 141
+ " strata, 45, 46
+ Calcareous rocks, 72
+ " sponges, 112
+ _Callograptus_, 122
+ _Callorhynchus_, 269
+ _Calymene_, 229, 230, 231
+ CALYPTOBLASTEA, 122
+ _Calyptraea_, 198, 200, 201
+ _Camarotoechia_, 160, 161, 162
+ Cambrian bivalves, 177
+ " brachiopods, 159
+ " crinoids, 134
+ " Foraminifera, 96
+ " gasteropods, 192
+ " Ostracoda, 235
+ " plants, 82
+ " Radiolaria, 102
+ " sponges, 107
+ _Cameroceras_, 207
+ _Campanularia_, 122
+ _Campophyllum_, 115, 117
+ _Cancellaria_, 198, 199, 202
+ _Canis_, 298
+ Cannel coal, 76
+ _Capitosaurus_, 274
+ _Capulus_, 194
+ Carbonaceous rocks, 76
+ Carboniferous brachiopods, 162
+ " crinoids, 136
+ " fishes, 259
+ " Foraminifera, 96
+ " gasteropods, 196
+ " Ostracoda, 237
+ " plants, 85
+ Carbopermian bivalves, 179
+ " blastoids, 139
+ " brachiopods, 163
+ " cephalopods, 207
+ " corals, 116
+ " crinoids, 137
+ " fishes, 261
+ " Foraminifera, 97
+ " gasteropods, 196
+ " labyrinthodonts, 273
+ " Ostracoda, 237
+ " palaeechinoids, 144
+ " Phyllopoda, 233
+ " plants, 86
+ " sponges, 110
+ " starfishes, 141
+ " trilobites, 232
+ _Carcharodon_, 269, 270, 271
+ _Carcharoides_, 269
+ _Cardiola_, 177, 178
+ _Cardita_, 184, 187
+ _Cardium_, 176, 184, 186, 187
+ CARNIVORA, 298
+ _Carposphaera_, 102
+ _Carpospongia_, 109
+ _Caryocaris_, 244, 246
+ _Cassidulus_, 148
+ _Catenicella_, 158
+ _Cellaria_, 158
+ _Cellepora_, 158
+ _Cenellipsis_, 102
+ _Cenosphaera_, 102, 103
+ CEPHALOPODA, characters of, 204
+ _Ceratiocaris_, 246
+ _Ceratodus_, 265, 267
+ _Ceratotrochus_, 118
+ _Cerithiopsis_, 200
+ _Cerithium_, 198, 200
+ _Cestracion_, 261, 269, 271
+ CETACEA, 295
+ _Cetotolithes_, 296
+ _Chaenomya_, 181
+ CHAETOPODA, 152
+ _Chama_, 185
+ Changes of climate in the past, 31
+ CHEILOSTOMATA, 155, 157
+ _Cheirurus_, 229, 231
+ _Chelodes_, 190
+ Cherts, 71
+ _Chione_, 185, 187, 188
+ _Chiridota_, 148
+ _Chironomus_, 250
+ _Chiton_, 190
+ _Chonetes_, 160, 161, 162
+ CHORDATA, 257
+ _Chosornis_, 283
+ _Chronozoön_, 298
+ _Cicada_, 250
+ _Cidaris_, 145
+ _Cimoliosaurus_, 279
+ _Cinnamomum_, 91
+ _Cinulia_, 197
+ CIRRIPEDIA, habits and structure of, 240
+ _Cladochonus_, 117
+ _Cladophlebis_, 89, 164, 182
+ CLADOPHORA, 122
+ Classification of animals, 35
+ _Clathrodictyon_, 121
+ _Clausilia_, 191
+ _Clavigera_, 165
+ Clays, 69
+ _Cleiothyris_, 164
+ _Cleithrolepis_, 262, 263, 274
+ _Climacograptus_, 127
+ _Climatius_, 258
+ _Clonograptus_, 123, 124, 126
+ _Clypeaster_, 146
+ _Cnemiornis_, 283
+ Coals, 76
+ _Coccolepis_, 267
+ _Cocconema_, 92
+ _Coccosteus_, 259
+ COELENTERATA, characters of, 37
+ _Coleolus_, 193
+ Collecting fossils, 317
+ _Colubraria_, 199
+ _Columbarium_, 198, 201, 202
+ _Columbella_, 198
+ _Conchothyra_, 184
+ _Conocardium_, 177, 178
+ Conodonts, 153
+ _Conosmilia_, 118
+ _Conularia_, 193, 194, 196
+ _Conus_, 198, 199, 202, 204
+ _Coprosmaephyllum_, 90
+ Coral limestone, 73
+ Corals, 64, 113
+ _Corax_, 267
+ _Corbicula_, 182
+ _Corbula_, 177, 185, 187, 188
+ _Cordaites_, 85
+ _Cornulites_, 154
+ _Coscinocyathus_, 113
+ _Coxiella_, 69
+ _Crassatellites_, 176, 184
+ _Crenella_, 176
+ _Crepicephalus_, 227
+ _Crepidula_, 198
+ Cretaceous (Lower and Upper) cephalopods, 209
+ " cephalopods, New Zealand, 210
+ " Cheilostomata, 157
+ " crinoids, 137
+ " echinoids (irregular), 146
+ " (Lower) fishes, 267
+ " fishes, New Zealand, 268
+ " Foraminifera, 98
+ " gasteropods, 197
+ " plants, 89
+ " Radiolaria, 103
+ " (Lower) reptiles, 277
+ " reptiles, New Zealand, 279
+ " scaphopods, 189
+ " sponges, 110
+ Crinoidal limestone, 74
+ CRINOIDEA, occurrence and structure of, 61, 133
+ _Crioceras_, 209
+ _Crisia_, 158
+ _Cristellaria_, 98
+ _Crocodilus_, 279
+ _Cromus_, 229
+ Crustacea, an archaic group, 221
+ " development of, 221
+ " fossil, 54
+ _Cryptodon_, 186
+ _Cryptograptus_, 127
+ _Cryptoplax_, 190
+ _Cryptostomata_, 155, 156
+ _Ctenodonta_, 177, 178
+ _Ctenodus_, 261, 263
+ _Ctenolates_, 272
+ _Ctenostreon_, 182
+ _Cucullaea_, 182, 184, 185
+ _Cultellus_, 188
+ _Cuna_, 184, 186, 187
+ _Cupressinoxylon_, 78, 89
+ _Cupressus_, 91
+ _Cuscus_, 295
+ Cuttle-fishes, 205
+ CYANOPHYCEAE, 82
+ _Cyathocrinus_, 137
+ _Cyathophyllum_, 113, 115, 117
+ _Cyclas_, 69
+ _Cycloceras_, 206
+ _Cyclolituites_, 207
+ _Cyclometopa_, 248
+ _Cyclonema_, 194
+ CYCLOSTOMATA, 155
+ _Cydnus_, 250
+ _Cymbella_, 92
+ _Cyphaspis_, 229
+ _Cyphon_, 250
+ _Cypraea_, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202
+ _Cypricardinia_, 178
+ Cyprid limestone, 75
+ _Cyrenopsis_, 184
+ _Cyrtoceras_, 204, 207
+ _Cyrtograptus_, 128
+ _Cyrtina_, 162, 164
