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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/59092-0.zip b/59092-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 53c8321..0000000 --- a/59092-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/59092-8.txt b/59092-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4a07f21..0000000 --- a/59092-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11417 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Story of Man In Yellowstone, by Merrill Dee Beal - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Story of Man In Yellowstone - -Author: Merrill Dee Beal - -Release Date: March 18, 2019 [EBook #59092] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MAN IN YELLOWSTONE *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - [Illustration: Greetings from Wonderland Park Naturalist Merrill D. - Beal] - - THE STORY - of - MAN IN YELLOWSTONE - - - REVISED EDITION - - - THE YELLOWSTONE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM - ASSOCIATION - Yellowstone Park, Wyoming - - [Illustration: A Yellowstone geyser in action] - - - - - The Story - of - Man In Yellowstone - - - _By_ - MERRILL D. BEAL - _Seasonal Park Naturalist, - Yellowstone National Park; - Professor of History, - Idaho State College_ - - - Approved by the National Park Service - - Yellowstone Interpretive Series - Number 7 - Revised Edition - _Illustrated_ - 1960 - - [Illustration: YELLOWSTONE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM ASSOC.] - - _Published By_ - The Yellowstone Library and Museum Association - Yellowstone Park, Wyoming - - - Copyright, 1949 - By The Caxton Printers, Ltd. - Caldwell, Idaho - - Copyright, 1956 - By The Yellowstone Library and - Museum Association - Yellowstone Park, Wyoming - - Copyright, 1960 - By The Yellowstone Library and - Museum Association - - - Printed and bound in the United States of America - by the WHEELWRIGHT LITHOGRAPHING COMPANY, - Salt Lake City, Utah - - - To - -The men in the National Park Service Uniform, protectors and -interpreters of Yellowstone. Indeed, to all National Park Service -personnel and others who subscribe to the purposes for which the area -was reserved. - - -This book is published by the Yellowstone Library and Museum -Association, a non-profit organization whose purpose is the stimulation -of interest in and the furtherance of the educational and inspirational -aspects of Yellowstone's history and natural history. The Association -cooperates with and is recognized by the National Park Service of the -United States Department of the Interior, as an essential operating -organization. It is primarily sponsored and operated by the Naturalist -Division in Yellowstone National Park. - -As one means of accomplishing its aims the Association has published a -series of reasonably priced books and booklets which are available for -purchase by mail throughout the year or at the museum information desks -in the park during the summer. - - - YELLOWSTONE INTERPRETIVE SERIES - - _Number_ _Title and Author_ - - 1. _Wild Animals of Yellowstone National Park_ by Harold J. - Brodrick - 2. _Birds of Yellowstone National Park_ by Harold J. Brodrick - 3. _Yellowstone Fishes_ by James R. Simon - 4. _The Story of Old Faithful Geyser_ by George D. Marler - 5. _Reptiles and Amphibians of Yellowstone National Park_ by - Frederick B. Turner - 6. _Yellowstone's Bannock Indian Trails_ by Wayne F. Replogle - 7. _The Story of Man in Yellowstone_ by Dr. M. D. Beal - 8. _The Plants of Yellowstone_ by W. B. McDougall and Herma - A. Baggley - -Orders or letters of inquiry concerning publications should be addressed -to the Yellowstone Library and Museum Association, Yellowstone Park, -Wyoming. - - - - - PREFACE - - -Yellowstone National Park lives as a cherished memory in the minds of -millions of people. Greater still is the number who anticipate a visit -to this Wonderland. To nearly all, the Park stands as a symbol of the -enrichment of the American way of life. And well it might, because it is -a geological paradise, a pristine botanical garden, and an Elysium for -wild game. But most important of all, it is a place of recreation for -countless thousands who come to find a temporary escape from the -pressure of a highly artificial life. Thoughtful people assent to the -opinion of Wordsworth: - - The world is too much with us; late and soon, - Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers; - Little we see in Nature that is ours; - We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon! - This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon; - The winds that will be howling at all hours, - And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers; - For this, for everything, we are out of tune; - It moves us not. --Great God! I'd rather be - A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn; - So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, - Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn; - Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea; - Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn. - -After many years of indifference to the claims of nature, the American -people are coming into accord with the wise teachings advanced by John -Muir more than fifty years ago. Today, legions of tired, nerve-shaken, -over-civilized people realize that going to the mountains is like going -home. They have found a brief sojourn in the wilderness a necessity of -life. There is a balm in the sun, wind, and storm of mountain heights. -There is healing in willow parks and gentian meadows. Cobweb cares of -the world's spinning give way before the vibrant touch of Mother Earth -when her children venture boldly into unbeaten paths. There they may -attune their ears to strange sounds; their lungs respond to pine sap -air. Jumping from rock to log, tracing rivers to their sources, brings -men up from panting puffs to deep-drawn breath in whole-souled exercise -unto a newness of life. - -The story of Yellowstone has been told many times, but seldom does one -catch that elusive something that so mightily impresses the sensitive -visitor. The theme is at once so inspiring and grand, the details so -varied and minute, as to challenge one's finest discrimination to seize -upon the major features and bring them into relief. There is still much -that is primitive in Wonderland, and in this setting it is appropriate -to envision the salient traits of the Old West. Hereabouts was once -enacted a colorful panorama of frontier life. There were Indians, -trappers, miners, cowboys, rustlers, poachers, soldiers, and settlers. A -description of these picturesque people and their ways might bring -enjoyment to many. Perhaps the spirit of appreciation that characterizes -this history is its chief claim upon the attention of Yellowstone -visitors. - -This monograph was written for them, and it represents a synthesis of -many lectures that evolved in their presence, in the afterglow of -Yellowstone campfire programs. Visitors whose enjoyment of life seems -particularly enhanced by a visit to the Park may find the reason -therefore in those lines: - - One impulse from a vernal wood - May teach you more of man, - Of moral evil and of good, - Than all the sages can. - --WORDSWORTH - -In the interest of economy of time in reading this history, it is -suggested that chapters three, four, and ten might be skimmed. However, -a knowledge of the Indians and trappers whose haunts and activities -impinged upon the Park area is essential to a full appreciation of -Yellowstone National Park in its western setting. - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - - -Former Superintendent Edmund B. Rogers and Park Naturalist David de L. -Condon gave me access to the records of the Park. Their interest in -advancing the knowledge of Yellowstone has been keen and constant. - -My Yellowstone Park ranger-colleagues also served as sources of -information and occasional critics. It is probable that each of them -will be able to identify an element of his own thought or expression in -the narrative. As my campfire lectures evolved into a unified monograph, -guidance was received from professional historians. They have been more -critical than the rangers but not less kind. - -At the State College of Washington, Dr. Herman J. Deutsch and Dr. -Claudius O. Johnson made the college's Northwest Collection available. -They also joined their colleagues, Dr. W. B. Thorson and Dr. C. M. -Brewster, in making many fine and comprehensive criticisms, which -combined to strengthen the narrative. Several of my colleagues at Idaho -State College gave direction and increased purpose to the discussion of -conservation and wild life principles. They are Dr. Ray J. Davis, Albert -V. S. Pulling, and DuWayne Goodwin. Dr. Carl W. McIntosh, president of -the college, has extended many courtesies. Professor Wallace E. Garets -edited the manuscript. - -Former Yellowstone National Park Naturalist, Dr. C. Max Bauer, gave -encouragement from the inception of the study and reviewed the final -draft. Other National Park officials from whom wise council and valuable -suggestions were received include Dr. Carl P. Russell, former National -Park Supervisor of Interpretation, and Dr. Alvin P. Stauffer, Chief of -Research and Survey. The collaboration of J. Neilson Barry was -invaluable in the exposition of the discovery phase in the chapter on -John Colter. J. Fred Smith, Delbert G. Taylor, and Mr. and Mrs. George -Marler have also given material support to this effort. - -The illustrations are principally the work of William S. Chapman, North -District Ranger. - -The support of Yellowstone Park Superintendent Lemuel A. Garrison and -Chief Park Naturalist Robert N. McIntyre in bringing forth this Third -Edition under the auspices of The Yellowstone Library and Museum -Association is indeed appreciated. - -Lastly, gratitude is due my wife, Bessy N. Beal, and our son, David, and -his wife, Jean, for the typing of the manuscript and for the rendering -of much additional service to this enterprise. - MERRILL D. BEAL - - IDAHO STATE COLLEGE - POCATELLO, IDAHO - June 10, 1960 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -It is interesting and significant that this book, telling the story of -man in the area of our oldest National Park, should be available soon -after a season of record-breaking public use of the area. During the -travel year 1948, one million thirty-one thousand five hundred and -thirty-one people visited Yellowstone National Park. - -The discoverer of The Yellowstone Country early in the nineteenth -century, and re-discoverers through the years prior to 1872, as well as -all visitors to the Park before the advent of modern highways and -automobiles probably gave no thought to the reality and problems of a -million visitors a year. - -Dr. Beal's well documented and carefully prepared book brings us through -the history of man in a wilderness, through that period of history -before annual visitation of a million visitors in that wilderness. -Readers will find the story of the before-one-million-visitors-years -most interesting. It is a period, especially since the establishment of -the National Park in 1872, in which we as a nation were experimenting -for the most part in wilderness preservation and, at the same time, -encouraging its use. Dr. Beal's book covers a period in U.S. history -when shameful exploitation of natural resources was common practice. The -preservation of The Yellowstone Country as a National Park is an action -during the period of exploitation, an action of which we can all be -proud. The story of man in Yellowstone is a fascinating one. It can also -be a challenge to everyone to assume responsibility in continued -preservation of Yellowstone National Park so that future generations may -benefit from all of the things that unimpaired natural areas can offer -by way of recreation, education, and inspiration. - - JOHN E. DOERR - _Former Chief Naturalist, National Park Service_ - - - - - OUTDOORS - - - O, give me a bit of the great outdoors - Is all that I ask of you, - Where I may do whatever I like - And like whatever I do. - - Where the sky is the boundary up above - And the earth is the measure below, - And the trail starts on where the sun comes up - And ends where the sun sinks low. - - Where the wind blows sweet as a baby's breath, - And the sun shines bright as its eyes, - And the showers come and the showers go - As the tears when the little one cries. - - And the brook runs merrily through the glade, - Singing its gladdening song, - And the pine trees murmur their soothing sighs, - Still bearing that song along. - - Yes, carry me back to the lake's white shores - With its deer and its lily pad. - Where the loon calls out into the moonbeams bright - Through the mist on the waters sad. - - Let me hear the elk's far cry - As it sweeps through the forest deep, - Where the silence hangs as over the dead - At rest in eternal sleep. - - I'll pitch my tent by some lonesome pine, - By the rippling water's edge, - With the great outdoors as my garden, - And the willows round as my hedge. - - And surrounded by pretty flowers, - That perfume the gentle breeze, - I'll idle away the whole long day, - In the shade of my old pine trees. - - And I'll watch on yonder mountain - The colors change with the day, - And I'll follow each shadow creeping - So silently on its way. - - And then I'll give thanks to God above - And in gratitude I'll pause, - And I'll love, not hate, each care that comes - In that great big home--Outdoors. - - --FRANK L. OASTLER - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - Preface 7 - Acknowledgments 11 - Introduction 13 - Poem "OUTDOORS" 15 - Chapter I YELLOWSTONE--GEM OF THE MOUNTAINS 23 - Chapter II JOHN COLTER'S FIRST DISCOVERY OF YELLOWSTONE 30 - Chapter III INDIANS IN AND AROUND YELLOWSTONE 59 - Chapter IV PORTRAIT OF A TRAPPER BRIGADE 71 - Chapter V WERE INDIANS AFRAID OF YELLOWSTONE? 84 - Chapter VI SECONDARY VISITATIONS BEFORE 1869 92 - Chapter VII JIM BRIDGER: MAN AND LEGEND 106 - Chapter VIII FINAL DISCOVERY IN 1869 AND 1870 116 - Chapter IX CREATION OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 136 - Chapter X THE LAST ROUNDUP 147 - Chapter XI CHIEF JOSEPH'S TRAIL OF BLOOD 165 - Chapter XII TRAVEL AND ACCOMMODATIONS--NEW BUSINESSES 192 - Chapter XIII "THE YELLOWSTONE IDEA" 219 - Chapter XIV GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 238 - Chapter XV THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 265 - Appendix I. YOUNG MEN CAMPING IN YELLOWSTONE 281 - Appendix II. PROBLEM OF COLTER'S ROUTE IN 1807 285 - Bibliographical Note 299 - Bibliography 301 - Subject Index 310 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - A Yellowstone geyser in action _frontispiece_ - Sacajawea with Lewis and Clark 33 - Manuel Lisa's fort built in 1807 39 - Eastern section of Colter's route 46 - Map of 1814 depicting Lewis and Clark route 48-49 - Colter and Potts under attack 53 - Mountain Indian clan 62 - Family of Sheepeater Indians facing 66 - Beaver at work 72 - Part of a trapper brigade 75 - Gun and powder horn 79 - Remnants of Sheepeaters' wickiup facing 86 - Horse and travois transportation 89 - Trapper observing Riverside Geyser 97 - Jim Bridger 109 - Rare species of aquatic life 119 - Bighorn resentful toward invaders 125 - Part of Washburn-Langford-Doane party in camp 133 - Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden facing 136 - The Hayden expedition in camp facing 138 - President Ulysses S. Grant signing the Yellowstone National Park - Bill 143 - The iron horse in buffalo country--an early Wyoming scene facing 154 - Strong medicine against the Indians facing 158 - Chief Joseph, war chief of the Nez Percé 167 - A general map of Chief Joseph's flight 171 - George F. Cowan stands up to Nez Percé warriors 173 - Radersburg tourist party marker facing 174 - Detail map showing Nez Percé movements in Yellowstone Park 179 - Indian war club and peace pipe 191 - Stagecoach 193 - "Yankee Jim"--James George facing 198 - "Uncle" John Yancey 203 - Golden Gate drive 209 - "Beaver Dick"--Richard Leigh--and family, 1871 facing 238 - Superintendent Philetus W. Norris facing 240 - Old Fort Yellowstone 243 - Poacher caught in the act 249 - Wild and dangerous despite appearances 255 - Grizzly, king of the Rockies 257 - Cavalry troops in Park patrol 263 - Park ranger-naturalist and tourist group 271 - Madison Junction Historical Museum 275 - Park Ranger 278 - _APPENDICES_ - Young men camping in Yellowstone facing 282 - Figure I. Yellowstone section of Colter's route 287 - Figure II. Western section of Colter's route 289 - Figure III. "Double-Entry" map of Yellowstone 293 - Figure IV. A section of fictitious geography 295 - Figure V. Western section of Colter's route 297 - - - - - THE STORY - of - MAN IN YELLOWSTONE - - - - - Chapter I - YELLOWSTONE--THE GEM OF THE MOUNTAINS - - -Yellowstone National Park was one of the last regions in the United -States to come into the scope of man's knowledge. This fact is partly -responsible for its development as a wild animal retreat. Grizzlies and -people do not go well together under natural conditions. Yet nature has -bequeathed a rare portion of her treasure upon this enchanting land that -forms the crown of the Rockies. Within the confines of what the world -calls Yellowstone the visitor may find great and wondrous manifestations -of natural handiwork. Indeed, nature seems to have indulged in several -grand orgies of creation. Here are lofty mountain majesties and shining -rivers of silver and green wind athwart the heights and plateaus like -living, breathing things. Everywhere the air is pierced by lodgepole -pines. Erect they stand, bristling with fierce determination, while -prone beneath their feet lie their uprooted brethren in tangled disorder -and various degrees of decay.[1] - -The whole plateau is dotted by myriad alpine lakes of surpassing beauty. -Surely it is comparable to a vast sponge which receives a five-foot -mantle of snow annually. From this precipitation sufficient water is -derived to feed a legion of springs and streams. "The altitude renders -it certain that winter comes early and tarries late; in fact, it is -almost always in sight and liable to drop in any day."[2] - -Deep and delicately etched canyons involuntarily shock the visitor as he -views their kaleidoscopic grandeur. Massive mountains display their -mighty ramparts in a silhouette that is unmistakable and unforgettable. -Indeed, some of these serrated spires once served as pilots to the -wayfarer; and Indians named them "Pee-ah," meaning large and -permanent.[3] So are they still, mute testaments of the ages. - -Surely such an impressive alternation of rivers, forests, lakes, -canyons, and mountains is in itself complete. Someone has said, -"Yellowstone has everything except a cave and a glacier." Actually, -there are caves and glaciers in the Park's environs, but the most unique -feature of all this Wonderland is its thermal activity. Thousands of hot -springs and hundreds of geysers reveal strange secrets of the inner -earth. Mammoth Hot Springs Terraces represents the actual process of a -mountain turning inside out. - -Yellowstone Park is roughly located between longitude 110° W. and 111° -W. and latitude 44° N. and 45° N. In respect to Wyoming, the Park is -located in the northwestern corner, encroaching slightly upon Montana -and Idaho. The area comprehends three thousand, four hundred and -seventy-two square miles, and the average elevation is eight thousand -feet above sea level. Occupying a central portion of the Rockies' -greatest girth, the Park's scenic position is most strategic. From the -top of Mt. Washburn a majestic rock-ribbed panorama is disclosed. It is -indeed a vast area, surrounded by lofty mountain ranges, some of whose -towering peaks are reflected in Lake Yellowstone. This comprehensive -view reminds one of a gigantic amphitheatre or, from another angle, a -colossal orange juicer with the Yellowstone River as its spigot. At the -river's outlet from the Park at North Gate the elevation is five -thousand, three hundred and fourteen feet above sea level, whereas the -maximum height of eleven thousand, three hundred and sixty feet is -achieved on the summit of Eagle Peak on the southeastern boundary.[4] -Cartographers have segregated the most conspicuous elevations into seven -plateaus, three ranges, four ridges, and several minor units of -mountains and hills.[5] Thirty-two mountain peaks loom above the -ten-thousand-foot level, and another six exceed the eleven-thousand-foot -scale.[6] - -The Continental Divide winds among the Park's southern plateaus in the -manner of a serpent. From these circumstances, Yellowstone Park has -become truly the wondrous land of water and the source of that -life-giving liquid to lands hundreds of miles away in all directions. -Nowhere else does water so well display its varied charms. From the -Divide's snowy, timber-rimmed pockets, icy rivulets flow into sylvan -pools, thence to rushing rivers with thundering waterfalls. Other water -issues from steaming vents and towering geysers connected with the -earth's internal heat and weaves vaporous trails into streams called -warm or fire rivers.[7] - -Great rivers have their origins in its alpine parks, from whence they -follow their devious courses to the several seas. Oh, the rivers of -Wonderland, what strength and beauty they possess! There is the -Yellowstone itself, arising upon Yount's Peak and its vicinity among the -high Absarokas. It rolls northward through that vast lake of limpid blue -referred to by the natives as "the smile of the Great Spirit." From the -famous Fishing Bridge outlet it flows tranquilly again beyond Hayden -Valley, but soon it flashes into milk-white cascades, a transitional -phase of noisy preparation for its two great falls. These awe-inspiring -plunges are one hundred and nine and a sheer three hundred and eight -feet, for the Upper and Lower Falls respectively. At each point the -river's mighty volume sets up an awful tumult of sound, earth tremor, -and spray in the immediate environs. The river's pulsating reverberation -seems to follow its imprisoned rush along a tortuous path for many miles -toward the Missouri. - -Another stream arises in the southeast corner of the Park that possesses -equal might and great utility. By the natives it was known as "Pohogwa," -or river of the sagebrush plains. The French called it La Maudite -Riviere Enragee, meaning accursed, mad river, but American frontiersmen -renamed it the Snake.[8] The latter name lacks something of the romance -in the others but aptly describes this stream which everywhere exhibits -some characteristic of reptilian behavior. - -Two other interesting rivers arise in the Park and join a third a -hundred miles beyond the northwest boundary of Yellowstone. The -Madison's tributaries derive from meadowlands beyond Upper Geyser and -Norris Geyser basins.[9] The Madison is a moss-bottomed stream with -lusty aquatic life. The Gallatin, which heads in the range of the same -name, has a dashing manner. It has carved its way among forests both -living and petrified. Each river follows a parallel course until they -merge with the Jefferson at Three Forks. As the triumvirate roll away -together, one remembers the unity and friendship that characterized the -three men for whom they were named. - -Other sinuous streams are the tuneful Bechler, laughing Lamar, and -sculpturing Shoshone. These streams possess attractions that appeal to -fishermen, hikers, photographers, and artists. In Yellowstone, the -two-ocean-drainage courses are almost as intricate and snug as a child's -hands folded in prayer. At either Isa Lake, or Two Ocean Pass, a pebble -tossed in one stream would start vibrations upon the "water-nerve -endings" of Atlantic and Pacific river systems. In fact, the Yellowstone -country is the apex of North America; it is essentially the Great -Divide. - -Yellowstone's summer climate is invigorating and delightful. Frequent, -but fleeting, rainstorms tend to modify the prevailing atmospheric -aridity. Evenings and nights are invariably cool. The highest -temperature ever recorded at Mammoth was 92.4°, while the lowest on -record was 66° below zero. This record low was taken at Riverside -Station near West Gate on February 9, 1933.[10] - -Such is the physical setting of this mountainous country. Its western -slope was called the land of "Ee-dah-how." This was a Shoshone -exclamation that means "Behold! the sun is streaming down from the -mountain tops; it is sunup, time to get up!"[11] - -It is expedient that a brief review of early American history should be -given as a setting for the major interests in the drama of Yellowstone. -The history of Wonderland falls logically into three periods: -Archaeological characteristics and association; Modern discovery and -exploration; Development as a pleasuring ground by the United States -Government. - -The greater part of the Yellowstone area was a part of the Louisiana -Purchase, whereas that portion under the Snake River drainage -appertained to the great Pacific Northwest. All of the territory -involved once belonged to Spain. However, the Spanish claim was -relinquished in a series of treaties beginning with San Ildefonso in -1800, wherein the province of Louisiana was retroceded to France under -the dictation of Napoleon Bonaparte. The balance of Spanish interests -above the forty-second parallel was extinguished in favor of the United -States in 1819. - -American acquisition of Louisiana from France grew out of several -considerations. The frontiersmen of the Ohio Valley were chafing under -foreign commercial restrictions at New Orleans. The officials of the -government were distressed at the prospect of having the strong-willed -Napoleon as a neighbor. President Jefferson cogently expressed the -general concern by saying, "... from this moment we must marry the -British fleet and nation."[12] However, the alarm was soon dispersed by -an eminently successful negotiation. Jefferson had instructed Robert -Livingston, the American Minister to Paris, to buy New Orleans and West -Florida. The early part of the spring of 1803 found Napoleon hard -pressed for money and disgusted with native resistance against his -government in Haiti, led by the remarkable Negro, Toussaint L'Ouverture, -whom Bonaparte called the "gilded African." By March, Napoleon realized -that the Peace of Amiens was about to be ruptured and war with England -resumed. In these circumstances he decided to dispose of his American -holdings. This notable decision was effected while His Imperial Majesty -was taking a bath. Consequently it was one of the cleanest decisions -that he ever made! It was then that the "Little Corporal" directed J. M. -Talleyrand to say, "What would you give for the whole of Louisiana?"[13] -Livingston, who was a trifle deaf anyway, could hardly believe what he -heard. After some parleying the deal was closed by Livingston and Monroe -for $15,000,000; of this amount $3,750,000 was diverted to American -citizens to meet private claims against the French government. -Livingston showed prophetic insight when he said to Monroe, "We have -lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives...."[14] -More than a dozen states have been carved out of the 827,987 square -miles. It is probable that Old Faithful Geyser alone is worth far more -than the original purchase price, should good taste allow an assignment -of monetary value to such a natural wonder. - -Notwithstanding the marvels of this alluring land, Yellowstone lay -dormant, forbidding and inhospitable, until the last quarter of the -nineteenth century. Why was its call to conquest so long unheeded? -Seldom has an area so long ignored made such a phenomenal rise to fame. -The answer to this question is fully explored in this narrative. - - - - - Chapter II - JOHN COLTER'S DISCOVERY OF YELLOWSTONE - - -It is a fairly well-attested fact that America was first discovered by -Leif Ericsson about 1000 A.D.[15] However, as Mark Twain put it, -"America did not stay discovered," and therefore Columbus is not to be -denied. So it was with Yellowstone. The most significant feature of its -early history lies in the inconclusive nature of the early reports -concerning its position and character. - -Yellowstone's isolation was not effectively invaded and broken until the -decade of 1860. This narrative will explain how early, trapper -observations drifted into oblivion, and later, miner excursions faded -into indifference. Hence, the first conclusive visitations were those -made by the Folsom-Cook party in 1869 and the Washburn-Langford-Doane -Expedition of 1870. Why did Wonderland remain unknown to the world so -long? Surely the answer is found in its relative inaccessibility. -Yellowstone is a sequestered region, mountain-locked by the Absaroka, -Teton, Gallatin, Beartooth, and Snowy ranges. Here, then, is a plateau a -mile and a half above sea level, encircled by a still loftier quadrangle -of rocky barriers. Some of these culminate in peaks and ridges that rise -4,000 feet above the level of the enclosed table land. - -Of course there were a few yawning, ever-difficult canyon approaches, -cut by foaming mountain torrents and several high, snow-choked passes -suitable for late summer use. However, they were far removed from the -principal arteries of pioneer travel, and they still remain apart from -the main avenues of trade. Even now, these same bulwarks of nature, and -their concomitants of snow and wind, exclude traffic from the region for -half the year. Consider, then, the situation when all travel was on foot -or horseback, and bases of supply were far away from all approaches to -this mountain crown. Adequate mountain exploration necessitated large -parties and elaborate outfits in the middle nineteenth century. - -From these circumstances it is easy to understand why Lewis and Clark -missed Yellowstone. They adhered quite closely to the Missouri River -thoroughfare. However, as an incident of an extensive side trip on their -return, Clark and a detail of ten took an alternate route that -eventually brought them upon the Yellowstone River near the present site -of Livingston, Montana.[16] Previously, while at Fort Mandan, they had -learned that the Minnetaree Indian name for the river was "Mitsiadazi," -which means Rock Yellow River. The French equivalent, Roche Juane, was -also in common use among the Indians and trappers, although when or by -whom the name was given is unknown. American trappers called the river -"Yallerstone!" A segment of the stream was trapped in 1805 by Antoine -Larocque's party of North West Company trappers. They struck the river -at a point twenty trapping days above its mouth, which was reached on -September 30.[17] - -The fact of the name's currency is further attested by Patrick Gass' -significant journal entry on July 1, 1806: "Perhaps Capt. Clarke [sic] -who goes up the river here, may also take a party and go down the -Riviere Juane, or Yellowstone River."[18] Beyond the Indian stream -names, little information concerning the area was ascertained by Lewis -and Clark at that time. - -While Lewis and Clark did not add any knowledge of Yellowstone Park to -their epic-making report, still it was a member of the party who first -viewed its exotic beauty. However, before delineating Colter's -discovery, the picture of the Park's isolation should be explored -further. - -The first thrust toward the Yellowstone country was made by the French -explorer de Verendrye, who came near the northeastern border in 1743 -when he crossed the lower Yellowstone River, leaving Wonderland still -undiscovered.[19] - -By 1810, the Missouri Fur Company established posts on the mouths of the -Bighorn and at Three Forks of the Missouri. Notwithstanding these -locations, there was little penetration of the "top of the world," as -the Crow Indians called the Yellowstone country. Blackfoot Indian -hostility forced the abandonment of the post at Three Forks and in the -fall of 1810, Major Andrew Henry, one of the partners, led a small party -into the Pacific Ocean drainage. They went up the Madison River, thereby -skirting the Gallatin Range which bounds the Park on the west. They -crossed a low pass and came upon a beautiful lake. Henry's name was -given the lake (Henrys Lake) and also to its outlet (Henrys Fork of the -Snake River), which they followed about forty miles below its -debouchment into Snake River Valley. In a pleasant spot some four miles -below the present St. Anthony Falls they erected Fort Henry, but they -did not prosper there and, feeling discouraged and insecure, abandoned -that post. In 1811, Henry released his trappers, and while they returned -to the east by various routes all of them missed the Yellowstone -region.[20] - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Sacajawea with Lewis and Clark.] - -As Henry's men circled eastward a much larger expedition was threading -its course between the Wind River Mountains and the Tetons. In 1811, -Wilson Price Hunt led the "Overland Astorians," a band of sixty -trappers, toward the Pacific. They reached Henry's deserted post early -in August. It is probable that a member of this party inscribed a rock -"calling card" that reads: "Fort Henry 1811 by Capt. Hunt." This marker -is now included in the historical collections of the Yellowstone Park -museums. It was found at the fort site in 1933 and donated to the museum -by Seasonal Park Ranger-Naturalist Merrill D. Beal.[21] Hunt's party -unfortunately decided to switch from horses to hurriedly-made canoes, -which were launched upon Snake River near the fort. The hardship, -privation, and recurring peril experienced by this band are among the -most severe ever encountered by civilized men. Although they were -obliged to separate into three groups in order to subsist each part -finally reached the mouth of the Columbia. In 1812, a smaller party -called the "Returning Astorians," under Robert Stuart, probably -discovered South Pass.[22] - -Notwithstanding the extensive peregrinations of these splendid -wayfarers, Lewis and Clark, Andrew Henry, and Wilson Price Hunt, -Wonderland, large though it is, remained a place apart. Only one white -man had been sufficiently venturesome to gain entrance into the -enchanted land. - -John Colter was the son of Joseph and Ellen Shields Colter. He was born -in or near Staunton, Virginia, probably in 1775.[23] Little is known of -Colter's youth except that the family moved from Virginia to the -vicinity of Mayville, Kentucky, when he was about five years old. As -John grew to manhood it is evident that he possessed a restless urge to -be in the wilderness. An unparalleled opportunity to satisfy this desire -came upon the arrival of Captain Meriwether Lewis on his voyage down the -Ohio River. From this contact Colter joined the Lewis and Clark -Expedition at Louisville, Kentucky, on October 15, 1803.[24] The -following spring they were on their way up the Missouri. Doubtless he -was already experienced in woodcraft and the use of firearms. Strong, -active, and intelligent, he soon won the rank and privileges of a -hunter. - -Colter's fitness for the business of exploration was early recognized -and universally accepted.[25] For two years he shared the expedition's -many trials and triumphs, but they had obviously failed to satisfy his -desire for adventure. Before the explorers returned, intrepid fur -traders were moving westward along the great Missouri artery as was -their custom. Two Illinoisans, John Dickson and Forest Hancock, were -encountered west of the Mandan Indian Villages in what is now the state -of North Dakota. They had high expectations of fortunes in fur, and from -them Colter caught the trapping fever. This was early in August of 1806. -They evidently recognized John Colter as a man after their own hearts -and offered to furnish him an equal share of their supplies. Then, and -there, they became boon companions, and Colter requested an honorable -discharge from government service. This wish was granted with the -understanding that no one else would request such consideration.[26] - -The government party gave their comrade powder, lead, and other articles -that would be useful to him. Is this not evidence that he was in the -best possible standing with the company? Indeed, he was an admirable -embodiment of the American scout. He was a person of sturdy, athletic -frame, above the average height. He was physically quick, alert, -enduring, a fine shot, the ideal frontiersman. His greatest asset was an -extraordinary coordination of thought and action. This balance, combined -with an abundance of energy, made Colter particularly dynamic. Patient -and loyal, he performed his duties faithfully. In tribute to him a creek -tributary to the Clearwater River, near Lapwai, had already been named -Colter Creek. In numerous references to him his associates did not once -hint of any mean or selfish act. He was constantly possessed by good -temper, and he was of the open-countenanced Daniel Boone type cast.[27] -Surely Colter was fully qualified for high adventure because he was, -indeed, a two-fisted man with the sinews of a bear and the -surefootedness of a cougar. He was wholly unafraid of wild animals, -savages, or elements. - -From August until the spring of 1807, this trio of Dickson, Hancock, and -Colter trapped and traded along the upper Missouri. Then Colter gathered -his pelts and started for St. Louis in a canoe. At the mouth of the -Platte River, toward the end of June, he met Manuel Lisa.[28] They also -struck up a friendship and bargain. Colter was still set for adventure -and his new friend had such an assignment. In this meeting the strongest -and boldest of the early American trappers of the West met the greatest -Missourian trader. Upon hearing Manuel Lisa's plans, the travel and -weatherworn Colter turned westward for the second time, as a member of -the Lisa party. - -Manuel Lisa proposed the establishment of posts on both sides of the -Continental Divide. His plan was to send men along the course of every -stream and out among the wandering tribes of Indians, until the commerce -of the entire country was in the control of the Missouri Company. He had -with him some of the most intrepid Kentucky and Tennessee hunters, -rawboned backwoodsmen with their long-barrelled flintlocks, which they -usually carried across their knees while on the boat. It was a larger -undertaking than any before, and he needed fighters who were experienced -and daring from the start. - -As they neared the mud-hutted village of the Arickaras the warriors -swarmed forth but soon backed up before the leveled muskets of Lisa's -hunters. The traders went ashore and smoked the pipe of peace with the -chiefs. This heretofore warlike tribe thereupon became temporarily -pacified and sought presents and traffic in scarlet cloth and trinkets. -The trappers purchased ponies from these Indians and struck westward -toward the Yellowstone Valley. In amazement they viewed the bad lands on -the north of the Bighorn. The party arrived at the mouth of the Bighorn -River on November 21 and began the building of Fort Raymond, usually -called "Manuel's Fort," which was their first trading post.[29] They -feared the Blackfeet Indians and considered it expedient to abide -temporarily in the land of the friendly Crows. - -According to the authoritative report of Henry M. Brackenridge, Colter -was appointed to carry the news of this undertaking to all the Indian -tribes in the south.[30] Since this is an original reference to Colter's -assignment it should be quoted: - - He [Lisa] shortly after despatched Coulter [sic], the hunter ... to - bring some Indian nations to trade. This man, with a pack of thirty - pounds weight, his gun and some ammunition, went upwards of five - hundred miles to the Crow nation; gave them information, and proceeded - from thence to several other tribes....[31] - -Thus, this rugged and dynamic man, now in his early thirties, entered -the wilderness on foot and alone, into an area unknown to his race. The -journey was a simple business enterprise. As he journeyed southward, he -contacted the many Crow clans. - -Although practically everyone assumes that John Colter discovered -Yellowstone National Park in the early winter of 1807-08,[32] few -realize that there is no conclusive evidence to support the claim. -Therefore, a review of the proof is essential. The record is brief: -Colter did leave Fort Manuel (Raymond) in the fall of 1807.[33] Yet the -direction he took is not definitely mentioned, and no incident was -specifically recorded of any unique visitation. Still, soon after this -journey, Colter related strange tales of weird, natural phenomena.[34] -Few of the stories he told were chronicled in detail. However, it is a -matter of record that he claimed to have seen a large petrified fish -nearly fifty feet long,[35] numerous hot springs and geysers,[36] and a -great lake. - - [Illustration: Manuel Lisa's Fort built in 1807.] - -Evidence that Colter saw a geyser basin is flimsy indeed. -Notwithstanding the uncertainty of Colter's large travel experience, it -is obvious that somewhere, sometime, he saw something that impressed him -mightily. He must have waxed enthusiastic, because his recital evoked so -much ridicule from the trapper fraternity. For a half a century, -everywhere in the West, the mountain men argued and joked pro and con -about the mythical marvels of "Colter's Hell." By 1837, the story had -become common knowledge by reason of the following reference in -Washington Irving's first edition of _The Adventures of Captain -Bonneville_: - - A volcanic tract ... is found on ... one of the tributaries of the - Bighorn.... This ... place was first discovered by Colter, a hunter - belonging to Lewis and Clarke's [sic] exploring party, who came upon - it in the course of his lonely wanderings, and gave such an account of - its gloomy terrors, its hidden fires, smoking pits, noxious streams, - and the all-pervading "smell of brimstone," that it received, and has - ever since retained among trappers the name of "Colter's Hell."[37] - -Irving's description is significant because it is evidence of the -"Colter's Hell" tradition current at that time. However, the location -assigned is incorrect. No gloomy terrors or hidden fires exist on -Stinking Water (now Shoshone River). As in other explorations of the -Colter case, Irving made guesses and assumptions. - -Nothing has ever been found that states precisely when or where Colter -saw the wonders of Yellowstone. Yet, the fact persisted that sometime -between 1806 and 1810, somewhere between the Jefferson and Shoshone -rivers he saw them! And strange enough, in the fullness of time, his -spacious claims were wholly vindicated. This strange circumstance, -therefore, presents the student of early Western exploration with one of -the most difficult problems in regional history. Does the full discovery -of Yellowstone Park in 1870, _ipso facto_, prove the tradition of John -Colter's earlier visitation?[38] - -In the Colter case there are only two elements of primary evidence. -First, it is a matter of record that he made a journey from Fort Manuel -in the fall of 1807 and subsequently returned with an astonishing story -of natural wonders. Secondly, a famous map was published in 1814, based -upon the compilations of Lewis and Clark. Upon this Map of 1814 appears -a dotted line marked "Colter's Route in 1807."[39] It is generally -assumed that the dotted line actually marks the route of Colter's -journey from Fort Manuel. Although the route charted cannot be accepted -literally, it is an important documentary link, worthy of the utmost -study. There is little upon the map that would confirm the existence of -Yellowstone's marvels beyond the phrases "Boiling Spring," and "Hot -Spring Brimstone," but every trapper encountered boiling springs and -waters impregnated with bubbling gases having sulphurous odors. These -were not unusual. Hence, there is nothing indicated along that dotted -line that would guarantee anything extraordinary.[40] - -Still, the known facts of Colter's journey toward the headwaters of the -Bighorn in the fall of 1807 and the representation of his extensive -exploration to the west, a part of which is now Yellowstone National -Park, upon the Map of 1814 is highly significant. For one thing, it -proves that William Clark, who supplied the map sheets to Samuel -Lewis,[41] the Philadelphia cartographer, was particularly impressed by -Colter's journey, otherwise it would not have been incorporated upon -this very important document. - -According to this map, John Colter traveled in a southwesterly direction -from the mouth of the Bighorn River.[42] He must have mapped the area -because his route cast of the Absaroka Range (Yellowstone's eastern -boundary) conforms so accurately with existing geographic conditions -that his journey to the Park's border may be followed like tracks in the -snow. From Fort Manuel he ascended Pryors Fork some fifty miles to -Pryors Gap.[43] Passing through this opening, he crossed westward to -Clarks Fork, which he ascended to Dead Indian Creek. From there he -evidently quartered a divide to the south, which brought him upon a -river called Mick-ka-appa, where he first smelled sulphur. So he renamed -the stream Stinking Water River. It is known today as the North Fork of -Shoshone River. In ascending this stream, Colter quickly gained -elevation, and in a hanging valley about midway up the range he found a -clan of Indians for whom he was obviously searching. On the Map of 1814 -they are identified as "Yep-pe, Band of Snake Indians, 1000 Souls." - -From these denizens of both prairie and mountain, Colter undoubtedly -first learned of the Yellowstone marvels. The acquisition of this -interesting information at a point in relatively close proximity to the -features, together with other favorable conditions, impelled him to -project an exploration of the "enchanted land." After listening to -eloquent descriptions of the natural phenomena nothing could be more -natural than for such an adventurous explorer to experience an intense -desire to visit the country. Remember, his mission of informing the -clans concerning the establishment of Fort Manuel at the mouth of the -Bighorn River had been performed. Now he was on his own with leisure -time on his hands. Although the season was advanced, late November often -finds the Park open for travel. Tribal accounts describing a vast -wilderness of multiform grandeur made the restless trapper burn with -curiosity. One can easily envision him weighing the factors of distance, -time, and the known hazards, until he struck a favorable balance. His -sign talk in council with the chiefs could probably be sifted out and -summarized in these terms: "Less than two hundred miles ... the trails -are known by your scouts, and they are still open.... A matter of five -or six suns ... your horses are fat and strong ... game is plentiful.... -Well, what are we waiting for?" - -Such an appraisal of the situation is in complete accord with the known -realities. Colter was an experienced explorer; he knew how to conduct an -expedition. This procedure eliminates the element of foolhardiness so -conspicuous in the usual picture visualized of a solitary trapper on -snowshoes, wending an uncertain course among river labyrinths running in -various directions, mountain ranges of interminable lengths, and -gargoylian lakes. Instead, the enterprise now conforms to a standard -characteristic of Colter's levelheaded courage and judgment. Of course -he may have gone alone and on foot, but if so why, after leaving the -Yellowstone country, did he depart from the straight-of-way down Clarks -Fork toward Fort Manuel and head back to the Yep-pe village as the map -so clearly shows? Logic insists that Indian scouts were with him, or at -least that he had borrowed a horse from them, which he was obliged to -return. Thus, Colter's famous journey into the land of scenic mystery -was efficiently accomplished late in November. With the aid of Yep-pe -Indian leaders, if not under their guidance, he had gone where no white -man had ever been before, and he still reached Manuel's Fort in good -season, or else the Map of 1814 would not have been inscribed "Colter's -Route in 1807." - -But, where precisely in Yellowstone Park did Colter travel? This -question poses an extremely difficult problem in research. (The serious -student will find the many ramifications involved in the problem -explored more fully in the Appendix.) Unfortunately the dotted line -appearing on the Map of 1814, marked "Colter's Route in 1807," is of no -help whatever in answering the question. In fact, the map complicates -the problem because the geography depicted on the western loop, or -so-called Yellowstone Park section of the map, is wholly fictitious. -Unlike the valid section east of the Absarokas, the western section -bears no similarity to anything in Yellowstone Park, Wyoming, Idaho, -Montana, America, the world, or the moon! It is, in fact, a plat of -bogus geography comparable only to the kind found in Jonathan Swift's -_Gulliver's Travels_. In short, it is obvious that "Colter's Route in -1807," beyond the Yep-pe village, was not properly described because it -depicts him as visiting the drainage of all the river systems within a -radius of five hundred miles of that Indian encampment. The most obvious -errors in that part of the map which impinges upon the western section -of this so-called "Colter's Route" are: - - (1) Three Forks are shown to the northeast instead of northwest. - - (2) Lake Biddle, usually identified as Jackson Lake, could only be - Brooks Lake and be on the Bighorn drainage. Jackson Lake lies due - south about fifty miles, on the other side of the Continental Divide. - - (3) The Rio Del Norte (Green River of the Colorado) is far and away to - the south. It is grotesquely misplaced. - - (4) The South Fork of Snake River is not depicted, neither is the - Jackson Lake area. - - (5) Upper Yellowstone River is not shown, and Lake Eustis (presumed to - be Lake Yellowstone) is fantastic in all respects. - -In view of these egregious errors it is a monumental mistake to insist, -as so many authors in effect have done, that Colter was a human -helicopter who hopped all over the Rocky Mountains in connection with -his Yellowstone exploration. Actual geography and common sense prove -that he could not possibly have made such an extensive journey, -particularly so late in the season. Just as certainly, geography and -common sense attest that in traveling a normal western loop essential to -yield conformity with the map's figure eight[44] Colter would have seen -precisely the type of country the Map of 1814 does not depict, but -which, nevertheless, is actually there! A normal half circle would have -brought him upon the Upper Yellowstone River, South Fork of Snake River, -Yellowstone Lake, and the thermal areas at Thumb of Lake and Hayden -Valley. These paint pots, hot springs, and geysers, particularly -Dragon's Mouth and Mud Volcano, satisfy the descriptions he made and -easily meet the requirement of the terms on the map, "Boiling Spring," -"Hot Springs Brimstone," and also Washington Irving's reference "... of -gloomy terrors, hidden fires, smoking pits, noxious streams...." In -effect, these areas alone would qualify as "Colter's Hell." - - [Illustration: J. N. Barry - Eastern section of Colter's route.] - - [Illustration: A true sketch of the Cody, Wyoming, area as it is - mapped today.] - - [Illustration: The east sector of Colter's route as depicted on the - Map of 1814. Note the conformity with actual geography. The only - material difference is in names.] - -It is now possible to accurately sketch both parts of Colter's famous -journey. Firstly, from Fort Manuel he reached the Yep-pe Indian camp and -returned to the mouth of the Bighorn River where Fort Manuel was built, -exactly as the map depicts. It is because of the accuracy of this -section of the Map of 1814 that Colter's Yellowstone course may be now -traced like tracks in the snow. Secondly, from the Yep-pe Indian camp, -Colter ascended "Elk-Wapiti Creek" to its source; then crossing a range -he came upon a mitten-shaped mountain, which he labeled "fossil."[45] -From this landmark he probably descended Pass Creek to Thorofare Creek, -which he followed to the Upper Yellowstone River. Then he ascended -Atlantic Creek and crossed the Continental Divide at Two Ocean Pass. -From here he descended Pacific Creek, skirted Big Game Ridge, and -crossed the South Fork of Snake River, within the present confines of -the Park. Thence, along Chicken Ridge, from whence he could frequently -view South Arm, he headed toward Flat Mountain Arm, crossed Solution -Creek, and struck West Thumb.[46] The validity of this itinerary is -wholly sustained by the genuine features of this area as they appear -upon the Map of 1814. Indeed, the route seems obvious and indisputable -in view of the actual conditions existing. There are alternative routes -within certain limitations. On a crude map where there are numerous -similar streams various combinations are possible.[47] - - [Illustration: Section from map of 1814 depicting Lewis and Clark - route. Its legend reads: "A map of Lewis and Clark's Track, Across - the Western Portion of North America, From the Mississippi to the - Pacific Ocean; By Order of the Executive of the United States in - 1804, 5, 6. Copied by Samuel Lewis from the Original Drawing of Wm. - Clark."] - -Leaving West Thumb, Colter circled the Lake to its outlet and followed -it to the Hayden Valley thermal area. Dragon's Mouth and the Mud Volcano -were undoubtedly features contributing to the impression he carried away -and transmitted to others. Even the "Hot Springs Brimstone" -characterization on the Map of 1814 mildly suggests violent thermal -activity. The phrase also suggests that Colter mapped a geyser -basin.[48] - -Colter's return route from Hayden Valley supplies the final link in the -figure eight. To reach the Yep-pe Indian camp he might have veered to -the northeast, crossed Yellowstone River at a ford below Dragon's Mouth, -and ascended Pelican Creek or one of the tributaries of the Lamar River. -After crossing the Absarokas, he evidently descended one of the creeks -that empty into Clarks Fork. No one on earth can be certain about this -part of his journey. There is no reference anywhere, and the Map of 1814 -gives no clue. Still, he did reach a tributary of Clarks Fork, which he -followed to its junction with Dead Indian Creek, thence to the Yep-pe -band. As stated above, Colter left the Yep-pe village in returning to -Fort Manuel by a different route than the one that brought him there. -This fact, together with his return to the Yep-pe Indian camp, is of the -first importance in assessing the validity of Colter's Yellowstone -discovery. - -While Colter's journey in Yellowstone proper was not comprehensive, -still he was definitely oriented and reasonably precise. Truly, Colter -crossed the eastern and central parts of Yellowstone's Wonderland, and -he observed its features closely. Companions were duly apprised of these -marvels. Members of the Lisa party thereafter referred to the region as -"Colter's Hell." In May, 1810, when he reached St. Louis, William Clark -was officially informed. It was then that Clark believed in Colter's -story and passed it on to Nicholas Biddle and Samuel Lewis who were in -Philadelphia. Notwithstanding considerable misapprehension as to facts, -Colter's journey was nevertheless depicted after a fashion on the -remarkable Map of 1814. Upon this evidence alone, John Colter became -accredited as the first white man to enter the Yellowstone Park country, -hence its first discoverer. Here, indeed, was a man worthy of making a -great discovery. He was a dreadnaught, if there ever was one; completely -self-reliant; unafraid of forests, deserts, rivers, or mountains, -including all of their denizens; yet withal, a serious-minded person of -integrity. He is entitled to everlasting credit in the field of western -geographical exploration. - -Eventually, Colter found himself back in Lisa's Fort. He had discovered -the interesting Two Ocean Pass across the Rocky Mountains into the Snake -River drainage. He was the first white man to touch upon the -northeastern perimeter of majestic Jackson Hole country. Then, as the -climax of all, he was the first to climb still higher and gaze upon the -marvels of a never-to-be-forgotten land. Has it ever been the fortune of -any other man to explore such a vast domain of virgin territory? It is a -strange paradox that, accustomed as mountain men were to impressive -manifestations of nature, Colter's relation of Yellowstone's wonders -only won him the distinction of a confirmed prevaricator.[49] - -While Colter's experience after 1807 has little bearing upon the history -of Yellowstone, it is a part of the heritage of the Old West and -therefore essential for the unity of the narrative.[50] In the autumn of -1808, Colter and a companion named Potts invaded the hunting grounds of -the Blackfeet Indians in the vicinity of Three Forks forming the -Missouri. Early one morning they were setting a line of traps along -either the Jefferson, Madison, or Gallatin rivers, about a day's travel -from their point of junction.[51] As they were silently paddling the -canoe, they heard a resounding noise that resembled the muffled pounding -of feet. Colter was apprehensive about Indians, and since perpendicular -banks obstructed their view he advised hiding. However, his impulsive -companion accused him of cowardice; why run from buffalo? Almost within -the moment a band of "Black Devils" burst through the thicket into full -view. Colter kept cool and rowed for the bank. As they drew closer to -the enemy, Potts dropped his paddle and picked up his rifle. This -gesture was interpreted as an act of defiance by the Blackfeet braves. A -stalwart savage leaped into the water and snatched Potts' rifle out of -his hands. Whereupon, with an air of mastery that Indians respect, -Colter stepped to the bank, wrested the weapon from the warrior's grasp, -and returned it to Potts. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Colter and Potts under attack.] - -The Blackfeet were now swarming through the brush, but Colter, calm and -poised, raised his hand palm forward in the peace signal. Potts, now -convinced that flight was the only hope, nosed the canoe toward -mid-stream. Suddenly a bowstring twanged, and Potts cried out, "Colter, -I'm wounded." Colter urged him to come ashore, but instead he leveled -his rifle at an Indian and fired. Instantly a score of arrows entered -his body or, in Colter's language, "he was made a riddle of," and he -slumped lifeless in the canoe.[52] Calm and flintlike Colter stood his -ground. As the chief sized up the situation, a dozen warriors identified -the survivor as the white man who raised havoc among them in a battle -with a band of Crow Indians.[53] This knowledge caused the braves to -clamor for setting him up as a mark to shoot at, but their chief -interfered. He stood in great dignity and said, "This is a brave -warrior. We will see how bravely he can die."[54] Then, seizing the -victim by the shoulders, he asked him if he could run fast. To this -query Colter replied with a chop-fallen air that he was slow. Actually, -he was an excellent sprinter. Several hundred Indians swarmed about, -working up their emotions toward the victim. First they denuded him, -then motioned him to move forward perhaps a hundred yards, from whence -he was signalled to run toward a "v" shaped open prairie of some six -miles expanse. Colter had drawn a chance to save himself if he could! He -accepted the challenge and resolved to make the most of it. As the war -whoops sounded, Colter was away with the dash of an antelope. He bounded -and ran until his lungs burned within him, and he ruptured a blood -vessel in his nose. On he sped, mile after mile, until the chorus of -Indian yells grew fainter and fainter. All of Colter's muscles cried out -for a moment's respite. He looked around and beheld a spear-armed -warrior some twenty yards behind him, coming fast to split him in two. -Upon impulse, Colter whirled in his tracks, and running obliquely, gave -the signal for mercy. The reply was a thrust spear, but the brave made a -false step, stumbled, and fell. He was obviously astonished at Colter's -gory appearance. The badly launched spear struck in the ground and was -broken off. In a surge of hope and strength, the powerful Colter lunged -like a stag at bay, and overpowering the Indian, he seized the barbed -half and impaled his fallen foe to the earth! - -If the Blackfeet had possessed a spirit of chivalry they would have -called quits to this ordeal by running and combat. Here was a man who -had outrun the cream of the redskin sprinters and, unarmed, had slain an -armed warrior. Surely such a performance should have won the captive's -freedom. But the Blackfoot code made no allowance for heroic behavior in -the enemy. - -On came the braves, more ruddy than usual by reason of their exertions -and more fleet than normal because of the caliber of the quarry. Colter -needed no spear now; he fairly vaulted until he gained the river bank, -and diving into the stream he concealed himself under a jam of driftwood -or beaver dam that impinged upon an island. Here he secreted himself -while they howled and thrashed about for hours, yelling, as Colter said, -"like a legion of devils." When darkness came, like an angel of mercy, -he dragged his aching body from its watery prison, silently swam across -the river, and started the second excruciating lap in his race for -life.[55] Manuel Lisa's Fort was two hundred miles away. - -After seven days of hiding and nights of painful travel and exposure he -found his way through Bozeman Pass and eventually reached the fort at -the mouth of the Bighorn. During this "ordeal by travel" he had no -sustenance other than roots known as _psoralea esculenta_, or sheep -sorrel.[56] Again there was momentary disposition among the trappers to -question Colter's veracity, but the evidence was unimpeachable, and it -was written plainly where all might see. He seemed only a shadow of his -former self. - -According to James, even this terrible experience did not daunt the -lion-hearted trapper, "Dangers seemed to have for him a kind of -fascination."[57] Colter could not reconcile himself to the loss of the -traps he had dropped in the river during the attack. Soon after his -recovery, he ventured again into the forbidden Three Forks region. At -his first night's camp he was attacked, but he contrived to escape. -Whereupon, he vowed to his maker that he would never return.[58] - -Acting upon this resolution Colter started his third voyage down the -Missouri. While he was resting in one of the upper Minnetarre villages, -probably in September of 1809, Manuel Lisa arrived. The Three Forks -country was his destination and Colter must show him the way. - -By midwinter a strong detachment was on its way, headed by Pierre Menard -as bourgeois commander, Andrew Henry as field captain, and John Colter -as guide. The party arrived at Three Forks on April 3, 1810 and built a -post. Within a fortnight the Blackfeet attacked. Five trappers were -killed, and most of the horses and equipment disappeared. It was a -crushing blow to the enterprise, and for Colter, the final straw. James -states that Colter came into the fort, spoke of his promise to God, -repented of his foolhardy return, and said, "If God will only forgive me -this time and let me off I will leave the country day after tomorrow and -be d----d if I ever come into it again."[59] Several days later he and a -companion slipped through the Indian lines and in due time reached Fort -Manuel. From there the two men departed for St. Louis in a dugout and -reached that frontier capital on the last day of May. They had -negotiated the distance of 2,500 water miles in the incredible time of -thirty days.[60] Is it any wonder that other trappers referred to -"Colter's large experience"? - -For over five years he had been among barbarian people, and of certain -torments he had more than enough. His life had been one of hard toil and -high adventure; now he would seek peace and quiet. - -Captain Meriwether Lewis had passed away, but William Clark was a person -of authority. He was Brigadier General of Militia and Superintendent of -Indian Affairs. To Clark, Colter gave geographical data, a part of which -appeared on the map published in 1814 in the Biddle-Allen edition of the -journals. Colter was unable to collect the wages due him as a member of -the famous expedition so he brought suit against the Lewis estate and -secured partial compensation. His trapping claims for services to Thomas -James were unavailing as the latter could not collect from the fur -company. While in St. Louis attending to this vexatious business he -undoubtedly related his experiences to General William Clark. The -latter, in turn, passed the story along to John Bradbury, the English -scientist, and James M. Brackenridge, an American author. Such men -accepted his report at face value. Concerning him, James wrote, "His -veracity was never questioned among us."[61] Lesser people were more -incredulous, and Colter's reputation suffered accordingly. - -Colter took up a tract of bounty land on the south bank of the Missouri -in the vicinity of Dundee village, Franklin county. There the great -wanderer, with his bride Sally, turned to the prosaic routine of -farming. Wilson Price Hunt's expedition found him there and offered him -a position as guide. Bradbury said he accompanied them for several -miles, balancing in his mind the charms of his bride against those of -the Rocky Mountains. However, the life of steady habits won, but not for -long, as he died of jaundice in 1813. - -During the subsequent half century Colter's reputation evolved by -degrees through the following stages: bare-faced prevaricator, -devil-take-care mountain roamer, accidental discoverer of Yellowstone -National Park. From the present perspective he appears much more than a -scout and explorer. He was something of an economist and prophet, -because he is said to have told Henry M. Brackenridge that where he had -been, "a loaded wagon would find no obstruction in passing over the -Rocky Mountains."[62] - -On Yellowstone maps a single conspicuous feature commemorates Colter's -work. It is Colter's Peak near the southeastern point of Yellowstone -Lake. May it ever stand aloof, towering and quite inaccessible; a -fitting monument to a gallant scout. Such a man should never be -forgotten because he was master of the untamed West. - - - - - Chapter III - INDIANS IN AND AROUND YELLOWSTONE - - -A description of the Indian background is an integral part of all early -American history. An appreciation of the "Old West" is impossible -without an understanding of the Indian problem. - -Yellowstone was not the original homeland of any distinct Indian tribe. -In comparatively recent time, probably about 1800, it became the refuge -for a small and degenerate band of Tukuarika, or sheep-eating Indians. -They had formerly lived in the Montana and Dakota country but had been -driven into seclusion by the powerful Blackfoot nation. The several -branches of Shoshones residing in Yellowstone environs were Bannocks, -Snakes, Tukuarikas, and Flatheads. The Crows came from other Indian -sources. All of these Indians possessed certain racial characteristics -of the red race. In view of various conflicting ideas, a few -observations about the people as a whole are expedient. - -Indians are human beings possessing the sensibilities and emotions of -white men. However, their manner of living and conception of life has -been relatively low. Even so, it is difficult to generalize upon them as -a people. As Chief Washakie once said, "Indians very much like white -men--some good, some bad." It is generally conceded that they were -proud, so haughty in fact that they lacked that quality of mind so -essential to progress or adjustment, humility or teachability. They -could not learn because they would not admit that they lacked anything. -They were the "chosen people." Originally they looked upon the -hard-working white people as slaves and referred to them by no other -name. - -As a rule Indian braves were arrogant lords, not to be degraded by -menial toil. It was enough for them to expose themselves to the -hardships of fighting and hunting. They would proudly bring home the -trophies of war and the hunt. They were also diligent in caring for -their weapons and horses in preparation for future exploits. Much -leisure time was expended upon personal ornamentation and in talking -about the news of the day and affairs of the tribe. The Indians' -inordinate pride was revealed in every movement. The men in particular -possessed a free and easy bearing. This natural grace of action was -probably facilitated by their practice of living in a semi-nude -condition.[63] - -Indians were much more cunning and adroit than the wildest game. They -were fleet and stealthy, deceitful and cruel. To gain an advantage over -prey or an enemy by strategy was their greatest joy and constituted the -primary requisite for leadership. To be mentioned by one's tribesmen as -a great warrior or a cunning horse thief was the highest ambition of an -Indian, and many were past masters at both these hazardous hobbies. The -greatest among them was the one with the most "coups" to his credit, -such as scalps, stolen horses, and captured enemies. Making coups -entitled the brave to wear an eagle feather in his hair and emblazon it -upon his robe; by this token he was distinguished for heroic action.