+ _Cyrtolites_, 193
+ Cystideans, 61
+ _Cystiphyllum_, 116
+ _Cythere_, 239, 240
+ _Cytherella_, 240
+ _?Cytheridea_, 238
+ _Cytheropteron_, 239
+
+
+ _Dadoxylon_, 68
+ _Dalmanites_, 224, 225, 229, 231
+ _Daonella_, 182
+ Darter, 283
+ _?Darwinula_, 238
+ _Dasyurus_, 287, 295
+ DECAPODA, 246
+ Deep Leads, fruits of, 91
+ " insects from, 250
+ _Deltodus_, 261
+ _Deltopecten_, 180
+ _Dendrocrinus_, 134, 135
+ _Dendrocygna_, 283
+ _Dendrograptus_, 122
+ _Dendrophyllia_, 119
+ _Dennantia_, 198
+ _Dentalium_, 189
+ Dentition of Reptiles, 275
+ _Deontopora_, 120
+ _Desmoceras_, 209
+ Devonian bivalves, 178
+ " brachiopods, 161
+ " cephalopods, 207
+ " corals, 115
+ " crinoids, 136
+ " fishes, 258
+ " gasteropods, 195
+ " Ostracoda, 237
+ " plants, 85
+ " Radiolaria, 102
+ " scaphopods, 189
+ " stromatoporoids, 121
+ " trilobites, 231
+ DIADACTYLA, 287
+ Diatomite, 72
+ Diatoms, 92
+ _Dicellograptus_, 126, 127
+ _Dichograptus_, 126
+ _Dicranograptus_, 126, 127
+ _Dictyonema_, and allies, 122
+ _Dictyopyge_, 262
+ _Didymograptus_, 124, 126
+ _?Didymosorus_, 89
+ _Dielasma_, 164, 165
+ _Dikellocephalus_, 227
+ _Dimetrodon_, 276
+ _Dimya_, 184, 185, 186
+ _Dinesus_, 227
+ Dingo, 298, 305
+ _Dinornis_, 281, 282, 283, 299
+ _Diodon_, 270, 271
+ _Dione_, 188
+ _Diphyphyllum_, 113
+ _Diplograptus_, 124, 126, 127, 128
+ _Diprotodon_, 51, 290, 293
+ _Diprotodon_-breccias, 203
+ DIPROTODONTIA, 287
+ _Discina_, 166
+ _Discorbina_, 98
+ _Dissocheilus_, 199
+ _Dithyrocaris_, 246
+ _Ditrupa_, 154
+ _Ditrupa_ limestone, 74
+ _Dolichodon_, 296
+ _Dolichometopus_, 226
+ _Dolium_, 201
+ _Donax_, 175, 187
+ _Dorsetensia_, 209
+ _Dosinea_, 185, 188
+ _Drillia_, 198, 202
+ _Dromaeus_, 282, 283
+ _Dromornis_, 282
+ Duck, 283
+ _Duncaniaster_, 147
+
+
+ Ear-bones of whales, 296
+ Early observers, 24
+ _Eburnopsis_, 199, 200
+ _Echidna_, 286, 287
+ _Echinocyamus_, 146
+ ECHINODERMATA, characters of, 37, 59
+ " divisions of, 133
+ ECHINOIDEA, 143
+ _Echinolampas_, 147, 148
+ _Echinoneus_, 147
+ _Echinus_, 145
+ _Ecionema_, 112
+ _Edaphodon_, 271
+ _Edestus_, 262
+ _Edmondia_, 177, 180, 182
+ _Eglisia_, 202
+ Elephant-fish, 269, 271
+ Elephant-tusk shells, 188
+ Elevated sea-beds, 27
+ _Elonichthys_, 261, 263
+ _Elpisopholis_, 263
+ _Emarginula_, 198
+ Emu, 283
+ _Encrinurus_, 229
+ _Endoceras_, 205
+ _Endothyra_, 96, 98
+ _Entalophora_, 158
+ _Entomis_, 238
+ _Ephemera_, 250
+ _Equisetites_, 40
+ Errant worms, 153
+ _Erycina_, 187
+ _Erymnoceras_, 209
+ _Estheria_, 233
+ _Eucalyptus_, 90, 91, 281
+ _Eulima_, 198
+ _Eunema_, 193
+ _Eunicites_, 153
+ _Euomphalus_, 194, 195, 196
+ _Eupatagus_, 147
+ _Euphemus_, 196
+ _Eurydesma_, 181
+ EURYPTERIDA, 248
+ _Euthria_, 198
+ _Eutrochus_, 200
+ Evolution of life-forms, 33
+
+
+ _Fagus (Notofagus)_, 91
+ Falcon, 283
+ _Fasciolaria_, 198, 199
+ _Favosites_, 73, 114, 115, 116
+ Feather-star, 138
+ _Fenestella_, 156, 157
+ _Fibularia_, 146
+ Fishes, fossil, 53
+ " primitive types, 258
+ " true, 258
+ Fish-lizards, 275, 276, 277, 278
+ _Fissilunula_, 183, 184
+ _Fissurellidea_, 198
+ _Fistulipora_, 155, 156
+ _Flabellina_, 98
+ _Flabellum_, 118, 119
+ Flightless pigeon goose, 283
+ Flints, 71
+ Flying phalanger, 295
+ Foraminifera, characters of, 36, 95
+ " fossil, 65
+ Foraminiferal limestone, 73
+ Fossil faunas, differences in, 43
+ Fossiliferous strata, Australia, 45-48
+ " strata, New Zealand 49
+ Fossil, origin of name, 23
+ Fossils an index to age of strata, 26, 32
+ " nature of, 21
+ " petrifaction of, 23
+ " preservation of, 23
+ " structure preserved in, 24
+ Fossil wood, 24, 66, 68
+ _Frondicularia_, 97, 98
+ Fruits of the deep leads, 91
+ _Fulica_, 283
+ _Fusus_, 198, 201
+
+
+ _Galeocerdo_, 269, 271
+ _Gallinula_, 283
+ _Gangamopteris_, 86
+ _Ganorhynchus_, 259
+ _Gari_, 185
+ GASTEROPODA, characters of, 190
+ _Gastrioceras_, 207
+ _Geinitzina_, 98
+ _Genyornis_, 282, 302
+ Geological epochs, 45-49
+ Geology, scope of, 21
+ Giant kangaroo, 289
+ " lizard, 280
+ " penguin, 280
+ _Gibbula_, 198
+ _Ginkgo_, 89, 91
+ _Girvanella_, 76, 82, 86
+ Glauconite casts of foraminifera, 96
+ _Glossograptus_, 126, 127
+ _Glossopteris_, 86
+ _Glycimeris_, 184, 187
+ _Glyphioceras_, 207
+ _Gomphonema_, 93
+ Gondwana-Land, 87
+ _Goniatites_, 207, 208
+ _Goniograptus_, 124, 126
+ _Gosfordia_, 262
+ _Gosseletina_, 196
+ _Grammysia_, 177
+ _Granatocrinus_, 139
+ _Graphularia_, 118, 119
+ Graptolites, Bendigo series, 124
+ " Lancefield series, 124
+ " nature of, 63, 123
+ " Tasmania, 128
+ GRAPTOLITOIDEA, 123
+ _Gregoriura_, 142
+ _Griffithides_, 232
+ _Gromia_, 95