[64] - -On the whole they were revengeful and vindictive. If an injury, real or -fancied, were done to them by a particular person, it was a solemn duty -to retaliate either against him or someone else. Many cases can be -adduced to sustain this principle. In 1809, a trapper named Carson -accepted a banter from a band of Arickaras to shoot among their enemy -Sioux, who were across the Missouri a half mile away. The reckless -trapper shot and killed one of the Sioux warriors. The following year -three white men were slain by the Sioux to expiate this crime. The -Indian code demanded blood for blood, the more the better. They were -seldom inclined toward chivalry; mercy had no part in their code. It was -hard, relentless, and primitive. By the strong hand they lived, and by -the strong arm only were they awed. Forays, feuds, battles, that was the -life! They painted, dressed, danced, and prayed for war. - -And yet, in a way, they had poetic souls. The beauty and grandeur of -nature revealed itself in their dignified bearing. Many were majestic in -appearance, poised of manner, and eloquent in speech. Some of them were -gifted storytellers who entertained their hearers. Others were great -speakers who instructed them in the legendary lore of the tribe. Still -others were artists, musicians, skilled artisans in many lines; and -there were medicine men. - -Tribal organization was based upon the family unit, which was -monogamous, except in the case of the chief men who usually had several -wives. The chief's lodge occupied a central position in the village, -with other leaders' abodes surrounding. The women, too, observed a style -of dress in keeping with their respective stations. Heredity in -leadership was unknown; men became chiefs by reason of their cunning and -courage in war, wisdom in council, and generosity toward the -tribesmen.[65] - -In the matter of economics most mountain Indians were novices. It is -undoubtedly true that early American settlers received important initial -aid from the Indians in raising crops. They taught the whites how to -raise the very products that still constitute the backbone of American -production: maize, potatoes, tobacco, cotton, squash, and beans. But -instead of improving along with the settlers, they generally preferred -the ways of their fathers. They did not lack the means for the -production and preservation of food so much as the energy and ability to -anticipate future necessity. - -In the Rocky Mountains, where nature was quite inhospitable (without -irrigation), the natives were even less thrifty than elsewhere. When -food was plentiful they would gormandize to the uttermost, living -contentedly. When confronted by famine they would languish in -starvation. Natural forces battered them roughly. There was fasting, but -there were buffalo brains and tongues too--earth's supreme dish! - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Mountain Indian clan.] - -The women and girls were practically slaves to their husbands and -brothers. They were inured in hardships and possessed much forbearance -and self-denial. Their homemaking work was arduous. They dressed all -game and gathered nuts, berries, fuel, and roots. They made bows, -arrows, lodges, travois, and clothing. The packing and moving, striking -lodges and general routine was women's work.[66] There was never the -slightest disposition to complain among them; in fact, they were -inclined to despise a brave who departed from the usual patterns. He -would be called "old woman" and his squaw, if any, often received a -castigation. Maidens were required to be modest, wear robes at all -times, and look seriously upon life. Marriages were arranged by parents -with the consent of near relations. The desires of the young people were -given consideration, if reasonable, but the decision was made by the -girl's father. - -Meat was the mainstay of life among Indians, and a considerable supply -was available before white men came. In spite of inadequate weapons, the -natives had numerous effective methods of securing wild game. Most -hunters were masters of what was called the cabalistical language of -birds and beasts. By this means they were able to approach many animals -closely and slay them. Bison were sometimes driven into natural arenas -where a gory slaughter ensued. Occasionally these great beasts were -maneuvered into runs, from which they were stampeded pellmell over a -precipice.[67] Generally they were simply chased and shot down at full -gallop. This procedure required great dexterity in loading and -discharging weapons. Of course the hunter's full attention was given to -the target because his hunting horse took care of himself. He -anticipated every move of the prey. With eyes flashing, nostrils -distended, and foam flowing from his mouth, the trained steed sprang -after the deceptive buffalo in swift execution of his master's will. - -The war horse was even more highly prized than a hunter. Animals of -exotic appearance had double or treble value over ordinary steeds and -were claimed by the chiefs. The proud warrior went to as much pains to -adorn his horse as he did himself. Nothing could induce him to neglect -or mistreat his favorite. - -In their palmy days, the Indians largely confined their efforts to -pursuit of big game. In later years they had reluctant recourse to -smaller animals. Rabbits were encircled--sometimes by a chain of fire. -Ground squirrels were drowned out, and all types of animal life were -utilized for food. The products of the buffalo, deer, elk, antelope, -goat, bear, beaver, and numerous small animals and fish gave them -strength for the pursuit of more game and the enemy. Many different -combinations of meat, roots, nuts, and berries were known to the -Indians. Pemmican was a mixture of pounded dried meat, grease, and -service berries. When properly prepared and packed in skins this food -would keep indefinitely.[68] - -The camas and yamp plants were the Indian's bread. These roots are about -an inch in diameter, and they have a sweetish taste while fresh, but -they are more palatable when baked in earthen ovens. Either of these -roots contains nutriment sufficient to support life, and often mountain -Indians were obliged to subsist on this slender fare. - -From a white man's viewpoint the dominant element in Indian religion was -superstition. A stark animism prevailed in every cult. They believed -that the different animals had either good or evil spirits and that they -should be revered or feared according to their nature. The sun in -particular was an object of worship. Each young man diligently sought -his own strong medicine. The ritual varied but usually involved -solitude, exertion, fasting, and extreme exposure. During this vigil the -youth received a new name and a symbol of power. In due time these signs -of maturity were manifest among the tribe and a status therein was -secured. - -Illness and death were attributed to the influence of evil spirits. The -chief remedy for sickness was the sweat house. This was a mystic shrine -both for temporal and spiritual blessing. The health seekers would rub -their bodies with the tips of fir boughs, and thus the steam would -effectively penetrate their bodies in a few minutes. Several sweats, -each followed by a dip in a stream, constituted a bath, except when the -spiritual interest predominated. In that case the votary might remain in -the sweat house for hours or even days. - -In respect to amusement Indians had unusual interest. That they were -stoical at all times is an erroneous idea. They laughed and joked and -engaged in many games.[69] Their singing was largely extemporaneous, -accompanied by instruments of the crudest type. A horse race had -tremendous appeal for the "bucks," who sometimes gambled away everything -they possessed, including their wives and children. In general, the -social life of Indians was notable for its excesses. Certain seasonal -festivals were held in which the element of worship was interwoven with -hilarity. Before going upon a hunt the Indians were wont to clothe some -of the hunters in hides of the game, buffalo, or elk. These "bucks" -would then cavort around in the manner of the game desired. In all this -there was an air of expectancy and supplication. - -Smoking was another semi-sacred ceremony by which oaths and agreements -were secured. A ritual was usually observed. They relied heavily upon -innumerable supernatural symbols and routines. - -Such were the general characteristics and customs possessed by all of -the mountain Indians. A marked degree of differentiation among them -would justify a brief description of each. Of course these differences -are only apparent to the discerning eye. Factors of physiognomy, dress, -and speech are recognizable upon close observation.[70] However, it is -not an easy matter to express these different characteristics in words. - -The Bannocks (also Bannacks)-- This name is derived from the Shoshoni -word "bamp," which means "hair," and "nack," which signifies "a backward -motion." It is also said that these Indians made cakes from acorn flour, -pulverized grasshoppers, and currant jelly which so resembled the Scotch -bannock cake in shape and flavor that some Scotch trapper applied this -name to the tribe. There were approximately two thousand Bannocks in -1810, and they claimed the country southwest of Yellowstone. It was this -tribe which made a deep trail across Yellowstone in going to and -returning from their buffalo hunts. Bannocks were tall, straight, -athletic people, possessed of more physical courage than most Indians. -In a defensive way they were the most warlike of all Indians. - -The Shoshoni or Snake Indians-- This tribe of natives lived in the upper -Snake River Valley. According to Alexander Ross, the Snake Indians were -so named because of their characteristic quick concealment of themselves -when discovered. "They glide with the subtility of the serpent." -However, Indians interpreted the word "Shoshoni" as meaning -"inland."[71] Father DeSmet stated: "They are called Snakes because in -their poverty they are reduced like reptiles to the condition of digging -in the ground and seeking nourishment from roots."[72] They lived in -peace with the Flatheads and Nez Percés in the north and were at war -with the Blackfeet, Crows, Bannocks, and Utahs. The Snakes were -dependable participants in the trappers' rendezvous so often held in the -Green River Valley in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. -TyGee was a leading chief during much of the nineteenth century. The -Targhee Forest was named after this Snake chieftain. They were a short, -very dark, heavy-set people, with small feet and hands but large chests -and shoulders. Their disposition was quite peaceful and friendly toward -other people, although they were very suspicious. They were excellent -horsemen and good fighters when aroused. The whole nation consisted of -about a thousand, but it was broken into bands, some of which were vital -and murderous while others, such as the "Diggers," were degraded and -impoverished. Their great and constant occupation was to obtain food, -and they were disposed to eat almost anything. - - [Illustration: Photo by W. H. Jackson - _Family of Sheepeater Indians_] - -Tukuarikas or Sheepeater Indians-- "Tuku" means "mountain sheep" and -"arika," "eat," or "Sheepeater." They were a slender, wiry people who -possessed neither ponies nor firearms but used bows and arrows -effectively. They wore furs and skins and lived among the rocks in the -Gardner River canyon in Yellowstone and in the Salmon River Mountains of -central Idaho. There were some two hundred Indians in the Yellowstone -tribe. Their main support was from game and fish. These Indians did not -possess any distinctive culture of their own, but, hermit-like, they -seemed concerned only to carry on by themselves until further notice. - -The Flatheads-- This tribe lived in western Montana. The Flatheads -roamed the prairie between Glacier National Park and the Bitter Root -Range. Lake Flathead was their favorite rendezvous. These Indians -supposedly derived their name from an ancient practice of shaping or -deforming the head during infancy. However, in 1830, Ferris claimed that -not one living proof of that practice could be found among them. They -called themselves "Salish" and spoke a language remarkable for its -melody and simplicity. They were noted for humanity, forbearance, and -honesty. They were certainly one of the few tribes in the Rocky -Mountains who could boast that they never killed or robbed a white man -nor stole a single horse. - -The Blackfeet-- This was a branch of the great Algonquian Nation. They -were the Ishmaelites of the west; indeed, they were the most "teutonic" -of all American Indians. Their hands were against every man, and the -hands of all men, both red and white, were against them.[73] Their -habitat was the Marias River Valley in Montana, but they were known as -the devils of the mountains and prairies. All who knew them agreed with -trader Bird's observation made to Kenneth McKenzie: "When you know the -Blackfeet as well as I do you will know that they do not need any -inducements to commit depredations." They were always hostile and -predatory, and their wanderings were most extensive. The tribal name, -meaning "Siksi," "black," and "kah," "foot," alluded to feet made black -by roving through the ashes of regions devastated by fires. The -Blackfeet were great meat eaters and because of their energy they were -generally well supplied. They had horses and guns from an early time, -and they wore leather clothing, often highly decorated with beadwork. - -The Absaroka or Crow Nation-- Absaroka means sparrow hawk. The name was -derived from a species found in Mexico. Does that imply a southern -origin? Surely the name suggests their nefarious traffic in stolen -horses. They would steal them on one side of the range and dispose of -them on the other.[74] This was the strongest band of mountain Indians. -That is to say, Crowland was a transitional area that skirted the east -slope of the Rockies along the Yellowstone and Bighorn rivers. -Therefore, these people were masters of both plain and defile. They were -notorious travelers. They roved in several villages of six or seven -hundred each. In fact, the phrase "all-pervading Crows" implies the -character of their winging flight from mountain to prairie. Indeed, they -prided themselves upon their superiority over all other nations. The men -were tall, active, intelligent, and brave. They had a particular -penchant for adornment. Rows of elk's teeth trimmed their garments. Men -wore long hair; women, short. They referred to themselves as "Absaroka" -with great esteem. The tribal slogan was "Bac' dak Ko'm Ba wiky," -meaning "While Crow live, Crow carry on." - -They were a well-disciplined people. Women were given a voice in council -but were most noted for their industry and skill. According to Warren A. -Ferris, Crow women were notoriously unfaithful, which, if true, was -measurably contrary to the general condition among Indians. Among the -men lust for fame was the end and purpose of life. Crow war psychology -was a blend of cruelty, vanity, greed, foolhardiness, and magnificent -courage. Old Sapsucker was the most famous Crow Chieftain. He won this -distinction by many years of fighting. Horses were at once their passion -and glory. Even infants of two years could ride, while older youths rode -horses that careened and dashed up and down among the most dangerous -places. The nation of 3,500 people owned some 10,000 horses. Adult Crow -horsemen were unexcelled. They combined agility and dignity to an -unusual degree. Mounted on fine-mettled animals, without saddle or -bridle, and bounding bare-bodied over the prairie in the panoply of -speed and power, they were fine pictures to behold! - -Crows made free booty of everything that chanced in their way. Horses in -particular were the objects of their depredations. They developed -astonishing skill and audacity in capturing them. As horse thieves they -were world-beaters. "No legislative body on earth ever made an -appropriation with half the tact, facility, and success." The following -represents the mature judgment of James Stuart: - - One thing is certain: They can discount all the thieves I ever saw or - heard of; in short, they have to be seen to realize their superiority - over all thieves, either white, red, or black, in the world. They - would steal the world-renowned Arabs poor in a single hour.[75] - -Other mountain Indians whose activities had less bearing upon the -Yellowstone area were the Herantsa or Gros Ventres. They referred to -themselves by the former name; whereas the latter was a French -designation. Of course, it was inappropriate because they did not have -large paunches. Their homeland was the Wind River range. - -East of Wind River lies the Laramie Plains, and there lived a band named -Cheyennes. They were civil, well-behaved people, cleanly in their -persons and decorous in their habits. The men were tall and vigorous, -with aquiline noses and high cheek bones. Some were almost as naked as -ancient statues and might well have stood as models for that purpose. - -East of the Crow and Cheyenne homelands ranged various divisions of the -great Siouan family. The Sioux of Dakota, Arapaho, Omaha, and Mandan -were the most distinct clans on the near-eastern slope of the Rockies. -These tribes were typical of the plains Indians and as mutually hostile -as any of the others.[76] - -Indian proper names were more appropriate than those given by the -settlers. Some of the latter were commonplace, stupid, and, at times, -ribald. The aboriginal tribes sensed the magnificence of nature. -Therefore, their characterizations were both significant and euphonious. -Montana was derived from "Tay-a-be-shock-up," "country of the mountains" -or "land of the everlasting hills." Wyoming means "land of shining -prairies." Utah means "the home of the high-ups," and Idaho, "sun -descending upon the mountains." - -All in all, the Indian regime of life was a curious blend of love and -hate, of work and warfare. Indian life had as many facets as there were -periods, places, and tribes involved. - - - - - Chapter IV - PORTRAIT OF A TRAPPER BRIGADE - - -The character of the barbarian elements that encircled the Yellowstone -area has been given. Their position was sufficiently menacing to prevent -penetration of the continental crown except by a chosen few. The -relation of the trapper's activity to the Park can only be appreciated -by an examination of the subject himself. - -The Rocky Mountain fur trappers were a distinct group. They were just as -singular in dress, interests, skills, and general characteristics as the -cowboys and miners who succeeded them. When was their genesis and -exodus? It falls entirely within the scope of nineteenth century -history. Hence, the record is clear; it has few legendary figures. -However, a generalized characterization would seem appropriate. Their -predecessors were the earlier explorers of several nations, French, -Spanish, English, with a sprinkling of other races. All of these -elements pressed ever westward, chained by neither time nor distance. In -their migrations from Kentucky to the River of the West (Missouri) -excitement had become as necessary as life itself; adventure, as the -breath of their nostrils. Until 1810 those woodsmen found hunting and -trapping on the plains sufficiently challenging, but after the return of -Lewis and Clark they donned buckskin suits and moved into the Rockies. -From these shining mountains they were not to emerge until they learned -by heart the geography upon the sundown side of the wide Missouri. - -The French couriers of the woods were best endowed by nature for this -roving life. Their easygoing temperament inclined them toward song and -laughter. Their courage and gallantry adorned the barren path of life -with the varied hues of their mercurial spirits. They never failed to -adjust to the circumstances at hand, and the speculative character of -enterprise could not wear them down. The Englishman had the necessary -foresight and tenacity to effect such an organization and procedure as -best calculated to bring adequate financial returns. - - [Illustration: Beaver at Work.] - -However, the supreme mountain scouts were of American vintage. The best -in the west were cool, longheaded, deadly-shooting backwoodsmen from -Kentucky and Virginia. They had what it took to deal with Indian -treachery, wild beasts, and constant danger in a thousand forms. The fur -business demanded men of great force and energy. Hence, the successful -trappers were hard-working, hard-fighting men inured to hardship and -exposure. Their vanity was in fast riding, straight shooting, prowess in -trapping and trailing, and enduring privation without wincing. However, -most of them were capable of complete relaxation in the fashion of -drinking and gambling. In fact, they were "white Injuns" and proud of -the same class of achievements. The tides of trapper fortune were -capricious. One year they rolled with promise; the next were empty as a -beach. The competition was always keen, and they were ever on the move. -"Old Roustabout," "Perpetual Motion," "Never Quit," and "Knock 'Em Stiff -Hawkeye" were current nicknames in the Order. Some of them became -veritable walking maps possessed of uncanny perception of distance, -condition, and landmarks. All this knowledge was susceptible to sudden -erasure by one deft blow of a tomahawk. Surely every trapper fully -understood the meaning of the old Hudson Bay Company motto, "A skin for -a skin." - -The passing of time, together with kindly, indiscriminate sentimentality -toward the lore of the Old West, has enveloped all of her -buckskin-fringed denizens in an enchanting blanket of romance. Legend -endows them with a uniform mantle of heroism and self-sacrifice. No -great effort ought to be made to drag frontiersmen from these generous -folds of fiction, because such a course might evoke the other extreme of -shouting "Ichabod." However, a correct comprehension of reality should -be the intelligent observer's constant aim. - -Tramping this western wilderness was hardy-man's-pie, and one may search -in vain for "cream puffs" in the trapper fraternity. Among this advance -guard of the human flood were turbulent spirits. Surely persons of the -wild and reckless type have their place in pioneering the way for the -more conforming populace. Although they were generally of a kindred -spirit, no company personnel ever conformed to a particular type. -Indeed, a more heterogeneous assemblage could not be imagined. Some were -cross-grained and lazy; some, young or superannuated; others, half-breed -and faithless--a real challenge to the leadership of their employer. In -time the ordinary men were weeded out, but those remaining were still as -diverse as humans could be. - -However, it was not as conscious agents of civilization that these -rowdies entered the west. They reacted to the eternal impulse of -personal curiosity and profit. For such ends they willingly perambulated -the dreariest wastes, always at home, living from meal to meal, from day -to day. Chance and danger were their daily lot and they gained the rare -capacity to accept whatever came with good graces. Pleasant experiences -produced rollicking good humor; hardships and trying scenes were soon -forgotten. They became absolutely fearless, for destruction stalked them -on every side in the form of famine, blizzard, wild beasts, and wilder -savages. Death was a constant threat, but its grimaces only tended to -develop men of nerve and hardihood who delighted in reckless feats. The -trapper's universal insensibility to danger proves that the human mind, -habituated to constant risk, becomes callous like the body subjected to -exposure. There was the hazard of perishing from hunger and thirst, of -being cut off by war parties of the Sioux who scoured the plains, of -having their horses stolen by Absarokas who infested the skirts of the -mountains, or of being butchered by the Blackfeet who lurked among the -defiles. - -Trapping did not require literacy, but skill was indispensable to -success. The trapper had his A-B-C's to master. Any neglect of these -lessons was at his peril. They were fur, meat, and danger. Signs of -beaver, buffalo, and Indians must be read with the utmost accuracy. How -did he perfect his craft? - -Beginning with the objects about him, the trapper observed everything -minutely. He learned to read the meaning of a turned leaf, a broken -twig, and the behavior of domestic and wild animals. He achieved an -intimate association with nature, and she talked to him. Not only did he -form indelible impressions of topography by discerning senses, but he -talked about them around the campfire. Each trapper learned from the -others. One referred to this process as the Rocky Mountain college -course. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Part of a Trapper Brigade.] - -By reason of such apprenticeship frontiersmen were able to differentiate -buffalo and grizzlies at astonishing distances. They read the clouds, -understood bird flights, and sensed ambuscades. Practiced eyes, ears, -and noses enabled them to classify Indians as to tribe, place, and even -intent. They could converse with the representatives of many different -nations and tribes. A smattering of French, Spanish, and several Indian -languages--supplemented by signs--made conversation possible under all -circumstances. - -The trapper was not always at liberty. There were organization -responsibilities. The fur brigade was under strict discipline. A junior -partner in the company was usually in charge, and he was the law. There -was a semi-military set of regulations regarding division of work; guard -duty was rigorously enforced; efficient service and prompt obedience -were required of every trapper. - -Sometimes terrific exertion was involved in reaching a given trapping -ground at the most opportune time. Upon one occasion Alexander Ross -fairly forced his caravan to cleave a road through a snowbound pass. -Said he: - - Making this road through the snow (seven feet deep) took the united - labour of fifty men and 240 horses, with all the other available means - within our power, for twenty-one days. It must be allowed to have been - an arduous undertaking, with such a medley of people and so difficult - to manage; and more so, when it takes into consideration that our - supper at night depended on the good or bad luck of our hunters during - the day. To their exertions and perseverance, indeed, no small merit - was due.[77] - -Such a time of travail was enough to elicit an occasional prayer from -these sons of the wild. Men of few words, they could say what was needed -in simple eloquence: - - Oh, God, may it please Thee, in Thy divine providence, to still guide - and protect us through this wilderness of doubt and fear, as Thou hast - done heretofore, and be with us in the hour of danger and difficulty - as all praise is due to Thee and not to man. Oh, do not forsake us, - Lord, but be with us and direct us through.[78] - -One of the greatest among trappers was brigade leader Jedediah Smith, -sometimes called "The Knight in Buckskin." Carrying a Bible and a rifle, -he was equally proficient with each and had complete reliance upon both. - -Mr. Ross has left a fine description of trapping routine: - - A safe and secure spot, near wood and water, is first selected for the - camp. Here the chief of the party resides with the property. It is - often exposed to danger, or sudden attack, in the absence of the - trappers, and requires a vigilant eye to guard against the lurking - savages. The camp is called headquarters. From hence all the trappers, - some on foot, some on horseback, according to the distance they have - to go, start every morning, in small parties, in all directions, - ranging the distance of some twenty miles around. Six traps is the - allowance for each trapper; but to guard against wear and tear, the - complement is more frequently ten. These he sets every night, and - visits again in the morning; sometimes oftener, according to distance, - or other circumstances. The beaver taken in the traps are always - conveyed to the camp, skinned, stretched, dried, folded up with the - hair in the inside, laid by, and the flesh used for food. No sooner, - therefore, has a hunter visited his traps, set them again and looked - out for some other place, than he returns to the camp to feast and - enjoy the pleasures of an idle day....[79] - -In this account there is an element of suppressed excitement and danger. -Taking game is invariably a thrilling experience. Besides that, the -covetous savages were frequently so menacing as to require almost -constant vigil along the trap line. Trapper camps remained stationary -only so long as two-thirds of the men were getting satisfactory results. - -Setting beaver traps involved keen judgment, a deft touch, and precise -arrangement. Indeed, it was a considerable art. Joe Meek left an -accurate picture of his technique: - - He has an ordinary steel trap weighing five pounds, attached to a - chain five feet long, with a swivel and ring at the end, which plays - round what is called the float, a dry stick of wood about six feet - long. The trapper wades out into the stream, which is shallow, and - cuts with his knife a bed for his trap, five or six inches under - water. He then takes the float out the whole length of the chain in - the direction of the center of the stream, and drives it in, so fast - that the beaver cannot draw it out; at the same time tying the other - end by a thong to the bank. A small stick or twig, dipped in musk or - castor (found in certain glands of the beaver) served for bait, and is - placed so as to hang directly above the trap, which is now set. The - trapper then throws water plentifully over the adjacent bank to - conceal any footprints or scent by which the beaver would be alarmed, - and, going to some distance, wades out of the stream. In setting a - trap, certain things are to be observed with care; first, that the - trap is firmly fixed, and at proper distance from the bank--for if the - beaver can get on shore with the trap, he will cut off his foot to - escape; second, that the float is of dry wood, for should it not be, - the animal will cut it off at a stroke, and swimming with the trap to - the middle of the dam, be drowned by its weight. In the latter case, - when the hunter visits his trap in the morning, he is under the - necessity of plunging into the water and swimming out, to dive for his - game. Should the morning be frosty and chilly, as it very frequently - is in the mountains, diving for traps is not a pleasant exercise. In - placing the bait, care must be taken to fix it just where the beaver, - in reaching it, will spring the trap. If the bait stick be placed - high, the hind foot of the beaver will be caught, if low, the - forefoot.[80] - -Each trapper had two horses, one to ride and one to carry his trapping -equipment and furs. Sometimes good fortune yielded a fur harvest that -exceeded the trapper's carrying capacity. In that case he employed a -device called a cache. A dry spot of earth on an incline was selected, -well-camouflaged from Indian view. A hole large enough for a man to -crawl into was then dug. As depth was attained it was widened to the -desired proportions. Furs well wrapped would keep indefinitely in a -properly constructed cache. - -Essentials in the trapper's equipment were a bowie knife, ammunition, a -hatchet, a revolver, and a rifle. The trapper's powder horn and bullet -pouch, with flint and steel and other "fixins," were thrown over his -left shoulder. These articles were his constant companions, ever ready -for action. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Gun and Powder horn.] - -Wearing apparel was pretty much standardized--a five-piece suit of -buckskin, including smoked skin moccasins which would not shrink from -the frequent wettings incident to the trapping season. The pants, shirt, -long coat, and hat were made of the same material. Fringes at the seams -gave a dash of ornamentation and hastened drying. Clothing was mostly -"homemade" during the wintertime. - -These accouterments were not only durable, but they were comfortable as -well, and they were pleasant to the eye. That the latter item was a -desideratum there can be no doubt. Indian maidens were fair to behold, -and after all the trapper was human. - -This phase of the trapper's life was cogently summarized by one -observer: - - From all that I hear I conclude that in the palmy days of the fur - trade, the bands of white trappers in the West were little more than - bands of white Indians, having their Indian wives, and all the - paraphernalia of Indian life, moving from place to place, as the - beaver became scarce, and subsisting like the Indians upon the - products of the country.[81] - -Squaw men were both numerous and respected. Lisa, Bridger, Provot, -Ogden, Meek, Carson, Rose, McKenzie, and Beckwourth were wise and -judicious men. They well knew the utility of the willing, efficient, and -respectful Indian women for their own sakes. Then, too, there were -political considerations which account for the fact that in some cases -several squaws were taken at once, or in rapid succession. Marriage has -always been employed as a means of ingratiation by the outsider. It may -be said to their credit, with a few exceptions, genuine mountain men -were faithful to their Indian wives.[82] - -The Earl of Dunraven has left an excellent description of a squaw man's -camp which he visited in Yellowstone Park during the summer of 1874: - - These men looked very happy and comfortable. Unquestionably the proper - way for a man to travel with ease and luxury in these deserts is for - him to take unto himself a helpmate chosen from the native population. - No amount of art, industry, and study can rival the instinct displayed - by savages in making themselves comfortable, and in utilizing for - their own benefit all the accidents of Nature. Nobody can choose a - camp as they can: nobody knows how to make a fire so quickly or so - well: nobody can so wisely pick a shady, cool place in summer heat, or - choose one sheltered from wind and storms in winter. With an Indian - wife to look after his bodily comforts, a man may devote himself to - hunting, fishing, or trapping without a thought or care. He may make - his mind quite easy about all household matters. His camp will be well - arranged, the tent-pegs driven securely home, the stock watered, - picketed, and properly cared for, a good supper cooked, his bed spread - out, and everything made comfortable; his clothes and hunting-gear - looked after, the buttons sewn on his shirt--if he has got any shirt - or any buttons; and all the little trivial incidents of life which, if - neglected, wear out one's existence, he will find carefully attended - to by a willing and affectionate slave. - - They had a lot to tell us also about their travels and adventures, - about the wood and water supply, and the abundance or deficiency of - game. So we sat down on bales of beaver-skins and retailed all the - civilized intelligence we could think of; and the women came and - brought us ember for our pipes, spread out robes for us and made us at - home; and the little fat, chubby children, wild and shy as young - wolves, peered at us from behind the tent out of their round, black, - beady eyes.[83] - -The premier social event among mountain men was the annual rendezvous. -This institution was inaugurated on Green River in July, 1824, by -General William H. Ashley, owner of the interests that evolved into the -Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The Ashley men traveled to the fur region in -concert. Upon arrival, they were divided into "brigades" and dispersed -into various districts with instructions to reassemble at an appointed -time and place. In this manner the rendezvous became a sort of roving -trading place; it served in lieu of a post. These shifting locations -were occasioned by the need of forage for large numbers of horses. For -sixteen years this combination of market, fiesta, and carousal held sway -in such romantic spots as Green River, Ogden's Hole, Pierre's Hole--now -Teton Basin in Idaho--and the Horse Creek-Green River country south of -Jackson's Hole in Wyoming. In her book, _The River of the West_, Frances -Fuller Victor tells of a rendezvous held by Jim Bridger and his -trappers. The place was Hayden Valley; the season, 1838.[84] - -Thither the company men, free trappers, and Indians foregathered. The -business of exchange and supply was quickly transacted with beaver skins -serving as money. Then came the celebration, and what a gala event it -was. Trappers sought to indemnify themselves for the sufferings and -privations of a year in the wilderness. Squaw men parted with their -"hairy bank notes" in order to bedeck their spouses in bright cloth and -gewgaws. Here were men with reputations to sustain, proud men with a -streak of wild vanity: "Old Knock Him Stiff," "Old Straightener," -"Dead-Eye Dick," "Broken Hand," Kit, Joe, and Jim. Most mountain men -were openhanded, and they squandered a year's earnings in a few days of -prodigal indulgence. Coffee and chocolate were prepared; the kegs were -emptied; all pipes were kept aglow; free and generous spirits moved by -day and night.[85] Truly this burnt and seamy-faced band was an -all-American aggregation. - -The veterans boasted "most enormous adventures" in mountain experience. -Each represented himself as more than a match for any possible array of -Indians or grizzlies. Narrations waxed romantic in the desire to -astonish the new recruits. Extravagant and absurd as their yarns were, -there was always a current of rude, good humor that allowed each -listener to believe as little as he liked. There were rollicking, fiery, -boisterous, swaggering southerners; quiet, steel-eyed northerners; -mercurial French; loquacious Irish; calculating Scots; greedy middlemen; -shrewd dealers; squaw men; Indian haters; Indians of many nations; pals; -rivals; and enemies. Everyone was invited; no one was missing. It was a -self-propelling circus, one show a year, the antecedent of roundup, -rodeo, fair, and tournament. - -Contests of skill were carried to a point of jeopardizing life. There -were William Tell episodes and no mistakes, trials of speed and strength -for both horse and man. There was plenty of flirting, feasting, -carousing, and outright debauchery. All were on friendly terms today, -but each was unconsciously aware that tomorrow their relationships would -change, and woe unto him who was caught unaware! - -The rendezvous was perhaps the most colorful, spontaneous, lusty, and -romantic institution ever known among civilized men. It was conceived, -nurtured, and abandoned within a score of years (1824-1840). A fleeting -climax to a picturesque band--they came from everywhere, wrote a saga -that reads like an epoch from a long-forgotten age, then vanished from -the scene. - -Actually they did not make a definite exit; they just faded away. Some, -like Colter, turned into prosaic farmers; others became guides, only to -lag superfluously upon the stage; some turned to trade; some, to -government appointments as Indian agents. A few lingered on as trappers, -sighing for the life that was gone forever. Trappers of the Great -West--they had given their all and there were no regrets. Their levity -and valor, their hardships and pleasure, what a medley it made. One of -the French Canadians has left this testimonial: - - I have now been forty-two years in this country. For twenty-four I was - light canoe-man; I required but little sleep, but sometimes got less - than I required. No portage was too long for me; all portages were - alike. My end of the canoe never touched the ground till I saw the end - of it. Fifty songs a day were nothing to me. I could carry, paddle, - walk, and sing with any man I ever saw. During that period, I saved - the lives of ten Bourgeois, and was always the favourite, because when - others stopped to tarry at a bad step, and lost time, I pushed - on--over rapids, over cascades, over chutes; all were the same to me. - No water, no weather, ever stopped the paddle or the song. I have had - twelve wives in the country; and was once possessed of fifty horses, - and six running dogs, trimmed in the first style. I was then like a - Bourgeois, rich and happy; no Bourgeois had better-dressed wives than - I; no Indian chief finer horses; no white man better harnessed or - swifter dogs. I beat all Indians at the race, and no white man ever - passed me in the chase. I wanted for nothing; and I spent all my - earnings in the enjoyment of pleasure. Five hundred pounds, twice - told, have passed through my hands; although now I have not a spare - shirt to my back, nor a penny to buy one. Yet, were I young again, I - should glory in commencing the same career again.[86] - -The significance of the fur trade is graphically depicted by the -National Park Service with charts, diagrams, illustrations, models, and -dioramas in the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, Scotts Bluff, -Guernsey Lake, Fort Laramie, Grand Teton and Yellowstone National parks. - - - - - Chapter V - WERE INDIANS AFRAID OF YELLOWSTONE? - - -Beginning with the origin of Yellowstone as a National Park the idea -became current that Indians were afraid of the area. The opinion is -still widely held that they considered it a cursed domain, unfit for -habitation. While it is true that superstition and taboo loomed large in -primitive experience, there is no reason to suppose that Indians gave -Wonderland a wide berth.[87] Rather, there is an abundance of material -evidence that controverts this view. Furthermore, the proposition is at -once illogical and untrue historically. - -How, then, did this fiction originate? Probably the major reason is -found in the fact that, with the exception of a small band of -recluse-like Tukuarikas, or Sheepeaters, Indians did not live -permanently in Yellowstone. This fact alone suggests that the region was -not regarded as an appropriate abode. Only a pygmy tribe of about four -hundred timid souls deemed it a suitable homeland. - -These people were the weakest of all mountain clans. They did not -possess horses. Their tools were of the crudest type; they lived in -caves and nearly inaccessible niches in cliffs along the Gardner River, -especially in wintertime. These more permanent camps were carefully -chosen in the interest of security against other Indians. Superintendent -Norris discovered one of them by accident: - - In trailing a wounded bighorn I descended a rocky dangerous pathway. - In rapt astonishment I found I had thus unbidden entered an ancient - but recently deserted, secluded, unknown haunt of the Sheepeater - aborigines of the Park.[88] - -This campground was a half mile in length and four hundred feet at its -widest point, with a similar depth, "and hemmed in and hidden by rugged -timber-fringed basaltic cliffs...." - -In summer, the Sheepeater Indians ventured further into the interior, -following the game upon the higher plateaus. There they erected: - - skin-covered lodges, or circular upright brush-heaps called wickiups, - decaying evidences of which are abundant near Mammoth Hot Springs, the - various firehole basins, the shores of Yellowstone Lake, the newly - explored Hoodoo regions, and in nearly all of the sheltered glens and - valleys of the Park.[89] - -In 1874, the Earl of Dunraven discovered such a camp just west of Mary -Mountain on the head of Nez Percé Creek. - -Superintendent Norris and his associates focused their eyes particularly -upon evidences of Indian occupancy. In a dozen places they observed rude -but extensive pole and brush fences used for wild animal driveways.[90] -An especially strategic camp was discovered near the summit of a grassy -pass between Hoodoo and Miller creeks. From this skyline perch, marked -by forty decaying lodges, an entire tribe could command a view of all -possible approaches for many miles. Fragments of white men's chinaware, -blankets, bed clothing, and male and female wearing apparel bore mute -but mournful witness of border raids and massacres. This was an Absaroka -summer retreat. - -However, there are few such evidences discernible today because snows -are heavy and wind fallen trees profuse, while the character of Indian -structures was flimsy. In fact, these Indians, on the whole, left fewer -enduring signs of their dwelling places than beaver. Several log -wickiups still stand in a pleasant fir grove in the triangle formed by -Lava Creek and Gardner River above their point of union. These wickiups -are readily accessible from the Tower Falls highway one half mile east -of the Gardner River bridge. - -What happened to the timid Tukuarikas? They simply vanished from the -scene as the white men invaded their refuge. They left without a contest -for ownership or treaty of cession. That is the way most Americans would -have had all Indian tribes behave! - -All mountain Indian tribes visited Yellowstone. We-Saw, Shoshoni guide -for Captain W. A. Jones in 1873, said his people and also the Bannocks -and Crows occasionally visited the Yellowstone River and Lake. - -For one thing, Obsidian Cliff had the effect of a magnet upon them. It -was their arsenal, a lance and arrowhead quarry. Arrowheads and spears -originating here have been found in an area extending many miles in -every direction. The obsidian chips, from which implements were -assiduously shaped by the Indians, still litter the side hills and -ravines in chosen areas all over the Park. Many fine specimens of -arrowheads, knives, scrapers, and spears have been found at various -places. The most notable finds have been around the base of Mt. Holmes, -along Indian Creek, at Fishing Bridge, near West Thumb, in the Norris -and Lower Geyser basins, and about the Lamar Valley. Actually, these -artifacts have generally turned up wherever excavation for modern camps -has been made. - - [Illustration: _Remnants of Sheepeaters' Wickiup_] - -In P. W. Norris' _Fifth Annual Report, 1881_, there is a comprehensive -analysis of the problem of Indian occupancy. Diagrams of four steatite -vessels found in widely separated places are represented. Drawings of -arrowheads and sinkers also occur, and figures 10 to 24, inclusive, -depict the natural sizes of scrapers, knives, lance, spearheads, and -perforators, mostly chipped from Park obsidian.[91] These artifacts were -found in various places, such as caverns, driveways, at the foot of -cliffs, and along creeks. Said Norris: "Over two hundred such specimens -were collected this season."[92] - -In his report of 1878, Mr. Norris states: "Chips, flakes, arrowheads and -other Indian tools and weapons have been found by all recent tourists in -burial cairns and also scattered broadcast in all these mountain -valleys."[93] - -Is it any wonder Indian artifacts are scarce in Yellowstone today? -Still, they are frequently found when excavations are made. Winter -snows, animal trampings, land slides, and floods have covered them. A -few isolated items of discovery should be noted: arrowheads have -recently been found on Stevenson Island, in lake gravel pits, about -Buffalo Ranch, in the sewer line, near South Entrance, on the Game -Ranch, around Norris, Lower, and Midway geyser basins, and at Fishing -Bridge.[94] - -Another evidence of Indian visitation was evinced by a network of -trails. One of these followed the Yellowstone Valley across the Park -from north to south. It divided at Yellowstone Lake, the principal -branch adhering to the east shore and leading to Two Ocean Pass where it -intersected the great Snake and Wind River trail. Since Indian trails -multisected the Yellowstone area it is obvious that the region was a -sort of no-man's land. Undesirable as a homeland, it was used as a -summer retreat by many Rocky Mountain tribes. From this circumstance it -may be assumed that an autumn seldom passed without a clash between the -Bannocks and the Crows or the Shoshonis. Surely, the shrill notes of -Blackfeet warwhoops have echoed in these vales. Campsites were well -chosen both from the viewpoint of preserving secrecy and desirability as -watchtower sites. - -The most important trail, however, was that known as the Great Bannock -Trail. The Bannocks of southeastern Idaho made an annual trek to the -Bighorn Basin for buffalo. Their trail followed Henrys Fork of Snake -River to Henrys Lake, an ancient Bannock rendezvous. From this notable -camp the trail went up Howard Creek and crossed the Continental Divide -at Targhee Pass. Upon reaching the Upper Madison Valley, the route -passed Horse Butte and angled north of West Yellowstone townsite. A camp -at Great Springs (now Cory Springs) was situated near the Park boundary. - -In Yellowstone National Park, the Bannock Trail winds its devious way -across the northern part. There are a half-dozen deviations from the -main artery. Wayne Replogle suggests that weather conditions determined -these alternations. High ground would be chosen enroute to the plains, -but the return trip could be made along the streams. Other -considerations might include security, grazing, and game. Entering the -Park upon Duck Creek the Trail swung northward across Campanula Creek, -paralleled Gneiss Creek to the point of crossing, then quartered -southward, crossing Maple Creek and Duck Creek, on toward the head of -Cougar Creek and its ample pasture lands. - -From this area the Trail goes almost due north to White Peaks, which are -skirted on the West. The Gallatin Range was crossed via a saddle north -of White Peaks. The Trail then dropped upon the headwaters of Indian -Creek and followed down to Gardner River. The route then looped to the -left, across Swan Lake flats, on through Snow Pass, down the decline to -Mammoth Hot Springs. From Mammoth the Indian thoroughfare struck right, -recrossed Gardner River, and followed Lava Creek toward Tower Fall. - -The Yellowstone River ford was located just above Tower Fall, near the -mouth of Tower Creek. Vestiges of the trail may still be discerned along -both banks of Yellowstone River. Other evidences, such as deep -grass-sodded furrows, may be seen in the vicinity of junction of the -Lamar River and Soda Butte Creek. One branch paralleled Soda Butte Creek -to the divide and then descended Clarks Fork to the bison range. The -alternate route continued along the Lamar to a secondary divide between -Cache and Calfee creeks. This hog's back was then followed to the -summit, and the descent was down Timber Creek to its confluence with -Clarks Fork. The deep ruts worn by travois in these pilgrimages are -still obvious in many places, although unused for three quarters of a -century. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Horse and Travois Transportation.] - -Can anyone doubt that the Bannocks made frequent and extensive -excursions beyond this thoroughfare? Surely their young men ranged far -and wide, prying into every nook and cranny of Wonderland. They -undoubtedly fished in the great lake and river, hunted elk and bighorn, -bathed in warm springs, and reveled in the beauties of the landscape. -Any other view of the evidence would impute undue naïveté to human -nature. After all, Indians were children of nature; the earth was their -mother. In Yellowstone Mother Earth was especially intriguing. They -might not understand her; they might entertain great respect for her -strange manifestations, but cringing trepidation? Hardly! But weren't -they afraid of the geysers? In 1935, White Hawk and Many Wounds visited -the Park. They were members of Chief Joseph's band when it crossed the -Park in 1877. When asked if the Nez Percé Indians were afraid of the -geysers and hot springs they said no and implied that they used them in -cooking.[95] Still the critic objects, saying the geyser and spring -formations were all intact when the first white men came. Primitive -people were seldom guilty of wanton spoliation. Hence, missing -incrustations were not essential evidence of Indian visitation. They -left nature's beauty as they found it, a proper example for all who -might follow after. - -Did Indians ever hear the legendary overhead sounds in the vicinity of -Shoshone and Yellowstone lakes--those strange half-minute tunes like the -humming of bees or echo of bells?[96] Perhaps they did. Any phenomenon -audible to white men with the naked ear would be discernible to them -because they were sensitive to nature and her communion was always -welcomed. However, since Indians were without records and formal -procedures for obtaining and preserving scientific knowledge they were -tremendously limited in understanding. They operated upon a single -dimension of experience. For instance, they could never realize that the -fish they took from Lake Yellowstone was a Pacific Ocean species which -could only have reached these inland lakes via the Snake River system, -signifying that, in ages past, the great lake must have possessed an -outlet in that direction. All such problems awaited the scientists, but -red men still knew much in their own right. - -Surely then, Indians were summertime visitors in Yellowstone. They -literally swarmed around the lakes. The most unimpeachable testimony on -this point comes from trapper accounts of actual encounters. This phase -of the case is discussed in the following chapter. Their known presence -in the wooded area was the greatest deterrent to the white man's -interest. Few men voluntarily risk their lives for a view of nature's -wonders. It is a historical fact that the Washburn-Langford-Doane party -saw Crow Indians along the north environs of the Park and actually -followed a fresh line of tracks into the Yellowstone area. Thus the -scenic exploitation of Wonderland was not feasible until the Indians -were rounded up and confined to the reservations. This program was -accomplished in the states surrounding Yellowstone between 1860 and -1877. - -This process of racial adjustment was not accomplished without minor -repercussions upon Yellowstone. The exciting Nez Percé flight of 1877 is -considered separately in Chapter XI. However, the very next year the -Bannocks conducted an impressive horse-stealing foray against the -property of laborers and tourists. These episodes resulted in -unfavorable publicity from the standpoint of tourist interest in -visiting Wonderland. In consequence two important steps were taken by -the officials. In 1880 Superintendent Norris made a tour of all the -Rocky Mountain Indian reservations. His mission was to secure solemn -promises from the tribes to abide by the terms of their Washington -treaties and in particular to stay away from the Park.[97] - -These agreements were widely advertised, and in order to further -neutralize any fear of Indian trouble a policy of minimizing past -incidents was evolved. The recent invasions were represented as -unprecedented, actually anomalous. Indians had never lived in -Yellowstone, were infrequent visitors because they were afraid of the -thermal activity! It was not a conspiracy against truth, just an -adaptation of business psychology to a promising national resort. - - - - - Chapter VI - SECONDARY VISITATIONS BEFORE 1869 - - - Parties in Search of Fur - -The streams of the Rocky Mountains were thoroughly exploited by the -trappers in the twenties and thirties. Notwithstanding the paucity of -evidence concerning Yellowstone visitations, it is unreasonable to -believe her great rivers were neglected. These phantomlike trapper men -went everywhere, saw everything, tarried only long enough to strip furry -coverings from the beaver, and vanished. On rare occasion a bit of -artifact shows up: an initialed rock or tree, a broken trap or -flintlock, a group of steel-cleaved trees, a trapper cabin, a rifle pit -or cache.[98] These evidences bear mute testimony that hunters passed -through Yellowstone. In 1880, Colonel P. W. Norris discovered an -initialed tree one half mile above the Upper Falls. The significant -legend, _J.O.R. August 19, 1819_, had every indication of authenticity. - -In 1822, trappers engaged by Andrew Henry and General William H. Ashley -entered the Rocky Mountains. Within that decade some of the men had -unquestionably visited the Park area. Evidence of one such visit exists -in a letter published in the _Philadelphia Gazette_, September 27, 1827, -and reprinted in the _Niles Weekly Register_ (Baltimore) the following -week, October 6, 1827. Daniel T. Potts wrote this particular letter at -Sweet Lake in the Rocky Mountains on July 8, 1827, and sent it to his -brother Robert T. Potts of Philadelphia. This letter, which constitutes -the first printed account of Yellowstone phenomena, is now on file in -the Yellowstone Park Library at Mammoth. The section of the letter -definitely descriptive of the Park area follows: - - ... the Yellow-stone has a large fresh water lake near its head on the - verry [sic] top of the Mountain which is about one hundrid [sic] by - fourty [sic] in diameter and as clear as crystal on the south borders - of this lake is a number of hot and boiling springs some water and - others of most beautiful fine clay and resembles that of a mush pot - and throws its particles to the immense height of from twenty to - thirty feet in height. The clay is white and pink and water appear - fathomless as it appears to be entirely hollow underneath. There is - also a number of places where the pure sulphor [sic] is sent forth in - abundance one of our men visited one of these whilst taking his - recreation at an instan [sic] the earth began a tremendious [sic] - trembling and he with dificulty [sic] made his escape when an - explosion took place resembling that of thunder. During our stay in - that quarter I heard it every day....[99] - -Again, it is a matter of written record that Jedediah Smith and his -associates "worked the country lying between the sources of the Missouri -and Yellowstone rivers, finally going into winter quarters on the Wind -River" in 1829. He was probably the man to whom Superintendent Norris -referred: - - I have always given much credence to a well-endorsed campfire legend - of a mountaineer named Smith, having, prior to the days of Bonneville, - written a narrative of his explorations of the Firehole regions, and - being killed before its publication.[100] - -It was in 1829 when Joseph Meek became separated from his associates of -the Rocky Mountain Fur Company and wandered for five days in a southerly -direction in the area that divides the drainage between the Madison and -Gallatin rivers. The factors of time and place are entirely consistent -with the report he gave: - - Being desirous to learn something about the progress he had made, he - ascended a low mountain in the neighborhood of his camp, and behold! - the whole country beyond was smoking with vapor from boiling springs, - and burning gases issuing from small craters, each of which was - emitting a sharp whistling sound.[101] - -Meek thought himself reminded of the city of Pittsburgh as he had once -seen it on a winter morning. Meek also said that blue flames and molten -brimstone issued from certain craters. Of course the brimstone was a -slight exaggeration, but he undoubtedly believed it to be true. - -There are still other references strongly indicative of the movements of -those silent sons of the wilderness in Yellowstone. However, the journal -of Warren A. Ferris, an employee of the American Fur Company, positively -proves that he observed some of its mysteries. He first heard stories of -astonishing marvels from a party of trappers at the rendezvous in 1833. -These trappers confirmed other reports that were current, affirming that -geysers really were as extensive and remarkable as generally -represented. Backed by the united testimony of more than twenty men on -the subject, Ferris decided to go there himself for the specific purpose -of enjoying such an experience as would be afforded by water volcanoes. - -In company with two Pend d'Oreille Indians he journeyed from Camas Creek -through the "piny woods" to the Madison River, which he followed to the -Upper Geyser Basin, where he camped. During the night of May 19, the -thud and resounding of violent thermal action assailed him. Allow him to -relate the story: - - When I arose in the morning, clouds of vapor seemed like a dense fog - to overhang the springs from which frequent reports or explosions of - different loudness, constantly assailed our ears. I immediately - proceeded to inspect them, and might have exclaimed with the Queen of - Sheba, when their full reality of dimensions and novelty burst upon my - view, "The half was not told me." - - From the surface of a rocky plain or table, burst forth columns of - water, of various dimensions, projected high in the air, accompanied - by loud explosions, and sulphurous vapors, which were highly - disagreeable to the smell. The rock from which these springs burst - forth was calcarious [sic], and probably extends some distance from - them beneath the soil. The largest of these wonderful fountains - projects a column of boiling water several feet in diameter to the - height of more than one hundred and fifty feet--in my opinion; but in - declaring that it could not be less than four times that distance in - height--accompanied with a tremendous noise. These explosions and - discharges occur at intervals of about two hours. After having - witnessed three of them, I ventured near enough to put my hand into - the water of its basin, but withdrew it instantly, for the heat of the - water in this immense cauldron was altogether too great for comfort, - and the agitation of the water, the disagreeable effluvium continually - exuding, and the hollow unearthly rumbling under the rock on which I - stood, so ill accorded with my notions of personal safety, that I - retreated back precipitately to a respectful distance. The Indians who - were with me were quite appalled, and could not by any means be - induced to approach them. They seemed astonished at my presumption in - advancing up to the large one, and when I safely returned, - congratulated me on my "narrow escape."--They believed them to be - supernatural, and supposed them to be the production of the Evil - Spirit. One of them remarked that hell, of which he had heard from the - whites, must be in that vicinity. The diameter of the basin into which - the water of the largest jet principally falls, and from the centre of - which, through a hole in the rock of about nine or ten feet in - diameter, the water spouts up as above related, may be about thirty - feet.--There are many other smaller fountains, that did not throw - their waters up so high, but occurred at shorter intervals. In some - instances, the volumes were projected obliquely upwards and fell into - the neighboring fountains or on the rock or prairie. But their ascent - was generally perpendicular, falling in and about their own basins or - apertures. These wonderful productions of nature are situated near the - centre of a small valley, surrounded by pine covered hills, through - which a small fork of the Madison flows. Highly gratified with my - visit to these formidable and magnificent fountains, jets, or springs, - whichever the reader may please to call them, I set out after dinner - to rejoin my companions. Again we crossed the Piny Woods and encamped - on the plains of Henry's Fork.[102] - -Ferris not only wrote the foregoing account in his journal, but his -sense of its importance impelled him to expand it for publication. He -submitted his "Life in the Rocky Mountains" to several papers. -Subsequently the narrative appeared in the _Literary Messenger_ of -Buffalo, New York, in issues running during the early forties. The -scholarly observations of Mr. Ferris were reprinted in _The Wasp_, a -Mormon organ of Nauvoo, Illinois, on August 13, 1842. It was the best -article prepared before 1870. Henceforth, the lack of knowledge about -Yellowstone must be charged to common indifference and skepticism. The -facts had all been well attested but slenderly disseminated. - -Foremost among all trapper visitations in point of extent and accuracy -were those of Osborne Russell. Between 1835 and 1839 he accompanied -three specific Yellowstone expeditions. The first party, which numbered -twenty-four, was organized at Fort Hall in June, 1835. Instructions -directed them to proceed to Yellowstone Lake and return, hunting and -trapping the intervening territory. Their route of travel was northeast -to Jackson Hole, thence into the Absarokas. No one in the group had ever -entered Yellowstone until July 28, when they descended the mountains -into what they called "Secluded Valley." - -The point of ingress was probably the upper Lamar drainage. There they -encountered a small band of friendly Snake Indians, rich in pelts which -they sold for a "song." Mr. Russell revealed an unerring instinct of -appreciation for the area in his first and subsequent visits. Said he: - - We stopped at this place and for my own part I almost wished I could - spend the remainder of my days in a place like this, where happiness - and contentment seemed to reign in wild, romantic splendor, surrounded - by majestic battlements which seemed to support the heavens and shut - out all hostile intruders.[103] - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Trapper observing Riverside Geyser.] - -While his impression of security was to prove incorrect the reaction to -grandeur was wholly sustained. - -One trapper was lost, and after a futile search they reluctantly crossed -the Yellowstone River. Their next camp was in Gardner Hole, named for -trapper Johnson Gardner, formerly an Ashley employee, who had worked the -area several years before. Russell's party then crossed the Gallatins -and joined Jim Bridger's company in making a stand against the marauding -Blackfeet. - -The next season found Russell attached to Bridger's party and again on -his way to Wonderland. They entered from the southeast along Yellowstone -River. By mid-August they reached the lake. Two weeks were spent in -trapping the lake and Gardner Hole streams. Russell again expressed his -unqualified partiality for this region. - -Mr. Russell's final and most significant visit occurred during July and -August of 1839. Upon this occasion there were only four in the party. -They entered the Park by way of Snake River, passed the lakes now called -Lewis and Shoshone, and visited the geyser basins. The white formations -reminded the trappers of some ancient cities' ruins. Mr. Russell's -description of Grand Prismatic Spring is satisfactory as of today. From -the Firehole Basin they circled the Park clockwise and came to rest on -Pelican Creek, near Yellowstone Lake's outlet. The date was August 28, -1839; the time of day, 4:00 P.M. Russell had taken a swim in the lake; -White was sleeping; the Canadian and Elbridge were hunting elk. In these -circumstances a large band of Blackfeet made a surprise attack. Russell -and White were both wounded but managed to escape. The next day they -were joined by the Canadian. Together, and on foot, the three trappers -wound a tortuous course to the Thumb of Lake, and thence south to -Jackson Lake. After many harrowing experiences and much discomfort they -reached Fort Hall on September 6. A week later Elbridge also reached the -fort, and in a short time they were all ready for new adventure. - -Another party of forty men went through almost the identical experience -in 1839. They entered the area via the Snake River, crossed the Divide, -and trapped the upper Yellowstone to the lake. Near its outlet they -fought Piegan Indians and lost five men, with the same number -wounded.[104] Yellowstone was not a choice trapping ground and the risks -involved by reason of remoteness and Indian menace offset the margin of -profit. - -Upon interrogation relative to Yellowstone, Captain Bonneville said, -"You ask me if I know of the thermal springs and geysers. Not -personally, but my men knew about them, and called their location the -'Fire Hole.'" - -From these sources it is apparent that many trappers traversed the -"crest of the world," and its secrets were common knowledge among the -whole fraternity. The evaluation placed upon these singular experiences -would naturally depend upon the judgment of the several hunters. Father -DeSmet took the liberty of placing their reactions upon a superstitious -basis. He said the region was considered an abode of evil spirits. The -eruptions were supposed to result from combat between infernal spirits. -This was probably the view of some, but all hunters were not such tyros -in natural science. Indeed, it is quite reasonable to suppose that at -least a few were first-rate naturalists. However, some of them were -killed in the wilderness; others withdrew to other fields of interest; -and none of them envisioned any lively public concern over scenery. A -few had gone to the trouble of recording and relating their experiences -only to be laughed to scorn or made the butt of jokesters. Why should -honest men like Colter, Meek, and Ferris go out of their way simply to -be dubbed outlandish prevaricators? Of course, the answer is found in -the fact that as a class they deliberately brought such a reputation -upon themselves. Take the case of Joe Meek. Upon one occasion his party -was floundering about in the Gallatin Valley. Meek suggested that their -bewilderment might be lessened by climbing a high peak and getting their -bearings. No one would accompany him so he went alone. When he returned -there was considerable interest in his experience. Naturally his ego -expanded; he took on a knowing air. He erroneously contended that he -could see the Yellowstone, Missouri, and Snake rivers from the lofty -height. Later, the brigade leader sent Moses "Black" Harris to another -high point to reconnoiter. When he returned the men pressed him for -information, and, not to be outdone, he declared that he saw "the city -of St. Louis, and one fellow drinking a beer."[105] - -Therefore, two conditions combined to withhold the knowledge of -Yellowstone wonders from the world. The men who knew of her marvels were -seldom equipped to describe or interpret them, and the public was in no -better state to accept them. Hence, this trapper lore was barren of -result, locked up as it was in the minds of generally illiterate men. It -all but perished with them and had no definite bearing upon the final -and conclusive discovery. For more than a generation the tales of -trappers were bandied around on the lips of indifferent mountaineers. In -this rough dress the wonders of Yellowstone were either received with -uncivil incredulity or as a joke to be indulgently humored. - -Conclusive evidence of the trappers' discovery and exploration of -Yellowstone has been adduced. The fur traders were well acquainted with -every portion of it, but their knowledge passed with them. Only a -tradition persisted. In 1860 the elements of this tradition came within -a rifle shot of conversion to truth. During the latter fifties the -United States government had a corps of Topographical Engineers in the -upper Missouri country. Only a double assignment to Captain W. F. -Raynolds saved the Park from official discovery in June, 1860. He was -directed to explore the country from which the headwaters of the -Yellowstone, Gallatin, and Madison rivers originated. He was also told -to be on hand north of the Canadian border on July 18 to observe the -eclipse of the sun. - -The expedition traversed the Wind River Valley, crossed Union Pass, and -turned north. From a position nearly opposite Two Ocean Pass the party -attempted to knife its way through the Absaroka Mountains, but it was -June, and the defiles were choked with snow. Guide Jim Bridger pleaded -with them to swing south and enter the plateau from Snake River. He told -them they couldn't get through, that even a "bird wouldn't fly over -there without takin' a supply of grub along." But the time was short, -and Captain Raynolds reluctantly turned away from the prospect of -verifying "marvelous tales of burning plains, immense lakes and boiling -springs," to witness the certain obliteration of Old Sol. It was a lucky -choice for the future of Yellowstone because discovery in 1860 could -hardly have been so propitious as it was a decade later. - - - Parties in Search of Gold - -Another series of partial exploration was inaugurated in the early -sixties by the Argonauts. Nature's distribution of precious metals is -rather far-flung in western America. Therefore, miners were not inclined -toward geographic discrimination. Spirit brothers to the trappers, they -searched the Rockies with wonderful energy and daring. Deep snow, arctic -cold, yawning precipices, and fierce Indians were all defied in their -eager quest for a new Eldorado. It would have been strange indeed if -they had missed the Yellowstone country. - -Gold seekers were hardy, optimistic, and foot-loose. Ever impatient of -restraint, they responded like mercury to the fever of a "gold -excitement." To them every range, mountain, and gulch offered a -challenge that required acceptance. Actuated by a single thought, these -colorful adventurers literally swarmed to the Pacific coast in '49. -Subsequently, a backwash rolled over into Nevada and Idaho. In the -sixties Montana received a portion of the overflow. The Bitter Root -Range was prospected with a "fine tooth comb." In feverish haste these -prospectors encompassed the whole of Yellowstone. However, this vast -volcanic plateau provided little inducement to tarry, while other -regions in close proximity yielded one of the greatest treasure troves -on earth. In the decade of 1860, Alder Gulch, Bannock, Virginia, -Leesburg, Butte, Helena, and Anaconda were magic names. What chance for -attention had Yellowstone's mountain-locked mysteries in such a -maelstrom of lusty life and immediate material reward? - -The DeLacy party represents the most notable gold-inspired visitation. -This party, consisting of twenty-seven men, left Virginia City on August -3, 1863. They crossed southeastern Idaho, thence to Jackson Hole. They -followed the Snake River into the Park and discovered the fact that -Lewis and Shoshone lakes were a branch of the Snake River drainage. In -fact, the larger lake was named DeLacy, but unfortunately it was later -renamed Shoshone by the Hayden Survey. DeLacy's party crossed the -Divide, and on September 9 they entered the Firehole Basin where they -"nooned." They were actually in the midst of the Lower Geyser Basin, -picking their way cautiously because "the ground sounded hollow beneath -our feet." Allow Mr. DeLacy to describe their reactions: - - The water of these springs was intensely hot, of a beautiful - ultramarine blue, some boiling up in the middle, and many of them of - very large size, being at least twenty feet in diameter and as deep. - There were hundreds of these springs, and in the distance we could see - and hear others, which would eject a column of steam and with a loud - noise. These were probably geysers, and the boys called them - "steamboat springs." No one in the company had ever seen or heard of - anything like this region, and we were all delighted with what we - saw.[106] - -Had Walter W. DeLacy been more of a naturalist and less the prospector -he might have achieved the distinction of being the real and effective -discoverer of Yellowstone. However, he and his associates were looking -for gold, and while they saw many wondrous things they failed to -appreciate them. They were in a hurry. Even so, the time was not ripe -for any special interest in Wonderland. Montana was only a name -signifying rowdy mining camps. There were no newspapers to herald the -discovery, no telegraph to transmit the news. Indeed, general attention -was focused upon the Civil War. - -However, DeLacy drew a more accurate map of the area than had been -drafted before. Actually, he alone correctly represented the drainage of -the Shoshone basin as tributary to the Snake River, a point which even -later explorers such as Folsom, Washburn, and Hayden failed to observe. -He also kept a daily journal, but it was not published until 1876. -Walter W. DeLacy was, therefore, just another explorer who failed to -take "time by the forelock" and, hence, lost an opportunity to win -considerable fame. - -While the DeLacy party prospected the southwestern section of the Park, -a similar group, led by a man named Austin, explored the eastern -periphery for the same purpose and with better success. - -James Stuart might logically have been Yellowstone's honor man, but the -breaks were against him. He and his brother Granville were outstanding -leaders in Montana's pioneering. In the spring of 1863 James Stuart led -an exploratory party into the lower Yellowstone. They were searching for -gold, but fate so arranged that six miners who intended to join them -(the Fairweather party) had the great good fortune of finding the famous -Alder Gulch, whereas the main expedition under Stuart experienced a -serious battle with the Crows, in which two men were killed and three -wounded.[107] After their unpleasant encounter this party encircled the -entire "crest of the world," traveling sixteen hundred miles. - -James Stuart was a natural leader of men and a superb Indian fighter. In -1864 he organized and directed a frontier militia to punish Indians for -the outrages before mentioned and others perpetrated in the vicinity of -Deer Lodge. This party crossed the lower Yellowstone River, skirted the -Absarokas to Shoshone River, thence proceeded westward. At least a part -of the expedition returned by way of Yellowstone Lake and Canyon, but -Stuart was not in that particular division. Because of his sterling -worth and vast experience he was the unanimous choice for leader in the -final discovery effort of 1870, but misfortune dogged him to the last. -He was summoned for jury service, and the court refused to excuse him -for a pleasure trip! - -In 1864 H. W. Wayant and William Hamilton led a party of approximately -forty miners, with horses and pack train, into the Lamar Valley. Their -horses were stolen by Indians near Soda Butte, but the mules would not -stampede. Wayant, Harrison, and ten others with their mules ascended -Cache Creek to Index Peak. Later they circled back by way of Amethyst -Mountain to Tower Falls. - -Later in the same year, 1864, a small company of miners, including -George Huston, Rube Libby, George Hubbard, Soos, Lewis, and a Mexican, -made a cursory trip in the Park area. They entered the region from the -west and ascended the main Firehole River. They were startled by the -eruption of the Giantess and other geysers, but they passed by with a -glance and dismissed them as of slight importance.[108] An account of -this journey was discussed with L. M. Freeman, a newspaper reporter, at -Emigrant Gulch. He arranged to have it published in the _Omaha -Herald_.[109] Other prominent miners whose explorations in Yellowstone -are well known were C. J. Baronett, Bart Henderson, H. Sprague, -Frederick Bottler, Adam Miller, and Adams and Crandall. The latter two -were killed by Indians in the Hoodoo region in 1870, while Adam Miller -and two companions narrowly escaped.[110] It would appear that probably -a dozen nondescript mining groups had some contact with the region -during the sixties. Yet these miner meanderings did not definitely -confirm the actual existence of Wonderland, even though they added -another chapter to an increasingly impressive legend. However, the -persistence of this marvelous legend between 1820 and 1870 was largely -due to the influence of Jim Bridger. - - - - - Chapter VII - JIM BRIDGER--MAN AND LEGEND - - -It is customary to assign an extraordinary disregard for truth to Jim -Bridger. At times he appears as a rantipole hero, and undoubtedly he -drew the long bow to unparalleled tension in matters of adventure. -Still, he achieved excellent recommendations for reliability and -trustworthiness from all the government officials who had business in -the West. Surely Bridger was such a contradictory personage as to -warrant investigation. Jim was the son of James and Chloe Bridger. He -was born in Richmond, Virginia, on March 17, 1804. The Bridgers moved to -St. Louis about 1812. The father died in 1816, and Jim became a flatboat -operator; then, an apprentice in Phil Creamer's blacksmith shop. There -his interest was first pointed to the West. In 1822 he became a member -of Andrew Henry's party and departed for the Indian country. There is -some evidence that he was the young man in the detail which deserted -Hugh Glass in the time of his great need in 1823. - -Bridger was a large man, fully six feet high, all rawhide and -mountain-wise. He was wiry in action, with a quick, dangerous movement -in handling weapons. His hair was auburn; his eyes were light blue. They -were keen, friendly eyes in conversation but veritable hawk eyes for the -game trail which he followed at maximum speed. Jim was shrewdly -intelligent, although he could neither read nor write. He learned to -speak French and Spanish from other trappers. In addition, he spoke -several Indian languages, and he was able to communicate with all -tribesmen by means of sign language. Indeed, he had a reputation as an -entertainer among the natives. However, it is said that he exercised -reserve and caution because he was suspiciously alert against deception -of any kind. His very life depended upon accurately seeing and -interpreting the signs of the wilderness. When serving as a guide for -the army Jim once reported a thin column of smoke many miles away. -Several officers trained field glasses upon the designated point without -seeing any. They expressed their doubt of its existence. Jim was -indignant: "Dam paper-collar soldiers, a tellin' thar ain't no smoke, -when I seen it!" He was sure of his ability to outsee them even with the -aid of field glasses, and he was right![111] - -A frontiersman named Vaughn left an account of his introduction to this -master guide in 1850: - - ... On they came, a big, strong, broad-shouldered, flaxon-haired, and - blue-eyed man in the lead, riding as fine a saddle animal as I ever - saw. They were now quite close; they came within a few paces and - stopped. - - "How?" exclaimed the big man. - - "How, how," we exclaimed, shaking hands with him in turn. - - "Who are you?" he asked, "free trappers?" - - "No," I replied, "we belong to the Company. And you?" - - "My name is Bridger," he said, "Jim Bridger. Maybe you've heard of - me." - - We had. There wasn't a man west of the Mississippi River who did not - know him or know of him, for he was the greatest hunter, trapper, and - Indian fighter of us all.[112] - -Yes, Bridger was the real tobacco chew, "thirty-third degree" mountain -man, and he certainly knew his way around. Every ridge and canyon of the -Rockies dropped their last shadows of oblivion before his restless -energy. He spent his winters in trapping and his summers in exploration. -On most of these trips he chose to go alone, relying upon his faithful -horse, trusty rifle, and hatchet of the finest steel. One excursion took -him so far north that only the North Star served as guide. He followed -the McKenzie River to the Arctic Ocean. This journey took eighteen -months.[113] The rivers, mountains, and valleys of the Rockies were as -one great plantation to him. He knew them all and kept a picture of the -whole area in his mind. He was possessed by an insatiable curiosity. In -wandering about the untouched West he kept poking into the off-trail -corners to feast his eyes on strange wonders of hidden fairylands. - -Bridger's services were always in demand. He started with the Missouri -Fur Company. Later he became one of Ashley's men. By 1830 he was -recognized as one of the most daring and effective trappers of the West. -This won him a partnership in the newly organized Rocky Mountain Fur -Company. After the disbanding of this firm he became identified with -John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company. Naturally he realized the -evanescent character of the fur business. In 1843 this insight impelled -him to establish Fort Bridger on Black's Fork of Green River. Here he -developed one of the great frontier institutions. It was an oasis in the -desert. Here the weary traveler found respite from the toil of his -journey. While wagons were being repaired, stock exchanged, and -provisions replenished, the wayfarers got acquainted with the gracious -host. Bridger generously imparted his valuable mountain information to -the public. Frequently he rendered service as a guide, for which he was -liberally rewarded. His unerring judgment of distance and contour, -together with a photographic memory of detail, enabled him to make nice -corrections on the drafts of map makers. There is no gainsaying the fact -that Jim Bridger was a man of affairs. - - [Illustration: Jim Bridger.] - -In the autumn of 1824 some of Ashley's men were trapping the headwaters -of Bear River. They were uncertain of its course, and Bridger was chosen -to explore the stream to settle the bet. When he reached Great Salt Lake -he scooped up a handful of its saline water. Spitting and coughing, he -is reported to have said, "Hell, I'm on the shores of the Pacific." - -Naturally of mild and gracious manner, Bridger possessed a Yankee wit -that enabled him to take care of himself. This fact is attested by his -ability to get along with the Indians, among whom he was known as Chief -"Big Throat." He prided himself in being able to outdo the "sarpints" in -every field of action. Bridger's experience with Indians made him very -skeptical. This caution is expressed in his warning to Colonel Henry B. -Carrington on the Powder River Expedition of 1866: - - Better not go too fur. Thar's Injuns enough lyin' under wolf-skins er - skulkin' on them cliffs, I'm a-tellin' ye. They foller ye allus. - They've seen ye ev'ry day, an' take it frum me--when ye don't see any - of 'em that's jest the time to watch out fer their devilment.[114] - -However, he was wise in making alliances with them. Three times he -married Indian squaws, a Flathead, a Ute, and a Shoshoni. These -affiliations gave him greater security in his travels. Upon one -occasion, when reference was made to this multiple spouse arrangement, -someone asked Jim: "Which is which is which?" Quick as a flash came his -rejoinder: "Thar all witches!" - -From the Flathead wife two children were born, Josephine and Felix. Both -were educated in St. Louis. His Ute wife died at the birth of a -daughter, Virginia. Buffalo milk was utilized to nourish the infant, and -she later returned her father's care by looking after him in his -declining years. His Shoshoni wife also had two children, Mary and -William. - -During his indefatigable peregrinations Bridger gained intimacy with -Yellowstone. He must have had a soul-loving zest for the wonderful and -beautiful, or he wouldn't have noticed nature's handiwork in the first -place. Early in his experience he noted the disbelief that greeted his -relations. Observing that unimaginative people regarded him as a liar, -he evidently concluded to adopt the old poacher's proverb about keeping -the game when given the name. Why not embroider his tales in proportion -to the listener's credulity? Anyway, much entertainment was expected -from a guide. Jim was not one to disappoint a tenderfoot. One young -unsophisticate, attached to a government party, approached "Old Gabe" -(Jim's nickname) in a patronizing manner upon one occasion. "Mr. -Bridger, they tell me that you have lived a long time on these plains -and in the mountains." "Young feller," said "Gabe," "you see that thar -butte yonder? Well, siree, that mountain was nuthin' but a hole in the -ground when I come here!" It is said that two robbers entered his room -at Fort Bridger. He awoke from sleep and said, "What air ye lookin' -fer?" One of the desperados replied, "We are lookin' for your money." -Bridger then answered, "Jest a minnit an' I'll git up and help ye." The -robbers did not wait.[115] - -When asked about some of his extravagant statements he quietly intimated -that there was no harm in fooling people who pumped him for information -and would not even say "thank ye." Like most of his contemporaries, Jim -didn't think it proper to spoil a good story just for the sake of the -truth. He could reel off story after story with astonishing spontaneity. -These yarns were related in a solemn dead-pan gravity that was very -effective. - -Some of Bridger's more notable experiences and stories follow a pattern -worthy of perpetuation in the literature of the Old West. In October -1832, while hunting in the Beaverhead country, Bridger's party was -attacked by the Blackfeet. In this skirmish Jim received two long iron -arrowheads in his back, one of which was embedded there for three years. -It was removed by Dr. Marcus Whitman under circumstances that showed the -strength and endurance of both surgeon and patient. - -Perhaps this experience was the basis of the story he told about an -encounter with the Blackfeet tribe. Said Jim: - - The pesky devils made a circle all aroun' me, ten Injuns deep. Then - they pounce on top of me and hack me with their tommy hawks. The - varmints stomp and club me until I faint dead away.[116] - -At this point his voice would choke up with emotion. Finally, someone -would make bold to inquire, "What did they do next, Jim?" Whereupon he -would earnestly reply, "Them danged cussed Induns kilt and sculped me!" - -What did Bridger actually know about Yellowstone? Probably his first -visit was in 1829. He was also a member of a trapping party that worked -the Bighorn Basin north, then passed over to Three Forks, and trapped to -their sources during 1830. Therefore, they were in the western part of -the Park. Dr. F. V. Hayden called Bridger the best mountain man the West -had ever produced and said he learned of the marvels of Yellowstone from -him in the early fifties. It is reasonable to believe that the old scout -saw and appreciated all of the major features of Wonderland, with the -possible exception of the Upper Geyser Basin. His descriptions of -spouting springs, strange to say, fall far short of the standard set by -the Old Faithful group.[117] - -Several of the most famous Bridger yarns were embroidered upon a -Yellowstone backdrop. It was this unique element that made them -unconscious conservers of fact. A certain residuum of truth seems to be -present in each of his tales if one searches carefully enough. There -were occasional implications so freighted with the earmarks of reality -that genuine curiosity was piqued. Amusement was often tempered by -wonder; perhaps there was something in the old mountaineer's ravings! - -There was the celebrated Obsidian Cliff fiasco. Its perpendicular -volcanic glass properties were advertised in this yarn: "Oncet I camp -yonder in a purty meadow. Wantin' meat I went lookin' fer an elk. I seen -a beaut a right smart spell yonder. Comin' close, I let him have it. -Bejabers, he didn't make a move. I moved nigh onto him--took a dead -bead. Same result. Says I, I'll get so darn nigh the report o' the -gun'll kill him. So I did. The blame critter didn't look up. O' course, -I thought he was deaf, dumb, and blind. I was so bloomin' mad I grab my -blunderbuss by the shank an' start runnin' direct fur him, intendin' to -smash him slam-bang on the haid. Well siree, ye'd never believe it! What -I act'lly hit was the side of a glass mountain ... crawlin' to the top, -what do I see but that same elk way yonder, feedin' as peaceable as ye -please." Thus he gave a quaint representation of an interesting feature -of nature. - -Bridger boasted the knowledge of a choice campground hidden among the -inner labyrinth of Yellowstone's canyon. The marvel of this place was in -its curious delayed-action echoes. "In fact," said Jim, "it's a natural -alarm clock which I winds up so: when campin' thar I beds myself down, -and jist afor I goes to sleep I raises my haid from the saddle an' -hollers, 'Time to get up, you sunuvagun'; an' sure as shootin', the echo -comes a bouncin' back at the crack o' dawn!" - -Still another extravaganza, with a basis in fact, had a bearing upon the -northeast corner of the Park. Jim averred that the entire region was -under the curse of an old Crow chieftain. All things became lifeless, -plants, animals, rivers, and even the light of sun, moon, and stars had -a petrified cast. "Yes, siree, thar's miles o' peetrefied hills, covered -with layers o' peetrefied trees, and on 'em trees air peetrefied birds a -singin' peetrefied songs!" Sometimes for the sake of spice and variety -he used the word putrified instead of peetrefied. - -There can be little doubt that he actually knew of a spot in the great -lake where a cast hook and line would catch a cutthroat. Then a -semicircular swerve would bring him slowly to shore. Upon taking the -fish from the hook it would be found well-cooked and ready for eating! - -Jim's Alum Creek episode tips heavily on the ludicrous side. "We was -ridin' east o' the river along the side o' a creek. 'Twas boggy an' -goin' was slow. When the cañon narrowed we guide our hosses into the -stream. 'Twasn't no time till the hosses' feet shrunk to pin points, -an', by tarnation, we went twenty miles in a jiffy. Them thar waters was -so strong o' alum as to pucker distance itself!" - -Is there any wonder that a classic mantle of exaggeration should invest -Bridger with an enduring title of Münchausen? However, underneath Jim's -tough, frontier-beaten exterior, obvious self-esteem, and braggadocio, -there was a genuine and picturesque sincerity. He was not only colorful -in acting an interesting frontier role, in which the setting was fully -exploited, but he was a reliable geographer as well. Captain J. W. -Gunnison received such a precise account of Yellowstone from Bridger as -to enable him to write the following vivid description without reference -to any other source: - - He [Bridger] gives a picture, most romantic and enticing, of the - headwaters of the Yellowstone. A lake, sixty miles long, cold and - pellucid, lies embosomed among high precipitous mountains. On the west - side is a sloping plain, several miles wide, with clumps of trees and - groves of pine. The ground resounds with the tread of horses. Geysers - spout up seventy feet high, with a terrific, hissing noise, at regular - intervals. Waterfalls are sparkling, leaping and thundering down the - precipices, and collect in the lake, and for fifteen miles roars - through the perpendicular canyon at the outlet. In this section are - the "Great Springs"--so hot that meat is readily cooked in them, and - as they descend on the successive terraces, afford at length - delightful baths. On the other side is an acid spring, which gushes - out in a river torrent; and below is a cave, which supplies - "vermillion" for the savages in abundance.[118] - -Surely this evidence speaks well of the great scout's capacity to impart -the whole truth to those who were prepared to receive it. Bridger was -evidently an unconscious believer in the scripture, "I am made all -things to all men, that I might by all means save some." He persisted in -his way of life among the mountains until late in the seventies. He -could not withdraw from the companionship of the free and generous -spirits around a campfire. However, his demeanor became more subdued -with age. There was upon him much of the dignity of an Indian chief. -After all, to the red men he was Chief Big Throat, also the Blanket -Chief. - -Before retiring, Bridger managed a visit to Washington, D. C., where he -was introduced to the President of the United States. After staring at -him in amazement for a minute, he turned to the congressman and -remarked, "Looks jest like any other man, don't he?"[119] - -After many years Bridger retired to a farm near Kansas City, Missouri. -In 1884 the uncrowned king of Rocky Mountain scouts passed beyond, and -thereby an epoch was ended. - -In respect to his Yellowstone explorations, it is worthy of note that -long before his death Bridger succeeded in kindling a lively interest -among others. In fact, partly due to his efforts a consuming curiosity -was preying upon the minds of several leading Montana residents. These -citizens proved competent to find and interpret the great features of -natural history. - - - - - Chapter VIII - FINAL DISCOVERY IN 1869 AND 1870 - - -During the year 1867 several garbled accounts of monstrous wonders were -reported to the _Montana Post_ at Virginia City by returning -prospectors. On July 29 the _Post_ stated that an expedition to the -Yellowstone country was being organized to explore the region as far as -Yellowstone Lake. The project evidently fell through, but the notice -accurately gauged the sentiment of Montana people. - -By 1867 a dozen ranking citizens, later to be known as the -Washburn-Langford-Doane party, held one common opinion concerning the -Yellowstone rumors; namely, that it was high time some reputable -authority should ascertain the facts. These men made tentative plans for -an exploration that year and also in 1868, but the urge was not strong -enough to impel definite preparations until 1869. - - - The Folsom-Cook-Peterson Exploration - -Even this effort proved abortive, due to Indian unrest and the failure -of the military at Fort Ellis to furnish an escort. However, there were -several men living at Diamond City on the Missouri River, forty miles -below Helena, who were enrolled and waiting to join the Helena party. -When word arrived of the postponement they decided to set out by -themselves. This little expedition consisted of Hon. David E. Folsom, C. -W. Cook, and William Peterson. Folsom and Cook were unusually -intelligent men, with large experience in ranching and mining affairs. -They were capable of executing a purposeful exploration of this -character. Mr. Peterson's precise status is not so well known. He was -born in Denmark, served many years as a sailor, came to Montana as a -miner, and later made a modest fortune as a stockman in Idaho. He was no -doubt a resourceful member of the party, but his educational deficiency -prevented him from making any contribution to the literary side of the -enterprise.[120] - -They left Diamond City on September 6, after making arrangements to be -away for six weeks. Their provisions and armaments were adequate for any -emergency which three men might be expected to meet and survive. They -had three riding horses and two for the packs. Among the usual camping -equipment were listed a field glass, a pocket compass, and a -thermometer. - -Bozeman was their last station of supply. From there they ascended a -tributary of the East Gallatin River, and crossed the divide onto the -headwaters of Trail Creek, which lies on the Yellowstone drainage. By -September 14 they were at the junction of the Yellowstone, near Tower -Falls. They followed the East Fork of Yellowstone River (now Lamar) for -a day and then doubled back to Tower Creek. The scenery at this point -intrigued them: - - ... Yesterday we caught glimpses of scenery surpassing in grandeur - anything we have before seen so we concluded to lay over one day and - give it a more thorough examination....[121] - -They were speaking of the overhanging cliffs and the second canyon of -the Yellowstone directly beneath, also of the classic falls on Tower -Creek. - -They reached Grand Canyon on September 21, after two weeks' travel. From -there they journeyed to the extreme west end of the lake and thence to -Shoshone Lake, which they mistakenly considered the head of Madison -River. Here they saw species of rare aquatic fowl, such as the whistling -and trumpeter swans. Crossing the Continental Divide, which they called -the "Dike," they emerged into the Lower Geyser Basin. They made precise -observations of the geysers and hot springs throughout the area and were -enthusiastic over their performance. There was no lack of appreciation -in this party. - -On the night of October 1, three thoughtful men conversed in their -Firehole River camp. William Peterson observed that it would not be long -before settlers and prospectors began coming into the district and -taking up the land around the geysers and canyons. Charles Cook -sincerely hoped that people might have free access to the area to enjoy -its beauty, while David Folsom expressed the opinion that the government -should not allow anyone to locate in the vicinity. - -Fifty-three years later, upon the occasion of the Park's Golden -Anniversary, observed on July 14, 1922, at Madison Junction, the matured -reflection of Charles W. Cook was recorded: - - None of us definitely suggested the idea of a national park. National - parks were unknown then. But we knew that as soon as the wonderful - character of the country was generally known outside, there would be - plenty of people hurrying to get possession, unless something were - done. - - We all had this thought in mind when we came out a few days later, and - told others what we had seen.[122] - - [Illustration: Trumpeter Swan, a rare species of aquatic life.] - -Folsom, in particular, had a lively interest in the idea of preserving -the phenomena, and he discussed the subject with H. D. Washburn, N. P. -Langford, and others. Indeed, Mr. Peterson later remarked that their own -astonishment was so profound that they thought surely no one would -believe half of what they could tell. However, upon the solicitation of -a friend, Cook and Folsom prepared a joint article from their diaries -for publication. The account was rejected by _The New York Tribune_, -_Scribner's_, and _Harper's_ as "they had a reputation that they could -not risk with such unreliable material." Finally it appeared in the July -1870 issue of the _Western Monthly_ of Chicago. The editors deleted the -account considerably and printed an emasculated narrative. It is -affirmed that among the items left out was the germ of the grand idea -advocating the creation of a national park. - -Much credit is due these three gentlemen for accomplishing a difficult -and dangerous mission without military escort. It was purely a private -venture, lasting thirty-six days, and may be considered as having been -eminently successful. In fact, it was the first expedition to make a -complete and authentic report of its exploration. - - - The Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition - -It was these articulate reports of Folsom, Cook, and Peterson that -electrified the natural interest of Helena's intellectual leadership. -Thereafter, Langford and his associates were burning to effect a grand -expedition and achieve conclusive results. General Phil Sheridan gave -the project his blessing and the assurance of a military escort. - -A congenial personnel was sifted out, consisting of Hon. Nathaniel P. -Langford, Hon. Cornelius Hedges, Hon. Truman C. Everts, Hon. Samuel T. -Hauser, Walter Trumbull, Benjamin Stickney, Jr., Warren C. Gillette, and -Jacob Smith. James Stuart was selected as leader, but he was deprived of -that privilege by jury service. Thereupon, Surveyor General Henry D. -Washburn was given the honor of taking command. He was a worthy leader, -having achieved the rank of Major General in the Civil War. He had also -served two terms in Congress. Altogether it was a hand-picked company. -The men were uniformly young and energetic, with the exception of Everts -who was fifty-four. Several of them had served as Vigilantes. Indeed, -they were men of intelligence, action, and high integrity. With one -exception the men were serious-minded and mature. They early sensed the -hazards of the endeavor and struggled manfully to reduce them to a -minimum. - -Elaborate preparations were made in point of equipment and provisions. -Two packers, Reynolds and Bean, and two colored cooks were employed, and -the whole enterprise, although private, took on a semiscientific, -quasi-military character from the start. Washburn possessed a copy of -the Folsom-Cook diary and a map made by Walter W. DeLacy.[123] In -addition, he had numerous conversations with these men, and he was, -therefore, the beneficiary of their experience. They left Helena on -August 17, 1870. Four days later they were at Fort Ellis. Here they -listened to the post order detailing Lieutenant Gustavus C. Doane, one -sergeant, and four privates "to escort the Surveyor-General of Montana -to the falls and lakes of the Yellowstone and return...." The soldiers -in the party were Sergeant William Baker and Privates John Williamson, -George W. McConnell, William Leipler, and Charles Moore. - -There was no allusion to thermal phenomena or any exotic features -whatsoever. Judge Hedges subsequently characterized the general temper -of the explorers in respect to those particulars: - - I think a more confirmed set of skeptics never went out into the - wilderness than those who composed our party, and never was a party - more completely surprised and captivated with the wonders of - nature.[124] - -The complete expedition now comprehended nineteen men, thirty-five -horses and mules, and adequate supplies for a month's journey. Leaving -Fort Ellis, they ascended the Yellowstone River to its junction with the -Gardner. This brought them within five miles of the Mammoth Hot Springs, -but ignorance of the fact precluded their visitation. Instead, they -crossed over the plateau and reached Tower Creek where they camped on -August 27. All members were delighted with the hot springs and fumaroles -in that area. - -Around the campfire they evolved a name-giving policy and enjoyed great -sport incident to its first application. They adopted a self-sacrificing -resolution. Natural features should not be given the names of the -present personnel or their relatives and friends. Instead, all wonders -must bear the most appropriate cognomens possible. This was a noble -gesture, and while it was not strictly observed one wishes that their -demonic impressions might have been less vivid. Here was the Devil's -Slide; there, Hellbroth Springs; yonder, Brimstone; now, Devil's Hoof, -Den, Kitchen, and Ink Well; again, Hells Half Acre and Hell Roaring -Mountain. Surely their concepts of Christian theology rendered them -acutely conscious of the attributes and environment of His Satanic -Majesty. - -The first controversy arose over naming the falls. "What shall we name -these sentinel-guarded falls?" "Minaret is the proper name," said young -Trumbull. "What's a minaret?" queried Jake Smith. Trumbull gave a -classical description of Moslem architecture and drew his analogy to -this similitude. Sam Hauser objected on the ground that the name was not -"fitten" in western America where there weren't any mosques. Hence, he -proposed the more expressive name "Tower." The council deliberated, -expanded, and talked big. Minaret was the most significant, had a deeper -meaning, more symbolical. Therefore, General Washburn christened them -"Minaret Falls."[125] - -But Sam Hauser was a politician; he later became governor of Montana. -During the night he confidentially circulated the rumor that Walter -Trumbull had a girl friend by the name of Minnie Rhett. Trumbull denied -the statement, said it was a canard, a roarback, a plain lie! However, -the seed of doubt had been sown, and at breakfast Hauser's point was -won. The name was Tower Falls. Later it transpired that the future -governor's girl friend was a Miss Tower! Surely there was genuine -political statesmanship in this party, and its genius was clearly -manifest before the journey's end. - -The party skirted Mount Washburn on the twenty-ninth and spontaneously -named it for their honored leader, because he was the first to climb its -summit. Said Washburn, "I saw the canyon and the lake. There are -unmistakable columns of steam in the distance. This is a glorious -region." Whereupon the entire party hustled upward, frightening the -resentful bighorn en route. Upon reaching the summit silence prevailed -while these subdued men paid unconscious tribute to the Powers That Be. -Standing there upon a natural observatory, they looked down upon the -whole grand panorama, as does yonder eagle. Their vision darted a -hundred miles southward, where the Tetons glittered like purple -icebergs. Then nearer they beheld Lake Titicaca's only rival, shimmering -in the sun. Lake Yellowstone's deeply sinuous shores, scattered islands, -and fingerlike peninsulas gave it a mystic character. Now their gaze -followed the Yellowstone River crooking away from the lake and then -whirling toward them flashing in its canyon cameo until it seemed to be -biting at their very feet. From this central apex the whole -mountain-girt plateau conformed to the shape of a mammoth saucer as its -distant rim merged with the sky. - -Another day found them standing on the brink of an imprisoned river's -chasm, enchanted by the ponderous roaring of the awful force below. So -vast were the canyon's alternating gulfs and monoliths that lofty pines -"dwindle to shrubs in the dizziness of distance!" Bald eagles far below -screamed in angry protest upon this invasion of their secret eyries. -Fishhawks hovered cautiously above, less fearful of new dangers than -old. Nineteen lonely men stood amazed by an environment at once both -grand and gloomy, mellow and terrible, an "empire of shadows and -turmoil."[126] - -Then the sun came out and the whole gorge flamed! They beheld the -marvelously variegated volcanic coloring as vivid and broken as the -field of a kaleidoscope. It was as though rainbows had fallen from the -sky and draped themselves like glorious banners upon the chasm below. -How did it all come about? - - All nature's forces conspired to build this temple to her glory. The - smooth, sharp tongue of glacial ice first plowed the great furrow deep - into the bosom of the earth. Volcanic fires subdued the rigid hardness - of the riven rock. Steam from boiling springs tempered to plastic - yielding the surface of massive stone. And wind and water came with - all their energies and skill to carve and sculpture it to befitting - shapes. The air brought all its magic alchemy to bear upon the - ingredients of the rock to call thence the gorgeous pigments for its - coloring.[127] - -Truly, here was a noble river, vibrating like a bundle of quivering -electric wires a mile below, yet notching the centuries, revealing a -record of geological time, and disclosing to men how God writes history. -It was a canyon full of interest even to the most casual observer in the -group. External senses were all appropriately appealed to. Indeed, the -hidden recesses of the inner self were reached and stirred by the wild -beauty and mystery of the scene. The world would surely want to visit -such a place. - -As they reluctantly journeyed along the river toward the lake, their -ears were assailed by a series of resounding thuds. The source was the -combined agitations of Mud Volcano and Dragons Mouth. These frightful -vents reminded them of two vicious, frothing animals chained in -cavernous lairs. There they spewed their foul compounds, as in terrible -rage, growling and groaning in their perpetual regurgitations. It was -one of the fascinating, if loathsome, sights in the Park. - - [Illustration: Bighorn resentful toward invaders.] - -Later there was Yellowstone Lake, nestled serenely against its -buttress-based, snow-capped mountain guardians. Many people have been -made happy by its sparkling water. One capable writer has left his -impression: - - From a gentle headland, at last we overlooked the lake. It was like - the fairest dream which ever came to bless the slumbers of a child. - How still it was! What silence reigned! How lovingly it laid its hush - upon you![128] - -It was the Washburn party that fancied a resemblance between the lake -and the human hand. Concerning this analogy Professor R. W. Raymond made -an amusing observation: - - The gentleman who first discovered this resemblance must have thought - the size and form of fingers quite insignificant, provided the number - was complete. The hand in question is afflicted with Elephantiasis in - the thumb, dropsy in the little finger, hornet bites on the third - finger, and the last stages of starvation in the other two.[129] - -What a struggle they had in threading their way through fir and -lodgepole forests east of the lake. The tanglewood was nearly -impenetrable; no trails to guide them except the dim and devious ways of -wild animals, "through which we toiled and swore our way, coming out -after several days tattered and torn, ragged, bleeding and sullen."[130] -In this welter it was every man for himself after the general course had -been determined. It was this circumstance that eventuated in the painful -despair of Truman C. Everts. - - - Lost in the Wilderness - -In Yellowstone even now the wilderness is almost within rifle-shot of -the Grand Loop highway. Furthermore, the area's conformation to a vast -plateau renders it relatively deficient in accessible landmarks. Hedges -and Stickney were inadvertently separated from the party on September 8, -but they stumbled upon the camp by nightfall. The very next day Mr. -Everts unintentionally drifted away from his associates. By evening he -was laboriously embroiled in the forest labyrinth southeast of Lake -Yellowstone. Unconcerned the first night, he made himself comfortable, -fully assured of an early reunion the next day. From this point on, a -chronicle of his experience reveals a record of astonishing incompetency -and carelessness on his part. It is amazing that he escaped fatal -consequences. - -Up bright and early he was retracing the trail; dismounting to survey an -engulfing situation, he left his horse untied, and it bolted. Upon its -disappearing back was his entire outfit. In his excitement Everts then -lost his spectacles, a grievous loss because he was nearsighted. Later -on he also lost two knives and one of his shoes. The most valuable -article on his person was his field glass. It saved his life. - -Another day passed; complacence now turned to frenzy, and Everts fairly -ran in circles. His voice gave out; his head whirled. The pangs of -hunger were extremely severe, and the close of the second day found him -in tears. A cold, dark night added terrors of its own. There were -howling coyotes and roaring lions--whether real or fancied made little -difference to a timid man. - -Still, he reasoned upon his problem and resolved to fight his way -through. In his ill-conceived exertions he came upon a beautiful little -lake. He named it Bessie for his daughter. On its banks were several hot -springs and numerous patches of elk thistles. In an agony of hunger he -tasted a root; it was edible, better still when cooked in the boiling -water. Then a storm came up. It whipped him both in body and mind. He -became lethargic, satisfied to chew thistle roots and bake his backside -on warm spring incrustations. Seven days Everts hovered over this -location. This indecision on his part put him completely out of reach of -salvation by the Washburn party. - -Then the skies cleared; the sun glistened upon the water. Its reflection -flashed an idea into his mind. "My opera glasses--fire from heaven!" Oh, -happy, hope-renewing thought! It worked; he made a fire. With new -purpose he bestirred himself; he would make a break, but which way -should he go? South to Snake River? Yes, there were frontiersmen in -Idaho. After many miles of painful toil among the intricacies of hill -and vale his faith weakened. The goal--a notch in the mountain -barrier--seemed to recede as if in mockery of his feeble efforts.[131] - -"I'll go west into the Madison Valley--that's shorter." So he stumbled -off in that direction. A precipitous escarpment obstructed his path; -there was no pass. The distraught pilgrim lighted a fire. It got out of -control; he fled from its awful devastation. In utter exhaustion he sat -down to rest; whereupon, he experienced an hallucination. An old -clerical friend seemed to be standing before him. He seemed to say, "Go -back immediately, as rapidly as your strength will permit. There is no -food here, and the idea of scaling these rocks is madness." Amid serious -misgivings Everts decided to retrace the course of ingress. His heart -nearly failed him as he envisioned the unending panorama of the -Yellowstone River trail. Final resolution was helpful, and he trudged on -by day, rested by night, and gnawed on "Everts" thistle betimes. - -For two long weeks the party camped along the southwest shore of the -lake. From this base position they daily sent out searching details, -lighted signal fires, shot guns, posted notices, and cached food. No -clues were found, and the time was far spent. They regretfully concluded -that their companion was either hopelessly lost or well upon his way -toward home. A foot of snow had already fallen. The thirty-day rations -had rendered thirty-two days' service. In these circumstances Cornelius -Hedges expressed his depression in his diary: - - Had to lie in bed to keep warm, wished I was at home ... stormed all - night. We are in for it. Snowed all day ... the season is in our - favor, we shall make haste home as soon as the blockade raises.[132] - -Therefore, they left the Thumb of the Lake and started toward Firehole -Basin on September 17. They were exultant over the exploration; accurate -journals were kept. It was generally felt that their observations were -of great value and the exploration would be considered important. Allow -Langford to describe their reactions: - - Strange and interesting as are the various objects which we have met - within this vast field of natural wonders, no camp or place of rest on - our journey has afforded our party greater satisfaction than the one - we are now occupying, which is our first camp since emerging from the - dense forest. Filled with gloom at the loss of our comrade, tired, - tattered, browned by exposure and reduced in flesh by our labors, we - resemble more a party of organized mendicants, than of men in pursuit - of Nature's greatest novelties. But from this point we hope that our - journey will be comparatively free from difficulties of travel.[133] - -Having finished an assignment, they were thinking of home and their -neglected affairs. Notwithstanding the grandeur of nature's wonders in -the Yellowstone Lake region they were about to get the surprise of their -lives. This marvel of wonders occurred on the evening of September 18. -Just as they emerged from the woods into the Upper Geyser Basin, Old -Faithful was shyly preening her billowy plume, and as the vanguard -shouted, "Look!" she gracefully mounted, wave upon wave, until a mighty -torrent vaulted heavenward, where it unfurled like a watery flag, as if -in welcome to its known immortalizers. Thus, the Fairy Queen had the -honor of first saluting those weary explorers, and never since that -eventful day has she failed any visitor. - -In that gloryful presence Lieutenant Doane solemnly declared, "The earth -affords not its equal. It is the most lovely inanimate object in -existence."[134] To General Washburn, the Giantess, when quiet, was like -a hallowed fountain and in eruption, grandly magnificent, with "each -broken atom shining like so many brilliants with myriads of rainbows -dancing in attendance."[135] What ecstasy! A whole kingdom of fairy -spirits seemed determined to outdo each other. There ensued an orgy of -thermal activity. During the short visit of twenty-two hours, twelve -geysers were seen in action. It was then that their experience waxed -"more and more wonderful until wonder itself became paralyzed." In this -basin they overcame the tendency to apply the wretched Satanic -nomenclature so fully employed elsewhere. Instead, the names bestowed -bear witness to a profound appreciation. It was for them alone that Old -Faithful marked the hours by sending up "a plume of spun glass -iridescent and superb, against the sky."[136] When the Giant played, -"Our whole party went wild with enthusiasm; many declared it was three -hundred feet in height." The picturesque name "Broken Horn" was then -proposed; it is most descriptive and worthy of being retained. The -Grotto reminded them of - - ... a miniature temple of alabaster whiteness, with arches leading to - some interior Holy of Holies, whose sacred places may never be - profaned by eye or foot.[137] - -Geysers soon to become known as Giantess, Lion, Grand, Turban (or Turk's -Head), Splendid, Beehive, Fan, Castle, Rocket, and Grotto performed with -unrivaled courtesy. What an array of Titans! Surely the world would also -want to know about this. - -And then there were the pools, the amazing springs of -Yellowstone--thousands of them, all colors, a riot of aquatic -pigmentation--Emerald, Sapphire, Gentian, Grand Prismatic, Rainbow, -Topaz, and glamorous Morning Glory. The amazing intricacy of color-blend -in the water did not then excel in beauty the surrounding border -incrustations. Indeed, the most delicate embroidery could not rival them -in their wonderful variety and complexity.[138] - -How was such symmetry of design created? Species by the score of tiny -plants called algae and diatoms thrive in hot water, temperatures -ranging from approximately 100° to 170° F. These plants have the -capacity to assimilate silica held in solution, and as their lives are -short they build sinter formations in the same manner as coral reefs are -fashioned. These algae are, therefore, active geological agents in soil -building on a considerable scale.[139] However, the intricate mineral -incrustations and lacy embroidery surrounding the boiling hot springs -and geysers are entirely the product of deposition due to evaporation. - -As the party progressed through the hierarchy of basins, Upper, Biscuit, -Midway, and Lower, samples were taken and names given to many thermal -features. They were leaving the Firehole region, but before an exit was -made, or its spell broken, their whole experience was given a proper -evaluation, and the greatest natural history idea of a millennium was -born. - -On the evening of September 19, the explorers were encamped at the -junction of the Firehole and Gibbon rivers. The setting was an -impressive one. A majestic mountain backdrop cast long shadows upon -them. The silvery Madison glided away in the foreground. On center -stage, red embers of a neglected fire sparked and glowed in contact with -a fanning breeze. - -The last scene was being enacted--the curtain was about to fall. It was -an hour of recapitulation. Thrills were relived, confidences exchanged, -speculations indulged. Then came the inevitable question of -Yellowstone's destiny. The question was posed, "Men and brethren, what -shall we do?" "Why," said Smith, "we'll fence it in; give me Old -Faithful." "I'll take the Falls," echoed another. Serious consideration -was given the idea of allowing each explorer to pre-empt a choice -section in the most strategic location and pool the income for equal -distribution. Whereupon, the inspired mind of Cornelius Hedges proposed -and explained an idea that marked him as one of the far-sighted men of -his generation. Said he: - - There ought to be no private ownership of any portion of this region. - Rather the whole of it should be set apart as a great National Park - for all time as a reserve for the use and enjoyment of all the people. - Furthermore, each and everyone of us should make every effort to have - this purpose accomplished.[140] - -The response was instantaneous and all but unanimous. The next day -Langford wrote in his diary, "I lay awake half of last night thinking -about it;--and if my wakefulness deprived my bed-fellow [Hedges] of any -sleep, he has only himself and his disturbing National Park proposition -to answer for it."[141] - -Within a week the _Helena Daily Herald_ had printed the first of a -series of articles on "The Yellowstone Expedition." Washburn, Langford, -Hedges, and Trumbull wrote separate accounts, all of which were in -general agreement that they had seen "the most interesting country ... -where are presented at once the wonders of Iceland, Italy, and South -America." - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Part of Washburn-Langford-Doane party in camp.] - -The members were banqueted and feted; specimens of petrifaction, -geyserite, and other strange items were displayed. Langford gave a -"Grand Lecture" to open the Helena Library Association Lecture Course. - -Hedges paid glowing tribute to the memory of Truman C. Everts, thought -to be deceased. Indeed, his disappearance did as much as anything else -to capture the public interest. Still anxious to do everything possible -in his behalf, a searching party was immediately organized and sent off. -On October 15, Jack Baronett and George A. Pritchett, two well-known -scouts, came upon the prostrate Everts. It was his thirty-seventh day of -travail. They found him near the northern boundary of the Park, near a -mountain now bearing his name. The day was raw and gusty. Against the -prospect of an overcast sky he carried a firebrand in his seared hands. -His weight was halved; his whole system was terribly out of order. -Actually he was sinking under the conviction that death was near. -According to his own report rescue came in the nick of time: - - Groping along the side of the hill, I became suddenly sensible of a - sharp reflection, as of burnished steel. Looking up, through - half-closed eyes, two rough but kindly faces met my gaze. - - "Are you Mr. Everts?" - - "Yes. All that is left of him." - - "We have come for you." - - "Who sent you?" - - "Judge Lawrence and other friends." - - "God bless him, and them, and you! I am saved!"[142] - -Everts fell helpless into the strong arms of his preservers. They -carried him to a trapper's cabin, and there he rested after swallowing a -pint of bear grease. In time his recovery was complete, and he lived to -the ripe age of eighty-five. During these years he experienced much -satisfaction over the contribution he had made in the discovery of -Yellowstone, even at the high price of "Thirty Seven Days of Peril." - - - - - Chapter IX - CREATION OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK - - -The return of Everts operated as a springboard for an attempt to get -government action. Graphic accounts of the exploration in general filled -the columns of the _Helena Herald_ during October. An article written by -Cornelius Hedges, which appeared in the issue of November 9, suggested -an extension of Montana's southern boundary to include the whole -Yellowstone region. He also outlined the proposal for appropriation of -the same for public purposes. An excited public interest consumed every -issue. Bursting upon national attention, these highly entertaining -narratives, spontaneous and vivid like tales from Arabian Nights, -carried a large measure of conviction. - -Nathaniel P. Langford went east to proclaim the discovery. He first -announced the good news to his own people in a public meeting in -Minneapolis. They gave him a responsive hearing, which encouraged him -for the work ahead.[143] On January 19, 1871, a large crowd listened -intently to his delineation at Lincoln Hall in New York City. The people -of Washington accorded similar attention. In fact, one of the lectures -was presided over by Senator James G. Blaine, and one of the most alert -auditors was Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden who was soon converted to the -importance of the project and agreed to conduct a government geological -survey the following summer. Hayden's leadership was an important factor -in making Yellowstone a live political issue. Sam Hauser also visited -Washington, D. C., and he was subsequently joined by Truman C. Everts. -Henry D. Washburn started for the national Capitol, but he fell ill on -the way and died at his former home in Clinton, Indiana, on January 26, -1871. Walter Trumbull was serving as clerk of the Senate Judiciary -Committee, of which his father was chairman. Interesting accounts of -Yellowstone's features by Langford and Trumbull appeared in the May and -June numbers of _Scribner's_ and the _Overland Monthly_. The Firehole -campfire resolution was bearing fruit. - - [Illustration: _Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden_] - -Montana's new but able territorial representative, Hon. William H. -Clagett, went assiduously to work upon the members of Congress. In his -view there was a great prize to be secured for the benefit of all people -and especially his constituents. A wonderland was available for the -taking. As yet there were no complications of private ownership to -arrest an alert government's purpose. The Congress responded with -alacrity by making provision for an official exploration. The sundry -civil service act of March 3, 1871, carried an item of $40,000 for the -construction of the Hayden Survey, to complete "the season's work about -the sources of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers." In fact, the bill -also provided for a reconnaissance of the upper Yellowstone under -Captain J. W. Barlow and Captain D. P. Heap of the Army Engineer Corps. -Congress was not entering into the problem halfway; it was actually -doubling up.[144] - -The chief officer, Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, was an unusually capable -geologist. In addition, he possessed an inspiring personality and -statesmanlike views. There were nineteen scientists directly under his -command. The personnel included James Stevenson, managing director; -Henry W. Elliott and Thomas Moran, artists; Professor Cyrus Thomas, -agricultural statistician and entomologist; Anton Schonborn, chief -topographer; William H. Jackson, photographer; George B. Dixon, -assistant photographer; J. W. Beaman, meteorologist; Professor G. N. -Allen, botanist; Robert Adams, Jr., assistant botanist; Dr. A. C. Peale, -mineralogist; Dr. C. S. Trunbull, physician; Campbell Carrington, in -charge of zoological collections; William B. Logan, secretary; F. J. -Huse; Chester M. Dawes, son of Representative Henry L. Dawes of -Massachusetts; C. De V. Hegley and J. W. Duncan, assistants. Barlow's -army detail also had a competent and well-balanced personnel.[145] - -A military escort, including Lieutenant Doane, rounded out these -expeditions and provided all that could have been desired in point of -training and ability. Each detachment had a retinue of helpers. Two -technical studies and scientific reports, which not only substantiated -but actually enhanced the findings of the previous civilian -explorations, resulted from these two expeditions. - -Hayden's party left Fort Ellis, near Bozeman, on July 15, 1871. Upon -reaching the junction of the Yellowstone and Gardner rivers they elected -to ascend the latter. It was a good choice because within the hour they -beheld a white mountain which resembled a vast cascade of frozen snow. -The Mammoth Hot Springs Terraces "alone surpassed all the descriptions -which had been given by former travelers."[146] - -As this expedition progressed, the geological record was interpreted. -Thereafter, rocks were identified as travertine, gneiss, rhyolite, -dacite, basalt, breccia, geyserite, sinter, and obsidian. Trees and -plants were likewise classified, and in addition to geysers, springs and -pools there were fumaroles and _solfataras_. Geological speculations -were formulated relative to petrified forests, Grand Canyon, the lake's -former Snake River outlet, and the relationship of heat, water, and -"plumbing" essential for geyser action. - - [Illustration: _The Hayden expedition in camp_] - -Henry Elliott and Campbell Carrington launched a canvas boat and made a -survey of Yellowstone Lake's hundred-mile shoreline. Later the -temperatures of over six hundred hot springs were taken. Sketches were -made of many features, and significant names were given, such as -Architectural Fountain Geyser. Captain Barlow's division paid particular -attention to the mapping of Snake River's headwaters. It also made a -cursory survey of the Lamar River. Unfortunately most of the data and -accompanying photographs were destroyed in the great Chicago fire. This -delayed Barlow's official report until six weeks after the Park Bill was -enacted. However, an interesting summary appeared in the _Chicago -Journal_ for January 13, 1872. Thus, the report and collection of -specimens and photographs by Dr. Hayden represented the principal result -of the season's endeavor.[147] - -The beauty of Jackson's photographs and Moran's paintings could scarcely -be denied. Each represented the work of a master. Dr. Hayden's report to -Secretary of Interior, Columbus Delano, was received in February, 1872. -He also contributed feature articles to the _American Journal of Science -and Arts_ and _Scribner's_. Thus, a number of authorities had taken up -the national park cause without reservation. Indeed, after he became -intrigued with the idea of government development, Dr. Hayden's efforts -were so impressive that many people regarded him as the true originator -of the movement. In fact, his own enthusiasm unfortunately caused him to -make pretensions for which he was severely criticized by his colleagues -in the effort.[148] Although Dr. Hayden's contribution was invaluable, -it was not exclusive. It was through the combined effort of the entire -Montana delegation, and its powerful friends, that Congress was made -receptive and responsive. - -On December 18, 1871, a bill to create Yellowstone National Park was -introduced simultaneously in both houses of Congress. The direct -sponsors were Delegate William H. Clagett of Montana and Senator Samuel -C. Pomeroy of Kansas. A thorough canvass was made; photographs, -specimens, and testimonials did heavy duty in both the Senate and the -House. Four hundred copies of _Scribner's_ containing Langford's -articles were distributed among the congressmen, and all were personally -interviewed. The advocates were few, but effective, and there was never -any doubt as to the outcome. In the Senate, Pomeroy's efforts were -backed by George F. Edmunds, H. B. Anthony, and Lyman Trumbull. They -made an unsuccessful attempt to bring the bill, S392, to a vote on -January 22 and 23, but objections were raised, and it came up in -calendar order on the thirtieth. Senator Edmunds appealed for unanimous -support for the bill. Senators Cameron of Pennsylvania and Morton of -Indiana were curious about the number of square miles in the proposed -reservation. Senator Pomeroy assured them that, although it was a large -tract, there were no arable lands therein because of the elevation. - -The advocates were puzzled by the opposition exhibited by Senator -Cornelius Cole of California. He entertained grave doubts as to the -value of the bill. Settlers should not be excluded from such a large -area. As to the natural curiosities, they would remain. Edmunds replied -that the region was north of 40° and about seven thousand feet -elevation. Pomeroy affirmed that: - - ... the only object of the bill is to take early possession of it by - the United States, and set it apart, so that it cannot be included in - any claims or occupied by any settlers.[149] - -Opposition was removed from the discussion by the forceful and tactful -speech made by Senator Trumbull. He reviewed the history of Yosemite and -the Big Trees in California: - - I think our experience with the wonderful natural curiosity, if I may - so call it, in the Senator's own State, should admonish us of the - propriety of passing such a bill as this.... Here is a region of - country away up in the Rocky Mountains, where there are the most - wonderful geysers on the face of the earth.... It is possible that - some person may go there and plant himself right across the only path - that leads to these wonders, and charge every man that passes along - ... the gorges of these mountains a fee of a dollar or five - dollars.... - - I think it is a very proper bill to pass, and now is the time to enact - it.... Now, before there is any dispute as to this wonderful country, - I hope we shall except it from the general disposition of the public - lands, and reserve it to the Government.... At some future time, if we - desire to do so, we can repeal this law, if it is in anybody's way; - but now I think it a very appropriate bill to pass.[150] - -The matter was then presented for a vote, and it passed without a call -for the ayes and noes. - -The progress of the Park Bill, H.R. 764, through the House was just as -sure, if not so speedy, as in the Senate. On February 27 Chairman Mark -H. Dunnell of the Public Lands Committee brought out a favorable report. -He personally was convinced by careful investigation that the bill -should pass. Henry L. Dawes clearly and forcibly explained its purpose -and observed that it went a step further than the Yosemite precedent. In -this case "the title will still remain in the United States.... This -bill treads upon no rights of the settler ... and it receives the urgent -and ardent support of the legislature of that Territory [Montana], and -of the Delegate himself...."[151] - -The roll call on February 28, 1872, showed 115 ayes, 65 noes, and 60 not -voting. George W. Morgan, the minority leader, was opposed to the bill -on partisan principles in general and his personal dislike for Secretary -Delano in particular. Within ten weeks the measure had passed both -houses by large majorities, and on March 1, 1872, it received the -signature of President Ulysses S. Grant. - -Upon passage of the act the _Helena Herald_ printed a laudatory -editorial on "Our National Park," while the Helena _Rocky Mountain -Gazette_ considered the bill "as a great blow struck at the prosperity -of the towns of Bozeman and Virginia City ... if it were thrown open to -a curious but comfort-loving public." Other local papers joined the -_Herald's_ side of the controversy.[152] - -A mild national reaction was generally favorable to the reservation -idea. The bill even attracted attention abroad, as evidenced by an -article in the _London Times_, April 10, 1873, under the caption, "A -Very National Park." - -Who should receive the credit for this eminent accomplishment? A careful -examination of the facts warrants the conclusion that the idea of -establishing Yellowstone as a public reservation had a dual birth. It -was independently conceived in the minds of two men. This view is -attested by the deliberate statement of N. P. Langford: - - It is true that Professor Hayden joined with Mr. Clagett and myself in - working for the passage of the act of dedication, but no person can - divide with Cornelius Hedges and David E. Folsom the honor of - originating the idea of creating the Yellowstone Park.[153] - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - President Ulysses S. Grant signing the Yellowstone National Park - Bill.] - -In his _Westward America_, Howard R. Driggs states that the pioneer -artist, George Catlin, made a similar observation about other parts of -the Old West in the eighteen thirties. Surely it was Hedges' suggestion -at Madison Junction campfire that initiated the conception of a program -which other men were well conditioned to execute. N. P. Langford was the -enthusiast, the zealous crusader. William H. Clagett was the man at the -helm, but he was ably supported by the sage advice of Henry L. Dawes, -representative from Massachusetts, who probably formulated the general -principles of the measure.[154] Dr. F. V. Hayden's scientific reports -and unstinted support must be weighed heavily in the scale. Senators -Samuel C. Pomeroy and Lyman Trumbull gave strength to the movement. The -good will of General Phil Sheridan was a constant factor. Beyond this -spearhead of ability and integrity the number of contributors broadens. -It was an altogether democratic effort, and little injustice results -from the omission of other efforts toward the cause. Most of them would -probably have had it so. It was a program for the benefit and enjoyment -of all people, rather than the personal aggrandizement of a few. - -The rapidity that characterized the government's action in this matter -will always stand as a tribute to the common sense and natural idealism -of the Forty-second Congress. Judge Hedges' idea had found ready -acceptance as it journeyed along the legislative course. The "Dedicatory -Act," as it is now called, was a remarkably well-drawn bill, especially -when it is remembered that the issues involved were not only new in -America but to the entire world. It was a pioneer measure in the field -of conserving natural phenomena for recreational and spiritual -appreciation. John Muir has cogently expressed the significance of the -endeavor: - - Fortunately, almost as soon as it--the Yellowstone region--was - discovered it was dedicated and set apart for the benefit of the - people, a piece of legislation that shines benignly amid the common - dust-and-ashes history of the public domain.