+ Ground pigeon, 283
+ _Gryphaea_, 182
+ _Grypotherium_, 53
+ Guide fossils, 43
+ GYMNOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40
+ _Gyracanthides_, 261
+ _Gyroceras_, 207
+ _Gyrodoma_, 194
+
+
+ _Halimeda_ limestone, 75
+ _Haliotis_, 198, 200
+ _Haliserites_, 83
+ _Halysites_, 114
+ _Hamites_, 210
+ _Hapalocrinus_, 136
+ _Haploceras_, 209
+ _Haplophragmium_, 97, 98
+ _Harpa_, 198, 199, 201
+ _Harpactocarcinus_, 248
+ _Harpagornis_, 283
+ _Hawk_, 283
+ _Helicocrinus_, 136
+ _Helicotoma_, 195
+ _Heliolites_, 115, 116
+ _Heliopora_, 115
+ _Heliosphaera_, 103
+ _Helix_, 203
+ _Hemiaster_, 148
+ _Hemipatagus_, 148
+ _Heterocrinus_, 135
+ HETEROPODA, 190
+ _Heteropora_, 158
+ Hexactinellid sponge, 107, 110
+ Hinge-structure, in bivalves, 175
+ _Holaster_, 147
+ HOLOTHUROIDEA, 148
+ _Homalonotus_, 229, 231
+ _Hornera_, 158
+ _Huenella_, 159
+ Human remains, sub-recent, 299
+ _Hyalostelia_, 108, 110
+ _Hybocrinus_, 135
+ _Hydractinia_, 119, 120
+ HYDROZOA, 63, 119
+ _Hymenocaris_, 244
+ _Hyperammina_, 97
+ _Hyolithes_, 192, 193, 194
+ _Hypothyris_, 164
+ _Hypsiprymnus_, 295
+
+
+ Ibis, 283
+ _Ichthyosaurus_, 276, 277, 278
+ _Idiostroma_, 121
+ _Idmonea_, 158
+ _Illaenus_, 229
+ Indusial limestone, 75
+ _Inoceramus_, 183, 184
+ Insects, 53, 250
+ Ironstone, 80
+ Irregular echinoids, 146
+ _Ischnochiton_, 190
+ _Ischyodus_, 269, 270
+ _Isochilina_, 237
+ _Isocrinus_, 137, 138
+
+
+ Janjukian bivalves, 186
+ " gasteropods, 200
+ _Jonesina_, 237
+ Jurassic bird, 280
+ " bivalves, 182
+ " brachiopods, 165
+ " cephalopods, 208
+ " fishes, 264
+ " Foraminifera, 98
+ " gasteropods, 196
+ " insects, 250
+ " Ostracoda, 238
+ " Phyllopoda, 233
+ " plants, 89
+ " reptiles, 276
+ " scaphopods, 189
+
+
+ Kalimnan bivalves, 187
+ " gasteropods, 201
+ Kangaroo, 295
+ _Keeneia_, 196
+ _Kekenodon_, 295, 296
+ Kerosene shale, 77
+ _Kionoceras_, 206
+ _Kloedenia_, 237
+
+
+ _Labrodon_, 271
+ LABYRINTHODONTIA, 272
+ _Lagena_, 98
+ _?Lagria_, 250
+ _Lamna_, 267, 269, 271
+ Lamp-shells, 57, 158
+ _Lasiocladia_, 110
+ _Lasiograptus_, 126, 127
+ _Latirus_, 198, 201
+ _Laurus_, 91
+ _Leaia_, 233
+ Leda, 182, 184, 185, 187, 188
+ Leonardo da Vinci, 25
+ _Lepas_, 243
+ _Leperditella_, 234
+ _Leperditia_, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238
+ _Lepidocyclina_, 99, 100
+ " limestone, 73
+ _Lepidodendron_, 40, 85, 261
+ " beds, 162
+ _Lepralia_, 157, 158
+ _Leptaena_, 162, 164
+ _Leptoclinum_, 257, 258
+ _Leptodesma_, 179
+ _Leptodomus_, 177
+ _Leptograptus_, 124
+ _Leptolepis_, 264, 265, 267
+ _Lepton_, 187
+ _Lichas_, 229
+ _Lichenopora_, 158
+ _Lieberkuehnia_, 95
+ _Lima_, 184, 185, 186
+ _Limatula_, 185
+ Limestones formed by organisms, 72
+ _Limnaea_, 69
+ _Limopsis_, 184, 185, 187
+ _Limulus_, 248
+ _Lingula_, 160, 162, 166, 261
+ _Linthia_, 147, 148
+ _Liopyrga_, 201
+ _Liotia_, 198, 200
+ Lithistid sponges, 109, 110
+ Lithological evidence, value of, 44
+ _Lithophaps_, 283
+ _Lithothamnion_, 75
+ _Lituites_, 207
+ _Lituola_, 97
+ _Loganograptus_, 126
+ _Lophophyllum_, 117
+ _Lorica_, 190
+ _Lotorium_, 198, 200, 202
+ _Lovenia_, 147
+ Lower Cambrian trilobites, 226
+ " Cretaceous bivalves, 183
+ " " brachiopods, 166
+ " " cephalopods, 209
+ " " crab, 246
+ " " dragon-fly, 250
+ " " fishes, 267
+ " " reptiles, 277
+ " Mesozoic fishes, 263
+ " Ordovician graptolites, New Zealand, 126
+ " Ordovician graptolites, Victoria, 124
+ _Loxoconcha_, 239
+ _Loxonema_, 193, 194, 195, 196
+ _Lucina_, 185, 187
+ Lung-fish, 265
+ _Lunucammina_, 98
+ _Lunulicardium_, 178
+ _Lunulites_, 158
+ _Lyriopecten_, 179
+
+
+ _Maccoyella_, 183, 184
+ _Macrocephalites_, 209
+ _Macrocheilus_, 196
+ _Macrocypris_, 236, 240
+ _Macropora_, 158
+ _Macropus_, 289, 295
+ _Macrotaeniopteris_, 88
+ _Mactra_, 177, 185, 188
+ Madrepore limestone, 73
+ _Magasella_, 166, 168
+ _Magellania_, 166, 167, 168
+ _Magnolia_, 91
+ Maiden-hair tree, 89
+ Mail-shells, 189
+ MAMMALIA, early types, 285
+ Mammals, fossil, 51
+ Manatees and dugongs, 298
+ _Marginella_, 198, 199
+ _Marginulina_, 98
+ Marsupial lion, 293
+ Marsupial, oldest known Australian, 294
+ Marsupials, 287
+ " Pleistocene and living, 295
+ _Martiniopsis_, 164
+ _Mastodonsaurus_, 274
+ Material for fossil collecting, 315
+ _Megalania_, 280
+ _Megalosaurus_, 277
+ _Melania_, 203
+ _Melosira_, 92
+ _Membranipora_, 157, 158
+ _Meretrix_, 177, 185, 187
+ _Mesoblastus_, 139
+ _Mesostigmodera_, 250
+ Mesozoic strata, 46
+ _Metablastus_, 139
+ _Metasqualodon_, 295, 296
+ METAZOA, 95
+ _Micraster_, 146
+ _Microdiscus_, 227
+ _Mikrogromia_, 95
+ _Millepora_, 119
+ _Milleporids_, 119
+ _Miliolina_, 96, 100, 101
+ Miocene bird, New Zealand, 280
+ " leaf-beds, 90
+ Miolania, 279
+ Mitra, 198, 199, 204
+ Moa-birds, 281-285, 299
+ _Modiola_, 183, 186
+ _Modiolaria_, 186
+ _Modiolopsis_, 177
+ MOLLUSCA, characters of, 38, 56, 174
+ MOLLUSCOIDEA, characters of, 38, 57, 154
+ Monactinellid sponges, 109, 110
+ _Monogenerina_, 97
+ _Monograptus_, 124, 128
+ _Monostychia_, 146
+ _Monotis_, 182
+ MONOTREMATA, 286
+ _Monticulipora_, 155
+ Monticuliporoids, 117
+ _Montlivaltia_, 118
+ Moor-hen, 283
+ _Mopsea_, 119
+ _Morio_, 198, 200
+ Mound-builders, 283
+ _Mourlonia_, 196
+ Mud-fish, 265, 267
+ Muds, 69
+ Mudstone, 70
+ MULTITUBERCULATA, 286
+ _Murchisonia_, 104, 195, 196
+ _Murex_, 198, 199, 200
+ _Myodora_, 185, 187
+ _Myriolepis_, 262, 263
+ _Mytilarca_, 177
+ _Mytilus_, 182, 183, 187, 188
+
+
+ Naming of animals, 34
+ _Nassa_, 191, 198, 204
+ _Natica_, 191, 197, 198, 200, 201
+ Native cat, 287, 295
+ " dog, 298
+ " honeysuckle, 91, 92
+ NAUTILOIDEA, 204
+ _Nautilus_, 204, 207, 209, 210
+ _Navicula_, 92
+ _Nebalia_, 244
+ _Necrastur_, 283
+ _Neoceratodus_, 267
+ Newer Pliocene seal, 299
+ _Newtoniella_, 198
+ New Zealand fossiliferous strata, 49
+ _Niso_, 194, 198
+ _Nodosaria_, 98, 100
+ _Nonionina_, 96
+ _Normanites_, 209
+ _Notasaphus_, 227
+ _Notidanus_, 268, 269, 270, 271
+ _Notochelone_, 53, 277
+ _Notophyllia_, 118
+ _Nototherium_, 293
+ _Nubecularia_, 97, 98
+ _Nucleospira_, 160
+ _Nucula_, 175, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185
+ _Nuculites_, 177, 178
+ Nullipore limestone, 75
+ _Nummulites_, 65, 99
+ Nummulitic limestone, 73
+ _Nyroca_, 283
+
+
+ OCTOPODA, 205
+ _Octopus_, 205
+ _Odontaspis_, 269, 270, 271
+ ODONTOCETI, 295
+ _Odontopleura_, 229, 231
+ _Odostomia_, 198, 200
+ _Oenonites_, 153
+ _Olenellus_, 226, 227
+ _Oliva_, 204
+ _Ommatocarcinus_, 247
+ _Omphalotrochus_, 194
+ Oolitic ironstone, 81
+ _Ophileta_, 192, 193
+ OPHIUROIDEA, 141
+ _Orbiculoidea_, 160
+ _Orbitoides_, 99
+ Ordovician bivalve, 177
+ " brachiopods, 159
+ " cephalopods, 205
+ " corals, 113
+ " crinoids, 135
+ " gasteropods, 193
+ " Phyllocarida, 244
+ " Radiolaria, 102
+ " sponges, 108
+ " trilobites, 227
+ _Ornithorhynchus_, 286, 287
+ _Orthis_, 159, 160, 161, 162
+ " limestone, 74
+ _Orthoceras_, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208
+ _Orthonota_, 177
+ _Orthothetes_, 162
+ OSTRACODA, features of carapace, 234
+ " habits of, 234
+ " structure of, 233
+ _Ostrea_, 182, 184, 187
+ _Otaria_, 299
+ _Oxyrhina_, 269, 270, 271
+ OXYSTOMATA, 247
+ _Oxytelus_, 250
+
+
+ _Pachydomus_, 181
+ _Pachyornis_, 282, 283
+ _Pachypora_, 73, 116
+ _Palaeaster_, 140, 141
+ _Palaeeudyptes_, 280, 281
+ _Palaeohatteria_, 276
+ _Palaeolycus_, 250
+ _Palaeoneilo_, 177, 178
+ _Palaeoniscus_, 261, 263, 274
+ _Palaeopelargus_, 283
+ Palaeozoic chitons, 189
+ " Cladophora, 122
+ " Cryptostomata, 156
+ " errant worms, 153
+ " strata, 47
+ " Trepostomata, 155
+ _Palissya_, 89, 164
+ _Pallymnarchus_, 279
+ _Palorchestes_, 290
+ _Panda_, 203
+ _Panenka_, 177
+ _Paracyainus_, 118
+ _Paracyclas_, 177, 179
+ _Paradoxechinus_, 145
+ _Paradoxorhyncha_, 239
+ _Parasqualodon_, 295, 296
+ _Pareiasaurus_, 276
+ _Patella_, 190, 191
+ _Pecten_, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188
+ PELECYPODA, characters of, 174
+ " hinge structure of, 175
+ Pelican, 283
+ _Pelicanus_, 283
+ _Pelosina_, 97
+ _?Peltopleurus_, 262
+ _Pentacrinus_, 137, 138
+ _Pentagonaster_, 141
+ _Pentamerus_, 160, 162
+ _Penteune_, 91
+ _Peragale_, 289
+ _Perameles_, 289, 295
+ _Perisphinctes_, 209
+ Permian and Triassic reptiles, 276
+ _Perna_, 187
+ _Peronella_, 148
+ _Persoonia_, 90
+ _Petaurus_, 295
+ _Petraia_, 113
+ _Phacops_, 229, 230, 231
+ Phalanger, 295
+ _Phanerotrema_, 194
+ _Phascolomys_, 289, 295
+ _Phascolonus_, 289
+ _Phialocrinus_, 137
+ _Phillipsia_, 232
+ _Phoenicopsis_, 88
+ _Pholas_, 177
+ _Pholidophorus_, 262, 263
+ _Phos_, 198
+ _Phragmoceras_, 207
+ _Phryganea_, 75
+ PHYLACTOLAEMATA, 155
+ PHYLLOCARIDA, structure of, 243
+ _Phyllocladus_, 90
+ _Phyllograptus_, 123, 126
+ PHYLLOPODA, 233
+ _Phyllotheca_, 274
+ _Physa_, 191
+ _Physonemus_, 261
+ Pigeon, 283
+ _Pinna_, 186
+ PINNIPEDIA, 299
+ _Pisania_, 202
+ _?Pisocrinus_, 136
+ _Placopsilina_, 97
+ _Placotrochus_, 118
+ _Placunanomia_, 184, 187
+ _Plagiarca_, 184
+ _Plagiaulax_, 286
+ _Planorbis_, 191
+ Plants, fossil, 66
+ Plant series, characters of, 39
+ _Platalea_, 283
+ _Platyceps_, 273
+ _Platyceras_, 192, 194, 195, 196
+ _Platycoila_, 91
+ _Platycrinus_, 137