[155] - -The philosophy in the statement of the purpose was both unique and -basic. The reservation was "dedicated and set apart as a public park or -pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." -Conservation was keynoted in "the preservation from injury or spoliation -of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities or wonders within -said park and for retention in their natural condition." There was a -declaration against "the wanton destruction of fish and game--and the -capture or destruction for the purpose of merchandise or profit." -Senators Anthony and Tipton wanted to strike out the last phrase so -there would be no destruction of game for any purpose. Anthony said, "We -do not want sportsmen going over there with their guns," and Mr. Tipton, -"... if the door is once opened I fear there will ultimately be an -entire destruction of all the game in the Park."[156] Within a score of -years their fears were fully vindicated, and their wishes realized in -the passage of a Protective Act on May 7, 1894. - -Altogether, the Yellowstone National Park bill represents a -comprehensive glance into the principle of use without abuse. Nature was -to be preserved, protected, and not improved. Art could not embellish -what God had wrought in Yellowstone. The Act of Dedication became the -touchstone of a national conservation policy whose blessings are legion. -The bill did not carry an appropriation. It appears that the program was -to be implemented entirely by voluntary service. In the years that -followed there was a noble devotion which burned brightly, then waned, -and almost died before resuscitation came. Eventually Yellowstone -administrative experience evolved a program of surpassing merit which -served as an example for the whole nation in the matter of managing -certain phases of natural resources. - - - - - Chapter X - THE LAST ROUNDUP - - -Before Yellowstone could become accessible as a national playground a -certain evolution of security had to take place. Indian tribes and -buffalo herds were hindrances to both colonization and travel. A -double-action roundup was needed to clear the way for an ephemeral -phase, known as cattle days on the open range, and ultimate colonization -within the approaches of the Park. - -The early clash of white trappers and Indians has been reviewed. Passing -of time worked no respite. Indeed, occasional friction swelled into -almost constant strife. As settlers multiplied, the accumulation of past -mutual grievances and suspicions rolled in from other scenes of combat -like a moving tide and then broke into smaller waves, backwashing among -the Rockies.[157] What was regarded as the natives' overbearing -superiority was well matched by similar attitudes among the whites, but -more important was the latter's greater strength. - -Racial antagonisms and cultural conflicts swept every tribe into the -whirlpool. Each in turn wrecked itself against the might of federal -power. Finally, a crimson trail was stretched toward Yellowstone when -Nez Percé Joseph chose to make it a part of his escape route.[158] The -Park area and its environs was by way of becoming the Indians' last -refuge. Therefore, the destiny of Yellowstone itself was contingent upon -a solution of the Indian problem. Few people have the hardihood to seek -pleasure at their peril, and that was precisely the condition until -1880. Only through complete Indian submission was the security issue -brought to rest. How the events unfolded in this conflict between the -settlers and the natives is a tale worth telling. Perhaps a brief -exploration of the mutual opinions of disrespect will help give one a -more balanced judgment of the factors that marshaled the two races into -almost perpetual strife. It is an appropriate setting for the wind-up -Indian scene, as narrated in the chapter on Chief Joseph's flight and -surrender. - -In the outset, English colonial charters granted belts of land to -companies, or proprietors, without reference to Indian occupation. -Still, a native people was found almost everywhere, but these savages -were generally interested only in what might be had for the taking, -whether from nature's bounty or an enemy tribe. Here was a land with -resources for the sustenance of a thousand times their number. White men -were given a generous reception at first. Indians generally displayed an -Arabian type of hospitality and enjoyed showing homage to important -visitors. - -However, it became increasingly apparent that white and red men had -little in common. The former were quick to recognize the Indians' -simplicity and to exploit it. If judged by civilized standards, they -were a people living as children, naïve and simple. They roamed about -seeking game and plunder. Something to eat, a shred of clothing, a -partial shelter, and a touch of adornment sufficed. They would exchange -much corn, meat, beaver, and deerskins for a handful of beads, an iron -hatchet, knife, ax, awl, or--best of all--fire water. Articles of real -value were first given cheaply for items of scarcely any value at all. -Mere curiosity led them into many commercial pitfalls. Ross, the trader, -said, "Our people might have loaded a seventy-five-gun ship with -provisions bought with buttons and rings."[159] - -In the opinion of the Indians, palefaces were weaklings under torture. -Still, white folks possessed strong medicine capable of moving great -boats upon water without paddles. They also set great store upon -boundaries on land and upon scratches on paper, which they said meant -the same thing yesterday, today, and forever, and when a chief touched -the quill to make his mark at the end of a writing it might bring -trouble for years to come. Of course, the whites then said it was a -treaty of cession by which the tribe had agreed to move the Indian -village away and leave the settlers alone. These strange white people -had a passion for killing trees continually, for making more tobacco -than they could smoke, and for sending most of it away in their ships. -White men were always working, mostly at tasks fit only for squaws, and -they were fond of getting other white men and black men, and even trying -to get red men, to work for them. Palefaces rarely moved their houses or -changed their wives, and they would eat little more in harvest, or after -a kill, than at any other time. Their restraints and their lack of -restraint were equally unaccountable; and their numbers were ever -swelling and their demands ever continuing for more and more land. They -were, in truth, unfriendly neighbors, unwilling to blend the colony with -the tribe; but they were firm, and on occasion impolite, in living their -own lives and crowding the red men out. This brought battle now and then -and a few blond scalps to dangle, but in war, too, the whites were -unreasonable. They would not wait for Indian summer to do battle, and -when once they took the path they were not content with raids, ambushes, -and surprise attacks, but they would persist in a campaign under staunch -command long after sensible, spasmodic Indian folk had grown weary.[160] - -Thus, we may fancy, thought the Algonquins, Iroquois, Mohicans, -Tuscaroras, and the Cherokees, the more sedentary eastern tribes early -to experience the white man's aggression. At length they concluded that -their first welcome had been unwise and wrecked themselves in efforts to -drive the invaders out, but even in this purpose the tribes could not -unite. Alliances reluctantly made between them were carelessly broken in -the hour of peril. There is record of few confederations of Indian -tribes that acted with any degree of unity. The ordinary tribal -relationships were hostile. Indeed, every Indian tribe had at least one -implacable enemy. As Chief Little Plume once said, "As long as there -remains a Crow and a Piegan, so long will there be war."[161] Even in -their campaigns with the white men they were inconstant and uncertain -and quite as much the victims of treachery and double dealing as they -were perpetrators of such offenses. - -In what light was the Indian held by the white settlers of America? It -has already been noted that Europe's Christian sovereigns and their -governors disregarded the Indians' tribal ownership. They were -primitive, pagan, and of ill repute. Human beings they were, perhaps, -but with a hazy past, precarious present, and reckless future. If they -could be converted to Christianity, well and good. That blessing would -adequately compensate for the loss of their hunting grounds. Salvation -in heaven was far better than savagery on earth. - -Hence, we learn that the Pilgrim Fathers first "fell upon their knees -and then upon the aborigines." Roger Williams, William Penn, Zebulon -Pike, John C. Calhoun, and Brigham Young raised dissenting views, but -theirs were as voices crying in the wilderness. Other more self-seeking -councils prevailed. Many were the voices raised in condemnation. - -General Phil Sheridan, in his oft-quoted comment, said, "There is no -good Indian but a dead Indian.... If a white man steals, we put him in -prison; if an Indian steals, we give him a blanket. If a white man -kills, we hang him; if an Indian kills, we give him a horse to put the -blanket on."[162] - -Another characterization from a Montana frontiersman goes, "An Indian's -heart is never good until he is hungry and cold." - -Jim Stuart, than whom no man had more occasion to harshly judge Indians -about Yellowstone, made the following observation: - - "Arro-Ka-Kee" or The Big Rogue [eminently appropriate, that name], - stood six and a half feet high in his moccasins and weighed two - hundred and seventy-five pounds. He was accompanied by "Saw-a-bee - Win-an," who was a good Indian, although not dead, which I note as an - exception to the general rule.[163] - -The Earl of Dunraven professed to express the Sportsman's viewpoint when -he said that Buffalo Bill and Texas Jack had the same feeling for -Indians that they entertained toward game. That is to say, "They love -them, and they slay them." - -To the typical frontiersman, the Indian was a savage, ready to pounce on -careless settlers, scalp them, burn their homes, and carry off their -loved ones--in short, a "varmint." To the romantic writers, the Indians -were children of nature, dwellers in shady forests and peaceful plains, -earth's true nobility! Of course, the romantic writers seldom saw the -natives and never lived with them. These errors, and many others, have -been accepted as first-hand accurate observations. Indeed, the whole -American Indian policy has been called a tragedy of errors, beginning -with the naming of the race "Indian."[164] - -Given this background of Indian ways, what might reasonably have been -expected in the way of biracial adjustment? So little was the question -of Indian welfare considered before 1880 that one cannot yet determine -just what course might have solved the problem and brought about -successful assimilation. First the English, and then the Americans, just -muddled along, bribing here, cajoling there, and ultimately forcing -everywhere, until this once proud and militant race was reduced to an -inconsolable remnant, broken, defeated, and forlorn, but not forsaken. - -Even when the white man's heart was good toward his red brother there -was conflict in policies. Some thought his only salvation was in the -adoption of agriculture and stock raising, but such a program was -ruinous to the fur traders. The natives were the sinews of that -business. The contrast in economy and culture, rival claims to land, and -mutual feelings of superiority presented a gulf too vast for peaceful -desires to overcome. It was the realization of this fact that impelled -the wise Alexander Ross to say, "Peace in reality was beyond our power; -it was but an empty name."[165] White men's activities and aggressions, -under whatever guise, progressively deranged the Indians' economy. From -every frontier came incessant demands for the reduction of Indian lands. -Memorials to Congress, complaints to Indian commissioners, blistering -editorials in local newspapers, all mark a stage in frontier -development. Settlers were intolerant of checks upon their expansion, -and few, indeed, were the officials who had the temerity to "arrest the -tide of empire in the Territories." - -Against this ominous force the Indians could only writhe and twist. The -uneven contest waged for two and a half centuries, extending from -Jamestown to the Pequot War and from Tippecanoe to Custer's defeat in -the battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876. It is a tale of red fury and -white vengeance such as might properly appertain to an age of barbarism -but which presents an incongruous picture in a Christian land. It is -correct to say that Indian-American relations were never improved but -always embittered until the natives were reduced to the point of -decimation. - -Actually, the activities of fur trappers were not bitterly resented by -the natives. Notwithstanding their excessive exploitation of the game -there were compensations. A measure of accommodation resulted, which -does not imply that there was any lack of violence. Theft, rivalry, and -sheer joy of conflict were motives always operating. But there was a -community of interest existing between the trapper and Indian which was -impossible between the settler and Indian. Primitive existence was based -upon tribal land and native game; both of these methods were denied by -white settlers. Two types of economy were in conflict, and the red man's -sun was already beginning to set. The clash is brought into clear relief -in the story of the buffalo. - -The bison is America's largest game animal, and for centuries it was -most plentiful. Native to both plains and mountains it was a truly -monarchial beast. A Spanish conquistador, Cabeza de Vaca, left an -account of his observation upon the Texas plains in 1532: "The cows came -from the north, and are found all over the land for over four hundred -leagues."[166] - -Several years later Coronado's report stated that they "had seen nothing -but cows and sky." Ample supporting evidence sustains the fact that the -number was legion. In 1832, Captain Bonneville stated, "As far as the -eye could reach the country seemed absolutely blackened by innumerable -herds." No census was ever taken, but competent authority suggests that -sixty million head was a conservative estimate for the American plains -in the early nineteenth century. Dependable calculations place the -number persisting until 1870 at one fourth that number. At the end of -the century the species was on the verge of extinction. - -How did this remarkable diminution transpire? Here, indeed, is a roundup -of mammoth proportions and far-reaching consequences. Bison were the -natives' base of life, their tribal grubstake, a divine heritage. Only -by wise conservation of this wild animal wealth were they enabled to -maintain such a free and easy life. - -After the Civil War railroads were projected into the buffalo country. -Construction camps employed professional hunters to provide fresh meat. -William F. Cody held a contract for the Union Pacific. It was this -circumstance that gave him the name "Buffalo Bill." Such hunters set -amazing records for a day's slaughter. Wasteful as this practice was, -much greater prodigality emanated from the camps of certain foreign and -American sportsmen and celebrities. Russian grand dukes, English lords, -German counts, and American "no-a-counts" were alike in their insatiable -instinct of destruction.[167] In way of extenuation it is fair to state -that the emotional strain of bison chasing was overpowering. - -However, it was the railroad itself that dealt the deadliest blow. Bison -robes were too bulky to be handled by pack train, and only marginal -profits accrued to wagon masters, but the effect of the iron horse was -revolutionary. During the early seventies several lines conducted -hunting excursions at low rates, guaranteeing shots from the windows. -These facilities, supplemented by horse-and-wagon outfits, made the -conquest of buffalo easy, especially when a definite profit was in view. -That condition developed when the tanneries discovered bison hides could -be used in leather wear. Thereafter, hides sold from $1.00 to $4.00 -each, and a party of six hunters could kill and skin fifty or more in a -day. In 1873, the Santa Fe alone carried 754,529 hides to eastern -markets.[168] The traffic in buffalo hides grew and prospered and -finally degenerated into debauching butchery. - - [Illustration: Courtesy Union Pacific Ry. - _The iron horse in Buffalo country--an early Wyoming scene_] - -Thus, for a score of years, hundreds of expert riflemen combed the -plains. They were armed with heavy Sharps and Winchester rifles, which -boomed relentlessly at the ponderous bellowing herds. They took away the -hides, brains, and tongues, leaving the rest to waste. It was wanton -business written in crimson carcasses that dissolved into whitened -bones. The railroad, therefore, destroyed frontier isolation and -quickened the process of transforming a wilderness into a settled -community. This increase in the tempo of frontier life was most apparent -in the solution of the Indian problem. - -As the great train, piled high with hides, rumbled away its -reverberations were echoed by a more ominous rumble in the disconsolate -camps of the red men. This was the final aggression, the ultimate -grievance, and it set the people's teeth on edge. This inexorable white -advance broke the natives' hearts. Once again, it was demonstrated that -Indians and white men could not live together. It meant the annihilation -of their way of life--their very existence--and a tragic -fate--starvation. - -Why did the government wink at this great imposition? Because after the -railroad came colonization was imminent, but land overrun by wild -Indians and buffalo could not be occupied. The herds had to be greatly -diminished and the Indians, confined. The destruction of the bison was -the most expedient means of bringing a recalcitrant race into -subjection.[169] The nomads cagily rejected federal treaties until the -bison commissary was destroyed. Then it was either fight or surrender. -Several tribes elected to fight, to try to drive the white man back -across the Missouri River. How much chance did they have in this belated -effort? Indians were able warriors. They were slow to project, cautious -to proceed, and firm to execute. Always cunning in strategy and subtle -in ambush, they were certain to surprise.[170] An awareness of their -limited numbers made them expert in decoy tactics and careful of their -lives. Vigilant and watchful, they waited patiently for the advantage in -time. They were quick and precise in estimating the strength of an -enemy. Their code did not require a fight on equal terms. Indians, as a -class, never equaled white men in the use of the rifle; however, they -soon learned to improve the interval between firing and reloading. - -Extremely superstitious, they carried certain charms about their -persons, the efficacy of which was never doubted. Thus protected, they -charged fearlessly into an affray. Too, youth was considered the proper -time to die, and young men sometimes sought death, lending an air of -fanaticism to the attacks. - -Red men were greatly exhilarated by victory. They would vault and yell -in fiendish glee as they flourished the gory scalps of their victims. By -1850, however, the destiny of Indian folk was established. Thereafter, -their cries seldom bore the shrill staccato notes of victory but rather -the mournful wail of defeat. - -The legend of "Big Foot," great chief of the Flathead tribe, had been -fulfilled. In 1804 he is supposed to have assembled his warriors in -council and related this message: - - My heart tells me that the Great Spirit has forsaken us; he has - furnished our enemies with his thunder to destroy us, yet something - whispers to me, that we may fly to the mountains and avoid a fate, - which, if we remain here, is inevitable. The lips of our women are - white with dread, there are no smiles on the lips of our children. Our - joyous sports are no more, glad tales are gone from the evening fires - of our lodges. I see no face but is sad, silent, and thoughtful; - nothing meets my ears but wild lamentations for departed heroes. - Arise, let us fly to the mountains, let us seek their deepest recesses - where unknown to our destroyers, we may hunt the deer and bighorn, and - bring gladness back to the hearts of our wives and our children![171] - -Flight of the Indians to the mountains delayed, but did not preclude, -the final conquest of their domain. They were only reserved for the last -roundup. Eventually each tribe was brought to its respective day of -reckoning. The government's policy was not always crystal clear. It -fluctuated between the extremes of the "Quaker Peace Policy" and "Fire -and the Sword Practice." However, the goal was the same; "blanket" -Indians were to become "farmers," live in fixed abodes, and "walk the -white man's road."[172] - -After the Civil War the execution of this business was taken in hand by -resolute fighting men. Hence, the military spirit was hardened toward -the red men. Inexorably the race was pressed toward the appointed end. -This work was accomplished by a series of military actions during the -sixties and seventies. - -In eastern Idaho Colonel Patrick Connor wrought swift vengeance on the -Bannock nation in 1863. More than two hundred Indians were killed, a -loss which forever broke down their force and effectiveness. This tribe -was guilty of many depredations against migrants, miners, and Mormon -settlers. Its forlorn remnants were assigned to the Fort Hall -Reservation. - -The plains tribes went on the war path in 1864. Colonel Chivington's -command surprised and almost annihilated a peaceful band of Arapahos and -Cheyennes in the Sand Creek massacre. What Chivington neglected General -Custer completed four years later in the destruction of Black Kettle's -village. In frontier parlance there was always battle when the Indians -were killed and a massacre when the whites were the victims.[173] - -In 1871 Generals Sherman and Sheridan projected a plan that eventuated -in the complete conquest of the Kiowa and Comanche nations, but the -Sioux were the most formidable obstacle to the colonization of Wyoming -and Montana. They stood immovable astride the country lying between the -headwaters of the Powder and Yellowstone rivers. This was the heart of -the Sioux country--their last and favorite retreat. There, grass grew -lush, and cool, sweet streams teemed with trout. Wild berries -flourished, and a hunter could take his pick of buffalo, bear, elk, -deer, antelope, and sheep. The great Sioux Chieftains, Red Cloud and -Crazy Horse, together with Sitting Bull, the medicine man, protested -bitterly in 1864 when John Bozeman, John Jacobs, and others began -traveling across these lands.[174] - -Federal ultimatums to assemble upon designated reservations were spurned -by the Sioux, and a campaign of coercion was invoked with Brigadier -Generals Alfred H. Terry and George Crook on far-flung phalanx and -Colonel George A. Custer as the spearhead of the advance. Whether -through reckless bravery, error of judgment, or necessity, Custer rushed -into a treacherous situation, and his entire command (265 men) was -annihilated. The day was June 25, 1876; the place, Little Bighorn River. -It was a red letter event in the history of the Sioux, but it was a -fleeting victory because the military, ably led by Colonel Nelson A. -Miles, persisted in the campaign, and within a few months the mighty -Sioux were either upon their appointed reservations or in exile. One of -the last scenes in this solemn drama was enacted in June, 1881, at Miles -City, Montana. Sixteen hundred Sioux, formerly under the leadership of -Chief Rain-in-the-Face, were loaded on government steamboats for the -Standing Rock Reservation in Dakota. Deep mourning issued from their -camp on Tongue River: - - For two days and nights the Indians, and more especially the squaws, - kept up their dismal howlings on taking farewell of their beloved - homes and hunting grounds.[175] - - [Illustration: Courtesy Union Pacific Ry. - _Strong medicine against the Indians_] - -As the buffalo and Indian went out, the Texas longhorn and "long drive" -came in. The long drive lay across the tablelands of western Texas into -Kansas, crossed the Santa Fe Trail at Dodge City, passed over the -headwaters of the Salmon and across the Republican, and reached the -South Platte at Ogallala. From this camp it followed the Oregon Trail to -Fort Laramie, and then veered north over the Bozeman road.[176] The -Texas Longhorn rolled up from the Southwest like a tidal wave once the -way was opened. In fact, wild "speckled cattle" had been sharing part of -the Texas plains for generations. Now, cattle raising became the great -bonanza for a period. - -The American cattle industry started back in 1521 when seven calves of -Andalusian breed landed in Mexico. Gregorio was the pioneer ranchman on -the continent. His flocks literally covered "a thousand hills." In spite -of his vaquero's diligence, some of his stock strayed and formed the -nucleus of a mighty herd.[177] From buffalo to range cattle is not a -wide step; it was the capacity of the winter range to carry bison that -suggested the cattle industry. - -Conditions for stock raising were ideal in Texas. Millions of acres were -plush carpeted with grama, mesquite, buffalo, and bluestem grasses. -Early settlers gathered this wild stock into princely domains, and a new -industry was born. The greatest problem was getting the cattle to -market. New Orleans, Mobile, and Cuba were reached from Shreveport by -boat. Still, there were the thriving northern cities where prices -doubled those in Texas. - -The first authenticated northern drive came in 1846 when Edward Piper -drove one thousand Texas steers to Ohio. By 1865 Texas boasted -one-eighth of all the cattle in America, as against a local population -of less than half a million people. Somehow these cattle had to be -gotten to market. - -Returning Confederate veterans, broke but adventurous, saw the challenge -of the open range and seized it. Loose, wild stock and "mavericks" were -soon in the clutches of men and mustangs as wild as they. The first -cowboys to make the long drive had need to be tough. There were many -hazards menacing their way--non-treaty Indians, white thieves, floods, -cyclones, and ever threatening stampedes. Sometimes the distance between -water was more than a day's travel. - -Cattle kings were men of great energy and enterprise. They took big -risks, sometimes winning large profits and occasionally losing just as -handsomely. Chisum, Hittson, Kennedy, O'Connor, and King were charmed -names in the cattle fraternity. They nurtured their stock on -hundred-thousand-acre ranches and then sent them forth to forage upon -the public domain. It is estimated that six million head grazed their -way to market over the Chisholm, Great Western, Shawnee, and other -trails. - -This wealth of the cloven hoof was entrusted to young athletes equally -adept in forking a hoss, shooting a gun, and hurling a lariat. Cowboys -were capable of both long, patient application to duty and vigorous -relaxation when opportunity afforded. As a class they were steady and -dependable. They delivered their charges in good condition at such -shipping points as Sedalia, Abilene, Wichita, Ogallala, Glendive, and -Miles City. This migration of cowmen and their herds was a strong, -tremendous movement. It came with a rush and a surge, and in ten years -it had subsided. - -Even as the iron horse gave birth to the long drive, just so surely did -it eventually destroy the big cattle business itself. Homesteaders came -with the advance in transportation. There was a gradual, but -irresistible, invasion of the open range. The "nesters" enclosed public -domains. Thus, as the Indian gave way before the soldier and the hunter, -so the cowboy yielded to the farmer. Ranches soon absorbed the eight -million acres formerly overrun by bison and cattle. - -There were still several regions ideally suited for stock -raising--Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. Toward these remote areas men -looking for new, free grassland, timber, and water headed their cattle. -The quest led them into the several great valley approaches to the -Yellowstone Plateau. On both slopes of the great divide plants and grass -grow steadily during summer, and the dry atmosphere cures and ripens -them as they mature. This type of feed is highly nutritious and -conducive to the development or perfection of form and strength of bone -and muscle. - -Among the pioneer ranchmen of the Rockies was Nelson Story. He netted -more than ten thousand dollars in the placer mines of Alder Gulch. This -sum he invested in a thousand Texas longhorns in 1866. With twenty-seven -trail-hardened cowboys he brought the cattle to Montana. It was a -tremendous undertaking to get them through a veritable gauntlet of -hostile Indians and desperate white thieves. Three of his men were -killed before they reached the end of Bozeman Trail.[178] Gold dust in -exchange for beef proved more profitable than taking it from the placers -themselves. Even the poorest ox would bring a hundred dollars, and so -the traffic increased. - -At this time the able Sioux chief, Red Cloud, served notice upon the -government that he would kill every white man who traveled along that -trail. It was not an idle boast; the record shows nearly two hundred -casualties in the last six months of 1866. In fact, the Bozeman Trail -became one long battleground, scene of such Sioux victories as the -Fetterman and Wagon Box massacres. However, the military persisted, and -with constant operations stemming from Forts Kearney and Smith the trail -was kept open.[179] - -In 1870 more than 40,000 Texas cattle reached Wyoming, Montana, and -Idaho. Six years later the mountain Indians were largely liquidated. The -removal of Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and Sitting Bull opened the way for -new cattle commonwealths. By 1880 the federal census reported 428,279 -head in Montana and 521,213, in Wyoming. Soon the stockmen evolved a -considerable network of mountain trails. The main artery went up the -Yellowstone to Fort Custer and thence into Wyoming via Forts McKinney, -Reno, and Fetterman to Cheyenne for shipping. - -New names entered the stage with the growth of the cattle business such -as Granville Stuart, James Fergus, A. J. Davis, John Ming, John Grant, -Conrad Kohrs, R. S. Ford, Ancenny, Poindexter, Iliff, Flowerree, and -George Searight.[180] Then there were the famous companies, The Union -Cattle Company, The Swan Land and Cattle Company, North American, Powder -River, Prairie, and Horseshoe being among the major names. Professor Dan -E. Clark states that twenty Wyoming companies were organized in 1883, -with individual capitalization from ten thousand to three million and a -combined value of twelve million dollars.[181] In Montana, though, the -Stock Growers Association represented an ownership of half a million -head of cattle in 1884. The Eastern Montana Stock Growers Association of -the same state claimed a capital investment of thirty-five million -dollars.[182] - -Under the impetus of such flourishing activity, the great river valleys -stemming out of the Yellowstone Plateau were soon dotted by ranches. -Wind, Snake, Madison, Gallatin, and Yellowstone valleys each received -its quota. None of them quite reached the Park land, but Frederick -Bottler's range almost impinged upon the northern border. It is probable -that rancher invasion of the actual Park area was minor, if there was -any. However, there was a rustler element that quite assuredly knew part -of Yellowstone country. - -The decade overlapping the sixties and seventies was the twilight period -in frontier history. A transition was progressing from semi-lawlessness -to orderly government. The arrogant Henry Plummer and his wicked gang of -Innocents were liquidated by Montana Vigilantes in 1864, but another -nefarious activity was taking heavy toll from the cattlemen. Horse and -cattle rustlers found a lucrative business in preying upon the large -herds grazing the open range. These cunning men would establish a -rendezvous in some sequestered place like Teton Basin or the upper -Madison Valley. From such a position they would make forays upon the -stock owned by the big interests. The worst offenders, and those most -difficult to apprehend, were men who at some time had been connected -with the cattle business. Sometimes they altered the brands, but often a -crisscross plan of shipment was followed; that is, Wyoming and Montana -stock was whisked down to the Utah market; while Idaho material went -east to Cheyenne. Men such as "Teton" Jackson, Ed Harrington, and Bob -Tarter worked both sides of the Divide. The high meadows in and near -Yellowstone were ideal for their purpose. It is also claimed that the -notorious Butch Cassidy gang, long ensconced upon the Green River, made -occasional forays among stock ranging near the southeastern borders of -the Park. - -It is a fact that the Washburn-Langford-Doane party encountered -representatives of the rustler element upon their last day in the Park -area. Mr. Langford left this account: - - Mr. Hauser and Mr. Stickney all through the day were a few miles in - advance of the rest of the party, and just below the mouth of the - canyon they met two men who manifested some alarm at the sight of - them. They had a supply of provisions packed on riding saddles and - were walking beside their horses. Mr. Hauser told them that they would - meet a large party up the canyon, but we did not see them, and they - evidently cached themselves as we went by. The Upper Madison in this - vicinity is said to be a rendezvous for horse thieves.[183] - -It was actually an area of operation for the Murphy and Edmonson gang of -desperadoes. Langford and Doane came upon three of their horses which -they caught and pressed into service during the rest of the -journey.[184] In 1874 the Earl of Dunraven remarked that the Yellowstone -traveler had to keep a sharper lookout for white horse thieves than for -redskin robbers. - -By 1873 stock losses by rustling were so great as to force counter -measures. The Wyoming Stock Growers Association hired a large force of -detectives and inspectors. The movements of every newcomer were watched -with suspicious vigilance; blacklists were circulated. The penalties for -mis-branding and marking were doubled, and prosecution was swift and -vigorous. These hard-hitting policies soon brought the problem under -control. - -Thus ended the major evil of another era, and the rustlers were hustled -into that Shangri-la of frontier romance where "happy ghosts," as -Professor Paxson has said, "will endure forever, a happy heritage for -the American mind."[185] - -By 1880 the hostile human barriers, red and white, had been removed from -the way. The West's unsettled areas were so broken as to destroy the -frontier line. Yellowstone was still a wilderness, but it was accessible -to man. - - - - - Chapter XI - CHIEF JOSEPH'S TRAIL OF BLOOD - - -The Nez Percé Indians were first encountered in 1805 by the Lewis and -Clark Expedition. They were at home in the region of eastern Oregon and -western Idaho. The Wallowa Valley, "land of winding water," was their -especial habitat. They referred to themselves as "Nim-i-pu," "the real -people." The name Nez Percé or "pierced noses" was a French cognomen of -doubtful validity. - -The Nez Percé were not highly centralized in tribal organization. There -were several factions, but in the third quarter of the 19th century, -Tu-eka-kas, or Old Joseph, as the Reverend Henry H. Spaulding called -him, was a ranking chief. The Nez Percé befriended the Lewis and Clark -party by taking care of their horses. Thenceforth their policy was one -of cooperation and friendship with the white man, combined with a stern -insistence upon their rights. Joseph hoped for biracial adjustment. To -this end he always befriended the government, but it was understood that -his domain should never be invaded. - -Federal Indian treaties made after 1855 brought white settlers ever -closer to the Nez Percé domain. Certain unprincipled Oregon people -looked greedily upon the choice lands of Wallowa. As the pressure -increased there was neither political will nor honor to curb the -aggressors. Hence, the noble Nez Percé, like all red men before them, -were thrown on the defensive. - -Old Joseph sensed the impending issue, and before his death in 1871 he -exacted a promise from his son, Young Joseph, that he would never give -up Wallowa.[186] Years of increasing pressure brought a full vindication -of Old Joseph's fears and a realization of responsibility to his son. - -By 1876 the federal government was yielding to local demands for Nez -Percé evacuation, and a commission brought in the usual report. The -non-treaty Indians had no standing and should be made to conform. They -should be required to join the other tribes on the Lapwai Reservation. - -General O. O. Howard was directed to enforce the decree. The Nez Percé -were greatly distressed. Several conferences were held. Young Joseph -resisted manfully. By this time he was in his thirty-seventh year. Fully -mature, he stood six feet tall, and his rugged body disclosed tremendous -energy and sinew. His mind was keen, but his spirit was disciplined. He -was ready for his work. - -The military authority gave Chief Joseph thirty days to get his people -on the reservation; June 14, 1877 was the deadline.[187] In vain Joseph -pleaded for an extension of time until fall. Orders had been given by -the military. Joseph also gave orders. His people gathered in their -stock and prepared for the migration; it was better for deer to be -penned up than to fight the grizzly. There were many soldiers at -Howard's back; the odds were too great. They must surely obey or perish. - -Other Nez Percé leaders were not so wise. Chiefs Tu-hul-hul-sote and -White Bird wanted to fight. They were chiefs in their own right and had -large followings. Still, Joseph was willing to sacrifice honor and -prestige by resisting war.[188] He valued his people's blood above his -own pride. While the great man humbly revealed his integrity, trouble -brewed in darker minds. - - [Illustration: Courtesy of Haynes, Inc. - Chief Joseph, war chief of the Nez Percé.] - -An old man in White Bird's band was taunting young Wal-ait-its, whose -father, Eagle Blanket, had been slain by a white settler in 1876. "You -are brave! Why don't you go and show it by killing the man who killed -your father?" The goad fired him to a fever of revenge. He and two -companions sprang upon their horses. When they returned to the council, -four white men had answered the last call. Wal-ait-its shouted, "Why do -you sit here like women? The war has begun already." Tu-hul-hul-sote had -organized a war party. Joseph still hoped for a peaceful settlement. It -could not be. The war fever spread, and Indian blood was on fire. He -must either lead or step aside. He chose to defend his people and their -cause.[189] - -On the morning of June 17 a battle took place in White Bird's Canyon. -Captain Perry, assisted by Lieutenants Theller and Parnell, was -approaching with two troops of cavalry. Joseph had taken command. He -quickly conceived of a daring triple-action assault. With instinctive -judgment he chose strategic positions and gave brisk orders. He moved -among his men, encouraging them, and directing them from place to place. -He seemed an all-pervading, dominating force. He deployed his braves -upon the heights. Protected by rocks and brush, they threaded a bobbing -course upon the beleaguered cavalry. Dismounting and aiming -deliberately, they decimated the ranks of soldiery.[190] - -White Bird Canyon stands next to the Custer and Fetterman massacres as -the Waterloo of white troops before Indians, but the conditions were in -no way identical. The advantages were equally balanced at White Bird. - -Young Joseph had proved himself a great war chief in a single -engagement. From this time forth his destiny was with him. He was the -last mighty Indian, and his name was Hin-mut-too-yah-lat-kekht, meaning -"Thunder strikes out of water and travels to loftier heights." Wherever -one touches him he is great; every incident and circumstance discloses a -big man. He exercised unerring judgment in strategy and tactics. Years -afterward Joseph said, "The Great Spirit puts it into the heart of man -to know how to defend himself." - -The defeat of Perry threw General Howard's command into a frenzy of -activity. Orders went out for reinforcements, and troops moved toward -Lewiston from every direction. By the last of June, Howard was in the -field. The wily Indian leader had moved his entire nation beyond the -raging Salmon River where he made a stand. Said Howard, "A safer -position was unchoosable, nor one more puzzling and obstructive."[191] - -Howard's soldiers experienced great difficulty in going where Joseph's -whole band had gone. This was just the prelude to a game of hide and -seek that lasted from late June to early October and lengthened into a -dozen engagements as the two forces moved eastward for the space of -sixteen hundred miles. - -In the weeks that followed, General Howard learned to respect his adroit -and formidable foe. Joseph's forces never exceeded three hundred -warriors. The whole band numbered about seven hundred. General Howard's -command numbered five hundred and eighty regulars, and it was later -augmented by four separate commands in the course of the pursuit. The -forces of Joseph and Howard came to grips on the banks of Clearwater -River. There the Nez Percé fought with such courage and precision that -the battle must be written up as a draw.[192] - -Joseph was now ready to fight to a finish, but his captains voted for a -retreat. Again he bowed to the will of the majority. They were destined -to pursue a "trail of tears" during the next three months. It was a -march as dramatic as the "flight of a Tartar tribe."[193] The band was -on the move, over the Lolo Trail--a terrific route. They lived on the -country--roots, berries, and game. - -Joseph could cope with one enemy, but the military resources of the -whole Western Department baffled him. He found his exit from the Bitter -Roots obstructed by Captain Charles C. Rawn from Fort Missoula. Rawn -demanded surrender; Joseph parleyed until his forces outflanked Rawn's -position and escaped. At this juncture we see his humanity in making a -treaty of forbearance with the settlers in Bitter Root Valley. - -The entire Nez Percé tribe was overtaken and attacked at daybreak, on -the Big Hole, by General John Gibbon's force of one hundred and eighty -soldiers, augmented by some of the erstwhile peaceful settlers. The -slaughter on both sides was: whites, twenty-nine killed, forty wounded; -Indians, eighty-three dead, wounded undetermined (fifty-three of the -dead were women and children).[194] Joseph commented bitterly, "The Nez -Percé never make war on women and children." Notwithstanding the -confusion of this surprise attack, Joseph's band recovered and moved on. -Howard was still on their trail. - -Several Salmon City, Idaho, freighters fell before the drunken wrath of -some of Joseph's braves on Birch Creek. In Camas Meadows Howard -maneuvered for a stand. The result was the loss of many mules and -horses. Worse still was the mortal wounding of three soldiers and -serious injury of five others. Just as Howard was expecting to pounce -upon his prey, the crafty chief whirled around and inflicted a -surprising blow, escaping almost scot free. - - [Illustration: A general map of Chief Joseph's flight.] - -Several days later the Nez Percé were trailing up the Madison River -within the Park. They were strangers in Yellowstone and the most -unwelcome tourists it has ever known. Within this identical week -Secretary of War William T. Sherman and an escort of five concluded a -tour and left for Fort Ellis. They did not see "any signs of Indians, -and felt at no moment more sense of danger than we do here."[195] A few -days later they were cognizant of their lucky break. Near Madison -Junction the Nez Percé met a prospector named Shively whom they pressed -into service as a guide. A few days later they seized another miner -named Irwin, and held him for a while. - - - The Radersburg Tourists - -The Nez Percé spent the night of August 23 in camp on the banks of the -Firehole River, above the narrows. At daybreak the next morning several -Indians appeared in the camp of some tourists from Radersburg, Montana. -The personnel of this party were Mr. and Mrs. George F. Cowan; Mrs. -Cowan's brother and sister, Frank and Ida Carpenter; Charles Mann; -William Dingee; Albert Oldham; A. J. Arnold; and Henry Myers. A -prospector, named Harmon, was also associated with the Cowan party at -this time. - -These people were just preparing to break up the "home" camp located at -this terminus of the wagon road. For the past week they had been -enjoying themselves on horseback visits to the geyser basins, and -several of them had been to the lake and canyon. - -Dingee asked the Indians, "What are you?" "Snake Injun," one replied. -Later they admitted they were Nez Percé and made a demand for coffee and -bacon. Cowan refused to give them any, and as one who called himself -"Charley" attempted to give a signal the stern Cowan peremptorily -ordered him to "keep hands down!" Right there a special resentment was -engendered toward the "older man." Frank Carpenter asked them if any -harm was in store for the party. The spokesman said, "Don't know, maybe -so." He gave them to understand that since the Big Hole Battle the Nez -Percé were double-minded toward the white man.[196] - -The worried little party held a hasty consultation, and in view of their -limited arms and ammunition they decided, with serious misgivings, to -make an appeal to the chiefs for their deliverance. - -They, therefore, hooked up the team, saddled their horses, and joined -the Indian caravan, which turned eastward and journeyed up Nez Percé -Creek. After proceeding a couple of miles the wagon was abandoned, its -contents rifled, and the spokes knocked out for whip handles. By midday -the Radersburg case had come to the attention of the chiefs. A council -was held at the base of Mary Mountain in which it was decided that the -tourists were to be liberated. Poker Joe spoke for the chiefs: - - Some of our people knew Mrs. Cowan and her sister at Spokane House. - The soldiers killed many Nez Percé women and children on the Big Hole. - But we do not hurt Montana people. You may go. Take old horses and do - not spy.[197] - -They were relieved of their saddles, guns, and horses, worn-out animals -being substituted for the latter. The white men nodded acceptance of -these extraordinary terms. They were glad to part with the tribe and -retrace their course. Within a half hour, two of the white men, Arnold -and Dingee, abandoned their horses and ducked into the forest. Hidden -Indian scouts were obviously expecting just such behavior. A few minutes -later seventy-five braves swooped upon Cowan's party, demanding the -missing members. Cowan could only plead ignorance. Whereupon, Charley -said, "You will have to come back." The little band again turned -eastward with leaden spirits. - -Angry Indians were milling around on all sides, each waiting for the -other to start an attack. Suddenly Um-till-lilp-cown, one of the three -Idaho murderers, fired at Cowan, hitting him in the thigh.[198] At the -same time Oldham felt a twinge on both checks as a bullet passed through -his face. Carpenter saw an Indian aiming at him, and thinking some of -the Nez Percé might be Catholics he made the sign of the cross. His act -may have disconcerted the warrior for he did not fire. Oldham managed to -get away through a thicket, while Cowan was so stunned he fell to the -earth. His wife jumped down from her horse and clasped him to her bosom, -but they dragged her away. Another shot, from close range, struck him in -the forehead. His wounds were considered fatal, and he was left to die. -At this juncture Poker Joe arrived from the chiefs, who had got word of -the attack, and he stopped the onslaught. - -In the shuffle and commotion that ensued, Myers, Harmon, and Mann made -their getaway. Mann felt a bullet whiz through his hat as he ran among -the trees. Each man went in a different direction and carried the -impression that he was the sole survivor. This was the opinion of each -of the separated contingents. Each considered all missing ones as -obviously dead. - -The unscattered survivors, including Mrs. Cowan, her brother Frank, and -sister Ida, were again taken captives. Although their treatment during -the next twenty-four hours was considerate, it was a period of great -mental anguish for them. They spent the night by Chief Joseph's -campfire, and considering the circumstances their attitude toward him -was most interesting. Mrs. Cowan said of him: - - My brother tried to converse with Chief Joseph, but without avail. The - Chief sat by the fire, sombre and silent, foreseeing in his gloomy - meditations possibly the unhappy ending of his campaign. The "noble - red man" we read of was more nearly impersonated in this Indian than - in any I have ever met. Grave and dignified, he looked a chief.[199] - - [Illustration: Radersburg tourist party marker.] - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - George F. Cowan stands up to Nez Percé warriors.] - -On the evening of the twenty-fifth the captives were provided with two -horses and released near the Mud Volcano. "They must not go too fast"; -therefore no saddle for Ida or horse for Frank were provided. Poker Joe -directed them to go down the river "quick." This they did as rapidly as -their broken-down ponies would carry them. Burdened with grief and care, -they made their way over Mount Washburn and beyond Tower Falls where -they came upon a detail of soldiers who supplied their most urgent -necessities and found them a ride to Bozeman. - -In going down Yellowstone Valley they were the recipients of much -sympathy from the settlers. As they entered Bozeman, Lieutenant Doane -and a considerable number of Crow Indian scouts and soldiers were -leaving for the Park. Carpenter joined Doane's command, with the -intention of returning to the scene of the attack and attending to the -burial of his brother-in-law. In mourning, Mrs. Cowan and her sister -continued on to Radersburg. - -But Cowan was a sturdy being; he would not die. It was nearly sundown -when he regained consciousness. Wounded in thigh and head, he yet pulled -himself up from his rocky "grave." Unfortunately an Indian sentinel -observed his movement, drew a bead, and fired. Cowan dropped with a -fresh wound in his left side. He now felt that they had "fixed" him -beyond all hope of recovery. However, he remained conscious and lay -motionless until darkness settled. - -Then he started a crawling retreat toward Lower Geyser Basin, nine miles -away.[200] What an eternity August 24 must have seemed! Were his wife -and friends safe? He had little basis for hoping so. Could he make a -getaway, and was it worth the effort? About midnight he apprehended -motion among the cinquefoil. It was an Indian scout, raised to elbow -posture, listening. Cowan remained perfectly quiet until the watchman -relaxed; then he circled the danger zone by more than a mile. Onward he -dragged his tortured body, alternately resting and crawling. He finally -reached the deserted wagon where his bird dog faithfully waited. She -growled and menaced until recognition dawned, then hovered over him like -a protecting mother. There was no food anywhere to be found, but he -gathered up the sheets of Carpenter's diary. Cowan pressed doggedly on -toward the campground in the Lower Geyser Basin. During the third day a -band of Indians came by his hiding place. They were friendly Bannocks of -Howard's command, but he did not know and took no chance. - -On the twenty-seventh he reached the old camp, found matches, and -gathered spilled coffee grains and an empty can. These netted him a cup -of coffee. He passed the night there. The following day he crawled over -by the road, and that effort taxed his strength to the limit. It was -enough, as relief came in the form of two of Howard's scouts, Captain S. -G. Fisher and J. W. Redington. The latter said, "Who in hell are you?" - -"I'm George Cowan of Radersburg." - -"You don't say! We've come to bury you." - -They rendered first aid, provided food, and left Cowan by a roaring fire -with the assurance that the main force would gather him up within two -days. Mr. Fee has deftly described the abrupt termination of that hard -earned felicity: - - Cowan ate enough to keep himself alive and lay down in silent joy to - sleep the night through. Towards morning he was awakened by awful - heat, and found to his dismay that the vegetable mold he was lying on - had taken fire and encircled him with flames. He rose on hands and - knees and suffering terribly, crawled across the charred area to - safety. His hands and legs were badly burned.[201] - -In the meantime his scattered companions were being united. Mr. Harmon -was the first to reach General Howard's encampment at Henrys Lake. -Arnold and Dingee arrived after several days and nights of hardship. -Myers and Oldham were encountered by Howard's scouts. The latter was in -a pitiful state. His tongue was so swollen, as a result of his wound, -that he could not speak. Shock and exposure to the cold nights, together -with lack of food for four days, had left its mark upon them all. - -Howard reluctantly took the whole delegation along, and on August 29 -they joined Cowan in the Lower Geyser Basin. Arnold said Cowan was a -"most pitiful looking object. He was covered with blood, which had dried -on him, and he was as black as a negro." Here Cowan learned of his -wife's safety, and that news, together with his friend Arnold's -"unremitting attentions," pulled him through. The army surgeon -ministered to the physical wounds of the men but no sympathy was -forthcoming. The Radersburg men desired to return home by way of Henrys -Lake, but they were bundled along with the command, over roads that -were: - - simply horrible and almost impassable for wagons. At times we were - compelled to lower them over precipices with ropes, and again we would - hitch a rope to a wagon and pull it up the hill by man power.[202] - -In the meantime Frank Carpenter, along with Lieutenant Doane's command, -pressed toward the Park. They found Henderson's ranch buildings in -flames. A band of renegade Nez Percé were spreading terror in their -wake. Camp was established there anyway, and a courier arrived, -directing Lieutenant Doane to mark time until joined by Colonel Charles -C. Gilbert and the Seventh Infantry. Carpenter's plan to return and bury -Cowan was again frustrated. A promise to perform that function, given by -a frontiersman named Houston induced Carpenter to return to Bozeman. -There he learned that all members of the party were safe and accounted -for except Cowan. The news that Cowan was still alive reached him a few -days later when he met the two scouts who had found Cowan just a week -before. Perhaps no one else could have convinced him his friend was -alive. - - [Illustration: M. D. Beal - Detail map showing Nez Percé movements in Yellowstone Park.] - - Legend: - - - - - - - - Route of main band of Nez Percé Indians. - x x x x x x Route of marauding band to the north and - back to main band. - X Cowan party camp west of Fountain Geyser. - 1 Nez Percé camp in lower Geyser Basin. - 2 Where Cowan party was attacked and Cowan - shot. - 3 Mary Lake and Mary Mountain. - 4 Nez Percé camp and crossing of Yellowstone - River near Mud Volcano. - 5 Helena party camp on Otter Creek where - Indians attacked. - 6 Mammoth Hot Springs. - 7 Baronett's Bridge across Yellowstone River. - -A telegram to Mrs. Cowan brought her posthaste from Radersburg. She -reached Bottler's ranch, a distance of one hundred and seventy-five -miles, in thirty-one hours. The reunion was effected on September 24, -exactly one month from the date of the attack. - - - The Helena Tourist Party - -Other Yellowstone visitors were caught in the Nez Percé net as it rolled -across the Park. It has been sufficiently indicated that Chief Joseph -maintained a role of dignified restraint, but there were unprincipled -factions under less responsible leadership which he could not keep under -his thumb. While the main tribe was slowly weaving its course through -the Park some of the reckless young men were foraging far and wide. It -is also correct to observe that bitter resentment had been smoldering -toward the entire white race since the battle of Big Hole. The Nez Percé -were inclined to regard every white man as an enemy. - -This Indian psychology, or "bad heart," helps account for the conduct of -a marauding band of White Bird's "bucks" toward a party of Helena -tourists north of Hayden Valley. There were ten men in this company: A. -J. Weikert, Richard Dietrich, Frederick Pfister, Joseph Roberts, Charles -Kenck, Jack Stewart, August Foller, Leslie Wilkie, L. Duncan, and a -negro cook named Benjamin Stone. - -On the morning of August 25 this party was traveling along between -Sulphur Mountain and Mud Volcano when they observed a body of horsemen -fording the river. They correctly apprehended that the mounted men were -hostile Nez Percé.[203] Thereupon, the tourists hastily repaired to the -timber near the forks of Otter Creek and formed camp. It was a -well-chosen position and might have been defended effectively if the -natural advantages had been utilized. - -However, no harm came to them that day or night. The next morning -Weikert and Wilkie went reconnoitering in the vicinity of Alum Creek -where they encountered a detail of the marauders. The white men -retreated speedily, but Weikert was hit in the shoulder in the exchange -of fire. - -In the meantime the camp on Otter Creek was raided. Instead of posting a -lookout the campers were huddled together, waiting for dinner, and -hoping they would continue to escape notice. Mr. Kenck's mind was active -with forebodings; addressing the elderly colored cook, he said, "Stone, -what would you do if the Indians should jump us?" Stone laconically -replied, "You all take care ob yoursel' and I'll take care ob me."[204] -In that instant the Nez Percé struck. The eight tourists scattered like -surprised deer. Kenck was hit and killed; Stewart was shot, fell, and -was overtaken. He pleaded so earnestly for his life that he charmed -their savage impulse and was spared. Dietrich fell in the creek and -remained there four hours. - -Ben Stone ran as fast as his old legs would carry him, but in midstream -they gave out, and he lay prone in the water. The red men left as -suddenly as they came. When Wilkie and Weikert arrived they fell in with -some of the others and started for Mammoth. Joseph Roberts and August -Foller had slipped away, and as it later transpired they went west to -Madison River and thence to Virginia City and home. The other seven -reached Mammoth, where Dietrich and Stone unfortunately decided to -remain pending the arrival of Roberts and Foller. Dietrich had promised -young Roberts' mother that he would be responsible for his safe return. - -On August 31, Weikert and McCartney, the "hotel" owner, left for the -Otter Creek campground to look for the two missing men and to inter the -remains of Mr. Kenck. The latter business accomplished, they were -returning when the renegades, who had just committed a fresh deed of -vengeance at Mammoth, met them at the falls of East Gardner River. A -lively skirmish ensued, in which Weikert's horse was killed and the -others got away, before a sheltered position was reached. The -desperadoes withdrew, and the white men pursued a cautious course to -Mammoth. It was in this stage of their journey when McCartney, observing -that Weikert was pale as a ghost, asked, "Do I look pale?" "No," replied -his friend, "Do I?" McCartney answered, "No." Each was trying hard to -"buck up" the other's morale.[205] - -Upon reaching Mammoth they learned about Dietrich's fate. On August 31 -he and Stone saw a band of Indians pass McCartney's place. They were Nez -Percé on their way to Henderson's ranch which they ransacked and burned. -The next day, when they returned, Ben Stone made a precipitous exit from -the cabin and ran up Clematis Gulch. Dietrich, evidently believing the -Indians friendly, stood in the doorway. They shot and killed him. -Several days before he had expressed a premonition of death to Weikert. -In view of this condition his conduct was attributed to inexperience. - -Ben Stone, it will be remembered, was the colored cook who had a narrow -call in the Otter Creek melee. This second escapade was even a closer -shave. Stone evidently possessed sufficient of the quaint humor -characteristic of his race to warrant the perpetuation of an amusing -frontier tale. - -Following is the story, as related by Stone to the men at Henderson's -ranch, before he had fully recovered from his scare. The account begins -at the end, wherein the negro was challenged by a sentry as he -approached the camp: - -"'Halt, who comes dar?' 'Ben Stone.' 'Come in, Ben Stone.' An' you bet I -come a-runnin'." Then he rehearsed the day's activities in this wise: - - "I seed de Injuns comin' aroun' in de foah-noon dis mornin'. I tole - Dietrich we had better be a gettin' out ob dis, but he kept a sayin' - 'I'll neber go back to Mrs. Roberts widout Joe.' 'Bout 'leven or - twelve o'clock Dietrich says, 'I'll go down an' change de hosses, - re-picket dem, while you git dinnah, Ben.' 'I say "all right." - - "Well, while he was gone a changin' ob de hosses, I looked out ob de - doah an' seed a Injun stick his head up ober a rock out in front ob de - house. I didn't wait for no lebe, I didn't, an' dropped eberyting an' - bolted trew de back doah, I did, up into de timbah an' laid down - awaitin' for somethin' to do next. I seed de Injuns all 'bout de house - an' pears like dey was mighty anxious to fine me, but I wasen't - anxious to fine dem. It war gettin' along towards night, and I clim a - tree. Purty soon a big Injun rode right down under de tree a searchin' - aroun' for me. I jes hel' my bref an' say to myself, 'Oh Mr. Injun; - good Mr. Injun, don't look up dis way!' Boys, I 'clare to goodness I - could hab touched dat Injun's head wif my foot--but I didn't! - - "Bye'm-bye de Injun go away down towards de springs an' I got down on - to de ground an' strike for de side ob de mountain whar I laid down. I - was a layin' in de brush, when all ob a sudden I heerd a crackin' in - de brush. Den, boys, I got right down on my knees an' prayed (an' I - hope de God Almighty forgive me, I neber prayed before sense I lef' my - modder's knee), but I jes got down an' say 'O Lod God A'mighty, jes - help me out ob dis scrape an' I will neber interfere wid you no moah!' - I heerd dis noise an' a crashin' in de bushes again, an' I jes laid - down wid my face to de ground an' I spected to feel de tom hawk in de - back of my head. All ob a sudden I turned ober and dar I seed a big - black bar a lookin' at me. Boys, I neber was so glad to see a bar - afore in all my life. De bar he got up an' run, an' I got up an' run - to de top ob de mountain when I saw youah camp fire an' heah I' - is--bress de Lod!"[206] - -At the conclusion of this delineation two of Lieutenant Doane's friendly -Indian scouts rushed toward Stone with arms extended, exclaiming "How, -how!" The distraught negro nearly fainted from a fresh attack of fright. -No amount of explanation could convince him they were not after his -scalp. Indeed, he was certain that the larger buck was Chief Joseph -himself![207] - -Finally his friends Weikert and McCartney arrived, and thereafter his -emotions switched around to unrestrained gratitude to his maker. The -rest of the night was given over to lusty expressions of praise and -hallelujahs. When objections were raised Stone replied that God had -saved his life twice and he was going to thank Him as long and loud as -he liked. Lieutenant Doane was forced to post a guard to maintain the -peace. - -At this time word arrived that Roberts and Foller were in Virginia City. -The remains of poor Dietrich, who had been sacrificed so unnecessarily, -were taken to Helena by Weikert. He also took the remains of Charles -Kenck there for final interment. - -General Howard leisurely pursued the fleeing Nez Percé marauders up the -Lamar Valley after repairing Baronett's bridge which they had partially -burned. In the meantime, Joseph's main band had crossed Yellowstone -River, near Mud Volcano, and followed the east bank toward the lake. -Shively, their captive guide, directed them up Pelican Creek to its -source. Here Joseph's scouts reported the presence of miners on the -Lamar and Howard's spies in the area. The scouts further noted that -Colonel Sturgis and eight troops of the Seventh Cavalry from the Crow -Agency on the Little Rosebud were in position astride the regular -Absaroka Pass near Hart (Heart) Mountain. Joseph was now cut off between -the commands of Howard and Sturgis. - -This situation demanded desperate action. The threat of interception -brought forth a masterful stratagem from the Red Napoleon. Upon reaching -the Lamar-Shoshone Divide, Joseph turned abruptly southward. Was he -striking for Stinking Water? Sturgis could not risk this chance. He, -therefore, whirled in that direction, pursuing a parallel course--the -summit dividing their forces. - -Joseph's feint worked; he passed by Sturgis' right flank. He now doubled -back beyond the main Absaroka gateway, toward Clarks Fork, and plunged -through a "hidden" pass located by his feverish scouts. He fairly hurled -his people over the rocky barrier and dropped them pell-mell down to -Clarks Fork.[208] It was his task to get the protection of the Crow -Indians, cross the Buffalo country, and reach Canada and safety. - -By the time Colonel Sturgis had discovered the deception General Howard -arrived. Indeed, he was already painfully pursuing the elusive foe -through the awful earth gash Joseph had taken. When the two officers met -there was an impressive demonstration of cussing. Wasn't there a unit in -the whole United States' Army that could outwit this red devil? - -Spurred by the barbed goad of frustration and anger, Sturgis pressed on -in hot pursuit. On September 13, his troops were in their saddles at 5 -A.M. When they drew rein at 12 P.M. sixty miles had been negotiated. -Joseph's band was still ahead! By daybreak the soldiers were on the -trail again. They halted on the lower Yellowstone, near Billings. -Discouragement pervaded their ranks; by common consent the Seventh -Cavalry was ready to quit.[209] They felt a comrade's compassion for -General Howard's command. - -Two miles away the Nez Percé were headed for the mouth of Canyon Creek. -"Let's beat 'em to it," and away they sped. The Indians gained the -protection first. Officers Benteen, Otis, French, and Merrill's -battalions maneuvered bravely and well, but the watchful Nez Percé kept -them back. There was rapid sharp shooting on both sides. When they -finally broke through the Indians had disappeared. - - Strewn upon the dusty battlefield were a dozen dead horses, five - soldiers dead and eleven wounded. Night fell, and a cool wind drummed - a funeral dirge upon the mind of many a restless soldier. When General - Howard arrived the next day Sturgis was still on the trail. A band of - Crow Indians had joined the white forces and were spoiling for a - fight, but Sturgis had already wind-broken his horse and run out of - rations. The Indian pace was too fast for him, but the rapidity of - this flight forced them to abandon nine hundred horses.[210] However, - Chief Joseph's pony supply was augmented by a wholesale seizure from - the Crows. He had crossed the Musselshell; next he would ford the - Missouri which would bring them within the protection of Montana's - northern wastelands. Canada was not far away. Howard could never catch - him now. Perhaps there would be time to kill some buffalo, feed their - weary ponies, and rest their squaws. - -He was reckoning without the telegraph and the ambitious interest of -Colonel Nelson A. Miles at Fort Keogh on Tongue River. On September 17, -a rider brought Howard's S. O. S.; immediately Colonel Miles was all -action. That very day he had three hundred and eighty-three men across -Tongue River and on the march. Twenty-four hours later they were fifty -miles away. They crossed the Musselshell River and marched on to the -Missouri, where a steamboat ferried them across. Ever crowding men and -beasts, he caught up with the Nez Percé on the twenty-ninth of -September. - -Joseph had made sure that Howard and Sturgis were far behind. In fact, -they were deliberately slow. "We must not move too fast lest we flush -the game." Actually both of their commands were much depleted. The real -job was up to Miles; they were providing the decoy. This time it worked. - -Again, as at Big Hole, Joseph failed to anticipate trouble from other -quarters than Howard's. The one-armed general was six days' march in the -rear. Surely they could relax now. Upon reaching the Bear Paw Mountains -he considered his position secure. He posted no scouts. Joseph obviously -believed they had crossed the international boundary. Later, as he -looked back in retrospection, he said: - - I sat down in a fat and beautiful country. I had won my freedom and - the freedom of my people. There were many empty places in the lodges - and the council, but we were in a land where we would not be forced to - live in a place we did not want. I believed that if I could remain - safe at a distance and talk straight to the men that would be sent by - the Great Father, I could get back to the Wallowa Valley and remain in - peace. That is why I did not allow my young men to kill and destroy - the white settlers after I began to fight. I wanted to leave a clean - trail, and if there were dead soldiers on that trail, I could not be - to blame. I had sent out runners to Sitting Bull to tell him that - another band of red men had been forced to run from the soldiers of - the Great Father, and to propose that we join forces if we were - attacked. My people were recovering their health and the wounded - getting better of their hurts.