+ _Platyschisma_, 196
+ _Platysomus_, 263
+ _Plaxiphora_, 190
+ _Plectroninia_, 112
+ _Pleioclinis_, 91
+ Pleistocene birds, New Zealand, 283
+ " bivalves, 188
+ " carinate birds, 283
+ " diprotodonts, 289
+ " fish, 272
+ " Foraminifera, 101
+ " gasteropods, 202
+ " lobster, 248
+ " plants, 91
+ " seal, 299
+ _Plerophyllum_, 117
+ _Plesiastraea_, 119
+ _Plesiolampas_, 148
+ _Plesiosaurus_, 279
+ _Pleuracanthus_, 263
+ _Pleurodictyum_, 114
+ _Pleuromya_, 183
+ _?Pleurostomella_, 98
+ _Pleurotoma_, 198, 199, 202
+ _Pleurotomaria_, 194, 196, 197, 200, 202
+ _Plicatula_, 186
+ Pliocene moa, New Zealand, 281
+ _Pliosaurus_, 278
+ _Plotus_, 283
+ _Podocarpus_, 90
+ _Poecilodus_, 262
+ _?Pollicipes_, 243
+ POLYCHAETA, 152, 154
+ _Polycotylus_, 279
+ _Polymastodon_, 286
+ _Polymorphina_, 98, 100
+ POLYPLACOPHORA, 189
+ _Polypora_, 157
+ POLYPROTODONTIA, 287
+ _Polystomella_, 101
+ POLYZOA, characters of, 59, 155
+ " subdivisons of, 155
+ Polyzoal limestone, 74
+ _Porcellia_, 196
+ Porcupine fish, 270, 271
+ _Porina_, 158
+ _Porphyrio_, 283
+ _Portheus_, 268
+ _Poteriocrinus_, 137
+ Prehensile Rat-kangaroo, 295
+ Preservation of fossils, 319
+ _Primitia_, 236, 237
+ _Pristisomus_, 262
+ _Procoptodon_, 290
+ _Productus_, 162, 163, 164
+ _Proechidna_, 287
+ _Proetus_, 229, 232
+ _Progura_, 283
+ _Prosopon_, 246
+ _Protaster_, 142
+ _Protocardium_, 185
+ _Protopharetra_, 113
+ _Protoretepora_, 157
+ _Protospongia_, 107,108
+ PROTOZOA, characters of, 36, 65, 95
+ _Psammechinus_, 145
+ _Pseudamaura_, 197
+ _Psilichthys_, 264
+ PTERIDOPHYTA, characters of, 40
+ PTERIDOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40
+ _Pterinea_, 178, 179
+ _Pteris_ (_Pteridium_), 91
+ PTEROPODA, 190, 192, 193, 194
+ _Pterygotus_, 248, 249
+ _Ptilograptus_, 122
+ _Ptychoparia_, 226, 227
+ _Pugnellus_, 184
+ _Pulvinulina_, 98
+ Purbeck marble, 74
+ _Purisiphonia_, 110
+ _Purpura_, 191
+
+
+ RADIOLARIA, characters of, 36, 66
+ " habitat of, 101
+ " structure of, 101
+ " subdivisions, 102
+ Rail, 283
+ Raised beaches as distinct from middens, 29
+ _Ranella_, 204
+ Range-in-time of fossils, 50
+ _Raphistoma_, 193, 195
+ Rat-kangaroo, 295
+ _Receptaculites_, 109
+ Regular echinoids, 144
+ _Reinschia_, 78
+ Reptiles, fossil, 53
+ " dentition of, 275
+ " structure of, 274
+ _Reteocrinus_, 135
+ _Retepora_, 158
+ _Reticularia_, 164
+ _Retiolites_, 124, 128
+ _Rhacopteris_, 86
+ _Rhinopterocaris_, 244, 246
+ _Rhipidomella_, 162
+ _Rhizophyllum_, 113
+ _Rhodocrinus_, 135
+ _Rhombopora_, 156
+ _Rhynchonella_, 158, 165, 166
+ RHYNCHOTA, 250
+ _Rhynchotrema_, 160
+ _Ringicula_, 202
+ _Risella_, 191
+ _Rissoa_, 198
+ _Rissoina_, 197
+ _Rostellaria_, 198
+ _Rotalia_, 96, 101
+ Rugose corals, 113
+
+
+ _Saccammina_, 96
+ _Saccocaris_, 244
+ _Sagenodus_, 263
+ _Salterella_, 192
+ Sandstones, 71
+ _Sanidophyllum_, 115
+ _Sarcophilus_, 287, 295
+ _Sargus_, 272
+ _Scala_, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202
+ _Scalaetrochus_, 194
+ _Scaldicetus_, 297
+ _Scaphella_, 202
+ _Scaphites_, 209
+ SCAPHOPODA, 188
+ _Scenella_, 193
+ _Sceparnodon_, 289
+ _Schizaster_, 148
+ _Schizodus_, 175
+ _Schizophoria_, 162
+ _Schloenbachia_, 209
+ _Scutellina_, 146
+ Sea-beds far from the present coast, 29
+ Sea-bream, 272
+ " -cucumbers, 148
+ " -firs, 119, 122
+ " -mats, 154, 155
+ " -pen, 119
+ " -urchins, 59, 143
+ " characters of, 144
+ Sedentary worms, 154
+ _Seguenzia_, 199
+ _Selenaria_, 158
+ _Semele_, 185
+ _Semicassis_, 198
+ _Seminula_, 164
+ _Semionotus_, 262, 263
+ SEPIOIDEA, 205
+ _Serpula_, 154
+ Serpulite limestone, 74
+ _Sertularia_, 119, 122
+ Shales, 69
+ Sharks, 267, 269, 270, 271
+ Shell-limestone, 74
+ _Shumardia_, 227
+ _Sigsbeia_, 143
+ Siliceous rocks, 71
+ Silicified wood, 24
+ _Siliquaria_, 198
+ Silurian bivalves, 177
+ " brachiopods, 160
+ " brittle-stars, 142
+ " cephalopods, 206
+ " cirripedes, 241
+ " conodonts, 153
+ " corals, 113
+ " crinoids, 135
+ " Foraminifera, 96
+ " gasteropods, 193
+ " graptolites, Victoria, 128
+ " Hexacoralla, 114
+ " Octocoralla, 115
+ " Ostracoda, 235
+ " palaeechinoids, 144
+ " Phyllocarida, 246
+ " plants, 82
+ " Radiolaria, 102
+ " sponges, 109
+ " starfishes, 140
+ " stromatoporoids, 121
+ " trilobites, 228
+ _Siphonalia_, 198
+ _Siphonia_, 110
+ _Siphonotreta_, 160
+ SIRENIA, 298
+ _Sistrum_, 202
+ Slate, 70
+ Smith, William, 26
+ Smittia, 158
+ _Solarium_, 198
+ _Solenocurtus_, 187
+ _Soletellina_, 188
+ Sphaerosiderite, 80
+ _Sphenopteris_, 85, 89
+ _Sphenotrochus_, 118, 119
+ _Sphenotus_, 177, 179
+ _Sphyrna_, 270