[211] - -Joseph's coveted felicity was roughly arrested on the dawn of September -30. His brief respite was assailed by the dual forces of nature and men. -Snow flurries whipped the lodge flaps. Horses milled restlessly. An -Indian youth slipped out to reconnoiter. He perceived the rapid approach -of a formidable force of cavalry. The alarm was given. - -Instantly the Nez Percé camp was churning with commotion. A hundred -ponies were laden with squaws and papooses. They fled north under an -escort of sixty braves. The balance of the encampment fairly clawed out -positions of defense along a crescent-shaped ravine called Snake Creek. - -By this time the military was in position. Colonel Miles sized up the -situation at a glance and barked commands: "Captain Hale, draw up on the -south flank." "McHugh, mount the Hotchkiss and wheel forward." -"Infantry, deploy and follow cavalry charge; swing the four-pound -howitzer to north." "Troops of Second Cavalry, surround enemy pony -herd." "Lieutenant McClernand, retrieve the fleeing train." "Main -cavalry, ready for frontal assault." He surveyed the resulting -formation, raised his arm, and shouted, "Attack!"[212] - -Reins were loosed, spurs clicked, and away rolled a thundering avalanche -of mounted might. The charging line raced headlong toward the Indian -camp. It was the same speed and precision that had broken the power of -the Sioux and Cheyenne nations. The Nez Percé grimly waited. At a -hundred yards they opened fire, and the battle broke with a roar. - -In the wake of the charge were fifty-three soldiers dead or wounded. K -Troop lost over sixty per cent of their complement. Joseph's camp was -cut in twain, but the position could not be forced, and the cavalry -passed through. The Nez Percé settled deeper into their entrenchments, -and a state of siege ensued. However, the Colonel's pony detail -succeeded in rounding up the Indian ponies. The Nez Percé were now on -foot. That night a six-inch mantle of snow fell. Continuous fire was -sustained the next day. Then a parley was arranged. Joseph was promised -a safe conduct. He accepted but was made a prisoner. However, the Nez -Percé captured an officer named Jerome and held him as hostage for -Joseph. Terms were proposed. Miles demanded unconditional surrender, but -Chief Joseph exacted a promise to return his people to the Lapwai -Reservation. This Miles granted.[213] - -On October 4, the fifth day of the siege, Joseph led his haggard people -out of their camp. His head was bowed in awful solemnity. As he -approached a cluster of officers, including General Howard, he -straightened up and dismounted with dignity. Impulsively he presented -his rifle to Howard, but the general motioned him to "Bear Coat" Miles. - -After disarmament the great chief stepped forward, raised his arm in a -sweeping motion toward the reddening sun, and intoned the requiem of a -dying race: - - Tell General Howard that I know his heart. What he told me before I - have in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are killed. - Looking Glass is dead, Tu-hul-hul-sote is dead. The old men are all - dead. It is the young men who now say yes or no. He who led the young - men is dead. It is cold and we have no blankets. The little children - are freezing to death. My people--some of them have run away to the - hills and have no blankets and no food. No one knows where they - are--perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my - children and see how many of them I can find. Maybe I shall find them - among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs, my heart is sick and sad. From - where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever.[214] - -The Montana sun was going down; Hin-mut-too-yah-lat-kekht had spoken as -its rays flickered. - -The officers came forward and shook his hand. As he turned away, drawing -his blanket over his head, the white soldiers discerned five bullet -holes in his blanket and wounds on his forehead and wrist. - -There was something about this leader that tugged at their heart strings -as he beckoned his children toward their prison camp. There were four -hundred and twelve survivors, including forty-six wounded. Twenty-six -Indians and twenty-seven white men (plus Miles' two Indian scouts) had -been slain. Joseph's conduct in burying the dead and in ministering to -his half-starved and freezing people elicited the admiration of all. As -the handsome, plucky chieftain assuaged their sorrow he seemed greater -than any one man. Surely, here was the embodiment of the Nez Percé, -indeed, of all Indian people. In his person were combined elements both -noble and tragic. He was the last best specimen of a truly native race. - -By nature Joseph was a modest man and inclined toward peace and good -will. Events forced him into a role that has won eternal fame. Even -General Sherman, who entertained no high sentiments for Indians, could -not withhold his meed of praise: - - Thus has terminated one of the most extraordinary Indian wars of which - there is any record. The Indians throughout displayed a courage and - skill that elicited universal praise; they abstained from scalping; - let captive women go free; did not commit indiscriminate murders of - peaceful families and fought with almost scientific skill, using - advance and rear guards, skirmish lines and field fortifications.[215] - -Other competent authorities have gone further. One ventured the -asseveration that: - - Had Joseph led thousands and had he been born of a people and in a - place less remote from the main currents of history, his name would - resound in our ears like thunder.[216] - -As it is, the tale of the Nez Percé retreat, surrender, and burning -years of their exile strike a mournful note upon the ears of men. - -At Bear Paw a long "trail of tears" began for Joseph and his people. -There was the solemn trek to Fort Keogh, thence to Bismarck, on to Fort -Leavenworth, and finally to a small Oklahoma reserve. This was virtually -a sentence of death for these mountain-bred people.[217] Miles could not -make his promise good. Joseph was depressed by the increasing time and -distance. Said he, "The Great Spirit Chief who rules above seemed to be -looking some other way and did not see what was happening to my people." - -Many government officials called upon Joseph ("White men have too many -chiefs"). Promises were lightly made ("Look twice at a two-faced man"). -Resolutions were circulated ("Big name often on small legs"). The wise -chief was learning the ways of his masters. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Indian war club and peace pipe.] - -Joseph's conqueror became his truest friend. Miles, a general now, kept -working to fulfill his vow. Said he: - - I frequently and persistently, for seven long years, urged that they - be sent home to their own country but not until 1884, when I was in - command of the Department of the Columbia, did I succeed in having - them returned west of the mountains near their own country.[218] - -In 1885, after they had been ravaged by sickness and death, the remnant -of the Nez Percé tribe was established on the Colville Reservation in -Washington state. Here Joseph's declining years were spent in the -companionship of his wives and children, until his death on September -21, 1904. There, among a vast concourse of white and Indian people, -Thunder-Traveling-to-Loftier-Heights was gathered to his fathers. - - - - - Chapter XII - TRAVEL AND ACCOMMODATIONS--NEW BUSINESSES - - -The narration of trapper and miner visits and the account of final -discovery have already described the difficulties of early travel in -Yellowstone. Little segments of animal and Indian trails were all that -broke the untraveled wilderness. Since no funds were available for any -purpose before 1877, the trail building progress made before that date -was negligible.[219] Until that time all visitors came on horseback, but -while they generally went to the same places their approaches were -different. Each outfit carried axes, and at least a modicum of effort -had to be expended along the way. Such had been the way of mountain men. -They did not expect someone else to build their roads; neither did they -expect anyone to tell them where to go or camp. Therefore, it was every -outfit to itself; still, companionship claimed its due, and groups -sometimes fell into line and traveled together. - -A perusal of old journals shows that packsaddle trips were always -thrilling. It was by pack horse that the presidential party of August, -1883 visited the Park. It traveled three hundred and fifty miles, making -nineteen camps during its sojourn. The personnel included the following: -President Chester A. Arthur, Secretary of War Robert T. Lincoln, Senator -George Graham Vest, General Phil H. Sheridan, General Anson Stager, -Colonel Michael V. Sheridan, Colonel J. F. Gregory, Captain Philo Clark, -Governor Schuyler Crosby (Montana), Judge Rawlins, and Official -Photographer Frank Jay Haynes.[220] They had a grand time, and -thereafter Yellowstone never lacked friends in high places. - -One account tells of traveling three hundred and fifty miles in -twenty-four days. Fish were caught in handfuls, horses caved in geyser -formations, and Indians were seen. All of these activities were duly -reported to a keenly interested American public. Indeed, a general -concern for the President's security was aroused. This natural anxiety -gave occasion for a rumor that the President's safety was in jeopardy, -not from accident, wild animals, or Indians, but rather from a gang of -desperadoes. A dispatch bearing the postmark of Hailey, Idaho, stated -that a large band of Texas criminals had been observed in a mysterious -ceremonial at Willow Park in Yellowstone. According to the report, each -man swore by his dagger to do his duty, which was no less than the -capture of the President of the United States and his entire party. The -captives would then be held in a wilderness cavern until a ransom of one -million dollars had been paid! - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Stagecoach.] - -The alarming report that "They are after Arthur!" was followed by the -reassuring word that Sheriff Farcy and a company of United States troops -were investigating the reported conspiracy. Certainly the presidential -expedition was enveloped in an atmosphere of high romance![221] - -It is said that camping trips have always been ideal testers of -friendship. Camp life is an excellent form of association because it is -bound to disclose every character trait. Each virtue is surely tried, -and every vice is certain to show itself. Wit, cheerfulness, patience, -and industry were in demand, and their opposites greatly discounted. -Some knowledge of cooking, washing, caring for animals, and tying the -diamond hitch was essential. Good hunters and fishermen were popular in -these camps. Skill in constructing fir-bough lean-tos against storms and -couches for sleeping came in handy. Last of all, the gift of -storytelling and song made its possessor the head of the nightly -campfire circle. Were these the people the poet envisioned? - - Keep not standing fix't and rooted, - Briskly venture, briskly roam; - Head and hand, where'er thou foot it, - And stout heart are still at home. - In each land the sun does visit - We are gay, whate'er betide: - To give room for wandering is it - That the world was made so wide.[222] - -Pack outfit owners were a lusty sort. Some of them divided their time -between acting as guides and slaughtering game for both meat and hides. -A few were wholly unscrupulous, both in their exploitation of the -tourists and the Park.[223] Still others were high-type frontiersmen. A -description has been left of one Texas Jack, named John Omohondro, -originally from Virginia: - - He is tall, powerfully built, and as he rode carelessly along, with - his long rifle crossed in front of him, he was a picture. He was - dressed in a complete suit of buckskin, and wore a flaming red - neckerchief, a broad sombrero fastened up on one side with a large - eagle feather, and a pair of beautifully beaded moccasins. The costume - of the man, his self-confident pose, and the quick, penetrating glance - of his keen black eye, would give the impression that he was no - ordinary mountaineer.[224] - -Still, Texas Jack was quite typical of most mountain scouts, being a man -of life and blood and fire, blazing with suppressed excitement in a land -of high adventure. - -Although the stagecoach took over most of the tourist business after -1880 a few reliable pack masters remained in business. Among these was -the firm of Grant, Brogan and Lycan of Bozeman, which conducted a -seven-day tour for thirty dollars per person. Jordan and Howell of Cody -had a fourteen-day schedule, while Howard Eaton, in his day, personally -guided more than a hundred parties around the Park on a twenty-day -tour.[225] In 1923 the trail he used was improved, named, and dedicated -to his memory. The Howard Eaton Trail parallels the Grand Loop highway. -It is maintained by the government and is one of the most scenic bridle -paths in America. It was hoped that many people would take advantage of -this facility, but its public use is meager. - -Travel by stage in Yellowstone was started in 1878 and concluded in -1917. Since a generation of Americans saw the Park in that manner, a -description of the procedure would be appropriate. The stagecoach itself -was a remarkable vehicle. It was substantially built, quite commodious, -and reasonably comfortable. Concord coaches were used; they varied in -capacity from seven to as many as thirty-three seats and were drawn by -four or six horses, according to size. Great leather springs, called -thorough braces, produced a swaying motion which absorbed all but the -most violent shocks. The driver's seat was perched above the body of the -coach and underneath was a compartment for mail sacks and express -packages. There was a strong platform in the rear of the coach upon -which trunks and suitcases were loaded. Harness and other gear were -always of the best grade and condition. - -Several hundred thousand passengers were taken through Yellowstone by -stagecoaches during the thirty-eight years of their operation. The -drivers, therefore, were necessarily men of experience and -resourcefulness. Indeed, they were a sovereign group and the cynosure of -eyes as they cracked their whips and moved three span of horses away at -a half-gallop, half-trot, trained, showy style. They were held in high -esteem, as well they might be, for each held a position requiring -judgment and skill. Several expert drivers who "tooled" Yellowstone -coaches were William Woolsey, Hub Counter, and Oscar Scoda. They were -firm in resolution, yet polite in manner, and obliging toward -passengers. Generally: - - ... they were good entertainers, capable of making what would - otherwise be a long, tedious night ride seem entirely too short to the - passenger, who was fortunate enough to have a seat on the box beside - him, and hear him relate his experiences with Indian and stage - robber.[226] - -The driver's sole duty consisted of handling the stage while on the -line; others attended to the feeding and harnessing of the horses, but -the teams knew their drivers and responded amazingly to their wills. A -driver could flick a fly off the back of his team leaders and bring back -his lash without tangling it in the harness or wagon wheels. Day and -night these "kings of the whip" flung and pulled the "silk" to those -fleet creatures of nature, and over their strength and fears they were -ever masters. "Clear the road! Get out of the way thar with your draft -teams!" was their good-natured salutation as they swung into view, only -to disappear at high speed around a curve or through the lodgepole-lined -road. Unrelaxed, they were ever watchful for gullies, boulders, and road -agents. As they approached a station they forced their horses into full -gallop and brought their coaches up with a grand flourish before the -ever-expectant crowd on hand, waiting for friends or the mail. One -driver boasted that he could drive his outfit down Beehive Geyser and -come out of Old Faithful without losing a hair! - -The advantages of travel by stage included interesting acquaintances and -fresh views into human nature. Close quarters in the wilderness have -always been a touchstone, even thus lightly approached. The regular trip -lasted five days and always seemed too short. One tourist regretfully -observed, "Nothing can be done well at a speed of forty miles a -day."[227] As the stage prepared to pull out some would climb up the -sides of the coaches and squeeze into the open seats on the roof. There, -each obtained an unobstructed view of the landscape and a good sunburn. -Others, less agile or venturesome, would remain in the interior, -satisfied with less elevation, wind, and sun, and nearly as much -advantage in sight-seeing. - -There they sat, side by side, hour after hour, old and young, full of -hope and fun and care. Some watched the scenery; others, the horses. All -asked questions--some of them intelligent and well-conceived, some -naïve, and still others ludicrous. They were usually addressed to the -driver, as though skill in handling horses and familiarity with the area -gave authority. Unfortunately, few drivers understood what they daily -saw; still, as a defense against frustration, many acquired a knowing -air. Great guesses were made, and occasionally the tourists were -deliberately misled. Generally the driver's observations were offered in -a spirit of fun to keep the folks from drooping. A few examples have -been recorded. Driving among the Hot Springs on the Mammoth Terraces, -one guide shouted, "Them as likes their bath hot goes in on the left, -and them as likes it cold goes in on the right, and them as likes it -middlin' goes in the middle."[228] - -At Norris Geyser Basin the following conversation was heard: One tourist -speaking to another, "If we're too late to see the Monarch Geyser erupt -tonight, we'll go over and see him before breakfast." To which the -driver replied, "No you can't, the Monarch Geyser is a monarch up here -in the Park. You can't go see him when you get ready; you've got to go -when he's ready."[229] - -One Münchausen-minded guide informed his passengers that any geyser -water, when bottled, retained a strange sympathy with its water nymph, -so that when the geyser erupted the water became violently agitated; in -one instance a bottle was shattered incident to a particularly powerful -eruption! Many such stories were told by "Buckskin Charley," "Yankee -Jim," "Billy" Hofer, and their compatriots. Rudyard Kipling left this -description of Yankee Jim: - - Yankee Jim was a picturesque old man with a talent for yarns that - Ananias might have envied.... Yankee Jim saw every one of my tales and - went fifty better on the spot. He dealt in bears and Indians--never - less than twenty each.[230] - - [Illustration: Courtesy Northern Pacific Ry. - _"Yankee Jim"--James George_] - -James George, better known as "Yankee Jim," was a pioneer hunter and -trapper who staked his claim in Yankee Jim Canyon of Yellowstone River, -north of Cinnabar and Gardiner. He shrewdly built twenty-seven miles of -toll road through the only available pass. Yankee Jim delighted in -joshing the lady members of early parties concerning the prospects of -bestowing a bit of affection upon him in lieu of the tolls. Little is -known concerning his success in that direction, but he dealt effectively -with the Northern Pacific Railroad in the matter of a right of way -through his canyon. - -As time passed, many people who were beyond the "gape-and-run" variety -complained about the lack of a dependable source of information. The -quips of guides who did not know a marmot from a cony actually -displeased them. However, there were occasions when even these talkative -fellows had the good taste to be silent. - - They will talk of the Canyon at the hotel and on the drive, but once - there they simply lead you to the points of lookout and leave you with - your own thoughts, or answer your questions in monosyllables.[231] - -After a long trip on a warm day, through clouds of Yellowstone dust, the -passengers presented an amusing spectacle. Men in yellow dusters, women -in gray ones, topped off by Shaker bonnets. Hungry, weary, and dejected, -they would alight on limbs half-paralyzed from inactivity. It was then -that a person needed a friend, and that detail was not overlooked by the -hotel management. - -Perhaps Larry Matthews was more unique than typical, but a description -of him will convey the idea of nineteenth-century Park hospitality. For -several seasons Larry was chargé d'affaires at the Norris lunch station. -Later he was advanced to the management of an inn at Old Faithful. When -coaches pulled up to Larry's he would address each passenger in his -genial Irish brogue. Every man received a title of dignity, while he -referred to himself as the "Mad Irishman" or "Larry Geeser." Here is a -picture of Larry in action: - - Step right up, Judge, eat all you can, break the company, it's all - right with me. Fine spring lamb (spring of '72). Eggs, fresh eggs! - Just laid this morning (on the table). - -Thus he kept up a constant rattle that was very funny. As the coaches -rolled away one could hear the tourists remark, "The jolliest man I ever -saw ... such hypnotic ways, such spontaneous wit; surely no such mortal -ever lived before."[232] - -This growing business of transportation and accommodations was -characterized by vigorous competition. Probably the first conveyance to -enter the Park was a stagecoach owned by J. W. Marshall and his partner, -named Goff. It left Virginia City, Montana, on October 1, 1880. Sixteen -hours were required in traversing the ninety-five miles to Marshall's -National Park House, a two-story, log-hewed structure located in the -Lower Geyser Basin, near the junction of Firehole and Nez Percé Creek. -These men also built mail stations at Riverside, four miles east of the -West Entrance, and at Norris Geyser Basin. - -Frank Jay Haynes, a youthful photographer from St. Paul, started a stage -and photo business in 1881. His efforts have produced eminent success, -and the end is not yet. The photography side of the business descended -from father, Frank Jay, to son, Jack Ellis. The Haynes Studio still -enjoys a flourishing trade, and its beautiful products are known all -over the world. - -The Northern Pacific Railroad extended its terminal to Cinnabar in 1883, -where it remained until 1902, when Gardiner was reached. The next year -an impressive ceremony was held at the North Gate when the Triumphal -Arch was dedicated by President Theodore Roosevelt. - -In 1883 the Yellowstone Park Improvement Company organized regular -tourist travel. The usual routine consisted of alternating sojourns, -whether in Concord stagecoaches, surreys, formation or spring wagons, -and canvas "hotels." A trip around the Park cost twenty-five dollars, or -a saddle horse could be secured for two-fifty per day. The following -year (1884) George W. Wakefield put a line of coaches into operation -from Cinnabar through the Park. W. Hoffman was also engaged in the stage -business. These firms were rivals among themselves, and with other less -formidable competitors, for the Northern Pacific's business. However, in -1886, the railroad effected a gentlemen's agreement with the new and -energetic Yellowstone Park Association. Unless the purchaser of a -railroad ticket objected he found a coupon attached to his ticket that -delivered him into the care of the Yellowstone Park Stage Line and its -associated hotels. Coupon holders paid nine dollars a day while in the -Park. Five dollars were assigned to staging and four dollars to hotel -and meals. Upon alighting from the train, each person was accosted from -several quarters, much as by hackmen in cities, "Are you a coupon, sir?" -"No." "Would you like my team then?"[233] Thus, each would press the -bewildered tourist for his business. In 1892 the Huntley, Child, and -Bach interests organized the Yellowstone Park Transportation Company. -They soon dominated the North Entrance business, and other operators -were bought out in 1903. Four years later this firm was prepared to -receive one hundred and fifty passengers daily at the North Gate. An -inventory of its rolling stock included four six-horse Concord coaches, -of thirty-three seats capacity; ninety four-horse Concords, of eleven -and seven seats; and one hundred two Glens Falls two-horse surreys, of -five and three seat models. It was undoubtedly one of the best-equipped -organizations of the kind in history.[234] - -Passengers entering the Park by way of the West Entrance came north from -Ogden, Utah, on the Utah Northern (later the Union Pacific) to Spencer, -Idaho, or Monida on the Montana-Idaho border. There they were met by F. -J. Haynes' Monida and Yellowstone Stage Line or the Bassett Brothers -Company. During the season of 1915 the Haynes firm transported 20,151 -tourists through the Park. - -In 1903, when the East Gate road was opened, the Holm Transportation -Company secured a permit to operate a stage line. The arrival of the -Burlington Route to Cody, Wyoming, in 1912, gave great impetus to that -business. The West Entrance had benefited by a railroad to its gate -since 1907, when the Union Pacific extended the line to West -Yellowstone. A branch line was also built to Victor, Idaho, which made -Jackson Hole and the South Entrance much more accessible. A table of -operators and charges, as of 1914, would represent the stage business in -the heyday of its power.[235] - -The evolution of permanent camps and hotels was complementary to the -development of travel. The first permanent house built was in Clematis -Gulch, on the north side of Mammoth Terraces. It was erected in 1871 by -James C. McCartney. This "hotel" and C. J. Baronett's bridge and cabin -at the forks of the Yellowstone River were the only improvements made -before the Dedicatory Act was passed. These gentlemen managed to collect -the sum of $9000 for their foresight and property, although they had to -wait until March 1, 1899 to get it. - -P. W. Norris' _Annual Report_ of 1880 lists the following facilities -then in operation: Mammoth, McCartney's house and Matthew McGuirck's -baths; Norris, a rude cabin and barn; Riverside, a cabin and barn; -Firehole River, near the forks, "a fine shingle roofed mail station and -hotel." The latter three stations were built by Marshall and Goff. In -the Upper Geyser Basin a small cabin was built by Superintendent Norris -in 1879; at the Lake a cabin and boat were operated by Captain E. S. -Topping. - - [Illustration: Ernest Thompson Seton - "Uncle" John F. Yancey.] - -Two years later John Yancey secured a mail contract and established a -station in Pleasant Valley at the base of Crescent Hill. Here he was -familiarly known as "Uncle John." He was an old Kentucky frontiersman -stranded in the Park by the flood tide of civilization. He chafed -constantly at the uneventful days of the eighties and told his guests -thrilling tales of the forties. A pen portrait has been preserved of -him: - - Yancey is an odd character, whose looks encourage a belief in - reincarnation, so forcibly does he remind us of the prehistoric. His - hotel, too, belongs to the primeval; its walls are of logs; its - partitions and ceilings of cheese cloth.... Uncle John's housekeeper, - who performs the duties of cook and chambermaid, confidentially - informed one of our party that it was hard to find time to wash so - many bedclothes every day.[236] - -The meals were most generous, which was a custom closely observed in -those days. This type of accommodation was very repulsive to some -people. Judge Lambert Tree, an ex-United States Minister to Belgium, -characterized the management in general as outrageous. A report was -current that three married couples and two young women were thrust into -a small room to pass the night. The next camp was twenty miles away, and -the only transportation belonged to the company. In addition, this same -party was advised to walk up Mary Mountain because it was such a hard -pull for the horses. Someone was evidently justified in making the -statement, "As it is today [1884.], I do not think it too strong to say -that at certain points on the route travellers are treated more like -cattle than civilized people."[237] - -These reports reached the Secretary of the Interior, and a number of new -leases were promptly granted for the erection of hotels and the -necessary outbuildings.[238] About this time Superintendent Wear was -accused of persuading Graham and Klamer, owners of the Firehole Hotel, -to sell out. In any case, a new hotel was built in the Lower Geyser -Basin in 1884 by C. T. Hobart. He and Robert E. Carpenter also erected a -frame building the next year on the present site of Old Faithful Inn. At -the same time the Cottage Hotel was erected in Mammoth by Walter L. -Henderson.[239] The Yellowstone Park Association also built hotels in -Mammoth and Norris in 1885, Lake in 1887, Canyon in 1890, and the -following year they completed the peerless Fountain Hotel. It was -located on a hill in a strategic position in the Lower Geyser Basin. -From its lofty veranda the Fountain Geyser could be observed playing. -The Fountain House was an imposing structure. It was modern in every -way, having electricity and steam heat. Two hundred guests could be -entertained, and when they went to dinner a head waiter in evening dress -greeted them. In 1887 the Norris Hotel burned down, and in 1894 the one -at Old Faithful did likewise.[240] - -During the season of 1894 the pressure of criticism was brought to bear -upon the entire Yellowstone transportation and accommodation setup. The -country was in the throes of a depression, and the rates seemed -exorbitant. It appears that the Yellowstone Park Transportation Company -had been very reluctant in allowing stopover privileges. It collected -just as much by holding strictly to schedule; whereas, the hotels made -more on holdovers. This diversity of interest suggested the idea that it -might be expedient to have the management of both industries in the same -hands. - -It was William W. Wylie, of Bozeman, who conceived a plan which met the -demand. Since 1883 he had operated a ten-day tour, using portable tents. -He would organize a stage line and cater to the masses by establishing a -string of permanent camps, with eating halls and sleeping quarters. By -using canvas, his investment would be small, and he could cut the cost -of a trip through the Park in half. Therefore, in 1896, he secured a -franchise, and the "Wylie Way" went into operation. - -Of course, the more conservative competitors resented this invasion from -"the other side of the tracks." Captain George S. Anderson was also -opposed to a string of "shanty towns." The matter was given a public -hearing by _Forest and Stream_ in its issue of February 5, 1898, -entitled "Nuisances in Yellowstone Park." Mr. Wylie, known in -Yellowstone as "the Professor," wrote a vigorous rebuttal for the -following issue. Other publications entered into the controversy, as did -many of Wylie's most satisfied customers. The question involved was -whether the American people, in the enjoyment of their own pleasure -ground, should be limited to one set of accommodations, which only the -wealthy could afford.[241] The verdict of the public, from which there -is no appeal, was definitely with "the Professor." The business -flourished and won an acceptable position in the more complete system -that evolved. - -In the meantime an actual nuisance was committed by several hotel -operators. They attempted to assemble and maintain wild life menageries. -The government necessarily allowed stables and pastures for horses and -cows, but that was all. Nevertheless, several managers also tried to -raise pigs, although extreme precautions were essential to save them -from bears. Colonel E. C. Waters had a "veritable stockade-pen of heavy -logs bolted all around."[242] Perhaps the most flagrant offender in this -respect was the Yellowstone Boat Company. As an inducement to take a -boat ride, this firm confined buffalo, elk, and bighorn in corrals on -Dot Island. This untoward act, together with the prices charged for boat -rides, brought many complaints, and upon official request the animals -were promptly released.[243] - -Mosquitoes were an ever-present nuisance, sometimes assuming the -proportion of a plague. Accustomed to the pursuit of fleet four-footed -prey, they assailed slow-moving _Homo sapiens_ with particular gusto. -Gleeful appreciation seemed discernible in their song. By day and night, -unless the wind was blowing, the tourists were kept busy swatting those -vexatious, glory-minded, musical-winged, bold denizens of the forest. - -Perhaps the most persistent annoyance, next to mosquitoes, was the -prevalence of dust. One traveler laconically observed that he rode "from -geyser to canyon, to waterfall, in a chaos of dust, until he returned on -the fifth day a wiser and dustier man."[244] But an elderly man, -probably afflicted with asthma, entered the Fountain Hotel, singled out -the manager, and shaking his finger in his face, dramatically shouted, -"A man who would permit women and children to enter the Park, with the -roads in their present condition, is an old scoundrel!"[245] How did -cyclists ever manage to get around? Incredible though it appears they -went through right along after 1882. To be sure, their voices were added -to the chorus calling for better roads. These protests resulted in the -adoption of a sprinkling system that will be described subsequently. - -The most revolutionary proposal for a change in travel facilities, -coming in 1894, was a demand for railroads. There were propositions -wholly independent of the Montana segregation case. Many people -sincerely favored the entrance of trains on their own merits. The issue -was discussed in the House of Representatives on December 17, by the -Hon. Henry H. Coffeen of Wyoming. Speaking of the operators, he said: - - ... they are holding on to a theory of sacred maintenance of the stage - coach and broncho riding method of reaching this great Wonderland at a - time when the superior advantages of railroad travel ought to be - granted to the people.... These journeys going round the Park, so to - say, and coming in at the back door by tedious night and day stage - rides are so expensive, the time and inconveniences so great and the - season so short (three months) that the great bulk of our population - must forever stay out and remain in ignorance of the scenes of the - Park. Not one hundredth part of one per cent of our people per year - could possibly visit the Park by these methods.[246] - -While this argument did not produce a change of policy it did give an -impetus to road building. A brief review of that important development -would be appropriate. - -Reference has already been made to the rude trails hacked out by -government expeditions and early tourists and also to the trace -improvised by C. J. Baronett and his associates, which led from Mammoth -to his bridge at the forks of the Yellowstone and along the east branch -to the mines at Cooke, Montana. In 1877 General Howard's captain, W. F. -Spurgin, made a faint apology for a road in bringing his wagons from -Mary Mountain to Tower Falls. It was the next year when the first wagons -managed a round trip from Mammoth, and also the West Entrance, to the -Upper Geyser Basin. In building a road across the base of Obsidian -Cliff, Colonel Norris employed a unique tactic in road making. Great -bonfires were burned over the black glass, which made it expand; then -cold water was dashed upon it, shattering the material so that it could -be chopped out. - - [Illustration: Golden Gate drive] - -In the early eighties the matter of road making was taken over by the -army engineers. Until 1895 actual control was in the hands of -non-resident officers, which proved unsatisfactory. After that the -Acting Superintendent exercised supervision. Captain Anderson had a -soldier's and a surveyor's eye for feasible routes. He favored the -construction of twenty miles of good dirt road with fair grades to one -mile of macadam and the resulting delay in opening the Park to the -public.[247] The principal supervisors were Captain D. C. Kingman and -Major Hiram M. Chittenden. Through their combined efforts the Grand Loop -was planned and patiently constructed. In 1892 the road from Old -Faithful to West Thumb was started. It took five years to get through to -Jackson Lake. At the same time work progressed on the long section from -Thumb to Fishing Bridge and thence to the East Entrance. That project -was finished and accessible from Cody in 1903. Two years later the -difficult Dunraven Pass and the scenic Chittenden Road to the summit of -Mt. Washburn were ready. These were the last links in the Grand Loop. Of -course, there have been continuous changes and refinements. In general -the trend has been away from the plateaus to the more scenic river -routes. Stretches through the Golden Gate, under Overhanging Cliff, and -through the Gibbon and Firehole canyons are both interesting and costly. - -In 1902 an experiment was made with the view of solving the dusty road -problem. Several wide-tired sprinklers were tried out. The following -year the number was increased, and more than thirty filling tanks were -installed along the way. Most of them were filled by gravity and rams. -In this way over a hundred miles of highway was moistened daily. Still, -there were times when the dust was too thick for any effective treatment -that man could devise.[248] Of course, nature had an adequate remedy, -which it occasionally employed. Superintendent Albright related an -instance: - - Once I had a large congressional party in Yellowstone. It was in - charge of the late James W. Good. Yellowstone's roads were terribly - dusty and the water sprinkling was of little value. We wanted Congress - to adopt an oiling program but every night while the Committee was in - the Park it rained and the roads were perfect. Nevertheless every day - I told of the dust menace and urged the improvement, but the - congressmen only laughed and some member would say "Albright's going - to tell his old dusty road story again."[249] - -Continuing the narrative, Superintendent Albright told this story: - - "Another year, I met a sub-committee of the House Appropriations - Committee at the Grand Canyon National Park. Congressman, now United - States Senator, Carl Hayden, was with the party when they reached the - park. Here again we had a problem of terrible roads. The committee had - not had much sleep the night before arrival due to changing trains, - and when I took them over the worst road in the park they went to - sleep on me. I bounced them into every rut and hole I could find, but - even then I had to shake them to wake them up. For a long time they - contended that the road was a boulevard, but finally authorized the - improvement desired. On the same trip, Congressman Cramton of - Michigan, for years the stalwart champion of national parks, saw a - camper stop his car near the Grand Canyon Park office. He went over to - him seeking information about the conduct of the park. The tourist - gave him a vigorous denunciation of the roads in the park, and Mr. - Cramton always claimed that I planted the camper there to trap him." - -The suggestion frequently came to the Superintendent that he should -sprinkle the roads with water from Alum Creek. That would shorten the -distance and simplify the task! - -In 1917 the National Park Service assumed control over all road -construction and maintenance. Since then a comprehensive policy of -scientific road making has been followed; grades have been modified, -while at the same time great cuts and fills have been avoided so far as -possible; turns have been eased and widened; and in recent years all the -roads have been paved with oil mix. An appropriation of $3,369,450 in -1933, under the National Recovery Act, became the basis of the marvelous -improvements made in recent years. In 1937 a remarkably scenic highway -was completed from Red Lodge, Montana, to the Northeast Gate. After -1928, Cecil A. Lord directed the engineering activities of the Park -until his death in 1943, whereupon Park Engineer Philip H. Wohlbrandt -assumed that important responsibility. - -The year 1915 was indeed a banner one in Yellowstone transportation -history. It was the first year automobiles were admitted, and -consequently heralded the end of the stagecoach. Actually, staging -lingered through another season, but the race was over as the poet said: - - Here's to you, old stage driver, - We'll hear your shout no more, - Your stage with rust is eaten, - Beside the old Inn's door; - The auto-bus and steam car - Have cut your time in two; - Throw up your hands, old "stage hoss," - They've got the drop on you![250] - -Few people expressed any regret, because of the hardships incident to -travel by stagecoach. Still, it is the opinion of many that advantages -exceeded inconvenience. The West, as now seen from the window of a train -or motor car, is not the country introduced by stagecoach. With all the -additional comfort, there is a loss of an indefinable something, subtle, -yet well understood by those who have driven at a six-mile-an-hour pace -through the almost unbroken solitude of another era. In contrast, -regularly scheduled airplane flights over the Park have been available -from time to time since 1937. There are no airports in the Park, but -they are to be found nearby at West Yellowstone and Gardiner, Montana. - -It should also be remembered that during the previous forty years -innumerable private parties made leisurely visits and camped where they -pleased. The Park must have been an idyllic place in those "horse and -buggy" days, a hunting and fishing Elysium, especially until 1894. Since -then fishermen may take a generous catch of trout without any license -except a bona fide presence in the Park. - -Although admitted under the most onerous terms the automobile -revolutionized the travel there as elsewhere. Always well-filled with -regulations, official bulletins now fairly bristled with instructions to -motorists. Fees were $7.50 for a single trip or $10.00 for the season; -all cars were required to enter the gates between 6:45 and 7:15 A.M. A -printed schedule specified the time of arrival at, and departure from, -the control stations.[251] Fines were imposed for arrival at any point -before the approved lapse of time at the rate of $0.50 per minute for -each of the first five minutes, $1.00 per minute for each of the next -twenty minutes, $25.00 fine or ejection from the Park, or both, at the -discretion of the Acting Superintendent, for being more than twenty-five -minutes early. The following regulations and restrictions were strictly -enforced: Speed, twelve miles per hour ascending steep grades; ten miles -per hour descending steep grades; eight miles per hour approaching sharp -curves and passing other vehicles. The maximum speed limit in 1922 was -twenty-five miles per hour. Teams had the right of way and also the -inside of the roadway in passing. Motorists were required to sound horns -at all curves where the road was not in view at least two hundred yards -ahead. Surely the motorists were in a defensive position, but they came -anyway. A total of 3,513 auto passengers toured the Park in the -abbreviated season after August 1, 1915. The grand total for the year -was 51,895 in all conveyances. - -The advent of motor vehicles speeded up every phase of Park -administration. However, World War I provided a respite for making -adjustments. In fact, a thorough reorganization of the entire concession -system was effected in 1917. The main feature involved was the -consolidation of transportation under the management of the Yellowstone -Park Transportation Company. The purpose of this franchise was to -eliminate the pressure of rivals upon the passengers, facilitate -supervision, and promote economy.[252] The Yellowstone Park Company -proceeded to make a large capital investment by motorizing all -transportation. Thereupon, the familiar yellow bus superseded the -ancient stagecoach. It is an interesting thing to observe a caravan of -twenty buses winding its way along a river drive or parked before a -museum while a ranger-naturalist gives the passengers a quick -orientation in the area. - -It would be fair to inquire if the bus driver (gear jammer) showed any -improvement over the stagecoach driver in the matter of instructing the -public. Not if the 1921 edition of _Truthful Lies_ correctly represents -the situation, because that little booklet was a congeries of -unadulterated nonsense reduced to a system.[253] However, a gradual -improvement has been made, and in recent years all of the new drivers -have gone around the "Loop" with a naturalist. From him they received -helpful suggestions relative to natural interpretation. A few days after -one of these induction tours the following conversation was reported to -have taken place when passing a beaver dam: "Now, there is a beaver dam, -but where are the dam beavers?" The driver straightened up and replied, -"I'll be damned if I know." - -At this point it should be remembered that, although the great concourse -visit Yellowstone in cars, many tourists come in buses, motorcycles, and -bicycles. It should also be noted that travel by horseback has always -persisted. Until the advent of the automobile this method was in general -use. Indeed, firms were organized to provide grand tours of several -weeks' duration. The Howard Eaton Trail and various adjuncts are still -used by horseback parties each summer. In fact, several trail-riding -associations sponsor these trips under competent leadership. In this -manner an excellent Park tradition is being sustained for the benefit -and enjoyment of a chosen few possessed of the necessary time and -hardihood. - -In 1936 the long-expected union of transportation and accommodations -took place. The Yellowstone Park Transportation Company acquired all of -the housing facilities and deleted the word Transportation from its -title.[254] In analyzing the business of previous years, President -William M. Nichols and his associates noticed a definite trend away from -commercial transportation and first class American plan hotel -accommodations. Therefore, they rapidly expanded the lower-priced -cabins, together with cafeterias and coffee shops. They are now pursuing -a carefully worked out program of improvement. Practical pre-fabricated -cabins are to be established in well-arranged units in every -station.[255] In 1956 the company had available some 3,150 rooms or -units of lodging, with an aggregate capacity for housing 8,500 people. -These accommodations consist of hotels, lodges, and housekeeping cabins. -The services of twenty-seven hundred employees were required to operate -these facilities. The annual Park population census taken on August 9, -12, and 14, 1955, disclosed an average population of 14,912 for the -three days. Of this number 11,183 were visitors while 3,729 were -employees. The grand total for the 1955 season was 1,368,515 visitors. - -Tourists require many things besides food and shelter. Yellowstone's -policy has favored making these wants attainable. In this field -regulations have also modified certain practices common to general -business conditions. Franchises have been kept at a minimum, and -competition does not exist within a particular camp. However, Park -merchants are required to keep their prices in line with the index of -the market area. - -Motion pictures and other forms of indoor recreation are conspicuously -absent, although the lodges sponsor two hours of entertainment and -dancing for their guests and the public at large. These also function to -keep the employees contented. - -A general statement having been made, a brief sketch of Yellowstone's -business enterprises would be in order. Frank Jay Haynes, the pioneer -photographer, built his first picture shop at Mammoth in 1884. Since -that time a Haynes Studio has been a familiar institution in Yellowstone -camps. Another Mammoth Hot Springs store was opened in 1889 by Ole -Anderson. For a time he was allowed to sell bottles of highly colored -Park sand and also specimens coated with calcium carbonate. This store -was purchased by Anna K. Pryor and Elizabeth Trischman in 1908. They -soon reorganized it into the Park Curio and Coffee Shop. Later they -acquired the Mammoth general store and a grocery store near Canyon -Junction. The latter had been established by a released Park soldier, -George Whittaker. - -The first store in the Upper Geyser Basin was built by Henry E. Klamer -in 1897. A ten-year franchise for a geyser water swimming pool was -granted Henry J. Brothers in 1914. The following year Charles A. -Hamilton acquired control of these interests and laid the foundation for -a thriving business there. Hamilton also has general stores at Thumb, -Lake, and Fishing Bridge, and in 1953 acquired the Pryor interests in -the Park. - -The Yellowstone Park Service Stations are owned jointly by Hamilton -Stores, Inc. and the Yellowstone Park Company. Gasoline, oil, and -supplies are available at the lone multi-pump service station assigned -to each camp.[256] The public garage business is in the hands of the -Yellowstone Park Company. Thus, it is obvious that all of the Park's -mercantile business is the concern of three operators, Haynes, Hamilton, -and the Yellowstone Park Company. Each operates under the terms of a -government franchise and is subject to National Park Service regulation -and supervision at all times. - -The essential public utilities are provided by the National Park -Service. They consist of public camp grounds with cement cooking units, -toilet facilities, telephones, water, lights, and sewage disposal. These -substantial projects have been developed through the years with a -capital expenditure that runs in excess of a million dollars.[257] - -In 1912 a general hospital was built in Mammoth. It is closely -affiliated with a similar institution in Livingston, Montana. Medical -doctors and trained nurses are on duty at the principal stations -throughout the Park. This arrangement assures the public of medical -attention in case of accidents or illness. - -In 1913 the government built a Community Chapel at Mammoth. During the -summer months services are usually conducted there and at the lodges or -amphitheaters by the Catholic, Protestant, and Latter-day Saint (Mormon) -faiths. - -The postal service in Yellowstone has had a colorful evolution. The mail -has always come through, either by scout, stage driver, bus, or "star -route" mail car. In 1937 a fine post office was erected in Mammoth. It -does business there the year around; while postal stations at Old -Faithful, West Thumb, Lake, Fishing Bridge, Canyon, and Tower Falls are -open only during the summer season. - -Thus does a cross-section of America meet by canyon, geyser, lake, and -waterfall. They also foregather around counters, tables, lobbies, and -evening camp fires. It would be difficult to find a more representative -assembly of American society. Many people consider this interesting -human equation one of the most enjoyable experiences in the Park. - - - - - Chapter XIII - "THE YELLOWSTONE IDEA" - - -It has already been disclosed that Yellowstone Park has served the -nation as an experimental unit in certain fields of conservation. While -this is true, it would not be correct to regard the Park as the single -place of origin for such a complex and salutary movement. Today the -conservation of natural resources is one of America's most popular and -cherished causes, but it was not always so. A brief review of the -conservation issue will provide a background for a correct appraisal of -the position of the National Park System in relation to the nation's -over-all conservation program. - -When the first colonies were established along the Atlantic seaboard -America was a land of trees. This profusion of flora constituted an -obstacle counted more serious than hostile Indians.[258] The natives had -already fully cleared limited areas from the ravages of ancient fires, -but the great forest stood almost limitless, and it was dense. Ambitious -farmers yearned for the sight of bare ground; all trees irritated their -eyes and caused them to reach for their axes. They wanted soil as rich -as a barnyard, level as a floor, stone free, cleared clean of trees, -without cost.[259] Except for the absence of trees, these amazing -requirements were largely possible of fulfillment because never before -had "heaven and earth agreed better to frame a place for man's -habitation."[260] Here, indeed, was another Eden once it was redeemed -from the leafy wilderness. - -Colonials rallied to the challenge of a conquest over nature. They -"drove" whole groves by partially felling each in a series and then -touching off a chain reaction with the downfall of a ponderous giant. -Thus did settlers cleave their way into the forests, rejecting in nature -all that was not of immediate practical value. A little poem published -in 1692 depicts their philosophy: - - In such a wilderness ... - When we began to clear the land ... - Then with ax, with Might and Strength, - The trees so thick and strong ... - [These] we with Fire, most furiously - To ashes did confound.[261] - -Next to the destruction of trees in clearing operations came the use of -wood for fuel. A river steamboat or railroad locomotive required from -twenty to thirty cords per day. "Woodhawks" literally denuded whole -forests to supply these needs. Houses were largely built of wood, and it -was liberally used in all domestic operations. In winter the family kept -warm, not by securing "sich uppish notions" as blankets, but by throwing -more wood on the fire, "nobody needn't suffer with a great fire to sleep -by."[262] Rails were used in building fences at the rate of twenty-six -thousand per section. The increase of population and acceleration of -industrial activity in the early nineteenth century took a heavy toll -from the forests. Fires were started by sparks from steam engines and by -careless hunters, with the result that the precious blotter of humus, -millenniums in building, was often destroyed in a flash. For two -centuries America had advanced westward in a wood age, and trees were -always in the way. - -However, there were wise men who had always deplored tree waste. William -Penn insisted that one acre of forest remain for each five cleared. -Benjamin Franklin invented a stove to save fuel. George Washington and -Peter Kalm warned of dangers ahead from floods and erosion through -wanton clearing of land.[263] In 1813, Thomas Jefferson sagely wrote: - - The spontaneous energies of the earth are a gift of nature, but they - require the labor of man to direct their operation. And the question - is so to husband this labor as to turn the greatest quantity of this - useful action of the earth to his benefit.[264] - -It will be noted that the foregoing suggestions were made by practical -men upon sound considerations. However, there came an occasional -complaint upon the philosophic and aesthetic level. Jonathan Edwards, -André Michaux, George Catlin, and William Cullen Bryant were among those -who visualized nature as a dynamic organization of living creatures -worthy of existence in their own right and for the joy they gave. Their -appreciation is illustrated by this verse: - - To see a World in a Grain of Sand - And Heaven in a Wild Flower, - Hold Infinity in the palm of his hand, - And Eternity in an hour. - -To be sure, little resulted from this approach; the time was not ripe. -But these slender stirrings of thought and twitchings of conscience in -high places were bound to be fruitful in results later on. - -By the middle of the nineteenth century the springs and streams which -had previously provided a murmuring labyrinth of dependable forest -hospitality and protection had become irregular, undependable, and -sometimes downright vicious. The lifeblood of the land, which, under -nature's balance, had throbbed daily and monthly almost as evenly as the -sea, was now given to torrential rages in early June which were reduced -to feeble trickles in July. Restless farmers found their plantings -delayed until after the spring floods abated, and although the willing -seed germinated quickly the tender plants were desiccated by midsummer -heat. These conditions made it increasingly apparent that Americans -would soon be compelled to approach nature as a friend rather than as an -adversary. Any other course was suicidal. - -By 1850 a new and more persuasive corps of conservationists was -emerging. They affirmed that a nation desiring nature's rewards must -first learn her laws and then obey them implicitly.[265] They defined -conservation as the protection and development of the full usefulness of -natural resources, including forests, waters, minerals, scenery, and the -land itself. Among these far-seeing men were Henry Thoreau, Ralph Waldo -Emerson, and John Muir. Through a persuasive campaign of lecturing and -writing they established the plain fact that Americans, as a people, had -never learned to love the land and regard it as an enduring resource. -Rather had they viewed it as a field for exploitation and a source of -immediate financial return. - -Although the effect of these declarations was quite negligible, still -Congress did appoint several timber agents in 1850. This was the first -glimmering of a systematic approach to the inspection and policing of -federal timber resources. But what have these humble beginnings in -conservation to do with the Yellowstone National Park idea? Only this, a -child cannot take a second step until it takes the first. Americans have -never been particularly inclined toward sentimentality. A national -pleasuring ground, such as Yellowstone Park, designed to serve "as a -great breathing place for the national lung, as a place to which every -American citizen can resort," could not have come into being without -considerable intellectual preparation.[266] - -Congress could hardly be expected to enact protective legislation to -stem this traditional exploitation until the idea of conservation became -reasonably articulate and popular. Remember, that even at mid-century -the thinkers were still groping for a program. Perhaps the first -American possessed of both the appreciation and imagination to forecast -what later evolved into the National Park program was George Catlin. -When traveling up the Missouri River in 1832 he was so impressed as to -write, "The realms might in future be seen preserved in their pristine -beauty and wildness, in a magnificent park ... containing man and beast, -in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty."[267] - -In 1844 Ralph Waldo Emerson generalized upon the public need for -recreational areas. "The interminable forests," said he, "should become -graceful parks for use and delight." Henry Thoreau was even more -penetrating when he wrote: - - Why should not we ... have our national preserves ... in which the - bear and panther, and some even of the hunter race, may still exist, - and not be "civilized" off the face of the earth ... for inspiration - and our true re-creation? Or should we, like villains, grub them all - up for poaching on our own national domains?[268] - -Perhaps these men reached these conclusions more by inspiration than -logic, but in George P. Marsh, conservation had a sound advocate. He -spoke and wrote with authority upon the principle of "conserving unique -areas for their greatest values," whether utility or scenery. In his -book, _Man and Nature_, published in 1864, he argued persuasively for -balanced economy and pointed to the fact of man's ultimate dependence -upon elemental things. These wise views concerning forest influences -upon precipitation, springs, sand storms, floods, and man's own property -made a deep impression upon many people.[269] Since then the good work -has been continued by other scientists. In 1948, _Our Plundered Planet_, -written by Fairfield Osborn, reviewed the nation's unpalatable record of -negligence and waste. He characterized the Americans as energetic, -destructive, violent, and unthinking. Considering the element of time, -the United States has received more reckless treatment than any other -segment of the world. As a result, vast resources are gone beyond hope -of redemption, but others are renewable through the application of -scientific principles. - -The tide of the world's population is rising; the reservoir of the -earth's resources is falling. Since World War II, America seems to be in -the middle position of strain. In these circumstances, will it be -possible to maintain and enlarge the standard of living as in the past -eras? Fairfield Osborn insists that our attitude toward conservation -holds the key to the problem. Success in this endeavor will require -supreme cooperation among government, industry, labor, scientific -research, and the public at large. Should this grand partnership -eventuate, Mr. Osborn has promised that "no end is visible or even -conceivable to this kingdom of adventure." - -Interest in these great truths is well established now and will not be -permitted to decline, because America has many scientists at work in the -field of soil conservation. This work is furthered by the specialists of -the U. S. Soil Conservation Service. The soil experts constantly remind -the farmers, and others, that America possessed an average top "black" -soil depth of nine inches when settlement was first started. They now -estimate the average to be between six and seven inches. Soil -conservationists hasten to point out that rocks disintegrate slowly, and -that ages, not centuries, are required for the growth and decay of -plants needed in the production of rich humus soil. Soil scientists do -not simply call attention to dangers. They have developed dependable and -salutary cultivating practices such as contour plowing of tillable soil -and terracing of range land. They advise plowing stubble and cover crops -under to add fertility and cohesion to the soil. - -Experimentation has been fruitful from the standpoint of discovering -grass and legume adaptability to the different soil conditions. One -phase of national security is contingent upon the effectiveness with -which these practices are applied by all who work with farm, range, and -forest resources. The record will prove that nearly 300,000,000 acres of -land have been practically destroyed by erosion in the United States. -Twice that acreage is rapidly deteriorating under the same forces. - -Remember, that it was only a century ago when Americans received their -first rudimentary lessons in exercising a little common sense in the -exploitation of resources, whether for crops, lumber, mineral, -livestock, or recreational opportunities. - -Referring again to the status of conservation and natural philosophy in -the middle nineteenth century, it should be noted that several -California citizens first beheld the beauty of Yosemite in 1851. -Inspired and overwhelmed by the sheer grandeur of these high Sierra -marvels, they returned to commune again and again. Artists, -photographers, and authors joined the growing procession, and most of -them concurred in the opinion that it was "the greatest marvel on the -continent." Increasing appreciation and popularity developed into a -movement for segregation under state ownership and operation. In 1864 an -application was made for a federal land grant with that end in view. A -strong committee, headed by Israel Ward Raymond, drafted the resolution -and passed it along to U.S. Senator John Conness. He presented a bill -which was passed and signed by President Lincoln on June 29, 1864. The -grant was given "upon the express conditions that the premises shall be -held for public use, resort and recreation shall be held inalienable for -all time."[270] - -The federal government was gradually warming toward the reservation idea -in areas of little economic resistance from private interests. Even so, -there was no thought of a national park program, but a tract of federal -land had actually been made available to the general public for a -strictly non-utilitarian purpose. The general direction was visible, but -the course was not clearly charted. - -Reflective visitors to Yosemite, such as Samuel Bowles, pondered a wider -application of the land grant and reservation principle. It was in 1865, -after Bowles viewed the glories of Yosemite, that he made this -statement: - - The wise cession and dedication [of Yosemite] by Congress and proposed - improvement by California ... furnishes an admirable example for other - objects of natural curiosity and popular interest all over the Union. - New York should preserve for popular use both Niagara Falls and its - neighborhood, and a generous section of the famous Adirondacks, and - Maine, one of her lakes and its surrounding woods.[271] - -Surely Bowles' statement disclosed a profound appreciation of a growing -need. He had found, as Dr. Hans Huth aptly says, "a formula not just for -the protection of this or that area of interest to some group or other, -but for a systematic approach to an overall system of protection of -specific features of nature throughout the nation."[272] However, one -tremendously important element was still missing from the formula. It -was simply a repetition of George Catlin's proposal of 1832, in clearer -terms to be sure, but still the all-important factor of bringing the -program under the aegis of the federal government was lacking. This -element was supplied by the Washburn-Langford-Doane party in their -memorable campfire discussion at the junction of the Firehole and Gibbon -rivers on September 19, 1870, when it was specifically proposed that the -federal government should be induced to establish a National Park. -Within less than two years the native virtue of the idea, backed by the -rugged energy of its originators and others, resulted in the passage of -the Yellowstone Park Act. Yellowstone, therefore, was the first federal -venture in the field of protection. Hence, technically speaking, it may -stand as the birthplace of the National Park Idea.[273] True, the issue -of protection and conservation had a long history, but one doesn't -actually name a baby until it is born. In this light, the Yellowstone -experience is the matrix in which the National Park Idea achieved -existence as a new American institution. - -Such is the partial record of many influences that culminated in the -"Dedicatory Act" of March 1, 1872. In this chain of progress people -associated with Yellowstone played a small but significant role. They -helped translate a growing conservation movement into a fruitful -channel. A fortuitous combination of time and place reduced opposition -to a minimum. The next question would logically be: what contribution, -if any, has Yellowstone National Park made toward the development of the -present conservation program? - -The creation of Yosemite and Yellowstone parks set a precedent for -democratic control of natural curiosities, including scenic forests, but -that was all. No action was then contemplated by Congress in respect to -conserving commercial timber stands. However, Congress was plagued by -petitions, and a few forward-looking legislators were endeavoring to -formulate a basis for a forest policy. The American Association for the -Advancement of Science advocated a program of tree planting, taxes to -discourage hasty timber cutting, a forestry course for farmers, and the -establishment of forest reserves. In 1873, under the guiding hand of -Franklin B. Hough, the association memorialized Congress and the state -legislatures regarding the cultivation of timber and the preservation of -forests.[274] - -That same year Congress appropriated two thousand dollars for a study of -American forest and timber production. Mr. Hough directed the work and -issued a series of reports. Secretary of the Interior Carl Schurz was -sufficiently impressed by this survey to create the Department of -Forestry within his department.[275] In addition, he appointed a -forestry agent and sent him to Europe to study forest methods. - -Such Fabian tactics suggest that the conservationists were not strong -enough to really come to grips with the problem. But the leaders were -alert, and in 1891 they made a notable gain by a devious maneuver. A -conference committee of the two houses was adjusting differences in a -bill that revised the general land laws. Advocates of conservation -through their leader, John W. Noble, Secretary of the Interior, -dominated the committee. It was he who suggested the inclusion of a new -section, although that was a violation of procedure, which provided -that: - - The president of the U. S. may, from time to time, set apart and - reserve, in any state or territory having public land bearing forests, - any part ... whether of commercial value or not, as public - reservations, and the president shall, by public proclamation, declare - the establishment of such reservations.