+ _Spirifer_, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164
+ _Spiriferina_, 165
+ " -beds, 208
+ _Spirillina_, 96
+ _Spirorbis_, 154
+ _Spirula_, 205
+ _Spirulirostra_, 205, 210
+ _Spisula_, 188
+ _Spondylostrobus_, 91
+ _Spondylus_, 175, 184, 185
+ SPONGES, characteristics of, 64, 107
+ _Spongilla_, 72
+ _Spongodiscus_, 103
+ _Spongophyllum_, 116
+ Spoonbill, 283
+ Spore coal, 76
+ _Squalodon_, 295
+ _Stacheia_, 97
+ Star-corals, 119
+ Starfishes, characters of, 61, 139
+ _Staurolonche_, 103
+ _Stauroneis_, 92
+ Steno, 25
+ _Stenopora_, 117
+ _Stenotheca_, 192
+ _Stephanella_, 109
+ _Stephanograptus_, 126
+ _Stephanotrochus_, 118
+ _Sthenurus_, 290
+ Sting-ray, 271
+ _Stomatopora_, 158
+ Storing fossils, 320
+ Stork, 283
+ Strata, superposition of, 41
+ " vertically arranged, 44
+ Stratigraphical series, general thickness, 44
+ Stratigraphy, 27
+ _Strepsodus_, 261
+ _Streptelasma_, 113
+ _Stricklandinia_, 160
+ _Stromatopora_, 120, 121
+ _Stromatoporella_, 121, 122
+ STROMATOPOROIDS, 63, 120
+ _Strombus_, 184, 204
+ _Strophalosia_, 163
+ _Stropheodonta_, 160, 161
+ _Strophonella_, 160
+ _Struthiolaria_, 202
+ _Studeria_, 148
+ _Sturtzura_, 143
+ _Stutchburia_, 180
+ STYLASTERIDS, 119
+ _Subemarginula_, 198
+ Submerged forests, 30
+ _Sunetta_, 187
+ Superposition of strata, 41
+ _Synaphe_, 238
+ SYNDACTYLA, 288
+ _Synedra_, 92
+ _Syringopora_, 114
+ _Syringothyris_, 164
+
+
+ _Tabellaria_, 92
+ _Taeniopteris_, 88, 89, 164, 250, 265
+ _Taniwhasaurus_, 279
+ _Taphaetus_, 283
+ Tasmanian devil, 287, 295
+ " wolf, 287, 295
+ Tasmanite, 77
+ _Taxocrinus_, 135
+ _Tellina_, 185, 187, 188
+ _Temnechinus_, 146
+ _Tentaculites_, 193, 194, 195
+ _Terebra_, 198, 199, 202, 204
+ _Terebratella_, 166, 168
+ _Terebratula_, 166
+ _Terebratulina_, 166, 167
+ Tertiary ironstone, 81
+ _Tessarodoma_, 158
+ TETRACORALLA, 113
+ Tetractinellid sponge, 110, 112
+ _Tetragraptus_, 124, 126
+ _Textularia_, 98, 100
+ _Thalassina_, 248
+ THALLOPHYTA, characters of, 39
+ _Thalotia_, 200
+ _Thamnastraea_, 118
+ _Thinnfeldia_, 88, 89, 182
+ _Thurammina_, 97
+ _Thyestes_, 258
+ _Thylacinus_, 287, 295
+ _Thylacoleo_, 293, 303
+ Time-range of fossils, 50
+ _Tomodus_, 262
+ Toothed whales, 295
+ Torbanite, 77
+ _Torlessia_, 154
+ _Trachyderma_, 153, 154
+ _Trachypora_, 117
+ _Trematonotus_, 194
+ _Trematotrochus_, 118, 119
+ TREPOSTOMATA, 155
+ _Tretocalia_, 112
+ Triassic bivalves, 181
+ " brachiopods, 164
+ " cephalopods, 208
+ " crinoids, 137
+ " fishes, 262
+ " Foraminifera, 98
+ " labyrinthodonts, 273
+ " Ostracoda, 238
+ " Phyllopoda, 233
+ " plants, 88
+ " reptiles, New Zealand, 276
+ _Tribonyx_, 283
+ _Tribrachiocrinus_, 137
+ _Trichograptus_, 124
+ _Tricoelocrinus_, 139
+ _Trigonia_, 175, 182, 183, 184, 187
+ _Trigonograptus_, 126
+ TRILOBITES, habits of, 222
+ " structure of, 223
+ _Tritylodon_, 276, 286
+ _Trivia_, 198, 199
+ _Trochoceras_, 205
+ _Trochonema_, 195
+ _Trochus_, 191, 194, 195
+ _Trophon_, 202
+ _Truncatulina_, 98, 100
+ _Tryplasma_, 113
+ Tuatera, 276
+ _Tudicla_, 201
+ TUNICATA, 257
+ _Turbo_, 197, 200
+ _Turrilepas_, 241, 243
+ _Turritella_, 191, 198, 200, 201, 202
+ _Turritella_ -limestone, 74
+ _Tylosaurus_, 279
+ _Tylospira_, 198, 202
+ _Typhis_, 198
+
+
+ _Uncinulus_, 162
+ _Unio_, 181, 182
+ _Unionella_, 181
+ Upper Cambrian trilobites, 227
+ " Cretaceous bivalves, 184
+ " Cretaceous brachiopod, 166
+ " Cretaceous cephalopod, 166
+ " Triassic fishes, 262
+ " Ordovician graptolites, New South Wales, 127
+ " Ordovician graptolites, Victoria, 126
+ _Urasterella_, 140
+ _Urosthenes_, 262
+
+
+ _Vaginella_, 198, 199
+ _Vaginulina_, 98
+ _Valvulina_, 97, 98
+ _Venus_, 177, 185, 187, 188
+ VERMES, characters of, 37
+ _Vertebraria_, 264
+ VERTEBRATA, characters of, 38, 257
+ _Verticordia_, 186
+ _Vetotuba_, 194
+ _Voluta_, 198, 201, 202
+ _Volutilithes_, 198, 201, 202
+ _Volvox_, 78
+ _Volvulella_, 201
+
+
+ Warrnambool footprints, 301
+ Werrikooian bivalves, 187
+ " gasteropods, 202
+ Whales, 295
+ White coal, 77
+ _Wilsonia_, 160
+ Wombat, 289, 295
+ Worms, fossil, 59, 152
+ Worm-tracks, 154
+ Wrasse family, 271
+ _Wynyardia_, 294
+
+
+ Xenophanes, 24
+ _Xenorhynchus_, 283
+ _Xestoleberis_, 237
+ _Xiphosphaera_, 103
+
+
+ _Yvania_, 196
+
+
+ _Zaphrentis_, 117
+ _Ziphius_, 296
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO AUSTRALASIAN LOCALITIES.
+
+
+Appended letters indicate the State or Country:--
+
+N.S.W., New South Wales; N.T., Northern Territory; N.Z., New Zealand;
+Q., Queensland; S.A., South Australia; T., Tasmania; V., Victoria; W.A.,
+Western Australia.