[276] - -In that way Congress stumbled onto a plan which worked because, by -granting reserve creating power to the president, the timber lobby was -circumvented. This measure provided a definite wedge against the -compact, aggressive forces of exploitation. President Benjamin Harrison -acted promptly by creating, in 1891, the Yellowstone Timber Reserve in -Wyoming. He, thereby, created the first National Forest, and before his -term expired he set aside a total of thirteen million acres, all in the -Far West. - -Another side of conservation was inaugurated in 1872 when J. Sterling -Morton of Lincoln, Nebraska, introduced a resolution for a state-wide -Arbor Day. By 1885 the idea had gained enough popular support to warrant -the establishment of Arbor Day as a legal holiday, and since then more -than half of the states have followed Nebraska's example. - -However, it was a Pennsylvanian who became the most effective -conservationist of all; Gifford Pinchot was well educated, energetic, -and interested in the cause. As manager of the Vanderbilt forest -interests in North Carolina he evolved a policy of perpetual timber -yield. The indefatigable Mr. Pinchot was prepared to make a contribution -to the conservation movement on a national level, and Theodore -Roosevelt's accession to the presidency in 1901 gave him that -opportunity. President Roosevelt, also, brought much field experience to -the conservation problem. His interest was one of conviction as well as -good sense, sentiment, and politics. He viewed the presidency as a -stewardship for the nation's resources. More than anyone before or since -he dramatized this issue. As head of the forest bureau, Mr. Pinchot -became the President's strong right arm, and together they made America -acquainted with her conservation needs. A survey of national resources -disclosed the fact that of the original 800,000,000 acres of virgin -forest, less than 200,000,000 remained. Furthermore, four-fifths of this -acreage was in private hands. Mineral resources, also, had been -exploited as if inexhaustible. By propaganda, lobbies, public meetings, -and conferences, Roosevelt and Pinchot focused attention upon abuses and -neglect. Their watchword was that America's natural resources must be -administered in the interest of "the greatest good to the greatest -number--and that for the longest time."[277] - -The general response to the President's Governors' Conference at the -White House in 1907, and to other conferences, was most gratifying. -Conservation agencies sprang into action on all sides. Even the National -Lumber Manufacturers' Association established new standards and -specifications for the wood-using industries. The dynamic leadership of -Theodore Roosevelt and his associates enabled the people to comprehend -the basic relationship of conservation and national welfare. Almost -everyone united in the view that a new frontier had been formed and its -conquest was to be made upon the principles and forces of conservation. - -Congress had led the way toward legislative regulation, beginning with -the Yosemite Act in 1864, followed by the Yellowstone "Dedicatory Act" -of 1872. Since then one legislative pearl after another has been -collected and strung upon the fabric of the National Forest and Park -systems. - -Today there are thirteen federal agencies charged with the -administration of the federal conservation laws. Consolidation of these -bureaus would undoubtedly enhance the effectiveness of the over-all -service. Besides that, there are forty-eight state agencies and, in -addition, one hundred and twenty-four organizations of either national, -state, or local character specifically dedicated to conservation.[278] -From the origin herein described, the National Forest Service has -developed until there are now 180,000,000 acres within the confines of -one hundred and fifty National Forests. The administration of these -far-flung areas is co-ordinated by twelve regional offices and other -adjunctive agencies, such as experiment stations and laboratories. - -The guiding philosophy of National Forest management is known as -"multiple use." This term describes a broad program involving the -inter-relationship of wild life protection, livestock grazing, logging, -mining, irrigation watersheds, wood chopping, recreation, summer home -areas, and hunting and fishing activities. Railroads and other roads are -built in National Forests according to plan and under supervision. How -much of this esteemable policy and program has been derived from the -National Park experience? The two services have developed -simultaneously; as the boundaries of parks and forests often impinge, so -have their policies. Both services have many ends in common; each learns -from the other.[279] The essential differentiation of service lies in -the difference between "conserving an area for its greatest value" and -"utilization of resources in multiple purpose." It is a matter of -degrees of conservation according to circumstances. For example, public -hunting is prohibited in all 23,899,030 acres of the 181 areas under the -supervision of the National Park Service. However, the service itself -may adopt a policy of fauna diminution. - -Having sketched the history of forest and land conservation, it would be -appropriate to similarly narrate the movement to conserve wild life. -Until a half century ago the American attitude toward wild life was -almost wholly one of indifference. The frontiersman killed a deer per -meal and gave little thought for the morrow. Only the Indians were -preservers of game, as the saying, "No Indians not much game; heap -Sioux, plenty of buffalo, elk and deer," so aptly attests.[280] It has -already been explained how this difference in racial behavior eventuated -in almost perpetual strife between white and red men. There were -occasional exceptions, as in the case of Daniel Boone. In 1775 he -proposed a measure for the protection of game in Kentucky because it was -already necessary for him to travel a score of miles from home to find -buffalo. - -The pristine American wild life heritage was on a par with the endowment -of forest and land. The toothsome white-tailed deer was omnipresent in -the East and much of the Middle West. Other species of deer, elk, moose, -bison, and antelope were in great abundance. Reports from Lewis and -Clark, Zebulon Pike, J. J. Audubon, B. L. Bonneville and others prove -that no pioneer ever pushed so far, or entered regions so difficult or -remote, that he did not find a host of birds and beasts awaiting his -pleasure and profit.[281] Man has always had a predatory disposition -toward wild life, but this was not so serious in the ages of club, stone -ax, and bow and arrow. American animal abundance was contemporaneous -with these times. - -Wild life conservation became an imperative issue only after the -invention of flintlock, breechloaders, repeaters, automatics, and fixed -ammunition. These weapons in the hands of commercial hunters, -unscrupulous sportsmen, and "game hogs" threatened extinction of many -species of life. Most devastating of all threats was the impact of the -market hunter; no bird, mammal, or reptile species can long withstand -such exploitation. Professional gunners who pursue creatures for money -are invariably skillful, diligent, and persistent.[282] Often the -sportsman is equally skillful and efficient in slaughter. The Earl of -Dunraven left this description of a chase in the vicinity of Fort -Laramie: - - We killed elk, white-tail and black-tail deer, antelope, swans, - immense geese, ducks and small game without count. This elk running is - perfectly magnificent. We ride among the wild sand hills till we find - a herd, and then gallop after them like maniacs, cutting them off, - till we get in the midst of them, when we shoot all that we can. Our - chief hunter is a very famous man out West, one Buffalo Bill. To see - his face flush, and his eyes shoot out courage is a sight to see, and - he cheers us on till he makes us as mad as himself.[283] - -Concerning the high sport of the Earl's party, Mary Kingsley made the -witty observation that "In the course of these wanderings they shot ... -every kind of living thing ... on the Western Continent ... with the -solitary exception of their fellowmen."[284] America has handled its -wild life in such a careless, greedy fashion that several species of -animal and fowl became extinct, and many others were brought within the -range of annihilation. The danger point varies with each species, but -there is an area for each wherein the survivors are too few to cope with -circumstances, and recovery is impossible. This fact became quite clear -to certain conservationists around 1900. - -Outstanding leadership was provided by Madison Grant, John F. Lacey, -Henry Fairfield Osborn and Willard Dutcher.[285] These men so wrote and -spoke as to arouse the public and sting the true sportsmen into action. -People who did not shoot were impelled to call a halt on those who did, -particularly upon the lawless element. The public was assured that much -could be done to save a wonderful inheritance. In order to finance the -conservation campaign aggregate bequests in excess of one-half million -dollars were made by Albert Wilcox, Mrs. Russell Sage, Charles W. Ward, -and Mary Dutcher. President Theodore Roosevelt nourished the movement in -every way within his power. He gave the vanishing species the benefit of -every doubt. Under his direction five national parks, three bison herds, -fifty-three bird refuges, and four game preserves were established. - -Warnings and appeals directed toward conservation went through all -channels, legislative, educational, practical, and sentimental. The -farmers were assured that the rejuvenated bison, deer, and elk herds -would not be allowed to roam at will over their valuable land. Rather -there were millions of acres of brushy, rocky, and semi-forest lands, -wholly unsuited for agriculture, in which the conservation work could be -done. Sportsmen were promised opportunities for shooting plentiful game -in open seasons as soon as the proper balance of wild life had been -restored. Their response to this program has become increasingly -impressive. They have effected almost innumerable associations designed -to achieve these ends. Much thought and effort have been given to the -cause, and they have contributed liberally, besides paying license fees. -Revenue from all sportsmen sources must approximate a billion dollars a -year. Hence, it is correct to say that combined sportsmen organizations -represent one of the most effective agencies of conservation. - -By 1912 the movement had achieved general acceptance. The Department of -Agriculture issued annual "progress reports." Every state had either a -State Game Commission or a State Game Warden. Montana had established -two state preserves. Several states were successfully experimenting with -the introduction of new species of game birds, such as Chinese -ring-necked, golden, and silver pheasants. The federal government had -created fifty-eight bird refuges and five great game preserves. It had -taken steps to protect bison herds in four national ranges, besides -protecting the fur seal and providing hay for starving Yellowstone Park -elk and others in the Jackson Hole area. - -The efforts of government agencies were effectively buttressed by a -number of private organizations such as the New York Zoological Society, -National Association of Audubon Societies, Campfire Club of America, -Boone and Crockett Club, and the American Game Protective and -Propagation Association. Since 1912 gratifying progress has been made, -although there are still many problems remaining. Yellowstone's Park -Biologist, Walter H. Kittams, and many other specialists are applying -the best modern techniques of range management and wildlife management -to effect a solution to these problems consistent with National Park -Service ideals. - -It has already been noted that Yellowstone National Park has served as -an area of experimentation in the field of wild life management. When -the reservation was established in 1872 a proposal was made to outlaw -hunting. The suggestion was not heeded by Congress, and as a result -trappers and hunters plied their trades early and late, seven days a -week, month after month. - -A representative description of wild life exploitation in the -Yellowstone Wonderland may be found in the Earl of Dunraven's book, -_Hunting in the Yellowstone_. This is an account of his trip through the -Park in 1874. While camped at Mammoth Hot Springs he wrote: "Some of us -went out hunting and brought in a good store of fat antelope ..."[286] -If that entry strikes a note of discord because of present practice, -observe the significance of the Earl's record in describing the -following Yellowstone camp: - - In the afternoon we passed quite a patriarchal camp [near Sheepeater's - Cliff], composed of two men, with their Indian wives and several - children; half a dozen powerful savage looking dogs and about fifty - horses completed the party. They had been grazing their stock, hunting - and trapping, leading a nomad, vagabond, and delicious life--a sort of - mixed existence, half hunter, half herdsman, and had collected a great - pile of deer hides and beaver skins. They were then on their way to - settlements to dispose of their peltries, and to get stores and - provisions; for they, too, were proceeding down the river or up the - canon.[287] - -Within the decade it became obvious to Park officials that the fauna -would not long survive this savage onslaught from squaw men, -professional gunners, fierce dogs, and expert scouts and guides vying -for tourist patronage. Along with this realization came another -discovery; soldiers in remote stations had formed enjoyable -companionships with wilderness creatures. These lonely men were -delighted by the universally charming wild life trait of responding with -confidence and alacrity to friendly human advances. It became -increasingly apparent to the officials that Yellowstone birds and -mammals would quickly recognize overtures of friendship and protection. -The idea was advanced that nearly every species in the Park might become -as tame as range cattle if given an opportunity to move safely within -rifle-shot for several years. Recommendations to that effect forwarded -to the Secretary of the Interior by Superintendent Norris in 1879 were -passed on to Congress, and they played an important part in the passage -of legislation on March 3, 1883, under which the killing of game was -first suppressed. In subsequent years the laws were strengthened and -administration improved. This was the beginning of wild life -conservation practice by the federal government. Since then the various -species of native fauna have achieved a generally satisfactory balance. -The Park's policy of protection can definitely be credited with saving -the grizzly bear from extinction, and the trumpeter swan is receiving -his chance to survive. It may be too late in this case. - -Today the alert tourist may reap the reward of that wise and fruitful -policy in observing mountain sheep, antelope, mule deer, elk, moose, -coyotes, marmot, and squirrels as they roam around in the Park. Indeed, -the quiet but energetic visitor who ventures upon the forest trails may -even see the rare sand-hill crane and trumpeter swan. Besides, he will -frequently hear the passing whisper of the honker's wing. Actually, he -may "shoot" both birds and mammals with the camera and take home -trophies of everlasting enjoyment. - -The wildlife policy of the National Park Service has evolved gradually, -and is based upon long experience in preserving areas of outstanding -significance. It has been determined that animals shall not be -encouraged to become dependent upon man, and their presentation to the -public shall be wholly natural. Every species shall be left to carry on -its struggle for existence unaided, unless it becomes endangered, and no -management measure or interference with biotic relationships shall be -undertaken prior to a properly conducted investigation. Numbers of -animals must not be permitted to exceed the carrying capacity of the -range available to them. Predator species will be given the same -protection as all other animals, except in special instances where a -prey species is in danger of extermination. These principles, and -others, control the actions taken with respect to wildlife, and assure -the continued existence of native wildlife in our National Parks. - - - - - Chapter XIV - GENERAL ADMINISTRATION - - -Nathaniel P. Langford was appointed Superintendent of Yellowstone -National Park on May 10, 1872. No salary was allowed, but nothing -daunted, on July 4 he arranged to join the Snake River detachment of Dr. -F. V. Hayden's second expedition. This party employed as guide one -Richard Leigh, better known as "Beaver Dick." This picturesque squaw man -and his wife, Jenny, with her brood, not only acted as scout but also as -friend and entertainer. "Beaver Dick" knew the Tetons and south -Yellowstone country like a book, and he regaled the company with many -tales of hair-raising experiences in the wilds. They were respectful in -the presence of one of the last genuine frontiersmen of the West. - -The new superintendent was characteristically indefatigable in his -reconnaissance during this journey. Making personal side trips, he -climbed the Grand Teton, called on Gilman Sawtelle at Henrys Lake, and -joined Hayden in the Upper Geyser Basin by mid-August.[288] On this -expedition the reports of much petrifaction along the East Fork of -Yellowstone River (now called Lamar) were confirmed. Many trees were -found that were filled with beautiful crystals of amethyst. Several -species of trees that do not now grow in the Park were also found in a -petrified state. Among these were magnolias, sycamores, aralias, oaks, -and ferns in abundance. This, and subsequent investigations, disclosed -an interesting story of climatic change. Obviously Tertiary flora was of -a Southern type, and Yellowstone's climate in that time was comparable -to southern California's today.[289] - - [Illustration: Photo by IV H. Jackson - _"Beaver Dick" (Richard Leigh) and family, 1871_] - -Members of this same expedition also visited the Heart Lake and Norris -Geyser-basins.[290] Hayden and Langford were more than pleased with the -results. Wonderland's charms were still a potent draught to the thirst -of these great nature lovers. Their enthusiasm never flagged, although -there were many discouragements. Several accidents must have induced -considerable reflection, if not doubt, about the realization of their -hopes. One horse went to its doom in quagmire; another broke its neck in -a somersault. Horses sensed the inexperience and uncertainty of their -riders in this environment, and there were several stampedes.[291] This -time Langford viewed Yellowstone in the light of what the public would -require, and the task ahead must have appeared insurmountable. Still, -his good judgment told him that the Park would surely become a favorite -resort for future tourists. Plans were conceived for trails, roads, and -accommodations, and in the spring of 1873 he appointed David E. Folsom -as assistant superintendent, also without pay. - -Langford's annual report of 1873 showed that five hundred people visited -the Park that season. A request was made for an appropriation of $10,000 -for improvements, but no funds were provided for any purpose. As time -passed, the general situation became increasingly untenable. The -frontiersman's indifference to schedules and comforts caused much -inconvenience and dissatisfaction to the travelers. A program of -development and a system of concessions was imperative. Of course, these -things would require time, planning, and money, but this fact was little -recognized by newcomers. Langford was roundly criticized in the press -for conditions over which he had no authority or means to control. -However, during the winter he faithfully devoted his spare time to -making plans, and his full time in summer was given to their execution. -For five long years he gave the best that was in him, without funds or -support, never losing his faith in the future of Yellowstone, and -because of his enthusiasm his friends called him "National Park" -Langford.[292] - -In 1877 a new superintendent succeeded Langford. Philetus W. Norris, of -Michigan, received the appointment, with pay, and the following year a -$10,000 appropriation was made available "to protect, preserve, and -improve Yellowstone Park." Norris, although a rather quaint man, proved -to be extremely zealous and energetic. On foot and horseback he -eventually toured all of the Park and its immediate environs, -considering a thorough personal exploration of Wonderland essential to a -wise administration of his office. In 1878 he discovered Monument Geyser -Basin, and later in the season an attempt was made to explore the Hoodoo -area on the upper Lamar River drainage, but the Crow Indians challenged -his right, and "Miller, Rowland, and myself, narrowly escaped."[293] -However, he persisted, and in due time the world learned about - - [Illustration: _Superintendent Philetus W. Norris_] - - ... that mysterious Hoodoo region, where all the devils now employed - in the geysers, live and kill the wandering bear and elk, so that the - sacred hunter finds in Death Gulch piled high carcasses of the dead - whom no man has smitten.[294] - -There is obvious exaggeration in Kipling's description of wild life -destruction by natural gases. However, evidence confirming the lethal -power of Yellowstone's natural carbon dioxide gas may be secured without -going into the remote Hoodoo region. Birds die almost daily from -inhaling the fumes that arise from springs on Orange Mound in the -Mammoth Hot Springs. Park naturalists are in a quandary as to the -procedure of warning birds concerning the danger. - -Norris wrote voluminously and accomplished much, leaving his mark and -name upon various sections of the Park. He caused trails, roads, -bridges, and crude campgrounds to be made, in so far as the limited -funds would allow. A policy of wild life protection was also adopted. In -1880 Harry Yount was given the assignment as gamekeeper. Yount was a -typical leatherstocking frontiersman. He was rough, tough, and -intelligent. In the role of game protector he spent the winter of 1880 -in the Park. He thereby became one of the first white men of record to -spend the entire year in Yellowstone.[295] Harry initiated many of the -practices of resourcefulness and traditions of good will that -characterize the ranger service, and he may be considered as its father. - -The need of a game protection program was apparent from the outset. -Indian, trapper, and miner visitations had taken a heavy toll of elk, -deer, antelope, and buffalo. After 1872 tourist parties were largely -made up of, or guided by, mountain men who undertook to provide game for -the campers. Thus, a trip through Yellowstone was, in effect, a hunting -and fishing expedition, actuated by the slogan "slay and eat." - -In 1876 William Ludlow, a government surveyor, was moved to write an -effective appeal for game protection to George Bird Grinnell, editor of -_Forest and Stream_. His argument was buttressed by many observations of -the slaughter "of the largest and finest game animals in the -country."[296] In 1879 Superintendent Norris made a similar observation -in his annual report. He stated that, with the rapid influx of tourists -and the demand for such food, the policy could not long continue without -serious results. He, thereupon, issued an order for the protection of -the bison as the herd was not in excess of six hundred. However, this -commendable move proved ineffective, and the hunters went merrily about -their avocation. - -About this time Norris left the Park service, but before doing so he had -completed and occupied a unique structure on Capitol Hill, called Fort -Yellowstone. It was a blockhouse of hewn timber with a balcony and three -wings, surmounted by a gun turret. He wanted to be prepared for the next -Indian attack, while the problems actually confronting the Park -officials were of quite a different character. Yellowstone was still a -wilderness, and many visitors would not endure restraints. In 1883 -Secretary of the Interior Hoke Smith caught two hundred trout in one -day, and the next year Secretary of War Dan Lamont only caught -fifty-three![297] - - [Illustration: Old Fort Yellowstone.] - -In 1882 Patrick A. Conger, of Iowa, succeeded Norris as superintendent. -His administration was weak and vacillating in practically every -respect. Scarcely anything was improved, but all difficulties were -aggravated. Vandalism, forest fires, and general mismanagement were -added to the problem of vanishing wild life. John S. Crosby, Governor of -Montana, wrote a scathing denunciation of the Park officials to the -Secretary of the Interior, Henry M. Teller.[298] This official -contemplated the leasing of considerable portions of the Park to -responsible persons in the hope that they would, through self-interest, -give the protection which the government had failed to provide.[299] -While Montana's governor complained and the Secretary hesitated Wyoming -territorial officials took action. The Wyoming legislature intervened by -providing stringent measures for the protection of timber, game, fish, -and natural curiosities of the Park. A jail was erected, and the -territorial officials got ready for business. Cowboy type-cast officers -had a lively time enforcing regulations and levying fines for personal -emolument upon strangers toward whom they felt a natural suspicion.[300] -Vexatious arrests, made under the sweeping provisions of the act, -defeated the purpose of the Park "as a pleasuring ground for the -people." Citizens questioned the right of a territory to exercise -criminal jurisdiction and judicial powers in a federal reservation. The -act was repealed in 1886, but the effect was to leave the Park in a -worse plight than ever before. As it became generally known that the -superintendent had no support beyond the rules of the department and -their own personal force, - - the rules and regulations were ignored, while outlaws and vagabonds - from the surrounding region made the nation's pleasure ground a place - of refuge. The hotels were frequented by gamblers and adventurers, who - preyed upon the unwary tourist, while forest fires, originating - mysteriously in remote and inaccessible places, raged unchecked.[301] - -Robert E. Carpenter took office as Park Superintendent in August, 1884. -In his view the Park presented an opportunity for personal and corporate -exploitation. He was in full accord with a conspiracy to obtain private -ownership of strategic locations. This scheme was advanced by an -organization known as The Improvement Company which went directly before -Congress with its proposition. In this effort, the nadir of private -greed and administrative indifference was reached. However, the bad -cause was lost, the superintendent removed, and a new and better -administration came into being.[302] The influence of General Phil -Sheridan was a constant factor in promoting the welfare of the Park. -Beginning in 1881, he made a series of annual tours of the region. After -each inspection he earnestly appealed to public sentiment, in behalf of -proper government, for the area. Whereupon, Congress passed the Sundry -Civil Bill of March, 1883 which forbade the granting of leases in excess -of ten acres to a single party and provided for the employment of ten -assistant superintendents. This measure also authorized the Secretary of -the Interior to call upon the Secretary of War for troops to patrol the -Park. - -In May, 1885 David W. Wear of Missouri brought intelligent and vigorous -effort to the problem. At the close of the season he wrote a -comprehensive report that carried a tone of real interest and purpose: -"The discipline of the force was bad; no head to anything.... The game -had been shot with impunity and marketed at the hotels."[303] He secured -the services of a trusty mountaineer, and together they rounded up the -worst of the "skin hunters" and punished them to the full extent of the -law. Of course, that was simply arrest and expulsion from the Park, -together with the forfeiture of equipment used in the violation. - -During the season of 1885 a committee of congressmen visited the Park -for the purpose of ascertaining how wisely the recent appropriation of -$40,000 was being used and inquiring into the administration of -laws.[304] The report of this and other investigating groups seemed to -be that, although Superintendent Wear was performing his duty -efficiently and fearlessly, the whole situation was honeycombed with -error, corruption, confusion, and suspicion. The Park was in need of -redemption; something had to be done. The high purposes of the -Dedicatory Act were being frustrated. An avalanche of petitions, -representing opinion from thirty-one states, reached the Department of -the Interior and could not be ignored. - -Therefore, the Department of the Interior called upon the United States -Army to effect a new birth. This action was taken under the authority of -the act of March 3, 1883, wherein the Secretary of War, upon the request -of the Secretary of the Interior, was directed to provide: - - Details of troops to prevent trespassers or intruders from entering - the Park for the purpose of destroying the game or objects of - curiosity therein, or for any other purpose prohibited by law, and to - remove such persons from the Park if found therein.[305] - -Accordingly, on August 20, 1886, Captain Moses Harris with a troop of -the first cavalry took charge. Detachments of soldiers were soon -stationed at Norris, Lower and Upper Geyser basins, Canyon, Riverside, -and Soda Butte. Old frontiersmen were notified to desist from their -poaching activities; prowling Indians were ordered to stay away; forest -fires were checked; and the tone of all departments of service and -accommodation improved. The Hayes and Lacey acts granted the necessary -authority in respect to leases, protection, and punishment. Captain -Harris proved to be a forthright administrator. He established a system -of patrols stemming out from the permanent stations. The patrolmen were -instructed to not only follow the regular roads and trails but to -occasionally visit unfrequented places.[306] The patrolmen were ordered -to keep a sharp lookout for bear trappers, poachers, and forest fires. -Persons traveling in the Park between October 1 and June 1 were to be -viewed with suspicion: in fact, they were to be questioned closely and -watched as they journeyed from station to station. - -There were many frontiersmen who continued to ignore the Captain's -warnings about poaching. This challenge was accepted, and on August 19, -1888 a scouting party apprehended a trapper near the southern border. He -gave his name as Andrew S. Page but later admitted he had been arrested -the previous year as John Andrews. His horse and outfit were -confiscated, and he was expelled from the Park.[307] In September of the -same year Thomas Garfield was caught in the act of trapping beaver in -Willow Creek. He was given the same treatment. Garfield made ominous -threats to get even, and a few days later a forest fire was started by -someone near Norris. In spite of occasional arrests the practice of -poaching persisted. Trapping habits were deep-seated and penalties, too -mild. - -In the years that followed the cases of Tom Newcomb, June Buzzel, Jay -Whitman, James Courtney, A. G. Vance, E. Sheffeld, Pendleton, and Van -Dych were tried with various degrees of success.[308] - -The most notorious case was that of Ed Howell of Cooke, Montana. Early -in March, 1894, a party was organized to visit the winter range of the -buffalo. Members were Captain George L. Scott, Lieutenant William W. -Forsyth, Scout Felix Burgess, A. E. Burns, Frank Jay Haynes, Sergeant -Troike, and two other noncommissioned officers. They traveled on skis, -and when they reached the Canyon, Emerson Hough and Billy Hofer joined -them. About twelve miles up Pelican Creek they discovered the cache of a -poacher. Six bison heads were suspended in a tree. Several shots were -heard, but as it was snowing the direction was difficult to determine. -However, Scout Burgess was able to approach the poacher without being -seen or heard, even by the dog. He got the drop on Howell, which was a -good thing in view of the character of the man.[309] He had driven a -half-dozen other bison in the deep snow and killed them. - -The culprit was taken to Mammoth where the presence of the writer -Emerson Hough and a representative of _Forest and Stream_ gave national -publicity to the case. Howell was quite a robust personality, and he -responded to the limelight. "How does a poacher operate to avoid two -troops of soldiers?" "It is the simplest thing in the world," said -Howell, "just wait for a snowstorm, enter the desired area, make a wide -detour to check tracks of pursuers, if any, and go to work." "Why did -you do it?" "Well, bison heads are worth from $100 to $400 apiece."[310] - -The articles in _Forest and Stream_ apprised the nation of the fact that -there were less than one hundred head of bison left in the Park and that -the government's failure to provide real protection was threatening the -extinction of all the larger animals. One side of the reaction was -critical of the army administration. Said one observer, "I would rather -have three good, intelligent, honorable men, inured to the life of -prospector and hunter, in these mountains to watch the Park, than all -the soldiers now there...."[311] - -However, a constructive remedy was provided by legislation in the -passage of the act of May 7, 1894. This measure positively prohibited -hunting and trapping in every form, under heavy penalties. A clear-cut -basis of jurisdiction was provided by the Vest Bill. A United States -Commissioner was appointed, "who shall reside in the Park," to issue -processes and hear cases. An appeal from his decisions might be made -before the Federal District Court for the District of Wyoming. Hon. John -W. Meldrum was the first man to receive this assignment. He held the -position until 1935 when he was succeeded by T. Paul Wilcox. - -Within a year after the passage of the Protective Act, Captain George S. -Anderson was able to report that a healthy effect was evident. That was -not the end of poaching because it has existed in a slight and subtle -manner to this very day. However, around the turn of the century, the -poacher gave way to the road agent as the Park's most exciting criminal. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Poacher caught in the act.] - -In Captain Harris' report of 1888 there is reference to a stage robbery -of July 4, 1887. Subsequently, William James and a man named -Higgenbottom were convicted and fined $1000 each and given a year's -sentence in the Montana State Penitentiary. Again, on August 14, 1897, -two masked men held up and robbed six Yellowstone Park Transportation -coaches and one spring wagon. The place of the robbery was between -Canyon and Norris, the amount of the "haul" being over $500. These -offenders were apprehended and identified as Charles Reebe, alias -"Morphine Charley," and Charles Switzer. They were also convicted, -fined, and imprisoned.[312] - -On August 24, 1908, on Spring Creek, one masked man successfully held up -nine coaches carrying a total of one hundred and fifteen people. The -booty collected totaled $1,363.95 in cash and $730.25 in watches and -jewelry. The entire cavalcade consisted of thirty-two coaches, escorted -by one trooper. The road agent did not show himself until the soldier -and eight of the coaches had passed. Thereafter, each one was held up -and ordered on its way before the next one arrived. The victims of this -outrage held a meeting in the Lake Hotel and drafted a set of -resolutions reviewing all of the facts. They complained because they -were deprived of personal firearms and denied sufficient protection to -life and property. They also petitioned for redress. These resolutions, -together with the names of the victims, were printed in a souvenir -edition and widely distributed.[313] - -Perhaps the most daring robbery in Yellowstone history was executed near -Shoshone Point, on July 29, 1915. It was there that Edward B. Trafton, -alias Ed Harrington, an outlaw from Teton Basin, duplicated the feat of -the 1908 season; the amount taken was about $2200. However, Trafton was -apprehended and convicted of the latter crime on December 15, 1915. His -sentence was a five-year term in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. - -Robberies of a less dramatic character still occur. In 1941 two rangers -fished several purses out of Cauliflower Geyser. They had been snatched -from parked cars, rifled, and cast away, but the geyser threw them up, -and they were used as evidence in effecting a conviction. Times and -methods change, but crime goes on forever. - -Another problem that has constantly confronted every administration is -vandalism. A vandal is any person who takes flowers or specimens and -writes on or defaces natural objects, and his name is legion. The more -cunningly contrived a work of nature becomes, the greater the temptation -to remove it to one's own premises. This urge reduces even dignified -people to the most amazing behavior. They will pry and chop in such a -way as to destroy an ornament for all time. Again, there is the untoward -desire to throw tokens, small coins, bottles, poles, and detritus into -pools and geysers "just to see what will happen." - -Not even Old Faithful is exempt from this wantonness. It is a matter of -record that one party, wishing to experiment, filled its orifice "with -at least a thousand pounds of stones, trees, and stumps" and then sat -down to await further developments. Another group wrote this shameless -account: "We abused that spring [geyser] with everything in our power. -We threw sticks into it and stones, but it was no use; nothing would -rile it."[314] Name writing in pools and geysers is particularly -alluring to a certain class as nature fixes the insult indelibly so that -in after years all men may read, in letters as large as a neon sign, -that "Sadie, Mamie, and Jack" visited the Park. Many a ranger, -attempting to eradicate such legends with his wire brush, has heartily -agreed with the following statement "... and when the man from Oshkosh -writes his name with a blue pencil on her sacred face, let him spend six -months where the scenery is circumscribed and entirely artificial."[315] -Will the public never learn that, although it owns the Park, ownership -may be expressed in much more appropriate ways? - -The offense of "soaping" geysers is said to have originated in 1885 when -a Chinaman encompassed a small spring with his tent and started a -laundry. When the spring became impregnated with soap there was an -eruption, and up went tent, washing, and Chinaman! It is a fact that -soap produces viscosity which retains heat, and as steam rises it may -aid explosive action. Hence, if some visitors could have their way, the -beautiful sapphire springs and geysers would be "in the suds" constantly -throughout the season.[316] Such activity is strictly prohibited by the -government. - -In recent years Park officials have been greatly distressed by another -type of violation. Large numbers of people are disposed to cast tax -tokens and pennies into the otherwise beautiful hot springs and geysers. -Familiar with wishing wells in commercial resorts, they fall short in -adjusting to national park standards of conduct. As one ranger said, -"They forget what kind of animal throws a (s)cent!" - -Many lovers of Yellowstone would like to see the rangers crack down upon -rule violators with a vengeance. They argue that a full 10 per cent of -the human race will lie, steal, and destroy flora, fauna, and features -whenever and wherever they find a chance to do so. Of course, the -rangers are quick in recognizing varying degrees of moral and social -responsibility. Their policy to date is one of energetic education and -moderate restraint by authority. - -The problem of forest fires causes much concern during July and August. -Fires may start from natural causes, as from lightning, and friction -caused by trees rubbing together during violent windstorms, but about 50 -per cent of them are caused by the carelessness of man. Of course, -nature manages to extinguish forest fires eventually, but man has -learned to cooperate. - -The officials have developed efficiency in organization and methods of -fighting fires. Major lookouts are established upon Mt. Washburn, Mt. -Holmes, Mt. Sheridan, Purple Mountain, and Pelican Cone. Lookouts also -stand guard in other strategic positions. Fireguards are employed to -clear trails and be available on a moment's notice. District rangers -train and direct employees within their jurisdictions and take daily -"fire weather" readings. Tools, equipment, and provisions are always -packed and ready for action. When a fire breaks out a base camp is set -up at a road terminal; from there the flow of men and supplies is -governed through radio communication. Fire camps are established in safe -places, by the water supply nearest the burning area. Tools, sleeping -bags, and food reach the fire camp on the backs of mules, by reason of -the skill of expert packers. However, airplanes are sometimes used in -parachuting fighters and supplies to the spot in a hurry. - -Accepted principles of procedure consist of: speed in the first instance -before the fire "blows up"; striking hard at daybreak after it has -calmed down and before the wind fans it; cutting a line with saw and ax; -trenching it in with shovel and Pulaski; using pumps where possible; and -always praying for rain. Fighting fire is an arduous, dirty business. - -Yellowstone forests are predominantly of lodgepole pine. This species is -thin-skinned and non-resistant to fire, but it takes pains to store its -seeds up in tightly closed cones. These hold the seed fertile for -several years. Thus, although raging fire may devour the forest, the -scorched cones open, and the hoarded seed shoots new growth triumphantly -out of the ashes.[317] - -It has been observed that lodgepole forests are not very valuable for -lumber; neither do they present the most attractive appearance. Still, -the trees grow profusely, and in so doing they provide an excellent -agency for water conservation. Let fire destroy the forests upon the -sources of the Snake and Yellowstone rivers, and many of the present -garden spots of the West would be added to her barren wastes. Therefore, -in the mature opinion of many experts, the forests of this area are more -valuable in the conservation of soil and water than they would be for -grazing and lumbering. The present policy will keep the mountains at -home, prevent floods, and assure a more constant water supply.[318] - -Perhaps the most tantalizing problem has arisen from the half-century -application of the Protective Act of 1894, wherein: - - The killing, wounding, or capturing, at any time, of any bird or wild - animal, except dangerous animals, when it is necessary to prevent them - from destroying life or inflicting an injury, is prohibited within the - limits of the Park.[319] - - [Illustration: Wild and dangerous despite appearances.] - -People possessing firearms must have them sealed upon entering the Park. -Thus, the animal inhabitants virtually enjoy a natural life expectancy -so far as man is concerned.[320] It is an anomalous situation, without a -parallel since the Garden of Eden. On the whole, the animals have lost -their fear of man, and still very few of them show any disposition to -injure him except in self-defense. Deer, black bear, marmot, squirrels, -and many species of birds are very responsive to opportunities of human -association. Several other types exhibit good-natured indulgence toward -human curiosity, but a few species are so elusive as to be almost -inaccessible. In fact, there are some creatures that possess such a -decided allergy to the presence of man that their survival is -jeopardized by human proximity. Moose, grizzlies, bighorn, antelope, -beaver, and swan conform to this type. They require an environment of -varying specifications from swamp to rocky crag, but possessing the -element of seclusion as a common denominator. Park officials recognize -these factors and endeavor to meet the requirements for the health of -their denizens. Furthermore, they are willing to allow the so-called -predators the use of the Park as a sanctuary, or refuge, even though -their instincts seem to be of a wholly destructive character. The latch -key is out for wolverine, coyote, and cougar. - -It should be emphasized that in the case of black bear human contacts -are fraught with dire consequences for all concerned. Approximately a -hundred tourists sustain bear bites or scratches each season, and many -bears are killed for these offenses. Park officials frequently doubt the -possibility of reconciling the presence of black bear and people. If the -latter were governed by the principle of intelligence, it would be an -easy matter. But they simply refuse to believe that the bears are wild. -As a result, they take privileges with a mother and cubs which no one -would ever think of trying with a neighbor's hound. - -It is admitted by all that black bear cubs are among nature's most -interesting creatures. They are the "Happy Hooligans" and "Katzenjammer -Kids" of the Park. What a spectacle they provide, standing Jesse -James-like along the highway, tumbling over each other in fun, or -scampering up a tree in fright! "Do you mean to tell me those cute -creatures will harm anyone?" says a lady, "Why they smile and wiggle -their tails in the most cunning manner!" "Yes, lady," replies the -ranger, "but you must not believe either end of a bear." - -When a serious injury or a death occurs strong resentment is expressed -against the administration. It is advised to decide either to turn the -Park over to the bears or to the people. Then a party of tourists -expresses great disappointment over not having been "held up" by a bear. -What will be the outcome of this tug-of-war? It is to be hoped that the -public will eventually learn to obey the regulation, "Do Not Feed or -Molest the Bears."[321] - - [Illustration: Grizzly, king of the Rockies.] - -The American bison was probably saved from extinction in Yellowstone. -Although native to the region, the joint ravages of poachers and -septicemia finally reduced the herd to a mere remnant. In 1895 a hay -harvesting project was started in Hayden Valley. This enterprise was -subsequently moved to the Lamar Valley where a buffalo ranch, now called -the Lamar Unit, was established. Feeding these animals in the coldest -months during winters of exceptional severity has proved salutary. -Another precaution was taken in 1902 when twenty-one head were purchased -from the Goodnight and Allard herds in Texas and Montana, respectively. -Since then the herd has flourished and is now stabilized at eight -hundred head. The increase is reduced periodically and distributed among -near-by Indian agencies. - -A reduction policy has also been adopted to control the northern elk -herd. Summer is lavish in its gifts to Park elk. Lush grasses, shady -dells, and cool weather make an ideal condition for them. Fall finds -them fat and sleek, with bulls bugling in every glen. Perhaps the summer -range is adequate for thousands of them, but then winter comes, with its -weakening cold and deepening snows, and they are forced by storms into -restricted areas where hunger stalks them on every side. It is evident, -therefore, that the maximum must be limited by the winter range -capacity. In view of these conditions the officials of the Park and the -state of Montana have worked out a satisfactory policy of diminution. A -number of elk-hunting permits are issued to citizens who foregather -along the northern boundary to participate in a bombardment that is -swift and effective. In this manner the Park herd is kept in balance, -and surplus elk do not migrate to the valleys to bother the ranchers. Of -course an advantage accrues to these hunters because each one is very -sure of getting his elk. This program should preclude a repetition of -the agitation aroused during World War I when proposals were pressed -upon the Food Administrator to allow hunting parties a free reign in -securing Park elk and buffalo.[322] - -More serious attempts to invade the Park's wilderness area came in the -form of several irrigation projects, a railroad, and the northern -boundary segregation issue. Each of these propositions, which threatened -to modify the natural character and unity of the reservation, was -strenuously resisted by Park administrations and the public generally. - -In 1919 an irrigation project was sponsored by Idaho interests. It was a -comprehensive plan that contemplated a dam on Yellowstone River, thereby -raising the level of Yellowstone Lake. The water from this mighty -reservoir would then be tapped by a tunnel through the Continental -Divide, which would deliver the water into the Snake River. Other dams -were designed to impound water along Fall and Bechler rivers. When bills -S3925 and H.R.10469 reached their respective floors they were subjected -to strong denunciation and defeated.[323] The next year, 1920, Senator -Walsh, of Montana, also introduced a bill for the purpose of building a -dam across the Yellowstone River at the lake outlet. This project also -contemplated the generation of electricity. Extensive hearings before -the Senate Committee on Irrigation resulted in the bill's death at that -stage. - -The movement for the extension of the Northern Pacific Railroad from -Cinnabar to Cooke City, Montana, was not so easily arrested. From the -first discovery of gold on Clarks Fork, in 1870, there had been a -campaign for a railroad, as the early prospects were promising. However, -little progress was made, and when the railroad bill of 1894 was -defeated certain mining interests in Montana became alarmingly hostile. -Frustrated in the extension of a line through the only accessible route, -because of National Park sentiment, these interests came out for -segregation. On March 1, 1894, the _Helena Independent_ declared: - - Congress should make the Yellowstone River [Lamar] and Soda Butte - Creek the northern boundary of the Park and charter a railroad to - Cooke City on the north of these Streams....[324] - -The _Livingston Post_ struck a more ominous note in its issue of -November 30 of the same year: - - Everybody concedes that the destruction of the Park by fire would be a - public, a national calamity, and about the only way to avert such an - impending danger is for Congress to grant the reasonable request of - the people of the West by passing the segregation bill.[325] - -In his report of 1895 Captain George S. Anderson, Acting Superintendent, -quietly exulted, "It is a pleasure to note that the various bills for -the segregation of the Park were killed in the last Congress."[326] This -official was anything but popular in Montana at that time. Thus, it -would appear that Yellowstone, like nearly every national institution, -has been at the crossroads of conflicting interests, and its present -status has not been achieved without vigilance. - -Throughout the years the reports of the army superintendents conformed -to a regular pattern about travel, roads, concessions, wild animals, -fish, protection of natural phenomena, accommodations, fires, -sanitation, violations, and recommendations. Whether captains, majors, -colonels, or generals, these army men performed commendable service. -Still, it was an army regime dealing with a civilian situation. Hence, -there were some incongruities and many deficiencies. - -What were the facts relative to the army administration in Yellowstone? -Did conditions warrant a change? The circumstances responsible for the -assignment in 1884 have been given. Two troops of cavalry comprised the -normal complement. A main base, called Camp Sheridan, was established in -Mammoth, and a series of stations were located at the principal points -of interest. At these posts detachments of soldiers acted as guardians -of their respective domains. From each station daily mounted patrols -started toward other posts on either flank until they met.[327] In that -manner, two hundred miles of forest road were observed between each dawn -and dusk as the soldiers made their tours from "Slough Creek to Bison -Peak, Grizzly Lake to Hellroaring Creek, and Canyon to Wedded Trees" ... -almost ad infinitum. - -Each soldier carried a bucket and shovel as defense against fire and a -little book of _Rules, Regulations and Instructions_, called the -"bible," to prepare him for any contingency. Among his routine -instructions these orders appear: "... kill mountain lions, coyotes and -timber wolves ... permit no cats and dogs ... keep pack trains off the -road when vehicles are passing ... allow no one to approach within one -hundred yards of bears...." - -Each patrolman was required to record his daily activities in a journal -and turn it over to his commanding officer. A perusal of these journal -records is, on the whole, rather dull. The reading is not equal to the -performance because spelling and diction were not among the soldiers' -qualifications for duty. Still, there are occasions when, although "the -letter killeth, the spirit giveth life." Incidents dealing with clues -leading to the arrest of poachers and road agents, seizure of vandals, -searches for lost persons, rescues of people treed by grizzlies and -moose, or breakdowns, tip-overs, and runaways fairly shine with the -excitement of the time.[328] - -The soldiers had the finest western horses: - - Our horses are good all-around animals, good jumpers, runners and - drillers. Each horse understands the trumpet calls.... If the army - mules are with the herd, the horses feel safe, for as soon as a bear - or deer appears, they make a dash for them, and when the game sees - those mules, with ears laid back, coming on a dead run, it always - makes tracks for the woods.[329] - -The soldier's uniform consisted of a dark blue blouse and light blue -trousers, unstrapped and cut spoonshape over the boot, cartridge belt, -revolver, peaked cap, and worsted gloves with black buttons. These boys, -like soldiers generally, were partial to their uniforms and dress parade -assignments. Fire fighting and trail clearing were onerous indeed, and -while "a little road making on service is not a bad thing, continuous -navying is enough to knock the heart out of any army."[330] - -The army's public relations seemed to have been very satisfactory. The -soldiers were uniformly friendly and helpful toward the tourists. John -Muir considered it a "pleasing contrast to the ever changing management -of blundering, plundering politicians.... The soldiers do their duty so -quietly that the traveler is scarce aware of their presence."[331] -Tourists called the soldiers "Swatties"; an English term in popular use -at that time. - -One Charles D. Warner, of New York City, was also led to rejoice that -there was at least one spot in the United States where law was promptly -enforced. He considered the military administration an object lesson for -the whole nation in point of efficiency and impartiality.[332] Opposite -reactions came from nearly all who ran afoul the law. - -Perhaps the greatest weakness in the army regime was in the educational -inadequacy of its personnel. About 1910 a difference in tourist -interests was obvious. People, generally, began to inquire into the -causes and effects of the natural phenomena. It became increasingly -apparent that an effective public stewardship required knowledge of -chemistry, botany, geology, zoology, and history. The reign of the "cock -and bull" type of story was drawing to an end. The era of greater -natural history interpretation and appreciation was dawning. Unless -something could be done to educate the Park's guardians a considerable -educational opportunity would be lost, not to mention the loss of -scientific solution of forest problems in general. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Cavalry Troops in Park Patrol.] - -This need is clearly reflected in Captain Anderson's report concerning -geysers: - - I find there is a general belief in the minds of the tourists that - there is some measure of regularity in the period of eruptions of most - if not all of the geysers. At various times during the last three - years I have had records made by the guards of the observed eruptions. - Of course, these do not include all of the geysers, nor have all of - the eruptions of any one of them been noted. I enclose for publication - as an appendix to this report, a table made of observation upon them - during the past three years. A casual inspection of it reveals the - fact that none but Old Faithful has the slightest pretense to - regularity.[333] - -A rhythmic regularity was there all right, but, strangely enough, it -required the careful observation of the casual scientist to discover a -fact which entirely escaped the more permanent, but less observant, -soldiers. In 1926 the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution -directed Dr. Eugene T. Allen and Dr. Arthur L. Day to make an exhaustive -study of Yellowstone's thermal features. After seven seasons of -research, in cooperation with the National Park Service, they were able -to publish a monumental treatise on this subject.[334] Later -observations by such naturalists as George Marler, W. Verde Watson, and -Herbert Lystrup not only confirmed the principle of rhythmic recurrence -in many cases but discovered behavior patterns that enabled rangers to -forecast a given eruption with uncanny accuracy. - -Factors of this character were in the mind of Secretary of the Interior -Franklin K. Lane in 1915 when he appointed Stephen T. Mather as his -assistant. Mr. Mather's portfolio particularly related to the -formulation of an integrated National Park policy. - - - - - Chapter XV - THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE - - -Although there were thirteen national parks in 1912, each received a -separate appropriation and had separate management. The business of -these playgrounds was scattered among three departments, and nowhere in -Washington was there a single official or desk wholly devoted to their -interest.[335] To this problem Stephen Tyng Mather brought high -intelligence, sound philosophy, and supreme endeavor. By 1915 he had -achieved administrative experience that ripened into wisdom equal to -undertake the preservation of America's scenic and recreational -heritage. - -With this general proposition in mind, Mr. Mather made two visits to -Yellowstone during the season of 1915. There he carefully analyzed the -administrative policies and personnel. While it is only fair to state -that other federal officials were also planning a new national park -organization and procedure it was largely Mr. Mather's Yellowstone -report that provided the needed impetus. From then on he supplied the -energy, foresight, and devotion to effect a transition. - -On August 25, 1916 the National Park Service Bill received President -Wilson's signature. This measure placed the control and general -supervision of the entire national park activity squarely into the hands -of a Director of National Parks. The bill was sponsored by Senator Reed -Smoot of Utah and Representative William Kent of California. - -Thereafter, on October 1, 1916, the troops of U.S. Cavalry left Fort -Yellowstone for duty along the Mexican border. With C. A. Lindsley as -Acting Superintendent a fine ranger corps was organized of mountain -scouts and released soldiers. Shortly afterwards Congress reversed its -action and voted to deny the use of Department of the Interior funds for -protective purposes. This forced the return of the soldiers, and the -army resumed control on June 30, 1917. - -During the next six months National Park Service officials, aided by the -army officers, gathered data which proved the inadvisability of -continuing the use of troops. It should be noted that the attitude of -the officers throughout was cogently expressed by Captain Harris: - - And it is believed that to the extent in which the present method of - government and protection is an improvement upon former methods it is - due to the visible power and force of the National Government as - represented by the military garrison in the Park. - - It is not to be inferred that the claim is made that a military - government is the only one practicable for the Park, or even that it - is the best adapted or most suitable. It is believed, however, that no - efficient protection can be given to the Park without the support of a - well-organized and disciplined police force of some description.[336] - -In this spirit, the cost of a military garrison and its lack of -opportunities to drill were reviewed. It was clearly demonstrated that a -ranger force of a chief ranger, four assistants, twenty-five permanent -Park rangers of the first class, and twenty-five seasonal rangers would -constitute a "well-organized and disciplined police force" and something -else besides. It was also pointed out that the cost would be -considerably less. This effort resulted in a second withdrawal of the -troops in 1918. At the same time another ranger force was effected with -substantially the same personnel as developed in 1916.[337] In due time -the members of this new corps acquired a modest attitude of confidence -in their own capacity which still abides. - -Mr. Mather assumed office as the first National Park Director on May 16, -1917. In a short time the fruits of his vision were disclosed. Under his -inspiring leadership the National Park program was steadily expanded. -Peace was made with, and a degree of cooperation obtained from, the -natural antagonists of the National Park Service. Several wealthy -citizens who had acquired vast private estates were induced to donate -portions thereof for the general public. Sportsmen who had observed the -diminution in numbers of wild creatures were converted to the idea of -refuges through self-interest. The positions of the lumber, grazing, -irrigation, and water-power interests were less yielding on this all-out -conservation issue. They would evidently favor a compromise. The general -public gradually responded to the suggestion that the country beautiful -was even more alluring than beautiful cities.[338] - -In Secretary Lane's third annual report in 1919 the National Park -Service policy was announced under three broad principles: - - First, that the National Parks must be maintained in absolutely - unimpaired form for the use of future generations as well as those of - our own time; Second, that they are set apart for the use, - observation, health, and pleasure of the people; and Third, that the - national interest must dictate all decisions affecting public or - private enterprise in the Parks.[339] - -Since then the program has made steady progress. Its purposes and -policies have been enlarged and clarified. The acceptable qualities of -parkhood were defined. Such an area must be supremely significant, -having a national appeal whether scenic, archaeological, scientific, or -historical. Only such features of natural architecture were to be -included as would represent the highest accomplishment within its class. -For example, Grand Canyon of the Colorado exemplifies the most -extraordinary achievement of stream erosion, whereas Yellowstone is most -unique in the realm of thermal activity.[340] - -The National Park represents the apex of the conservation program, -wherein the principle of optimum use is the dominating force. The twin -purposes of enjoyment plus conservation always remain uppermost. -Commercialization beyond actual requirements is not to be tolerated, and -to this end close supervision is maintained. - -Natural species of animals and plants were to abide in normal -relationships, free from man's interference, except under urgent -circumstances such as were described in the discussion of wild life -control. The primitive appearance of Yellowstone forests is distasteful -to some people. It was a carping German traveler who said, "Look at your -dead trees and burned stumps in the woods ... and your streams are full -of driftwood. It is not cared for."[341] In that sense Yellowstone is -not a park but a wilderness full of the beauty of natural disorder. All -things remain as nature leaves them. No man disturbs landslide, log jam, -or wind-swept lodgepole avalanche. - -The appearance of the trails, roads, bridges, buildings, and facilities -of all kinds is gradually being brought into harmony with the natural -environment. Under the guidance of landscape artists, structural design -and location are made conformable to maximum scenic advantages while at -the same time, being inconspicuous themselves. A few examples will -illustrate this trend toward artificial recession. In 1889 Captain -Boutelle complained against the statute which prescribed that no hotel -shall be erected within four hundred and forty yards of any object of -interest. He urged a reduction of one-half the distance.[342] Now, all -the accommodations in the immediate Grand Canyon area are being moved a -modest distance away, where they will still provide the services which -visitors need, but not intrude upon the natural scene. Another case is -afforded by the bear shows. Formerly they were provided in several -places; then modified to a less artificial presentation on Otter Creek. -In 1942 they were discontinued. It is truly exciting for thousands of -people to observe thirty or forty grizzlies jostle and cuff each other -around a "combination salad" platform. Still, the circumstance is highly -artificial, a sort of Roman holiday affair, and therefore inappropriate. -It is hoped that the Lord of all American wild life may be allowed to go -his way undisturbed, otherwise grizzlies may become "holdup bears and -bums." Such an eventuality, on a nocturnal basis of operation, is by no -means improbable. That development would consign this magnificent animal -to a precipitous disappearance from the earth. - -Yellowstone's educational opportunities were early recognized and -utilized by the scientists. The passing of time has widened this -field-study interest. Supervised groups now come from all parts of -America, with individual scientists hailing from both home and abroad. -In fact, more than a hundred specialists have spent from a few weeks to -several years in the Park. The results of these efforts have run up the -volume of scientific titles to approximately five hundred. - -By 1920 naturalist activity was in the course of development, the -outcome of an avowed purpose to facilitate the real enjoyment of the -people. To this work Director Mather brought especial perception, skill, -and even personal funds. In fact, he may be considered as the father of -the movement. It was in 1918, when visiting Lake Tahoe, that Mather -observed the activities of a young man named Harold Bryant, whom the -management had employed to interpret nature to their guests. Dr. -Bryant's work so impressed the Director that he took him to Yosemite -where his success with the public was immediate. Ranger-naturalists were -appointed in other parks, and later Dr. H. C. Bryant was placed in -charge of the educational branch of the service. Two notable -institutions quickly caught the vision and cooperated. In 1925 the -Yosemite School of Natural History was founded as a non-profit -scientific organization. Courses in botany, zoology, and geology were -given. Emphasis was placed on field work, and the final trip lasted two -weeks. The instructional staff was composed largely of University of -California professors, while the twenty trainees were chosen from a -hundred candidates.[343] In 1935 Yale University furthered the -naturalist incentive by providing a fellowship. Since 1937 two have been -granted. Yellowstone Park has taken advantage of these services. - -After a decade of experimentation in field trips, fireside lectures, and -exhibits a Research and Education branch was created within the National -Park Service. This bureau outlined a policy of portraying certain phases -of the American scene in a correlated story. Laboratories were developed -in Berkeley, California; Fort Hunt, Virginia; and Washington, D. C. The -leading men in this program were H. C. Bryant, F. W. Miller, W. W. -Atwood, F. R. Oastler, A. F. Hall, H. C. Bumpus, and C. P. Russell. - -In 1920, Superintendent Horace M. Albright, assisted by J. E. Haynes, -organized the naturalist program in Yellowstone. M. P. Skinner was the -first Park Naturalist. He was succeeded by Edmund J. Sawyer in 1924. -Four years later Dorr G. Yeager assumed the office; in 1932 Dr. C. Max -Bauer became Park Naturalist and served until 1946, when David de L. -Condon was advanced to the position.[344] All of these men have been -nature-wise and public-minded. As time passed two assistants to the -Chief Naturalist and thirty-five seasonal Park ranger-naturalists -completed this organization. Robert N. McIntyre became Chief Park -Naturalist in 1959. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Park Ranger-Naturalist and tourist group.] - -Today Yellowstone's Naturalist Division stands as the symbol of -America's love for the great out-of-doors. Its philosophy is wise and -comprehensive. Its scientists have delved deeply for the facts. Still, -there is a spirit of self-abnegation among the personnel. They serve all -and sundry in every possible way, and yet they are pledged to the -preservation of the natural treasures. Their contribution to protection -of park values is shared with that of the ranger staff. The number of -public contacts runs into the hundreds of thousands annually. Wise, -indeed, is the tourist who avails himself of this free guide service. - -The principal points of interest are visited over footpath or by auto -caravan. Daily schedules of these activities are posted, and an -illustrated lecture is held in an amphitheater each night. Many citizens -have expressed their satisfaction with this naturalist service: - - He unravelled before our city-wearied eyes the skein of beauty nature - has hidden in this great preserve. With skillful phrase he repictured - for us the aeons during which the mountains were wrinkling and the - cobalt lakes were born. His keen eyes found us mountain sheep ... his - wide knowledge compassed the flowers and birds along the way. He knew - when and where to take us to see the beaver at work, and where the - water ouzel bubbled forth its cascade of song. He answered all our - questions with calm courtesy. Around the nightly campfire he brought - to us in song and story the romance and exuberance of the west.... - - The fire of his enthusiasm welded us to the National Park idea and - out-of-doors as nothing had ever done. We returned to the east - inspired by a new understanding of the greatness of America and the - magnificence of its beauty.[345] - -In 1928 the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Foundation made a donation to be -used by the American Association of Museums in the Park. Under the -direction of Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus museums were erected at Old Faithful, -Madison, Norris and Fishing Bridge. The main museum at Mammoth was -improved and a number of roadside exhibits were established.[346] - -Mission 66 was begun by the National Park Service in 1956. It is a -conservation program to assure full protection of irreplaceable scenic, -scientific and historic treasures and to develop and staff the Parks to -permit their wisest possible use for your enjoyment. Completion is -scheduled for 1966, the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the -National Park Service, hence Mission 66. - -Under this program, new roads, bridges, campgrounds and other facilities -are being built. A fine new visitor center was opened in 1958 at Canyon -Village and a large number of attractive new roadside exhibits and signs -interpret the human and natural history of the great natural museum that -is Yellowstone. - -During the score of years required to develop the naturalist branch, the -protective division was not marking time. In 1920 James McBride became -the first Chief Ranger. Since then Samuel Tilden Woodring, George F. -Baggley, Francis D. LaNoue, Maynard Barrows, Curtis K. Skinner and Otto -M. Brown have served. Nelson Murdock became Chief Ranger in 1960. Under -their supervision the character of the personnel has been gradually -changed. Originally a mountain scout and ex-soldier organization, it is -now composed of college graduates. These men divide their time and -effort between applying the principles of forest and wild life -management with those of public relations. Physically robust, mentally -alert, sociable and understanding, they properly exemplify the -traditional informality and hospitality of the West. - -Of course there have always been a few political appointees present -among the seasonal Park rangers. This makes the group quite varied, -somewhat in keeping with the universality of the tourists themselves. -Many a city lad has had the time of his life in his fleeting role as a -"ninety-day wonder." Still there has always been a restraining influence -reaching out from the chief ranger's office. A young man is not allowed -to become too self-conscious over his uniform or badge of authority. - -The Superintendent presides over the protective and naturalist divisions -and all other units of the National Park Service in Yellowstone. Only -four men have held this position since the army withdrew in 1918. C. A. -Lindsley was succeeded by Horace M. Albright in 1919. Mr. Albright -served for ten years, after which Roger W. Toll took office. Edmund B. -Rogers was appointed May 25, 1936, and served until November 1, 1956, -when Superintendent Lemuel A. Garrison succeeded him. The -superintendent's office is the nerve center of the Park. From there all -activities are co-ordinated. This official is also the liaison man with -the National Park Service; he makes all estimates and recommendations; -he contends for assistance from cooperating agencies, such as the -Civilian Conservation Corps, Emergency Relief Administration, and Public -Works Administration.[347] The Public Health Service, the Geological -Survey, and the Fish and Wildlife Service each lend cooperation in their -special fields. It is also his function to consider many letters of -introduction and requests for special favors. He is expected, -personally, to welcome numerous delegations and important national and -foreign personages. Information and courtesies flow from his presence -continuously. He must determine the bounds of concessionaires, hear -major complaints, oppose all invasions by mercenary interests, and, if -necessary, labor to expand the Park's boundaries. - - [Illustration: Madison Junction Historical Museum.] - -Beginning early in the twentieth century there were advocates of an -extension southward. Many people wanted to have the cathedral-like -Tetons incorporated in the Park. A campaign for a Greater Yellowstone -was launched, and in 1918 Representative Mondell introduced a measure -(H.R. 11661) providing for their incorporation.[348] However, the matter -was delayed, and the passing of time resulted in the establishment of -the Grand Teton National Park. A national park may only be created by an -act of Congress; whereas an executive order is sufficient for the -creation of a national monument or a moderate extension of a park -boundary. Through a proclamation issued by President Hoover on October -20, 1932, Yellowstone National Park acquired a triangular strip of 7,600 -acres of land, now called the Stevens Creek area. It is located -northwest of Gardiner townsite, and it was enlarged to the extent of -nearly a thousand acres the next year. In affairs of this character the -National Park Service and the Superintendent work in close cooperation -with the Secretary of the Interior. Indeed, the superintendency of -Yellowstone is one of the ranking positions of its kind in the National -Park Service. His final obligation is to be sure that the original -objective "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" is still the -chief and ever-constant purpose. - -It has been pointed out that the fulfillment of this objective is rather -difficult, because various interests and groups have their own ideas -concerning the purposes and methods of administering national parks. For -example, in Idaho, there are some organizations that seek an Idaho -entrance to the Park on Fall River. They point to the fact that distance -and time would be appreciably reduced in reaching Old Faithful via this -route. Besides, they aver, such an entrance would traverse a beautiful -scenic area. These contentions are both valid and understandable. So is -the demand for landing strips and airport facilities within the -reservation boundaries. - -The latter project, it is held, is identical to the position raised by -motorists in 1915. National Park officials have met these issues -squarely. Director Conrad L. Wirth and his Yellowstone representatives -have vetoed both proposals. "Surely," they reason, "the Park is for the -people, but if it is multisected by highways and airways, what will -become of the primitive areas?" Sizeable regions are essential for the -propagation and preservation of wild life. In addition, they point to -the fact that as of this date most people conceive of the parks as -havens of relative quiet and rest. - -During the travel season of 1959, Yellowstone was host to 1,489,112 -visitors. This multitude exceeded the total of all persons entering the -Park in the first half century of its existence. Facilitating their -enjoyment and at the same time preserving the domain as a pleasuring -ground for their descendants requires a good measure of understanding on -the part of the public, together with a high degree of understanding and -training upon the part of the officials. - -Earth tremors are common in the Yellowstone region. The Hayden Survey -reported feeling severe shocks near Steamboat Point on Yellowstone Lake -in 1871. They named the site "Earthquake Camp." Other quakes have been -reported, mostly of a minor nature. At 11:38 p.m. on August 17, 1959, an -earthquake of magnitude 7.1 on the Richter Scale struck the Yellowstone -area. The epicenter of the quake was along the western boundary of the -Park in the vicinity of Grayling Creek. - -The greatest earthquake damage took place in the Madison Canyon about 7 -miles below Hebgen Dam and outside Yellowstone. A massive slide of about -80 million tons of earth and rock blocked the canyon and entombed a -number of campers along a half-mile stretch of the Madison River. This -natural dam has created Earthquake Lake, a feature that will attract -attention for years to come. - -In Yellowstone National Park dangerous rock slides covered Park roads at -several points along the Madison, Firehole, and Gibbon rivers, and at -Golden Gate. Tall chimneys toppled from Old Faithful Inn and other Park -buildings, and there was structural damage to many roads and buildings. - -The hot springs showed a greater change in this one night than had been -observed in the entire history of the Park. Close study of the thermal -features revealed that most springs had discharged water copiously -during the quake and aftershocks, and then ebbed below normal levels. -Investigation revealed that at least 298 springs and geysers had erupted -the night of the quake, and 160 of these were springs with no previous -record of eruption. Other changes occurred slowly. The Fountain Paint -Pot did not manifest unusual activity until several days after the -quake, but then encroached upon walks and parking areas. Most of the hot -springs became turbid, and even cold springs that fed the mountain -streams on the west side of the Park discharged an opaque mud which -discolored the creeks and rivers. - -Equilibrium was gradually restored in the geyser basins. Some of the -earthquake changes were permanent, others transitory. All of them make -this chapter in the living geology of Yellowstone an intensely -interesting one for Park visitors to learn about. - -Upon receiving reports about earthquake effects throughout the Park, -Superintendent Lon Garrison exclaimed, "The Lord had his arms around us. -We had 18,000 people inside Yellowstone that night, and not one person -was killed or badly hurt. Think what would have happened if the quake -had come during daylight--at Old Faithful Inn, for example, where the -chimney fell into the dining room." - -Thus, out of Yellowstone's development under scouts, soldiers, and -rangers, has come invaluable experience for the good of the whole -nation. From its humble origin a service has evolved that now -administers more than one hundred and seventy-five national park service -areas. Perhaps the value of this program toward the enrichment of -American life cannot be assessed. However, something of its breadth has -been caught and cast in the bronze plaque at the Madison Junction -Museum: - - Stephen Tyng Mather - July 4, 1867 Jan. 22, 1930 - - He laid the foundation of the National Park Service. Defining and - establishing the policy under which its areas shall be developed and - conserved unimpaired for future generations. There will never come an - end to the good that he has done. - -Yellowstone is one of these irreducible frontiers which should never -vanish, but to find a frontier one must first have the spirit of a -frontiersman. Therefore within its confines are vast wilderness zones -into which people may still go who cherish the elemental conditions of -earth and its denizens. Here there may always be a pristine land, -reminiscent of the primitive environment of mankind. Here is a temporary -refuge for people distraught by the strain and turmoil of modern life. -It is becoming increasingly clear that the nation which leads the world -in feverish business activity requires playgrounds as well as workshops. -If America would maintain its industrial supremacy let her plan not only -the conservation of materials but of men.[349] Therefore, let them come -to Yellowstone and other national parks and achieve physical, mental, -and especially spiritual regeneration for all time to come. In -Yellowstone, the National Park Service will be on hand to so direct the -experience of the visitors to the end that even from afar and after many -years their memories will return again. And, as the deepening twilight -seems to bring the earth and the sky together, they may reflect upon a -land where white-robed columns of steam ascend from the fissures of -geysers long dead, like ghosts revisiting the scenes of their -activity.[350] - -Such is the desire of all large and generous minds. They are in full -agreement with the glowing tribute of the Earl of Dunraven: - - All honor then to the United States for having bequeathed as a free - gift to man the beauties and curiosities of Wonderland. It is an act - worthy of a great nation, and she will have her reward in the praise - of the present army of tourists no less than in the thanks of the - generations to come.[351] - -And so, here is Yellowstone--The Gem of the Mountains. Is she not worthy -of the fullest measure of preservation, appreciation, and defense? -Surely, the Park is an incomparable heritage in the divine legacy that -is America. May her fountains never fail but go dancing eternally along, -shedding joy and inspiration upon the hearts of all who seek a certain -treasure. - - [Illustration: W. S. Chapman - Park Ranger.] - - - - - Appendix I - YOUNG MEN CAMPING IN YELLOWSTONE WILDERNESS - - - An adaptation of Rudyard Kipling's - "The Feet of the Young Men" - By Merrill D. Beal - - When Yellowstone Park is opened then the smokes of council rise, - Pleasant smokes 'ere yet twixt trail and trail they choose. - Then the ropes and girths are tested while they pack their last - supplies, - Now the young men head for camps beyond the Tetons! - Faith will lead them to those altars, hope will light them to that - shrine, - Pilot knobs will safely guide them to their goal. - - They must go, go, go, away from home! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - Away! The trail is clear before you, - When the old spring fret comes o'er you - And the Red Gods call for you! - - They will see the beaver falling and hear the white swan calling, - They'll behold the fishhawk fumble as bald eagle takes a tumble to rob - him of his haul. - They will lie alone to hear the wild geese cry. - They may watch the blacktail mating as they work the chosen waters - where the mackinaw are waiting - And the cutthroats jumping crazy for the fly! - - They must go, go, go, away from here! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - Begone! The way is clear before you - When the old spring fret comes o'er you, - And the Red Gods call for you! - - They will see the lakeside lilies where the bull moose meets the cow, - Or maybe silver grizzlies nurse the sow. - They must climb the blue-roofed Rockies and observe that windy rift - Where the baffling mountain eddies chop and change. - They will learn the long day's patience, belly down on talus drift, - And hear the thud of bison on the range. - It is there that they are going where the bighorn and the ewes lie, - To a trusty, nimble ranger that they know; - They have sworn an oath to keep it on the brink of Mitsiadazi - For the Red Gods call them out and they must go. - - Let them go, go, go, away from home! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - Be off! The trail is clear before you - When the old spring fret comes o'er you, - And the Red Gods make their medicine again. - - "So it's onward ponies, sally, this is not the place to dally!" - For the young men's thoughts are turning to a camp of special - yearning, - Hidden in a hanging valley. - They must find that blackened timber, they must head that racing - stream, - With its raw, right-angled log jam at the end, - And a bar of sun-warmed gravel where a lad can bask and dream - To the click of shod canoe poles 'round the bend. - It is there that they are going with their rods and reels and traces, - With a silent, smoky packer that they know; - To their beds of fleecy fir-mat with the star light on their faces, - All are ready now to hold the evening show. - - So they go, go, go, away from here! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - So long! The trail is clear before you, - When the old spring fret comes o'er you, - And the Red Gods call you forth and you must go! - - In the afterglow of twilight, tales of wonder find their voice, - Trapping, fighting, robbing, poaching yield a choice: - There's John Colter's mighty run and Jim Bridger's towering fun, - There's Everts' five-week fast and Ed Trafton's crimson past. - There's George Cowan's rugged vim; there's Buckskin Charley, - Beaver Dick and Yankee Jim! - Nez Percé Joseph's flight and capture will fill each soul with rapture - In this camp of keen desire and pure delight. - - Let them go, go, go, away from home! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - Away! The trail is clear before you - When the old spring fret comes o'er you, - And the Red Gods mix their medicine again. - - [Illustration: Photo by Jack Young - _Young men camping in Yellowstone_] - - When the mountain yarns cease flowing and the night is in the glowing, - conversation wanes. - Then a sudden clap of thunder makes them huddle up the number to fend - against the rains. - When the fleeting squalls are over and the clouds ride high and fair, - They will hear the lodgepole crackle and inhale the pine-sap air. - Then bacon scent and wood smoke will attract an eager bear, - He will grunt and sniff and gurgle as he wends nocturnal rounds. - As darkness dims youth's vision, so sleep crowds out all sounds, - But the eerie detonation of the bull elk's morning call - Will waken them from slumber by a singing water fall. - - Hence, they go, go, go, away from here! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - Carry on! The trail is clear before you - When the old spring fret comes o'er you, - And the Red Gods call for you! - - Unto each the voice and vision, unto each his hunch and sign, - Lonely geyser in a basin, misty sweat bath 'neath a pine. - Unto each a lad who knows his naked soul! - Unto each a rainbow arching through a window in the sky, - While the blazoned, bird-winged butterflies flap by. - It is there that they are going to a region that they know, - Where the sign betrays the badger and the shaggy buffalo. - Where the trail runs out in breccia midst rock forests row on row. - It is there life glides serenely without conduct that's unseemly, - In a land where thoughts and feelings overflow. - Quick! Ah, heave the camp kit over! - For the Red Gods call them forth and they must go. - - Let them go, go, go, away from home! - On the summit of the world they're overdue. - Farewell! The trail is clear before you - When the old spring fret comes o'er you, - And the Red Gods mix their medicine once more. - - - - - Appendix II - THE PROBLEM OF "COLTER'S ROUTE IN 1807" - - -It may seem unfruitful at this time to attempt a solution of the problem -of John Colter's 1807 route of discovery in Yellowstone. Many people -require no proof of anything cited in the records of such great scouts -as Jedediah S. Smith, Kit Carson, and John Colter. Their integrity need -not be questioned. Still, it is within the province of the historian to -sift and test all of the evidence until the truth falls into place as -elements in a jigsaw puzzle. Even myths and legends should be examined -for any implications and bearing they might have upon a fact. It is in -this light that the following discussion of the Colter discovery problem -is presented. This case is entirely hypothetical, since no specific -reference to his route has been found anywhere among source material, -except as it is approximated upon the Map of 1814. - -Beyond the known facts of Colter's journey in 1807, the Map of 1814, and -the "Colter's Hell" legend, there is a complete hiatus, or vacuum. -However, the Map of 1814 is certainly a tangible thing; let it tell its -own story: It is known that William Clark had a friend in Philadelphia -named Nicholas Biddle who arranged for the publication of _The Lewis and -Clark Journals_. In order to properly depict the journey, Mr. Biddle -secured the services of a prominent Philadelphia cartographer named -Samuel Lewis. Twice in 1810 Clark sent sheets of map material to Mr. -Biddle.[352] John Colter reached St. Louis in May, 1810. It is certain -that he called upon Clark and gave him information, if not sheets, -depicting his famous journey of 1807. This data was undoubtedly sent on -to Mr. Biddle, either as Colter drew it or as it was accurately redrawn -by Clark. At least one of Colter's sheets was incorporated in the final -Map of 1814.[353] The first, or eastern prairie, side of the Colter plat -traced his journey up Pryors Fork, about fifty miles west of Fort -Manuel, through Pryors Gap. Then he crossed over to Clarks Fork, which -he ascended, probably to Dead Indian Creek. From this creek Colter -crossed over a divide to the North Fork Shoshone River where he first -smelled sulphur. This he called Stinking Water River, most probably -referring to the present De Maris Mineral Springs near Cody, Wyoming. - -On Stinking Water River he encountered the "Yep-pe Band of Snake Indians -1000 souls." This was evidently a clan of the Crow tribe. From these -Yep-pe Indians, denizens of both prairie and mountain, he undoubtedly -learned of the Yellowstone geysers and other marvels. This accounts for -his side trip which brought him back to the Yep-pe camp. It is likely -that some of these Indians directed Colter along another route in -returning to Manuel's Fort. Obviously they went down the North Fork -Shoshone, or Colter's Stinking Water River, to its junction with -Shoshone River. This, he followed to Gap Creek (now Sage Creek) which he -ascended to Pryors Gap.[354] By this alternate route Colter again -reached Pryors Fork where he crossed over to return to Fort Manuel. - -From this examination it is obvious that the western boundary of -Colter's first map lies east of 110° longitude, and up to that point no -difficulty whatever is encountered with either the route or the map. -This line undoubtedly defines the west border of Colter's first sheet. -It became a part of the Map of 1814 without change. Hence, it is a -correct representation of the "Buffalo Bill country" around Cody, -Wyoming. Published in 1814, it could only have been the work of John -Colter, because no other white man had visited that area. Because of the -accuracy of Colter's first plat, or east portion of the map, his course -to the Yep-pe Indian camp can be followed like tracks in the snow. Just -so, the return route east of 110° can be identified as coming down -Sunlight Creek and back up Dead Indian Creek to the Yep-pe Indian camp. -From there he followed a shorter route, in returning to the eastern edge -of the map sheet, that is to say, the head of Pryors Fork. - - [Illustration: M. D. Beal - Yellowstone section of Colter's route.] - - [Illustration: Logic and a reasonable sense of procedure would - support this route as the trail of Colter's Yellowstone Discovery. - Conclusive proof is lacking.] - -Thus, it is evident that the eastern courses of Colter's journey, both -going and coming, are accurately depicted on the Map of 1814. East of -110° it is an accurate and authentic mapping of the area, just such a -one as an intelligent trapper would make. Whatever is depicted -corresponds to actual geography. It is factual, tangible, verifiable, -and indisputable. - -This part of the map proves that Colter did take an extended journey in -a southwesterly direction, but it does not prove that he discovered -Yellowstone Park. The dependable part of the map simply accounts for the -eastern part of the figure eight which is essential to describe the -complete journey.[355] The reliable part leads him only to the -southeastern border of Yellowstone Park and brings him back from farther -north along its eastern boundary. - -The western portion of the dotted line on the Map of 1814 is purely -fictitious and encompasses an area far beyond that occupied by -Yellowstone Park. Indeed, this part of Colter's route winds among a -labyrinth of geographical unreality.[356] Therefore, Colter's route, as -represented by the western loop of the dotted line, is likewise invalid. -Here, then, is the problem of Colter's discovery: How could the map of -his exploration, which necessarily described a figure eight, be at once -so authentic in the east and so fictitious in the west? The Yellowstone -area of the Map of 1814 is certainly one of organized confusion, but it -does not follow that Colter drew that portion of the map as it appears. - -Actual geography and common sense prove that a trapper on foot could not -possibly have seen both the Arkansas and Platte rivers. Just as surely, -geography and common sense attest that in traveling a normal western -loop of the figure eight he would have seen precisely what the map does -not depict, namely: Upper Yellowstone River, Snake River, Yellowstone -Lake, and the thermal areas at Thumb of Lake and near Hayden Valley. - -Thus, by elimination, an obvious conclusion evolves, namely that the -western loop is not as Colter drew it. Instead of actuality, there is -fiction; nothing in this part of the map conforms to reality. That -geography only exists upon the Map of 1814. John Colter died in 1813 so -he never even saw the route as depicted, to say nothing of traveling -along it. - - [Illustration: J. N. Barry - Western section of Colter's route.] - - [Illustration: A true sketch of the Yellowstone Park area.] - - [Illustration: Fictitious geography depicted on the map of 1814. - Note the complete incongruity between the real map and the guess - map.] - -The failure of writers to recognize the fictitious character of this -portion of the Map of 1814 has led to a comical performance. They have -assigned to Colter the role of a human helicopter who hopped over -mountains and valleys visiting the drainage basins of all the river -systems within a radius of five hundred miles of the Yep-pe Indian -village. First they trail him on Teton River, Big Sandy, Gros Ventre, -and Greybull. Then they track him over South Pass, Teton Pass, and Union -and Twogwotee passes. These authors have never trudged the wilds of -which they write nor even measured them on a real map. Where, then, did -Colter travel? The answer to that problem largely depends upon a -rational interpretation of that fantastic map sheet. Perhaps an -investigation of the process by which the map was produced will offer a -clue. - -As stated before, Clark sent map materials to Biddle, who in turn passed -them on to Samuel Lewis, a professional cartographer, to be worked into -a map of the Trans-Mississippi West. This was a very difficult -assignment because the sheets were of various scales, which necessitated -overlapping, crowding, and uncertainty as to latitudes and -longitudes.[357] The manner in which Lewis fitted them into a mosaic -represents a remarkable work of art. Deficiencies are largely -attributable to the inadequate data received, but in the case of -Colter's journey another element is involved. - -In the course of compilation, between 1810 and 1814, Clark must have -sent a redrawing of the route of Colter's journey.[358] By way of -review, let it be remembered that Colter reached St. Louis in May of -1810. He called on Clark and evidently presented several sheets of -trapper map to him. This was the material which depicted his journey of -1807, and it seemed to be highly appreciated by Clark. That it was given -preference by Clark over the contemporary exploration of Zebulon M. Pike -simply substantiates the belief that Colter's journey made a profound -impression upon Clark at that time.[359] On December 20, 1810, Clark -apparently sent the original Colter sheets, or properly redrawn copies -of them, to Nicholas Biddle. Clark also inserted, or superimposed, two -rivers upon the Colter drawing. They were Clarks Fork and Bighorn -rivers. - -It is important to remember that Clark had full confidence in Colter's -representation of his journey at this time, that is, December, 1810. The -following year Andrew Henry returned from his exploration of the Madison -and Snake river regions. He had seen only ordinary country. This report -seems to have destroyed Clark's belief in Colter's story of marvels. Not -wishing to deceive anyone by the delusions of a deranged trapper's mind, -Clark apparently directed Samuel Lewis to retain Colter's east plat, -that is, the Buffalo Bill country, but suppress the western section, the -Yellowstone Lake region. In lieu of Colter's depiction of the western -loop of his figure eight Clark evidently sent the draft that now appears -on the Map of 1814. - -What possible reason can be assigned for this action? It is anybody's -guess; no one can now determine what Clark thought, but following is a -rational hypothesis: In the close of the year 1811, Andrew Henry and his -men returned from their trapping venture in the Upper Snake River basin. -They had skirted the western border of Wonderland along the line of the -Madison and Gallatin rivers and explored the sources of Henrys Fork of -the Snake River. Yet, Henry had not seen any hot springs, geysers, or -great lakes. No doubt Henry had heard trappers joke about "Colter's -Hell." Personally, he showed no confidence in it. Evidently both he and -Clark considered that Henry's and Colter's journeys overlapped. -Actually, the Gallatin Range intervened between them. It is reasonable, -therefore, that Henry's report and attitude affected Clark's original -belief in Colter's story. Where he first believed he now doubted. -Perhaps Clark concluded that Colter's terrible experiences had deranged -his mind. It is certain that Clark sent his new knowledge of the Henrys -Fork country to Biddle in 1812 because it appears on the Map of -1814.[360] It was undoubtedly at this time that Clark sent in his -redrawn, guesswork version of the western portion of Colter's map. No -one knows exactly what changes Clark made, but the Map of 1814 proves -conclusively that Clark did not depict the "Colter's Hell" country which -contains the wonders of Yellowstone Park as it was originally presented -to him. - -It was a valid reaction for Clark to have become suspicious of Colter's -reliability, and the substitution of his own geographical speculation -for Colter's Yellowstone sketch was probably sincere. Clark was too -honest to depict the delusions of an "insane" man. Also he was very -anxious to have a reasonably complete and integrated map. The only -alternatives were to allow the Colter marvel sheet to appear or else to -mark a considerable area "unexplored." He was caught in the bonds of -uncertainty and made a compromise. The result was a sheet of bogus -geography which is entirely incongruous, not only with the facts, but -with Clark's uniformly excellent map work.[361] - -Clark's choice of alternatives only complicated the problem of his -cartographer. Lewis no doubt recognized the vast discrepancies between -Colter's genuine depiction and Clark's counterfeit so he evidently -decided upon a compromise of his own. How this expert reconciled the -conflicting data of the two map sheets into one pattern is at once a -masterpiece in cartography and psychology. The technique he adopted -might be called "double entry map making." He used the Yellowstone Lake -part of Colter's sketch as an element for a concealed map; it appears as -a mountain range. Such a grotesque range cannot be found in any of the -surrounding territory, but when visualized as a lake it is amazing how -it conforms to what a trapper traveling a logical route would have seen -of Yellowstone Lake, namely, the South Arm and Thumb. Lewis shied away -from any clear-cut representation of the geyser region. However, besides -including the disguised lake portion of Colter's map, he did other -things to "poke fun" at Clark's speculations. He drew Lake Eustis in the -manner of a gargoyle. It must have been deliberately "satanized." -Nothing with such a preposterous shape was ever known among men. Why -didn't Clark revolt at this representation? Surely he never drew -anything like that himself. That is not all of Lewis' "fun making." He -drew still another lake and gave it the shape of a deformed piece of -liver. Its appearance is ridiculous in the other extreme,[362] but, as -if to add insult to injury, Mr. Lewis raised a question as to this -lake's legitimacy. Clark named it Biddle in honor of his patron, -Nicholas Biddle, whereas, upon the English version, the name appearing -is Riddle! Lewis was able to "get away" with this performance because -Clark did not see any proofs, only the published work. - - [Illustration: J. N. Barry - "Double-entry" map of Yellowstone.] - - [Illustration: Samuel Lewis' "Double-entry" map. An attempt to - reconcile Colter's draft of the Yellowstone country with Clark's - obvious assumptions.] - - [Illustration: When segregated these "concealed" elements give a - logical representation of what Colter undoubtedly saw, namely the - southwest arm and thumb of Yellowstone Lake.] - -Remembering that Samuel Lewis was employed to reproduce a map conforming -to data and specifications furnished by Clark, what more could he do to -manifest his skepticism, if not displeasure, over the incorporation of -fictitious geography upon this super-important map of the West? -Remember, Lewis was a professional cartographer; he had seen, and had -already drawn, Colter's sheet of real country. On the original draft the -southwest Arm and Thumb of Lake Yellowstone undoubtedly appeared. Now he -was asked to redraw it into counterfeit geography. Disturbed by the -substitution of Clark's sheet of "Gulliver's geography" for Colter's -journey, he disguised a lake in a mountain range, drew a gargoylian lake -(Eustis), and raised the enigma of Biddle-Riddle.[363] After all, -cartography is simply a scientific refinement of pictography, or -storytelling. The message of Samuel Lewis, as revealed in the -Yellowstone segment of the Map of 1814, might reasonably be: "This -portion of the map is bogus. I do not know what the true conditions are. -Colter's data appears all right; Clark's later information says it -isn't. It's all a Riddle; I leave a clue." Against this background, with -the fiction cut away, it may now be possible to explore the problem of -Colter's route through the Yellowstone country. - -Did Colter make a western loop trip beyond the Yep-pe Indian camp? Of -that there can be no doubt. Clark's representation does not impugn -Colter's word in respect to the reality of the journey itself but only -as to where he went and what he saw. If an approximation of his route -can be reproduced, the question of what he saw will automatically fall -into place like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The problem, then, is to -correctly reconstruct the west loop of the figure eight. This procedure -has become possible by reason of the proposition that has been -established in this discussion, particularly when it is remembered that -Colter knew his way around and could be relied upon to make a proper -orientation to the total environment. Now his course can be followed by -segregating another feature from what has been referred to as "Lewis' -Concealed Colter Map." - - [Illustration: J. N. Barry - A section of fictitious geography. - - A larger section of the Map of 1814 showing Samuel Lewis' ingenious - combination of Colter's data, Clark's guesses and the Cartographer's - own obvious design to pose a gumption test for students of Western - geographic exploration.] - -West of longitude 110° it will be noted that two features stand out in -bold relief, namely, a mitten-shaped mountain labeled FOSSIL (probably -the Trident) and the crude outline of South Arm and Thumb of Yellowstone -Lake. These two landmarks may be used as guide posts in following -Colter's reconstructed loop through Yellowstone. Colter's authentic east -loop journey, already described, brought him approximately to the 110° -meridian. Colter's mitten-shaped landmark lies about seventy-five miles -due west of the border on his second map sheet, but Clark's dotted line -depicts Colter's route fifty miles south of the mountain shaped like a -mitten and marked FOSSIL. It is valid to inquire how Colter could -discern its shape or know of its fossils from that distance. His Indian -friends knew nothing about fossils. The dotted line does not cross or -even skirt this mountain. To reach the "Fossil Mountain" from Salt Fork, -Colter could ascend by Elk-Wapiti or Fishhawk creeks. Each meets the -requirements of direction and distance, and there is a good chance that -somewhere along one of these routes a large petrified fish, or something -like a fish, was seen then and may be eventually found. Such a discovery -would remove all doubt about the direction in which he traveled.[364] - - [Illustration: Western section of Coulter's route. - - Logic and a reasonable sense of procedure would support this route - as the trail of Coulter's Yellowstone discovery. Conclusive proof is - lacking.] - -From the "Fossil Mountain" Colter probably descended Pass Creek to -Thorofare Creek, which he followed to the Upper Yellowstone River. Then -he might have ascended either Falcon, Lynx, or Atlantic creeks, -preferably the latter, to Two Ocean Pass. Crossing the Continental -Divide, he would then descend Pacific Creek, skirting Big Game Ridge, -and cross the South Fork of Snake River, within the present confines of -the Park. Thence he could go along Chicken Ridge, from where he would -frequently view South Arm, headed toward Flat Mountain Arm. After -crossing Solution Creek he would strike West Thumb.[365] The validity of -this itinerary is wholly sustained by the genuine features of this area -as they appear upon the Map of 1814. Indeed, the route seems obvious and -indisputable in view of the actual conditions existing. On a crude map, -where there are numerous, similar streams, various combinations are, of -course, possible. - -Leaving West Thumb, Colter would have circled the lake to its outlet and -followed it to the Hayden Valley thermal area. Dragons Mouth and Mud -Volcano were undoubtedly features that contributed to the vivid -impression he carried away and transmitted to others. Even the "Hot -Spring Brimstone" characterization on the Map of 1814 mildly suggests -explosive thermal activity. The phrase also suggests that Colter mapped -a geyser basin.[366] - -Colter's return route from the area near the outlet of Yellowstone River -supplies the final link in the figure eight. To reach the Yep-pe Indian -camp he might have veered to the northeast, crossed Yellowstone River at -the ford below Mud Volcano, and ascended Pelican Creek or one of the -tributaries of the Lamar River. After crossing the Absarokas he -evidently descended one of the creeks that empty into Clarks Fork. No -one on earth can be certain about this part of his journey. There is no -reference anywhere, and the Map of 1814 gives no clue. Still he did -reach a tributary of Clarks Fork which he followed to its junction with -Dead Indian Creek, thence to the Yep-pe band. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE - - -In the preparation of the first four chapters the use of explorer and -trapper journals was imperative. The _Journals of Lewis and Clark_, -Patrick Gass's _Journal_, and Robert Stuart's _Discovery of the Oregon -Trail_ are basic. - -Trapper activities and Indian life are effectively treated by Stallo -Vinton in _John Colter_; Alexander Ross, _The Fur Hunters of the Far -West_; Hiram Chittenden, _The American Fur Trade_; John Neihardt, _The -Splendid Wayfaring_; J. Cecil Alter, _Jim Bridger, Trapper, -Frontiersman, Scout and Guide_; Bernard De Voto, _Across the Wide -Missouri_; and Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_. A correct conception of -original Indian life and character will reward the student of Rudolph -Kurz's _Journal_ and Washington Irving's two volumes: _The Adventures of -Captain Bonneville_ and _Astoria_. George Catlin's monumental treatise -on _North American Indians_ is also a classic on that subject. - -Important in the field of writings dealing with the partial and final -discovery of Yellowstone are Nathaniel P. Langford, _Discovery of -Yellowstone Park 1870_, together with the shorter accounts of his -companions as recorded in Louis C. Crampton's _Early History of -Yellowstone National Park and Its Relations to National Park Policies_. -The Yellowstone explorations of James Stuart and Walter W. DeLacy and -others are found in _Contributions to the Historical Society of -Montana_, volumes one to five inclusive. - -John G. White's scholarly manuscript entitled "A Souvenir of Wyoming" -contains much material of a provocative character. Nice points of detail -are raised concerning John Colter's route and other trapper visitations. - -The chapter on "Travel and Accommodations--New Businesses" was the -result of a search through the standard magazines covering the half -century from 1870 to 1920. The State College of Washington collection -was found adequate for this survey. - -It would be impossible to write the story of the Park's administration -without a review of all the _Annual Reports of the Acting -Superintendents, and Superintendents of Yellowstone National Park_. The -Park Library has a complete file from 1872 to the present time. In -addition, the _Reports of the Secretary of the Interior_ and the -_Reports of the Director of National Parks_, covering the same period, -were essential cross references in this effort. A complete set of these -reports is available at the State College of Washington. A perusal of -the soldier (scout) diaries in the Park Library gave the substance for -the discussion of that interesting phase. - -Among guide books _The Haynes Guide_ is in a class by itself. It is not -only an invaluable hand book to the casual tourist, but it is an -excellent encyclopedia for research. - -The Earl of Dunraven's _Hunting in the Yellowstone_ affords an excellent -narrative from the standpoint of measuring the progress of all phases of -Park activity. - -_Yellowstone Nature Notes_ is the best source for those sprightly -experiences that make life so interesting and pleasant in the Park. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - MANUSCRIPT MATERIAL - -Anderson, E. C. Diary 1909. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Anderson, Henry. Diary 1910, 1911. Park Library. - -Brown, Jesse R. Diary 1909, 1910. Park Library. - -Burgess, Felix. Diary 1898, 1899. Park Library. - -Cook, C. W. "Remarks of C. W. Cook, Last Survivor of the Original - Explorers of the Yellowstone Park Region." Park Library. - -Dorrity, Mrs. James. "Story of the Battle of Bear's Paw." M. D. Beal - Collection, Idaho State College, Pocatello, Idaho. - -Fitzgerald, S. M. Diary 1907. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Graham, S. D. Diary 1906, 1907, 1908. Park Library. - -Harlan, W. B. "The Fiasco at Fort Fizzle--1936." M. D. Beal Collection. - -Holmes, W. H. Extracts from the Diary 1872, 1878. Park Library, Mammoth, - Wyoming. - -Langford, Nathaniel P. Diary, Second Trip to Yellowstone 1872. Park - Library. - -Little, Raymond G. Diary 1911, 1912. Park Library. - -Louck, D. J. Journal in Manuscript. State Historian's Office, Laramie, - Wyoming. - -Martin, Louis. Diary 1900, 1901. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Mason, John E. Diary 1909. Park Library. - -Matlock, Jesse M. "Dictation." M. D. Beal Collection. - -Morrison, James. Diary 1897, 1898, 1899. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -McBride, James. Diary 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912. Park Library. - -Peale, A. C. Diary of Field Operations, U. S. Geological Survey 1872. - (Three volumes.) Park Library. - -Phillips, Ulrich B. "Lectures on Early America." (Notes taken by the - author at the University of California in 1933.) - -Rubin, Walter. Diary 1911. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Shambow, Louie. "Story of the Battle of Bear's Paw." M. D. Beal - Collection. - -Titus, N. C. "Story of Colonel Miles' Attack on the Nez Percé Camp." M. - D. Beal Collection. - -Thompson, Captain. U. S. A. "Memorandum of a Trip from Fort Ellis, - Montana Territory to Yellowstone Park." (Sept. 1882.) Park - Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Trischman, Harry. Diary 1909, 1910, 1912. Park Library, Mammoth, - Wyoming. - -Wall, M. J. Diary. Park Library. - -White, John G. "A Souvenir of Wyoming." (One of eight typed copies of a - trip made in 1916.) Park Library. - -White, Mable McClain. "Dictation." M. D. Beal Collection. - -Wilson, Charley. Diary 1910. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Wilson, James. Diary 1907, 1908. Park Library. - -Whittaker, George. Diary 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900. Park Library. - - - PRINTED JOURNALS, DIARIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES - -Bradbury, John. _Travels in the Interior Of America, 1809, 1810, and - 1811._ London: Sherwood Neeley, and Jones, 1819. - -Carson, Kit. _Autobiography._ Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1935. - -_Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana, I, II, III, IV, V. - Helena, Montana: Rocky Mountain Publishing Co., 1876. - -Dunraven, The Earl of. _Hunting in the Yellowstone._ New York: The - Macmillan Co., 1925. - -Egan, Howard. _Pioneering the West._ Egan Estate. Richmond, Utah. - -Ferris, Warren A. _Life in the Rocky Mountains, 1830-35._ Salt Lake - City: Rocky Mountain Book Shop, 1940. - -Folsom, David E. _The Folsom-Cook Exploration of the Upper Yellowstone._ - St. Paul: H. L. Collins Co., 1894. - -Gass, Patrick. _Journal._ Edited by James K. Hosmer, Chicago: A. C. - McClurg and Co., 1904. - -Guie, Heister D. and McWhorter, L. V., editors. _Adventures in Geyser - Land_ by Frank D. Carpenter. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, - 1935. - -Howard, General O. O. _Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture._ Boston: - Lee and Shephard, 1881. - -Jackson, William H. _Time Exposure._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, - 1940. - -Kurz, Rudolph. _Journal._ Washington, D. C.: United States Government - Printing Office, 1937. - -Langford, Nathaniel P. _The Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870._ St. - Paul: J. E. Haynes Publisher, 1923. - -Larocque, Francis Antoine. _Journal._ Sources of Northwest History, No. - 20, University of Montana, Missoula. - -McWhorter, Lucullus V. _Yellow Wolf: His Own Story._ Caldwell, Idaho: - Caxton Printers, 1940. - -Norton, Harry J. _Wonderland Illustrated, or Horse Back Rides._ Virginia - City, Montana: Harry J. Norton, 1873. - -Osmond, Mabel C. _Memories of a Trip Through Yellowstone National Park._ - St. Louis, 1874. - -Raftery, John H. _The Story of the Yellowstone._ Butte, Montana: McKee - Printing Co., 1912. - -Ross, Alexander. _The Fur Hunters of the Far West._ London: Smith, Elder - & Co., 1855. - -Russell, Osborne. _Journal of a Trapper, 1834-1843._ Boise, Idaho: - Syms-York Co., 1921. - -Smith, Willard E. "An Excerpt from the Journal of Willard E. Smith, - 1839-1840." Edited by J. Neilson Barry. _Annals of Wyoming_, Vol. - XV, No. 3, July, 1943. - -Spalding, Elizabeth. _Memories of the West._ Portland, Oregon: March - Printing Co. - -Stanley, Edwin J. _Rambles in Wonderland._ New York: D. Appleton & Co., - 1878. - -Stuart, Granville. _Forty Years on the Frontier._ Cleveland, Ohio: A. H. - Clark, 1925. - -Stuart, Robert. _The Discovery of the Oregon Trail._ New York: Charles - Scribner's Sons, 1935. - -Synge, Georgina. _A Ride Through Wonderland._ London: Sampson Low, - Marston & Co., 1892. - -Turrill, Gardner S. _A Tale of the Yellowstone._ Jefferson, Iowa: G. S. - Turrill Publishing Co., 1901. - -Vaughn, Robert. _Then and Now._ Minneapolis: Tribune Printing Co., 1900. - -Wingate, George W. _Through Yellowstone Park on Horseback._ New York: O. - Judd Co., 1886. - -Wislizenus, F. A. _A Journey to the Rocky Mountains in 1839_. St. Louis, - Mo.: Missouri Historical Society, 1912. - - - ARTICLES IN MAGAZINES AND PERIODICALS - -Baker, Ray S. "A Place of Marvels," _The Century Magazine_, LXVI - (August, 1903). - -Bauer, C. Max. "Notes on Indian Occupancy," _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, - Vol. XII, No. 6 (June, 1935). - -Bryce, James. "National Parks the Need for the Future," _The Outlook_, - CII (Dec. 14, 1912). - -Cook, C. W. "Valley of the Upper Yellowstone," _Western Monthly_, IV - (July, 1870). - -Cook, C. W. and Folsom, D. E. "Cook-Folsom Expedition to the Yellowstone - Region 1869," _Haynes Bulletin_, Jan., 1923. - -Elmendorf, Dwight L. _The Mentor_, II (May 15, 1915). - -Everts, Truman C. "Thirty Seven Days of Peril," _Scribner's Monthly_, - III (Nov., 1871). - -Freeman, L. R. "Protect the Game in Yellowstone Park," _Recreation_, XV - (Dec. 1901). - -Ghent, W. J. "A Sketch of John Colter," _Wyoming Annals_, Vol. X, No. 3 - (July, 1938). - -Gibbon, Colonel John. "The Battle of the Big Hole," _Harper's Weekly_ - (Dec. 21, 1895). - -Hague, Arnold. "Soaping Geysers," _Science_, XIII (May 17, 1889). - -Hague, Arnold. "The Yellowstone National Park," _Scribner's_, XXXV (May, - 1904). - -Hayden, F. V. "More About the Yellowstone," _Scribner's Monthly_, III - (February, 1872). - -Hayden, F. V. "The Yellowstone National Park," _American Journal of - Science_, III (March, 1872; April, 1872). - -Haynes, Jack Ellis. "The Expedition of President Chester A. Arthur to - Yellowstone National Park in 1882," _Annals of Wyoming_ (January - 1942.). - -Heffelfinger, C. H. "The Man Who Turned Back," _The Washington - Historical Quarterly_, Vol. XXVI, No. 3 (July, 1935). - -Hough, Emerson. "Forest and Stream's Yellowstone Park Game Exploration," - _Forest and Stream_, XLIII (A series of thirteen articles in the - issues during the spring and summer of 1894). - -Jackson, W. Turrentine. "The Creation of Yellowstone National Park," - _The Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, Vol. XXIX, No. 2 - (September, 1942). - -Jackson, W. Turrentine. "The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper - Yellowstone 1869," _The Pacific Northwest Quarterly_, XXXII, 1941. - -Jagger, T. A. "Death Gulch, A Natural Bear Trap," _Popular Science_, LIV - (February, 1899). - -Joseph, Chief. "Own Story," _North American Review_ (April, 1879). - -Kearns, William E. "A Nez Percé Chief Revisits Yellowstone," - _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, XII (July-August, 1935). - -Knowlton, F. H. "The Tertiary Flowers of the Yellowstone National Park," - _American Journal of Science_, No. 7 (July, 1896). - -Knowlton, F. H. "The Standing Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National - Park," _Plant World_, I (January, 1898). - -Koch, P. "Discovery of the Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of - American History_, II (June, 1884). - -Langford, Nathaniel P. "The Ascent of Mount Hayden," _Scribner's - Monthly_, III (June, 1873). - -Lewis, Henry H. "Managing a National Park," _The Outlook_, LXXIV - (August, 1903). - -Lewis, Lucien M. "To the Old Stage Driver," _Overland Monthly_, LXIX - (July, 1917). - -Linton, Edwin. "Overland Sounds in the Vicinity of Yellowstone Lake," - _Science_, No. 561 (Nov. 3, 1893). - -Muir, John. "The Yellowstone National Park," _The Atlantic Monthly_, - LXXXI (January, 1898; April, 1898). - -Phillips, Paul C., editor. "The Battle of the Big Hole," _Sources of - Northwest History_, No. 8, University of Montana, Missoula. - -Rollins, Alice W. "The Three Tetons," _Harper's_, LXXIV (May, 1887). - -Russell, Carl P. "Rendezvous Period of American Fur Trade," _Oregon - Historical Quarterly_, XLII (March, 1941). - -Russell, Carl P. "Scientists and Scientific Investigations in - Yellowstone National Park," Department of the Interior, 1933. - -Sedgwick, Henry D. "On Horse Back Through Yellowstone," _World's Work_, - VI (June, 1903). - -Smith, George O. "The Nation's Playgrounds," _Review of Reviews_, XL - (July, 1909). - -Staffer, Alvin P. and Porter, Charles W. "The National Park Service - Program of Conservation for Areas and Structures of National - Historical Significance," _The Mississippi Valley Historical - Review_, XXX, 1 (June, 1943). - -Warner, Charles D. "The Yellowstone National Park," _Harper's_, XCIV - (January, 1897). - - - GOVERNMENT REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS - -Barlow, J. W. and Heap, D. P. _Report of Barlow and Heap 1871_. - Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872. - -_Congressional Globe._ 42 Congress, 2nd Session, 1871-72. Part I, - Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872. - -_Congressional Record._ 43 Congress, Session I, Washington, D.C.: - Government Printing Office, 1874. - -_Laws and Regulations_ relating to the Yellowstone National Park, - Wyoming, by the Secretary of the Interior. Washington, D.C.: - Government Printing Office, 1908. - -Ludlow, William. _Report to the War Department 1875._ Washington, D.C., - 1876. - -Mather, Stephen T. "Report of the Director of the National Park - Service," _Report of the Department of Interior 1918_. Washington, - D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. - -Norris, P. W. _Annual Report of the Superintendent of Yellowstone - National Park._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, - 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881. - -_Reports of the Acting Superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park._ - Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1885 to 1915. - -_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior._ Washington, D.C.: Government - Printing Office, 1872 to 1941. - -_Reports of the Superintendents of Yellowstone National Park._ - Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1917 to 1943. - -_Rules, Regulations and Instructions_ for the officers and enlisted men - of the United States Army, and of the scouts doing duty in the - Yellowstone National Park. Department of Interior, Washington, - D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1907. - -Sherman, W. T. and Sheridan, P. H. _Reports of Inspection Made in the - Summer of 1877._ Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, - 1878. - -_Yellowstone National Park Bulletins._ Department of the Interior, - Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1914, 1915, 1916, - 1918, 1923, 1939, 1940, 1941. - - - SPECIAL BOOKS AND BULLETINS - -Allen, Eugene T. and Day, Arthur L. _Hot Springs of the Yellowstone - National Park._ Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1935. - -Alter, J. Cecil. _James Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and - Guide._ Salt Lake City: Shepard Book Co., 1925. - -Arnold, Ross R. _Indian Wars in Idaho._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton - Printers, 1929. - -Bennett, Hugh H. "Thomas Jefferson Soil Conservationist." _U.S. - Department of Agriculture_, No. 548. Washington, D.C.: Government - Printing Office, 1944. - -Catlin, George. _North American Indians_, I, II. Philadelphia: Leary - Stuart and Co., 1913. - -Crampton, Louis C. _Early History of Yellowstone National Park and Its - Relations to National Park Policies._ Washington, D.C.: United - States Printing Office, 1923. - -DeSmet, P. J. _Oregon Missions and Travels Over the Rocky Mountains._ - New York: Edward Dreneger, 1847. - -De Voto, Bernard. _Across the Wide Missouri._ Boston: Houghton Mifflin - Co., 1947. - -Drew, Benjamin. _Souvenir List of Yellowstone Park Holdup Victims._ Park - Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -Fee, Chester Anders. _Chief Joseph, the Biography of a Great Indian._ - New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1936. - -Freeman, Lewis R. _Down the Yellowstone._ New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., - 1922. - -Goad, Edgar F. "Bandelier, Scholar of the Mesas." Washington, D.C.: - _Department of Interior Information Service_, 1940. - -Haines, Francis. _Red Eagles of the Northwest._ Portland, Oregon: The - Scholastic Press, 1939. - -Harris, Burton. _John Colter, His Years in the Rockies._ New York: - Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952. - -Hebard, Grace R. and Brininstool, E. A. _The Bozeman Trail._ Cleveland, - Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1922. - -Hemishunmeres, Mourning Dove. _Coyote Stories._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton - Printers, 1933. - -Hornaday, William T. _Our Vanishing Wild Life._ New York: New York - Zoological Society, 1913. - -Huth, Hans. Yosemite, _The Story of an Idea._ Reprint from the _Sierra - Club Bulletin_, March, 1948. - -Kieley, James F. _A Brief History of the National Park Service._ - Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Interior, 1940. - -Lillard, Richard G. _The Great Forest._ New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948. - -Linderman, Frank B. _Blackfeet Indians._ St. Paul: Brown, Bigelow, 1935. - -Lowie, Robert H. _The Crow Indians._ New York: Farrar and Rinehart, - 1935. - -Mickey, Karl B. _Man and Soil._ Chicago: International Harvester Co., - 1945. - -Mulford, Walter. _Forest Influences._ New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., - 1948. - -Neihardt, John G. _The Splendid Wayfaring._ New York: Macmillan Co., - 1920. - -Norton, Harry J. _Wonderland, or Horseback Rides Through Yellowstone - National Park._ Virginia City, Montana, 1873. - -Rees, John E. _Idaho, Its Meaning, Origin and Application._ Portland, - Oregon: Ivey Press, 1917. - -Remington, Fredrick. _Pony Tracks._ New York: Harper and Bros., 1895. - -Shields, G. O. _Battle of the Big Hole._ New York: Rand, McNally Co., - 1889. - -Story, Isabelle F. _Glimpses of Our National Parks._ Washington, D.C.: - United States Printing Office, 1941. - -Topping, E. S. _Chronicles of the Yellowstone._ St. Paul: Pioneer Press - Co., 1888. - -Van Tassell, Chas. _Truthful Lies._ Bozeman, Montana, 1921. - -Victor, Frances Fuller. _The River of the West._ Hartford, Conn.: - Columbian Book Co., 1871. - -Vinton, Stallo. _John Colter, Discoverer of Yellowstone Park._ New York: - Edward Eberstadt, 1926. - -Wagner, Glendolin and Allen, William. _Blankets and Moccasins._ - Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1933. - -Wellman, Paul I. _The Trampling Herd._ New York: Carrick and Evans, - Inc., 1939. - - - GENERAL SECONDARY REFERENCES - -Adams, James Truslow. _The Epic of America._ Boston: Little Brown and - Co., 1933. - -Bancroft, H. H. _History of Washington, Montana and Idaho._ San - Francisco: The History Company, 1896. - -Beal, M. D. _History of Southeastern Idaho._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton - Printers, 1942. - -Brockett, L. P. _Our Western Empire._ San Francisco: William Garretson - and Co., 1881. - -Chittenden, Hiram M. _The American Fur Trade._ New York: Press of the - Pioneers, 1935. - -Chittenden, Hiram M. _Yellowstone National Park._ Palo Alto, California: - Stanford University Press, 1933. - -Clark, Dan Elbert. _The West in American History._ New York: Thomas Y. - Crowell Co., 1937. - -Driggs, Howard R. _Westward America._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, - 1942. - -Gardiner, Dorothy. _West of the River._ New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., - 1941. - -Guptill, A. B. _Practical Guide to Yellowstone National Park._ St. Paul: - F. Jay Haynes and Bro., 1890. - -Hafen, LeRoy, and Rister, Carl C. _Western America._ New York: - Prentice-Hall, 1941. - -Haupt, Herman. _The Yellowstone National Park._ St. Paul: J. M. - Stoddart, 1883. - -Haynes, Jack Ellis. _Haynes Guide._ St. Paul: Haynes, Inc., 1943. - -Hockett, Homer Co. _Political and Social Growth of the United States - 1492-1852._ New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933. - -Irving, Washington. _Astoria._ New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. - -Kipling, Rudyard. _American Notes._ Issued in several editions. One - chapter contains an account of a trip through Yellowstone in 1889. - -Nevins, Allen. _Frémont: Pathmaker of the West._ New York: D. Appleton - Century Co., 1939. - -Paxson, Frederick L. _The Last American Frontier._ New York: Macmillan - Co., 1922. - -Sanders, Helen F. _History of Montana._ Chicago: The Lewis Publishing - Co., 1913. - -Walgamott, C. S. _Six Decades Back._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, - 1936. - -Yellowstone Park Scrap Books I, II, III. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]The forests are composed principally of conifers. Of these the - lodgepole pine predominates. It has a shallow root system, and as a - result the area is conspicuous by the amount of fallen timber. - -[2]A frontiersman's characterization of the climate in the Park. The - statement is usually attributed to James Stuart. - -[3]John E. Rees, _Idaho Chronology, Nomenclature, Bibliography_ - (Portland, Oregon: Ivey Press, 1917), p. 61. - -[4]Teton and Snowy ranges, although partly integrated with Yellowstone, - actually lie beyond the south and north borders respectively. - -[5]The plateaus are Buffalo, Mirror, Two Ocean, Pitchstone, Madison, and - Central. The ranges are Gallatin, Washburn, and Absaroka. The ridges - include the Big Game, Chicken, Speciman, and Crowfoot. The Red - Mountains form a unit by themselves in the south-central area. - -[6]These are Electric, Pollux, Atkins, and Eagle peaks, and Schurz and - Humphreys mountains. - -[7]Warm River originates west of the Park, but Firehole is the best - example of a really warm river. It does not freeze over in - temperatures 50° below zero. There are literally thousands of hot - springs in Yellowstone. Dr. A. C. Peale estimated three thousand, - while Dr. Arnold Hague said the number probably exceeded twenty-five - hundred. - -[8]Reference to this stream is made again in relation to the "Overland - Astorians" in Chapter II. See also, Dee Linford's "Wyoming Stream - Names," _Annals of Wyoming_, XV, 2 (April, 1943), 165-70. - -[9]These sources are the Firehole and Gibbon, respectively. - -[10]This is the lowest temperature ever recorded on an official United - States Weather Bureau thermometer in Continental United States. - -[11]John E. Rees, _op. cit._, p. 61. - -[12]Homer C. Hockett, _Political and Social Growth of the United States - 1492-1852_ (New York: Macmillan Co., 1933), p. 368. - -[13]_Ibid._, p. 369. - -[14]_Ibid._, p. 371. - -[15]Fridtjof Nansen, "The Norsemen in America," _The Geographical - Journal_, XXXVIII, 6 (Dec. 1911), 558. - -[16]Reuben G. Thwaites, _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark - Expedition 1804-1806_ (New York: Dodd Mead and Co., 1905), p. 262. - Clark reached Yellowstone River on July 15, 1806. - -[17]Francis Antoine Larocque, _Journal_ (Sources of Northwest History - No. 20, University of Montana), p. 20. Dee Linford says the name - Yellowstone was used by David Thompson in 1798, but that Americans - did not learn about the river until about 1805. See "Wyoming Stream - Names," _Annals of Wyoming_, XV, 3 (July, 1943), 269. - -[18]Patrick Gass, _Journal_ (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1904), p. 253. In - 1832 a steamboat named the "Yellowstone" arrived at Fort Union. - -[19]P. Koch, "Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of - American History_, II (June, 1884), 498. - -[20]Just how far Coronado penetrated the Rockies is a disputed point. It - is certain that Verendrye reached Pierre, South Dakota. Some contend - that he came as far as the Little Bighorn River. It is probable that - some of Henry's men were free trappers, which accounts for the fact - that they split in groups when the fort was abandoned. - -[21]Others to participate in this discovery were Milton Mangum, Clifford - Mangum, John T. Elliott, Budge Elliott, William Thornock, and David - Beal. - -[22]Robert Stuart, _The Discovery of the Oregon Trail_ (New York: - Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935), p. CXXXVI. Etienne Provot and Thomas - Fitzpatrick have both been credited with the discovery of South - Pass. Certainly the latter's visit in 1824 marks the date of - effective discovery. - -[23]W. J. Ghent, "A Sketch of John Colter," _Wyoming Annals_, X, 3 - (July, 1938). - -[24]Stallo Vinton, _John Colter, Discoverer of Yellowstone Park_ (New - York: Edward Eberstadt, 1926), p. 27. - -[25]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._ The copious journals of Lewis, Clark and - Sergeant Ordway make repeated mention of Colter, and Whitehouse - names him six times. Floyd does not mention him by name nor does - Gass, although the latter refers to him specifically. - -[26]Reuben G. Thwaites, _op. cit._, V, 314. - -[27]Stallo Vinton, _op. cit._, p. 24. - -[28]_Ibid._, p. 43. Colter's strange behavior in turning back to the - wilderness after three successive starts toward home, is analyzed by - C. H. Heffelfinger in his article, "The Man Who Turned Back," _The - Washington Historical Quarterly_, XXVI, 3 (July, 1935). - -[29]_Ibid._, p. 45. Lisa had a son named "Remon" for whom the fort was - named, but different documents bear the name Raymond, Manuel, and - Lisa. - -[30]Judge Henry M. Brackenridge (1786-1871) was educated in Missouri and - Maryland. As a lawyer, he specialized in international affairs and - served as a federal judge in New Orleans. In 1810 he made a trip up - the Missouri in the company of Manuel Lisa. Six years later (1814) - Brackenridge's account of this journey was published. On page 91, of - _Views of Louisiana_, we find the first reference to Colter's - wilderness journey. Obviously the source of this information was - Manuel Lisa since he asked Colter to make the trip. That Colter - started on such a journey is indisputable. Where he went, what he - saw, and how he returned are matters of opinion. Brackenridge - confuses Colter's return from this trip with that of another one. - -[31]_Ibid._, p. 91. - -[32]John Colter's discovery of Yellowstone has caught the imagination of - many people. Probably a hundred authors have written about it. Each - one disagrees with the other, until poor Colter has been turned into - a human grasshopper, hopping around from place to place without - either rhyme or reason. - -[33]Stallo Vinton, _op. cit._, p. 195. - -[34]Some writers tell that an early winter overtook him, and he was - obliged to make snowshoes. This is probably an error. He undoubtedly - secured a horse from the Yep-pe Indians. - -[35]This particular story is verified by the fact that members of the - Wilson Price Hunt Expedition called on Colter at his farm near St. - Louis to get information upon this specific point. See Reuben G. - Thwaites, "Bradbury's Travels in the Interior of America in the - years 1809-1811," _Early Western Travels_, 1748-1840, V, xliv. - -[36]The Map of 1814 does not disclose anything unusual. It merely - designates "Boiling Spring" and "Hot Springs Brimstone," which were - widespread and general. - -[37]Washington Irving, _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_ (New York: - G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1843), p. 252. The first edition was entitled, - _Rocky Mountain Scenes and Adventures_. - -[38]It is a remarkable thing that historical research has not more - satisfactorily probed the Colter problem. Obviously his journey is - so obscure as to warrant scientific investigation. - -[39]Its legend reads: "A Map of Lewis and Clark's Track, Across the - Western Portion of North America, From the Mississippi to the - Pacific Ocean; By Order of the Executive of the United States in - 1804, 5, 6. Copied by Samuel Lewis from the Original Drawing of Wm. - Clark." - -[40]There are two fictitious lakes on the Map of 1814 of such grotesque - shape as to arouse one's skepticism. One of them has a shape that - resembles a gargoyle. - -[41]The date of this communication was December 20, 1810. - -[42]Colter's first sheet is readily identifiable, and part of another - sheet may be segregated with the use of imagination and - understanding. - -[43]Many writers have failed to identify Gap and Sage as the same creek. - They also befuddle Wind and Shoshone rivers. There is no evidence - that Colter ever heard the name Bighorn River. - -[44]The figure eight results from the fact that he went to the Yep-pe - camp, left it, came back, and left it again at the appropriate - angles. - -[45]In 1941, Paul J. Shamp, a U.S. forester, reported the discovery of - numerous petrifications in the vicinity of Pass and Scatter creeks - in the Thorofare country. This is the line of Colter's route. - -[46]Colter did not see Southeast Arm of Yellowstone Lake. He probably - supposed the Upper Yellowstone flowed into South Arm. Hence, his - conception of Yellowstone River would have been ten miles farther - west than it is. Neither could he have visualized the serpentine - character of Snake River, since he knew it at only one place. - -[47]Colter may have reached Chicken Ridge by Fishhawk, Mountain, or Lynx - creeks or via Falcon, Mink, or Crooked streams. It must be - remembered that this map sheet has been much messed up. It is - impossible to know what has been erased; yet, enough of Colter's map - remains to provide a logical basis for the above itinerary. It is - relatively unimportant which creeks he negotiated to reach Chicken - Ridge. The vitally important fact is that he drew a sketch of South - Arm from that angle which added to the Thumb makes an accurate map - of what a trapper would have seen of Yellowstone Lake. - -[48]J. Neilson Barry has made the most intensive study of the Map of - 1814. It is his opinion that Colter drew other map sheets besides - the one of the Buffalo Bill country. He also has hope that these - sheets may be discovered among the Lewis-Clark-Biddle papers. - -[49]In E. Willard Smith's journal entry for December 20, 1839, there is - an item that suggests a possible clue to mystery of Colter's - petrified fish story: "There is a story told by an Arapahoe Chief of - a petrified buffalo standing in the lake ... in a perfect state of - preservation, and they worship it as a great medicine charm.... - Nothing would induce this Indian to tell where this sacred buffalo - is to be found. Great presents were offered him in vain." It is - possible that Colter saw something he was not free to divulge. See - "An Excerpt From the Journal of Willard E. Smith," _Annals of - Wyoming_, XV, 3 (July, 1943), 287-97. - -[50]John G. White, "A Souvenir of Wyoming," Vol. I, p. 56. This is a - fine work of research in manuscript. It was written in 1916. There - are five volumes in the Yellowstone Park library. The time of this - Indian episode was in the autumn of 1808. - -[51]_Ibid._ - -[52]Upon the details of this episode, the three basic authorities on - this period of Western adventure, are in agreement. They are Henry - M. Brackenridge, _Views of Louisiana_; Thomas James, _Three Years - Among the Indians and Mexicans_; and John Bradbury, _Travels In the - Interior of America_. - -[53]Concerning Colter's part in this battle, Henry M. Brackenridge - wrote, "On his return a party of Indians in whose company he - happened to be was attacked and he was lamed by a severe wound in - his leg; Notwithstanding which he returned to the establishment - entirely alone and without assistance." This incident is almost - invariably associated with Colter's return from the discovery of - Yellowstone Park. The error logically arises from the compressed - character of the Brackenridge narrative. Perhaps the facts were not - clear in his own mind. Actually he has confused two different - experiences. - -[54]P. Koch, "The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of - American History_, II (June, 1884), 499. - -[55]Hiram M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_ (Palo Alto: - Stanford University Press, 1933), pp. 22-31. - -[56]Frank Triplett, "Colter's Race for Life," _Conquering the - Wilderness_, No. 16, Chapter 10, Washington State College Library; - Pullman, Washington. This plant is also called "ground-apple." It is - an edible root found in that region. - -[57]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._, p. 113. - -[58]John G. White, "A Souvenir of Wyoming," I, 28. This fact is affirmed - by James in his _Three Years Among the Indians and Mexicans_. - -[59]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._, p. 115. - -[60]Stallo Vinton, _op. cit._, p. 110. - -[61]W. J. Ghent, _op. cit._, p. 115. The evidence is not conclusive as - to whether or not Colter gave his account to Bradbury and - Brackenridge in person. It is certain that he had personal dealings - with Thomas James, and it is certain that he spent a half day in - conversation with members of Hunt's party on May 18, 1811. See - "Robert Stuart's Narratives" in Philip Ashton Rollin's _The - Discovery of the Oregon Trail_ (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, - 1935), p. CV. - -[62]_Ibid._, p. 66. It should be pointed out that Colter did not say - "everywhere." - -[63]Rudolph Kurz, _Journal_ (Washington, D. C.: United States Government - Printing Office, 1937), p. 37. - -[64]Frank B. Linderman, _Blackfeet Indians_ (St. Paul: Brown, Bigelow, - 1935), p. 9. - -[65]_Ibid._, p. 12. - -[66]Elizabeth Spalding, _Memories of The West_ (Portland, Oregon: March - Printing Company), p. 78. - -[67]Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_ (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Tribune - Printing Co., 1900), p. 197. - -[68]Mourning Dove, _Coyote Stories_ (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, - 1933). p. 46. - -[69]Rudolph Kurz, _op. cit._, p. 154. - -[70]_Ibid._, p. 34. - -[71]Alexander Ross, _The Fur Hunters of The Far West_ (London: Smith, - Elder & Co., 1855), p. 249. - -[72]H. M. Chittenden, _The American Fur Trade_ (New York: Press of the - Pioneers, 1935), II, 877. - -[73]P. Koch, "The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of - American History, II_ (June, 1884), 497. - -[74]Helen F. Sanders, _History of Montana_ (Chicago: Lewis Publishing - Co., 1913), I, 681. - -[75]_Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana (Helena, Montana: - Rocky Mountain Publishing Co., 1876), I, 168. - -[76]Indian reservations nearest the Park are the Crow at Hardin, - Montana; Shoshone, Fort Washakie, Wyoming; and Bannock, Fort Hall, - Idaho. Other agencies are located at Fort Peck, Poplar, Tongue - River, and Lame Deer, all in Montana. The Blackfeet and Flathead - reservations are near Glacier Park. - -[77]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, p. 48. - -[78]John G. Neihardt, _The Splendid Wayfaring_ (New York: Macmillan - Company, 1920), pp. 265-6. - -[79]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, pp. 228-9. - -[80]Francis Fuller Victor, _The River of the West_ (Hartford: Columbian - Book Co., 1871), pp. 64-5. - -[81]Cecil Alter, _James Bridger, Trapper, Frontiersman, Scout and Guide_ - (Salt Lake City: Shepard Book Co., 1925), p. 355. - -[82]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 141. - -[83]Earl of Dunraven, _Hunting in the Yellowstone_ (New York: Macmillan - Co., 1925), pp. 184-5. - -[84]Frances Fuller Victor, _op. cit._, p. 238. - -[85]F. A. Wislizenus, _A Journey To The Rocky Mountains In 1839_, (St. - Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1912), pp. 87-8. - -[86]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, II, 236. - -[87]C. Max Bauer, "Notes on Indian Occupancy," _Yellowstone Nature - Notes_. XII, 6 (June, 1935), 1. - -[88]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1879_ (Washington D. C.: Government - Printing Office, 1880), p. 10. - -[89]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 605. - -[90]Some of these places were specifically listed: Bunsen Peak, Willow - Creek, Stinking Water Pass east of Yellowstone Lake, Barlow Fork of - Snake River, Bridgers Lake, and, the best one of all, three miles - below Mary Lake. See _Fifth Annual Report 1881_, p. 36. - -[91]P. W. Norris, _Fifth Annual Report 1881_, pp. 32-8. - -[92]_Ibid._, p. 38. - -[93]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1878_, p. 982. - -[94]Experienced rangers who have reported these finds to the author - include David deL. Condon, Lee L. Coleman, John W. Jay, John Bauman, - Rudolf L. Grimm, Wayne Replogle, Lowell G. Biddulph, George Marler, - and William Sanborn. - -[95]William E. Kearns, "A Nez Percé Chief Revisits Yellowstone," - _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, XII (June-July, 1935), 41. - -[96]Edwin Linton, _Science_, No. 561 (Nov. 3, 1893), pp. 244-5. - - Mr. Linton and Prof. S. A. Forbes heard the sounds upon two - occasions. Each gave a scientific presentation. Elwood Hofer, Dave - Rhodes, and F. H. Bradley have written accounts of similar - experiences. - -[97]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior_ (Washington: Government - Printing Office, Nov. 30, 1880), p. 573. - -[98]Frederick Bottler discovered a trapper's cabin at the head of - Antelope Creek in 1878. The advanced decay of its timbers indicated - that it was forty or fifty years old. See P. W. Norris, _Annual - Report 1880_, p. 606. - -[99]_Niles Weekly Register_, Third Series, IX, 6 (Oct. 6, 1827), p. 90. - Also, _Yellowstone Nature Notes_, XXI, 5 (Sept.