+
+ Adelaide, S.A., 102
+ Aire Coast, V., 138
+ Airly, N.S.W., 273
+ Alice Springs, S.A., 193
+ Altona Bay, V., 112
+ Arcola, Q., 279
+ Arcoona, S.A., 91
+ Ardrossan, S.A., 82, 107
+
+
+ Bacchus Marsh, V., 88, 90
+ Balcombe's Bay, V., 190, 239, 317
+ Bald Hill, V., 88
+ Barker Gorge, W.A., 196, 232, 259
+ Barraba, N.S.W., 93, 102
+ Batesford, V., 73, 100, 138, 141
+ Baton River, N.Z., 195, 207
+ Bay of Islands, N.Z., 93
+ Beaumaris, V., 119, 243, 248, 270, 271, 296, 297, 317
+ Bendigo, V., 108, 109, 124, 246
+ Berwick, V., 68
+ Bindi, V., 109, 121, 161, 195
+ Bingera, N.S.W., 102
+ Boggy Creek, V., 112
+ Bowen River, Q., 117, 137, 164
+ Bowning, N.S.W., 144, 153, 207, 231, 241
+ Bowral, N.S.W., 274
+ Brighton, N.Z., 146, 248, 280
+ Broadhurst's Creek, V., 231
+ Broken River, N.Z., 146, 167
+ Broken River, Q., 136
+ Broome, W.A., 183
+ Brunswick, V., 136
+ Buchan, V., 79, 109, 115, 136, 161, 195, 203, 207, 231, 237, 258
+ Bulla, V., 122
+ Bungonia, N.S.W., 300
+ Burdekin, Q., 115, 116
+ Burnt Creek, V., 259
+ Burragorang, N.S.W., 180
+
+
+ Camperdown, V., 74
+ Canobolas district, N.S.W., 114
+ Canowindra, N.S.W., 162
+ Canterbury, N.Z., 154
+ Cape Liptrap, V., 71
+ Cape Otway, V., 119, 296
+ Cape Palliser, N.Z., 203
+ Cape Paterson, V., 265, 276
+ Carapook, V., 264
+ Caroline Creek, T., 227
+ Casterton, V., 265
+ Castlemaine, V., 126, 246
+ Cavan, N.S.W., 109
+ Cessnock, N.S.W., 237
+ Chatham Ids., 138
+ Chillagoe, Q., 115
+ Chinchilla, Q., 279
+ Clarence Town, N.S.W., 139, 162
+ Cliftonwood, N.S.W., 237
+ Clunes, V., 279
+ Cockatoo Id., N.S.W., 274
+ Collie, W.A., 98
+ Collingwood, V., 206
+ Coole Barghurk Creek, V., 193
+ Cooma, N.S.W., 93, 102
+ Copeland, N.S.W., 85
+ Corio Bay, V., 270
+ Corner Creek, Q., 237
+ Croydon, Q., 89, 166
+ Curiosity Shop, N.Z., 138, 280
+ Curlewis, V., 112, 247
+ Curramulka, S.A., 108, 177, 192, 235
+ Currowang, N.S.W., 127
+
+
+ Dalton, N.S.W., 90, 91
+ Dargo High Plains, V., 91
+ Darling Downs, Q., 53, 110, 282, 283, 298
+ Darling River, N.S.W., 154, 157
+ Darriwill, V., 126
+ Delegate River, N.S.W., 114
+ Derrengullen Creek, N.S.W., 190
+ Diggers' Rest, V., 126
+ Dolodrook River, V., 193, 227
+ Dromana, V., 246
+ Dundas Co., V., 264
+
+
+ East Maitland, N.S.W., 154
+ Elizabeth River, S.A., 91
+
+
+ Fanning River, Q., 207
+ Farley, N.S.W., 180, 237
+ Fernbrook, N.S.W., 109
+ Fifield, N.S.W., 237
+ Flemington, V., 136, 142, 143, 206, 318
+ Flinders, V., 65, 112
+ Flinders River, Q., 183, 250, 267, 277, 278
+ Florentine Valley, T., 159, 227
+ Fraser's Creek, V., 231
+
+
+ Gascoyne River, W.A., 117, 136, 137, 232, 262
+ Geelong, V., 100, 119, 120, 243
+ Geilston, T., 203
+ Gellibrand River, V., 199
+ Geraldton, W.A., 98, 197, 238
+ Gippsland Lakes, V., 168, 243
+ Gisborne, V., 299
+ Glenelg River, V., 168
+ Glenwilliam, N.S.W., 139
+ Goodradigbee River, N.S.W., 109
+ Goonoo, N.S.W., 85
+ Gordon River, T., 115
+ Gosford, N.S.W., 53, 262, 263, 273
+ Grampians, V., 261
+ Grange Burn, Hamilton, V., 143, 270, 271, 296, 297
+ Greenough River, W.A., 165, 182, 209
+ Grey River, N.Z., 78
+ Grice's Creek, V., 317
+ Grose Vale, N.S.W., 238
+ Gulgong, N.S.W., 279, 286
+ Gunning, N.S.W., 91
+
+
+ Haddon, V., 68
+ Hallett's Cove, S.A., 119
+ Hall's Sound, Papua, 201
+ Hamilton, N.Z., 285
+ Hamilton, V., 190, 243, 270, 271, 295, 296, 297
+ Hamilton River, Q., 267
+ Hatton's Corner, N.S.W., 114, 231
+ Heathcote, V., 160, 177, 227
+ Hobart, T., 68, 203
+ Hokonui Hills, N.Z., 164, 165
+ Hughenden, Q., 267, 268
+
+
+ Iguana Creek, V., 85
+ Irwin River, W.A., 97, 98, 137, 207
+ Island of Timor, 163
+
+
+ Jenolan Caves, N.S.W., 102, 121, 300
+
+
+ Kakanui, N.Z., 280
+ Kamileroy, Q., 267
+ Keilor, V., 128
+ Kent's Group, T., 203
+ Kilmore, V., 144, 206, 231, 246
+ Kilmore Creek, V., 231
+ Kimberley, W.A., 136, 137, 192, 207, 262
+ King Island, T., 53, 104, 283
+ King's Creek, Q., 282
+ Kirrak, V., 265
+ Knocklofty, T., 264
+ Knowsley, V., 227
+ Koroit, V., 305
+ Kowhai River, N.Z., 189
+
+
+ Lake Callabonna, S.A., 51, 282
+ Lake Connewarre, V., 270
+ Lake Eyre, S.A., 166, 183, 189, 197
+ Lake Frome, S.A., 91
+ Lancefield, V., 93, 108, 122, 124, 246
+ Laurie's Creek, S.A., 193, 205, 228
+ Lawson, N.S.W., 127
+ Leichhardt River, Q., 267
+ Leigh's Creek, S.A., 193
+ Lennard River, W.A., 208
+ Lilydale, V., 73, 82, 96, 114, 121, 190, 229, 231, 236, 243, 318
+ Limeburners Point, V., 79
+ Limestone Creek, Glenelg River, V., 202
+ Limestone Creek, Yass, N.S.W.; 136, 231
+ Loddon Valley, V., 279
+ Lord Howe Id., 279
+ Loyola, V., 109, 121, 229, 231
+ Lyndhurst, N.S.W., 227
+
+
+ Maddingley, V., 90
+ Mallee, V., 71, 101, 119, 138, 141
+ Mandurama, N.S.W., 102, 127, 227
+ Manly, N.S.W., 88
+ Mansfield, V., 53, 122, 154, 231, 259
+ Marathon Station, Q., 277
+ Maria Id., T., 180
+ Maryborough, Q., 146, 184, 304
+ Maryvale Creek, Q., 279
+ McMahon's Creek, V., 207
+ Melbourne, V., 82, 136, 140, 153, 178, 246
+ Mersey River, T., 77, 97, 193
+ Milburn, N.Z., 296
+ Mitchell Downs, Q., 137
+ Mitta Mitta River, V., 114
+ Molong, N.S.W., 114
+ Moonee Ponds Creek, V., 229, 318
+ Moorabool River, V., 112, 120, 202
+ Mornington, V., 65, 70, 90, 112, 118, 258, 269
+ Mosquito Plains, S.A., 300
+ Mount Angas, Q., 166
+ " Buninyong, V., 303
+ " Gambier, S.A., 71, 91, 119, 120, 138, 147, 282, 296
+ " Lambie, N.S.W., 85
+ " Macedon Cave, 298
+ " Potts, N.Z., 276
+ " Victoria, N.S.W., 88
+ " Wellington, V., 126, 134, 159, 193
+ " Wyatt, Q., 109
+ Muddy Creek, Hamilton, V., 141, 147, 243, 269, 295
+ Mudgee, N.S.W., 109
+ Muree, Raymond Terrace, N.S.W., 238
+ Murray River Cliffs, S.A., 58, 210
+ Murrumbidgee River, N.S.W., 114, 189, 259
+
+
+ Napier Range, W.A., 232
+ Narrengullen Creek, N.S.W., 237
+ Nelson, N.Z., 78, 126, 164, 165, 182, 233, 248
+ Newcastle, N.S.W., 233
+ Ngapara, N.Z., 296
+ Nimbin, Richmond River, N.S.W., 272
+ Norseman district, W.A., 110
+ Nugget Point, Otago, N.Z., 274
+ Nungatta, N.S.W., 85
+ Nyrang Creek, N.S.W., 162
+
+
+ Oakey Creek, N.S.W., 178
+ Oamaru, N.Z., 110, 280
+ Orakei Bay, N.Z., 158
+ Otway Coast, V., 90
+
+
+ Pakaraka, N.Z., 93
+ Papua, 100, 146, 148, 184, 187, 188, 201, 203, 209, 210
+ Paroo River, Q., 282
+ Peak Downs, Q., 282
+ Penola, S.A., 300
+ Petermann Creek, S.A., 193
+ Phillip Co., N.S.W., 282
+ Pine Creek, Q., 93
+ Pitfield Plains, V., 90
+ Pitchery Creek, Q., 278
+ Pokolbin, N.S.W., 97, 180
+ Port Campbell, V., 247
+ Port Darwin, N.T., 103, 248
+ Port Stephen, N.S.W., 262
+ Preservation Inlet, N.Z., 126
+
+
+ Ravensfield, N.S.W., 180
+ Reid Gap, Q., 207
+ Richmond Downs, Q., 267
+ Richmond River, N.S.W., 93
+ Rock Flat Creek, N.S.W., 206
+ Rockhampton, Q., 110, 139, 144, 153, 164, 196, 261
+ Rough Range, W.A., 116, 122
+
+
+ Sale, V., 112
+ San Remo, V., 122
+ Sebastopol, V., 93
+ Seville, V., 229, 231
+ Shakespeare Cliff, N.Z., 146
+ Southland, N.Z., 285
+ South Yarra, V., 128, 136, 143, 206, 229, 249, 318
+ Spring Creek, Torquay, V., 141
+ St. Peter's, Sydney, N.S.W., 262
+ Stanwell, Q., 137
+ Stockyard Creek, N.S.W., 127
+ Stroud, N.S.W., 86
+ Studley Park, V., 128, 318
+ Sunbury, V., 126
+
+
+ Table Cape, T., 74, 190, 269, 270, 294, 296
+ Talbot, V., 93
+ Talbragar, 267
+ Tallong, N.S.W., 127
+ Tamworth, N.S.W., 85, 103, 115
+ Taranaki, N.Z., 203
+ Tempe Downs, S.A., 193, 205, 228
+ Thompson River, Q., 277
+ Thomson River, V., 229
+ Tinderbox Bay, T., 264
+ Tingaringi, N.S.W., 127
+ Toongabbie, V., 74, 135
+ Torquay, V., 74, 141, 148, 243, 269, 296
+ Tyer's River, V., 82, 144
+
+
+ Upper Finke Basin, S.A., 159
+ Upper Yarra, V., 206, 207, 231, 236
+
+
+ Vegetable Creek, N.S.W., 91
+
+
+ Waihao, N.Z., 296
+ Waikari River, N.Z., 141
+ Waikouaiti, N.Z., 296
+ Wairoa, N.Z., 274
+ Wairoa Gorge, N.Z., 137, 162
+ Waitaki Valley, N.Z., 296
+ Walhalla, V., 114, 121, 128
+ Wandong, V., 229, 231
+ Wanganui, N.Z., 299
+ Wannon River district, V., 53, 90
+ Waratah Bay, V., 114, 121, 229
+ Warburton, V., 207
+ Warrnambool, V., 282, 299, 301, 302
+ Waurn Ponds, V., 90, 119, 141, 243, 269, 296
+ Wellington Valley, N.S.W., 287, 298, 300
+ Well's Creek, N.Z., 165
+ West Melbourne Swamp, V., 51
+ Westport, N.Z., 78
+ Wharekuri, N.Z., 248
+ White Cliffs, N.S.W., 138, 179, 183, 184, 195, 279
+ Whittlesea, V., 206
+ Wilberforce, N.Z., 189
+ Wilcannia, N.S.W., 138
+ Wirrialpa, S.A., 159
+ Wollumbilla, Q., 98, 137, 154, 157, 166, 183, 189
+ Wombat Creek, V., 109, 126
+ Woori Yallock Creek, V., 231
+ Wormbete Creek, V., 74
+ Wynyard, T., 246
+
+
+ Yan Yean, V., 318
+ Yass, N.S.W., 65, 109, 114, 121, 153, 161, 179, 190, 207, 231, 237, 241
+ Yering, V., 142
+ Yorke Peninsula, S.A., 226
+ Yule Id., Papua, 146, 187, 201
+
+
+ Zeehan, T., 154
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+[Illustration: AUSTRALIA _Shewing chief fossiliferous localities._]
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+CORRIGENDA.
+
+ Page 65, for head-line "_Protozoa_" read "_How Fossils are Found_."
+
+ Page 147, for head-line "_Characteristic Fossils_" read
+ "_Sea-urchins_."
+
+ Page 273, for head-line "_Reptiles_" read "_Amphibians_."
+
+ [Transcriber Note: These changes were not utilized here as they only
+ apply to the titles at the top of the printed pages.]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+ERRATUM--Page 47.
+
+ _In 1st column_--_for_ "Mesozoic or Secondary (continued)."
+
+ _Read_ "Palaeozoic or Primary" and omit divisional line.
+
+ [Transcriber Note: These changes were applied to the text.]
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+Transcriber Note
+
+
+Images were moved so paragraphs were not split. Minor typographical
+errors were corrected. Hyphenation was standardized to the most
+prevalent form utilized. As the æ ligature was only used five times and
+"ae" was used more than 50 times, the ligature was converted to "ae".
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Australasian Fossils, by Frederick Chapman
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59074 ***
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-01-22 11:00:26 +0000