-Oct., 1947), p. 52. - Sweet Lake is now known as Bear Lake, Idaho. - -[100]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1878_, p. 987. Smith was killed by a - band of Comanches in 1831, when leading a caravan across the - Cimarron Desert toward Santa Fe. - -[101]Meek's experience was published by Mrs. Frances Fuller Victor in - _The River of the West_ (Hartford, Conn.: Columbian Book Co., 1871), - pp. 75-7. - -[102]Warren A. Ferris, _Life in the Rocky Mountains 1830-35_ (Salt Lake - City: Rocky Mountain Book Shop, 1940), pp. 204-6. - -[103]Osborne Russell, _Journal of a Trapper, 1834-1843_ (Boise, Idaho: - Syms-York Co., 1921), p. 32. - -[104]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 657. - - Mr. Ducharme, Joe Power, L'Humphrie, Louis Anderson, and Jim and - John Baker were members of this group. Remains of horses have been - found on this battleground. - -[105]J. Cecil Alter, _James Bridger_, p. 107. - -[106]Walter W. DeLacy, "A Trip Up the South Fork of Snake River," - _Contributions_, Historical Society of Montana, I, 132. - -[107]James Stuart, "The Yellowstone Expedition of 1863," _Ibid._, I, - 191. - - Montana mineral production vaulted to $18,000,000 by 1865. - Thereafter a gradual decline began, but a strong revival came in the - eighties when deep mining of silver and copper ore bodies proved - profitable. The combined mineral output in 1889 was $41,000,000. - -[108]P. Koch, "The Discovery of Yellowstone National Park," _Magazine of - American History_, II, 511. - -[109]E. S. Topping, _Chronicles of the Yellowstone_ (St. Paul: Pioneer - Press Co., 1888), p. 44. - -[110]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 7. Miller Creek was named - for Adam Miller's retreat in this instance. - -[111]Grace R. Hebard and E. A. Brininstool, _The Bozeman Trail_ - (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1922), II, 229. - -[112]Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_, p. 165. - -[113]Hebard and Brininstool, _op. cit._, II, 229. - -[114]_Ibid._, p. 230. - -[115]_Ibid._, p. 244. - -[116]Anonymous. The quotations used in the Bridger stories represent the - author's organization of existing folk lore. Some of these stories - and others are given in H. M. Chittenden's _Yellowstone National - Park_. - -[117]John G. White, "Souvenir," I, 134. - -[118]Hiram M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, pp. 39-40. - -[119]Hebard and Brininstool, _op. cit._, II, p. 243. - -[120]This information was obtained by the author from Jesse M. Matlock, - formerly Mrs. William Peterson and Mabel M. White, an adopted - daughter, in an interview at Salmon City, June 7, 1943. The latter - remembers hearing Mr. Peterson express regret that the - Folsom-Cook-Peterson Expedition was not given more recognition for - its discovery. Mr. Peterson died in 1918. - -[121]C. W. Cook and D. E. Folsom, "Cook-Folsom Expedition to the - Yellowstone Region 1869," _Haynes Bulletin_ (Jan. 1923). - -[122]C. W. Cook, "Remarks of C. W. Cook, Last Survivor of the Original - Explorers of the Yellowstone Park Region," Yellowstone Park Library, - Mammoth, Wyoming. Two sons of Cornelius Hedges were present at the - celebration which was sponsored by The National Editorial - Association. - -[123]W. T. Jackson, "The Cook-Folsom Exploration of the Upper - Yellowstone 1869," _The Pacific Northwest Quarterly_, XXXII (1941), - 320-21. - -[124]Hiram M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_, p. 60. - -[125]Nathaniel P. Langford, _The Discovery of Yellowstone Park 1870_ - (St. Paul, Minn.: J. E. Haynes, 1923), p. 80. - -[126]Louis C. Crampton, _Early History of Yellowstone National Park and - Its Relations to National Park Policies_ (Washington, D. C.: United - States Government Printing Office, 1923), p. 14. - -[127]Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, I, 33. Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. - -[128]L. P. Brockett, _Our Western Empire_ (San Francisco: William - Garretson and Co., 1881), p. 1247. - -[129]_Ibid._, p. 1243. - -[130]Cornelius Hedges, "Yellowstone Lake," Crampton's _Early History_, - p. 110. - -[131]Truman C. Everts, "Thirty Seven Days of Peril," _Scribner's - Monthly_, III (Nov. 1871), 1-17. - -[132]Cornelius Hedges, "Journal," _Contributions_, Montana Historical - Society, V, 387. - -[133]Nathaniel P. Langford, _op. cit._, p. 158. - -[134]Gustavus C. Doane, "Report Upon the Yellowstone Expedition," - Crampton's _Early History_, p. 138. - -[135]Henry D. Washburn, "The Yellowstone Expedition," _Ibid._, p. 96. - -[136]Rudyard Kipling, _American Notes_, p. 159. - -[137]L. P. Brockett, _op. cit._, p. 1254. - -[138]F. V. Hayden, _American Journal of Science_, III (March, 1872), - 174. - -[139]Arnold Hague, "The Yellowstone National Park," _Scribner's - Magazine_, XXXV (May, 1904), 519. - -[140]W. Turrentine Jackson, "The Creation of Yellowstone Park," _The - Mississippi Valley Historical Review_ XXIX, 2 (September, 1942), - 189-90. - -[141]N. P. Langford, Preface to "The Folsom-Cook Exploration of the - Upper Yellowstone in the Year 1869," _Contributions_, Historical - Society of Montana, V (1904), 312. - -[142]Truman C. Everts, _op. cit._, p. 16. - -[143]H. M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_, p. 69. - -[144]_Ibid._, p. 70. - -[145]Louis C. Crampton, _Early History of Yellowstone_, p. 25. - -[146]F. V. Hayden, "More About the Yellowstone," _Scribner's Monthly_, - III, 4 (February, 1872), 389. This article contains a summary of the - Hayden Expedition. - -[147]H. M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, p. 71. - -[148]In Dr. Hayden's "Brief Statement of the History of the National - Park," which he forwarded to the Secretary of the Interior, Carl - Schurz, on February 21, 1878, the following appeared: "I beg - permission to state here, that so far as I know, I originated the - idea of the park, prepared the maps, designating the boundaries, and - in connection with the Hon. W. H. Claggett [sic], then Delegate from - Montana Territory, wrote the law as it now stands.... It is now - acknowledged all over the civilized world that the existence of the - National Park, by law, is due solely to my exertions during the - sessions of 1871 and 1872." _House Executive Documents_, Forty-fifth - Congress, Second Session, 1877-78, XVII, No. 75, 3. For this item - credit is given by the author to W. Turrentine Jackson; see "The - Creation of Yellowstone National Park," _The Mississippi Valley - Historical Review_, University of Iowa, XXIX, 2 (Sept. 1942), 199. - -[149]_Congressional Globe_, Forty-second Congress, Second Session, - 1871-72, Part I, p. 520. - -[150]_Ibid._, p. 697. - -[151]W. T. Jackson, _op. cit._, p. 203. - -[152]_Ibid._, pp. 204-5. - -[153]Louis C. Crampton, _op. cit._, p. 31. - -[154]Senator George G. Vest, a strong friend of Yellowstone, once - referred to Mr. Dawes as the father of the Park, "for he drew the - law of designation." If not the actual scribe, he was certainly the - advocate of the principles involved. See L. C. Crampton, _op. cit._, - p. 32. - -[155]John Muir, _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (April, 1898), 509. - - Dr. F. V. Hayden's tribute to Congress is equal to John Muir's. - Hayden said, "That our legislators, at a time when public opinion is - so strong against appropriating the public domain for any purpose, - however laudable, should reserve for the benefit and instruction of - the people a tract of 3,575 square miles, is an act that should - cause universal satisfaction through the land. This noble deed may - be regarded as a tribute from our legislators to science, and the - gratitude of the nation, and of men of science in all parts of the - world, is due them for this munificent donation." See "The - Yellowstone National Park," _American Journal_, III (April, 1872), - 295-96. - -[156]_Congressional Globe_, p. 697. - -[157]George Catlin, _North American Indians_ (Philadelphia: 1913), II, - 290. - -[158]This refers to Chief Joseph's retreat which is described in Chapter - XI. - -[159]Alexander Ross, _The Fur Hunters of the Far West_, p. 257. - -[160]Ulrich B. Phillips, "Lectures On Early America," a series of - lectures given in Berkeley, Calif., 1932. - -[161]Robert Vaughn, _Then and Now_, p. 156. - -[162]_Ibid._, p. 295. - -[163]James Stuart, _Contributions_, Montana Historical Society, I, 154. - -[164]Edgar F. Goad, "Bandelier, Scholar of the Mesas" (Washington, D. - C.: Department of Interior Information Service, 1940), p. 13. - -[165]Alexander Ross, _op. cit._, p. 183. - -[166]LeRoy R. Hafen and Carl C. Rister, _Western America_ (New York: - Prentice-Hall, 1941), p. 6. - -[167]The most notorious foreigners to regale themselves among western - American adventure scenes were Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied, - Sir George Gore of Ireland, and the Earl of Dunraven. - - Maximilian spent the summer of 1833 on the upper Missouri. He was a - shabby, toothless man, but of first-rate scientific ability. It is - said that his accounts, together with Bodmer's paintings, constitute - an important record of the period. - - Sir George Gore was a millionaire who spent two years in the West. - He left a saga of ruthless slaughter and camp-life prodigality in - his wake. His parting gesture was the destruction, by fire, of all - the wagons, harness, saddles, and similar equipment. This was done - to spite the Missouri Fur Company because of their exorbitant river - transportation charges. - - In 1871 the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia hunted bison on the Nebraska - plains. - -[168]_Ibid._, p. 572. - -[169]Granville Stuart, _Forty Years on the Frontier_, edited by Paul C. - Phillips (Cleveland: 1925), II, 104. This view was expressed by - Representative James A. Garfield. See _Congressional Record_, - Forty-third Congress, First Session, 1874, pp. 2107-9. - -[170]Warren A. Ferris, _op. cit._, p. 244. - -[171]_Ibid._, pp. 204-6. - -[172]Dan E. Clark, _The West in American History_ (New York: Thomas Y. - Crowell Co., 1937), p. 573. - -[173]Fredrick L. Paxson, _Recent American History of the United States_ - (Boston: Prentice-Hall Co., 1937), p. 28. - -[174]LeRoy R. Hafen and Carl G. Rister, _op. cit._, p. 528. - -[175]D. J. Louck, "Journal," State Historian's file, Laramie, Wyoming. - -[176]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 313. - -[177]Howard R. Briggs, _Westward America_ (New York: G. P. Putnam's - Sons, 1942), p. 276. - -[178]_Ibid._, pp. 279-80. In 1862, Granville Stuart collected a herd and - drove them to Bannock. Conrad Kohrs had a butcher shop there at that - time. - -[179]Dorothy Gardiner, _West of the River_ (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell - Co., 1941), p. 319. - - Forts were located chiefly with an eye to the protection of travel. - Some of the principal ones--Cook, on Judith River, Montana; Reno; - Phil Kearney; C. F. Smith; and Casper in Wyoming--were built in - 1866. D. A. Russell near Cheyenne, Fort Shaw on Sun River, and Fort - Buford were established in 1867. Fort Laramie was built in 1849; - Fort Bridger, in 1858; Fort Stambaugh at South Pass, 1869; Fort - Steele on North Platte Crossing, 1868; and Fort Assiniboine near - Havre, 1879. - -[180]Granville Stuart, _op. cit._ Other prominent stockmen were C. D. - Duncan, Robert Coburn, N. J. Dovenspeck, Amos Snyder, Adolf Baro, W. - C. and G. P. Burnett, Pat Dunlevy, James Dempsey, Chas. Ranges, - Edward Regan, N. W. McCaulley, and F. E. Lawrence. - -[181]Dan E. Clark, _op. cit._, p. 596. - -[182]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 316. - -[183]Nathaniel P. Langford, _The Discovery of Yellowstone Park_, p. 181. - -[184]Cornelius Hedges, _Contributions_, Montana Historical Society, V, - 391. - -[185]Dan E. Clark, _op. cit._, p. 625. - -[186]Chief Joseph, "Chief Joseph's Own Story," as told by him on his - trip to Washington, D. C., p. 3. - -[187]Francis Haines, _Red Eagles of the Northwest_ (Portland, Ore.: The - Scholastic Press, 1939), p. 234. - -[188]_Ibid._, p. 238. - -[189]Chief Joseph, _op. cit._, p. 9. - -[190]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _War Chief Joseph_ (Caldwell, - Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1941), p. 145. - -[191]Chester Anders Fee, _Chief Joseph, the Biography of a Great Indian_ - (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1936), p. 168. - -[192]Francis Haines, _op. cit._, p. 262. - -[193]Helen F. Sanders, _op. cit._, p. 268. - -[194]_Ibid._, p. 282. - -[195]W. T. Sherman, _Reports of Inspection Made in the Summer of 1877_ - (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1878), p. 34. - -[196]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, editors, _Adventures in Geyser - Land_, by Frank D. Carpenter (Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, - Ltd., 1935), p. 279. - - George F. Cowan was born in Ohio in 1842. He was with the first - volunteers during the Civil War. He attained the rank of Sergeant. - At this time he was one of Montana's leading attorneys. - -[197]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, p. 218. - -[198]Francis Haines, _op. cit._, p. 287. - -[199]Heister Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _op. cit._, p. 223. - -[200]Edwin J. Stanley, _Rambles in Wonderland_ (New York: D. Appleton - and Co., 1878), p. 166. - -[201]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, p. 223. - -[202]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _op. cit._, p. 225. - - George F. Cowan's experiences were so peculiar that one is puzzled - to know whether he was the most lucky or unlucky of men. A train of - incidents followed his suffering in the Park. Near Fort Ellis the - neck yoke broke, and the Cowan party was thrown out of the carriage. - At Bozeman, when Mr. Arnold was dressing Cowan's wounds in the hotel - room, the bedstead gave way and down went the injured man. - -[203]Andrew J. Weikert, "Journal of a Tour Through Yellowstone National - Park in August and September 1877," _Contributions_, Historical - Society of Montana, IV (1900), 185-99. - -[204]H. M. Chittenden, _Yellowstone National Park_, p. 142. Stewart was - relieved of $260.00 and a watch. - -[205]_Ibid._, p. 143. - -[206]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _op. cit._, pp. 194-5. - - Near the top of Mt. Everts, and toward its southern end, there is a - cliff formed by an ancient flow of lava. Upon a flat space, at the - foot of the cliff, one may find an inscription that reads, "Ben - Stone 1877." - -[207]_Ibid._, p. 145. - -[208]O. O. Howard, _Chief Joseph, His Pursuit and Capture_ (Boston: Lee - and Shephard, 1881), p. 243. - -[209]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _op. cit._, p. 258. - -[210]_Ibid._, pp. 260-1. - -[211]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, pp. 248-9. - -[212]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _op. cit._, pp. 271-2. - -[213]This was Joseph's understanding, as revealed in all subsequent - statements. - -[214]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, pp. 262-3. - -[215]_Ibid._, p. 270. - -[216]_Ibid._, p. 272. - -[217]Helen A. Howard and Dan L. McGrath, _op. cit._, p. 183. - -[218]Chester A. Fee, _op. cit._, p. 287. - -[219]The Hayden and other government expeditions did quite a lot of - trail work in an informal manner. That is to say, they had large - parties and considerable baggage. In order to get through the forest - quite a lot of trail building became necessary. - -[220]Jack E. Haynes, "The Expedition of President Chester A. Arthur to - Yellowstone National Park in 1883," _Annals of Wyoming_, January, - 1942, p. 2. - -[221]J. J. Leclercq, _La Terre des Marveilles_. An excerpt containing - this story is in Mercer Cook's _Portraits of Americans_ (New York: - D. C. Heath and Co., 1939), pp. 47-8. - -[222]John Muir, _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (Jan. 1898), 15. - - Edwin J. Stanley's _Rambles in Wonderland_ describes conditions as - of that time. - -[223]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 584. See also Elno's "The - Lord of Hard Luck," _Dillon Examiner_, June 12, 1940. - -[224]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _Adventures in Geyser Land_, - p. 71. - - Texas Jack served as a guide for the Earl of Dunraven in 1874. - -[225]Jones Bros. and McGill of Cody and Hougan and Phillips of Salt Lake - City, along with many others, conducted tours varying in duration - and cost. The fee varied from five to ten dollars a day per person. - -[226]C. S. Walgamott, _Reminiscences_ (Twin Falls, Idaho, 1926), II, 78. - -[227]John Muir, _The Atlantic Monthly_, LXXXI (April, 1898), 515. - -[228]Alice W. Rollins, "The Three Tetons," _Harper's_, LXXIV (May, - 1887), 876. - -[229]_Ibid._ - -[230]Rudyard Kipling, _American Notes_, p. 126. "Buckskin Charley" was - Charles Marble; Yankee Jim's name was James George; Hofer's name was - Thomas Elwood Hofer. - -[231]Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, II, 52. There are three volumes of - newspaper and magazine clippings in the Park Library at Mammoth, - Wyoming. - -[232]_Ibid._, pp. 60, 123. See also I, 33, and III, 33. - -[233]Alice W. Rollins, _op. cit._, p. 74. - -[234]Silas S. Huntley was the guiding mind of the organization from 1892 - to 1901, when H. W. Child succeeded to the management, which he held - until 1917. E. W. Bach was an active partner. - -[235]The transportation setup as of 1914: Yellowstone Park - Transportation Company, Gardiner, Round Trip $25.00; Yellowstone - Western Stage Company, Yellowstone, Montana, $20.00; Holm - Transportation Company, Cody, Wyoming, five days $25.00; Wylie - Permanent Camping Company maintains permanent camps and operates a - line from Gardiner, also West Yellowstone and Camp Cody (East Gate). - The camps: Swan Lake Basin, Riverside, Upper Geyser Basin, Outlet of - Lake, Grand Canyon, Camp Cody and Tower Falls. Lunch stations at - Gibbon Geyser Basin and Thumb. Six day tour $40.00. - -[236]Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, III, 20. Also Henry D. Sedgwick, Jr., - "On Horse Back Through Yellowstone," _World's Work_, VI (June, - 1903). Two of Yancey's buildings are still standing. - -[237]Scrap Book, II, 4. - -[238]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1884_, I, 73. - -[239]A corrupt and incompetent concern called The Improvement Company - started a hotel in Mammoth. In 1884 this firm attempted to secure - private ownership of land in important localities through - Congressional action. When the move failed the firm went under. Its - interests were bought by the Yellowstone Park Association which was - financed by the Northern Pacific Railway. - -[240]The Norris Hotel was replaced by a camp hotel and eating house, - which served until 1900, when a new one was completed. The hotel at - Old Faithful had not been profitable and was not replaced until - 1903, when Old Faithful Inn was built. - -[241]J. E. Rickards, ex-Governor of Montana, to the editor of _The Salt - Lake Tribune_, July 17, 1897. - -[242]Scrap Book, II, 56. - -[243]_Report of the Department of the Interior 1907_, p. 533. The Boat - Company charged three dollars for a ride from Thumb to Lake Fishing - Bridge. - -[244]Henry D. Sedgwick, _op. cit._, p. 3572. - -[245]Scrap Book, I, 61. - -[246]_Ibid._, Captain George S. Anderson earnestly prophesied that there - would not be a square mile of forest left standing in six months if - railroads were permitted to enter. - -[247]Charles D. Warner, "Yellowstone National Park," _Harper's_, XCIV - (January, 1897), 323. - -[248]_Annual Report 1907._ Several wells had to be dug between Norris - and Canyon. - -[249]Horace M. Albright, _Park Service Bulletin_, April 14, 1934, p. 46. - -[250]Lucien M. Lewis, "To the Old Stage Driver," _Overland Monthly_, - LXIX (July, 1917), 52. - -[251]Yellowstone Park Automobile Regulations for the Season of 1916. - Department of the Interior _Bulletin_. Here is an example of the - procedure: - - SCHEDULE A - Gardiner to Norris Miles Not earlier than Not later than - Leave Gardiner Entrance 0 6:00 A.M. 6:30 A.M. - Arrive Mammoth Hot Springs 5 6:20 7:00 - Leave Mammoth Hot Springs 0 6:45 7:15 - Leave 8 Mile Post 8 8:00 - Arrive Norris 20 8:30 9:00 - - Schedule B was for the P.M. - - Bicyclists were also closely regulated. Upon meeting a team the - rider was required to stop and stand between his cycle and the team. - He could not pass a team from the rear without a signal. - - People on horseback were expected to observe every precaution in - passing teams of all sorts. - -[252]_Reports of the Department of the Interior 1917_, p. 812. - -[253]Chas. Van Tassell, _Truthful Lies_ (Bozeman, Montana, 1921). - -[254]_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1936_, p. 132. The firms - combined in this consolidation were The Yellowstone Park Hotel Co., - The Yellowstone Park Transportation Co., The Yellowstone Park Lodge - and Camps Co., and The Yellowstone Park Boat Company. - -[255]_Ibid._, 1939, p. 300. - -[256]There are two service stations in Old Faithful Camp. Some people - complain because they cannot get their favorite gasoline. However, - it would be both unsightly and impractical to allow each company a - half-dozen representatives. There are no pumps at all at Madison and - Norris stations. - -[257]_Park Service Bulletin_, Nov., 1936, p. 12. - -[258]Richard G. Lillard, _The Great Forest_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, - 1948), p. 32. - -[259]_Ibid._, p. 68. - -[260]_Ibid._, p. 9. - -[261]Hans Huth, _Yosemite, the Story of an Idea_. Reprint from the - _Sierra Club Bulletin_, March 1948, p. 48. - -[262]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 85. - -[263]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 256. - -[264]Hugh H. Bennett, "Thomas Jefferson Soil Conservationist," U. S. - Department of Agriculture, No. 548 (1944). - -[265]Karl B. Mickey, _Man and Soil_ (Chicago: International Harvester - Co., 1945), p. 17. - -[266]Hans Huth, _op. cit._, p. 73. - -[267]George Catlin, _The Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North - American Indians_ (London, 1841), I, 262. - -[268]Hans Huth, _op. cit._, p. 52. - -[269]Walter Mulford, _Forest Influences_ (New York: McGraw Hill Book - Co., 1948), p. 15. - -[270]Hans Huth, _op. cit._, p. 68. - -[271]_Ibid._, p. 69. - -[272]_Ibid._ - -[273]Hans Huth said Frederick Law Olmstead admitted failure in his - attempt to discover the origin of public parks in this country. He - attributed it to "a spontaneous movement of that sort which we - conveniently refer to as the genius of our civilization." _Ibid._, - p. 60. - -[274]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 260. - -[275]This agency was later transferred to the Department of Agriculture. - -[276]Richard G. Lillard, _op. cit._, p. 264. - -[277]_Ibid._, p. 270. - -[278]_Ibid._ National Legislation Executive Almanac in Brief: - - 1876--$2,000.00, appropriated to employ a competent man to - investigate timber conditions in the United States. - June 30, 1886--Act creating Division of Forestry in Department of - Agriculture. - March 3, 1891--President authorized to establish Forest Reserves; - Yellowstone Park Timberland Reserve proclaimed by President - Harrison on March 30, 1891. - June 4, 1897--Present National Forest Act passed. - July 1, 1901--Division of Forestry becomes Bureau of Forestry. - February 1, 1905--Bureau of Forestry becomes Forest Service. - March 1, 1911--Weeks Law passed. - April 11, 1921--Snell Bill introduced in Congress. - May 2, 1921--Capper Bill introduced in Congress. - June 7, 1924--Clarke-McNary Bill signed by President. - April 30, 1928--McNary-Woodruff Act signed by President. - May 22, 1928--McSweeney-McNary Act signed by President. - Jan. 1, 1931--Creation of the Timber Conservation Board. - 1937--The Norris-Doxey Act. - 1944--The Cooperative Sustained Yield Act. - - Other Acts closely related to the Forestry program include, Civilian - Conservation Corps, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, - Public Works Administration, Taylor Grazing Control Act, Farm - Security Act, and Tennessee Valley Authority. - -[279]"National Parks and National Forests," a statement by the National - Park Service, Department of the Interior and the Forest Service, - Department of Agriculture. - -[280]Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 34. - -[281]William T. Hornaday, _Our Vanishing Wild Life_ (New York: New York - Zoological Society, 1913), p. 2. - -[282]_Ibid._, p. 63. - -[283]Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 6. - -[284]_Ibid._, p. 15. - -[285]Extinct species include: great auk, Pallas's cormorant, Labrador - duck, Eskimo curlew, passenger pigeon, Carolina parakeet, - yellow-winged green parrot, heath hen, whooping crane, upland - plover. Other effective wild life conservation advocates were Dr. - Theodore S. Palmer, Edward H. Forbush, T. Gilbert Pearson, John B. - Burnham, and William T. Hornaday. - -[286]Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 181. - -[287]_Ibid._, pp. 182-3. - -[288]Nathaniel P. Langford, "The Ascent of Mount Hayden," _Scribner's - Monthly_, III (June, 1873), 133-40. The author does not necessarily - imply that Langford reached the summit. - - The author has possession of a part of Mr. Leigh's diary, numerous - dictations, and items relative to "Beaver Dick." - -[289]F. H. Knowlton, "The Tertiary Flowers of the Yellowstone National - Park," _The American Journal of Science_, No. 7 (July, 1896). - -[290]Chittenden says that Norris Geyser Basin was discovered from the - top of Bunsen Peak in 1872. E. S. Topping and Dwight Woodruff saw a - large column of steam ascending far to the south. They made an - investigation and reported their find. The next day Mr. and Mrs. H. - H. Stone, of Bozeman, Montana, visited the basin. Mrs. Stone was one - of the first white women to enter the Park. Perhaps she was the - first excepting certain members of earlier missionary parties. - -[291]N. P. Langford's Diary, Second Trip To Yellowstone 1872. MS. in - Yellowstone Park Library, Mammoth, Wyoming. Dr. Hayden and his - co-workers returned in 1878. In this investigation they made - detailed reports upon many hot springs and geysers. The season's - study, richly embellished with engravings and colored plates, was - published in Hayden's _Report_ in 1883. - -[292]Lewis R. Freeman, _Down the Yellowstone_ (New York: Dodd, Mead and - Co., 1922), p. 57. - -[293]P. W. Norris, _Annual Report 1880_, p. 7. - -[294]R. Kipling, _American Notes_, p. 174. Also see T. A. Jagger's - article, "Death Gulch, A Natural Bear Trap," _Popular Science_, LIV - (February, 1899), 5-6. - -[295]Jack Ellis Haynes states that A. F. Norris, C. M. Stephens, and J. - Davis spent the winter of 1879-80 in the headquarters building at - Mammoth. - -[296]William Ludlow, _Report to the War Department 1875_, pp. 36-7. Mr. - Ludlow made a reconnaissance from Carrol, Montana to Yellowstone - Park and returned. - -[297]Yellowstone Scrap Book, II, pp. 37, 56. - -[298]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1884_, II (Washington, D. - C.: Government Printing Office, 1885), p. 565. - -[299]_Ibid._, 1889, III, p. 133. - -[300]Some of these territorial officials, known in local parlance as - "rabbit catchers," formed an alliance with the assistant - superintendent. By this means the latter shared, as informers, the - fines levied by themselves. H. M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, p. 113. - -[301]_Ibid._, p. 134. See also _Report_ for 1906, p. 522 and _The - Independent_, Butte, Montana, Nov., 1895. - -[302]H. M. Chittenden, _op. cit._, p. 114. - -[303]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior_, II, 873. - -[304]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior_, III (1889), 134. - -[305]_Ibid._, p. 133. - -[306]Henry H. Lewis, "Managing a National Park," _The Outlook_, LXXIV - (August, 1903), 1037. - -[307]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1889_, III, 129. - -[308]_Ibid._, p. 130. - -[309]Jack Ellis Haynes, _Haynes Guide_, p. 160. - -[310]Emerson Hough, "Yellowstone Park Game Exploration," _Forest and - Stream_, XLIII, Nos. 8-12. A series of articles covering this - exploration appeared in each issue from March until August 25, 1894. - -[311]T. J. Patterson, Yellowstone Park Scrap Book, I, 124. - -[312]S. B. M. Young's _Annual Report 1897_, p. 779. - -[313]Benjamin Drew, _Souvenir List_, Mammoth, Wyoming. One of the - victims was struck over the head with the Winchester; whereas a - Chicago lady was able to get a snapshot of the desperado. Rewards - offered aggregated $1,100.00. - -[314]Heister D. Guie and L. V. McWhorter, _Adventures in Geyser Land_, - p. 64. Also Earl of Dunraven, _op. cit._, p. 206. - -[315]Frederick Remington, _Pony Tracks_ (New York: Harper and Bros., - 1895), p. 192. - -[316]Arnold Hague, "Soaping Geysers," _Science_, XIII (May 17, 1889), - 384. Dr. Arnold Hague and John H. Renshawe of the Geological Survey - studied the Park in 1883. - -[317]John Muir, "The Yellowstone National Park," _The Atlantic Monthly_, - LXXXI (April, 1898), 520. - -[318]Land in the reserves adjacent to the Park yield 30¢ per acre from - lumbering and 50¢ for grazing; whereas the water storage value alone - is $12.50. Then, too, there are extensive agricultural improvements - contingent upon the water supply. These would approximate $30.00 per - forest acre. Statement made to the author by range supervisor, Faber - Eaton, on August 9, 1943. - -[319]_Annual Report of the Acting Superintendent 1894_, p. 661. - -[320]There have been exceptions to the rule. Certain animals have been - classed as predators at given times and thinned out. - -[321]The average sagebrusher (camper) considers bears as an unmitigated - nuisance. Because of them, he must exercise vigilance at all times - or his food will be carried away. - -[322]_Reports of the Department of the Interior 1918_, p. 827. - - Strong demands were also made to open the Park for sheep grazing. - -[323]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1938_, p. 6. - -[324]Yellowstone Scrap Book, I, 57. - -[325]_Ibid._ - -[326]_Report of the Acting Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park - 1895_, p. 824. - -[327]These stations were located at Norris, Riverside, Fountain, Upper - Geyser Basin, Thumb, Snake River, Lake Sylvan Pass, Soda Butte, - Tower Falls, Fort Yellowstone, and Gardiner. - -[328]There are more than thirty of these journals in the Park Library at - Mammoth, Wyoming. - -[329]Yellowstone Scrap Book, II, 105. - -[330]R. Kipling, _op. cit._, p. 153. - -[331]John Muir, _op. cit._, April, 1898, p. 510. - -[332]Charles D. Warner, "Yellowstone National Park," _Harper's_, XCIV - (January, 1897), 94. - -[333]_Annual Report 1894_, p. 133. - -[334]Eugene T. Allen and Arthur L. Day, _Hot Springs of the Yellowstone - National Park_ (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution, 1935). - Although Dr. Day was the director, the work was regarded as the - valedictory of Dr. Allen. - -[335]Theodore Roosevelt, "A National Park Service," _Outlook_, C (Feb. - 3, 1912). - -[336]S. T. Mather's "Report of The Director of The National Park - Service," _Report of the Department of the Interior 1918_, pp. - 842-3. - -[337]_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1918_, pp. 842-3. - - An interesting experiment, contrary to this principle, was an - attempt in 1906 to raise twelve Sequoia _gigantea_ trees near the - arch at Gardiner entrance. All of the trees died. - -[338]James Bryce, "National Parks the Need of the Future," _The - Outlook_, CII (December 14, 1912), 811. - -[339]_Reports of the Secretary of the Interior 1918_, pp. 813-4. - -[340]_Ibid._ - -[341]Ray S. Baker, "A Place of Marvels," _The Century Magazine_, LXVI - (August, 1903), 487. - -[342]F. A. Boutelle, _Report of the Acting Superintendent 1889_ - (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1890), p. 148. - -[343]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1937_, p. 49. - -[344]Short terms of service were also held by Dr. Frank E. Thone, 1923, - and Alfred H. Povah, 1931. - -[345]Editorial, "The Ranger Naturalist," _Nature Magazine_, XVII (April, - 1931), 219. - -[346]Exhibits were established at Rhyo-Travertine Gulch, Swan Lake Flat, - Beaver Dams, Nymph Lake, Tuff Cliff, and Firehole Canyon. - -[347]_Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1938_, p. 13. - -[348]_Ibid._, 1918, pp. 844-5. - -[349]George O. Smith, "The Nation's Playgrounds," _Review of Reviews_, - XL (July, 1909), 44. - -[350]Dwight L. Elmendorf, _The Mentor_, II (May 15, 1915), 13. - -[351]Earl of Dunraven, _The Great Divide_ (London, 1876), p. XI. - - The Scottish Earl of Dunraven visited the Park in 1874. A peak and a - pass commemorate his interest and service in informing Europeans - about Yellowstone. - -[352]The date of this communication was December 20, 1810. - -[353]Colter's first sheet is readily identifiable, and part of another - sheet may be segregated with the use of imagination and - understanding. - -[354]Many writers have failed to identify Gap and Sage as the same - creek. They also befuddle Wind and Shoshone rivers. There is no - evidence that Colter ever heard the name of Bighorn River. - -[355]The figure eight results from the fact that he went to the Yep-pe - camp, left it, came back, and left it again at the appropriate - angles. - -[356]The curious errors of the map are explained in Chapter II. - -[357]Lewis evidently complained to Biddle about the variations in sheets - because Clark stated in a letter to Biddle that these sheets were - all of the same scale. See Stallo Vinton, _John Colter_, p. 47. - -[358]This claim will be developed subsequently. - -[359]John D. Hicks, _The Federal Union_ (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., - 1937), p. 282. - -[360]The position of Henrys River, with reference to the Snake River - drainage, is almost wholly erroneous as shown on the Map of 1814. - Wisers River is fictitious. The true and original Weiser River lies - three hundred miles west. - -[361]This hypothesis is based upon the findings of J. Neilson Barry of - Portland, Oregon. Mr. Barry is a profound student of Western history - and cartography. He has devoted years of intensive research in - correlating journals and geography. - -[362]There is a reasonable view that holds this lake to be the only real - feature upon this section of the map and identifies it as Brooks - Lake, but Colter never saw or knew of the main branch of the Bighorn - River or its source in Brooks Lake. - -[363]Clark named this mythical lake for William Eustis, who had been - representative to Congress from Massachusetts. About this time he - was Secretary of War in President Madison's cabinet. - - Whatever Colter drew was certainly lacking Lake Eustis, Lake Biddle, - and the Rio Grande, Arkansas, and Platte rivers. He was a simple - frontiersman who had probably never heard of Eustis or Biddle and - was not interested in mapping anything beyond his own route. Had - Lewis linked Eustis and Biddle-Riddle lakes together, a possible - approximation to Colter's draft might have appeared. - -[364]In 1941, Paul J. Shamp, a US. forester, reported the discovery of - numerous petrifications in the vicinity of Pass and Scatter creeks - in the Thorofare country. This is the line of Colter's reconstructed - route. - - It has been the author's desire to make a search for this missing - link of evidence by actually going over the route. In 1947, he made - a partial exploration during a three day hike. It was enough to - suggest the size of the problem. - -[365]Colter may have reached Chicken Ridge by Fishhawk, Mountain, or - Lynx creeks or via Falcon, Mink, or Crooked streams. It must be - remembered that this map sheet has been much mussed up. It is - impossible to know what has been erased; yet, enough of Colter's map - remains to provide a logical basis for the above itinerary. It is - relatively unimportant which creeks he negotiated to reach Chicken - Ridge. The vitally important fact is that he drew a sketch of South - Arm from that angle which added to the Thumb makes an accurate map - of what a trapper would have seen of Yellowstone Lake. - -[366]J. Neilson Barry has made the most intensive study of the Map of - 1814. It is his opinion that Colter drew other map sheets besides - the one of the Buffalo Bill country. He also has hope that these - sheets may be discovered among the Lewis-Clark-Biddle papers. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Absaroka Indians, 68, 74, 86 - Absaroka Pass, 184, 298 - Absaroka Range, 30, 42 ff., 96, 101, 104 - Adams, Robert, Jr., 138 - Albright, Supt. Horace M., 211, 270 ff. - Alder Gulch, 102; - gold found, 104, 161 - Allard Bison Herd, 258 - Allen, Dr. Eugene T., 264 - Allen, G. N., 138 - Alter, J. Cecil, 79 - Alum Creek, 113, 181, 211 - American Association for the Advancement of Science, 227 - American Association of Museums, 272 - American Fur Company, 94, 108 - American Game Protective and Propagation Association, 225 - American Journal of Science and Arts, 139 - Amethyst Mountain, 104 - Anderson, Capt. George S., 206, 210, 248, 260 - Anderson, Ole, 216 - Anthony, Sen. H. B., 140 - Arbor Day, 229 - Architectural Fountain Geyser, 139 - Arickara Indians, 37, 61 - Arnold, A. J., 172 ff. - Arthur, Pres. Chester A., 192 ff. - Ashley, Gen. William H., 81, 92 - Astorians, 34 - Atlantic Creek, 72, 296 - Atwood, W. W., 270 - Austin, ----, 103 - - - B - Bach, E. W., 201 - Baggley, George F., 273 - Baker, Sergt. William, 121 - Bannock Indians, 59; - description, 65, 86 ff.; - trail, 88; - defeat, 157 - Barlow, Capt. J. W., survey, 137 ff. - Baronett, C. J., 105; - rescued Everts, 134; - bridge, 184; - road, 208 - Bauer, Dr. C. Max, 270 - Beaman, J. W., 138 - Bear Paw Mountains, 187, 190 - Bear River, 110 - Beartooth Range, 30 - "Beaver Dick" (Richard Leigh), 283 - Bechler River, 27, 259 - Beehive Geyser, 131, 197 - Biddle, Lake, 292 - Biddle, Nicholas, 50, 285, 290 - Big Game Ridge, 47, 296 - Big Hole, battle of, 170 ff., 180, 187 - Bigfoot, Chief, 156 - Bighorn Basin, 88, 112 - Bighorn River, 32, 37, 42 ff., 55, 68, 290 - Bison Peak, 261 - Bitter Root Range, 67, 102, 170 - Blackfeet Indians, 37; - attack Colter, 52 ff.; - description, 67, 74, 88, 98 - Black Kettle's village, 157 - Blacks Fork of Green River, 108 - Blaine, Sen. James G., 136 - Bonaparte, Napoleon, 28 - Bonneville, Capt. B. L. E., 99; - describes bison, 153; 232 - Boone and Crockett Club, 235 - Bottler, Frederick, 105; - stock range, 162; - ranch, 180 - Boutelle, Capt. F. A., 268 - Bowles, Samuel, 226 - Bozeman, John, 158 - Bozeman, Montana, 117, 138, 142, 176, 180, 205 - Bozeman Pass, 55 - Bozeman Trail, 161 - Bradbury, John, 57 - Brackenridge, Henry M., 37, 57 ff. - Bridger, James (Jim), 80, 98, 101; - ancestors, 106; - description, 106 ff.; - nicknames for, 110; - Indian wives, 110; - tall tales, 110 ff.; - death of, 115, 283 - Brooks Lake, 44 - Brothers, Henry J., 217 - Bryant, Dr. Harold, 270 - "Buckskin Charley," (Charles Marble), 198, 283 - Buffalo Ranch, 87 - Bumpus, Dr. Hermon C., 270 - Burgess, Felix, 247 - Burlington Route, 202 - Burns, A. E., 247 - - - C - Cabeza de Vaca, description of bison, 153 - Cache Creek, 104 - California, 141; - climate of, 239; - University of, 270 - Camas Creek, 94 - Campfire Club of America, 235 - Canyon Creek, Nez Percé fight Seventh Cavalry, 185, 186 - Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory, 264 - Carpenter, Frank, 172 ff. - Carpenter, Ida, 172 - Carpenter, Robert E., 205, 244 - Carrington, Campbell, 138, 139 - Carrington, Henry B., 110 - Carson, Kit, 285 - Cassidy, "Butch," 163 - Castle Geyser, 131 - Catholic Church, 174; - services, 217 - Catlin, George, 144, 221 ff. - Cauliflower Geyser, 251 - Cheyenne Indians, description, 70, 157, 187 - _Chicago Journal_, 139 - Chicken Ridge, 47, 296 - Child, H. W., 201 - Chittenden, Hiram M., 210 - Chittenden Road, 210 - Chivington, Col. J. M., 157 - Cinnabar, 199 ff., 259 - Civil War, 103, 120, 153, 157 - Claggett, William H., 137; - sponsored Park Bill, 140 ff. - Clark, Dr. Dan E., 162 - Clark, Capt. Philo, 193 - Clark, William, 42 ff.; - Colter reports to, 50, 57, 285 ff. - Clarks Fork, 42, 50, 88, 184, 259, 286, 290, 298 - Clearwater River, 35; - battle of, 169 - Clematis Gulch, 182, 202 - Cody, William F. "Buffalo Bill," 151; - nickname, 153; - description, 233 - Coffeen, Hon. Henry H., 208 - Cole, Sen. Cornelius, 140 - Colter, John, ancestors, 35 ff.; - joins Lisa, 37; - discovery of Park, 38 ff.; - attacked by Blackfeet, 52; - guide for Henry, 56; - reaches St. Louis, 57, 100; - route, 283 ff. - Colter Creek, 36 - Colter's Hell, 40, 45, 50, 291 - Colter's Peak, 58 - Colville Reservation, 191 - Community Chapel, 217 - Condon, David de L., 270 - Conger, Patrick A., 242 - Conness, Sen. John, 225 - Connor, Col. Patrick, 157 - Conservation, 217 ff., 225; - Pres. Roosevelt's Governor's Conference, 229 - Continental Divide, 25, 37, 45; - Colter crossed, 47, 99, 102, 118, 163, 259, 296 - Cook, Charles W., 116, 118 - Cooke, Montana, 208, 247, 259 - Coronado, Francisco, 153 - Cottage Hotel, 205 - Counter, Hub, 196 - Cowan, George F., 172 ff., 283 - Cowan, Mrs. George F., describes Chief Joseph, 174 - Crampton, Louis C., 211 - Crazy Horse, Chief, 158, 162 - Creamer, Phil, 106 - Crook, Gen. George, 158 - Crosby, Gov. John S., 193, 243 - Crow Indians, 37, 54, 59, 86, 88, 104, 150, 184 ff., 240 - Custer, Col. George A., 152, 157; - defeated, 158 - Cougar Creek, 88 - - - D - Davis, A. J., 162 - Dawes, Chester M., 138 - Dawes, Hon. Henry L., 138; - backed Park Bill, 141 ff. - Day, Dr. Arthur L., 264 - Dead Indian Creek, 42, 50, 286, 298 - Dedicatory Act, 144, 146, 202, 227, 230, 245 - DeLacy, Walter W., 102 ff.; - his map, 121 - Delano, Columbus, 139, 142 - DeMaris Mineral Springs, 286 - Devil's Den, 122 - Devil's Hoof, 122 - Devil's Inkwell, 122 - Devil's Kitchen, 122 - Devil's Slide, 122 - Diamond City, Montana, 116 ff. - Dickson, John, 35 ff. - Dietrich, Richard, 180 ff. - Dingee, William, 172 ff. - Dixon, George B., 138 - Doane, Lieut. Gustavus C., 121; - description of Old Faithful Geyser, 130; - with Hayden, 138, 164; - in pursuit of Nez Percé, 178 ff. - Dot Island, 207 - Dragons Mouth, 45, 50, 124, 298 - Driggs, Dr. Howard R., 144 - Duncan, J. W., 138 - Duncan, L., 180 - Dunnell, Hon. Mark H., 141 - Dunraven, Earl of, 80, 85, 151 ff.; - describes horse thieves, 164; - hunting, 233 ff.; - praises Park, 278 - Dutcher, Mary, 234 - Dutcher, Willard, 233 - - - E - Eagle Blanket, Nez Percé, 168 - Eagle Peak, 25 - East Entrance, 202, 210 - Eaton, Howard, 195; - trail, 195, 215 - Ee-dah-how (Idaho), 27 - Edmunds, Sen. George F., 140 - Elk Thistle, 127; - _see_ Everts Thistle, 128 - Elk-Wapiti Creek, 47, 296 - Elliott, Henry W., 137, 139 - Emerald Pool, 131 - Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 222, 223 - Emigrant Gulch, 105 - Ericson, Leif, 30 - Eustis Lake, 292 - Everts Thistle, 128 - Everts, Truman C., 120 ff.; - lost in Park, 126 ff.; - visit to Washington, D.C., 137, 283 - - - F - Fairweather, William, 104 - Falcon Creek, 296 - Fall River, 259, 276 - Fan Geyser, 131 - Farcy, Sheriff, 193 - Fee, Chester A., 177 - Fergus, James, 162 - Ferris, Warren A., 68; - describes geysers, 94, 100 - Fetterman Massacre, 161 - Firehole Basin, 98, 102, 129 - Firehole Canyon, 210 - Firehole Hotel, 204 - Firehole River, 105, 118; - Nez Percé camp, 172, 200 ff., 227 - Fisher, Capt. S. G., 177 - Fishhawk Creek, 296, - Fishing Bridge, 26, 86, 87, 210; - museum, 273 - Flat Mountain Arm, 47, 296 - Flathead Indians, 59; - description, 66 ff. - Foller, August, 180 ff. - Folsom, David E., 116; - proposed park idea, 118, 142; - assistant superintendent, 240 - Folsom-Cook-Peterson party, 30; - exploration, 116 ff. - Ford, R. S., 162 - Forest fires, 253 ff. - _Forest and Stream_, 206, 242, 247 ff. - Forsyth, Lieut. William W., 247 - Fort Bridger, 108 - Fort Ellis, 121 ff., 138, 172 - Fort Hall, 96, 99; - Bannock Reservation, 157 - Fort Henry, founded, 32; - visited by Astorians, 34 - Fort Laramie National Park, 83, 233 - Fort Lisa (Manuel's Fort, Fort Raymond), 37, 41 ff., 54 ff., 286 - Fort Mandan, 31 - Fort Yellowstone, 242, 266 - Fossil, 296 - Fountain Geyser, 205 - Fountain House, 205 - Freeman, L. M., 105 - - - G - Gallatin Range, 30, 32, 88, 291 - Gallatin River, 26, 52, 94, 291 - Gallatin Valley, 100 - Game Ranch, 87 - Gap Creek, 286 - Gardiner, Montana, 199, 200, 274 - Gardner, Johnson, 98 - Gardner Hole, 98 - Gardner River, 67, 86 ff., 122, 138 - Garfield, Thomas, 247 - Garrison, L. A., 12, 274, 279 - Gass, Patrick, 31 - Gentian Pool, 131 - George, James ("Yankee Jim"), 198, 283 - Giant Geyser, 130 - Giantess Geyser, 105, 130 - Gibbon, Gen. John, 170 - Gibbon Canyon, 210 - Gibbon Falls, 210 - Gibbon River, 131, 227 - Gilbert, Col. Charles C., 178 - Gillette, Warren C., 120 - Glass, Hugh, 106 - Goff, ----, 200 - Golden Gate, 210 - Gold seekers, 101 - Good, James W., 211 - Goodnight Bison Herd, 258 - Gore, Sir George, 154 - Graham and Klamer, 204 - Grand Canyon National Park, 211, 268 - Grand Geyser, 130 ff. - Grand Loop Highway, 127, 195, 210, 214 - Grand Prismatic Spring, 98, 131 - Grand Teton National Park, 83, 274 - Grant, Brogan, and Lycan, 195 - Grant, John, 162 - Grant, Madison, 233 - Grant, Pres. Ulysses S., 142 - Great Salt Lake, 110 - Green River, 45, 81, 163 - Green River Valley, 66, 81 - Gregory, Col. J. F., 193 - Grinnell, George Bird, 242 - Grizzly Lake, 261 - Gros Ventre Indians, 69 - Grotto Geyser, 130, 131 - Guernsey Lake National Park, 83 - Gunnison, Capt. J. W., 114 - - - H - Hague, Dr. Arnold, 25 - Hall, A. F., 270 - Hamilton, Charles A., stores, 217 - Hamilton, William, 104 - Hancock, Forest, 35, 36 - _Harper's Magazine_, 120 - Harrington, Ed., 163; - _see_ Trafton, Edward - Harris, Moses ("Black"), 100 - Harris, Capt. Moses, 246; - report of robbery, 250, 266 - Harrison, Pres. Benjamin, 228 - Hart Mountain, 184 - Hauser, Samuel T., 120 ff., 137, 163 - Hayden, Carl, 211 - Hayden, Dr. Ferdinand V., 102 ff.; - praise of Bridger, 112; - hears Langford, 136 ff.; - expedition, 138 ff. - Hayden Valley, 26, 45, 50; - rendezvous, 81; - bison ranch, 258, 288, 298 - Hayes Act, 246 - Haynes, Frank Jay, 193, 200; - first studio, 216; - arrested poacher, 247 - Haynes, Jack Ellis, 200, 241, 270 - Heart Lake, 239 - Hedges, Cornelius, 120 ff.; - quoted, 129; - proposed park idea, 132 ff., 142, 144 - Hegley, C. DeV., 138 - Helena, Montana, 102, 121, 184 - _Helena Daily Herald_, 132, 136, 142 - _Helena Independent_, 259 - Helena tourists, 180 ff. - Hellbroth Springs, 122 - Hell Roaring Mountain, 122 - Hellroaring Creek, 261 - Hells Half Acre, 122 - Henderson, Bart, 105 - Henderson, Walter L., 205 - Henderson's Ranch, 178 - Henry, Major Andrew, 32 ff., 56, 92, 106, 291 - Henrys Fork of Snake River, 88, 96, 291 - Henrys Lake, 32, 88, 238 - Hobart, C. T., 204 - Hofer, Thomas Elwood, 198, 247 - Hoffman, W., 201 - Holm Transportation Company, 202 - Hoodoo Creek region, 105, 240 - Horseshow Cattle Company, 162 - Hospital, 217 - Hotels, 202 ff. - Hough, Emerson, 247 - Hough, Franklin B., 228 - Howard Eaton Trail, 195, 215 - Howard, Gen. Oliver O., 166; - pursues Nez Percé, 169 ff.; - at Big Hole, 170; - at Henrys Lake, 178; - in Lamar Valley, 184 ff. - Howell, Ed, 247 - Huntley, Child, and Bach, 201 - Huntley, Silas S., 201 - Huth, Dr. Hans, 226 - - - I - Idaho, 102, 128, 160 ff.; - irrigation interests, 259; - entrance desired, 276 - Improvement Company, 244 - Index Peak, 104 - Indian Creek, 86, 88 - Innocents (Henry Plummer's gang), 163 - Irving, Washington, 40, 45 - Isa Lake, 27 - - - J - Jackson, "Teton," 163 - Jackson, William H., photographs, 139 - Jackson Hole, 51, 96, 102, 202, 235 - Jackson Lake, 44, 99, 210 - Jacobs, John, 158 - James, Thomas, 55 ff. - James, William, 250 - Jamestown, 152 - Jefferson, Pres. Thomas, 28, 221 - Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, 83 - Jefferson River, 26, 41, 52 - Jenny, Indian wife of "Beaver Dick," 238 - Jones, W. A., 86 - Jordan and Howell, 195 - Joseph, Chief, 148 ff.; - promise to father, 165; - description, 166; - flight, 170 ff.; - surrender, 189; - death, 191, 283 - Joseph, Old Chief, 165 ff. - - - K - Kenck, Charles, 180; - killed, 181; - buried, 182 - Kent, Hon. William, 266 - Kingman, Capt. D. C., 210 - Kingsley, Mary, quoted, 233 - Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 241; - poem, 281 ff. - Kittams, Walter H., 235 - Klamer, Henry E., 216 - Kohrs, Conrad, 162 - - - L - Lacey, John F., 233 - Lacey Act, 246 - Lake Biddle, 44 - Lake Eustis, 45 - Lake Hotel, 250 - Lamar Creek, 86, 88 - Lamar River, 27, 50, 86, 88, 117, 139; - Nez Percé flight, 184 ff., 238, 298 - Lamar Unit or Buffalo Ranch, 258 - Lamar Valley, 104 - Lane, Franklin K., Secretary of the Interior, 264; - report of, 267 - Langford, Nathaniel P., 118 ff.; - quoted, 129; - comment on Hedges' remarks, 132; - lectures, 134; - advocacy of Park idea, 136 ff., 144, 164; - made superintendent of Park, 238 - LaNoue, Francis D., 273 - Lapwai, 36; - Indian Reservation, 166, 188 - Larocque, Antoine, 31 - Lava Creek, 86, 88, 296 - Leigh, Richard ("Beaver Dick"), 238, 283 - Leitner, William B., 138 - Lewis and Clark, missed Yellowstone Park, 31 ff.; 41, 71, 165, - 232; - journals, 285 - Lewis Lake, 98, 102 - Lewis, Meriwether, 35, 57 - Lewis, Samuel, 285 ff.; - concealed map, 296 - Libby, Rube, 104 - Lincoln, Pres. Abraham, 225 - Lincoln, Robert T., 191 - Lindsley, C. A., 266, 273 - Lion Geyser, 131 - Lisa, Manuel, meets Colter, 36 ff., 56 - _Literary Messenger_, 96 - Little Bighorn, battle of, 152 ff. - Little Bighorn River, 158 - Little Plume, Chief, 150 - Little Rosebud River, 184 - Livingston, Montana, William Clark party, 31, 217 - _Livingston Post_, 259 - Livingston, Robert, 28 - Logan, William B., 138 - _London Times_, 142 - Looking Class, Chief, 189 - Lord, Cecil A., 212 - Louisiana Purchase, 27 - L'Ouverture, Toussaint, 28 - Lower Falls of Yellowstone, 26 - Lower Geyser Basin, 86 ff., 102; - Folsom party, 118; - Marshall House, 200 ff., 246 - Lower Yellowstone River, 104 - Ludlow, William, 242 - Lynx Creek, 296 - Lystrup, Herbert T., 264 - - - M - Madison Junction, 118; - Washburn camp, 131, 144, 172; - museum, 273 - Madison River, 26, 32, 52; - Bannock route, 88 ff., 101, 102; - Nez Percé flight, 170, 181 - Madison River Valley, 162 ff., 291 - Mann, Charles, 172, 174 - Many Wounds, 89 - Mammoth Hot Springs, 88, 122; - Hayden's visit, 138, 181 ff., 198, 205, 208; - stores built, 216, 235, 241; - museum, 273 - Map of 1814, 41 ff., 285 ff. - Maple Creek, 88 - Marble, Charles, 198 - Marias River Valley, 67 - Marler, George, 264 - Marsh, George P., 223 - Marshall, J. W., 200 - Marshall and Goff, 203 - Mary Mountain, 85, 173, 204, 208 - Mather, Stephen Tyng, 264 ff.; - founded National Park Service, 269; - monument to, 277 - Matthews, Larry, 199 ff. - Maximilian, Prince of Wied, 154 - McBride, James, 273 - McCartney, James C., 182 ff.; - hotel, 202 - McConnell, Pvt. George W., 121 - McGuirck, Matthew, 203 - McIntyre, Robert N., 12, 272 - McKenzie, Kenneth, 68 - Meek, Joe, 78, 93 - Meldrum, Hon. John W., 248 - Menard, Pierre, 56 - Midway Geyser Basin, 87 - Miles, Col. Nelson A., 158; - pursuit of Nez Percé, 186 ff. - Miller, F. W., 270 - Miller Creek, 85 ff. - Minaret Falls, 122 - Ming, John, 162 - Minnetaree Indian Village, 56 - Missouri Fur Company, 32, 37; - Bridger joins, 108 - Missouri River, 31, 71, 137, 155; - Nez Percé cross, 186, 223 - Mitsiadazi, Minnetaree for Yellowstone, 31 - Monarch Geyser, 198 - Monida and Yellowstone Stage Line, 202 - Monroe, James, 29 - Montana, meaning of, 70; - gold miners, 102; - camps, 103, 157 ff., 186, 243; - penitentiary, 250, 258, 260 - Montana Post, 116 - Monument Geyser Basin, 240 - Moran, Thomas, 137, 139 - Morgan, George W., 142 - Mormons, 157, 217 - Morning Glory Pool, 131 - Morton, J. Sterling, 229 - Mount Holmes, 86, 88; - fire lookout, 253 - Mount Washburn, 123, 176, 210; - fire lookout, 253 - Mud Volcano, 25, 50; - Washburn's visit to, 124, 176, 180, 184, 298 - Muir, John, quoted, 145, 222; - praises soldiers, 262 - Murdock, Nelson, 274 - Murphy, Con, 164 - Myers, Henry, 172 - - - N - National Association of Audubon Societies, 235 - National Lumber Manufacturers' Association, 230 - National Forest Service, 229 - National Park Service, 211, 217; - director of, 265 ff.; - praised by visitors, 272; - research and education, 270, 274, 277 - Naturalist Division, 270 ff. - _New York Tribune_, 120 - New York Zoological Society, 225, 226 - Nez Percé Creek, 85, 173 ff., 200 - Nez Percé Indians, 66, 89; - befriended Lewis and Clark, 165 ff.; - in flight, 170 ff.; - surrender, 189 - Nichols, William M., 215 - Noble, John W., 228 - Norris Geyser Basin, 86, 87, 198, 200 ff.; - visited by Langford, 239, 246; - trapping in, 247 - Norris Museum, 273 - Norris, Philetus W., 85, 91; - found trapper initials, 92; - annual report, 202; - road building, 208, 236, 240 ff. - North American Cattle Company, 162 - North Entrance Gate, 200, 201 - Northeast Entrance, 212 - Northern Pacific Railroad, 199 ff., 259 - - - O - Oastler, Frank R., 270 - Obsidian Cliff, 86; - Bridger story, 113, 208 - Ogallala, Nebraska, 159 ff. - Ogdens Hole, 81 - Old Faithful Geyser, 29; - named, 129 ff., 197; - abuse of, 251 - Old Faithful Inn, 199, 205, 264 - Old Faithful Station, 210 - Oldham, Albert, 172, 174, 178 - _Omaha Herald_, 105 - Omohondro, John ("Texas Jack"), 151, 195 - Orange Mound, 241 - Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 224, 233 - Otter Creek, 181 ff., 269 - Overhanging Cliff, 210 - _Overland Monthly_, 137 - - - P - Pacific Creek, Colter's route on, 47, 296 - Page, Andrew S., alias John Andrews, 247 - Park Curio and Coffee Shop, 216 - Parnell, Lieut. William R., 168, 169 - Pass Creek, 47, 296 - Paxson, Dr. Frederic L., 164 - Peale, Dr. A. C., 25, 138 - Pelican Cone fire lookout, 253 - Pelican Creek, 50, 184; - poaching on, 247, 298 - Pemmican, 64 - Perry, Capt. David, 168 ff. - Peterson, William, 116 ff. - Pfister, Frederick, 180 - Piegan Indians, 99, 150 - Pierre's Hole, 81 - Pike, Zebulon M., 150 - Pinchot, Gifford, 229 - Piper, Edward, 159 - Pleasant Valley, 203 - Plummer, Henry, 163 - Poker Joe, 173 ff. - Pomeroy, Sen. Samuel C., 140 ff. - Postal Service, 218 - Potts and Colter attacked, 52 - Potts, Daniel T., letter about geysers, 93 - Potts, Robert, 93 - Povah, Alfred H., 270 - Powder River, 110, 157; - cattle company, 162 - Prairie Cattle Company, 162 - Pritchett, George A., rescued Everts, 134 - Protective Act, 145, 248, 254 - Protestant church services, 217 - Pryor, Anna K., 216 - Pryors Fork, 42, 286 - Pryors Gap, 42, 286 - Purple Mountain fire lookout, 253 - - - Q - Quadrant Mountain, 88 - - - R - Radersburg, Montana, tourists from, 172, 176, 180 - Railroads, 154 ff. - Rainbow Pool, 131 - Rain-in-the-Face, Chief, 158 - Rawn, Capt. Charles C., 170 - Raymond, Israel Ward, 225 - Raymond, R. W., 126 - Raynolds, Capt. W. F., 101 - Red Cloud, Chief, 158, 161, 162 - Redington, J. W., 177 - Reebe, Charles, 250 - Rendezvous, origin of, 81; - description, 82 ff. - Riverside Station, 27, 200, 203, 246 - Roberts, Joseph, 180 ff. - Roche Juane, French for Yellowstone, 31 - Rocket Geyser, 131 - Rocky Mountains, 51, 62, 67; - trappers of, 71; - "college," 74, 92, 141 - Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 81, 93, 108 - _Rocky Mountain Gazette_, 142 - Rogers, Supt. Edmund B., 274 ff. - Roosevelt, Pres. Theodore, dedicates arch, 200; - conservation policies, 229 ff. - Ross, Alexander, 66; - describes trappers, 76; - quoted, 148, 151 - Russell, Dr. Carl P., 270 - Russell, Osborne, journeys in the park, 96 ff. - - - S - Sage, Mrs. Russell, 234 - Sage Creek, 286 - St. Louis, 56, 106, 285, 290 - Salmon River Mountains, 67 - Salt Fork, 296 - Sand Creek Massacre, 157 - San Ildefonso, treaty of, 28 - Santa Fe Railroad, 154 - Sapphire Pool, 131 - Sapsucker, Chief, 69 - Sawtelle, Gilman, 238 - Sawyer, Edmund J., 270 - Schonborn, Anton, 138 - Schurz, Carl, 228 - Scoda, Oscar, 196 - Scott, Capt. George L., 247 - Scotts Bluff National Park, 83 - _Scribner's Magazine_, 120, 137 ff. - Searight, George, 162 - Shamp, Paul J., 47, 296 - Sharps rifle, 154 - Sheridan, Col. Michael V., 193 - Sheridan, Gen. Phil H., 120, 144, 150, 157; - with Pres. Arthur, 193; - friend of Park, 245, 260 - Sherman, Gen. William T., 157; - tours Park, 170; - praised Chief Joseph, 190 - Shively, ----, 172, 184 - Shoshone Indians, 59; - description, 66, 88 - Shoshone Lake, 90, 98, 102; - visited by Folsom party, 118 - Shoshone Point, 250 - Shoshone River, 27; - called Stinking Water, 40, 286; - called Mick-ka-appa, 42, 104; - South Fork of, 296 - Sitting Bull, 158, 162, 187 - Skinner, Curtis K., 273 - Skinner, M. P., 270 - Slough Creek, 261 - Smith, Hoke, 242 - Smith, Jacob, 120, 122, 132 - Smith, Jedediah, 77, 93, 285 - Smith, Willard E., 51 - Smoot, Sen. Reed, 266 - Snake Creek, 187 - Snake River, South Fork of, 47, 90 ff.; - Barlow visits, 139, 254, 259, 288, 296 - Snake River Valley, North Fork explored by Henry, 32 ff., 66, 162, - 291 - Snow Pass, 88 - Snowy Range, 30 - Soda Butte, 246 - Soda Butte Creek, 88, 104, 259 - Solution Creek, 47, 296 - South Arm of Lake, 47, 292, 296 - South Entrance, 87, 202 - South Pass, 34, 290 - Splendid Geyser, 131 - Spurgin, Capt. W. F., 208 - Stagecoach, 195; - drivers, 196 ff. - Standing Rock Reservation, 158 - Stager, Gen. Anson, 193 - Stevens Creek Area, 274 - Stevenson, James, 137 - Stevenson Island, 87 - Stewart, Jack, 180 - Stickney, Benjamin, Jr., 120, 127, 163 - Stock Growers Association, 162 - Stone, Benjamin, 180 ff. - Stone, H. H., 239 - Story, Nelson, 161 - Stuart, Granville, 103, 162 - Stuart, James, 69, 103, 120, 151 - Stuart, Robert, 34 - Sturgis, Col. S. D., 184 ff. - Sulphur Mountain, 180 - Sundry Civil Bill, 245 - Sunlight Creek, 286 - Swan Land and Cattle Company, 162 - Switzer, Charles, 250 - - - T - Targhee Forest, 66 - Tarter, Bob, 163 - Teller, Henry M., 222, 223 - Terry, Gen. Alfred H., 158 - Teton Mountains, 34, 123, 238, 274, 281 - Texas long drive, 158, 193 - "Texas Jack" (John Omohondro), 151, 195 - Theller, Lieut. Edward R., 168 - Thomas, Cyrus, 138 - Thone, Dr. Frank E., 270 - Thoreau, Henry D., 222, 223 - Thorofare Creek, 47, 296 - Three Forks, 26, 32, 44, 52, 56, 112 - Thumb of Lake, 45, 99; - Washburn camp, 129, 288 ff. - Toll, Supt. Roger W., 274 - Topaz Spring, 131 - Topping, Capt. E. S., 203 - Tower Creek, 88; - Folsom party on, 117, 122 - Tower Falls, 88, 104; - named, 122 ff., 176, 208 - Trafton, Edward B. (alias Ed Harrington), 251, 283 - Trappers, nicknames of, 73, 81; - "A. B. C.'s," 74; - prayer of, 76; - routine, 78; - cache, 78; - clothes, 79; - rendezvous, 81, 82 ff. - Tree, Judge Lambert, 204 - Trischman, Elizabeth, 216 - Trumbull, Sen. Lyman, 140 ff. - Trumbull, Walter, 120 ff., 132, 137 - Trunbull, Dr. C. S., 138 - _Truthful Lies_, 214 - Tu-hul-hul-sote, Chief, 166, 168; - death of, 189 - Tukuarika, Sheepeater Indians, 59; - description, 67; - disappearance, 86 - Turban Geyser, 131 - Twain, Mark, 30 - Two Ocean Pass, 27, 47, 51, 87, 101, 296 - TyGee, Chief, 66 - - - U - Um-till-lilp-cown, 174 - Union Cattle Company, 162 - Union Pacific Railroad, 202 - Union Pass, 101, 290 - Upper Geyser Basin, 94; - missed by Bridger, 112; - visited by Washburn, 129 ff.; - store built, 216; - Langford's second visit, 238, 246 - Upper Yellowstone Falls, 26, 92 - Upper Yellowstone River, 45, 47, 288, 296 - Utah, meaning of, 70, 163 - Utah Northern Railroad, 202 - - - V - Vandalism, 251 ff. - Vaughn, Robert, describes Bridger, 107 - Verendrye, Sieur de, 32 - Vest, Sen. George G., 192 - Victor, Frances Fuller, quoted, 81 - Vigilantes, of Montana, 121, 163 - Virginia City, Montana, 102, 116, 142, 181, 184, 200 - - - W - Wagon Box Massacre, 161 - Wakefield, George W., 201 - Wal-ait-its, 168 - Wallowa Valley, 165, - Walsh, Sen. Thomas J., 259 - Ward, Charles W., 234 - Warner, Charles D., 262 - Washakie, Chief, 59 - Washburn, Henry D., 103; - briefed by Folsom, 118; - in charge of expedition, 120 ff.; - account of trip, 132; - death, 137 - Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition, 30, 90, 116, 120 ff.; - encounters rustlers, 163, 226 - _Wasp, The_, 96 - Waters, Col. E. C., 206 - Watson, W. Verde, 264 - Wayant, H. W., 104 - Wear, David W., 204, 245 - Wedded Trees, 261 - Weikert, A. J., 180 ff. - We-Saw, 86 - West Entrance, 88, 200, 202, 208 - West Thumb of Lake, 47, 50, 86, 210, 298 - West Yellowstone, Montana, 202, 213 - Western Air Lines, 213 - _Western Monthly_, 120 - White Bird, Chief, 166, 168 - White Bird Canyon, 168 - White Hawk, 89 - Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 111 - Whittaker, George, 221 - Wilcox, Albert, 234 - Wilcox, Hon. T. Paul, 248 - Wilkie, Leslie, 180 ff. - Williams, Pvt. John, 121 - Willow Park, 193, 247 - Wilson, Pres. Woodrow, 265 - Winchester rifle, 154 - Wind River Indian Trail, 87, 93 - Wind River Mountains, 34, 69 - Wind River Valley, 101, 162 - Wohlbrandt, Philip H., 212 - Woodring, Samuel T., 273 - Woolsey, William, 196 - Wylie, William W., 205 ff. - "Wylie Way," 206 - Wyoming, meaning of, 70, 157 ff., 243 - Wyoming Stock Growers Association, 164 - - - Y - Yale University, 270 - Yancey, "Uncle" John, 203 - "Yankee Jim" (James George), 198, 283 - Yeager, Dorr G., 270 - Yellowstone Boat Company, 206 - Yellowstone Canyon, 104, 114; - visited by Folsom party, 118; - described by Washburn, 123 ff., 246, 247, 261, 269 - Yellowstone Canyon Hotel, 205 - Yellowstone Lake, visited by Colter, 45 ff., 58, 85, 87; - strange sounds above, 90, 104, 123; - Washburn party exploration of, 126; - Hayden party at, 139, 259, 288 ff. - Yellowstone Lake Hotel, 205 - Yellowstone National Park, act creating, 227; - bill, 139 ff. (_see also_ Dedicatory Act); - golden anniversary, 118; - first superintendent, 238; - Langford's second visit, 238 ff. - Yellowstone Park Association, 201, 205 - Yellowstone Park Company, 217 - Yellowstone Park Improvement Company, 200 - Yellowstone Park Stage Line, 201 - Yellowstone Park Transportation Company, 201, 205, 214 ff. - Yellowstone Plateau, 161, 162 - Yellowstone Timber Reserve, 228 - Yellowstone Valley, 176 - Yep-pe Indians, 42 ff., 286 ff. - Yosemite National Park, 141, 145, 225 ff. - Yosemite School of Natural History, 270 - Young, Brigham, 150 - Yount, Harry, 241 - Yount's Peak, 26 - - [Illustration: Indian and Explorer] - - [Illustration: YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK] - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Silently corrected a few typos. - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of Man In Yellowstone, by -Merrill Dee Beal - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MAN IN YELLOWSTONE *** - -***** This file should be named 59092-8.txt or 59092-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/0/9/59092/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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